behavior of drivers, etc. Learning and evolution can be seen as a second order adaptation, since they imply a permanent change in a system. In other words, after learning or evolution, a system will respond in a different way to similar circumstances. Learning and evolution occur at different timescales: learning is a type of adaptation within a lifetime, while evolution is a type of adaptation across generations. Learning and evolving technologies are useful because they can adapt to novel circumstances. With these properties, the same system will be able to function in a broader range of situations. This increases the potential variety and complexity that the system can cope with [9, 12, 58]. A system can be said to be robust if it continues to function in the face of perturba- tions [130]. Robustness—also called resilience—is prevalent in living systems and desired in technology [128, 83], as it complements adaptation by allowing a system to “survive” changes in the environment before it can adapt to them. Robustness and adaptation are deeply inter- related, since they are different ways to cope with unpredictable environments. Robustness is passive (changes are resisted by the system), while adaptation is active (changes cause a reaction in the system). Robustness can be promoted by different properties [59], such as modularity [119, 131, 117, 30, 106], degeneracy [43, 46, 129, 134], and redundancy [65]. Autonomy [13, 98, 88] implies a certain independence of a system from its environment. Adaptation and robustness are requirements for autonomy, since they enable a system to withstand perturbations. Additionally, the autonomy of a system implies a certain degree of control over its own production [127, 94] and behavior [53]. Living systems have a high degree of autonomy. Technology has a tendency to become more and more autonomous of humans: from robots [21] to trading algorithms in stock markets [37]. This enables technology to respond to changes at faster rates. However, autonomous technology is also generating faster changes that affect other technologies. Self-repair and self-reproduction can be seen as particular cases of self-organization [63]. Almost any system can be said to be self-organizing [10]. However, it is useful to describe a 4