Sniper rifle

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The 7.62×51mm M40, United States Marine Corps standard-issue sniper rifle.
Bor – the 7.62×51 mm Polish bolt-action sniper rifle.




The British Whitworth rifle, used greatly during the American Civil War. Some of these rifles were fitted with a scope on top of the barrel, thus creating the first actual sniper rifle.


During the Crimean War the first optical sights were designed for fitting onto the rifles. Much of this pioneering work was the brainchild of Colonel D. Davidson, using optical sights produced by Chance Brothers of Birmingham. This allowed a marksman to more accurately observe and target objects at a greater distance than ever before.[3] The telescopic sight, or scope, was originally fixed and could not be adjusted, which therefore limited its range. By the 1870s, the perfection of breech loading magazine rifles led to sniper rifles having “effective accurate” ranges of up to a mile away from its target.[4]

During the Boer War the latest breech-loading rifled guns with magazines and smokeless powder were used by both sides. The British were equipped with the Lee-Metford rifle, while the Boers had received the latest Mauser rifles from Germany. In the open terrain of South Africa the marksman was a crucial component in battle. The Lovat Scouts was a British Army unit formed in 1899 who were renowned for their expert marksmanship and their stalking skills. They wore ghillie suits for camouflage and were expertly skilled in observation. Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard said of them that "keener men never lived".[5] After the Boer War the Scouts became the first official sniper unit in the British Army.

It was not until World War I that sniper rifles began to be used more regularly in battle and certain soldiers given specialized training to use such a rifle. In Germany these trained snipers were given rifles with telescopic sights, which illuminated at night in order to improve their accuracy.[6] German gunsmiths fitted the scope above the barrel for optimal accuracy.[7]

During World War II, the (7.62×54mmR) Mosin-Nagant rifle mounted with a telescopic sight was commonly used as a sniper rifle by Russian snipers.

During the War, the accuracy of the sniper rifle was greatly improved.[8] By the end of World War II snipers were reported to provide “reasonable accuracy” over 600 m (656 yd) with anything over this range being unpredictable.[9] It was during World War I and II that the word ‘sniper’ began to be used commonly, whereas previously those who were armed with sniper rifles were referred to as sharpshooters, or marksmen.[10]

These marksmen, wielding sniper rifles, had a drastic and demoralizing impact on the battlefield.[11] Soldiers would often remain hidden in foxholes, or trenches so as not to expose themselves to the deadly accuracy of a sniper. Some soldiers even began to disregard orders from commanding officers to protect against potential harm, which thus broke down the chain of command on the battlefield.[12] The sniper rifle soon acquired the reputation of being one of the most effective and ruthless weapons of war.[13]

Though sniper rifles had proved to be extremely effective in combat, there was still a great reluctance for many militaries to adopt a trained sniper regiment.[14] To effectively utilize a sniper rifle a soldier had to go through particularly rigorous training, and most people did not make it past the first week.[15] Sniper training was so expensive to conduct that even until as recently as 1970, the reasoning for having trained snipers as a part of an army was deemed questionable.[14] In Britain, sniper rifles were not seen as being an integral part of an army until after the Germans boasted so much success with sniper teams during the early months of World War I. The British army advisors supposed that the telescopic sights attached to sniper rifles were too easily damaged and thus not well suited for military use.[9] However, they soon realized that these telescopic sights could be improved and made sturdy enough to withstand a sniper rifle shot.[9]


Sniper rifles have continued to be used consistently throughout the later part of the 20th century in Korea, Vietnam and the Middle East as an integral part of the modern style of guerilla warfare. The durability, accuracy and power of modern sniper rifles are beyond anything in use even 10 years ago and would seem amazing in comparison to any World War II sniper rifles.[16] Now sniper rifles are extremely reliable and are able to fire repeatedly without losing accuracy, whereas earlier sniper rifles would lose accuracy the more consistently they were used due to wear and tear.[17] Sniper rifles continue to be adapted and improved upon with the effective range of modern sniper rifles exceeding 1,000 m (1,094 yd), which make it one of the most accurate, deadly and efficient weapons in use now.[17]


Modern sniper rifles can be divided into two basic classes: military and law enforcement.


