Methods of computing square roots

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```					Methods of computing square roots
Rough estimation
Many of the methods for calculating square roots of a positive real number S require
an initial seed value. If the initial value is too far from the actual square root, the
calculation will be slowed down. It is therefore useful to have a rough estimate, which
may be very inaccurate but easy to calculate. If S ≥ 1, let D be the number of digits to
the left of the decimal point. If S < 1, let D be the negative of the number of zeros to
the immediate right of the decimal point. Then the rough estimation is this:

If D is odd, D = 2n + 1, then use
If D is even, D = 2n + 2, then use

Two      and      six    are     used       because                                 and

When working in the binary numeral system (as computers do internally), an
alternative method is to use (here D is the number of binary digits).

Babylonian method

Graph charting the use of the Babylonian method for approximating the square root of
100 (10) using start values x0=50, x0=1, and x0=-5. Note that using a negative start
value yields the negative root.

Perhaps the first algorithm used for approximating       is known as the "Babylonian
method", named after the Babylonians,[1] or "Heron's method", named after the first-
century Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria who gave the first explicit
description of the method.[2] It can be derived from (but predates) Newton's method.
This is a quadratically convergent algorithm, which means that the number of correct
digits of the approximation roughly doubles with each iteration. It proceeds as
follows:

1. Start with an arbitrary positive start value x0 (the closer to the root, the better).
2. Let xn+1 be the average of xn and S / xn (using the arithmetic mean to
approximate the geometric mean).
3. Repeat step 2 until the desired accuracy is achieved.

It can also be represented as:

This algorithm works equally well in the p-adic numbers, but cannot be used to
identify real square roots with p-adic square roots; it is easy, for example, to construct
a sequence of rational numbers by this method which converges to + 3 in the reals,
but to − 3 in the 2-adics.

Example

To calculate      , where S = 125348, to 6 significant figures, we will use the rough
estimation method above to get x0. The number of digits in S is D=6=2·2+2. So, n=2
and the rough estimate is

Therefore,

Convergence

We let the relative error in xn be defined by
and thus

Then one can show that

and thus that

and consequently that convergence is assured provided that x0 and S are both positive.

Worst case for convergence

If one is using the rough estimate above with the Babylonian method, then the worst
cases are:

Thus in any case,

Remember that rounding errors will slow the convergence. One should keep at least
one extra digit beyond the desired accuracy of the xn which you are calculating to
minimize round off error.
Exponential identity
Pocket calculators typically implement good routines to compute the exponential
function and the natural logarithm, and then compute the square root of S using the
identity

The same identity is used when computing square roots with logarithm tables or slide
rules.

Method of bisecting intervals
Another simple way to find a square root is the high/low method, similar to the
bisection method. This method involves guessing a number based on known squares,
then checking if its square is too high or too low and adjusting accordingly.

Suppose you want to find the square root of 20. You know that the square of 5 is 25,
and that the square of 4 is 16, so it must be between 4 and 5. Now you guess 4.5. The
square of 4.5 equals 20.25 and is too high, so you guess 4.4. This equals 19.36 and is
too low. So the root is between 4.4 and 4.5. Continue this pattern until you get as
many decimal places as needed. We are going to stop at three.

4.452 = 19.8025 (too low)
4.472 = 19.9809 (too low, but close)
4.482 = 20.0704 (too high)
4.4752 = 20.025625 (too high)
4.4732 = 20.007729 (too high, but close)
4.4722 = 19.998784 (too low)

Now that we know that it is between 4.472 and 4.473, we now know that the square
root of 20 to the first three decimal places is 4.472.

Bakhshali approximation
This is a method for finding an approximation to a square root which was described in
an ancient manuscript known as the Bakhshali manuscript. It is equivalent to two
iterations of the Babylonian method beginning with N. The original presentation goes
as follows: To calculate        , let N2 be the nearest perfect square to S. Then,
calculate:
This can be also written as:

Example

We'll find

Digit-by-digit calculation
This is a method to find each digit of the square root in a sequence. It is slower than
the Babylonian method (if you have a calculator which can divide in one operation),

   It can be easier for manual calculations.
   Every digit of the root found is known to be correct, i.e. it will not have to be
changed later.
   If the square root has an expansion which terminates, the algorithm will
terminate after the last digit is found. Thus, it can be used to check whether a
given integer is a square number.

Napier's bones include an aid for the execution of this algorithm. The shifting nth-root
algorithm is a generalization of this method.

The algorithm works for any base, and naturally, the way it proceeds depends on the
base chosen.

Decimal (base 10)

Write the original number in decimal form. The numbers are written similar to the
long division algorithm, and, as in long division, the root will be written on the line
above. Now separate the digits into pairs, starting from the decimal point and going
both left and right. The decimal point of the root will be above the decimal point of
the square. One digit of the root will appear above each pair of digits of the square.

Beginning with the left-most pair of digits, do the following procedure for each pair:

1. Starting on the left, bring down the most significant (leftmost) pair of digits
not yet used (if all the digits have been used, write "00") and write them to the
right of the remainder from the previous step (on the first step, there will be no
remainder). In other words, multiply the remainder by 100 and add the two
digits. This will be the current value c.
2. Find p, y and x, as follows:
o Let p be the part of the root found so far, ignoring any decimal point.
(For the first step, p = 0).
o
Determine the greatest digit x such that                             does
not exceed c.
 Note: 20p + x is simply twice p, with the digit x appended to
the right).
 Note: You can find x by guessing what c/(20·p) is and doing a
trial calculation of y, then adjusting x upward or downward as
necessary.
o Place the digit x as the next digit of the root, i.e above the two digits of
the square which you just brought down. Thus the next p will be the
old p times 10 plus x.
3. Subtract y from c to form a new remainder.
4. If the remainder is zero and there are no more digits to bring down, then the
algorithm has terminated. Otherwise go back to step 1 for another iteration.

Examples

Find the square root of 152.2756.

