Instruct: Given a question, retrieve documents that can help answer the question.
Query: When was Kant born?
Kant was born on April 22, 1724 into a Prussian German family of Lutheran Protestant faith in Königsberg, East Prussia. Baptized 'Emanuel', he later changed his name to 'Immanuel' after learning Hebrew. He was brought up in a Pietist household that stressed religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible. His education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on Latin and religious instruction over mathematics and science. Kant maintained Christian ideals for some time, but struggled to reconcile the faith with his belief in science. In his "Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals", he reveals a belief in immortality as the necessary condition of humanity's approach to the highest morality possible. However, as Kant was skeptical about some of the arguments used prior to him in defence of theism and maintained that human understanding is limited and can never attain knowledge about God or the soul, various commentators have labelled him a philosophical agnostic.
Tarun Kant, an institute chair professor at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay) in Mumbai since December 2009, was born on 1 July 1946 in Ballia, Uttar Pradesh, India. He received a BSc degree from Allahabad University in 1962, a B.Tech (Hons.) degree in civil engineering from IIT Bombay in 1967 and an M.Tech in civil engineering, specializing in structural engineering, from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IIT Kanpur) in 1969. Kant spent about 18 months at a consulting engineering firm in Mumbai before becoming a lecturer at IIT Bombay in January 1971. He received a PhD degree in 1977. Kant became an assistant professor in 1978 and a professor in 1986. At IIT Bombay, he has been a department head (2000–2002), dean of planning (2001–2003) and chair of the Joint Entrance Examination (1998) and the Central Library (1995–1999).
Paton was a notable Kantian scholar; in this he abandoned his earlier attraction to the idealist philosophy of Benedetto Croce (1866-1952). His works of Kantian commentary included "Kant's Metaphysics of Experience" (1936), "The Categorical Imperative" (1947), and "The Moral Law" (a translation of Kant's "Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten" [Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals], 1785] (1947). Paton delivered the Gifford Lectures at the University of St Andrews, 1949–50; the lectures were published as "The Modern Predicament" (1955).
Kant's mausoleum adjoins the northeast corner of Königsberg Cathedral in Kaliningrad, Russia. The mausoleum was constructed by the architect Friedrich Lahrs and was finished in 1924 in time for the bicentenary of Kant's birth. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved to a neo-Gothic chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated and was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same location.
Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These include the "Universal Natural History" (1755), the "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788), the "Metaphysics of Morals" (1797), and the "Critique of Judgment" (1790), which looks at aesthetics and teleology.
Kant developed his moral philosophy in three works: "Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals" (1785), "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788), and "Metaphysics of Morals" (1797).
In time, Kant's foremost Polish sympathizer would be Feliks Jaroński (1777–1827), who lectured at Kraków in 1809–18. Still, his Kantian sympathies were only partial. And this half-heartedness was typical of Polish Kantism generally. In Poland there was no actual Kantian period.
In 1792, Kant's attempt to publish the Second of the four Pieces of "Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason", in the journal "Berlinische Monatsschrift", met with opposition from the King's censorship commission, which had been established that same year in the context of the French Revolution. Kant then arranged to have all four pieces published as a book, routing it through the philosophy department at the University of Jena to avoid the need for theological censorship. This insubordination earned him a now famous reprimand from the King. When he nevertheless published a second edition in 1794, the censor was so irate that he arranged for a royal order that required Kant never to publish or even speak publicly about religion. Kant then published his response to the King's reprimand and explained himself, in the preface of "The Conflict of the Faculties".
