interacts_with DB00502?
DB00502 induces neurotoxicity by the DB01221 receptor downstream signaling pathway , alternative from glutamate excitotoxicity . The DB01221 receptor is believed to be important in a wide range of nervous system functions including neuronal migration , synapse formation , learning and memory . In addition , it is involved in excitotoxic neuronal cell death that occurs in a variety of acute and chronic neurological disorders . Besides of agonist/coagonist sites , other modulator sites , including butyrophenone site may regulate the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor . It has been shown that haloperidol , an antipsychotic neuroleptic drug , interacts with the Q13224 subunit of DB01221 receptor and inhibits DB01221 response in neuronal cells . We found that DB01221 receptor was co-immunoprecipitated by anti-Ras antibody and this complex , beside NR2 subunit of DB01221 receptor contained haloperidol-binding proteins , P29475 and Ras- P01286 . Furthermore , we have shown that haloperidol induces neurotoxicity of neuronal cells via DB01221 receptor complex , accompanied by dissociation of Ras- P01286 from membranes and activation of c-Jun-kinase . Inclusion of insulin prevented relocalization of Ras- P01286 and subsequent neuronal death . DB00502 -induced dissociation of Ras- P01286 leads to inhibition of membrane-bound form of Ras protein and changes downstream regulators activity that results in the initiation of the apoptotic processes via the mitochondrial way . Our results suggest that haloperidol induces neuronal cell death by the interaction with DB01221 receptor , but through the alternative from glutamate excitotoxicity signaling pathway . Isolation , partial purification and characterization of nuclear retinoic acid receptors from chick skin . Nuclear receptors ( RARs ) for retinoic acid ( RA ) are considered to be the ultimate mediators of the action of RA in the control of cell differentiation and inhibition of tumorigenesis . We have isolated and partially purified and characterized RAR from a RA-responsive tissue , chick embryo skin . The purification steps included Affi-Gel blue chromatography , ultrafiltration , size exclusion chromatography , and preparative isoelectric focusing . The electrofocusing of RAR-[3H]RA complex in ampholines ( pH 3-10 ) revealed that the receptors have an isoelectric pH of 7.5 . Whereas pronase-digested the RAR-[3H]RA complex completely , DNase showed 20-35 % and RNase showed negligible digestive action on the complex . The ligand binding to RAR was completely inhibited by a mercury compound . P10276 - and P10826 -specific antibodies , on Western blot analysis , immunoreacted with a protein having a molecular weight of 50,000 , presumably RAR . Binding affinity studies revealed that biologically active analogs of RA with a free COOH group ( e.g. , 13- DB00982 , RO-13-7410 , Ch 55 , and DB04942 ) showed , like RA , high binding affinity for RAR , whereas biologically ineffective analogs of RA ( e.g. , furyl and pyridyl ) were poor binders . Other groups of retinoids , in which the COOH group was either lacking or blocked , did not bind to RAR whether or not they were biologically active . Androgen receptors in the posterior bed nucleus of the stria terminalis increase neuropeptide expression and the stress-induced activation of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus . The posterior bed nuclei of the stria terminalis ( BST ) are important neural substrate for relaying limbic influences to the paraventricular nucleus ( PVN ) of the hypothalamus to inhibit hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal ( Q9Y251 ) axis responses to emotional stress . P10275 -expressing cells within the posterior BST have been identified as projecting to the PVN region . To test a role for androgen receptors in the posterior BST to inhibit PVN motor neurons , we compared the effects of the non-aromatizable androgen dihydrotestosterone ( DB02901 ) , the androgen receptor antagonist hydroxyflutamide ( HF ) , or a combination of both drugs implanted unilaterally within the posterior BST . Rats bearing unilateral implants were analyzed for PVN Fos induction in response to acute-restraint stress and relative levels of corticotrophin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin ( AVP ) mRNA . DB00142 decarboxylase ( Q99259 ) 65 and Q99259 67 mRNA were analyzed in the posterior BST to test a local involvement of GABA . There were no changes in Q99259 expression to support a GABA-related mechanism in the BST . For PVN neuropeptide expression and Fos responses , basic effects were lateralized to the sides of the PVN ipsilateral to the implants . However , opposite to our expectations of an inhibitory influence of androgen