1   2. 3   4
/
\/       01 52.27 56

01                     1*1 <= 1 < 2*2                 x = 1
01                       y = x*x = 1*1 = 1
00 52                  22*2 <= 52 < 23*3              x = 2
00 44                    y = (20+x)*x = 22*2 = 44
08 27               243*3 <= 827 < 244*4           x = 3
07 29                 y = (240+x)*x = 243*3 = 729
98 56            2464*4 <= 9856 < 2465*5        x = 4
98 56              y = (2460+x)*x = 2464*4 = 9856
00 00            Algorithm terminates: Answer is 12.34

Find the square root of 2.

1. 4   1   4   2
/
\/       02.00 00 00 00

02                     1*1 <= 2 < 2*2                 x =         1
01                       y = x*x = 1*1 = 1
01 00                  24*4 <= 100 < 25*5             x =         4
00 96                    y = (20+x)*x = 24*4 = 96
04      00          281*1 <= 400 < 282*2           x =         1
02      81            y = (280+x)*x = 281*1 = 281
01      19 00       2824*4 <= 11900 < 2825*5       x =         4
01      12 96         y = (2820+x)*x = 2824*4 = 11296
06 04 00    28282*2 <= 60400 < 28283*3     x =         2
The desired precision is achieved:
The square root of 2 is about 1.4142

Binary numeral system (base 2)

Inherent to digit-by-digit algorithms is a search and test step: find a digit,      , when
added to the right of a current solution ', such that                     , where
is the value for which a root is desired. Expanding, we obtain
. The current value of          —or, usually, the
remainder—can be incrementally updated efficiently when working in binary, as the
value of will be a single bit, and the operations needed to compute           and
can be replaced with faster bit shift operations. This gives rise to simple
computer implementations:[3]

short sqrt(short num) {
short op = num;
short res = 0;
short one = 1 << 14; // The second-to-top bit is set: 1L<<30
for long

// "one" starts at the highest power of four <= the argument.
while (one > op)
one >>= 2;

while (one != 0) {
if (op >= res + one) {
op -= res + one;
res = (res >> 1) + one;
}
else
res >>= 1;
one >>= 2;
}
return res;
}

Faster algorithms, in binary and decimal or any other base, can be realized by using
lookup tables—in effect trading more storage space for reduced run time.[4]

Vedic duplex method for extracting a square root
The duplex method is a variant of the digit by digit method for calculating the square
root of a whole or decimal number one digit at a time.[5] The duplex is the square of
the central digit plus double the cross-product of digits equidistant from the center.
The duplex is computed from the quotient digits (square root digits) computed thus
far, but after the initial digits. The duplex is subtracted from the dividend digit prior to
the second subtraction for the product of the quotient digit times the divisor digit. For
perfect squares the duplex and the dividend will get smaller and reach zero after a few
steps. For non-perfect squares the decimal value of the square root can be calculated
to any precision desired. However, as the decimal places proliferate, the duplex
adjustment gets larger and longer to calculate. The duplex method follows the Vedic
ideal for an algorithm, one-line, mental calculation. It is flexible in choosing the first
digit group and the divisor. Small divisors are to be avoided by starting with a larger
initial group.
In short, to calculate the duplex of a number, double the product of each pair of
equidistant digits plus the square of the center digit (of the digits to the right of the
colon).

Number => Calculation = Duplex
574 ==> 2(5·4) + 72 = 89
406,739 ==> 2(4·9)+ 2(0·3)+ 2(6·7) = 72+0+84 = 156
123,456 ==> 2(1·6)+ 2(2·5)+ 2(3·4) = 12 +20 +24 = 56
88,900,777 ==> 2(8·7)+2(8·7)+2(9·7)+2(0·0)+2(0·0) = 112+112+126+0+0 =
350
48329,03711 ==> 2(4·1)+2(8·1)+2(3·7)+2(2·3)+2(9·0)= 8+16+42+12+0 = 78

In a square root calculation the quotient digit set increases incrementally for each step.

Number => Calculation = Duplex:
1 ==> 12 = 1
14 ==>2(1·4) = 8
142 ==> 2(1·2) + 42 = 4 + 16 = 20
14,21 ==> 2(1·1) + 2(4·2) = 2 + 16 = 18
14213 ==> 6+8+4 = 18
142,135 ==> 10+24+4 = 38
1421356 ==> 12+40+12+1 = 65
1421,3562 ==> 4+48+20+6 = 78
142,135,623 ==> 6+16+24+10+9 = 65
142,1356,237 ==> 14+24+8+12+30 = 88
142,13562,373 ==> 6+56+12+4+36+25 = 139

Example 1, by discussion

Consider the perfect square 2809 = 532. Use the duplex method to find the square root
of 2,809.

   Set down the number in groups of two digits.
   We define a divisor, a dividend and a quotient to find the root.
   Given 2809. Consider the first group, 28.
o Find the nearest perfect square below that group.
o The root of that perfect square is the first digit of our root.
2
o Since 28 > 25 and 25 = 5 , we take 5 as the first digit in the square
root.
o For the divisor we take double this first digit (2 · 5), which is 10.
   Next, we set up a division framework with a colon.
o 28: 0 9 is the dividend and 5: is the quotient.
o We put a colon to the right of 28 and 5 and keep the colons lined up
vertically. The duplex is calculated only on quotient digits to the right
of the colon.
   We calculate the remainder. 28: minus 25: is 3:.
o We append the remainder on the left of the next digit to get the new
dividend.
o Here, we append 3 to the next dividend digit 0, which makes the new
dividend 30. The divisor 10 goes into 30 just 3 times. (No reserve
needed here for subsequent deductions.)
   We repeat the operation.
o The zero remainder appended to 9. Nine is the next dividend.
o   Now we have a digit to the right of the colon so we deduct the duplex,
32 = 9.
o   Subtracting this duplex from the dividend 9, we get a zero remainder.
o   Ten into zero is zero. The next root digit is zero. The next duplex is
2(3·0) = 0.
o   The dividend is zero. We have an exact square root, 53.0.

