Instruct: Given a question, retrieve documents that answer the question.
Query: When was Cipro introduced?
Ciprofloxacin is an antibiotic used to treat a number of bacterial infections. This includes bone and joint infections, intra abdominal infections, certain type of infectious diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, skin infections, typhoid fever, and urinary tract infections, among others. For some infections it is used in addition to other antibiotics. It can be taken by mouth, in eye drops, or intravenously.
Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and rash. Ciprofloxacin increases the risk of tendon rupture. In people with myasthenia gravis, there is worsening muscle weakness. Rates of side effects appear to be higher than some groups of antibiotics such as cephalosporins but lower than others such as clindamycin. Studies in other animals raise concerns regarding use in pregnancy. No problems were identified, however, in the children of a small number of women who took the medication. It appears to be safe during breastfeeding. It is a second-generation fluoroquinolone with a broad spectrum of activity that usually results in the death of the bacteria.
Ciprofloxacin was introduced in 1987. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. It is available as a generic medication and is not very expensive. The wholesale cost in the developing world is between 0.03 and 0.13 a dose. In the United States it is sold for about 0.40 per dose.
The brand was introduced in 1955 by McNeil Laboratories, a family owned pharmaceutical manufacturer. Two brothers took over the company from their father that year, and that year one of them learned about paracetamol, which was not on the US market at that time. To avoid competing with aspirin, they marketed it as a product to reduce fever in children, packaging it like a red fire truck with the slogan, "for little hotheads". The name "Tylenol" and the generic name "acetaminophen" were generated by McNeil from the chemical name of the drug. Johnson & Johnson bought McNeil in 1959, and one year later the drug was made available over the counter.
In April 2000, Celgene reached an agreement with Novartis Pharma AG to license d-MPH, Celgene's chirally pure version of RITALIN. The FDA subsequently granted approval to market d-MPH, or Focalin, in November 2001.
The first genetically modified crop, an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant, was produced in 1982. China was the first country to commercialize transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992. In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, the first genetically modified food. Also in 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide bromoxynil, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe. An insect resistant Potato was approved for release in the US in 1995, and by 1996 approval had been granted to commercially grow 8 transgenic crops and one flower crop (carnation) in 6 countries plus the EU.
Zopiclone, as traditionally sold worldwide, is a racemic mixture of two stereoisomers, only one of which is active. In 2005, the pharmaceutical company Sepracor of Marlborough, Massachusetts began marketing the active stereoisomer eszopiclone under the name Lunesta in the United States. This had the consequence of placing what is a generic drug in most of the world under patent control in the United States. Generic forms of Lunesta have since become available in the United States. Zopiclone is currently available off-patent in a number of European countries, as well as Brazil, Canada, and Hong Kong. The eszopiclone/zopiclone difference is in the dosage—the strongest eszopiclone derivative dosage contains 3 mg of the therapeutic stereoisomer, whereas the highest zopiclone dosage (10 mg) contains 5 mg of the active stereoisomer. The two agents have not yet been studied in head-to-head clinical trials to determine the existence of any potential clinical differences (efficacy, side effects, developing dependence on the drug, safety, etc.).
Ganciclovir has also been used with some success in treating "Human herpesvirus 6" infections.
Astemizole (marketed under the brand name Hismanal, developmental code R43512) was a second-generation antihistamine drug that has a long duration of action. Astemizole was discovered by Janssen Pharmaceutica in 1977. It has been withdrawn from the market in most countries because of rare but potentially fatal side effects (QTc interval prolongation and related arrhythmias due to hERG channel blockade).
