The Observable Signatures of GRB Cocoons
  As a long GRB jet propagates within the surrounding stellar atmosphere it creates a cocoon composed of an outer Newtonian shocked stellar material and an inner (possibly relativistic) shocked jet material. The jet deposits $10^{51}-10^{52}$ erg into this cocoon. This energy is comparable to the GRB's energy and to the energy of the accompanying supernova, yet its signature has been largely neglected so far. A fraction of the cocoon energy is released during its expansion following the breakout from the star and later as it interacts with the surrounding matter. We explore here the possible signatures of the cocoon emission and outline a framework to calculate them from the conditions of the cocoon at the time of the jet breakout. We show that the cocoon signature depends strongly on the level of mixing between the shocked jet and shocked stellar material that fills it, which is currently unknown. We find that if there is no mixing at all then the $\gamma$-ray emission from the cocoon is so bright that it should have been already detected, and the lack of such detections indicates that mixing at some level must take place. We calculate also the expected signal for partial and full mixing. While the typical signals are weaker than GRBs' afterglows, the latter are highly beamed while the former have wide angles. We predict that future optical, UV and X-ray transient searches, like LSST, ZTF, ULTRASAT, ISS-Lobster and others will most likely detect such signals, providing a wealth of information on the progenitors and jets of GRBs. While we focus on long GRBs, we note that analogous (but weaker) cocoons may arise in short GRBs as well. Their signatures might be the most promising electromagnetic counterparts for gravitational waves merger's signals. 
Ehud Nakar and Tsvi Piran
astro-ph.HE