Instruct: Given a question, retrieve relevant documents that answer the question.
Query: When were fossils of the Pararhabdodon first found?
"Pararhabdodon" has been classified in a number of different positions within Iguanodontia since its remains were first discovered in the mid-1980s. When the first speciemens were originally discovered and described by Casanovas-Cladellas and colleagues, they were not thought to belong a new taxon at all, but merely to belong to the genus "Rhabdodon", and of an uncertain species. Not long after, they would be recognized of those of a unique species, and in 1993 they were given their modern name. At this point it was still thought to be a rhabdodontid or some other type of primitive iguanodont closely related to them. This was based on the characteristics of its vertebrae, as the cranial remains had not yet been found. In 1994 these cranial remains would be found - two maxilla - and these would be used by the original authors to establish it as a species of hadrosaur.
Pteranodon (; from Greek πτερόν ( pteron, "wing") and ἀνόδων (anodon, "toothless") is a genus of pterosaur that included some of the largest known flying reptiles, with wingspans over 8 meters (26 feet). They lived during the late Cretaceous geological period of North America in present-day Kansas, Alabama, Nebraska, Wyoming, and South Dakota. More fossil specimens of "Pteranodon" have been found than any other pterosaur, with about 1,200 specimens known to science, many of them well preserved with nearly complete skulls and articulated skeletons. It was an important part of the animal community in the Western Interior Seaway.
The first publicized discovery of a partial fossil mosasaur skull in 1764 by quarry workers in a subterranean gallery of a limestone quarry in Mount Saint Peter, near the Dutch city of Maastricht, preceded any major dinosaur fossil discoveries, but remained little known. However, a second find of a partial skull drew the Age of Enlightenment's attention to the existence of fossilized animals that were different from any known living creatures. When the specimen was discovered between 1770 and 1774, Johann Leonard Hoffmann, a surgeon and fossil collector, corresponded about it with the most influential scientists of his day, making the fossil famous. The original owner, though, was Godding, a canon of Maastricht cathedral.
"Pteranodon" was the first pterosaur found outside of Europe. Its fossils first were found by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1870, in the Late Cretaceous Smoky Hill Chalk deposits of western Kansas. These chalk beds were deposited at the bottom of what was once the Western Interior Seaway, a large shallow sea over what now is the midsection of the North American continent. These first specimens, YPM 1160 and YPM 1161, consisted of partial wing bones, as well as a tooth from the prehistoric fish "Xiphactinus", which Marsh mistakenly believed to belong to this new pterosaur (all known pterosaurs up to that point had teeth). In 1871, Marsh named the find ""Pterodactylus oweni"", assigning it to the well-known (but much smaller) European genus "Pterodactylus". Marsh also collected more wing bones of the large pterosaur in 1871. Realizing that the name he had chosen had already been used for Harry Seeley's European pterosaur species "Pterodactylus oweni" in 1864, Marsh re-named his giant North American pterosaur Pterodactylus occidentalis, meaning "Western wing finger," in his 1872 description of the new specimen. He also named two additional species, based on size differences: Pterodactylus ingens (the largest specimen so far), and Pterodactylus velox (the smallest).
The team discovered the remains of the largest dinosaur to walk in the southern parts of Africa , namely a 190-million-year-old fossilised egg of a Massospondylus dinosaur. This dinosaur lived in the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, a period from about 230-million years ago to about 185-million years ago. The Massospondylus wandered about in great herds, migrating back and forth between what would millions of years later become Southern Africa and Russia, when the southern super-continent, Gondwana, was still intact. The rocks that were laid down during this period are called the Stormberg Group of rocks, and it is in rocks of the Stormberg Group that the fossils of Massospondylus and other dinosaurs were found. Massospondylus dinosaurs hatched from eggs not much larger than a hen’s egg, but grew into big creatures 5 to 6 metres long. They had large bodies, long necks and small heads, and long tails.
