How Rare Are Extraterrestrial Civilizations and When Did They Emerge?
  It is shown that, contrary to an existing claim, the near equality between the lifetime of the sun and the timescale of biological evolution on earth does not necessarily imply that extraterrestrial civilizations are exceedingly rare. Furthermore, on the basis of simple assumptions it is demonstrated that a near equality between these two timescales may be the most probable relation. A calculation of the cosmic history of carbon production which is based on the recently determined history of the star formation rate suggests that the most likely time for intelligent civilizations to emerge in the universe, was when the universe was already older then about 10 billion years (for an assumed current age of about 13 billion years). 
Mario Livio (Space Telescope Science Institute, 3700 San Martin Drive,   Baltimore, MD 21218, USA)