receptors in the posterior BST , PVN AVP mRNA and stress-induced Fos were augmented in response to DB02901 and attenuated in response to HF . These results suggest that a subset of androgen receptor-expressing cells within the posterior BST region may be responsible for increasing the biosynthetic capacity and stress-induced drive of PVN motor neurons . High mobility group box protein-1 promotes cerebral edema after traumatic brain injury via activation of toll-like receptor 4 . Traumatic brain injury ( TBI ) is a major cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide . Cerebral edema , a life-threatening medical complication , contributes to elevated intracranial pressure ( ICP ) and a poor clinical prognosis after TBI . Unfortunately , treatment options to reduce post-traumatic edema remain suboptimal , due in part , to a dearth of viable therapeutic targets . Herein , we tested the hypothesis that cerebral innate immune responses contribute to edema development after TBI . Our results demonstrate that high-mobility group box protein 1 ( P09429 ) was released from necrotic neurons via a Q13224 -mediated mechanism . P09429 was clinically associated with elevated ICP in patients and functionally promoted cerebral edema after TBI in mice . The detrimental effects of P09429 were mediated , at least in part , via activation of microglial toll-like receptor 4 ( O00206 ) and the subsequent expression of the astrocytic water channel , aquaporin-4 ( P55087 ) . Genetic or pharmacological ( VGX-1027 ) O00206 inhibition attenuated the neuroinflammatory response and limited post-traumatic edema with a delayed , clinically implementable therapeutic window . Human and rodent tissue culture studies further defined the cellular mechanisms demonstrating neuronal P09429 initiates the microglial release of interleukin-6 ( P05231 ) in a O00206 dependent mechanism . In turn , microglial P05231 increased the astrocytic expression of P55087 . Taken together , these data implicate microglia as key mediators of post-traumatic brain edema and suggest P09429 - O00206 signaling promotes neurovascular dysfunction after TBI . Q92847 agonist ( DB05657 ) accelerates gastric emptying in adults with diabetes and symptomatic gastroparesis . BACKGROUND : DB05657 is a synthetic , selective ghrelin agonist in development for gastroparesis . AIM : To assess safety and effects of DB05657 in diabetes patients with symptomatic gastroparesis . METHODS : Adults with type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus received placebo and DB05657 ( 80 , 160 , 320 or 600 microg/kg ) infusions in a cross-over manner following a radiolabelled meal . Blood glucose levels were stabilized using a hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp . Primary endpoints were gastric half emptying and latency times . Secondary measures included assessment of gastroparesis symptoms and endocrine responses . RESULTS : Ten patients with type 1 ( n = 7 ) or 2 ( n = 3 ) diabetes , moderate-to-severe gastroparesis symptoms and > or =29 % retention 4 h after a radiolabelled solid meal were enrolled . DB05657 produced significant reductions in solid meal half-emptying ( 20 % , P = 0.043 ) and latency ( 34 % , P = 0.037 ) times vs. placebo . Reductions in overall postmeal symptom intensity ( 24 % ) and postprandial fullness ( 37 % ) following DB05657 infusion were not statistically significant . Most adverse events were mild and self-limiting and there were no identifiable differences in numbers or types of adverse events between DB05657 and placebo . CONCLUSIONS : This proof-of-concept study demonstrates that the ghrelin agonist DB05657 is well-tolerated in diabetes patients with moderate-to-severe chronic gastroparesis and shows statistically significant improvements in gastric emptying . P10275 repression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone gene transcription via enhancer 1 . DB00644 ( DB00644 ) plays a major role in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal ( HPG ) axis , and synthesis and secretion of DB00644 are regulated by gonadal steroid hormones . Disruptions in androgen levels are involved in a number of reproductive defects , including hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and polycystic ovarian syndrome . Androgens down-regulate DB00644 mRNA synthesis in vivo and in vitro via an androgen receptor ( AR ) -dependent mechanism . DB02998 ( R1881 ) , a synthetic AR agonist , represses DB00644 expression through multiple sites in the proximal promoter . In this study , we show AR also represses DB00644 transcription via the major enhancer ( DB00644 -E1 ) . A multimer of the -1800/-1766 region was repressed by R1881 treatment . Mutation of two bases , -1792 and -1791 , resulted in decreased basal