Instruct: Given a question, retrieve passages that can help answer the question.
Query: Where did the word schizophrenia come from?
The word "schizophrenia"—which translates roughly as "splitting of the mind" and comes from the Greek roots "schizein" (σχίζειν, "to split") and "phrēn", "phren-" (φρήν, φρεν-, "mind")—was coined by Eugen Bleuler in 1908 and was intended to describe the separation of function between personality, thinking, memory, and perception. Bleuler described the main symptoms as four "A"'s: flattened "Affect", "Autism", impaired "Association" of ideas and "Ambivalence". Bleuler realized that the illness was not a dementia as some of his patients improved rather than deteriorated and hence proposed the term "schizophrenia" instead. However, many at the time did not accept that splitting or dissociation was an appropriate description, and the term would later have more significance as a source of confusion and social stigma than scientific meaning.
People with schizophrenia often have additional mental health problems such as anxiety, depressive, or substance-use disorders. Schizophrenia occurs along with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) considerably more often than could be explained by chance. An estimated 21% to 47% of patients with schizophrenia have a substance misuse disorder at some time in their life, and the chances of developing a substance misuse disorder is significantly higher among patients suffering from a psychotic illness. All of these factors result in an increased range of clinical presentations and suggest a significant etiological heterogeneity.
A 2005 review of prior surveys in 46 countries on the prevalence of schizophrenic disorders, including a prior 10-country WHO survey, found an average (median) figure of 0.4% for lifetime prevalence up to the point of assessment and 0.3% in the 12-month period prior to assessment. A related figure not given in other studies (known as lifetime morbid risk), reported to be an accurate statement of how many people would theoretically develop schizophrenia at any point in life regardless of time of assessment, was found to be "about seven to eight individuals per 1,000" (0.7/0.8%). The prevalence of schizophrenia was consistently lower in poorer countries than in richer countries (though not the incidence), but the prevalence did not differ between urban/rural areas or men/women (although incidence did).
Dopamine is one of the chemicals that carries messages between brain cells. There is evidence that too much dopamine may be involved in the development of schizophrenia, but it’s still not clear how, or whether everyone diagnosed with schizophrenia has too much dopamine. Neuroleptic drugs (antipsychotics), which are sometimes used to treat schizophrenia, target the dopamine system.
Family studies on schizophrenia were reviewed. That the disorder runs in families did not suggest it was genetically inherited, since cultural transmission occurs from parents to children. Twin and adoption studies were presented as the standard methods to disentangle contributions from genes and the environment. Gottesman used a computer-based method for calculating the odds of becoming schizophrenic based on the many causes. The book examines the problems caused by schizophrenia for relatives of patients and for society at large, larger-scale ones exemplified by the eugenics policies of states such as Nazi Germany. Two final chapters cover molecular biology and neuroanatomy briefly. Newer methods of behavioral genetics being researched at the time of publication, such as linkage analysis which used the likelihood of neighboring genes being inherited together, were not covered.
During the World War I era, Southard conducted early studies of shell shock. He believed that shell shock resulted from the mind's inability to align the sensory experiences of war with other life events. Southard said that this process, which could also have physical causes, resulted in disorientation and transformed the events of war into a mental condition. In "Shell Shock and Other Neuropsychiatric Problems", he called the term "shell shock" advantageous because it "compared with the more acutely terrible and life-in-the-balance thing we know as traumatic or surgical shock." The condition initially captured public interest, at least in part because it was thought to result from a traumatic force to the head. When shell shock became known as not resulting from physical injuries, patients were stigmatized and arguments over its cause interfered with effective treatment.
In 2000, the World Health Organization found the percentage of people affected and the number of new cases that develop each year is roughly similar around the world, with age-standardized prevalence per 100,000 ranging from 343 in Africa to 544 in Japan and Oceania for men, and from 378 in Africa to 527 in Southeastern Europe for women. About 1.1% of adults have schizophrenia in the United States.
