should realize load factors increase dramatically beyond  60°. Most general aviation airplanes are designed for a load  limit of 3.8Gs. Regardless of the airspeed or what airplane is  involved, for a given bank angle in a level altitude turn, the  same load factor will always be produced. A light, general  aviation airplane in a level altitude, 45° angle of bank turn  will experience a load factor of 1.4 just as a large commercial  airliner will in the same level altitude, 45° angle of bank turn. Because of the higher load factors, steep turns should be  performed at an airspeed that does not exceed the airplane’s  design maneuvering speed (V$_{A}$) or the manufacturer’s  recommended speed. Maximum turning performance is  accomplished when an airplane has both a fast rate of turn and  minimum radius of turn, which is effected by both airspeed  and angle of bank. Each airplane’s turning performance  is limited by structural and aerodynamic design, as well  as available power. The airplane’s limiting load factor  determines the maximum bank angle that can be maintained  in level flight without exceeding the airplane’s structural  limitations or stalling. As the load factor increases, so does  the stalling speed. For example, if an airplane stalls in level  flight at 50 knots, it will stall at 60 knots in a level altitude,  45° banked turn and at 70 knots in a level altitude, 60° banked  turn. Stalling speed increases at the square root of the load  factor. As the bank angle increases in level flight, the margin  between stalling speed and maneuvering speed decreases—an  important concept for a pilot to remain cognizant. In addition to the increased load factors, the airplane will  exhibit what is called “overbanking tendency.” Recall from a  previous chapter on the discussion of overbanking tendency.  In most flight maneuvers, bank angles are shallow enough  that the airplane exhibits positive or neutral stability about  the longitudinal axis; however, as bank angles steepen,  the airplane will exhibit the behavior to continue rolling  in the direction of the bank unless deliberate and opposite  aileron pressure is held against the bank. Also, pilots should  be mindful of the various left turning tendencies, such as  P-factor, which requires effective rudder aileron coordination.  Before starting any practice maneuver, the pilot must ensure  that the area is clear of air traffic and other hazards. Further,  distant references such as a mountain peak or road should be  chosen to allow the pilot to assess when to begin rollout from  the turn. After establishing the manufacturer’s recommended  entry speed or the design maneuvering speed, the airplane  should be smoothly rolled into the desired bank angle  somewhere between 45° to 60°. As the bank angle is being  established, generally prior to 30° of bank, elevator back  pressure should be smoothly applied to increase the AOA.  After the selected bank angle has been reached, the pilot will  find that considerable force is required on the elevator control  to hold the airplane in level flight—to maintain altitude.  Pilots should keep in mind that as the AOA increases, so  does drag. Consequently, power must be added to maintain  altitude and airspeed.  Steep turns can be conducted more easily by the use of  elevator trim and power as the maneuver is entered. In many  light general aviation airplanes, as the bank angle transitions  from medium to steep, increasing elevator up trim and adding  a small increase in engine power minimizes control pressure  requirements. Pilots must not forget to remove both the trim  and power inputs as the maneuver is completed. To maintain bank angle, altitude, as well as orientation,  requires an awareness of the relative position of the horizon  to the nose and the wings. The pilot who references the  aircraft’s attitude by observing only the nose will have  difficulty maintaining altitude. A pilot who observes both  the nose and the wings relative to the horizon is likely able  to maintain altitude within performance standards. Altitude  deviations are primary errors exhibited in the execution of  steep turns. If the altitude does increase or decrease, changing  elevator back pressure could be used to alter the altitude;  however, a more effective method is a slight increase or  decrease in bank angle to control small altitude deviations. If  altitude is decreasing, reducing the bank angle a few degrees  helps recover or stop the altitude loss trend; also, if altitude  is increasing, increasing the bank angle a few degrees helps  recover or stop the altitude increase trend—all bank angle  changes should be accomplished with coordinated use of  aileron and rudder. The rollout from the steep turn should be timed so that the  wings reach level flight when the airplane is on heading from  which the maneuver was started. A good rule of thumb is to  begin the rollout at ½ the number of degrees of bank prior  to reaching the terminating heading. For example, if a right  steep turn was begun on a heading of 270° and if the bank  angle is 60°, the pilot should begin the rollout 30° prior or at  a heading of 240°. While the rollout is being made, elevator  back pressure, trim, and power should be gradually reduced,  as necessary, to maintain the altitude and airspeed. Common errors when performing steep turns are: • Not clearing the area • Inadequate pitch control on entry or rollout • Gaining altitude or losing altitude • Failure to maintain constant bank angle • Poor flight control coordination • Ineffective use of trim 9-3