Instruct: Given a question, retrieve relevant documents that can help answer the question.
Query: When did psychology start being practiced?
The field is generally considered to have begun in 1896 with the opening of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology was focused on psychological assessment, with little attention given to treatment. This changed after the 1940s when World War II resulted in the need for a large increase in the number of trained clinicians. Since that time, three main educational models have developed in the USA—the Ph.D. Clinical Science model (heavily focused on research), the Ph.D. science-practitioner model (integrating research and practice), and the Psy.D. practitioner-scholar model (focusing on clinical practice). In the UK and the Republic of Ireland the Clinical Psychology Doctorate falls between the latter two of these models, whilst in much of mainland Europe the training is at masters level and predominantly psychotherapeutic. Clinical psychologists are expert in providing psychotherapy, and generally train within four primary theoretical orientations—psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and systems or family therapy.
Fechner, along with Wilhelm Wundt and Hermann von Helmholtz, is recognized as one of the founders of modern experimental psychology. His clearest contribution was the demonstration that because the mind was susceptible to measurement and mathematical treatment, psychology had the potential to become a quantified science. Theorists such as Immanuel Kant had long stated that this was impossible, and that therefore, a science of psychology was also impossible.
in January 1884, the philosophers Matvei Troitskii and Iakov Grot founded the Moscow Psychological Society. They wished to discuss philosophical issues, but because anything called “philosophical” could attract official disapproval, they used “psychological” as a euphemism. In 1907, Georgy Chelpanov announced a 3-year course in psychology based on laboratory work and a well-structured teaching seminar. In the following years, Chelpanov traveled in Europe and the United States to see existing institutes; the result was a luxurious four-story building for the Psychological Institute of Moscow with well-equipped laboratories, opening formally on March 23, 1914
In 1893, fourteen years after Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology laboratory in the world, a Psychology Laboratory was built in Nassau Hall, the oldest building in the university, under the leadership of J. Mark Baldwin. In 1915, psychology received recognition in the title when the department was renamed Department of Philosophy and Psychology. It was not until 1920, however, that the Department of Psychology was established with Howard Warren as its first chairman. In 1924, Eno Hall was constructed to house the department. The building was named in honor of Henry Eno, the principal donor and research associate in psychology. Warren was also a donor, but he chose to keep his donation anonymous at the time. He commented that it was "the first laboratory in this country, if not in the world, dedicated solely to the teaching and investigation of scientific psychology." According to university president John Hibben, the laboratory was the realization of a dream that Warren had cherished for a long time.
The history of evolutionary psychology began with Charles Darwin, who said that humans have social instincts that evolved by natural selection. Darwin's work inspired later psychologists such as William James and Sigmund Freud but for most of the 20th century psychologists focused more on behaviorism and proximate explanations for human behavior. E. O. Wilson's landmark 1975 book, "", synthesized recent theoretical advances in evolutionary theory to explain social behavior in animals, including humans. Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby popularized the term "evolutionary psychology" in their 1992 book "The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and The Generation of Culture". Like sociobiology before it, evolutionary psychology has been embroiled in controversy, but evolutionary psychologists see their field as gaining increased acceptance overall.
Ernst Heinrich Weber (24 June 1795 – 26 January 1878) was a German physician who is considered one of the founders of experimental psychology. He was an influential and important figure in the areas of physiology and psychology during his lifetime and beyond. His studies on sensation and touch, along with his emphasis on good experimental techniques gave way to new directions and areas of study for future psychologists, physiologists, and anatomists.
While the scientist-practitioner model “stood intransigent and impervious through the 1950s and 60s”, the APA attempted to respond to pressure for more and better clinical training by forming the Committee on the Scientific and Professional Aims of Psychology in 1963. The Committee concluded that the scientist-practitioner model failed to do either of the jobs for which it was designed and recommended several important changes, including: establishing separate practice-oriented programs, potentially in locations other than university psychology departments; developing a practice-oriented training model; and using the Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) degree to designate preparation for clinical practice. The Committee's conclusions and recommendations met with controversy. In particular, opponents said a different degree would impact the field's prestige and ignore science. Proponents, however, argued it would be informed by science and that other practice-oriented healthcare disciplines, such as medicine, had well-respected professional degrees.
