Fuel Gauges..............................................................7-26 Fuel Selectors ...........................................................7-26 Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains ...........................7-27 Fuel Grades...............................................................7-27 Fuel Contamination ..................................................7-27 Fuel System Icing.....................................................7-28 Prevention Procedures ..........................................7-28 Refueling Procedures ...................................................7-29 Heating System ............................................................7-29 Fuel Fired Heaters ....................................................7-29 Exhaust Heating Systems .........................................7-29 Combustion Heater Systems ....................................7-29 Bleed Air Heating Systems ......................................7-30 Electrical System .........................................................7-30 Hydraulic Systems .......................................................7-31 Landing Gear............................................................7-33 Tricycle Landing Gear..........................................7-33 Tailwheel Landing Gear .......................................7-33 Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear ....................7-34 Brakes.......................................................................7-34 Pressurized Aircraft .....................................................7-34 Oxygen Systems...........................................................7-37 Oxygen Masks..........................................................7-38 Cannula.....................................................................7-38 Pressure-Demand Oxygen Systems..........................7-38 Continuous-Flow Oxygen System ...........................7-38 Electrical Pulse-Demand Oxygen System................7-38 Pulse Oximeters........................................................7-39 Servicing of Oxygen Systems ..................................7-39 Anti-Ice and Deice Systems.........................................7-40 Airfoil Anti-Ice and Deice .......................................7-40 Windscreen Anti-Ice.................................................7-41 Propeller Anti-Ice .....................................................7-41 Other Anti-Ice and Deice Systems ...........................7-41 Chapter Summary ........................................................7-41 Flight Instruments ...............................................8-1 Introduction....................................................................8-1 Pitot-Static Flight Instruments .......................................8-1 Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines ..........................8-2 Static Pressure Chamber and Lines ............................8-2 Altimeter.....................................................................8-3 Principle of Operation.............................................8-3 Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature ..8-4 Setting the Altimeter...............................................8-5 Altimeter Operation ................................................8-6 Types of Altitude ....................................................8-6 Instrument Check....................................................8-7 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)...................................8-7 Fixed-Pitch Propeller ..............................................7-5 Adjustable-Pitch Propeller......................................7-6 Propeller Overspeed in Piston Engine Aircraft ......7-7 Induction Systems ......................................................7-7 Carburetor Systems ....................................................7-8 Mixture Control ......................................................7-9 Carburetor Icing......................................................7-9 Carburetor Heat ....................................................7-10 Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge......................7-11 Outside Air Temperature Gauge ..............................7-11 Fuel Injection Systems .............................................7-11 Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers.......................7-12 Superchargers ...........................................................7-12 Turbosuperchargers ..................................................7-13 System Operation..................................................7-14 High Altitude Performance...................................7-14 Ignition System ............................................................7-15 Oil Systems ..................................................................7-16 Engine Cooling Systems ..............................................7-17 Exhaust Systems ..........................................................7-18 Starting System ............................................................7-18 Combustion ..................................................................7-18 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) ........7-20 Turbine Engines ...........................................................7-20 Types of Turbine Engines ........................................7-20 Turbojet.................................................................7-20 Turboprop .............................................................7-21 Turbofan ...............................................................7-21 Turboshaft.............................................................7-21 Turbine Engine Instruments .....................................7-22 Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) ...............................7-22 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) ........................7-22 Torquemeter..........................................................7-22 N$_{1}$ Indicator...........................................................7-23 N$_{2}$ Indicator...........................................................7-23 Turbine Engine Operational Considerations ............7-23 Engine Temperature Limitations ..........................7-23 Thrust Variations ..................................................7-23 Foreign Object Damage (FOD) ............................7-23 Turbine Engine Hot/Hung Start............................7-23 Compressor Stalls .................................................7-23 Flameout ...............................................................7-24 Performance Comparison .........................................7-24 Airframe Systems ........................................................7-25 Fuel Systems ................................................................7-25 Gravity-Feed System ...............................................7-25 Fuel-Pump System ...................................................7-25 Fuel Primer ...............................................................7-25 Fuel Tanks ................................................................7-25 Chapter 8 x 