5-16  Advantages  Problem-Based Learning  Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)  Training methods involving discussion encourage learners to listen to and learn from their instructor and each other. Open-ended  questions during guided discussion leads to concepts of risk management and ADM. The use of “What If?” during the discussion$_{ }$ calls for high order thinking skills and exposes the learner to the decision-making process.  From the description of guided discussion, it is obvious this method works well in a group situation, but it can be modified for an  interactive one-on-one learning situation.  [Figure 5-11]  In 1966, the McMaster University School of Medicine in Canada pioneered a new approach to teaching and curriculum design called  problem-based learning (PBL). In the intervening years, PBL has helped shift the focus of learning from an instructor-centered  approach to a learner-centered approach. There are many definitions for PBL, but this handbook defines it as a learning environment  where lessons involve learners with problems encountered in real life and that ask them to find real-world solutions.  PBL starts with a carefully constructed problem to which there is no single solution. The benefit of PBL lies in helping the learner  gain a deeper understanding of the information and in improving his or her ability to recall the information.  When presenting material as an authentic problem in a situated environment, the learner may “make meaning” of$_{ }$ the information  based on past experience and personal interpretation. This problem type encourages the development of HOTS, which include  cognitive processes such as problem solving and decision-making, as well as the cognitive skills of analysis, synthesis and evaluation.  Developing good problems that motivate, focus, and initiate learning are an important component of PBL. Effective problems:  To teach the cognitive skills needed in making decisions and judgments effectively, an instructor should incorporate analysis,  synthesis, and evaluation into lessons using PBL. HOTS should be taught throughout the curriculum from simple to complex and  from concrete to abstract.  6. Challenge learners to think critically.  5. Reflect lesson objective(s).  4. Are connected to previously learned knowledge as well as new knowledge.  3. Are open-ended and not limited to one correct answer.  2. Require learners to make decisions.  1. Relate to the real-world so learners want to solve them.  Figure 5-11.  As the learner grows in flight knowledge, he or she should be able to lead the postflight review while the instructor  guides the discussion with targeted questions. 