U.S. Marine Corps SRT sniper team with an M24 sniper rifle, during sniper training.
Macedonian special policeman holding a Zastava M76.


Law enforcement[edit]

Sniper rifles built or modified for use in law enforcement are generally required to have the greatest possible accuracy, more than military rifles, but do not need to have as long a range.

As law enforcement-specific rifles are usually used in non-combat (often urban) environments, they do not have the requirement to be as hardy or portable as military versions; nevertheless they may be smaller, as they do not need very long range.

Some of the first sniper rifles designed specifically to meet police and other law-enforcement requirements were developed for West German police after the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics. Many police services and law enforcement organizations (such as the U.S. Secret Service) now use rifles designed for law enforcement purposes.

The Heckler & Koch PSG1 is one rifle specifically designed to meet these criteria and is often referred to as an ideal example of this type of sniper rifle. The FN Special Police Rifle was built for, and is marketed to, law enforcement rather than military agencies.

Distinguishing characteristics[edit]

Looking through a telescopic sight.
PSO-1 Sniper Scope Reticle
1 - Lead/deflection scale
2 - Main targeting chevron
3 - Bullet drop chevrons
4 - Rangefinder

The features of a sniper rifle can vary widely depending on the specific tasks it is intended to perform. Features that may distinguish a sniper rifle from other weapons are the presence of a telescopic sight, unusually long overall length,[18] a stock designed for firing from a prone position, and the presence of a bipod and other accessories.

Telescopic sight[edit]


The telescopic sights used on sniper rifles differ from other optical sights in that they offer much greater magnification (more than 4× and up to 40×), and have a much larger objective lens (40 to 50 mm in diameter) for a brighter image.



The choice between bolt-action and semi-automatic (more commonly known as recoil or gas operation) is usually determined by specific requirements of the sniper's role as envisioned in a particular organization, with each design having advantages and disadvantages. For a given cartridge, a bolt-action rifle is cheaper to build and maintain, more reliable, and lighter, due to fewer moving parts in the mechanism. In addition, the absence of uncontrolled automatic cartridge case ejection helped to avoid revealing the firer's position. Semi-automatic weapons can serve both as battle rifle and sniper rifle, and allow for a greater rate (and hence volume) of fire. As such rifles may be modified service rifles, an additional benefit can be commonality of operation with the issued infantry rifle. A bolt action is most commonly used in both military and police roles due to its higher accuracy and ease of maintenance. Anti-materiel applications such as mine clearing and special forces operations tend to use semi-automatics.

A Marine manually extracts an empty cartridge and chambers a new 7.62×51mm round in his bolt-action M40A3 sniper rifle. The bolt handle is held in the shooter's hand and is not visible in this photo.


A police semi-automatic sniper rifle may be used in situations that require a single sniper to engage multiple targets in quick succession, and military semi-automatics such as the M110 SASS are used in similar "target-rich" environments.



Before the introduction of the standard 7.62×51mm NATO (.308 Winchester) cartridge in the 1950s, standard military cartridges were the .30-06 Springfield or 7.62×63mm (United States), .303 British (7.7×56mmR) (United Kingdom) and 7.92×57mm (8mm Mauser) (Germany). The .30-06 Springfield continued in service with U.S. Marine Corps snipers during the Vietnam War in the 1970s, well after general adoption of the 7.62×51mm. At the present time, in both the Western world and within NATO, 7.62×51mm is currently the primary cartridge of choice for military and police sniper rifles.

Worldwide, the trend is similar. The preferred sniper cartridge in Russia is another .30 caliber military cartridge, the 7.62×54 mm R, which has similar performance to the 7.62×51mm. This cartridge was introduced in 1891, and both Russian sniper rifles of the modern era, the Mosin-Nagant and the Dragunov sniper rifle, are chambered for it.

Certain commercial cartridges designed with only performance in mind, without the logistical constraints of most armies, have also gained popularity in the 1990s. These include the 7 mm Remington Magnum (7.2×64mm), .300 Winchester Magnum (7.8/7.62×67mm), and the .338 Lapua Magnum (8.6×70mm). These cartridges offer better ballistic performance and greater effective range than the 7.62×51mm. Though they are not as powerful as .50 caliber cartridges, rifles chambered for these cartridges are not as heavy as rifles chambered for .50 caliber ammunition, and are significantly more powerful than rifles chambered for 7.62×51mm.

