Disturbances to Radio Wave Reception  ..................... 9-3 Traditional Navigation Systems  ..................................... 9-3 Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)  ........................ 9-3 NDB Components  ................................................... 9-3 ADF Components  ................................................... 9-3 Function of ADF  ..................................................... 9-4 Operational Errors of ADF  ..................................... 9-8 Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR)  .............................................................. 9-8 VOR Components  ................................................. 9-10 Function of VOR  .................................................. 9-11 VOR Operational Errors  ....................................... 9-14 VOR Accuracy  ...................................................... 9-16 VOR Receiver Accuracy Check  ........................... 9-16 VOR Test Facility (VOT)  ..................................... 9-16 Certified Checkpoints  ........................................... 9-16 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)  ................... 9-17 DME Components  ................................................ 9-17 Function of DME  .................................................. 9-17 DME Arc  .............................................................. 9-17 Intercepting Lead Radials  ..................................... 9-18 DME Errors  .......................................................... 9-19 Area Navigation (RNAV)  ........................................ 9-19 VOR/DME RNAV  ................................................ 9-22 VOR/DME RNAV Components  .......................... 9-23 Function of VOR/DME RNAV  ............................ 9-23 VOR/DME RNAV Errors  ..................................... 9-24 Advanced Technologies  ............................................... 9-24 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) ............ 9-24 Global Positioning System (GPS)  ............................ 9-25 GPS Components  .................................................. 9-25 Function of GPS  ................................................... 9-26 GPS Substitution  ................................................... 9-27 GPS Substitution for ADF or DME  ...................... 9-27 To Determine Aircraft Position Over a DME Fix  ............................................................... 9-27 To Fly a DME Arc  ................................................ 9-27 To Navigate TO or FROM an NDB/Compass Locator  .................................................................. 9-28 To Determine Aircraft Position Over an NDB/ Compass Locator  .................................................. 9-28 To Determine Aircraft Position Over a Fix  Made up of an NDB/Compass Locator Bearing  Crossing a VOR/LOC Course  .............................. 9-28 To Hold Over an NDB/Compass Locator:  ........... 9-28 IFR Flight Using GPS  ........................................... 9-28 GPS Instrument Approaches  ................................. 9-29 Departures and Instrument Departure Procedures (DPs)  .................................................. 9-31 GPS Errors  ............................................................ 9-31 System Status  ........................................................ 9-31 GPS Familiarization  .............................................. 9-31 Differential Global Positioning Systems (DGPS)  .... 9-32 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)  ............ 9-32 General Requirements  .......................................... 9-32 Instrument Approach Capabilities  ........................ 9-32 Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)  ............. 9-33 Inertial Navigation System (INS)  ............................. 9-34 INS Components  ................................................... 9-34 INS Errors  ............................................................. 9-34 Instrument Approach Systems  ..................................... 9-35 Instrument Landing Systems (ILS)  .......................... 9-35 ILS Components  ................................................... 9-35 Approach Lighting Systems (ALS)  .......................... 9-38 ILS Airborne Components  .................................... 9-38 ILS Function  ............................................................. 9-40 ILS Errors  ................................................................. 9-40 Marker Beacons  .................................................... 9-40 Operational Errors  ................................................ 9-42 Simplified Directional Facility (SDF)  ...................... 9-42 Localizer Type Directional Aid (LDA)  .................... 9-43 Microwave Landing System (MLS)  ......................... 9-43 Approach Azimuth Guidance  ............................... 9-43 Required Navigation Performance  ............................... 9-44 Flight Management Systems (FMS)  ............................ 9-44 Function of FMS  ...................................................... 9-46 Head-Up Display (HUD)  ............................................. 9-46 Radar Navigation (Ground-Based)  .............................. 9-46 Functions of Radar Navigation ................................. 9-47 Airport Surface Detection Equipment  .................. 9-48 Radar Limitations  ..................................................... 9-48 Chapter 10 IFR Flight ............................................................10-1 Introduction  .................................................................. 10-1 Sources of Flight Planning Information  ....................... 10-2 Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) ................. 10-2 Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)  ............................ 10-2 Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP)  ................... 10-2 POH/AFM  ................................................................ 10-2 IFR Flight Plan  ............................................................. 10-2 Filing in Flight.......................................................... 10-2 Cancelling IFR Flight Plans  ..................................... 10-3 Clearances  .................................................................... 10-3 Examples  .................................................................. 10-4 Clearance Separations  .............................................. 10-4 Departure Procedures (DPs)  ........................................ 10-5 Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) ..................... 10-5 Standard Instrument Departures  ............................... 10-5 xiv