History of ADM  For over 25 years, the importance of good pilot judgment, or  aeronautical decision-making (ADM), has been recognized  as critical to the safe operation of aircraft, as well as accident  avoidance. The airline industry, motivated by the need to  reduce accidents caused by human factors, developed the first  training programs based on improving ADM. Crew resource  management (CRM) training for flight crews is focused on  the effective use of all available resources: human resources,  hardware, and information supporting ADM to facilitate crew  cooperation and improve decision-making. The goal of all  flight crews is good ADM and the use of CRM is one way  to make good decisions.  The importance of learning and understanding effective  ADM skills cannot be overemphasized. While progress is  continually being made in the advancement of pilot training  methods, aircraft equipment and systems, and services  for pilots, accidents still occur. Despite all the changes in  technology to improve flight safety, one factor remains the  same: the human factor which leads to errors. It is estimated  that approximately 80 percent of all aviation accidents are  related to human factors and the vast majority of these  accidents occur during landing (24.1 percent) and takeoff  (23.4 percent).  [Figure 2-1]  ADM is a systematic approach to risk assessment and stress  management. To understand ADM is to also understand  how personal attitudes can influence decision-making and  how those attitudes can be modified to enhance safety in the  flight deck. It is important to understand the factors that cause  humans to make decisions and how the decision-making  process not only works, but can be improved.  This chapter focuses on helping the pilot improve his or  her ADM skills with the goal of mitigating the risk factors  associated with flight. Advisory Circular (AC) 60-22,  “Aeronautical Decision-Making,” provides background  references, definitions, and other pertinent information about  ADM training in the general aviation (GA) environment.  [Figure 2-2]  Research in this area prompted the Federal Aviation  Administration (FAA) to produce training directed at  improving the decision-making of pilots and led to current  FAA regulations that require that decision-making be taught  as part of the pilot training curriculum. ADM research,  development, and testing culminated in 1987 with the  publication of six manuals oriented to the decision-making  needs of variously rated pilots. These manuals provided  multifaceted materials designed to reduce the number  of decision-related accidents. The effectiveness of these  materials was validated in independent studies where student  pilots received such training in conjunction with the standard  flying curriculum. When tested, the pilots who had received  ADM-training made fewer in-flight errors than those who had  2-2  Figure 2-1.  The percentage of aviation accidents as they relate to the different phases of flight. Note that the greatest percentage of  accidents take place during a minor percentage of the total flight.  Flight Time  2%  Flight Time  83%  Flight Time  15%  Preflights/  Taxi  Takeoff/  Initial Climb  Climb  Cruise  Descent  Maneuvering  Approach  Landing  Other  3.3% 3.5%  23.4%  15.7%  2.6%  13%  9.7%  24.1%  4.7%  Percentage of General Aviation Accidents 