Outcome orientation - a misconception of probability that harms medical   research and practice
  Human understanding of randomness and variation is shaped by a number of cognitive biases. Here we relate a lesser-known cognitive bias, the "outcome orientation", to medical questions and describe the harm that the outcome orientation can do to medical research and practice. People who reason according to an outcome orientation interpret probability as a subjective degree of belief that is constrained to consider events one at a time, in a way that is incompatible with Bayesian reasoning. Instead of accepting that uncertainty is inevitable, and generalizing from the frequency of similar events, the outcome orientation prefers one-off causal narratives. In medicine, the outcome orientation therefore erodes support for randomized controlled trials in favor of reductionist approaches. The rhetoric of personalized medicine resonates with, and can promote, the outcome orientation, by emphasizing how the measurable attributes of individual patients, rather than chance or unknowable factors, causally produce each particular patient's outcome. 
Parris Taylor Humphrey, Joanna Masel
physics.ed-ph