During the upper Triassic period, about 210 million years ago, the region around Frick was a dry lowland with flat hills and small depressions. During the rainy season, the depressions filled with water and dinosaurs congregated around the ponds. When they died, their bodies were covered by the mud in the ponds and fossilized, creating rich fossil beds in Frick. The first Plateosaurus fossils were discovered in 1961 and further excavations during the following decades have discovered numerous fossils. In 2006, the only Coelophysoidea (a small flesh-eating dinosaur species) fossil in Switzerland, was found by an amateur paleontologist in Frick.
While the first "Pteranodon" wing bones were collected by Marsh and Cope in the early 1870s, the first "Pteranodon" skull was found on May 2, 1876, along the Smoky Hill River in Wallace County (now Logan County), Kansas, USA, by Samuel Wendell Williston, a fossil collector working for Marsh. A second, smaller skull soon was discovered as well. These skulls showed that the North American pterosaurs were different from any European species, in that they lacked teeth and had bony crests on their skulls. Marsh recognized this major difference, describing the specimens as "distinguished from all previously known genera of the order Pterosauria by the entire absence of teeth." Marsh recognized that this characteristic warranted a new genus, and he coined the name "Pteranodon" ("wing without tooth") in 1876. Marsh reclassified all the previously named North American species from "Pterodactylus" to "Pteranodon". He considered the smaller skull to belong to "Pteranodon occidentalis", based on its size. Marsh classified the larger skull, YPM 1117, in the new species "Pteranodon longiceps", which he thought to be a medium-sized species in between the small "P. occidentalis" and the large "P. ingens". Marsh also named several additional species: Pteranodon comptus and "Pteranodon nanus" were named for fragmentary skeletons of small individuals, while "Pteranodon gracilis" was based on a wing bone that he mistook for a pelvic bone. He soon realized his mistake, and re-classified that specimen again into a separate genus, which he named "Nyctosaurus". "P, nanus" was also later recognized as a "Nyctosaurus" specimen.
Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that most placental orders diverged late in the Cretaceous period, about 100 to 85 million years ago, but that modern families first appeared later, in the late Eocene and early Miocene epochs of the Cenozoic period. Fossil-based analyses, on the contrary, limit the placentals to the Cenozoic. Many Cretaceous fossil sites contain well-preserved lizards, salamanders, birds, and mammals, but not the modern forms of mammals. It is likely that they simply did not exist, and that the molecular clock runs fast during major evolutionary radiations. On the other hand, there is fossil evidence from of hoofed mammals that may be ancestors of modern ungulates.
Baryonyx () is a genus of theropod dinosaur which lived in the Barremian stage of the Early Cretaceous Period, about 130–125 million years ago. The first skeleton was discovered in 1983 in the Weald Clay Formation of Surrey, England, and became the holotype specimen of B. walkeri, named by palaeontologists Alan J. Charig and Angela C. Milner in 1986. The generic name, "Baryonyx", means "heavy claw" and alludes to the animal's very large claw on the first finger; the specific name, "walkeri", refers to its discoverer, amateur fossil collector William J. Walker. The holotype specimen is one of the most complete theropod skeletons from the UK (and remains the most complete spinosaurid), and its discovery attracted media attention. Specimens later discovered in other parts of the United Kingdom and Iberia have also been assigned to the genus.
The Cleveland Shale along Euclid Creek is known to contain limited fossil remains. Fragments of what may be the plant "Sporangites" have been identified. Brachiopod fossils by be found in some places in the formation's topmost layers. These are generally "Lingula" and "Orbiculoidea", although on very rare occasions other species may be found. Another fossil, once believed to be the arthropod "Spathiocaris" but in 2017 reinterpreted to be an ammonoid aptychus, may also be found. Fossil fish teeth, scales, and sometimes bones or armor are the most frequent fossils found. A review in 2008 identified 65 vertebrate taxa, represented primarily by "Chondrichthyes" (32 species), "Placodermi" (28 species), and "Osteichthyes" (five species).