activity and a loss of AR-mediated repression . AR bound to the -1796/-1791 sequence in electrophoretic mobility shift assays , indicating a direct interaction with DNA or other transcription factors in this region . We conclude that AR repression of DB00644 -E1 acts via multiple AR-responsive regions , including the site at -1792/-1791 . Targeting interleukin-6 in inflammatory autoimmune diseases and cancers . P05231 ( P05231 ) is a pleiotropic cytokine with significant functions in the regulation of the immune system . As a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine , P05231 plays a pivotal role in host defense against pathogens and acute stress . However , increased or deregulated expression of P05231 significantly contributes to the pathogenesis of various human diseases . Numerous preclinical and clinical studies have revealed the pathological roles of the P05231 pathway in inflammation , autoimmunity , and cancer . Based on the rich body of studies on biological activities of P05231 and its pathological roles , therapeutic strategies targeting the P05231 pathway are in development for cancers , inflammatory and autoimmune diseases . Several anti- P05231 / P05231 receptor monoclonal antibodies developed for targeted therapy have demonstrated promising results in both preclinical studies and clinical trials . DB06273 , an anti- P05231 receptor antibody , is effective in the treatment of various autoimmune and inflammatory conditions notably rheumatoid arthritis . It is the only P05231 pathway targeting agent approved by the regulatory agencies for clinical use . DB09036 , an anti- P05231 antibody , has been shown to have potential benefits treating various human cancers either as a single agent or in combination with other chemotherapy drugs . Several other anti- P05231 -based therapies are also under clinical development for various diseases . P05231 antagonism has been shown to be a potential therapy for these disorders refractory to conventional drugs . New strategies , such as combination of P05231 blockade with inhibition of other signaling pathways , may further improve P05231 -targeted immunotherapy of human diseases . A critical importance of polyamine site in DB01221 receptors for neurite outgrowth and fasciculation at early stages of P19 neuronal differentiation . We have investigated the role of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors ( NMDARs ) and gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors type A ( GABA(A)Rs ) at an early stage of P19 neuronal differentiation . The subunit expression was profiled in 24-hour intervals with RT-PCR and functionality of the receptors was verified via fluo-3 imaging of Ca(2+) dynamics in the immature P19 neurons showing that both DB01221 and GABA excite neuronal bodies , but only polyamine-site sensitive NMDAR stimulation leads to enhanced Ca(2+) signaling in the growth cones . Inhibition of Q9UHB4 / Q13224 NMDARs by 1 muM ifenprodil severely impaired P19 neurite extension and fasciculation , and this negative effect was fully reversible by polyamine addition . In contrast , GABA(A)R antagonism by a high dose of 200 microM bicuculline had no observable effect on P19 neuronal differentiation and fasciculation . Except for the differential NMDAR and GABA(A)R profiles of Ca(2+) signaling within the immature P19 neurons , we have also shown that inhibition of Q9UHB4 / Q13224 NMDARs strongly decreased mRNA level of P13591 -180 , which has been previously implicated as a regulator of neuronal growth cone protrusion and neurite extension . Our data thus suggest a critical role of Q9UHB4 / Q13224 NMDARs during the process of neuritogenesis and fasciculation of P19 neurons via differential control of local growth cone Ca(2+) surges and P13591 -180 signaling . SHP2 is a target of the immunosuppressant tautomycetin . SHP2 phosphatase is a positive transducer of growth factor and cytokine signaling . SHP2 is also a bona fide oncogene ; gain-of-function SHP2 mutations leading to increased phosphatase activity cause Noonan syndrome , as well as multiple forms of leukemia and solid tumors . We report that tautomycetin ( Q8WZ42 ) , an immunosuppressor in organ transplantation , and its engineered analog Q8WZ42 D-1 are potent SHP2 inhibitors . Q8WZ42 and Q8WZ42 D-1 block T cell receptor-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation and P29323 activation and gain-of-function mutant SHP2-induced hematopoietic progenitor hyperproliferation and monocytic differentiation . Crystal structure of the SHP2⋅ Q8WZ42 D-1 complex reveals that Q8WZ42 D-1 occupies the SHP2 active site in a manner similar to that of a peptide substrate . Collectively , the data support the notion that SHP2 is a cellular target for Q8WZ42 and provide a