The Learning Route to Expertise  Cognitive Strategies  Problem-Solving Tactics  Awareness of Existence of Unknowns  Summary of Instructor Actions  What does it take to successfully orchestrate all of the knowledge and skills the learner has learned into what instructors, evaluators,  and other pilots and mechanics would regard as true expertise? All evidence seems to point once again to the idea of practice. Just as  the perfection of an individual skill seems to rely on repeated practice, so does the combination of knowledge and skills that make up  our abilities to do the real-world job of pilot or mechanic.  How much practice does it take to become a true expert? In a study of expert performers in fields ranging from science to music to  chess, one psychologist found that no performer had reached true expertise without having invested at least ten years of practice in his  or her field. Experts have been found to use two tools to help them gain expertise in their field: cognitive strategies and problem- solving tactics.  The idea of cognitive strategies emerged over 50 years ago in the context of human information processing theory. Cognitive  strategies refer to the knowledge of procedures or knowledge about how to do something in contrast with the knowledge of facts.  They use the mind to solve a problem or complete a task and provide a structure for learning that actively promotes the  comprehension and retention of knowledge. A cognitive strategy helps the learner develop internal procedures that enable him or her  to perform higher level operations.  As learners acquire experience, they develop their own strategies for dealing with problems that arise frequently. For example, a  learner develops the following strategy for avoiding inadvertent flight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) at night. He  or she checks the weather prior to departure, obtains updates on the weather every hour, and plans to divert to an alternate destination  at the first suspicion of unexpected weather ahead.  One approach to helping develop cognitive strategies is to study and identify the strategies that experts use and then teach these  strategies to the learners. Expert strategies were identified by researchers who presented experts with problems to solve and asked  them to think aloud as they attempted to solve the problems. These cognitive strategies can be taught to learners, usually with  successful results.  Problem-solving tactics are specific actions intended to get a particular result, and this type of knowledge represents the most targeted  knowledge in the expert’s arsenal. For example, a learner notices how easy it is to make a mistake with a takeoff distance chart after  using it several times. She notices her finger drifts upward or downward when sliding it across a row of numbers on the chart,  sometimes landing on the wrong number. The learner formulates several tactics to ensure she obtains the correct figures: (1) work  slowly and deliberately, (2) use a ruler, and (3) double-check the work.  But even the experts had to practice. In a study of violinists at a music academy in Berlin, researchers compared the “best” learners to  those who were regarded as merely “very good.” Using estimates of how many total hours each learner had spent practicing during  his or her lifetime, the researchers found that the best violinists had spent an average of 7,000 hours practicing, while the very good  violinists had logged about 5,000 hours. The scientific study of expertise reiterates the adage: “Practice makes perfect.”$_{ }$ To help learners exercise their knowledge and skills in a concerted fashion, the instructor should:  An important aspect of an expert’s knowledge is an awareness of what he or she does not know. This is not always the case with a  learner. It’s important that an instructor be aware of situations in which learners have acquired “book” knowledge, but not yet  acquired the more in-depth understanding that comes from association and experience. For example, after acquiring substantial  knowledge of a single-engine, two-seat training aircraft, learners should understand that a four-seat aircraft by the same manufacturer  should be approached with caution and not overconfidence.  ⦁ $_{Explain the difference between normal task switching and interruption multitasking and give examples of each. }$ ⦁ $_{Ensure that individual skills are reasonably well-practiced before asking learners to perform several tasks at once. }$ ⦁ $_{Teach learners how to deal with distractions and interruptions and provide them with opportunities to practice. }$ ⦁ $_{Point out fixation and inattention when it occurs. }$ ⦁ $_{Devise scenarios that allow learners to use their knowledge and skill to solve realistic problems and make decisions. }$ ⦁ $_{Explain to the learner that continued practice with the goal of improving leads to continued improvement. }$ 3-32 