is used to offset this pitching moment. Application of full  power in the go-around increases the airflow over the wing.  This produces additional lift causing significant changes in  pitch. The pitch-up tendency does not diminish completely  with flap retraction because of the trim setting. Expedient  retraction of flaps is desirable to eliminate drag; however,  the pilot must be prepared for rapid changes in pitch forces as  the result of trim and the increase in airflow over the control  surfaces.  [Figure 11-5]  The time of flap extension and degree of deflection are related.  Large flap deflections at one single point in the landing  pattern produce large lift changes that require significant  pitch and power changes in order to maintain airspeed and  glide slope. Incremental deflection of flaps on downwind,  base, and final approach allow smaller adjustment of pitch  and power compared to extension of full flaps all at one time.  This procedure facilitates a more stabilized approach. While all landings should be accomplished at the slowest  speed possible for a given situation, a soft or short-field  landing requires minimal speed at touchdown while a short  field obstacle approach requires minimum speed and a steep  approach angle. Flap extension, particularly beyond 30°, results  in significant levels of drag. As such, large angles of flap  deployment require higher power settings than used with partial  flaps. When steep approach angles and short fields combine  with power to offset the drag produced by the flaps, the landing  flare becomes critical. The drag produces a high sink rate that  must be controlled with power, yet failure to reduce power at a  rate so that the power is idle at touchdown allows the airplane  to float down the runway. A reduction in power too early can  result in a hard landing and damage or loss of control. The degree of flap deflection combined with design  configuration of the horizontal tail relative to the wing require  carefully monitoring of pitch and airspeed, carefully control  flap retraction to minimize altitude loss, and properly use  the rudder for coordination. Considering these factors, it is  good practice to extend the same degree of flap deflection at  the same point in the landing pattern for each landing. This  requires that a consistent traffic pattern be used. This allows  for a preplanned go-around sequence based on the airplane’s  position in the landing pattern. Crosswind component is another factor to be considered in  the degree of flap extension. The deflected flap presents a  surface area for the wind to act on. With flaps extended in a  crosswind, the wing on the upwind side is more affected than  the downwind wing. The effect is reduced to a slight extent in  the crabbed approach since the airplane is more nearly aligned  with the wind. When using a wing-low approach, the lowered  wing partially blocks the upwind flap. The dihedral of the  wing combined with the flap and wind make lateral control  more difficult. Lateral control becomes more difficult as flap  extension reaches maximum and the crosswind becomes  perpendicular to the runway. There is no single formula to determine the degree of flap  deflection to be used on landing because a landing involves  variables that are dependent on each other. The AFM/POH  for the particular airplane contains the manufacturer’s  recommendations for some landing situations. On the other  hand, AFM/POH information on flap usage for takeoff is  more precise. The manufacturer’s requirements are based  on the climb performance produced by a given flap design.  Under no circumstances should a flap setting given in the  AFM/POH be exceeded for takeoff. Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for best efficiency  at one speed of rotation and forward speed. This type of  propeller provides suitable performance in a narrow range  of airspeeds; however, efficiency would suffer considerably  outside this range. To provide high-propeller efficiency  through a wide range of operation, the propeller blade angle  must be controllable. The most effective way of controlling  the propeller blade angle is by means of a constant-speed  governing system. With flaps extended, the crosswind effects on the wing  become more pronounced as the airplane comes closer to the  ground. The wing, flap, and ground form a “container” that  is filled with air by the crosswind. Since the flap is located  behind the main landing gear when the wind strikes the  deflected flap and fuselage side, the upwind wing tends to rise  and the airplane tends to turn into the wind. Proper control  position is essential for maintaining runway alignment.  Depending on the amount of crosswind, it may be necessary  to retract the flaps soon after touchdown in order to maintain  control of the airplane. The go-around is another factor to consider when making  a decision about degree of flap deflection and about where  in the landing pattern to extend flaps. Because of the nose  down pitching moment produced with flap extension, trim  The constant-speed propeller keeps the blade angle adjusted  for maximum efficiency for most conditions of flight. The  pilot controls the engine revolutions per minute (rpm)  indirectly by means of a propeller control in the flightdeck,  which is connected to a propeller governor. For maximum  takeoff power, the propeller control is moved all the way  forward to the low pitch/high rpm position, and the throttle is  moved forward to the maximum allowable manifold pressure  Constant-Speed Propeller Controllable-Pitch Propeller 11-4