Instruct: Given a question, retrieve documents that answer the question.
Query: Where did Richard Siegmund Lindzen study physics?
Richard Siegmund Lindzen (born February 8, 1940) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere, atmospheric tides, and ozone photochemistry. He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books. From 1983 until his retirement in 2013, he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was a lead author of Chapter 7, "Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks," of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Third Assessment Report on climate change. He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change and what he has called "climate alarmism."
Siegmund Lubin was born as Zygmunt Lubszyński, a son of Samuel Lubszyński and Rebeka Lubszyńska, Polish Jews, in Breslau, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland) or in Poznań on April 20, 1851. His father was a successful ophthalmologist. the Lubszyński family moved to Berlin soon after Zygmunt birth for economical reasons. Young Zygmunt changed his first name to "Siegmund" and graduated from University of Heidelberg. In 1876 he emigrated to the United States, where he also worked as an optometrist in Philadelphia. Around 1881, he changed his surname from "Lubszyński" to "Lubin".
In Europe, early footballs were made out of animal bladders, more specifically pig's bladders, which were inflated. Later leather coverings were introduced to allow the balls to keep their shape. However, in 1851, Richard Lindon and William Gilbert, both shoemakers from the town of Rugby (near the school), exhibited both round and oval-shaped balls at the Great Exhibition in London. Richard Lindon's wife is said to have died of lung disease caused by blowing up pig's bladders. Lindon also won medals for the invention of the "Rubber inflatable Bladder" and the "Brass Hand Pump".
Lindburgh's flight was not the first transatlantic flight; [[Transatlantic flight of Alcock and Brown|John (Jack) Alcock and Arthur Brown achieved that]] goal in 1919, traveling from [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]], [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Newfoundland]], to [[Clifden]], [[County Galway]], Ireland, in response one of the [[Daily Mail aviation prizes|"Daily Mail" aviation prizes]]. Lindbergh's flight, almost twice the distance, was, however, the first solo, non-stop [[transatlantic flight]], and one made between two major cities, and by a man barely 25 years of age. Lindbergh was an officer in the [[United States Army Reserve|U.S. Army Air Corps Reserve]], and he received the United States' highest military decoration, the [[Medal of Honor]], for the feat, and many other awards and other forms of recognition from many countries. Lindbergh's achievement spurred interest in both commercial aviation and air mail, and he devoted much time and effort to promoting such activity.
Prior to opening Linnwood as a domestic science training school for female state wards, repairs were required, including renovation of the portable classrooms. Painting and repairs were required to the rooms of Linnwood, and heating needed to be installed. Converted in 1939 from the Truant school to a "residential domestic science school for female wards", Linnwood was home to 58 girls, from 12 to 15 years of age. The selection of residents was based upon those who were "unable to settle down in foster homes, or for other reasons are considered more suitable for the hostel type of life" at Linnwood. The 1961 Annual Report says that Linnwood included a school with a curriculum adapted to the "varying mental abilities and ages" of the girls. "Cooking, needlework and home management" were central to the curriculum, plus "special courses". The report notes that many girls passed public service and nursing examinations, and many were placed in "clerical position". The report also notes that the girls were taken on excursions outside the home, including to the theatre, movies, exhibitions, and picnics. Other activities included "ballet, drama and choral work and such handicrafts as embroidery, needlecraft and flower arrangement." Sporting activities included basketball, softball and swimming. The playing fields were located on the expanse of land to the front of the house (Oral History). The girls also had their own Girl Guides troop, and on at least one occasion hiked to Prospect (Oral History).
Notable German physicists before the 20th century include Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, among others. Albert Einstein introduced the special relativity and general relativity theories for light and gravity in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Along with Max Planck, he was instrumental in the introduction of quantum mechanics, in which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born later made major contributions. Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays. Otto Hahn was a pioneer in the fields of radiochemistry and discovered nuclear fission, while Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were founders of microbiology. Numerous mathematicians were born in Germany, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert, Bernhard Riemann, Gottfried Leibniz, Karl Weierstrass, Hermann Weyl, Felix Klein and Emmy Noether.
