27 10° to 15°  Figure 8-7.  To obtain necessary visual cues, the pilot should look toward the runway at a shallow angle. the runway to move progressively rearward as the airplane  loses altitude. This is an important visual cue in assessing the  rate of altitude loss. Conversely, forward movement of the  visual interception point indicates an increase in altitude and  means that the pitch angle was increased too rapidly, resulting  in an over flare. Location of the visual interception point  in conjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearby  off-runway terrain, as well as the similarity of appearance of  height above the runway ahead of the airplane (in comparison  to the way it looked when the airplane was taxied prior to  takeoff), is also used to judge when the wheels are just a few  inches above the runway. The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane onto the  landing surface. The round out and touchdown are normally  made with the engine idling and the airplane at minimum  controllable airspeed so that the airplane touches down on  the main gear at approximately stalling speed. As the airplane  settles, the proper landing attitude is attained by application  of whatever back-elevator pressure is necessary. Some pilots try to force or fly the airplane onto the ground  without establishing the proper landing attitude. The airplane  should never be flown on the runway with excessive speed.  A common technique to making a smooth touchdown is to  actually focus on holding the wheels of the aircraft a few  inches off the ground as long as possible using the elevators  while the power is smoothly reduced to idle. In most cases,  when the wheels are within 2 or 3 feet off the ground, the  airplane is still settling too fast for a gentle touchdown;  therefore, this descent must be retarded by increasing back- elevator pressure. Since the airplane is already close to  its stalling speed and is settling, this added back-elevator  pressure only slows the settling instead of stopping it. At  the same time, it results in the airplane touching the ground  in the proper landing attitude and the main wheels touching  down first so that little or no weight is on the nose wheel.  [Figure 8-8] The pitch attitude of the airplane in a full-flap approach is  considerably lower than in a no-flap approach. To attain  the proper landing attitude before touching down, the nose  must travel through a greater pitch change when flaps are  fully extended. Since the round out is usually started at  approximately the same height above the ground regardless of  the degree of flaps used, the pitch attitude must be increased  at a faster rate when full flaps are used; however, the round  out is still be executed at a rate proportionate to the airplane’s  downward motion. Once the actual process of rounding out is started, do not  push the elevator control forward. If too much back-elevator  pressure was exerted, this pressure is either slightly relaxed or  held constant, depending on the degree of the error. In some  cases, it may be necessary to advance the throttle slightly to  prevent an excessive rate of sink or a stall, either of which  results in a hard, drop-in type landing. After the main wheels make initial contact with the ground,  back-elevator pressure is held to maintain a positive AOA  for aerodynamic braking and to hold the nose wheel off  the ground until the airplane decelerates. As the airplane’s  momentum decreases, back-elevator pressure is gradually  relaxed to allow the nose wheel to gently settle onto the  runway. This permits steering with the nose wheel. At the  same time, it decreases the AOA and reduces lift on the wings  It is recommended that a pilot form the habit of keeping one  hand on the throttle throughout the approach and landing  should a sudden and unexpected hazardous situation require  an immediate application of power. 8-7 Touchdown