In 2015, we initiated Realignment Programs that consist of both restructuring and non-restructuring charges that are further discussed in Note 20 to our consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Annual Report. As of December 31, 2019, the Realignment Programs are substantially complete and we have incurred charges of $351.7 million to date. The total charges for Realignment Programs and Flowserve 2.0 Transformation by segment are detailed below for the years ended December 31, 2019 and 2018: (2) Income tax expense (benefit) includes exit taxes. (1) Income tax expense (benefit) includes exit taxes. We define a booking as the receipt of a customer order that contractually engages us to perform activities on behalf of our customer in regard to the manufacture, delivery, and/or support of products or the delivery of service. Bookings recorded and subsequently canceled within the same fiscal period are excluded from reported bookings. Bookings of $4.2 billion in 2019 increased by $218.5 million, or 5.4%, as compared with 2018. The increase included negative currency effects of approximately $108 million. The increase was primarily driven by customer original equipment bookings. The increase was driven by higher bookings in the oil and gas, power generation, chemical and water management industries, partially offset by decreased bookings in the general industries. Bookings in 2018 included approximately $31 million related to the two FPD locations and associated product lines that were divested in the third quarter of 2018. Bookings of $4.0 billion in 2018 increased by $215.9 million, or 5.7%, as compared with 2017. The increase included currency benefits of approximately $30 million. The increase was primarily driven by the oil and gas, general and chemical industries, partially offset by a decrease in the power generation industry. The increase was more heavily-weighted towards customer aftermarket bookings. 30 Bookings and Backlog December 31, 2019  (Amounts in thousands) FPD FCD Subtotal– Reportable Segments Eliminations and All Other Consolidated Total Total Realignment and Transformation Program Charges COS $ 12,587 $ 4,395 $ 16,982 $ 255 $ 17,237 SG&A(1) (14,506) 774 (13,732) 32,467 18,735 Income tax expense(2) (4,000 ) — (4,000 ) — (4,000 ) Total $ (5,919) $ 5,169 $ (750) $ 32,722 $ 31,972 (1) Includes gains from the sales of non-strategic manufacturing facilities that are included in our Realignment Programs. December 31, 2018  (Amounts in thousands) FPD FCD Subtotal– Reportable Segments Eliminations and All Other Consolidated Total Total Realignment and Transformation Program Charges COS $ 39,477 $ 3,221 $ 42,698 $ — $ 42,698 SG&A 5,910 (294) 5,616 46,786 52,402 Income tax expense(1) (1,000 ) — (1,000 ) — (1,000 ) Total $ 44,387 $ 2,927 $ 47,314 $ 46,786 $ 94,100 2019 2018 2017 (Amounts in millions) Bookings $ 4,238.3 $ 4,019.8 $ 3,803.9 Backlog (at period end) 2,157.0 1,891.6 2,033.4