potential mechanism for the immunosuppressive activity of Q8WZ42 . Moreover , the structure furnishes molecular insights upon which therapeutics targeting SHP2 can be developed on the basis of the Q8WZ42 scaffold . The thioredoxin reductase inhibitor auranofin triggers apoptosis through a Bax/Bak-dependent process that involves peroxiredoxin 3 oxidation . P30044 ( TrxR ) is a key selenoprotein antioxidant enzyme and a potential target for anti-cancer drugs . One potent inhibitor of TrxR is the gold ( I ) compound auranofin , which can trigger mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis pathways . The exact mechanism of apoptosis induction by auranofin is not yet clear , but there are indications that mitochondrial oxidative stress is a central event . We assessed the redox state of the peroxiredoxins ( Prxs ) in Jurkat T-lymphoma cells treated with auranofin , and found that mitochondrial Prx3 was considerably more sensitive to oxidation than the cytosolic Prx1 and 2 , indicating selective mitochondrial stress . Prx3 oxidation was detected at apoptotic doses of auranofin in several cell types , and occurred before other mitochondrial events including cytochrome c release and mitochondrial depolarisation . DB00995 was also able to sensitise U937 cells to P01375 -mediated apoptosis . DB00995 -induced apoptosis was effectively blocked by the overexpression of Bcl-2 , and Bax/Bak deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts were also resistant to apoptosis , indicating a central role for the pro-apoptotic proteins of this family in auranofin-triggered apoptosis . DB00995 exposure inhibited the proliferation of apoptosis-resistant cells , and at higher doses of auranofin could cause cell death through necrosis . We conclude that auranofin induces apoptosis in cells through a Bax/Bak-dependent mechanism associated with selective disruption of mitochondrial redox homeostasis in conjunction with oxidation of Prx3 . Retinoic acid and synthetic analogs differentially activate retinoic acid receptor dependent transcription . We have developed an assay where the potency of retinoids in retinoic acid receptor ( RAR ) mediated transcriptional activation can be rapidly evaluated . In this assay hRAR-alpha , hRAR-beta and hRAR-gamma were expressed in CV-1 cells together with a reporter gene containing a retinoic acid responsive element ( TRE3-tk-CAT ) . Concentrations required to obtain half-maximum induction ( ED50 ) of CAT-activity were determined for several retinoids , e.g. , all-trans-retinoic acid ( RA ) , 13-cis-retinoic acid ( 13- DB00982 ) , arotinoid acid ( DB02877 ) and m-carboxy-arotinoid acid ( m-carboxy- DB02877 , an inactive arotinoid analog ) . The ED50 values for RA decreased in the order of P10276 ( 24 nM ) greater than P10826 ( 4.0 nM ) greater than P13631 ( 1.3 nM ) , while the ED50 values for DB02877 and 13- DB00982 decreased in the order of P10276 ( 6.5 nM , 190 nM ) greater than P13631 ( 2.3 nM , 140 nM ) greater than P10826 ( 0.6 nM , 43 nM ) , respectively . No significant inductions were obtained when cells were treated with m-carboxy- DB02877 , even at 10 microM concentrations . The fold induction of CAT-activity for all compounds tested decreased in the order of P10276 greater than P10826 greater than P13631 . Detection of multiple antibodies in myasthenia gravis and its clinical significance . BACKGROUND : Antibodies against acetylcholine receptor , acetylcholinesterase , ryanodine receptor and titin have been found in patients with myasthenia gravis . However , the relations between these antibodies and character of myasthenia gravis are unknown . This study aimed to detect multiple antibodies in myasthenia gravis and to investigate its clinical significance . METHODS : These antibodies were detected by enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay in 89 cases of myasthenia gravis , 66 cases of other neurological diseases and 66 healthy controls . The incidences of antibodies were compared using the chi-square test . RESULTS : DB03128 receptor , acetylcholinesterase , titin and ryanodine receptor antibodies were detected in 53.9 % , 20.2 % , 64.0 % and 55.0 % of myasthenia gravis patients respectively , higher than in patients of other neurological diseases and controls groups . The combination of the four antibodies assays provided 94.4 % sensitivity and 84.0 % specificity for the diagnosis of myasthenia gravis . P22303 antibody occurred more frequently in acetylcholine receptor antibody negative patients with adverse reactions to neostigmine test . Q8WZ42 antibody provided 82.1 % sensitivity and 52.5 % specificity for myasthenia gravis with thymoma . Incidences of titin and of ryanodine receptor antibody were higher in late onset myasthenia gravis than in early