An important event in the interchange of East and West occurred when American psychologist William James invited the Sri Lankan Buddhist Anagarika Dharmapala to lecture in his classes at Harvard University in December 1903. After Dharmapala lectured on Buddhism, James remarked, “This is the psychology everybody will be studying 25 years from now.” Later scholars such as David Kalupahana (The principles of Buddhist psychology, 1987), Padmal de Silva (Buddhism and behaviour modification, 1984), Edwina Pio (Buddhist Psychology: A Modern Perspective, 1988) and Hubert Benoit (Zen and the Psychology of Transformation, 1990) wrote about and compared Buddhism and Psychology directly. Writers in the field of Transpersonal psychology (which deals with religious experience, altered states of consciousness and similar topics) such as Ken Wilber also integrated Buddhist thought and practice into their work.
ACT began in 2003 as the STP Best Practices Conference that was an outgrowth of the deliberations of the Assessment Group at the Psychology Partnership Program (P3) that was sponsored by APA and hosted by James Madison University in 1999. The first BP Conference was in Atlanta and dealt with assessment. The conference was such a success that the Society made it an annual event. Each of the BPs were themed conferences offering best practice presentations on limited topics until 2014 when the event was renamed The Annual Conference on Teaching and the program was opened to accept posters and symposia on all areas dealing with the teaching of psychology. Since 2003, the conference has been held in or around Atlanta. With the change in focus of the conference and the decision to conduct the STP Annual Business Meeting and Awards Ceremonies at ACT, the Society decided to begin moving ACT around the country. The first such move will take the conference to San Antonio, TX, in October 2017.
Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior such as ethology. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research. This being either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology) or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology. This is achieved by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).
Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that taken together constitute psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychology topics and list of psychology disciplines.
The term "evolutionary psychology" was used by American biologist Michael Ghiselin in a 1973 article published in the journal "Science". Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby popularized the term "evolutionary psychology" in their 1992 book "The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and The Generation of Culture".
Psychology of religion and spirituality is the psychological study of religious and spiritual experiences, beliefs, activities, and feelings. This subfield has existed since modern psychology's early days, and is the focus of Division 36 of the American Psychological Association. William James (1842–1910) is regarded by most psychologists of religion/spirituality as the founder of the field, and his "Varieties of Religious Experience" is considered to be a classic work in the field. Since 2008, the American Psychological Association has published a journal dedicated to this subfield, entitled the "Psychology of Religion and Spirituality". In recent decades, scholars have increasingly conceptualized religion as a way of living, rather than merely a belief system or institution. Religion and spirituality are commonly viewed as distinct but overlapping constructs. Surveys indicate that large majorities of US adults consider religion and/or spirituality to be very important in their lives. Scientific and psychological interest in the psychology of religion/spirituality has increased substantially in recent decades. The American Psychological Association now publishes many books on the topic of religion/spirituality.
The Association's publications include the recent (2013) two-volume "Handbook of Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality", with Volume One focusing on theory, and Volume Two focusing on applications.
The history of mind-wandering research dates back to 18th century England. British philosophers struggled to determine whether mind-wandering occurred in the mind or if an outside source caused it. In 1921, Varendonck published "The Psychology of Day-Dreams", in which he traced his "'trains of thoughts' to identify their origins, most often irrelevant external influences". Wallas (1926) considered mind-wandering as an important aspect of his second stage of creative thought – incubation. It wasn't until the 1960s that the first documented studies were conducted on mind-wandering. John Antrobus and Jerome Singer developed a questionnaire and discussed the experience of mind-wandering. This questionnaire, known as the Imaginal Processes Inventory (IPI), provides a trait measure of mind-wandering and it assesses the experience on three dimensions: how vivid the person's thoughts are, how many of those thoughts are guilt- or fear-based, and how deep into the thought a person goes. As technology continues to develop, psychologists are starting to use functional magnetic resonance imaging to observe mind-wandering in the brain and reduce psychologists' reliance on verbal reports.
Comparative psychology refers to the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history, adaptive significance, and development of behavior. Research in this area explores the behavior of many species, from insects to primates. It is closely related to other disciplines that study animal behavior such as ethology. Research in comparative psychology sometimes appears to shed light on human behavior, but some attempts to connect the two have been quite controversial, for example the Sociobiology of E.O. Wilson. Animal models are often used to study neural processes related to human behavior, e.g. in cognitive neuroscience.
Today, in the U.S., about half of licensed psychologists are trained in the Scientist-Practitioner Model of Clinical Psychology (PhD)—a model that emphasizes both research and clinical practice and is usually housed in universities. The other half are being trained within a Practitioner-Scholar Model of Clinical Psychology (PsyD), which focuses on practice (similar to professional degrees for medicine and law). A third training model called the Clinical Scientist Model emphasizes training in clinical psychology research. Outside of coursework, graduates of both programs generally are required to have had 2 to 3 years of supervised clinical experience, a certain amount of personal psychotherapy, and the completion of a dissertation (PhD programs usually require original quantitative empirical research, whereas the PsyD equivalent of dissertation research often consists of literature review and qualitative research, theoretical scholarship, program evaluation or development, critical literature analysis, or clinical application and analysis).
