According to constructivism, humans construct a unique mental image by combining preexisting information with the information  received from sense organs. Learning is the result of matching new information against this preexisting information and integrating it  into meaningful connections. In constructivist thinking, learners are given more latitude to become effective problem solvers,  identifying and evaluating problems, as well as deciphering ways in which to transfer their learning to these problems, all of which  foster critical thinking skills. While the learner is at the center of the process, an experienced teacher is necessary to guide them  through the information jungle. Constructivism techniques are good for some types of learning, some situations, and some  individuals, but not all. This school of thought also encourages teaching learners how to use what are known as the higher order  thinking skills (HOTS) from Bloom’s Taxonomy and training based on problems or scenarios. Constructivism is the basis for several  of the training delivery methods covered in Chapter 5, The Teaching Process.  The constructivist theory of learning explains and supports the learning of HOTS, which is commonly called aeronautical decision- making (ADM) in aviation. HOTS lie in the last three levels on Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning: analysis, synthesis, and evaluation  skills. Teaching the higher level thinking skills which are essential to judgment, decision-making, and critical thinking is important to  aviation because a common thread in aviation accidents is the absence of higher order thinking skills (see Appendix E).  HOTS are taught like other cognitive skills, from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. To teach HOTS effectively  involves strategies and methods that include (1) using problem-based learning (PBL) instruction, (2) authentic problems, (3) real- world problems, (4) learner-centered learning, (5) active learning, (6) cooperative learning, and (7) customized instruction to meet the  individual learner’s needs. These strategies engage the learner in some form of mental activity, have the learner examine that mental  activity and select the best solution, and challenge the learner to explore other ways to accomplish the task or the problem.  It should be remembered that critical thinking skills should be taught in the context of subject matter. Learners progress from simple  to complex; therefore, they need some information before they can think about a subject beyond rote learning. For example, knowing  that compliance with the weight and balance limits of any aircraft is critical to flight safety may not help an aviation learner interpret  weight and balance charts unless he or she also knows something about the concept of a center of gravity.  If the learner does not yet have much subject matter knowledge, they can draw on past experiences to gain entry into complex  concepts. For example, most learners probably played on a seesaw during their childhood. Thus, they have a basic experience of how  weight and balance works around a center of gravity.  Additionally, HOTS should be emphasized throughout a program of study for best results. For aviation, this means HOTS should be  taught in the initial pilot training program and in every subsequent pilot training program. Instructors need to teach the cognitive skills  used in problem-solving until these techniques become automated and transferable to new situations or problems. Cognitive research  has shown the learning of HOTS is not a change in observable behavior but the construction of meaning from experience.  At the heart of HOTS lies scenario-based training (SBT) which is an example of the PBL instructional method and facilitates the  enhancement of learning and the development and transference of thinking skills. SBT provides more realistic decision-making  opportunities because it presents tasks in an operational environment; it correlates new information with previous knowledge, and  introduces new information in a realistic context.  SBT is a training system that uses a structured script of “real-world” scenarios to address flight-training objectives in an operational  environment. Such training can include initial training, transition training, upgrade training, recurrent training, and special training.  The instructor should adapt the scenarios to the aircraft, its specific flight characteristics and the likely flight environment, and should  always require the learner to make real-time decisions in a realistic setting. The scenarios should always be planned and led by the  learner (with the exception of the first flight or two or until the learner has developed the necessary skills).  SBT not only meets the challenge of teaching aeronautical knowledge to the application level of learning, but also enables the  instructor to teach the underlying HOTS needed to improve ADM. The best use of scenarios draws the learner into formulating  possible solutions, evaluating the possible solutions, deciding on a solution, judging the appropriateness of that decision and finally,  reflecting on the mental process used in solving the problem. It causes the learner to consider whether the decision led to the best  possible outcome and challenges the learner to consider other solutions.  SBT scenarios help learners better understand the decisions they have to make and also helps focus the learner on the decisions and  consequences involved. It is being used to train people in everything from emergency response to hotel management. The strength of  SBT lies in helping the learner gain a deeper understanding of the information and in the learner improving his or her ability to recall  the information. This goal is reached when the material is presented as an authentic problem in a situated environment that allows the  learner to “make meaning” of the information based on his or her past experience and personal interpretation.$_{ }$ 3-6  Scenario-Based Training (SBT)  Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) 