In 1991 the FDA approved the first version of Genzyme's orphan drug Alglucerase (brand name Ceredase), the only treatment for Gaucher's disease. At that time, according to Genzyme CEO Henri Termeer — a pioneer in the biotechnology industry business model — one treatment of Ceredase for one patient took 22,000 placentas annually to manufacture, a difficult and expensive procedure. A new version of Ceredase, called Cerezyme, Imiglucerase which Genzyme produced in 1994 using genetically modified cells in vitro, was cheaper and easier to produce, was approved in several countries. In 2005 there were only about 4,500 patients on Cerezyme. In marketing imiglucerase, Termeer introduced the innovative and successful business strategy that became a model for the biotechnology or life sciences industry in general and specialty pharmacy in particular. Genzyme's added revenue from profits on the highly priced orphan or specialty drugs like imiglucerase, which had no competition, was used to undertake research and development for other drugs and to allow them to fund programs that distribute a small portion of production for free. In 2005 he then created what would eventually become a feature service of specialty pharmacy, by hiring 34 people to help patients acquire insurance plans that would cover the cost of their drugs. By 2005 although Cerezyme cost the average patient (including babies) $200,000 a year, it could cost a single adult patient as much as $520,000 a year even though it cost Genzyme less than $52,000 to manufacture, because the alternative is severe debilitation and early death. In 2005 there were only about 4,500 patients on Cerezyme.
Dr. Joseph Cecil Patrick (August 28, 1892 – April 12, 1965) invented Thiokol, America's first synthetic rubber in the early 1920s. While seeking a formulation for automotive antifreeze, he attempted to hydrolyze ethylene dichloride with sodium polysulfide. In doing so, he produced a brown, insoluble gum that later became known as Thiokol. He solved commercial production problems by inventing the suspension polymerization process, and solved compounding problems by degrading high molecular weight polymer to a low molecular weight liquid polymer. This material is one of the principal binders for rocket propellant.
As a result of the crisis, all Tylenol capsules were discontinued, as were capsules of other brand names. Retained by McNeil's president, Joseph Chiesa, new product consultant Martin Calle of management strategist Calle & Company conceived the world's first tamper-resistant gelatin-enrobed capsule called "Tylenol Gelcaps", which proved to resuscitate the 92% of capsule-segment sales lost to the recall. The tamper-resistant, triple-sealed safety containers were placed on the shelves of retailers 10 weeks after the withdrawal, and other manufacturers followed suit. The crisis cost the company more than $100 million, but Tylenol regained 100% of the market share it had before the crisis. The Tylenol murderer was never found, and a $100,000 reward offered by Johnson & Johnson remains unclaimed.
Penicillin (PCN or pen) is a group of antibiotics which include penicillin G (intravenous use), penicillin V (use by mouth), procaine penicillin, and benzathine penicillin (intramuscular use). Penicillin antibiotics were among the first medications to be effective against many bacterial infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci. They are still widely used today, though many types of bacteria have developed resistance following extensive use.
About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin; however, up to 90% of this group may not actually be allergic. Serious allergies only occur in about 0.03%. All penicillins are β-lactam antibiotics.
Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming. People began using it to treat infections in 1942. There are several enhanced penicillin families which are effective against additional bacteria; these include the antistaphylococcal penicillins, aminopenicillins and the antipseudomonal penicillins. They are derived from "Penicillium" fungi.
Corticosteroids (cortisone), accutane (isotretinoin) and other vitamin A derivatives, barbiturates, certain antibiotics, propofol, volatile anesthetics, non-depolarizing muscle relaxants, some local anesthetics, statins, fibrates, glitazones, beta blockers, biguanides, amiodarone, some chemotherapies, some neuroleptics, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and various other drugs.
It is also the first drug to be granted parallel track status in 1992 by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which allowed for the agency to make Stavudine available to patients before being approved. Stavudine was submitted under the FDA's accelerated approval process. Through this process, Stavudine's effectiveness was measured by its effect on the surrogate marker, CD4, instead of clinical endpoints. The FDA concluded that an increase in CD4 cell counts was an indicator of how effective the drug would be against AIDS and HIV infection. Stavudine was the fourth drug to be approved for the treatment of AIDS and HIV infection by the FDA on June 27, 1994. Even after approval, studies were continued to evaluate the clinical benefit of the drug. If there is no indication of clinical benefits, the accelerated approval may be withdrawn.
A "qui tam" suit filed under the False Claims Act led AstraZeneca to make a massive $520 million settlement to resolve all civil and criminal liability with respect to illegal promotion of the anti-psychotic drug Seroquel. Approved by the FDA in 1997 to treat manifestations of psychotic disorders, in 2000 the FDA subsequently approved Seroquel for short-term treatment of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and bipolar depression. Between January 2001 through December 2006, AstraZeneca promoted Seroquel to psychiatrists and other physicians for certain uses that were not approved by the FDA, including aggression, Alzheimer’s disease, anger management, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, bipolar maintenance, dementia, depression, mood disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and sleeplessness. Federal health programs do not reimburse for prescriptions prescribed for indications not approved by the FDA.