The journal was founded at Columbia University in 1904 as "The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods", under the editorship of Professor J. E. Woodbridge and Professor James McKeen Cattell. Wendell T. Bush became co-editor of the journal in 1906 and provided it with its endowment. The inaugural issue announced that the journal was founded with the intent of "covering the whole field of scientific philosophy, psychology, ethics and logic" so that "the relations between philosophy and psychology should remain intimate". In 1921 the name of the journal was shortened to "The Journal of Philosophy."
The founding father of the independent Psychology major, available from the turn of the millennium, is Professor Csaba Pléh, member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, who organized the Cognitive Science Group at the Department of Psychology, and in 1999, started the Cognitive Science and Neuropsychology Program of Szeged, or in short, the Cognitive Program. He laid the foundation for a professional psychology training course at the University of Szeged. The university's Medical Faculty and the Cognitive Science Group, led by Csaba Pléh, organized the VIII. Conference of the Hungarian Cognitive Science Association (MAKOG), titled The Development and Disorders of Cognitive Functions for 4–6 February 2000 in Szeged.
"Social Psychology" was established in 1970 as the "Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie" by Hubert Feger, Carl Friedrich Graumann, Klaus Holzkamp, and Martin Irle. Its publishing language was German, and the journal was published by Verlag Hans Huber (Bern, Switzerland). In the second half of the 1980s, the founding editors were successively replaced and terms have since been limited to about four years. In the year 2000, the journal adopted English as a second publishing language, which became the sole publishing language in 2008 when the journal moved to Hogrefe Publishing and its title was changed to "Social Psychology". Previous editors-in-chief include Gerd Bohner (Bielefeld University), Hans-Peter Erb (Helmut Schmidt University), and Christian Unkelbach (University of Cologne). Since spring 2016, Kai Epstude (University of Groningen) is the editor-in chief.
Philosophers have always been interested in the mind: "the idea that explaining a phenomenon involves understanding the mechanism responsible for it has deep roots in the History of Philosophy from atomic theories in 5th century B.C. to its rebirth in the 17th and 18th century in the works of Galileo, Descartes, and Boyle. Among others, it’s Descartes’ idea that machines humans build could work as models of scientific explanation."
For example, Aristotle thought the brain was the body’s cooling system and the capacity for intelligence was located in the heart. It has been suggested that the first person to believe otherwise was the Roman physician Galen in the second century AD, who declared that the brain was the source of mental activity, although this has also been accredited to Alcmaeon. However, Galen believed that personality and emotion were not generated by the brain, but rather by other organs. Andreas Vesalius, an anatomist and physician, was the first to believe that the brain and the nervous system are the center of the mind and emotion. Psychology, a major contributing field to cognitive neuroscience, emerged from philosophical reasoning about the mind.
The theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology are discussed in the introduction, by Cosmides, Tooby and Barkow, in an essay by Tooby and Cosmides on "The Psychological Foundations of Culture", and an essay by anthropologist Donald Symons "On the Use and Misuse of Darwinism in the Study of Human Behavior". The book also includes empirical research papers meant to introduce topics of interest in evolutionary psychology, such as mating, social and developmental psychology, and perceptual adaptations. It includes contributions from evolutionary psychologists such as Steven Pinker, David Buss, Martin Daly, and Margo Wilson.
