aviation training aircraft. The development of the ability to  judge load factors from the feel of their effect on the body is  important. A knowledge of these principles is essential to the  development of the ability to estimate load factors.  factor. Abrupt pull ups at high diving speeds may impose  critical loads on aircraft structures and may produce recurrent  or secondary stalls by increasing the AOA to that of stalling.  As a generalization, a recovery from a stall made by diving  only to cruising or design maneuvering airspeed, with a  gradual pull up as soon as the airspeed is safely above stalling,  can be effected with a load factor not to exceed 2 or 2.5 Gs. A  higher load factor should never be necessary unless recovery  has been effected with the aircraft’s nose near or beyond the  vertical attitude or at extremely low altitudes to avoid diving  into the ground.  A thorough knowledge of load factors induced by varying  degrees of bank and the V$_{A}$ aids in the prevention of two of  the most serious types of accidents:  Critical load factors apply to all flight maneuvers except  unaccelerated straight flight where a load factor of 1 G is  always present. Certain maneuvers considered in this section  are known to involve relatively high load factors. Full  application of pitch, roll, or yaw controls should be confined  to speeds below the maneuvering speed. Avoid rapid and  large alternating control inputs, especially in combination  with large changes in pitch, roll, or yaw (e.g., large sideslip  angles) as they may result in structural failures at any speed,  including below V$_{A}$.  A stabilized spin is not different from a stall in any element  other than rotation and the same load factor considerations  apply to spin recovery as apply to stall recovery. Since spin  recoveries are usually effected with the nose much lower than is  common in stall recoveries, higher airspeeds and consequently  higher load factors are to be expected. The load factor in a  proper spin recovery usually is found to be about 2.5 Gs.  Increased load factors are a characteristic of all banked  turns. As noted in the section on load factors in steep turns,  load factors become significant to both flight performance  and load on wing structure as the bank increases beyond  approximately 45°.  The yield factor of the average light plane is reached  at a bank of approximately 70° to 75°, and the stalling  speed is increased by approximately one-half at a bank of  approximately 63°.  The normal stall entered from straight-and-level flight, or an  unaccelerated straight climb, does not produce added load  factors beyond the 1 G of straight-and-level flight. As the  stall occurs, however, this load factor may be reduced toward  zero, the factor at which nothing seems to have weight. The  pilot experiences a sensation of “floating free in space.” If  recovery is effected by snapping the elevator control forward,  negative load factors (or those that impose a down load on  the wings and raise the pilot from the seat) may be produced.  During the pull up following stall recovery, significant  load factors are sometimes induced. These may be further  increased inadvertently during excessive diving (and  consequently high airspeed) and abrupt pull ups to level  flight. One usually leads to the other, thus increasing the load  A chandelle is a maximum performance climbing turn  beginning from approximately straight-and-level flight,  and ending at the completion of a precise 180° turn in a  wings-level, nose-high attitude at the minimum controllable  The only way this stall can be induced at an airspeed above  normal stalling involves the imposition of an added load  factor, which may be accomplished by a severe pull on the  elevator control. A speed of 1.7 times stalling speed (about  102 knots in a light aircraft with a stalling speed of 60 knots)  produces a load factor of 3 Gs. Only a very narrow margin  for error can be allowed for acrobatics in light aircraft. To  illustrate how rapidly the load factor increases with airspeed,  a high-speed stall at 112 knots in the same aircraft would  produce a load factor of 4 Gs.  The average light plane is not built to withstand the repeated  application of load factors common to high speed stalls.  The load factor necessary for these maneuvers produces a  stress on the wings and tail structure, which does not leave  a reasonable margin of safety in most light aircraft.  The load factor during a spin varies with the spin characteristics  of each aircraft, but is usually found to be slightly above the  1 G of level flight. There are two reasons for this:  Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers  Spins  Turns  High Speed Stalls  Stalls  Chandelles and Lazy Eights  1. Airspeed in a spin is very low, usually within 2 knots  of the unaccelerated stalling speeds.  2. An aircraft pivots, rather than turns, while it is in a spin.  5-36  1. Stalls from steep turns or excessive maneuvering near  the ground  2. Structural failures during acrobatics or other violent  maneuvers resulting from loss of control 