Example 1, analysis and square root framework

Find the square root of 2809.
Set down the number in groups of two digits.
The number of groups gives the number of whole digits in the root.
Put a colon after the first group, 28, to separate it.
From the first group, 28, we obtain the divisor, 10, since
28>25=52 and by doubling this first root, 2x5=10.
Gross dividend:     28: 0 9. Using mental math:
Divisor: 10)     3 0    Square: 10) 28: 30 9
Duplex, Deduction:     25: xx 09 Square root: 5:     3. 0
Dividend:         30 00
Remainder:      3: 00 00
Square Root, Quotient:      5: 3. 0

Example 2

Find the square root of 2,080,180,881. Solution by the duplex method: this ten-digit
square has five digit-pairs, so it will have a five-digit square root. The first digit-pair
is 20. Put the colon to the right. The nearest square below 20 is 16, whose root is 4,
the first root digit. So, we use 2·4=8 for the divisor. Now we proceed with the duplex
division, one digit column at a time. Prefix the remainder to the next dividend digit.

divisor; gross dividend: 8) 20: 8     0  1   8    0   8                     8     1
read the dividend diagonally up: 4    8   7 11    10 10                     0     8
minus the duplex:    16: xx 25 60 36      90 108                   00    81
actual dividend:      : 48 55 11 82      10 00                    08    00
minus the product:      : 40 48 00 72      00 00                      0   00
remainder:     4: 8     7 11 10    10   0                     8   00
quotient:     4: 5, 6     0   9.   0   0                     0     0
Duplex calculations:
Quotient-digits ==> Duplex deduction.
5        ==> 52= 25
5 and 6 ==> 2(5·6) = 60
5,6,0    ==> 2(5·0)+62 = 36
5,6,0,9 ==> 2(5·9)+2(6·0) = 90
5,6,0,9,0 ==> 2(5·0)+2(6·9)+ 0 = 108
5,6,0,9,0,0 ==> 2(5·0)+2(6·0)+2(0·9) = 0
5,6,0,9,0,0,0 ==> 2(5·0)+2(6·0)+2(0·0)+92 = 81

Hence the square root of 2,080,180,881 is exactly 45,609.

] Example 3

Find the square root of two to ten places. Let us take 20,000 as the beginning group,
using three digit-pairs at the start. The perfect square just below 20,000 is 141, since
1412 = 19881 < 20,000. So, the first root digits are 141 and the divisor doubled, 2 x
141 = 282. With a larger divisor the duplex will be relatively small. Hence, we can
pick the multiple of the divisor without confusion.

Dividend: 2.0000 :    0               0       0        0       0        0       0
0
Diagonal;Divisor: (282) : 1190               620     400    1020     1620     1820      750
1120
Minus duplex:         : xxxx             16       16      12      28       53       74
59
Actual dividend: 20000 : 1190              604     384    1008     1592     1767      676
1061
Minus product: 19881 : 1128              564     282      846    1410     1692      564
846
Remainder:     119 :   62             40     102     162      182       75      112
215
Root quotient:   1.41 :     4              2        1       3        5       6        2
3

Ten multiples of 282: 282; 564; 846; 1128; 1410; 1692; 1974; 2256; 2538; 2820.

A two-variable iterative method
This method is applicable for finding the square root of                     and converges
best for         . This, however, is no real limitation for a computer based calculation,
as in base 2 floating point and fixed point representations, it is trivial to multiply by
an integer power of 4, and therefore         by the corresponding power of 2, by
changing the exponent or by shifting, respectively. Therefore, one can move to the

range                 . Moreover, the following method does not employ general
divisions, but only additions, subtractions, multiplications, and divisions by powers of
two, which are again trivial to implement. A disadvantage of the method is that
numerical errors accumulate, in contrast to single variable iterative methods such as
the Babylonian one.

The initialization step of this method is

Then,               (while           ).

Note that the convergence of      , and therefore also of   , is quadratic.

The proof of the method is rather easy. First, we rewrite the iterative definition of
as
.

Then it is straightforward to prove by induction that

and therefore the convergence of        to the desired result         is ensured by the
convergence of    to 0, which in turn follows from                    .

This method was developed around 1950 by M. V. Wilkes, D. J. Wheeler and S.
Gill[6] for use on EDSAC, one of the first electronic computers[7]. The method was
later generalized, allowing the computation of non-square roots[8].

Iterative methods for reciprocal square roots
The following are iterative methods for finding the reciprocal square root of S which
is          . Once it has been found, we can find             by simple multiplication:
. These iterations involve only multiplication, and not division.
They are therefore faster than the Babylonian method. However, they are not stable. If
the initial value is not close to the reciprocal square root, the iterations will diverge
away from it rather than converge to it. It can therefore be advantageous to perform an
iteration of the Babylonian method on a rough estimate before starting to apply these
methods.

   One method is found by applying Newton's method to the equation (1       / x2) −
S = 0. It converges quadratically:

   Another iteration obtained by Halley's method, which is the Householder's
method of order two, converges cubically, but involves more operations per
iteration:

Taylor series
If N is an approximation to        , a better approximation can be found by using the
Taylor series of the square root function:
As an iterative method, the order of convergence is equal to the number of terms used.
With 2 terms, it is identical to the Babylonian method; With 3 terms, each iteration
takes almost as many operations as the Bakhshali approximation, but converges more
slowly. Therefore, this is not a particularly efficient way of calculation.

Other methods
Finding       is the same as solving the equation                 . Therefore, any
general numerical root-finding algorithm can be used. Newton's method, for example,
reduces in this case to the Babylonian method. Other methods are less efficient than
the ones presented above.

A completely different method for computing the square root is based on the
CORDIC algorithm, which uses only very simple operations (addition, subtraction,
bitshift and table lookup, but no multiplication).

