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# Download 11–2 Probability and Punnett Squares

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```0262_0280_bi_c07_te
3/8/06
10:52 AM
Page 267
11–2 Probability and Punnett Squares
Section 11–2
1 FOCUS
Objectives
W
henever Mendel performed a cross with pea plants, he
carefully categorized and counted the many offspring.
Every time Mendel repeated a particular cross, he obtained
similar results. For example, whenever Mendel crossed two
plants that were hybrid for stem height (Tt), about three fourths
of the resulting plants were tall and about one fourth were
short. Mendel realized that the principles of probability could be
used to explain the results of genetic crosses.
Genetics and Probability
The likelihood that a particular event will occur is called
probability. As an example of probability, consider an ordinary
event like the coin flip shown in Figure 11– 6. There are two
possible outcomes: The coin may land heads up or tails up. The
chances, or probabilities, of either outcome are equal. Therefore,
the probability that a single coin flip will come up heads is 1
chance in 2. This is 1/2, or 50 percent.
If you flip a coin three times in a row, what is the probability
that it will land heads up every time? Because each coin flip is
an independent event, the probability of each coin’s
landing heads up is 1/2. Therefore, the probability of
flipping three heads in a row is:
⫻
⫻
Key Concepts
• How do geneticists use the
principles of probability?
• How do geneticists use
Punnett squares?
11.2.1 Explain how geneticists use
the principles of probability.
11.2.2 Describe how geneticists use
Punnett squares.
Vocabulary
probability
Punnett square
homozygous
heterozygous
phenotype
genotype
Reading Strategy:
Building Vocabulary Before
you read, preview the list of new
vocabulary words. Predict the
relationship between phenotype
and genotype. As you read,
check to see if your predictions
were correct.
= .
As you can see, you have 1 chance in 8 of flipping
heads three times in a row. That the individual probabilities are multiplied together illustrates an important
point—past outcomes do not affect future ones.
How is coin flipping relevant to genetics? The way
in which alleles segregate is completely random, like a
coin flip.
The principles of probability can be
used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses.
Vocabulary Preview
Ask: What suffix do the words
homozygous and heterozygous
share? (-zygous) Tell students that
-zygous means “yoked” or “joined,”
and the prefix homo- means “same.”
Also explain that a homozygous
organism has two identical alleles for
a certain gene. Ask: If hetero- means
“other,” what does heterozygous
describe? (An organism with two different alleles for a gene)
Reading Strategy
Encourage students to write down
the main headings of the section
before they begin reading. Tell them
to leave room below each heading to
record important ideas as they read.
2 INSTRUCT
Genetics and
Probability
What is the probability that a tossed coin will
come up tails twice in a row?
Make Connections
왘
Figure 11–6 The mathematical concept
of probability allows you to calculate the
likelihood that a particular event will occur.
Predicting What is the probability that the
coin will land heads up?
SECTION RESOURCES
• Teaching Resources, Lesson Plan 11–2,
Adapted Section Summary 11–2, Adapted
Sav11–2,
Worksheets 11–2, Section Summary
e
e
Worksheets 11–2, Section Review 11–2,
Enrichment
• Reading and Study Workbook A, Section 11–2
• Adapted Reading and Study Workbook B,
Section 11–2
• iText, Section 11–2
• Transparencies Plus, Section 11–2
Tim
Technology:
r
Print:
Mathematics Give pairs of students
a paper bag that has 4 items that are
identical except for color. The items
should be the same shape and size.
Ask: What is the probability of picking a red item? (1/4 or 25 percent)
Of picking a red item two times in
a row? (1/4 ⫻ 1/4 ⫽ 1/16) Then,
instruct students to pick an item from
the bag 20 times, then 50 times. Ask:
Did your results equal your calculated probabilities? (The more times
students pick from the bag, the closer
their actual results will be to the predicted probability.)
Answers to . . .
1/4 or 25 percent
Figure 11–6 1/2 or 50 percent
Introduction to Genetics
267
0262_0280_bi_c07_te
3/8/06
10:52 AM
Page 268
Father’s genotype
is dd (2 even digits)
11–2 (continued)
Punnett Squares
4638
How are dimples inherited?
