4. Learners who understand the purpose behind procedure steps are better able to remember the procedure  steps later, or reconstruct them when they are forgotten.  Mental models evolve as learners take in new information. For example, Bill could ask Beverly why flying with an inappropriate  mixture setting is bad. A learner whose understanding includes knowledge about spark plugs and carbon deposits might answer  correctly. If this same learner’s understanding later extends to include knowledge about thermal efficiency and the stoichiometric  equation$_{ }$ for$_{ }$ the$_{ }$ combustion$_{ }$ of$_{ }$ gasoline,$_{ }$ the$_{ }$ explanations$_{ }$ are$_{ }$ likely to$_{ }$ become much$_{ }$ more$_{ }$ sophisticated.$_{ }$ No$_{ }$ individual’s$_{ }$ understanding of anything is ever “complete.”  Concept learning is based on the assumption that humans tend to group objects, events, ideas, people, etc., that share one or more  major attributes that set them apart. It also involves discrimination between types of things or ideas inside or outside of a concept set.  By grouping information into concepts, humans reduce the complexities of life and create manageable categories. Although many  theories about concept learning exist, categorization has always been a central aspect.  Concept learning enhances understanding when individuals formulate generalized concepts from particular facts or steps. Generalized  concepts are more powerful than facts because instead of literally describing one thing, they describe many things at once.  For example, a new flight learner who sees several examples of weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft may formulate a category for  WSC aircraft based on the wing, which is large and fabric covered. The power of the category becomes obvious when the learner sees  a sport plane. Because of the similar wing, he or she immediately categorizes it as an ultra l ight and ascribes many of the properties of  ultralight aircraft to the sport plane. In this way, the learner has used a generalized concept to begin understanding something new.  Most learners exhibit a natural tendency to categorize and become adept at recognizing members of most any category they create. If  something is encountered that does not fit into a category, these learners formulate a new category or revise the definitions of existing  categories. In the above example, the learner eventually needs to revise the category of ultralight to light-sport aircraft which  encompasses both types of aircraft. Therefore, an important part of the learning process is continual revision of the categories used  when learners encounter new things or exceptions to things previously catalogued.  Another type of generalization is a schema (the cognitive framework that helps people organize and interpret information). Schemas  can be revised by any new information and are useful because they allow people to take shortcuts in interpreting a vast amount of  information.  Humans form schemas when they notice reoccurring patterns in things frequently observed or done. Schemas help learners interpret  things they observe by priming them to expect certain elements that match the schema. For example, schemas demonstrate why an  experienced pilot is able to listen to and read back a lengthy departure clearance issued by air traffic control (ATC). Beginning flight  learners often remember the controller’s use of the words “the” and “and” and fail to note more important words that describe$_{ }$ assigned altitudes or radio frequencies. The experienced pilot is successful because he or she possesses a schema for this type of  event and knows in advance that the clearance contains five key pieces of information. While listening to the clearance, the pilot  anticipates and is primed to capture those five things.  Similarly, learners create schemas for preflight inspection procedures and procedures required to operate advanced flight deck  systems such as autopilots or multifunction displays. As with categories, humans continuously learn new schemas and revise old ones  to accommodate new things as they continue to learn. While schemas help humans deal with information, they can also make it  difficult to retain new information that does not conform to established schemas.  One of the pioneers of educational psychology, E.L. Thorndike formulated three laws of learning in the early 20th century.  [Figure  3-7]  These laws are universally accepted and apply to all kinds of learning: the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the law of  effect. Since Thorndike set down his laws, three more have been added: the law of primacy, the law of intensity, and the law of  recency.  The basic needs of the learner need to be satisfied before he or she is ready or capable of learning (see Chapter 2, Human Behavior).  The instructor can do little to motivate the learner if these needs have not been met. This means the individual should want to learn  the task being presented and possesses the requisite knowledge and skill. In SBT, the instructor attempts to make the task as  meaningful as possible and to keep it within the learner’s capabilities.$_{ }$ 3-11  Readiness  Thorndike and the Laws of Learning  Concept Learning 