onset myasthenia gravis . The proportion of titin antibody positive patients increased with the severity of myasthenia gravis as graded by a modified Osserman scale . CONCLUSIONS : Testing for acetylcholine receptor , acetylcholinesterase , titin and ryanodine receptor antibodies can offer a better diagnostic method for myasthenia gravis than each antibody test alone . Q8WZ42 antibody combined with computed tomography was better for the diagnosis of thymoma . Q8WZ42 antibody occurred most frequently in severe myasthenia gravis . DB04860 , an agonist of Q9NYK1 , reduces plasma virus concentration in chronic hepatitis C infection . Immune-based therapy is the mainstay treatment for chronic hepatitis C virus ( HCV ) infection but causes multiple side effects and achieves durable viral clearance in only approximately 50 % of patients . Most new investigational anti-HCV compounds are direct-acting antivirals for which durability of response and risk of viral mutations and resistance are not yet known . Therefore , continuing discovery and development of new immune-based treatments is desirable . Toll-like receptors ( TLRs ) are pathogen recognition receptors that initiate the innate immune response . The responsiveness of HCV or other ongoing chronic systemic infections to treatment with a selective TLR agonist has not been reported . DB04860 is a selective agonist of Q9NYK1 . In a proof-of-concept study , we found that once-daily 7-day treatment with intravenous isatoribine 800 mg caused a significant ( P = .001 ) reduction of plasma HCV RNA ( mean , -0.76 ; range , -2.85 to +0.21 log(10) units ) in otherwise untreated patients ( n = 12 ) who were chronically infected with HCV . Viral load reduction occurred in patients infected with genotype 1 as well as non-genotype 1 HCV . The reduction of viral load was correlated with induction of markers of a heightened immune antiviral state , including 2'- , 5'- oligoadenylate synthetase levels in whole blood . This treatment was well tolerated , with a low frequency of mild to moderate adverse events . In conclusion , systemic administration of the selective Q9NYK1 agonist isatoribine resulted in dose-dependent changes in immunologic biomarkers and a statistically significant antiviral effect with relatively few and mild side effects . Effect of valproic acid through regulation of DB01221 receptor- P29323 signaling in sleep deprivation rats . Although the effect of mood stabilizer valproic acid ( DB00313 ) through multiple signaling pathways has been shown , its therapeutic mechanism is still largely unknown . We investigated the effect of DB00313 ( 200 mg/kg , every 12 h ) in sleep deprivation ( SD ) rats ( 72 h ) , the manic-like animal model , focusing on the N-methyl-D : -aspartic acid ( DB01221 ) receptor and signaling mediators of synaptic plasticity such as extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase ( P29323 ) , DB02527 response element-binding protein ( CREB ) , B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia/lymphoma 2 ( P10415 ) , and brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( P23560 ) . SD reduced the expression of the Q13224 subunit of the DB01221 receptor in the frontal cortex and hippocampus but did not affect the expression of Q9UHB4 and Q12879 subunits . In comparison , DB00313 inhibited the SD-induced reduction of Q13224 expression in both brain regions . In addition , SD attenuated P29323 phosphorylation in the frontal cortex and hippocampus , whereas DB00313 prevented the attenuation . DB00313 also protected the SD-induced decrease of CREB phosphorylation , P10415 expression , and P23560 expression in the frontal cortex but not in the hippocampus . These results indicate that DB00313 could regulate DB01221 receptor- P29323 signaling in SD rats , preventing the SD-induced decrease of the expression of Q13224 subunit and the activation of P29323 signaling mediators such as P29323 , CREB , P10415 , and P23560 . Intracerebroventricular injection of ghrelin and growth hormone releasing factor inhibits food intake in neonatal chicks . Growth hormone releasing factor ( P01286 ) is known to stimulate feeding of rats . Ghrelin , a novel growth hormone ( GH ) -releasing acylated peptide , was recently isolated from rat stomach . It also stimulates the release of GH from the anterior pituitary through the GH secretagogue receptor ( Q92847 ) and feeding in the rat . We have investigated the effects of ghrelin and P01286 on food intake of the neonatal chick . In Experiment 1 , 0 , 1.25 , 2.5 and 5 microg of ghrelin were administered intracerebroventricularly ( i.c.v. ) to ad libitum fed birds . In Experiment 2 , the effect of ( i.c.v. ) injection of 0 , 1.25 , 2.5 and 5 microg of P01286 was investigated . Both peptides