Hair, structurally similar to that of modern mammals and associated with bones of the Mongolian multituberculate "Lambdopsalis", has been identified in coprolites (fossilised feces) of carnivorous mammals from the Palaeocene Epoch. This indicates that multituberculates had hair for insulation, similar to modern mammals (and possibly fossil mammals), a feature probably related to homeothermy (warm-bloodedness).
Smilodon is a genus of the extinct machairodont subfamily of the felids. It is one of the most famous prehistoric mammals, and the best known saber-toothed cat. Although commonly known as the saber-toothed tiger, it was not closely related to the tiger or other modern cats. "Smilodon" lived in the Americas during the Pleistocene epoch (2.5 mya–10,000 years ago). The genus was named in 1842, based on fossils from Brazil. Three species are recognized today: S. gracilis, S. fatalis, and S. populator. The two latter species were probably descended from "S. gracilis", which itself probably evolved from "Megantereon". The hundreds of individuals obtained from the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles constitute the largest collection of "Smilodon" fossils.
"Sinosauropteryx" lived in what is now northeastern China during the early Cretaceous period. It was among the first dinosaurs discovered from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning Province, and was a member of the Jehol Biota. Well-preserved fossils of this species illustrate many aspects of its biology, such as its diet and reproduction.
Excluding a few contested reports of much older forms from North America and India, the first complex multicellular life forms seem to have appeared at roughly 1500 Ma, in the Mesoproterozoic era of the Proterozoic eon. Fossil evidence from the later Ediacaran period of such complex life comes from the Lantian formation, at least 580 million years ago. A very diverse collection of soft-bodied forms is found in a variety of locations worldwide and date to between 635 and 542 Ma. These are referred to as Ediacaran or Vendian biota. Hard-shelled creatures appeared toward the end of that time span, marking the beginning of the Phanerozoic eon. By the middle of the following Cambrian period, a very diverse fauna is recorded in the Burgess Shale, including some which may represent stem groups of modern taxa. The increase in diversity of lifeforms during the early Cambrian is called the Cambrian explosion of life.
Rhizosmilodon is an extinct genus of saber-tooth cat of the subfamily Machairodontinae that lived during the Early Pliocene and was discovered in the U.S. state of Florida. Comparable in size to a medium-sized modern jaguar at about 165 lb. in weight, fossils of "Rhizosmilodon" are known only from Florida. The best specimens for this species are its lower jaw and teeth, which carry intermediate characteristics between advanced forms such as "Smilodon" and primitive forms such as "Paramachairodus". It was likely an ambush predator, preying on animals such as deer, tapirs and horses.
Prieto-Márquez returned again to the dentary in 2013, in a study alongside colleagues providing a review and investigation of hadrosaurs from all over Europe. Further preparation of the specimen in the time since his last study regarding it revealed the uniqueness of the dentary had been exaggerated significantly by reconstruction of the specimen when it was first prepared in the 1990s. The "Tsintaosaurus" specimens showing the similar condition were found to have been distorted from a similar process. Correcting for the innaccuracies, the Los Llaus dentary is indistinguishable from that of multiple lambeosaurines, and shares no particular connection to "Tsintaosaurus". With this, their reasoning for assignment of the specimen to "Pararhabdodon" was voided, and the specimen is now considered a completely indeterminate lambeosaurine dentary.
Because fossils identifiable as "P. sternbergi" are found exclusively in the lower layers of the Niobrara Formation, and "P. longiceps" fossils exclusively in the upper layers, a fossil lacking the skull can be identified based on its position in the geologic column (though for many early fossil finds, precise data about its location was not recorded, rendering many fossils unidentifiable).