During World War II, Bushnell Hospital treated approximately 13,000 military patients with various illnesses and injuries, and in 1944, it housed 3,286 GI–patients. The U.S. Army designated Bushnell Hospital as the military’s first center for the study of penicillin’s possible use. On April 1, 1943, the first shipment of penicillin arrived at Bushnell, and during the War, it administered penicillin more than any other institution in the United States. In addition to administering some of the first doses of penicillin, Ingram promoted its use to the surrounding Brigham community. In speech by then-Captain Alvin Ingram to the Rotary Club of Brigham City, he explained how penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, and extolled recent successes of administering the drug at nearby Bushnell Hospital. According to historian Richard Polenberg, “[w]artime advances in medicine, particularly in the production of penicillin (which first became generally available for civilian use in the spring of 1944) saved countless [military and civilian] lives.
In 1958, Beecham scientists in the UK discovered the penicillin nucleus, 6-APA. From that starting material, a large number of new semisynthetic penicillins could be designed, whose activity was directed against problem infections.
With the passage of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, cannabis was listed as a "Class B" drug. It remained Class B, except for the 2004–2009 period where it was classified as Class C, a lower punishment category, before being moved back to B.
While known since 1954, PGA had found little use because of its sensitivity to hydrolysis when compared with other synthetic polymers. However, in 1962 this polymer was used to develop the first synthetic absorbable suture which was marketed under the tradename of Dexon by the Davis & Geck subsidiary of the American Cyanamid Corporation. After its coating with Polycaprolactone and Calcium Stearate is being sold under the brand name of Assucryl.
Alexander Fleming had first discovered penicillin by accident in 1928, but at that time believed it had little application. When Florey and his team recognised the potential of the discovery for combating bacterial infection, they faced the problem of how to manufacture penicillin in sufficient quantities to be of use. Heatley, although the junior member of the team, possessed a natural gift for ingenuity and invention. It was he who suggested transferring the active ingredient of penicillin back into water by changing its acidity, thus purifying the penicillin.
Currently most people who use an antihistamine to treat allergies use a second generation drug.
Several antiviral drugs are effective for treating herpes, including aciclovir (acyclovir), valaciclovir, famciclovir, and penciclovir. Aciclovir was the first discovered and is now available in generic. Valaciclovir is also available as a generic and is slightly more effective than aciclovir for reducing lesion healing time.
"We designed the building from the inside out, not the outside in,” said Loretta H. Cockrum, Foram’s founder, chairman and CEO. “We wanted the most efficient office building ever designed, with no wasted space or wasted energy. This is a building of the future more than a building of the present. A lot of love has gone into that building, and a lot of pride."
Teams relegated from 1999–2000 Cypriot First Division
Teams relegated from 1978–79 Cypriot First Division
• 1983 – First meetings, first intervention letter. CIFC is founded in Toronto.
• 1985 – First newsletter is sent - by fax. It eventually becomes POV Magazine.
• 1988 – Montreal chapter (later to be known as Quebec chapter) is formed.
• 1991 – A National Executive is formed - John Walker, President.
• 1991 – First edition of POV Magazine, edited by Wyndham Wise – Geoff Bowie, first Publisher.
• 1994 – The first edition of Hot Docs is held- Paul Jay was Chair of CIFC and Founding Chair of Hot Docs!
• 1995 – Atlantic chapter is formed.
• 1996 – BC chapter is formed.
• 1997 – Hot Docs incorporates as a separate charitable organization.
• 1998 – First coast-to-coast National Executive elected - Gary Marcuse, Chair.
• 2003 – The CIFC changes its name to DOC.
• 2006 – Ottawa chapter is formed.
• 2006 – Newfoundland chapter is formed.
• 2007 – Winnipeg chapter is formed.
• 2008 – Alberta chapter is formed.
• 2009 – Newfoundland chapter folds.