Jaguar AMR of Bolivian origin.
M82A1 SASR (Special Applications Scoped Rifle or Semi-Automatic Sniper Rifle), a .50 caliber sniper rifle used as an anti-materiel rifle.

Snipers may also employ anti-materiel rifles in sniping roles against targets such as vehicles, equipment and structures, or for the long-range destruction of explosive devices; these rifles may also be used against personnel.

Anti-materiel rifles tend to be semi-automatic and of a larger caliber than anti-personnel rifles, using cartridges such as the .50 BMG, 12.7×108mm Russian or even 14.5×114mm Russian and 20mm. These large cartridges are required to be able to fire projectiles containing payloads such as explosives, armor piercing cores, incendiaries or combinations of these, such as the Raufoss Mk211 projectile. Due to the considerable size and weight of anti-materiel rifles, 2- or 3-man sniper teams become necessary.


Barrels are normally of precise manufacture and of a heavier cross section than more traditional barrels in order to reduce the change in impact points between a first shot from a cold barrel and a follow-up shot from a warm barrel. Unlike many battle and assault rifles, the bores are usually not chromed to avoid inaccuracy due to an uneven treatment.

When installed, barrels are often free-floated: i.e., installed so that the barrel only contacts the rest of the rifle at the receiver, to minimise the effects on impact point of pressure on the fore-end by slings, bipods, or the sniper's hands. The end of the barrel is usually crowned or machined to form a rebated area around the muzzle proper to avoid asymmetry or damage, and consequent inaccuracy. Alternatively, some rifles such as the Dragunov or Walther WA2000 provide structures at the fore-end to provide tension on the barrel in order to counteract barrel drop and other alterations in barrel shape.

External longitudinal fluting that contributes to heat dissipation by increasing surface area, while simultaneously decreasing the weight of the barrel, is sometimes used on sniper-rifle barrels.

Sniper-rifle barrels may also utilise a threaded muzzle or combination device (muzzle brake or flash suppressor and attachment mount) to allow the fitting of a sound suppressor. These suppressors often have a means of adjusting the point of impact while fitted.

Military sniper rifles tend to have barrel lengths of 609.6 mm (24 inches) or longer, to allow the cartridge propellant to fully burn, reducing the amount of revealing muzzle flash and increasing muzzle velocity. Police sniper rifles may use shorter barrels to improve handling characteristics. The shorter barrels' muzzle velocity loss is unimportant at closer ranges; the impact velocity of the bullet is more than sufficient.




An adjustable sling is often fitted on the rifle, used by the sniper to achieve better stability when standing, kneeling, or sitting. The sniper uses the sling to "lock-in" by wrapping his non-firing arm into the sling forcing his arm to be still. Non-static weapon mounts such as bipods, monopods and shooting sticks are also regularly used to aid and improve stability and reduce operator fatigue.




A military-issue battle rifle or assault rifle is usually capable of between 3-6 minute of angle (MOA) (1-2 mrad) accuracy.[19] A standard-issue military sniper rifle is typically capable of 1-3 MOA (0.3-1 mrad) accuracy, with a police sniper rifle capable of 0.25-1.5 MOA (0.1-0.5 mrad) accuracy. For comparison, a competition target or benchrest rifle may be capable of accuracy up to 0.15-0.3 MOA (0.05-0.1 mrad).

A 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) average extreme spread for a 5-shot group (meaning the center-to-center distance between the two most distant bullet holes in a shot-group) translates into a 69% probability that the bullet's point of impact will be in a target circle with a diameter of 23.3 cm (9.2 in) at 800 m (875 yd).[20] This average extreme spread for a 5-shot group and the accompanying hit probability are considered sufficient for effectively hitting a human shape at 800 m distance.

In 1982 a U.S. Army draft requirement for a Sniper Weapon System was: "The System will: (6) Have an accuracy of no more than 0.75 MOA (0.2 mrad) for a 5-shot group at 1,500 meters when fired from a supported, non-benchrest position".[21] Actual Sniper Weapon System (M24) adopted in 1988 has stated maximum effective range of 800 meters and a maximum allowed average mean radius (AMR) of 1.9 inches at 300 yards from a machine rest, what corresponds to a 0.6 MOA (0.5 mrad) extreme spread for a 5-shot group when using 7.62 × 51 mm M118 Special Ball cartridges.[22][23][24]

Precision Weapon Engagement Ranges & Dispersion according to the US Army.