strongly inhibited food intake of the chick during the 2-h post-injection period . In the third experiment , 0 , 0.5 , 1 and 2 microg of ghrelin was injected i.c.v. in chicks previously deprived of food for 3 h . Food intake was again inhibited by ghrelin in a dose-dependent manner . These results suggest that the mechanisms for feeding of the neonatal chick through GH release are different from mammals . Effects of C-phycocyanin and Spirulina on salicylate-induced tinnitus , expression of DB01221 receptor and inflammatory genes . Effects of C-phycocyanin ( C-PC ) , the active component of Spirulina platensis water extract on the expressions of N-methyl D-aspartate receptor subunit 2B ( Q13224 ) , tumor necrosis factor-α ( P01375 -α ) , interleukin-1β ( IL-1β ) , and cyclooxygenase type 2 ( P35354 ) genes in the cochlea and inferior colliculus ( IC ) of mice were evaluated after tinnitus was induced by intraperitoneal injection of salicylate . The results showed that 4-day salicylate treatment ( unlike 4-day saline treatment ) caused a significant increase in Q13224 , P01375 -α , and IL-1β mRNAs expression in the cochlea and IC . On the other hand , dietary supplementation with C-PC or Spirulina platensis water extract significantly reduced the salicylate-induced tinnitus and down-regulated the mRNAs expression of Q13224 , P01375 -α , IL-1β mRNAs , and P35354 genes in the cochlea and IC of mice . The changes of protein expression levels were generally correlated with those of mRNAs expression levels in the IC for above genes . Development of fulminant Type 1 diabetes with thrombocytopenia after influenza vaccination : a case report . BACKGROUND : Fulminant Type 1 diabetes was originally reported as idiopathic Type 1 diabetes . Involvement of viral infections in the pathogenesis of fulminant T1D has been suggested , but the development of fulminant Type 1 diabetes after influenza vaccination has not been reported . CASE REPORT : We report a case of fulminant Type 1 diabetes with thrombocytopenia following influenza vaccination . A 54-year-old man was admitted to hospital with hyperglycaemia and diabetic ketosis . Seven days before admission , he received a seasonal influenza vaccine for the prevention of influenza infection . On admission , blood glucose was 29 mmol/L and HbA1c 40 mmol/mol ( 5.9 % ) . Fasting and 2-h C-peptide immunoreactivity were < 0.0333 nmol/L and 0.0999 nmol/L , respectively . Anti- Q99259 and anti-IA-2 antibodies were negative , so no autoimmunity seemed to participate in the etiology . ELISPOT assay also showed no association with T cell-mediated autoimmunity . HLA genotypes were consistent with susceptibility to fulminant Type 1 diabetes . After the abrupt onset of diabetes , he showed mild thrombocytopenia , which has been observed for approximately 5 years after diabetes development . CONCLUSION : This is the first description of fulminant Type 1 diabetes after influenza vaccination . Our observation raises the possibility that influenza vaccination might trigger this condition via the Q9NYK1 pathway . Pharmacokinetic profiles of the novel P35354 selective inhibitor cimicoxib in dogs . DB05095 ( CX ) is a novel imidazole derivative that is a cyclo-oxygenase ( P36551 ) -2 selective non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug and the latest P35354 selective inhibitor to be released for veterinary use . Currently there is limited information available on the pharmacokinetic ( PK ) properties of CX . The aim of the current study was to evaluate the PK features of CX after administration of the recommended dose and after administration of a more variable dose rate in the form of the commercially available tablet . In addition , the effects of food intake on the PK properties were also evaluated . In the first study , five healthy Beagle dogs received 2mg/kg CX via the oral route following a period of fasting . The second study was conducted using six healthy Labrador retriever dogs which each received an 80 mg tablet ( approximate dose 1.95-2.5mg/kg ) using a crossover design , both in the fasted and fed condition . The plasma concentrations of CX were detected by a validated HPLC method . No adverse effects were observed in any dogs during the experiment . The results from the PK analysis were similar between the studies , regardless of precision of dose and fasted and fed conditions . The mean peak concentration of CX was 0.49 and 0.43 μg/mL under fasted and fed conditions , respectively . The mean half-life was about 3h after all treatments . In addition , simulated multiple dosing data revealed that time over minimal effective concentration was similar after 1.95 , 2.0 and 2.5mg/kg dose administrations . These findings suggest that slight variation from the recommended dose