The first documented fossils to be recovered from the Bridger Formation were discovered on 11 August 1849 by Captain Howard Stansbury, who documented the discovery of fossilized shells and wood in his expedition report while scouting out the region for the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers. In the early-1860s, trapper Jack Robinson claimed to have discovered a number of sites along the base of the Uinta Mountains where grizzly bears had been turned to stone. When these claims were called into question by judge William A. Carter, Robinson brought Carter a bag filled with the fossils. One of the specimens recovered by Robinson was a well-preserved skull which resembled that of a grizzly bear. Judger Carter invited Louis Agassiz to observe the local strata, but Agassiz declined as the journey would have involved riding horseback to the site, a mode of transportation Agassiz abhorred. Carter's son-in-law, Dr. J. Van A. Carter, would go on to send a number of fossils to palaeontologist Joseph Leidy at the University of Pennsylvania in 1869. These fossils included the first Bridgerian fossil taxa, "Omomys carteri"; and the skull discovered by Robinson, which was described as "Palaeosyops paludosus". Another researcher responsible for sending off specimens was Dr. Joseph K. Corson, a close friend of Leidy's who hosted him and his family on two three to Fort Bridger in 1872, 1873, and 1879.
Catopsbaatar is a genus of multituberculate, an extinct order of rodent-like mammals. It lived in what is now Mongolia during the late Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous Period, about 72 million years ago. The first fossils were collected in the early 1970s, and the animal was named as a new species of the genus "Djadochtatherium " in 1974, "D. catopsaloides". The specific name refers to the animal's similarity to the genus "Catopsalis". The species was moved to the genus "Catopsalis" in 1979, and received its own genus ("Catopsbaatar", Greek and Mongolian for "visible hero") in 1994. Five skulls, one molar, and one skeleton with a skull are known; the latter is the genus' most complete specimen. "Catopsbaatar" was a member of the family Djadochtatheriidae.
On occasion, the bone of a fossilised predator is preserved well enough to retain recognizable proteins that belong to the species it consumed when alive. Stable isotope analysis of these proteins has shown that "Smilodon" preyed mainly on bison and horses, and occasionally ground sloths and mammoths, while "Homotherium" often preyed on young mammoths and other grazers such as pronghorn antelope and bighorn sheep when mammoths were not available.
220,000,000 BC, Late Triassic (Arizona) − This episode follows the evolution of the first dinosaurs and other prehistoric creatures in the late Triassic period.152,000,000 BC, Late Jurassic (Colorado) − This episode follows the story of a young female "Diplodocus" and her brothers and sisters in the late Jurassic period.149,000,000 BC, Late Jurassic (Oxfordshire) − This episode follows the life of several baby "Ophthalmosaurus" and a bull "Liopleurodon" in the late Jurassic period.127,000,000 BC, Early Cretaceous (Brazil) − This episode follows a male "Ornithocheirus" on his long journey to the mating grounds in the early Cretaceous period.106,000,000 BC, Early Cretaceous (Antarctica) − This episode follows the hardships of an Antarctican "Leaellynasaura" clan in the early Cretaceous period.65,500,000 BC, Late Cretaceous (Montana) − This episode follows the final years of the dinosaurs and a mother "Tyrannosaurus rex" and her babies in the late Cretaceous period.49,000,000 BC, Early Eocene (Germany) − This episode follows the life of a mother "Leptictidium" and her babies in the dense forests of Germany in the early Eocene epoch.36,000,000 BC, Late Eocene (Pakistan) − This episode follows the sea journey of a pregnant female "Basilosaurus" search for food in the late Eocene epoch.25,000,000 BC, Late Oligocene (Mongolia) − This episode follows the life of a young "Paraceratherium" and his mother from his birth in the late Oligocene epoch.3,200,000 BC, Late Pliocene (Ethiopia) − This episode follows the hardships of an "Australopithecus" group and a young called Blue in the late Pliocene epoch.1,000,000 BC, Early Pleistocene (Paraguay) − This episode follows a male "Smilodon" called Half-Tooth after he lost his territory in the early Pleistocene epoch.30,000 BC, Late Pleistocene (North Sea, Belgium, and Swiss Alps) − This episode follows a herd of woolly mammoth journey to the Alps in the last Ice Age of the late Pleistocene epoch.This episode details a list of animals from the first season that the developers thought were the most impressive creatures on Earth.
