Ears  ............................................................................. 3-4 Nerves  ......................................................................... 3-5 Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation  .................... 3-5 Vestibular Illusions  .................................................... 3-5 The Leans  ................................................................ 3-5 Coriolis Illusion  ...................................................... 3-6 Graveyard Spiral  ..................................................... 3-6 Somatogravic Illusion  ............................................. 3-6 Inversion Illusion  .................................................... 3-6 Elevator Illusion  ...................................................... 3-6 Visual Illusions  ........................................................... 3-7 False Horizon.......................................................... 3-7 Autokinesis  ............................................................. 3-7 Postural Considerations  ................................................. 3-7 Demonstration of Spatial Disorientation  ....................... 3-7 Climbing While Accelerating  ..................................... 3-8 Climbing While Turning  ............................................ 3-8 Diving While Turning  ................................................ 3-8 Tilting to Right or Left  ............................................... 3-8 Reversal of Motion  ..................................................... 3-8 Diving or Rolling Beyond the Vertical Plane  ............ 3-8 Coping with Spatial Disorientation  ................................ 3-8 Optical Illusions  ............................................................. 3-9 Runway Width Illusion  .............................................. 3-9 Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion  .......................... 3-9 Featureless Terrain Illusion ........................................ 3-9 Water Refraction  ........................................................ 3-9 Haze............................................................................ 3-9 Fog.............................................................................. 3-9 Ground Lighting Illusions  .......................................... 3-9 How To Prevent Landing Errors Due to Optical Illusions  ............................................................. 3-9 Chapter 4 Aerodynamic Factors..........................................4-1 Introduction  .................................................................... 4-1 The Wing.................................................................... 4-2 Review of Basic Aerodynamics  ..................................... 4-2 The Four Forces .......................................................... 4-2 Lift  .......................................................................... 4-2 Weight..................................................................... 4-3 Thrust ...................................................................... 4-3 Drag  ........................................................................ 4-3 Newton’s First Law, the Law of Inertia  ..................... 4-4 Newton’s Second Law, the Law of Momentum ......... 4-4 Newton’s Third Law, the Law of Reaction  ................ 4-4 Atmosphere  .................................................................... 4-4 Layers of the Atmosphere  .......................................... 4-5 International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)  .................. 4-5 Pressure Altitude  ..................................................... 4-5 Density Altitude  ...................................................... 4-6 Lift  .................................................................................. 4-6 Pitch/Power Relationship  ........................................... 4-6 Drag Curves  ................................................................... 4-6 Regions of Command  ................................................. 4-7 Control Characteristics  ........................................... 4-7 Speed Stability  ............................................................ 4-8 Normal Command  .................................................. 4-8 Reversed Command  ................................................ 4-8 Trim................................................................................ 4-8 Slow-Speed Flight  .......................................................... 4-8 Small Airplanes  .......................................................... 4-9 Large Airplanes  ........................................................ 4-10 Climbs  .......................................................................... 4-10 Acceleration in Cruise Flight  ................................... 4-10 Turns ............................................................................ 4-10 Rate of Turn .............................................................. 4-11 Radius of Turn  .......................................................... 4-11 Coordination of Rudder and Aileron Controls  ......... 4-11 Load Factor  .................................................................. 4-12 Icing  ............................................................................. 4-13 Types of Icing  .............................................................. 4-13 Structural Icing  ......................................................... 4-13 Induction Icing  ......................................................... 4-13 Clear Ice  ................................................................... 4-13 Rime Ice  ................................................................... 4-14 Mixed Ice  .................................................................. 4-14 General Effects of Icing on Airfoils  ......................... 4-14 Piper PA-34-200T (Des Moines, Iowa)  ................ 4-16 Tailplane Stall Symptoms  ........................................ 4-16 Propeller Icing  .......................................................... 4-16 Effects of Icing on Critical Aircraft Systems  ........... 4-16 Flight Instruments ................................................. 4-16 Stall Warning Systems  .......................................... 4-17 Windshields .......................................................... 4-17 Antenna Icing  ........................................................... 4-17 Summary  .................................................................. 4-17 Chapter 5 Flight Instruments ...............................................5-1 Introduction  .................................................................... 5-1 Pitot/Static Systems  ....................................................... 5-2 Static Pressure  ............................................................ 5-2 Blockage of the Pitot-Static System  ........................... 5-2 Blocked Pitot System  .............................................. 5-2 Blocked Static System  ............................................ 5-3 Effects of Flight Conditions  .................................... 5-3 Pitot/Static Instruments  .................................................. 5-3 Sensitive Altimeter  ..................................................... 5-3 Principle of Operation  ............................................. 5-3 Altimeter Errors  ...................................................... 5-4 Cold Weather Altimeter Errors  ............................... 5-5 x