The symptoms that occur after a concussion have been described in various reports and writings for hundreds of years. The idea that this set of symptoms forms a distinct entity began to attain greater recognition in the latter part of the 19th century. John Erichsen, a surgeon from London, played an important role in developing the study of PCS. The controversy surrounding the cause of PCS began in 1866 when Erichsen published a paper about persisting symptoms after sustaining mild head trauma. He suggested that the condition was due to "molecular disarrangement" to the spine. The condition was originally called "railroad spine" because most of the injuries studied had happened to railroad workers. While some of his contemporaries agreed that the syndrome had an organic basis, others attributed the symptoms to psychological factors or to outright feigning. In 1879, the idea that a physical problem was responsible for the symptoms was challenged by Rigler, who suggested that the cause of the persisting symptoms was actually "compensation neurosis": the railroad's practice of compensating workers who had been injured was bringing about the complaints. Later, the idea that hysteria was responsible for the symptoms after a mild head injury was suggested by Charcot. Controversy about the syndrome continued through the 20th century. During World War I many soldiers suffered from puzzling symptoms after being close to a detonation but without any evidence of a head wound. The illness was called "shell shock," and a psychological explanation was eventually favoured. By 1934 the current concept of PCS had replaced ideas of hysteria as the cause of post-concussion symptoms. British authorities banned the term "shell shock" during World War II to avoid an epidemic of cases, and the term "posttrauma concussion state" was coined in 1939 to describe "disturbance of consciousness with no immediate or obvious pathologic change in the brain". The term "postconcussion syndrome" was in use by 1941.
A mild form of hallucination is known as a "disturbance", and can occur in most of the senses above. These may be things like seeing movement in peripheral vision, or hearing faint noises or voices. Auditory hallucinations are very common in schizophrenia. They may be benevolent (telling the subject good things about themselves) or malicious, cursing the subject, etc. Auditory hallucinations of the malicious type are frequently heard, for example people talking about the subject behind their back. Like auditory hallucinations, the source of the visual counterpart can also be behind the subject's back. Their visual counterpart is the feeling of being looked or stared at, usually with malicious intent. Frequently, auditory hallucinations and their visual counterpart are experienced by the subject together.
The origins of the word "scarlet" have been debated quite extensively and are crucial to understanding what scarlet actually was in the Middle Ages. The word certainly came to English from Old French "escarlate", which is one of a wide range of similar words in the Romance languages such as Provençal "escarlat", Spanish and Portuguese "escarlate", Italian "scarlatto", and medieval Latin "scarlat(t)um". The origin of this romance word, however, has been more widely debated. For a long time the origin was thought to be a Persian word which takes forms like "saqalāt", "siqalāt", or "suqlāt". However, the romance word is now thought to come from Arabic "siklāt" (later "siklātūn"), denoting very expensive, luxury silks dyed scarlet-red using the exceptionally expensive dye kermes. Arabic "siklāt" is first attested around the ninth century, and now thought also to be the origin of the Persian word, which is first attested around the 1290s. The origin of the word "siklāt" is itself uncertain and may come from the Late Roman term "sigillatus" (Latin)/"σιγιλλατον" (Greek), denoting a kind of cloth decorated with seal-like patterns (from Latin "sigillum" 'seal'). The word then came to be used of woollen cloth dyed with the same dye. The most obvious route for the Arabic word "siklāt" to have entered the Romance languages would be via the Arabic-speaking Iberian region of Al-Andalus, particularly Almería, where kermes was produced extensively.
Auditory hallucinations, particularly experiences of hearing voices, are the most common and often prominent feature of psychosis. 
Up to 15% of the general population may experience auditory hallucinations. The prevalence in schizophrenia is generally put around 70%, but may go as high as 98%. During the early 20th century auditory hallucinations were second to visual hallucinations in frequency, but they are now the most common manifestation of schizophrenia, although rates vary throughout cultures and regions. Auditory hallucinations are most commonly intelligible voices. When voices are present, the average number has been estimated at three. Content, like frequency, differs significantly, especially across cultures and demographics. People who experience auditory hallucinations can frequently identify the loudness, location of origin, and may settle on identities for voices. Western cultures are associated with auditory experiences concerning religious content, frequently related to sin. Hallucinations may command a person to do something which may be dangerous when combined with delusions.
Visual hallucinations occur in roughly a third of people with schizophrenia, although rates as high as 55% are reported. Content frequently involves animate objects, although perceptual abnormalities such as changes in lighting, shading, streaks, or lines may be seen. Visual abnormalities may conflict with proprioceptive information, and visions may include experiences such as the ground tilting. Lilliputian hallucinations are less common in schizophrenia, and occur more frequently in various types of encephalopathy (e.g. Peduncular hallucinosis).
Hallucinations of pain and touch are very rare in schizophrenic disorders but 20% of patients with schizophrenia experience some sort of tactile hallucinations along with visual and auditory hallucinations. The most common tactile hallucination in patients with schizophrenia is a sensation in which a patch of their skin is stretched elastically across their head. They vary in intensity, range and speed at which they feel this stretching painful sensation. They are usually triggered by emotional cues such as guilt, anger, fear and depression. Other types of tactile hallucinations takes on a sexual form in patients with schizophrenia. Patients with schizophrenia may sometimes experience the feeling of being kissed or the feeling of someone lying by their side in response to their emotion of being lonely. Additionally, they occasionally hallucinate the feeling of small animals such as snakes crawling over their body. Such vivid tactile sensation of an object that is not present results from the unsuccessful attempt of the brain trying to perceive objects that are novel and that represent unreal situations usually triggered by guilt and fear. Patients with schizophrenia also have a hard time portraying emotions as they divert most of their energy to control the pain from their tactile hallucinations.
