with it. It is critical that pilots be able to: personal evaluations of the aircraft, such as its powerplant,  performance, equipment, fuel state, or airworthiness. A  situation to consider: en route to an oil rig an hour’s flight  from shore, having just passed the shoreline, the pilot notices  the oil temperature at the high end of the caution range.  Should the pilot continue out to sea or return to the nearest  suitable heliport/airport? Environment—This encompasses many elements unrelated  to the pilot or aircraft. It can include such factors as weather,  ATC, navigational aids (NAVAID), terrain, takeoff and  landing areas, and surrounding obstacles. Weather is one  element that can change drastically over time and distance.  A situation to consider: a pilot is ferrying a helicopter cross- country and encounters unexpected low clouds and rain in an  area of rising terrain. Does the pilot try to stay under them  and scud run, or turn around, stay in the clear, and obtain  current weather information? Examining NTSB reports and other accident research can  help a pilot to assess risk more effectively. For example,  the accident rate decreases by nearly 50 percent once a  pilot obtains 100 hours and continues to decrease until the  1,000-hour level. The data suggest that for the first 500  hours, pilots flying visual flight rules (VFR) at night should  establish higher personal limitations than are required by the  regulations and, if applicable, apply instrument flying skills  in this environment.  External Pressures—The interaction between the pilot,  the aircraft, and the environment is greatly influenced by  the purpose of each flight operation. A pilot must evaluate  the three previous areas to decide on the desirability of  undertaking or continuing the flight as planned. It is worth  asking why the flight is being made, how critical it is to  maintain the schedule, and if the trip is worth the risks. A  situation to consider: a pilot is tasked to take some technicians  into rugged mountains for a routine survey in marginal  weather. Would it be preferable to wait for better conditions  to ensure a safe flight? How would the priorities change if a  pilot were tasked to search for cross-country skiers who had  become lost in deep snow and radioed for help? Individuals training to be helicopter pilots should remember  that the helicopter accident rate is 30 percent higher than the  accident rate for fixed-wing aircraft. While many factors  contribute to this, students must recognize the small margin  of error that exists for helicopter pilots in making critical  decisions. In helicopters, certain emergency actions require  immediate action by the pilot. In the event of an engine  malfunction, failure to immediately lower the collective  results in rotor decay and failed autorotation. Fixed wing  pilots may have slightly more time to react and establish  a controllable descent. According to the General Aviation  (GA) Joint Steering Committee, the leading causes of  accidents in GA are CFIT (see p.14-15), weather, runway  incursions, pilot decision-making, and loss of control.  These causes are referred to as pilot-error, or human factors  related, accidents. CFIT, runway incursions, and loss of  control type accidents typically occur when the pilot makes  a series of bad judgments, which leads to these events. For  example, when the pilot has not adequately planned the  flight and the pilot subsequently fails to maintain adequate  situational awareness to avoid the terrain, a CFIT accident  occurs.  It is important for a pilot to learn how to assess risk. Before a  pilot can begin to assess risk, he or she must first perceive the  hazard and attendant risk(s). In aviation, experience, training,  and education help a pilot learn how to spot hazards quickly  and accurately. During flight training, the instructor should  point out the hazards and attendant risks to help the student  pilot learn to recognize them. While the reasons for individual helicopter incidents vary,  it can be argued that it is the helicopter’s flight mode and  operational complexity that directly contributes to each  incident. By nature of its purpose, a helicopter usually  flies closer to terrain than does a fixed-wing aircraft.  Subsequently, minimal time exists to avoid CFIT, weather  related, or loss of control type incidents that require quick  and accurate assessments. Fixed-wing aircraft normally fly  at higher altitudes and are flown from prepared surface to  prepared surface. Helicopters are often operated in smaller,  confined area-type environments and require continuous  pilot control. Helicopter pilots must be aware of what rotor  wash can do when landing to a dusty area or prior to starting  where loose debris may come in contact with the rotor blades.  Once a hazard is identified, determining the probability  and severity of an accident (level of risk associated with it)  becomes the next step. For example, the hazard of binding  in the antitorque pedals poses a risk only if the helicopter is  flown. If the binding leads to a loss of directional control,  the risk is high that it could cause catastrophic damage  to the helicopter and the passengers. The pilot learns to  identify hazards and how to deal with them when they are  incorporated into the training program. Every flight has hazards and some level of risk associated  13-10 Assessing Risk •  Differentiate, in advance, between a low-risk flight  and a high-risk flight. •  Establish a review process and develop risk mitigation  strategies to address flights throughout that range.