Usability refers to the functionality of tests. A usable written test is easy to give if it is printed in a type size large enough for learners  to read easily. The wording of both the directions for taking the test and of the test items needs to be clear and concise. Graphics,  charts, and illustrations appropriate to the test items must be clearly drawn, and the test should be easily graded.  Objectivity describes singleness of scoring of a test. Essay questions provide an example of this principle. It is nearly impossible to  prevent an instructor’s own knowledge and experience in the subject area, writing style, or grammar from affecting the grade  awarded. Selection-type test items, such as true/false or multiple choice, are much easier to grade objectively.  Comprehensiveness is the degree to which a test measures the overall objectives. Suppose, for example, an AMT wants to measure  the compression of an aircraft engine. Measuring compression on a single cylinder would not provide an indication of the entire  engine. Similarly, a written test must sample an appropriate cross-section of the objectives of instruction. The instructor makes certain  the evaluation includes a representative and comprehensive sampling of the objectives of the course.  Discrimination is the degree to which a test distinguishes the difference between learners and may be appropriate for assessment of  academic achievement. However, minimum standards are far more important in assessments leading to pilot certification. If necessary  for classroom evaluation of academic achievement, a test must measure small differences in achievement in relation to the objectives  of the course. A test designed for discrimination contains:  Please see Appendix B for information on the advantages and disadvantages of multiple choice, supply type, and other written  assessment instruments, as well as guidance on creating effective test items.  Authentic assessment asks the learner to perform real-world tasks and demonstrate a meaningful application of skills and  competencies. Authentic assessment lies at the heart of training today’s aviation learner to use critical thinking skills. Rather than  selecting from predetermined responses, learners must generate responses from skills and concepts they have learned. By using open- ended questions and established performance criteria, authentic assessment focuses on the learning process, enhances the  development of real-world skills, encourages higher order thinking skills, and teaches learners to assess their own work and  performance.  There are several aspects of effective authentic assessment. The first is the use of open-ended questions in what might be called a  “collaborative critique,” which is a form of learner-centered grading. As described in the scenario that introduced this chapter, the  instructor begins by using a four-step series of open-ended questions to guide the learner through a complete self-assessment.  Replay—the instructor asks the learner to verbally replay the flight or procedure. While the learner speaks, the instructor listens for  areas where the account does not seem accurate. At the right moment, the instructor discusses any discrepancy with the learner. This  approach gives the learner a chance to validate his or her own perceptions, and it gives the instructor critical insight into the learner's  judgment abilities.  Reconstruct—the reconstruction stage encourages learning by identifying the key things that the learner would have, could have, or  should have done differently during the flight or procedure.  Reflect—insights come from investing perceptions and experiences with meaning, requiring reflection on the events. For example:  Redirect—the final step is to help the learner relate lessons learned in this session to other experiences and consider how they might  help in future sessions. Questions might include:  6-5  Learner-Centered Assessment  Authentic Assessment  3. $_{ }$Items that distinguish between learners with differing levels of achievement of the course objectives  2. $_{ }$All levels of difficulty  1. $_{ }$A wide range of scores  5. $_{ }$How did your performance compare to the standards in the ACS?  4. $_{ }$How would you assess your performance and your decisions?  3. $_{ }$Did anything make you uncomfortable? If so, when did it occur?  2. $_{ }$What part of the session was easiest for you? What part was hardest?  1. $_{ }$What was the most important thing you learned today? 