He also wrote a number of semi-popular essays on history, religion, politics and other topics. These works were well received by Kant's contemporaries and confirmed his preeminent status in 18th-century philosophy. There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing Kantian philosophy. Despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction. Many of Kant's most important disciples and followers (including Reinhold, Beck and Fichte) transformed the Kantian position into increasingly radical forms of idealism. The progressive stages of revision of Kant's teachings marked the emergence of German Idealism. Kant opposed these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in 1799. It was one of his final acts expounding a stance on philosophical questions. In 1800, a student of Kant named Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) published a manual of logic for teachers called "Logik", which he had prepared at Kant's request. Jäsche prepared the "Logik" using a copy of a textbook in logic by Georg Friedrich Meier entitled "Auszug aus der Vernunftlehre", in which Kant had written copious notes and annotations. The "Logik" has been considered of fundamental importance to Kant's philosophy, and the understanding of it. The great 19th-century logician Charles Sanders Peirce remarked, in an incomplete review of Thomas Kingsmill Abbott's English translation of the introduction to "Logik", that "Kant's whole philosophy turns upon his logic." Also, Robert Schirokauer Hartman and Wolfgang Schwarz, wrote in the translators' introduction to their English translation of the "Logik", "Its importance lies not only in its significance for the "Critique of Pure Reason", the second part of which is a restatement of fundamental tenets of the "Logic", but in its position within the whole of Kant's work."
In one of Kant's major works, the "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781), he attempted to explain the relationship between reason and human experience and to move beyond the failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. Kant wanted to put an end to an era of futile and speculative theories of human experience, while resisting the skepticism of thinkers such as David Hume. Kant regarded himself as showing the way past the impasse between rationalists and empiricists which philosophy had led to, and is widely held to have synthesized both traditions in his thought.
Neo-Kantianism refers broadly to the revival of the type of philosophy explained by Immanuel Kant and of the interpretations of Kant provided by post-Kantian philosophers such as Schopenhauer, Jakob Friedrich Fries and Johann Friedrich Herbart. Major figures in the neo-Kantian movement, which began around the 1860s, include Friedrich Albert Lange and Hermann Cohen.
Guyer has written nine books on Kant and Kantian themes, and has edited and translated a number of Kant's works into English. In addition to his work on Kant, Guyer has published on many other figures in the history of philosophy, including Locke, Hume, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and others. Guyer's "Kant and The Claims of Knowledge" (Cambridge University Press) is widely considered to be one of the most significant works in Kant scholarship. Recent works by Guyer include "Knowledge, Reason, and Taste: Kant's Response to Hume" (Princeton University Press), and "The Cambridge Companion to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason" (Cambridge University Press).
At Jena, he befriended Gottlob Frege and collaborated with the Neo-Kantian philosopher of language Richard Hönigswald. Bauch was an influential figure in the Kant-Gesellschaft (Kant Society) and helped publish the Prussian Academy's edition of Kant's collected works. Until 1916, he was editor of the Kant Society's journal, "Kant-Studien" (Kant Studies). He was forced to resign after publishing an anti-semitic article in a right-wing nationalist tabloid, which caused a storm of controversy in the Kant Society. (Many Neo-Kantians, including Bauch's subsequent colleague Hönigswald, were Jewish, and quite a few were social democrats.) In 1917, Bauch founded a philosophical society of his own, the German Philosophical Society, which issued the journal "Beiträge zur Philosophie des Deutschen Idealismus" (Contributions to the Philosophy of German Idealism). Frege was among its contributors. When the Nazis came to power, Bauch's political views stood him in good stead. While many Neo-Kantians had to emigrate and some ended up in concentration camps (including, for a year, Hönigswald), Bauch became head of the German Philosophical Society in 1934.
Seung published three books on Kant over the span of thirty-eight years (1969–2007). In "Kant’s Transcendental Logic" (1969), he examines Kant's claim that transcendental logic can generate a priori synthetic propositions. He views Kant's transcendental logic as an extension of formal logic. This extension was made by joining formal logic to the pure intuitions of space and time and the pure concepts of understanding. Although his theory of pure intuitions has been discredited by the emergence of non-Euclidean physical geometry, his theory of pure concepts has remained relatively intact. But Seung has exposed a fatal flaw in this theory.