Leiden University (abbreviated as LEI; ), founded in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, leader of the Dutch Revolt in the Eighty Years' War. The Dutch Royal Family and Leiden University have a close association: Queen Juliana, Queen Beatrix and King Willem-Alexander are former students. The university came into particular prominence during the Dutch Golden Age, when scholars from around Europe were attracted to the Dutch Republic due to its climate of intellectual tolerance and Leiden's international reputation. During this time Leiden was home to such figures as René Descartes, Rembrandt, Christiaan Huygens, Hugo Grotius, Baruch Spinoza and Baron d'Holbach.
Another electrical phenomenon that greatly influenced Loomis' theories was the "aurora borealis" or "Northern Lights". As early as 1839 the German mathematician and physicist Carl Friedrich Gauss had correctly speculated that its luminescence was originating in an electrically conducting region of the upper atmosphere, which later became known as ionosphere. Loomis was familiar with the solar storm of 1859, which in addition to a major aurora display produced widespread surging electrical currents which disrupted telegraph lines. However, at this time the exact height of the phenomenon was uncertain. Although it is now known to be located hundreds of kilometers above sea level, Loomis believed it was actually only a few kilometers above the Earth's surface, thus well within the range of the highest mountain summits.
A university city since 1575, Leiden has been one of Europe's most prominent scientific centres for more than four centuries. Leiden is a typical university city, university buildings are scattered throughout the city and the many students from all over the world give the city a bustling, vivid and international atmosphere. Many important scientific discoveries have been made here, giving rise to Leiden’s motto: ‘City of Discoveries’. The city houses Leiden University, the oldest university of the Netherlands, and Leiden University Medical Center. Leiden University is one of Europe’s top universities, with thirteen Nobel Prize winners. It is a member of the League of European Research Universities and positioned highly in all international academic rankings. It is twinned with Oxford, the location of the United Kingdom's oldest university. Leiden University and Leiden University of Applied Sciences (Leidse Hogeschool) together have around 35,000 students. Modern scientific medical research and teaching started in the early 18th century in Leiden with Boerhaave.
Reginald A. Fessenden was born Quebec in 1866, and entered Bishop's University as a precocious young mathematical prodigy, but left in 1884 without graduating. In 1886, he took a position at the Edison Machine Works, working for inventor Thomas Edison. During an academic period teaching at Purdue University and at the University of Pittsburgh, Fessenden engaged in research on the nascent subject of wireless telegraphy. Much of the rest of his life he was employed in industry, either directly or as a consultant, but was often living near poverty, and produced a stream of inventions. In 1904 he invented the rotary spark-gap transmitter, and in 1906 he built a large transmitter in Massachusetts from which he successfully made a voice transmission. He also discovered the means to recombine separate frequencies to form a coherent audible sound. At his death he was described by inventor and businessman Elihu Thomson as "the greatest wireless inventor of the age, greater than Marconi."
She was named in honor of Reginald Aubrey Fessenden, born in Brome County, Quebec, Canada, 6 October 1866. He served as head chemist with Thomas Edison's East Orange, New Jersey, laboratories. In 1890 he began concentrating on electrical engineering, and through the next years made many important inventions and improvements in existing devices. His great contributions in the field of radio (particularly the invention of radio-telephony were of marked benefit not only to the Navy but to all seamen. He died 22 July 1932, at his home on Bermuda.
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (; ; 16 August 1832 – 31 August 1920) was a German physician, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. Wundt, who noted psychology as a science apart from philosophy and biology, was the first person ever to call himself a psychologist. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology". In 1879, Wundt founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig. This marked psychology as an independent field of study. By creating this laboratory he was able to establish psychology as a separate science from other disciplines. He also formed the first academic journal for psychological research, "Philosophische Studien" (from 1881 to 1902), set up to publish the Institute's research.