Continued fraction expansion

Quadratic irrationals (numbers of the form            , where a, b and c are integers),
and in particular, square roots of integers, have periodic continued fractions.
Sometimes we may be interested not in finding the numerical value of a square root,
but rather in its continued fraction expansion. The following iterative algorithm can
be used for this purpose (S is any natural number which is not a perfect square):

Notice that mn, dn, and an are always integers. The algorithm terminates when this
triplet is the same as one encountered before. The expansion will repeat from then on.
The sequence [a0; a1, a2, a3, …] is the continued fraction expansion:
Example, square root of 114 as a continued fraction

We begin with m0 = 0; d0 = 1; and a0 = 10 (102 = 100 and 112 = 121 > 114 so 10
chosen).

So, m1 = 10; d1 = 14; and a1 = 1.

Next, m2 = 4; d2 = 7; and a2 = 2.

Now, loop back to the second equation above.

Consequently, the continued fraction for the square root of 114 is
Pell's equation
Pell's equation and its variants yield a method for efficiently finding continued
fraction convergents of square roots of integers. However, it can be complicated to
execute, and usually not every convergent is generated. The ideas behind the method
are as follows:

   If (p, q) is a solution (where p and q are integers) to the equation

, then is a continued fraction convergent of   , and as
such, is an excellent rational approximation to it.
   If (pa, qa) and (pb, qb) are solutions, then so is:

(compare to the multiplication of quadratic integers)

   More generally, if (p1, q1) is a solution, then it is possible to generate a
sequence of solutions (pn, qn) satisfying:

The method is as follows:

   Find positive integers p1 and q1 such that              . This is the hard
part; It can be done either by guessing, or by using fairly sophisticated
techniques.

   To generate a long list of convergents, iterate:

   To find the larger convergents quickly, iterate:

Notice that the corresponding sequence of fractions coincides with the one
given by the Hero's method starting with       .

   In either case,      is a rational approximation satisfying
Approximations that depend on IEEE representation
On computers, a very rapid Newton's-method-based approximation to the square root
can be obtained for floating point numbers when computers use an IEEE (or
sufficiently similar) representation.

This technique is based on the fact that the IEEE floating point format approximates
base-2 logarithm. For example, you can get the approximate logarithm of 32-bit single
precision floating point number by translating its binary representation as an integer,
23
scaling it by 2 , and removing a bias of 127.

For example, 1.0 is represented by a hexadecimal number 0x3F800000, which would
represent 1065353216 =              if taken as an integer. Using the formula above
23
you get 1065353216 / 2 − 127 = 0, as expected from log2(1.0). In a similar
fashion you get 0.5 from 1.5(0x3FC00000).

In order to get the square root, we can divide the logarithm by 2 and convert the value
back. The following program demonstrates the idea. Note that we intentionally allow
the exponent's lowest bit to propagate into the mantissa.

float fastsqrt(float val) {
union
{
int tmp;
float val;
} u;
u.val = val;
u.tmp -= 1<<23; /* Remove last bit so 1.0 gives 1.0 */
/* tmp is now an approximation to logbase2(val) */
u.tmp >>= 1; /* divide by 2 */
u.tmp += 1<<29; /* add 64 to exponent: (e+127)/2 =(e/2)+63,
*/
/* that represents (e/2)-64 but we want e/2 */
return u.val;
}

In the above, the operations to remove last exponent bit and add the IEEE bias can be
operation to reduce the maximum relative error. So, the three operations, not
including the cast, can be rewritten as:

tmp = (1<<29) + (tmp >> 1) - (1<<22) + m;

Where m is a bias for adjusting the approximation errors. For example, with m = 0
you get accurate results for even powers of 2 (e.g. 1.0), but for other numbers the
results will be slightly too big (e.g. you get 1.5 for 2.0 instead of 1.414... with 6%
error). With m = -0x4C000 you get errors between about -3.5% and 3.5%.

If the approximation is to be used for an initial guess for Newton's method to the
2
equation (1 / x ) − S = 0, you need to use a reciprocal form shown in the following
section.

Reciprocal of the square root

A variant of the above routine is included below, which can be used to compute the
reciprocal of the square root, i.e.        instead, was written by Greg Walsh, and
implemented into SGI Indigo by Gary Tarolli.[9][10] The integer-shift approximation
produced a relative error of less than 4%, and the error dropped further to 0.15% with
one iteration of Newton's method on the following line.[11] In computer graphics it is a
very efficient way to normalize a vector.

float invSqrt(float x)
{
float xhalf = 0.5f*x;
union
{
float x;
int i;
} u;
u.x = x;
u.i = 0x5f3759df - (u.i >> 1);
x = u.x * (1.5f - xhalf * u.x * u.x);
return x;
}

Some VLSI hardware implements inverse square root using a second degree
polynomial estimation followed by a Goldschmidt iteration.

```
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The provided text is a detailed explanation of various methods for computing square roots, including rough estimation, the Babylonian method, the method of bisecting intervals, the Bakhshali approximation, digit-by-digit calculation, the Vedic duplex method, and others. It also discusses iterative methods for reciprocal square roots and methods that depend on IEEE floating-point representation.

### Analysis:

1. **Content Structure**:
   - The text is a comprehensive guide to different methods for calculating square roots, including both historical and modern techniques.
   - It includes detailed steps and examples for each method, making it a rich resource for understanding the mathematical processes involved.

2. **Mathematical Questions and Answers**:
   - The text contains multiple mathematical questions and examples, such as calculating the square root of 125348 using the Babylonian method, finding the square root of 20 using the method of bisecting intervals, and calculating the square root of 2809 using the Vedic duplex method.
   - For each example, the text provides a step-by-step solution, effectively answering the questions posed.

###
- **multiple_questions_with_answers**

### explanation:
- **multiple questions**: the text presents several different methods
Given a text passage, determine:
    1. If it contains a mathematical question (including word problems or calculations)
    2. If an answer to that mathematical question is provided in the text

First, describe the content structure you found in 1-2 sentences.

Then provide your analysis in the following format:
TYPE: <one of the following values>
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- MULTIPLE_QUESTIONS
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system
Methods of computing square roots

Document Sample

```					Methods of computing square roots
Rough estimation
Many of the methods for calculating square roots of a positive real number S require
an initial seed value. If the initial value is too far from the actual square root, the
calculation will be slowed down. It is therefore useful to have a rough estimate, which
may be very inaccurate but easy to calculate. If S ≥ 1, let D be the number of digits to
the left of the decimal point. If S < 1, let D be the negative of the number of zeros to
the immediate right of the decimal point. Then the rough estimation is this:

If D is odd, D = 2n + 1, then use
If D is even, D = 2n + 2, then use

Two      and      six    are     used       because                                 and

When working in the binary numeral system (as computers do internally), an
alternative method is to use (here D is the number of binary digits).

