As a result of the adoption of the recognition and measurement guidance and the election of the measurement alternative in the first quarter of 2018, the Firm measures certain equity securities without readily determinable fair values at cost less impairment (if any), plus or minus observable price changes from an identical or similar investment of the same issuer, with such changes recognized in other income. In its determination of the new carrying values upon observable price changes, the Firm may adjust the prices if deemed necessary to arrive at the Firm’s estimated fair values. Such adjustments may include adjustments to reflect the different rights and obligations of similar securities, and other adjustments that are consistent with the Firm’s valuation techniques for private equity direct investments. The following table presents the carrying value of equity securities without readily determinable fair values held as of December 31, 2018, that are measured under the measurement alternative and the related adjustments recorded during the periods presented for those securities with observable price changes. These securities are included in the nonrecurring fair value tables when applicable price changes are observable. Equity securities without readily determinable fair values Included in other assets above is the Firm’s interest in approximately 40 million Visa Class B shares, recorded at a nominal carrying value. These shares are subject to certain transfer restrictions currently and will be convertible into Visa Class A shares upon final resolution of certain litigation matters involving Visa. The conversion rate of Visa Class B shares into Visa Class A shares is 1.6298 at December 31, 2018, and may be adjusted by Visa depending on developments related to the litigation matters. Financial instruments for which carrying value approximates fair value Certain financial instruments that are not carried at fair value on the Consolidated balance sheets are carried at amounts that approximate fair value, due to their short-term nature and generally negligible credit risk. These instruments include cash and due from banks, deposits with banks, federal funds sold, securities purchased under resale agreements and securities borrowed, short-term receivables and accrued interest receivable, short-term borrowings, federal funds purchased, securities loaned and sold under repurchase agreements, accounts payable, and accrued liabilities. In addition, U.S. GAAP requires that the fair value of deposit liabilities with no stated maturity (i.e., demand, savings and certain money market deposits) be equal to their carrying value; recognition of the inherent funding value of these instruments is not permitted. U.S. GAAP requires disclosure of the estimated fair value of certain financial instruments. Financial instruments within the scope of these disclosure requirements are included in the following table. However, certain financial instruments and all nonfinancial instruments are excluded from the scope of these disclosure requirements. Accordingly, the fair value disclosures provided in the following table include only a partial estimate of the fair value of JPMorgan Chase’s assets and liabilities. For example, the Firm has developed long-term relationships with its customers through its deposit base and credit card accounts, commonly referred to as core deposit intangibles and credit card relationships. In the opinion of management, these items, in the aggregate, add significant value to JPMorgan Chase, but their fair value is not disclosed in this Note. Additional disclosures about the fair value of financial instruments that are not carried on the Consolidated balance sheets at fair value 177 JPMorgan Chase & Co./2018 Form 10-K As of or for the (in millions) Year ended  December 31, 2018 Other assets Carrying value $ 1,510 Upward carrying value changes 309 Downward carrying value changes/impairment (160)