In 2013, a maxilla, specimen designation MCD 4919, was referred to "P. isonensis". It possessed synapomorphies of the tsintaosaurin tribe to which "Pararhabdodon" was by that point assigned to, and was referable to "Pararhabdodon" in particular due to rostrocaudally broad rostrocaudal region of the maxilla, a trait unique to "P. isonensis" relative to "Tsintaosaurus", the other named tsintaosaurin taxon. The specimen was discovered at the Serrat del Rostiar 1 locality, part of the "lower red unit" of the Tremp formation just like the type locality, SRA, but in a lower section of the strata, making it older. This extended the range of species further within the upper Maastrichtian. The Serrat del Rostiar 1 locality is near the village of Basturns. In 2019, the new genus and species "Adynomosaurus arcanus" was described, and in the paper describing the referral of MCD 4919 to "P. isonensis" was questioned. The specimen was found to have a differing to the maxilla of the SRA "Pararhabdodon", which would conflict with their identity as belonging to the same species. As the specimen was still recognized as having tsintaosaurin characteristics, the authors still considered it to likely belong to a close relative of "P. isonensis".
Near the village Abella de la Conca, in the 1990s, palaeontologist Marc Boada discovered a new site in the Tremp Formation, bearing dinosaur fossils. From this site, later named Les Llaus (LL), a right dentary, specimen designation IPS SRA 27, was excavated. In 1997, Casanovas-Cladellas and colleagues stated this dentary was discovered from SRA, the site where the original "Pararhabdodon" remains were found. The following year, they described the specimen and referred it to "P. isonensis", and again stated it was from the same stratigraphic level. In 2006, the stratigraphy of the region was re-evaluated, and the dentary's location was corrected to the LL locality, away from and below the SRA locality.
The same study also evaluated "Blasisaurus canudoi", from the Blasi 1 locality of the underlying Arén Formation, and "Arenysaurus ardevoli", from the Blasi 3 locality of the earlier "gray unit" of the Tremp Formation. Previously claimed diagnostic traits of the two taxa were shown to be found in other hadrosaurs. This left the former with two unique characteristics - both in the jugal - and a unique combination of other characteristics, and the latter with only one unique characteristic - in the frontal. As overlapping fossils were not known for the relevant areas, it couldn't be ruled out that they were indeed synonymous, representatives of a single species. The same re-evaluation could not rule out that this single species or either of the separated species were synonyms of "Pararhabdodon isonensis", as no taxonomically informative areas of the skeleton are known from both "Pararhabdodon" and the other two taxa. The authors refrained from considering any of them representatives of one species pending data from more material.
In their 1997 paper, Laurent and colleagues referred additional remains (jaw material, vertebrae, and limb bones of multiple individuals of different ages) from the Le Bexen site of the uppermost Cretaceous of Aude, southern France, to the genus. Prieto-Márquez and colleagues commented on this referral in a 2006 paper, though noting they had not examined the material themselves. They concluded all of the specimens, excepting one fragmentary humerus, were too poorly preserved to allow proper comparison with the Spanish "Pararhabdodon" material, and so disagreed with the referral. Of the humerus, they found it was distinguishable from "P. isonensis", and so also not referable to the species. A group composed of some of the same authors as the 2006 study, including Prieto-Márquez, investigated the material first hand for a 2013 re-evaluation of all European lambeosaurine material, and supported their previous conclusions. Laurent had, in a 2003 dissertation, referred more French lambeosaurine material to "Pararhabdodon"; in this case, material held at the Musée des Dinosaures d’Espéraza. The referral was made as the genus was, at that point, the only lambeosaurine named from the continent. Prieto-Márquez "et al." (2013) used this material to establish their new taxon, "Canardia garonnensis".