A 2008 United States military market survey for a Precision Sniper Rifle (PSR) calls for 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) extreme vertical spread for all shots in a 5-round group fired at targets at 300, 600, 900, 1,200 and 1,500 meters.[25][26] In 2009 a United States Special Operations Command market survey calls for 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) extreme vertical spread for all shots in a 10-round group fired at targets at 300, 600, 900, 1,200 and 1,500 meters.[27][28] The 2009 Precession Sniper Rifle requirements state that the PSR when fired without suppressor shall provide a confidence factor of 80% that the weapon and ammunition combination is capable of holding 1 MOA extreme vertical spread. This shall be calculated from 150 ten (10) round groups that were fired unsuppressed. No individual group shall exceed 1.5 MOA (0.5 mrad) extreme vertical spread. All accuracy will be taken at the 1,500 meter point.[29][30] In 2008 the US military adopted the M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper System which has corresponding maximum allowed extreme spread of 1.8 MOA (0.5 mrad) for a 5-shot group on 300 feet, using M118LR ammunition or equivalent.[22][23][31] In 2010 the maximum bullet dispersion requirement for the M24 .300 Winchester Magnum corresponds[22][23] to 1.4 MOA extreme spread for 5 shot group on 100 meters.[32]

Although accuracy standards for police rifles do not widely exist, rifles are frequently seen with accuracy levels from 0.5-1.5 MOA (0.2-0.5 mrad).[33] For typical policing situations, an extreme spread accuracy level no better than 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) is usually all that is required. This is because police typically employ their rifles at short ranges.[34] At 100 m or less, a rifle with a relatively low accuracy of only 1 MOA (0.3 mrad) should be able to repeatedly hit a 3 cm (1.2 inch) target. A 3 cm diameter target is smaller than the brain stem which is targeted by police snipers for its quick killing effect.[35]

Maximum effective range[edit]

Cartridge Maximum effective range[36]
7.62×39mm 600 m
5.56×45mm 600 m [37]
7.62×51mm (.308 Winchester) 800 m
7.62×54mm R 800 m
.30-06 Springfield 800 m
7 mm Remington Magnum 900–1,100 m
.300 Winchester Magnum 900–1,200 m
.338 Lapua Magnum 1,200-1,500 m
.50 BMG (12.7×99mm NATO)
12.7×108mm (Russian)
1,500–2,000 m
14.5×114mm 1,800–2,300 m



The recent trend in specialized military sniper rifles is towards larger calibers that offer relatively favorable hit probabilities at greater range, such as the anti-personnel .338 Lapua Magnum cartridge and anti-materiel cartridges like the .50 BMG and the 14.5×114mm. This allows snipers to take fewer risks, and spend less time finding concealment when facing enemies that are not equipped with similar weapons.

Maximum range claims made by military organizations and materiel manufacturers regarding sniper weapon systems are not based on consistent or strictly scientific criteria. The problem is only the bullet interacts after a relatively long flight path with the target (can also be a materiel target for a sniper bullet). This implies that variables such as the minimal required hit probability, local atmospheric conditions, properties and velocity of the employed bullet (parts), properties of the target and the desired terminal effect are major relevant factors that determine the maximum effective range of the employed system.

See also[edit]