The Social Democratic Party of Lithuania (LSDP) was founded on 1 May 1896 at a secret congress held in an apartment in Vilnius. Among the 13 delegates were Andrius Domaševičius and Alfonsas Moravskis — a pair of intellectuals regarded as the central organizers of the new political entity — and the future President of Lithuania, Kazys Grinius, as well as a number of worker activists. Also in attendance as a representative of the radical youth movement was an 18-year-old ethnic Pole named Felix Dzerzhinsky, later the head of the Soviet secret police. As Lithuania was then part of the Russian Empire, the LSDP was inevitably an illegal organization, meeting in secret and seeking to bring about the revolutionary overthrow of the Tsarist regime.
Also in 1984, a research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI; "Institute for Heavy Ion Research") in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany, attempted to create element 108. The team bombarded a target of lead with accelerated nuclei of iron. They reported synthesis of 3 atoms of 108.
Licinio was previously an assistant professor of psychiatry at Yale University, then he was a Unit Chief within the Clinical Neurodocrinology Branch of the National Institute of Mental Health NIH Intramural Research Program (1993–1999), and later was professor of psychiatry and medicine/endocrinology at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA from 1999 until 2006, where he had multiple roles, such as Founding Director of three NIH funded programs: the Interdepartmental Center on Clinical Pharmacology, the Graduate Training in Translational and Clinical Investigation and the Mentored Clinical Pharmacology Scholars Program; he also co-directed the UCLA Center for Pharmacogenomics, was Associate Program Director of the UCLA General Clinical Research Center, and Vice-Chair of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences. In 2006 he was appointed the Miller Professor of Psychiatry, Chairman of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences and subsequently Associate Dean for project development, responsible for starting the Clinical and Translational Science Institute at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, where he worked until 2009, when he moved to Australia as Director of the John Curtin School of Medical Research.
Linnwood is an heritage-listed former residence, school, local history museum and children's home and now historical society located at 11-35 Byron Road, Guildford in the Cumberland Council local government area of New South Wales, Australia. It was designed and built by George McCredie during 1891. It is also known as Linwood Hall, Lynwood Hall and Guildford Truant School. The property is owned by the Cumberland Council and the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 21 February 2003.
His three sons were born, grew up and studied in Germany before they emigrated to Palestine. He inspired them to study sciences: Ernst Steinitz (1907-1980), was an internist in the private sector; Heinz Steinitz (1909-1971) was a professor of zoology and marine biology in the Department of Zoology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; and Gideon Steinitz (1911-1975) was a mathematician in his academic education, became a meteorologist in Palestine and eventually was head of the Israel Meteorology Service.
Licinio lived in the United States for 25 years (1984–2009), but originally received his MD from the Federal University of Bahia in 1982, and completed his residency in internal medicine at the University of São Paulo from 1982 to 1984. He then moved to the United States and completed training in endocrinology at The University of Chicago, and psychiatry at Albert Einstein in the Bronx as well as at Weill Cornell Medical College. Licinio is registered as a specialist in psychiatry by the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency. He is board certified in psychiatry by the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology and he is a Fellow of the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists, the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences (elected 2015), the American Psychiatric Association, and the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology.
The same decade, Romas conducted the kite experiment that Benjamin Franklin proposed in 1750 in a letter to Peter Collinson, but that had not yet reached France. Raising a wire-wrapped kite in a thunderstorm, Romas proved the electrical nature of lightning. During his experiment, he noticed ten feet long sparks and explosions. He also reported that during a repeat performance in front of a larger audience, he received severe jolts that were more intense than all he received before during experiments with Leyden jars. For this reason, he performed later experiments only with separately grounded conductors and kites that he handled via glass rods.
Julio Licinio is currently Senior Vice President for Academic and Health Affairs, as well as Executive Dean, Dean of the College of Medicine, and Professor in Departments of Psychiatry, Pharmacology, and Medicine at State University of New York Upstate Medical University in Syracuse, New York. He was formerly deputy director (Translation Strategy and Process) at the South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, where he was head of the Mind & Brain Theme. He was simultaneously Matthew Flinders Distinguished Professor of Psychiatry at Flinders University in Adelaide, clinical professor of psychiatry at the University of New Mexico School of Medicine in Albuquerque, adjunct professor of psychiatry at the UT (University of Texas) Health Science Center at Houston, and visiting professor of psychiatry, University of Minho in Braga. He is the former director of the John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University (from 2009 to 2013), where he founded the John Curtin Medical Research Foundation. Licinio is the founding and current chief editor of three journals from Springer Nature, namely "Molecular Psychiatry", "Translational Psychiatry", and "The Pharmacogenomics Journal".