Babylonian method

Graph charting the use of the Babylonian method for approximating the square root of
100 (10) using start values x0=50, x0=1, and x0=-5. Note that using a negative start
value yields the negative root.

Perhaps the first algorithm used for approximating       is known as the "Babylonian
method", named after the Babylonians,[1] or "Heron's method", named after the first-
century Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria who gave the first explicit
description of the method.[2] It can be derived from (but predates) Newton's method.
This is a quadratically convergent algorithm, which means that the number of correct
digits of the approximation roughly doubles with each iteration. It proceeds as
follows:

1. Start with an arbitrary positive start value x0 (the closer to the root, the better).
2. Let xn+1 be the average of xn and S / xn (using the arithmetic mean to
approximate the geometric mean).
3. Repeat step 2 until the desired accuracy is achieved.

It can also be represented as:

This algorithm works equally well in the p-adic numbers, but cannot be used to
identify real square roots with p-adic square roots; it is easy, for example, to construct
a sequence of rational numbers by this method which converges to + 3 in the reals,
but to − 3 in the 2-adics.

Example

To calculate      , where S = 125348, to 6 significant figures, we will use the rough
estimation method above to get x0. The number of digits in S is D=6=2·2+2. So, n=2
and the rough estimate is

Therefore,

Convergence

We let the relative error in xn be defined by
and thus

Then one can show that

and thus that

and consequently that convergence is assured provided that x0 and S are both positive.

Worst case for convergence

If one is using the rough estimate above with the Babylonian method, then the worst
cases are:

Thus in any case,

Remember that rounding errors will slow the convergence. One should keep at least
one extra digit beyond the desired accuracy of the xn which you are calculating to
minimize round off error.
Exponential identity
Pocket calculators typically implement good routines to compute the exponential
function and the natural logarithm, and then compute the square root of S using the
identity

The same identity is used when computing square roots with logarithm tables or slide
rules.

Method of bisecting intervals
Another simple way to find a square root is the high/low method, similar to the
bisection method. This method involves guessing a number based on known squares,
then checking if its square is too high or too low and adjusting accordingly.

Suppose you want to find the square root of 20. You know that the square of 5 is 25,
and that the square of 4 is 16, so it must be between 4 and 5. Now you guess 4.5. The
square of 4.5 equals 20.25 and is too high, so you guess 4.4. This equals 19.36 and is
too low. So the root is between 4.4 and 4.5. Continue this pattern until you get as
many decimal places as needed. We are going to stop at three.

4.452 = 19.8025 (too low)
4.472 = 19.9809 (too low, but close)
4.482 = 20.0704 (too high)
4.4752 = 20.025625 (too high)
4.4732 = 20.007729 (too high, but close)
4.4722 = 19.998784 (too low)

Now that we know that it is between 4.472 and 4.473, we now know that the square
root of 20 to the first three decimal places is 4.472.

Bakhshali approximation
This is a method for finding an approximation to a square root which was described in
an ancient manuscript known as the Bakhshali manuscript. It is equivalent to two
iterations of the Babylonian method beginning with N. The original presentation goes
as follows: To calculate        , let N2 be the nearest perfect square to S. Then,
calculate:
This can be also written as:

Example

We'll find

Digit-by-digit calculation
This is a method to find each digit of the square root in a sequence. It is slower than
the Babylonian method (if you have a calculator which can divide in one operation),

   It can be easier for manual calculations.
   Every digit of the root found is known to be correct, i.e. it will not have to be
changed later.
   If the square root has an expansion which terminates, the algorithm will
terminate after the last digit is found. Thus, it can be used to check whether a
given integer is a square number.

Napier's bones include an aid for the execution of this algorithm. The shifting nth-root
algorithm is a generalization of this method.

The algorithm works for any base, and naturally, the way it proceeds depends on the
base chosen.

Decimal (base 10)

Write the original number in decimal form. The numbers are written similar to the
long division algorithm, and, as in long division, the root will be written on the line
above. Now separate the digits into pairs, starting from the decimal point and going
both left and right. The decimal point of the root will be above the decimal point of
the square. One digit of the root will appear above each pair of digits of the square.

Beginning with the left-most pair of digits, do the following procedure for each pair:

1. Starting on the left, bring down the most significant (leftmost) pair of digits
not yet used (if all the digits have been used, write "00") and write them to the
right of the remainder from the previous step (on the first step, there will be no
remainder). In other words, multiply the remainder by 100 and add the two
digits. This will be the current value c.
2. Find p, y and x, as follows:
o Let p be the part of the root found so far, ignoring any decimal point.
(For the first step, p = 0).
o
Determine the greatest digit x such that                             does
not exceed c.
 Note: 20p + x is simply twice p, with the digit x appended to
the right).
 Note: You can find x by guessing what c/(20·p) is and doing a
trial calculation of y, then adjusting x upward or downward as
necessary.
o Place the digit x as the next digit of the root, i.e above the two digits of
the square which you just brought down. Thus the next p will be the
old p times 10 plus x.
3. Subtract y from c to form a new remainder.
4. If the remainder is zero and there are no more digits to bring down, then the
algorithm has terminated. Otherwise go back to step 1 for another iteration.