should not alter the therapeutic outcome . In addition , CX can be administered to fed dogs without significantly affecting blood levels . Differential expression of retinoic acid receptor-beta isoforms during chick limb ontogeny . Retinoids influence both morphogenetic events and differentiation during development of the vertebrate limb . These effects are mediated through nuclear retinoid receptors , which modulate target gene expression . We report here the cloning and characterization of three promoter- and splicing-variants of the retinoic acid receptor-beta ( P10826 ) from chick . These receptor isoforms are independently expressed during limb development . RAR beta 2 but not RAR beta 1 transcripts are enriched three-fold in the posterior limb bud , reflecting the increased RA concentrations in this region . RAR beta 1 transcripts are initially present throughout the limb bud mesenchyme and ectoderm , then become restricted within perichondrial regions and loose connective tissue of the limb . RAR beta 1 expression closely overlaps that of P13591 ( neural cell adhesion molecule ) and tenascin in non-neuronal tissues . RAR beta 2 transcripts are present within a subset of those limb tissues which express RAR beta 1 . In the early limb bud RAR beta 2 transcripts are detected in proximal limb mesenchyme and in the initial mesenchymal condensate . In older limbs RAR beta 2 mRNAs are abundant in cells lateral to the digit cartilage . Neither RAR beta 1 nor RAR beta 2 transcripts are associated specifically with regions of limb cell death . The differential expression and regulation of RAR beta isoforms suggests these variants may have different roles in limb development . Q13224 -containing DB01221 receptors promote glutamate synapse development in hippocampal interneurons . In postnatal development , Q13224 -containing NMDARs are critical for the functional maturation of glutamatergic synapses . Q13224 -containing NMDARs prevail until the second postnatal week when Q12879 subunits are progressively added , conferring mature properties to NMDARs . In cortical principal neurons , deletion of Q13224 results in an increase in functional AMPAR synapses , suggesting that Q13224 -containing NMDARs set a brake on glutamate synapse maturation . The function of Q13224 in the maturation of glutamatergic inputs to cortical interneurons is not known . To examine the function of Q13224 in interneurons , we generated mutant mice with conditional deletion of Q13224 in interneurons ( Q13224 (Δ Q99259 ) ) . In Q13224 (Δ Q99259 ) mice interneurons distributed normally in cortical brain regions . After the second postnatal week , Q13224 (Δ Q99259 ) mice developed hippocampal seizures and died shortly thereafter . Before the onset of seizures , Q13224 -deficient hippocampal interneurons received fewer glutamatergic synaptic inputs than littermate controls , indicating that Q13224 -containing NMDARs positively regulate the maturation of glutamatergic input synapses in interneurons . These findings suggest that Q13224 -containing NMDARs keep the circuit activity under control by promoting the maturation of excitatory synapses in interneurons . Expression of P35354 and DB01221 receptor genes at the cochlea and midbrain in salicylate-induced tinnitus . OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS : The expression of the genes for cyclooxygenase ( P36551 ) and DB01221 receptor ( NR ) has seldom been reported in tinnitus . We hypothesized that expression of P35354 and NR was altered in the cochlea and midbrain in salicylate-induced tinnitus . STUDY DESIGN : Experimental study on mice . METHODS : We evaluated the tinnitus score and mRNA expression levels of P35354 and NR subtype 2B ( Q13224 ) in the cochlea and midbrain in response to intraperitoneal injections of salicylate for 4 days . RESULTS : At day 4 of tinnitus induction , the mean weights of the whole body and midbrain did not change greatly in both control and salicylate groups . The tinnitus score was not elevated from day 1 to day 4 in the control group , but increased day by day in the salicylate group . The mRNA expression level of P35354 decreased slightly in the salicylate group in the cochlea ( 1.1 ± 0.33 vs. 1.3 ± 0.49 , P = .0752 ) and in the midbrain ( 0.9 ± 0.10 versus 1.0 ± 0.35 , P = .0489 ) . Inversely , the expression levels of the Q13224 gene increased moderately in the salicylate group in the cochlea ( 3.7 ± 0.47 versus 2.3 ± 1.13 , P < 0.0001 ) and in the midbrain ( 1.6 ± 0.64 versus 1.0 ± 0.44 , P = .0007 ) . CONCLUSIONS : Salicylate induced tinnitus and altered the expression of the P35354 and Q13224 genes in the cochlea and midbrain of mice . These findings might contribute to further understanding of pathophysiology and therapy of tinnitus .