Related military roles
Related military weapons


  1. ^ "Whitworth Rifle". 
  3. ^ Pegler, Martin (2011). Out of Nowhere: A history of the military sniper, from the Sharpshooter to Afghanistan. Osprey Publishing. Retrieved 2013-11-18. 
  4. ^ Raudzens, George. “War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History”. The Journal of Military History. vol. 54, no. 4, 1990, p. 415.
  5. ^ "Lovat Scouts, Sharpshooters - United Kingdom". 
  6. ^ Pegler, Martin. Sniper Rifles: From the 19th to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 31.
  8. ^ Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 222.
  9. ^ a b c “Telescopic Sights For Rifles.” The British Medical Journal. vol. 1, no. 2891, 1916, p. 765.
  12. ^ Pegler, Martin. Out Of Nowhere: A History Of The Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2004, p. 19-20.
  14. ^ a b Pegler, Martin. Sniper Rifles: From the 19th to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2010, p. 6.
  15. ^ Lebleu, Jon. Long Rifle: One Man's Deadly Sniper Missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Guilford: The Lyons Press, 2008, p. 11.
  17. ^ a b Popenker, Max. “Modern sniper rifles". World Guns, 2001.
  18. ^ The Ultimate Sniper: an Advanced Training Manual for Military and Police Snipers, Maj. John L. Plaster, 1993. The information about counter-sniper operations describes techniques for identifying snipers amongst groups of other soldiers. The most easily recognizable feature of a sniper from a great distance is the fact that the sniper's rifle is longer than all the others.
  19. ^ T.W. Lee. Military Technologies of the World. p. 237. 
  20. ^ Statistical notes on rifle group patterns by Robert E. Wheeler
  21. ^ "AMSAA Technical report No. 461" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-17. 
  22. ^ a b c Statistical notes on rifle group patterns
  23. ^ a b c (in Russian)
  24. ^ MIL-R-71126(AR) at
  25. ^ US Special Operations Considers A ".338" Sniper Rifle
  26. ^ "Precession Sniper Rifle - Solicitation Number: H92222-09-PSR". Retrieved 2013-08-17. 
  27. ^ "Precision Sniper Rifle (PSR) - Solicitation Number: H92222-09-PSR2". Retrieved 2013-08-17. 
  28. ^ Tom Beckstrand (2009-07-01). "SOCOM PSR Contenders". Retrieved 2013-08-17. 
  29. ^ "Precision Sniper Rifles Systems (PSR) Draft Go/No-Go Requirements" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-17. 
  30. ^ "Precision Sniper Rifle (PSR) Vendor Questionnaire" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-17. 
  31. ^ [1][dead link]
  32. ^ "M24 Sniper Weapon System Reconfiguration". Retrieved 2013-08-17. 
  33. ^ The FBI, a national-level policing organization, has recently specified an accuracy level of 0.5 MOA for 5 shots at 100 yd for sniper rifles issued to their SWAT teams: Johnson, D: Precision Pair, Guns & Ammo, February 2005.[2]
  34. ^ Minimum documented range is 5 yards, maximum documented range is 187 yards: Police Sniper Utilization Survey, American Sniper Association, 2006, full report available to military and law enforcement agencies only.[3] [4] Some information publicly available from The Ultimate Sniper: an Advanced Training Manual for Military and Police Snipers, Major John Plaster, 1993.
  35. ^ Police Sniper Training, Major John Plaster, 1990.[5]
  36. ^ Approximate maximum effective ranges of common cartridges when used in an adequately accurate rifle system with special long-range high accuracy ammunition at International Standard Atmosphere sea level conditions Common Calibers Used by Snipers<references/>
  37. ^ "Philippine MSSR - Marine Scout Sniper Rifle - Sniper". Retrieved 2009-05-22. "Marine Scout Sniper Rifle". Retrieved 2011-09-19. ]


  • Tobias, Ronald (1981). They Shoot to Kill: A Psycho-History of Criminal Sniping. Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press. ISBN 0-87364-207-4. 
  • De Haas, Frank (1995). Bolt Action Rifles. Krause Publications. ISBN 0-87349-168-8. 
  • Lebleu, Jon (2008). Long Rifle: One Man's Deadly Sniper Missions in Iraq and Afghanistan. Guilford: The Lyons Press. ISBN 978-1599214405. 
  • Pegler, Martin (2004). Out of Nowhere: A History of the Military Sniper. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1846031403. 
  • Pegler, Martin (2010). Sniper Rifles: From the 19th to the 21st Century. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1849083980. 
  • "Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers". vol. 19. Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain). 1860. 
  • Raudzens, George (1990). "War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History". vol.54 (no.4). The Journal of Military History. p. 403–434. 
  • "Telescopic Sights for Rifles". vol.1 (no.2891). The British Medical Journal. 1916. p. 765. 
  • Popenker, Max (2001). "Modern Sniper Rifles". 

External links[edit]