In January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany and it quickly became unsafe for Jewish scientists to remain in the country. Leó Szilárd fled to London where he proposed, and in 1934 patented, the idea of a nuclear chain reaction via neutrons. The patent also introduced the term critical mass to describe the minimum amount of material required to sustain the chain reaction and its potential to cause an explosion. (British patent 630,726.) He subsequently assigned the patent to the British Admiralty so that it could be covered by the Official Secrets Act. In a very real sense, Szilárd was the father of the atomic bomb academically.
Also in 1934, Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie discovered that artificial radioactivity could be induced in stable elements by bombarding them with alpha particles; Enrico Fermi reported similar results when bombarding uranium with neutrons.
His PhD thesis of 1964 concerned the interactions of ozone photochemistry, radiative transfer and the dynamics of the middle atmosphere. This formed the basis of his seminal "Radiative and Photochemical Processes in Mesospheric Dynamics" that was published in four parts in the "Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences" between 1965 and 1966. The first of these, "Part I: Models for Radiative and Photochemical Processes", was co-authored with his Harvard colleague and former PhD thesis advisor, Richard M. Goody, who is well known for his 1964 textbook "Atmospheric Radiation". The Lindzen and Goody (1965) study has been widely cited as foundational in the exact modeling of middle atmosphere ozone photochemistry. This work was extended in 1973 to include the effects of nitrogen and hydrogen reactions with his former PhD student, Donna Blake, in "Effect of photochemical models on calculated equilibria and cooling rates in the stratosphere".
In 2017, Lindzen has sent a petition to President Trump, asking the President to withdraw the United States from the United Nations Convention on Climate Change. The petition contains the names of "around 300 eminent scientists and other qualified individuals" and calls on the United States and other nations to “change course on an outdated international agreement that targets minor greenhouse gases,” starting with carbon dioxide. It receives considerable media coverage and 22 then current or retired MIT professors promptly issued an open letter addressed to Trump informing him that Lindzen’s petition doesn’t represent their views or those of the vast majority of other climate scientists. Lindzen and his supporting signers then published another rebuttal letter in response.
Lindzen's work on atmospheric tides led him to the study of planetary waves and the general circulation of atmospheres. By 1967, he had contributed a number of papers on the theory of waves in the middle atmosphere. In "Planetary waves on beta planes", he developed a beta plane approximation for simplifying the equations of classical tidal theory, whilst at the same time developing planetary wave relations. He noticed from his equations that eastward-traveling waves (known as "Rossby waves" since their discovery in 1939 by Carl-Gustav Rossby) and westward-traveling waves (which Lindzen himself helped in establishing as "atmospheric Kelvin waves") with periods less than five days were "vertically trapped." At the same time, an important paper by Booker and Bretherton appeared, which Lindzen read with great interest. Booker and Bretherton showed that vertically propagating gravity waves were completely absorbed at a critical level.
Nevertheless, the predictions of classical tidal theory still did not agree with observations. It was Lindzen, in his 1966 paper, "On the theory of the diurnal tide", who showed that the solution set of Hough functions given by Bernhard Haurwitz to Laplace's tidal equation was incomplete: modes with negative equivalent depths had been omitted. Lindzen went on to calculate the thermal response of the diurnal tide to ozone and water vapor absorption in detail and showed that when his theoretical developments were included, the surface pressure oscillation was predicted with approximately the magnitude and phase observed, as were most of the features of the diurnal wind oscillations in the mesosphere. In 1967, along with his NCAR colleague, Douglas D. McKenzie, Lindzen extended the theory to include a term for Newtonian cooling due to emission of infrared radiation by carbon dioxide in the stratosphere along with ozone photochemical processes, and then in 1968 he showed that the theory also predicted that the semi-diurnal oscillation would be insensitive to variations in the temperature profile, which is why it is observed so much more strongly and regularly at the surface.