There are many different types of clearing procedures. Most  are centered around the use of clearing turns. Some pilot  training programs have hard-and-fast rules, such as requiring  two 90° turns in opposite directions before executing any  training maneuver. Other types of clearing procedures may  be developed by individual flight instructors. Whatever  the preferred method, the flight instructor should teach the  beginning student an effective clearing procedure and require  its use. The student pilot should execute the appropriate  clearing procedure before all turns and before executing any  training maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, combined  with proper visual scanning techniques, are the most effective  strategy for collision avoidance. A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport involving  an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that  creates a collision hazard or results in a loss of separation  with an aircraft taking off, landing, or intending to land. The  three major areas contributing to runway incursions are: Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the pilot and can  be assisted by the passenger. This is especially true during  flight training operations. Both the student pilot and the fl ight  instructor need to be continually aware of the movement and  location of other aircraft and ground vehicles on the airport  movement area. Many flight training activities are conducted  at nontowered airports. The absence of an operating airport  control tower creates a need for increased vigilance on the  part of pilots operating at those airports. Planning, clear communications, and enhanced situational  awareness during airport surface operations will reduce the  potential for surface incidents. Safe aircraft operations can be  accomplished and incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly  trained from the outset and, throughout his or her fl ying  career, accomplishes standard taxi operating procedures and  practices. This requires the development of the formalized  teaching of safe operating practices during taxi operations.  During flight training, there must always be a clear  understanding between the student and flight instructor of  who has control of the aircraft. Prior to any dual training  flight, the instructor should conduct a briefing that includes  the procedure for the exchange of flight controls. The  following three-step process for the exchange of flight  controls is highly recommended. When a flight instructor wishes the student to take control  of the aircraft, he or she should say to the student, “You  have the flight controls.” The student should acknowledge  immediately by saying, “I have the flight controls.” The fl ight  instructor confirms by again saying, “You have the fl ight  controls.” Part of the procedure should be a visual check to  ensure that the other person actually has the fl ight controls.  When returning the controls to the flight instructor, the student  should follow the same procedure the instructor used when  giving control to the student. The student should stay on the  controls until the instructor says: “I have the fl ight controls.”  There should never be any doubt regarding who is fl ying the  WSC aircraft. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a  lack of communication or misunderstanding regarding who  actually had control of the aircraft, particularly between  student and flight instructor. Establishing the positive transfer  of controls procedure during initial training will ensure the  formation of a very beneficial habit pattern. A PIC’s attitude or mindset must always be alert in order to  maintain the safety of the aircraft, passengers, and the general  public on the ground. To accomplish sound aeronautical  decision-making (ADM), a pilot must be aware of his or  her limitations and well-being (physical and psychological  health), even before beginning the fi rst prefl ight routine.  While technology is constantly improving equipment and  strengthening materials, safe flight comes down to the  decisions made by the human pilot prior to and during  fl ight. The well-being of the pilot is the starting point for the  decision-making process that occurs while in control of the  aircraft. Just as physical fatigue and illness directly affects  a pilot’s judgment, so too will attitude management, stress  management, risk management, personality tendencies, and  situational awareness. Hence, it is the awareness of human  factors and the knowledge of the related corrective action that  not only improves the safety of operating a WSC aircraft, but  also enhances the joy of fl ying.  [Figure 1-18] A good starting point is the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical  Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), which explains the decision- making process, resource management, situational awareness,  pilot error, stress management, risk management techniques,  and hazardous attitude antidotes. After reading and  understanding those subjects, it should be understood that  the scenarios presented are generally for more complex  airplanes, but the thought process and results are the same  for all aircraft. The information is not duplicated but the   Positive Transfer of Controls  Runway Incursion Avoidance  Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) • Communications, • Airport knowledge, and • Flight deck procedures for maintaining orientation. 1-10