"Kant and the Mind" was first published in 1994 by Cambridge University Press: in 1996 a paperback edition appeared. As Brook notes in the preface, Kant and the Mind was written for two audiences. First, cognitive scientists, philosophers of mind, and students of cognition. Second, Kant scholars. The book thus has two parts: the first four chapters provide an overview of Kant's model of the mind for general audiences. The second part, written primarily for Kant scholars, attempts to justify the reading given in the first four chapters. Brook emphasizes in the book that Kant had something to offer contemporary psychology, cognitive science and philosophy of mind. he writes, "I think that the discoveries he made about the mind not only were a contribution in their time, but continue to be important now."
Brook attributes the following discoveries to Kant: 1) the mind has the ability to synthesize a single coherent representation of self and the world. 2) The mind has a unity that is necessary to produce representation. 3) The mind's awareness of itself has unique features stemming from the semantic apparatus that it uses to achieve this awareness. He also suggests that three of Kant's insights have been adopted by cognitive science: the transcendental method (inference to the best explanation), that experience requires both concepts and percepts; and his general picture of the mind as a system of concept-using functions for manipulating representations. He explains that Kant distrusted introspection as a means of revealing the structure of the mind, yet also had deep reservations about Cartesian "a priori" arguments. The theory of mind that Brook finds in Kant is not based on either approach, but instead explores what powers the mind must have in order to have experiences and representations that it has.
Ginsborg has published two books, "The Role of Taste in Kant’s Theory of Cognition" (Garland Press, 1990) and "The Normativity of Nature: Essays on Kant's Critique of Judgement" (Oxford University Press, 2015). She has also published articles in journals such as "Nous", "Ethics", "The Journal of Philosophy", and "Philosophy and Phenomenological Research", as well as book chapters and encyclopedia articles.
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss was born on 30 April 1777 in Brunswick (Braunschweig), in the Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (now part of Lower Saxony, Germany), to poor, working-class parents. His mother was illiterate and never recorded the date of his birth, remembering only that he had been born on a Wednesday, eight days before the Feast of the Ascension (which occurs 39 days after Easter). Gauss later solved this puzzle about his birthdate in the context of finding the date of Easter, deriving methods to compute the date in both past and future years. He was christened and confirmed in a church near the school he attended as a child.
Early in 1759, Voltaire completed and published "Candide, ou l'Optimisme" ("Candide, or Optimism"). This satire on Leibniz's philosophy of optimistic determinism remains the work for which Voltaire is perhaps best known. He would stay in Ferney for most of the remaining 20 years of his life, frequently entertaining distinguished guests, such as James Boswell, Adam Smith, Giacomo Casanova, and Edward Gibbon. In 1764, he published one of his best-known philosophical works, the "Dictionnaire philosophique", a series of articles mainly on Christian history and dogmas, a few of which were originally written in Berlin.
Georg Cantor developed the fundamental concepts of infinite set theory. His early results developed the theory of cardinality and proved that the reals and the natural numbers have different cardinalities (Cantor 1874). Over the next twenty years, Cantor developed a theory of transfinite numbers in a series of publications. In 1891, he published a new proof of the uncountability of the real numbers that introduced the diagonal argument, and used this method to prove Cantor's theorem that no set can have the same cardinality as its powerset. Cantor believed that every set could be well-ordered, but was unable to produce a proof for this result, leaving it as an open problem in 1895 (Katz 1998, p. 807).
In 1926 Kutter went to Cologne and joined the Phototechnical Laboratory, and created his first films the same year. From 1931 to 1947 he worked for the Bavaria Film in Munich. In 1937 he made the science fiction movie, "Weltraumschiff I startet" [Space Ship I Launches], a story about a first Moon flight which he dated on 13 June 1963, his 60th birthday. Kutter was awarded two golden medals at the Venice Biennale.