Materials copy of page from telephone book,
Objective Students will be able to
conclude how dimples are inherited.
calculator
Skills Focus Applying Concepts,
Drawing Conclusions
Materials copy of page from telephone book, calculator
Time 15 minutes
Advance Prep Photocopy several
pages from a telephone book.
Strategies
• Demonstrate the use of a 4-digit
number to represent the genotypes of the parents in a genetic
cross.
• Show students how to set up and
use Punnett squares, if necessary.
Expected Outcomes Students
will determine the probability of
having a child with dimples based
on the genotypes of the parents.
Calculated probabilities will vary
depending on the genotypes of the
parents.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Class averages will vary but will
usually be close to 75 percent dimples, the result of a cross between
two heterozygotes.
2. 100 percent because the allele for
dimples (D) is a dominant allele.
1. Write the last 4 digits of any telephone number.
These 4 random digits represent the alleles of a
gene that determines whether a person will have
dimples. Odd digits represent the allele for the
dominant trait of dimples. Even digits stand for the
allele for the recessive trait of no dimples.
2. Use the first 2 digits to represent a certain father’s
genotype. Use the symbols D and d to write his
genotype, as shown in the example.
3. Use the last 2 digits the same way to find the
mother’s genotype. Write her genotype.
Procedure
Probability and
Segregation
Address Misconceptions
Beginning genetics students often
misinterpret probable genotypic and
phenotypic ratios as actual numbers
of offspring. Provide opportunities to
calculate “actual” ratios using F2 corn
cobs or experimental data. Students
should set up Punnett squares and
compare the predicted ratios with
the “actual” ratios.
268
Chapter 11
Mother’s genotype
is Dd (1 even digit
and 1 odd digit)
4. Use Figure 11–7 as an example to construct a
Punnett square for the cross of these parents. Then,
using the Punnett square, determine the probability that their child will have dimples.
5. Determine the class average of the percent of
children with dimples.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Applying Concepts How does the class average
compare with the result of a cross of two heterozygous parents?
2. Drawing Conclusions What percentage of the
children will be expected to have dimples if one
parent is homozygous for dimples (DD) and the
other is heterozygous (Dd)?
Punnett Squares
Tt
Tt
T
t
T
TT 25%
Tt 25%
t
Tt 25%
tt 25%
왖
Figure 11–7
The principles of
probability can be used to predict the
outcomes of genetic crosses. This
Punnett square shows the probability
of each possible outcome of a cross
between hybrid tall (Tt) pea plants.
The gene combinations that might result from a genetic
cross can be determined by drawing a diagram known as
a Punnett square. The Punnett square in Figure 11–7
shows one of Mendel’s segregation experiments. The types
of gametes produced by each F1 parent are shown along
the top and left sides of the square. The possible gene
combinations for the F2 offspring appear in the four
boxes that make up the square. The letters in the
Punnett square represent alleles. In this example, T
represents the dominant allele for tallness and t represents the recessive allele for shortness.
Punnett
squares can be used to predict and compare the
genetic variations that will result from a cross.
Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait—TT or tt in this example—are said to be
homozygous (hoh-moh-ZY-gus). Organisms that have
two different alleles for the same trait are heterozygous
(het-ur-oh-ZY-gus). Homozygous organisms are truebreeding for a particular trait. Heterozygous organisms
are hybrid for a particular trait.
All of the tall plants have the same phenotype, or
physical characteristics. They do not, however, have the
same genotype, or genetic makeup. The genotype of one
third of the tall plants is TT, while the genotype of two
thirds of the tall plants is Tt. The plants in Figure 11–8
have the same phenotype but different genotypes.
UNIVERSAL ACCESS
Inclusion/Special Needs
Give students additional opportunities to practice
calculating probabilities by making available a
“probabilities kit.” In this “kit,” provide coins and
a grab bag with colored beads, colored sticks, or
any other manipulative that differs only in color.
You might have these students pair up with
advanced students to predict probabilities and
observe the outcomes.
Less Proficient Readers
Challenge students to write an instructional manual for using Punnett squares. Students should
include a labeled diagram of a Punnett square in
their manual, as well as step-by-step directions on
how to use one and why Punnett squares are useful tools for geneticists.