Psychology & Social Critique was founded in 1977 as »Psychology & Society« (German: Psychologie und Gesellschaft) by Siegfied Grubitzsch and Günter Rexilius. Peter Mattes is the only founding member who belongs to the editorial team to this day. The journal was renamed »Psychology & Social Critique« in 1979 to mark its contrast from the book series called »Psychology & Society«. P&G was founded as a critical psychological journal but its authors pursued different paths than the Holzkamp school by consciously refraining from developing an overarching theoretical tradition. As a consequence, P&G refused to be pinned down to a unifying consensus. In contrast to Holzkamp’s Critical Psychology, Marxist social theory has become somewhat less significant in this process. P&G is characterized by key topics rather than a theoretical framework. These topics build the central nodes of critical psychological discussion at P&G. Selected topics (in chronological order) include: psychiatry, psychotherapy, psychosocial practice (1978–80); psychology and politics, psychology during National Socialism (1979/80); aesthetic practices, mass communication and the media (1981); measurements, the industrialized psyche (1982); therapeutic practice, institutional practice, social control (1983/84); women and social (from 1983); identity]], subjectivity]], subject and politics (1987/89); National Socialism, euthanasia, and modernization (1991); postmodern challenges, construction, being oneself (1992/93), subject construction and subjectification (1996ff.), gender, childhood, and adolescence (since 2002), critical-psychoanalytic topics and articles (since 2003), and, again and again, critical-deconstructivist reflections on diverse aspects of life, culture, and institutions. Since the 1990s, the journal has witnessed an increasing influence of poststructuralist and discourse analytic concepts and of French and North-American postmodernist philosophy as well as social constructionism. Psychology & Social Critique has considerably diversified social psychologies in the German speaking countries. The critique of psychology, as exemplified by Psychology & Social Critique, deconstructs power and seeks out possibilities, in and around psychology, to think differently, to entertain discourses of ‘desubjugation’ (Foucault), and to defy the dictates of normal scientific discourse. 
Since the mid 1990s, the journal is being edited by an editorial collective with alternating members. Editorial members came mostly from the German Federal Republic and the West Berlin scene initially and from German and Austrian universities, where they engaged in research and teaching that offered alternatives to the psychological mainstream, since the 1990s. A heavy focus lay on the universities Bielefeld, Oldenburg, GH Wuppertal, Bremen, FU Berlin, and later Munich, Erlangen-Nurnberg, and Vienna. Over the years, Psychology & Social Critique has reconstructed, accompanied, and actively influenced critical intellectual discourse in and around psychology with its core topics. 
Psychology & Social Critique is published as a German speaking journal quarterly (two of the four annual issues usually constitute a double issue). P&G is currently (as of 2014) in its 38th year and will publish its 150th thematic issue in 2014. P&G participates in the Social Science Open Access Repository (SSOAR) and provides of all articles for download. Papers published within the previous two years are not available for open access.
By the 1960s, psychotherapy had become embedded within clinical psychology, but for many the Ph.D. educational model did not offer the necessary training for those interested in practice rather than research. There was a growing argument that said the field of psychology in the U.S. had developed to a degree warranting explicit training in clinical practice. The concept of a practice-oriented degree was debated in 1965 and narrowly gained approval for a pilot program at the University of Illinois starting in 1968. Several other similar programs were instituted soon after, and in 1973, at the Vail Conference on Professional Training in Psychology, the practitioner–scholar model of clinical psychology—or "Vail Model"—resulting in the Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree was recognized. Although training would continue to include research skills and a scientific understanding of psychology, the intent would be to produce highly trained professionals, similar to programs in medicine, dentistry, and law. The first program explicitly based on the Psy.D. model was instituted at Rutgers University. Today, about half of all American graduate students in clinical psychology are enrolled in Psy.D. programs.
The State of New Mexico was the first to enact a Psychologists prescribing law, which is still in effect. Louisiana's legislature established medical psychology as a separate and distinct healthcare profession and transferred the regulation of their practice of medical psychology to the Louisiana State Board of Medical Examiners. At this time, the entire practice of psychology (for medical psychologist), including psychotherapy and psychological testing, was also transferred to the Louisiana Board of Medical Examiners, effectively making Louisiana the only state in the U.S. where, for some psychologists, a medical board has authority over the regulation of the entire practice of psychology. Because of this, several national organizations, including the American Psychological Association and the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards have expressed concern over the practice of psychology being regulated by another profession (i.e., medicine). The Louisiana Psychological Association has strongly echoed such concerns. However, the Louisiana Academy of Medical Psychologists, a Political Action Committee representing medical psychologists in that state, strongly endorsed this change of regulation by another profession.
The term "counselling" is of American origin, coined by Rogers, who, lacking a medical qualification was prevented from calling his work psychotherapy. In the U.S., counselling psychology, like many modern psychology specialties, started as a result of World War II. During the war, the U.S. military had a strong need for vocational placement and training. In the 1940s and 1950s, the Veterans Administration created a specialty called "counseling psychology", and Division 17 (now known as the Society for Counseling Psychology) of the APA was formed. The Society of Counseling Psychology unites psychologists, students and professionals who are dedicated to promote education and training, practice, scientific investigation, diversity and public interest in the field of professional psychology. This fostered interest in counselor training, and the creation of the first few counseling psychology PhD programs. The first counseling psychology PhD programs were at the University of Minnesota; Ohio State University; University of Maryland, College Park; University of Missouri; Teachers College, Columbia University; and University of Texas at Austin.