

A key result of number theory, called the fundamental theorem of arithmetic (see arithmetic: fundamental theory), states that every positive integer greater than 1 can be expressed as the product of prime numbers in a unique fashion. Because of this, primes can be regarded as the multiplicative “building blocks” for the natural numbers (all whole numbers greater than zero—e.g., 1, 2, 3, …).

Primes have been recognized since antiquity, when they were studied by the Greek mathematicians Euclid (fl. c. 300 bce) and Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 276–194 bce), among others. In his Elements, Euclid gave the first known proof that there are infinitely many primes. Various formulas have been suggested for discovering primes (see number games: Perfect numbers and Mersenne numbers and Fermat prime), but all have been flawed. Two other famous results concerning the distribution of prime numbers merit special mention: the prime number theorem and the Riemann zeta function.

Since the late 20th century, with the help of computers, prime numbers with millions of digits have been discovered (see Mersenne number). Like efforts to generate ever more digits of π, such number theory research was thought to have no possible application—that is, until cryptographers discovered how large primes could be used to make nearly unbreakable codes (see cryptology: Two-key cryptography).

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