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (; ; ; (30 April 177723 February 1855) was a German mathematician and physicist who made significant contributions to many fields in mathematics and sciences. Sometimes referred to as the "Princeps mathematicorum" () and "the greatest mathematician since antiquity", Gauss had an exceptional influence in many fields of mathematics and science, and is ranked among history's most influential mathematicians.
' (; ) is a French satire first published in 1759 by Voltaire, a philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment. The novella has been widely translated, with English versions titled Candide: or, All for the Best (1759); Candide: or, The Optimist (1762); and Candide: Optimism""' (1947). It begins with a young man, Candide, who is living a sheltered life in an Edenic paradise and being indoctrinated with Leibnizian optimism by his mentor, Professor Pangloss. The work describes the abrupt cessation of this lifestyle, followed by Candide's slow and painful disillusionment as he witnesses and experiences great hardships in the world. Voltaire concludes with Candide, if not rejecting Leibnizian optimism outright, advocating a deeply practical precept, "we must cultivate our garden", in lieu of the Leibnizian mantra of Pangloss, "all is for the best" in the "best of all possible worlds".
Hermann Kant was born on June 14, 1926, in Hamburg, Germany the son of a factory worker and a gardener born into poverty. His younger brother, Uwe Kant, became a well-known children's author. Because of the impending bombing of Hamburg during the Second World War, the family moved to Parchim in 1940, where his paternal grandfather lived as a master potter. After passing elementary school he began an electrician apprenticeship in Parchim, which he completed in 1944. On December 8, 1944, he was drafted into the German Military. He became a Polish POW, was held in Warsaw's Mokotów Prison and later was transferred to a labor camp, which was located on the site of the former Warsaw Ghetto. He was the co-founder of the antifascist committee and teacher at the Antifa Central School. During this time he met the writer Anna Seghers, who would have a lasting impression on him. After being released as a prisoner of war in 1949, he moved to East Germany and joined the Socialist Unity Party of Germany.
Kant is an industrial and service center. Among notable local enterprises is the Abdysh Ata Brewery, whose products are well known throughout Kyrgyzstan.
During the Soviet era, Kant and its surrounding area were home to a large number of ethnic Germans who had been forcibly relocated to Central Asia in 1941 from the Volga region when the Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was abolished. Most left for Germany during the 1990s and after the demise of the Soviet Union when the factories where they had worked shut down. Several other nearby settlements, such as "Luxemburg" and Bergtal, still carry their German names, but retain only very small remnants of their Volga German and Russian Mennonite founders.
Hari Kant (born August 23, 1969 in Ottawa, Ontario) is a former field hockey goalkeeper from Canada. The resident of Toronto, Ontario earned his first international cap for the Men's National Team in 1989 against Australia in Sydney.
Justice Surya Kant was born on February 10, 1962, in a middle class family in District Hisar in Haryana. An avid debater, he graduated from the Government Post Graduate College, Hisar in 1981 and earned a Bachelor's Degree in Law from Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak in 1984. He went on to earn another distinction by standing First Class First in his Master's Degree in Law from the Directorate of Distance Education, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra in 2011. 
Justice Surya Kant started his law practice at the district courts in Hisar in 1984 and later shifted to the Punjab and Haryana High Court in Chandigarh in 1985. There, he specialised in constitutional, service and civil matters and represented multiple universities, boards, corporations, banks and the High Court. He was appointed as the youngest Advocate General of Haryana on July 7, 2000 and was designated as Senior Advocate in March 2001. He held the office of Advocate General till his elevation as a permanent Judge to the Punjab and Haryana High Court on January 9, 2004. He was also nominated as a member of the National Legal Services Authority on February 23, 2007 for two consecutive terms. Justice Surya Kant is a passionate environmentalist associated with various national and international NGOs and law associations. He has also organized and attended several prestigious national and international conferences. On October 5, 2018, Justice Surya Kant took oath as the Chief Justice of the Himachal Pradesh High Court. The notification to this effect was issued on 03/10/2018.