Examples

Find the square root of 152.2756.

1   2. 3   4
/
\/       01 52.27 56

01                     1*1 <= 1 < 2*2                 x = 1
01                       y = x*x = 1*1 = 1
00 52                  22*2 <= 52 < 23*3              x = 2
00 44                    y = (20+x)*x = 22*2 = 44
08 27               243*3 <= 827 < 244*4           x = 3
07 29                 y = (240+x)*x = 243*3 = 729
98 56            2464*4 <= 9856 < 2465*5        x = 4
98 56              y = (2460+x)*x = 2464*4 = 9856
00 00            Algorithm terminates: Answer is 12.34

Find the square root of 2.

1. 4   1   4   2
/
\/       02.00 00 00 00

02                     1*1 <= 2 < 2*2                 x =         1
01                       y = x*x = 1*1 = 1
01 00                  24*4 <= 100 < 25*5             x =         4
00 96                    y = (20+x)*x = 24*4 = 96
04      00          281*1 <= 400 < 282*2           x =         1
02      81            y = (280+x)*x = 281*1 = 281
01      19 00       2824*4 <= 11900 < 2825*5       x =         4
01      12 96         y = (2820+x)*x = 2824*4 = 11296
06 04 00    28282*2 <= 60400 < 28283*3     x =         2
The desired precision is achieved:
The square root of 2 is about 1.4142

Binary numeral system (base 2)

Inherent to digit-by-digit algorithms is a search and test step: find a digit,      , when
added to the right of a current solution ', such that                     , where
is the value for which a root is desired. Expanding, we obtain
. The current value of          —or, usually, the
remainder—can be incrementally updated efficiently when working in binary, as the
value of will be a single bit, and the operations needed to compute           and
can be replaced with faster bit shift operations. This gives rise to simple
computer implementations:[3]

short sqrt(short num) {
short op = num;
short res = 0;
short one = 1 << 14; // The second-to-top bit is set: 1L<<30
for long

// "one" starts at the highest power of four <= the argument.
while (one > op)
one >>= 2;

while (one != 0) {
if (op >= res + one) {
op -= res + one;
res = (res >> 1) + one;
}
else
res >>= 1;
one >>= 2;
}
return res;
}

Faster algorithms, in binary and decimal or any other base, can be realized by using
lookup tables—in effect trading more storage space for reduced run time.[4]

Vedic duplex method for extracting a square root
The duplex method is a variant of the digit by digit method for calculating the square
root of a whole or decimal number one digit at a time.[5] The duplex is the square of
the central digit plus double the cross-product of digits equidistant from the center.
The duplex is computed from the quotient digits (square root digits) computed thus
far, but after the initial digits. The duplex is subtracted from the dividend digit prior to
the second subtraction for the product of the quotient digit times the divisor digit. For
perfect squares the duplex and the dividend will get smaller and reach zero after a few
steps. For non-perfect squares the decimal value of the square root can be calculated
to any precision desired. However, as the decimal places proliferate, the duplex
adjustment gets larger and longer to calculate. The duplex method follows the Vedic
ideal for an algorithm, one-line, mental calculation. It is flexible in choosing the first
digit group and the divisor. Small divisors are to be avoided by starting with a larger
initial group.
In short, to calculate the duplex of a number, double the product of each pair of
equidistant digits plus the square of the center digit (of the digits to the right of the
colon).

Number => Calculation = Duplex
574 ==> 2(5·4) + 72 = 89
406,739 ==> 2(4·9)+ 2(0·3)+ 2(6·7) = 72+0+84 = 156
123,456 ==> 2(1·6)+ 2(2·5)+ 2(3·4) = 12 +20 +24 = 56
88,900,777 ==> 2(8·7)+2(8·7)+2(9·7)+2(0·0)+2(0·0) = 112+112+126+0+0 =
350
48329,03711 ==> 2(4·1)+2(8·1)+2(3·7)+2(2·3)+2(9·0)= 8+16+42+12+0 = 78

In a square root calculation the quotient digit set increases incrementally for each step.

Number => Calculation = Duplex:
1 ==> 12 = 1
14 ==>2(1·4) = 8
142 ==> 2(1·2) + 42 = 4 + 16 = 20
14,21 ==> 2(1·1) + 2(4·2) = 2 + 16 = 18
14213 ==> 6+8+4 = 18
142,135 ==> 10+24+4 = 38
1421356 ==> 12+40+12+1 = 65
1421,3562 ==> 4+48+20+6 = 78
142,135,623 ==> 6+16+24+10+9 = 65
142,1356,237 ==> 14+24+8+12+30 = 88
142,13562,373 ==> 6+56+12+4+36+25 = 139

Example 1, by discussion

Consider the perfect square 2809 = 532. Use the duplex method to find the square root
of 2,809.

   Set down the number in groups of two digits.
   We define a divisor, a dividend and a quotient to find the root.
   Given 2809. Consider the first group, 28.
o Find the nearest perfect square below that group.
o The root of that perfect square is the first digit of our root.
2
o Since 28 > 25 and 25 = 5 , we take 5 as the first digit in the square
root.
o For the divisor we take double this first digit (2 · 5), which is 10.
   Next, we set up a division framework with a colon.
o 28: 0 9 is the dividend and 5: is the quotient.
o We put a colon to the right of 28 and 5 and keep the colons lined up
vertically. The duplex is calculated only on quotient digits to the right
of the colon.
   We calculate the remainder. 28: minus 25: is 3:.
o We append the remainder on the left of the next digit to get the new
dividend.
o Here, we append 3 to the next dividend digit 0, which makes the new
dividend 30. The divisor 10 goes into 30 just 3 times. (No reserve
needed here for subsequent deductions.)
   We repeat the operation.
o The zero remainder appended to 9. Nine is the next dividend.
o   Now we have a digit to the right of the colon so we deduct the duplex,
32 = 9.
o   Subtracting this duplex from the dividend 9, we get a zero remainder.
o   Ten into zero is zero. The next root digit is zero. The next duplex is
2(3·0) = 0.
o   The dividend is zero. We have an exact square root, 53.0.

