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Non‐Classical Pathways of Cell‐Mediated Allograft Rejection: New Challenges for Tolerance Induction?

Allograft rejection results from separate pathways primarily controlled by CD4+ T cells. Refinement of transplantation models together with investigations on rejection occurring despite co‐stimulation blockade revealed unexpected pathways involving CD8+ T cells, NK cells and Th2 cytokines. In this minireview, we discuss these non‐classical pathways of allograft rejection and their relevance for the induction of tolerance in the clinics.