Energy dependence on fractional charge for strongly interacting   subsystems
  The energies of a pair of strongly-interacting subsystems with arbitrary noninteger charges are examined from closed and open system perspectives. An ensemble representation of the charge dependence is derived, valid at all interaction strengths. Transforming from resonance-state ionicity to ensemble charge dependence imposes physical constraints on the occupation numbers in the strong-interaction limit. For open systems, the chemical potential is evaluated using microscopic and thermodynamic models, leading to a novel correlation between ground-state charge and an electronic temperature. 
Steven M. Valone (1 and 2) and Susan R. Atlas (2 and 3) ((1) Materials   Science and Technology Division, Los Alamos Nationa...