Example 1, analysis and square root framework

Find the square root of 2809.
Set down the number in groups of two digits.
The number of groups gives the number of whole digits in the root.
Put a colon after the first group, 28, to separate it.
From the first group, 28, we obtain the divisor, 10, since
28>25=52 and by doubling this first root, 2x5=10.
Gross dividend:     28: 0 9. Using mental math:
Divisor: 10)     3 0    Square: 10) 28: 30 9
Duplex, Deduction:     25: xx 09 Square root: 5:     3. 0
Dividend:         30 00
Remainder:      3: 00 00
Square Root, Quotient:      5: 3. 0

Example 2

Find the square root of 2,080,180,881. Solution by the duplex method: this ten-digit
square has five digit-pairs, so it will have a five-digit square root. The first digit-pair
is 20. Put the colon to the right. The nearest square below 20 is 16, whose root is 4,
the first root digit. So, we use 2·4=8 for the divisor. Now we proceed with the duplex
division, one digit column at a time. Prefix the remainder to the next dividend digit.

divisor; gross dividend: 8) 20: 8     0  1   8    0   8                     8     1
read the dividend diagonally up: 4    8   7 11    10 10                     0     8
minus the duplex:    16: xx 25 60 36      90 108                   00    81
actual dividend:      : 48 55 11 82      10 00                    08    00
minus the product:      : 40 48 00 72      00 00                      0   00
remainder:     4: 8     7 11 10    10   0                     8   00
quotient:     4: 5, 6     0   9.   0   0                     0     0
Duplex calculations:
Quotient-digits ==> Duplex deduction.
5        ==> 52= 25
5 and 6 ==> 2(5·6) = 60
5,6,0    ==> 2(5·0)+62 = 36
5,6,0,9 ==> 2(5·9)+2(6·0) = 90
5,6,0,9,0 ==> 2(5·0)+2(6·9)+ 0 = 108
5,6,0,9,0,0 ==> 2(5·0)+2(6·0)+2(0·9) = 0
5,6,0,9,0,0,0 ==> 2(5·0)+2(6·0)+2(0·0)+92 = 81

Hence the square root of 2,080,180,881 is exactly 45,609.

] Example 3

Find the square root of two to ten places. Let us take 20,000 as the beginning group,
using three digit-pairs at the start. The perfect square just below 20,000 is 141, since
1412 = 19881 < 20,000. So, the first root digits are 141 and the divisor doubled, 2 x
141 = 282. With a larger divisor the duplex will be relatively small. Hence, we can
pick the multiple of the divisor without confusion.

Dividend: 2.0000 :    0               0       0        0       0        0       0
0
Diagonal;Divisor: (282) : 1190               620     400    1020     1620     1820      750
1120
Minus duplex:         : xxxx             16       16      12      28       53       74
59
Actual dividend: 20000 : 1190              604     384    1008     1592     1767      676
1061
Minus product: 19881 : 1128              564     282      846    1410     1692      564
846
Remainder:     119 :   62             40     102     162      182       75      112
215
Root quotient:   1.41 :     4              2        1       3        5       6        2
3

Ten multiples of 282: 282; 564; 846; 1128; 1410; 1692; 1974; 2256; 2538; 2820.

A two-variable iterative method
This method is applicable for finding the square root of                     and converges
best for         . This, however, is no real limitation for a computer based calculation,
as in base 2 floating point and fixed point representations, it is trivial to multiply by
an integer power of 4, and therefore         by the corresponding power of 2, by
changing the exponent or by shifting, respectively. Therefore, one can move to the

range                 . Moreover, the following method does not employ general
divisions, but only additions, subtractions, multiplications, and divisions by powers of
two, which are again trivial to implement. A disadvantage of the method is that
numerical errors accumulate, in contrast to single variable iterative methods such as
the Babylonian one.

The initialization step of this method is

Then,               (while           ).

Note that the convergence of      , and therefore also of   , is quadratic.

The proof of the method is rather easy. First, we rewrite the iterative definition of
as
.

Then it is straightforward to prove by induction that

and therefore the convergence of        to the desired result         is ensured by the
convergence of    to 0, which in turn follows from                    .

This method was developed around 1950 by M. V. Wilkes, D. J. Wheeler and S.
Gill[6] for use on EDSAC, one of the first electronic computers[7]. The method was
later generalized, allowing the computation of non-square roots[8].

Iterative methods for reciprocal square roots
The following are iterative methods for finding the reciprocal square root of S which
is          . Once it has been found, we can find             by simple multiplication:
. These iterations involve only multiplication, and not division.
They are therefore faster than the Babylonian method. However, they are not stable. If
the initial value is not close to the reciprocal square root, the iterations will diverge
away from it rather than converge to it. It can therefore be advantageous to perform an
iteration of the Babylonian method on a rough estimate before starting to apply these
methods.

   One method is found by applying Newton's method to the equation (1       / x2) −
S = 0. It converges quadratically:

   Another iteration obtained by Halley's method, which is the Householder's
method of order two, converges cubically, but involves more operations per
iteration:

Taylor series
If N is an approximation to        , a better approximation can be found by using the
Taylor series of the square root function:
As an iterative method, the order of convergence is equal to the number of terms used.
With 2 terms, it is identical to the Babylonian method; With 3 terms, each iteration
takes almost as many operations as the Bakhshali approximation, but converges more
slowly. Therefore, this is not a particularly efficient way of calculation.

Other methods
Finding       is the same as solving the equation                 . Therefore, any
general numerical root-finding algorithm can be used. Newton's method, for example,
reduces in this case to the Babylonian method. Other methods are less efficient than
the ones presented above.

A completely different method for computing the square root is based on the
CORDIC algorithm, which uses only very simple operations (addition, subtraction,
bitshift and table lookup, but no multiplication).

