Light Propagation in Inhomogeneous Universes. IV. Strong Lensing and   Environmental Effects
  We study the gravitational lensing of high-redshift sources in a LCDM universe. We have performed a series of ray-tracing experiments, and selected a subsample of cases of strong lensing (multiple images, arcs, and Einstein rings). For each case, we identify a massive galaxy that is primarily responsible for lensing, and studied how the various density inhomogeneities along the line of sight (other galaxies, background matter) affect the properties of the image. The matter located near the lensing galaxy, and physically associated with it, has a small effect. The background matter increases the magnification by a few percents at most, while nearby galaxies can increase it by up to about 10 percent. The effect on the image separation is even smaller. The only significant effect results from the random alignment of physically unassociated galaxies, which can increase the magnification by factors of several, create additional images, and turn arcs into rings. We conclude that the effect of environment on strong lensing in negligible in general, and might be important only in rare cases. We show that our conclusion does not depend on the radial density profile of the galaxies responsible for lensing. 
Premana Premadi (Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia) and Hugo   Martel (Universite Laval, Canada)