The term "shell shock" came into use to reflect an assumed link between the symptoms and the effects of explosions from artillery shells. The term was first published in 1915 in an article in "The Lancet" by Charles Myers. Some 60–80% of shell shock cases displayed acute neurasthenia, while 10% displayed what would now be termed symptoms of conversion disorder, including mutism and fugue.
The disorder presents symptoms such as auditory and visual hallucinations, strange thoughts or feelings, and abnormal behavior, profoundly impacting the child's ability to function and sustain normal interpersonal relationships. Delusions are often not systematized and vague. Among the actual psychotic symptoms seen in childhood schizophrenia auditory hallucinations are the most common. They are often presented in relatively simple form of akoasms (auditory hallucinations, such as noise, shots, knocks, etc.). Many of these children also have symptoms of irritability, searching for imaginary objects, or low performance. It typically presents after the age of seven. About 50% of young children diagnosed with schizophrenia experience severe neuropsychiatric symptoms. Studies have demonstrated that diagnostic criteria are similar to those of adult schizophrenia. Diagnosis is based on behavior observed by caretakers and, in some cases depending on age, self reports. Less than 5% of people with schizophrenia see their first symptoms before age 18.
The name scrapie is derived from one of the clinical signs of the condition, wherein affected animals will compulsively scrape off their fleeces against rocks, trees, or fences. The disease apparently causes an itching sensation in the animals. Other clinical signs include excessive lip smacking, altered gaits, and convulsive collapse.
In support of the above mentioned conclusions many studies have been performed. Doctors Lindamer, Lohr, Harris, and Jeste conducted a study to determine age of onset of schizophrenia in which they examined gender differences in 194 patients ranging in age from 35 to 97. They found that the mean age for onset in men was 30, while in women it was 39. (It is important to note that this is just one study, and overall averages come from a combination of different studies). About 37% of the women developed schizophrenia at the age of 45, while only 16% of men reported the same. Thus, more women than men experience late onset schizophrenia. This indicates that there is indeed another peak for women at the age of 45 and women do develop schizophrenia later in life.
During the War, the concept of shell shock was ill-defined. Cases of "shell shock" could be interpreted as either a physical or psychological injury, or simply as a lack of moral fibre. The term "shell shock" is still used by the Veterans Administration to describe certain parts of PTSD, but mostly it has entered into popular imagination and memory, and it is often identified as the signature injury of the War.
Command hallucinations are hallucinations in the form of commands; they can be auditory or inside of the person's mind or consciousness. The contents of the hallucinations can range from the innocuous to commands to cause harm to the self or others. Command hallucinations are often associated with schizophrenia. People experiencing command hallucinations may or may not comply with the hallucinated commands, depending on the circumstances. Compliance is more common for non-violent commands.
Another typical disorder where auditory hallucinations are very common is dissociative identity disorder. In schizophrenia voices are normally perceived coming from outside the person but in dissociative disorders they are perceived as originating from within the person, commenting in their head instead of behind their back. Differential diagnosis between schizophrenia and dissociative disorders is challenging due to many overlapping symptoms, especially Schneiderian first rank symptoms such as hallucinations. However, many people not suffering from diagnosable mental illness may sometimes hear voices as well. One important example to consider when forming a differential diagnosis for a patient with paracusia is lateral temporal lobe epilepsy. Despite the tendency to associate hearing voices, or otherwise hallucinating, and psychosis with schizophrenia or other psychiatric illnesses, it is crucial to take into consideration that, even if a person does exhibit psychotic features, he/she does not necessarily suffer from a psychiatric disorder on its own. Disorders such as Wilson's disease, various endocrine diseases, numerous metabolic disturbances, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, porphyria, sarcoidosis, and many others can present with psychosis.
The majority of the vocabulary is of Indo-Aryan origin but there are a number of loanwords from other languages. Welsh loanwords include "melanō" ("yellow", from "melyn"), "grīga" ("heather", from "grug") and "kraŋka" ("crab", from "cranc"). There are also English loanwords such as "vlija" ("village"), "spīdra" ("spider") and "bråmla" ("bramble"). Historically the variants of Welsh and English Romani of the Romanichal, constituted the same variant of Romani, share characteristics and are historically closely related to dialects spoken in France, Germany (Sinti), Scandinavia, Spain, Poland, North Russia and the Baltic states. Such dialects are descended from the first wave of Romani immigrants into western, northern and southern Europe in the late Middle Ages.
