Pilot Deviations:  Operational Incidents (OI):  Vehicle (Driver) Deviations:  According to FAA data, approximately 65 percent of all  runway incursions are caused by pilots. Of the pilot runway  incursions, FAA data shows almost half of those incursions  are caused by GA pilots.  Detailed investigations of runway incursions over the past  10 years have identified three major areas contributing to  these events:  • Crossing a runway hold marking without clearance  from ATC  • Taking off without clearance  • Landing without clearance  • Clearing an aircraft onto a runway while another  aircraft is landing on the same runway  • Issuing a takeoff clearance while the runway is  occupied by another aircraft or vehicle  • Crossing a runway hold marking without ATC  clearance  • Airport complexity  • Close proximity of runway thresholds  • Joint use of a runway as a taxiway  • Failure to comply with ATC instructions  • Lack of airport familiarity  • Nonconformance with standard operating procedures  Causal Factors of Runway Confusion  Causal Factors of Runway Incursions  Figure 14-48.  Heads-up, eyes outside.  In August 2006, the flight crew of a commercial regional jet  was cleared for takeoff on Runway 22 but mistakenly lined  up and departed on Runway 26, a much shorter runway. As  a result, the aircraft crashed off the end of the runway.  There are three major factors that increase the risk of runway  confusion and can lead to a wrong runway departure:  Not only can airport complexity contribute to a runway  incursion; it can also play a significant role in runway  confusion. If you are operating at an unfamiliar airport and  need assistance in executing the taxi clearance, do not hesitate  to ask ATC for help. Always carry a current airport diagram  and trace or highlight your taxi route to the departure runway  prior to leaving the ramp.  Clear, concise, and effective pilot/controller communication is  paramount to safe airport surface operations. You must fully  understand and comply with all ATC instructions. It is mandatory  to read back all runway “ hold short ” instructions verbatim.  Taxiing on an unfamiliar airport can be very challenging,  especially during hours of darkness or low visibility. A  request may be made for progressive taxi instructions which  include step by step taxi routing instructions. Ensure you  have a current airport diagram, remain “heads-up” with eyes  outside, and devote your entire attention to surface navigation  per ATC clearance. All checklists should be completed while  the aircraft is stopped. There is no place for non-essential  chatter or other activities while maintaining vigilance during  taxi.  [Figure 14-48]  If you are operating from an airport with runway thresholds  in close proximity to one another, exercise extreme caution  when taxiing onto the runway.  Figure 14-49  shows a perfect  example of a taxiway leading to multiple runways that may  cause confusion. If departing on Runway 36, ensure that you  set your aircraft heading “bug” to 360°, and align your aircraft  to the runway heading to avoid departing from the wrong  runway. Before adding power, make one last instrument scan  to ensure the aircraft heading and runway heading are aligned.  Under certain circumstances, it may be necessary to  use a runway as a taxiway. For example, during airport  construction some taxiways may be closed requiring re­ routing of traffic onto runways. In other cases, departing  traffic may be required to back taxi on the runway in order  to utilize the full runway length.  Runway confusion is a subset of runway incursions and  often results in you unintentionally taking off or landing on  a taxiway or wrong runway. Generally, you are unaware of  the mistake until after it has occurred.  Runway Confusion  14-31 