APPENDIX D$_{ }$ The surface roughness length, in meters, is a measure of the near-surface wind resistance.  For informational purposes,  Table D - 1  ( Surface Roughness Lengths (m) for Various Land  Uses ) provides typical surface roughness lengths for a variety of land uses. As shown, typical  values range from 0.0001 meters over water to 1.00 meters within an urban environment. A  typical airport environment has a surface roughness length of 0.10 meters.  The albedo is the fraction of total incident solar radiation reflected by the surface back to space  without absorption. Typical values range from 0.10 for thick deciduous forests to 0.90 for fresh  snow.  Table D - 2  ( Albedo for Various Land Uses ) provides typical albedo for a variety of land  uses. A typical airport environment has an albedo of 0.20.  Table D-1. Surface Roughness Lengths (m) for Various Land Uses  Table D-2. Albedo for Various Land Uses  Surface Type  Winter  Spring  Summer  Autumn  Water  0.0001  0.0001  0.0001  0.0001  Deciduous Forest  0.50  1.00  1.30  0.80  Coniferous Forest  1.30  1.30  1.30  1.30  Swamp  0.05  0.20  0.20  0.20  Cultivated Land  0.01  0.03  0.20  0.05  Grassland  0.001  0.05  0.10  0.01  Urban  1.00  1.00  1.00  1.00  Desert Scrubland  0.15  0.30  0.30  0.30  Source: EPA,  User’s Guide for the AERMOD Meteorological Preprocessor (AERMET) , November 2004,  http://www.epa.gov/ttn/scram/metobsdata_procaccprogs.htm#aermet .  Surface Type  Winter  Spring  Summer  Autumn  Water  0.20  0.12  0.10  0.14  Deciduous Forest  0.50  0.12  0.12  0.12  Coniferous Forest  0.35  0.12  0.12  0.12  Swamp  0.30  0.12  0.14  0.16  Cultivated Land  0.60  0.14  0.20  0.18  Grassland  0.60  0.18  0.18  0.20  79$_{ }$ important concept in urban meteorology as the building of tall structures, such as skyscrapers, has an effect on  roughness length and wind patterns  82 The Bowen ratio is used to describe the type of heat transfer in a water body. The Bowen ratio is the  mathematical method generally used to calculate heat lost (or gained) in a substance; it is the ratio of energy  fluxes from one state to another by sensible and latent heating respectively.  83 The ratio of reflected radiation from the surface to incident radiation upon it or reflecting power of a surface. 