The history of schizophrenia is complex and does not lend itself easily to a linear narrative. Accounts of a schizophrenia-like syndrome are thought to be rare in historical records before the 19th century, although reports of irrational, unintelligible, or uncontrolled behavior were common. A detailed case report in 1797 concerning James Tilly Matthews, and accounts by Philippe Pinel published in 1809, are often regarded as the earliest cases of the illness in the medical and psychiatric literature. The Latinized term "dementia praecox" was first used by German alienist Heinrich Schule in 1886 and then in 1891 by Arnold Pick in a case report of a psychotic disorder (hebephrenia). In 1893 Emil Kraepelin borrowed the term from Schule and Pick and in 1899 introduced a broad new distinction in the classification of mental disorders between "dementia praecox" and mood disorder (termed manic depression and including both unipolar and bipolar depression). Kraepelin believed that "dementia praecox" was probably caused by a long-term, smouldering systemic or "whole body" disease process that affected many organs and peripheral nerves in the body but which affected the brain after puberty in a final decisive cascade. His use of the term "praecox" distinguished it from other forms of dementia such as Alzheimer's disease which typically occur later in life. It is sometimes argued that the use of the term "démence précoce" in 1852 by the French physician Bénédict Morel constitutes the medical discovery of schizophrenia. This account ignores the fact that there is little to connect Morel's descriptive use of the term and the independent development of the "dementia praecox" disease concept at the end of the nineteenth century.
The word "schizophrenia"—which translates roughly as "splitting of the mind" and comes from the Greek roots "schizein" (σχίζειν, "to split") and "phrēn", "phren-" (φρήν, φρεν-, "mind")—was coined by Eugen Bleuler in 1908 and was intended to describe the separation of function between personality, thinking, memory, and perception. American and British interpretations of Bleuler led to the claim that he described its main symptoms as four "A"s: flattened "affect", "autism", impaired "association" of ideas, and "ambivalence". Bleuler realized that the illness was "not" a dementia, as some of his patients improved rather than deteriorated, and thus proposed the term schizophrenia instead. Treatment was revolutionized in the mid-1950s with the development and introduction of chlorpromazine.
"From the perspective of linguistics we see that the reified categories (e.g. mental illness, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder) are abstractions defined by clusters of what we call “symptoms.” Schizophrenia is defined as the presence of audio hallucinations (or other “thought disorders”) in the absence of a “mood disorder.” You can even throw in other correlates like “negative symptoms”, PET scans, response to medications, etc. The issue of the DSM's poor reliability and validity aside (Caplan, 1995; Sparks, Duncan, & Miller, 2005), the term “schizophrenia” is a word used to communicate the presence of these “symptoms.” The various human manifestations of thought, feeling, and behavior (aka “symptoms”) exist like the chair you are sitting on as you read this exists. But the next level of abstraction, the word “schizophrenia”, and the next, “mental illness”, only exist through consensus and only persist by convention. Even if the correlations of defining symptoms was perfect (which it is far from), in light of the linguistic paradigm we have to ask ourselves whether using a pathologizing, deficit-based vocabulary is useful in helping people improve the quality of their lives."
The terms "schizophrenia" and "autism" originated from the works of Eugen Bleuler (1857–1939) as different aspects of the same diagnostic condition. Bleuler was a contemporary of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. Prior to Bleuler's interventions schizophrenia was referred to as dementia praecox (early insanity) and perceived as a single disorder. Schizophrenia is sometimes also referred to as hebephrenia, stemming in etymology from the Greek god Hebe who was associated with adolescence and as it was thought the onset of schizophrenia came at adolescence. It is generally acknowledged that schizophrenia can have early onset and late onset.
In 1956, Gregory Bateson and his colleagues Paul Watzlawick, Donald Jackson, and Jay Haley articulated a theory of schizophrenia, related to Laing's work, as stemming from double bind situations where a person receives different or contradictory messages. Madness was therefore an expression of this distress and should be valued as a cathartic and transformative experience. In the books "Schizophrenia and the Family" and "The Origin and Treatment of Schizophrenic Disorders" Lidz and his colleagues explain their belief that parental behaviour can result in mental illness in children. Arieti's "Interpretation of Schizophrenia" won the 1975 scientific National Book Award in the United States.