For the year ended December 31, 2020 , the change from an expense from global operations in 2019 to a benefit from global operations in 2020 reflects the lower rate of tax on the disposition of the BioPharma business in 2020 compared to an amount of tax recognized on preparatory steps for the planned disposition in 2019 and a decrease in valuation allowances on non-U.S. deferred tax assets. A more detailed analysis of differences between the U.S. federal statutory rate and the consolidated effective rate, as well as other information about our income tax provisions, is provided in the Critical Accounting Estimates section and Note 15. The nature of business activities and associated income taxes differ for GE Industrial and for GE Capital; therefore, a separate analysis of each is presented in the paragraphs that follow. For the year ended December 31, 2020 , the GE Industrial provision for income taxes decreased primarily due to the decrease in pre-tax income excluding the gain from the sale of our BioPharma business and non-deductible goodwill impairment charges and a decrease in valuation allowances on non-U.S. deferred tax assets partially offset by the increase in tax expense associated with the disposition of the BioPharma business in 2020 compared to the amount recognized on preparatory steps for the planned disposition in 2019 and a decrease in benefit from the completion of the IRS audits. For the year ended December 31, 2020 , the GE Capital tax benefit increased primarily due to the decrease in pre-tax income excluding non-deductible goodwill impairment charges and due to larger benefits on global operations including a tax benefit associated with the disposition of the BioPharma business in 2020. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT.  We conduct research and development (R&D) activities to continually enhance our existing products and services, develop new products and services to meet our customers’ changing needs and requirements, and address new market opportunities. In addition to funding R&D internally, we also receive funding externally from our customers and partners, which contributes to the overall R&D for the company.  DISCONTINUED OPERATIONS.  Discontinued operations primarily include certain businesses in our GE Capital segment (our mortgage portfolio in Poland and trailing liabilities associated with the sale of our GE Capital businesses) and our Baker Hughes and Transportation segments. See Notes 2 and 23 for further financial information regarding our businesses in discontinued operations. The mortgage portfolio in Poland (Bank BPH) comprises floating-rate residential mortgages, 87% of which are indexed to or denominated in foreign currencies (primarily Swiss francs). At December 31, 2020, the total portfolio had a carrying value of $2.4 billion with a 1.61% 90-day delinquency rate and an average loan to value ratio of approximately 63.0%. The portfolio is recorded at the lower of cost or fair value, less cost to sell, and included a $0.3 billion impairment, which reflected market yields as well as estimates with respect to ongoing litigation in Poland related to foreign currency-denominated mortgages and other factors. See Note 23 for additional information about this litigation and the potential for further adverse developments to result in further losses related to these loans in future reporting periods. GE 2020 FORM 10-K  23 (a) Includes Global Research Center and Digital business. (b) Customer funded is principally U.S. Government funded in our Aviation segment. GE funded Customer and Partner funded(b) Total R&D 2020 2019 2018 2020 2019 2018 2020 2019 2018 Power $ 317 $ 314 $ 409 $ 13 $ 13 $ 5 $ 330 $ 327 $ 414  Renewable Energy 466  522  413  19  9  11  485  531  424  Aviation 707  906  950  1,090  911  564  1,797  1,817  1,514  Healthcare 845  994  968  27  25  23  872  1,019  991  Corporate(a) 231  382  675  106  89  48  336  471  722  Total $ 2,565 $ 3,118 $ 3,415 $ 1,255 $ 1,046 $ 650 $ 3,820 $ 4,164 $ 4,065  GE CAPITAL EFFECTIVE TAX RATE 2020 2019 2018 GE Capital ETR 41.1 % 89.3 % 99.7 % GE Capital provision (benefit) for income taxes $ (862) $ (582) $ (374) GE INDUSTRIAL EFFECTIVE TAX RATE 2020 2019 2018 GE Industrial ETR 5.3 % 72.7 % (2.3)% GE Industrial provision for income taxes $ 388  $ 1,309  $ 467 