Continued fraction expansion

Quadratic irrationals (numbers of the form            , where a, b and c are integers),
and in particular, square roots of integers, have periodic continued fractions.
Sometimes we may be interested not in finding the numerical value of a square root,
but rather in its continued fraction expansion. The following iterative algorithm can
be used for this purpose (S is any natural number which is not a perfect square):

Notice that mn, dn, and an are always integers. The algorithm terminates when this
triplet is the same as one encountered before. The expansion will repeat from then on.
The sequence [a0; a1, a2, a3, …] is the continued fraction expansion:
Example, square root of 114 as a continued fraction

We begin with m0 = 0; d0 = 1; and a0 = 10 (102 = 100 and 112 = 121 > 114 so 10
chosen).

So, m1 = 10; d1 = 14; and a1 = 1.

Next, m2 = 4; d2 = 7; and a2 = 2.

Now, loop back to the second equation above.

Consequently, the continued fraction for the square root of 114 is
Pell's equation
Pell's equation and its variants yield a method for efficiently finding continued
fraction convergents of square roots of integers. However, it can be complicated to
execute, and usually not every convergent is generated. The ideas behind the method
are as follows:

   If (p, q) is a solution (where p and q are integers) to the equation

, then is a continued fraction convergent of   , and as
such, is an excellent rational approximation to it.
   If (pa, qa) and (pb, qb) are solutions, then so is:

(compare to the multiplication of quadratic integers)

   More generally, if (p1, q1) is a solution, then it is possible to generate a
sequence of solutions (pn, qn) satisfying:

The method is as follows:

   Find positive integers p1 and q1 such that              . This is the hard
part; It can be done either by guessing, or by using fairly sophisticated
techniques.

   To generate a long list of convergents, iterate:

   To find the larger convergents quickly, iterate:

Notice that the corresponding sequence of fractions coincides with the one
given by the Hero's method starting with       .

   In either case,      is a rational approximation satisfying
Approximations that depend on IEEE representation
On computers, a very rapid Newton's-method-based approximation to the square root
can be obtained for floating point numbers when computers use an IEEE (or
sufficiently similar) representation.

This technique is based on the fact that the IEEE floating point format approximates
base-2 logarithm. For example, you can get the approximate logarithm of 32-bit single
precision floating point number by translating its binary representation as an integer,
23
scaling it by 2 , and removing a bias of 127.

For example, 1.0 is represented by a hexadecimal number 0x3F800000, which would
represent 1065353216 =              if taken as an integer. Using the formula above
23
you get 1065353216 / 2 − 127 = 0, as expected from log2(1.0). In a similar
fashion you get 0.5 from 1.5(0x3FC00000).

In order to get the square root, we can divide the logarithm by 2 and convert the value
back. The following program demonstrates the idea. Note that we intentionally allow
the exponent's lowest bit to propagate into the mantissa.

float fastsqrt(float val) {
union
{
int tmp;
float val;
} u;
u.val = val;
u.tmp -= 1<<23; /* Remove last bit so 1.0 gives 1.0 */
/* tmp is now an approximation to logbase2(val) */
u.tmp >>= 1; /* divide by 2 */
u.tmp += 1<<29; /* add 64 to exponent: (e+127)/2 =(e/2)+63,
*/
/* that represents (e/2)-64 but we want e/2 */
return u.val;
}

In the above, the operations to remove last exponent bit and add the IEEE bias can be
operation to reduce the maximum relative error. So, the three operations, not
including the cast, can be rewritten as:

tmp = (1<<29) + (tmp >> 1) - (1<<22) + m;

Where m is a bias for adjusting the approximation errors. For example, with m = 0
you get accurate results for even powers of 2 (e.g. 1.0), but for other numbers the
results will be slightly too big (e.g. you get 1.5 for 2.0 instead of 1.414... with 6%
error). With m = -0x4C000 you get errors between about -3.5% and 3.5%.

If the approximation is to be used for an initial guess for Newton's method to the
2
equation (1 / x ) − S = 0, you need to use a reciprocal form shown in the following
section.

Reciprocal of the square root

A variant of the above routine is included below, which can be used to compute the
reciprocal of the square root, i.e.        instead, was written by Greg Walsh, and
implemented into SGI Indigo by Gary Tarolli.[9][10] The integer-shift approximation
produced a relative error of less than 4%, and the error dropped further to 0.15% with
one iteration of Newton's method on the following line.[11] In computer graphics it is a
very efficient way to normalize a vector.

float invSqrt(float x)
{
float xhalf = 0.5f*x;
union
{
float x;
int i;
} u;
u.x = x;
u.i = 0x5f3759df - (u.i >> 1);
x = u.x * (1.5f - xhalf * u.x * u.x);
return x;
}

Some VLSI hardware implements inverse square root using a second degree
polynomial estimation followed by a Goldschmidt iteration.

```
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The provided text is a detailed explanation of various methods for computing square roots, including rough estimation, the Babylonian method, the method of bisecting intervals, the Bakhshali approximation, digit-by-digit calculation, the Vedic duplex method, and others. It also discusses iterative methods for reciprocal square roots and methods that depend on IEEE floating-point representation.

### Analysis:

1. **Content Structure**:
   - The text is a comprehensive guide to different methods for calculating square roots, including both historical and modern techniques.
   - It includes detailed steps and examples for each method, making it a rich resource for understanding the mathematical processes involved.

2. **Mathematical Questions and Answers**:
   - The text contains multiple mathematical questions and examples, such as calculating the square root of 125348 using the Babylonian method, finding the square root of 20 using the method of bisecting intervals, and calculating the square root of 2809 using the Vedic duplex method.
   - For each example, the text provides a step-by-step solution, effectively answering the questions posed.

### TYPE:
- **MULTIPLE_QUESTIONS_WITH_ANSWERS**

### Explanation:
- **Multiple Questions**: The text presents several different methods