0262_0280_bi_c07_te
3/8/06
10:52 AM
Page 269
Probabilities Predict
Averages
Probability and Segregation
Look again at Figure 11–7. One fourth (1/4) of the F2 plants have
two alleles for tallness (TT); 2/4, or 1/2, of the F2 plants have one
allele for tallness and one allele for shortness (Tt). Because the
allele for tallness is dominant over the allele for shortness, 3/4
of the F2 plants should be tall. Overall, there are 3 tall plants
for every 1 short plant in the F2 generation. Thus, the ratio of
tall plants to short plants is 3 : 1. This assumes, of course, that
Mendel’s model of segregation is correct.
Did the data from Mendel’s experiments fit his model? Yes.
The predicted ratio—3 dominant to 1 recessive—showed up
consistently, indicating that Mendel’s assumptions about
segregation had been correct. For each of his seven crosses,
about 3/4 of the plants showed the trait controlled by the
dominant allele. About 1/4 showed the trait controlled by the
recessive allele. Segregation did indeed occur according to
Mendel’s model.
Probabilities Predict Averages
Probabilities predict the average outcome of a large number of
events. However, probability cannot predict the precise outcome
of an individual event. If you flip a coin twice, you are likely to
get one head and one tail. However, you might also get two
heads or two tails. To be more likely to get the expected 50 : 50
ratio, you would have to flip the coin many times.
The same is true of genetics. The larger the number of offspring, the closer the resulting numbers will get to expected
values. If an F1 generation contains just three or four offspring, it
may not match Mendelian predicted ratios. When an F1 generation contains hundreds or thousands of individuals, however, the
ratios usually come very close to matching expectations.
Build Science Skills
Designing Experiments Give students a coin or a bag with 2 or 3
beads that differ in color. Ask them to
design an experiment to show that
probabilities cannot predict the outcome of an individual event.
3 ASSESS
TT
Homozygous
Tt
Heterozygous
Figure 11–8 Although these
plants have different genotypes
(TT and Tt), they have the same
phenotype (tall). Predicting If you
crossed these two plants, would their
offspring be tall or short?
Key Concept How are the
principles of probability used to
predict the outcomes of genetic
crosses?
2.
Key Concept How are
Punnett squares used?
3. What is probability?
4. Define the terms genotype and
phenotype.
Assign students different traits in
peas. Then, instruct them to set up a
Punnett square to show the cross
between two heterozygous pea
plants for their trait. Students should
give both the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of the offspring.
Reteach
Give student pairs a list of genetic
crosses between parents of various
genotypes. Instruct pairs to use
Punnett squares to show the possible
outcomes of the crosses.
11–2 Section Assessment
1.
Evaluate Understanding
Drawing Punnett Squares
Imagine that you came upon
a tall pea plant similar to
those Mendel used in his
experiments. How could you
determine the plant’s genotype with respect to height?
Draw two Punnett squares to
show your answer.
5. Critical Thinking Problem
Solving An F1 plant that is
homozygous for shortness is
crossed with a heterozygous F1
plant. What is the probability that
a seed from the cross will produce a tall plant? Use a Punnett
square to explain your answer
and to compare the probable
genetic variations in the F2
plants.
The genotype of the tall pea plant
is determined by allowing the
plant to self-pollinate. If the plant
is heterozygous, there is a 25 percent chance that an offspring will
be short. If the plant is homozygous, then all offspring will be tall.
Students should draw Punnett
squares to show both possibilities.
If your class subscribes to the iText,
use it to review the Key Concepts in
Section 11–2.
11–2 Section Assessment
1. The way in which the alleles segregate is random, and probability allows the calculation
of the likelihood that a particular allele combination will occur in offspring.
2. To predict and compare the genetic variations that will result from a cross
3. The likelihood that a particular event will
occur
4. Genotype: actual alleles present for a trait, or
genetic makeup; phenotype: visible expression of the alleles, or physical characteristics
5. 50 percent; Punnett square:
T
t
t
Tt
tt
t
Tt
tt
Answer to . . .
Figure 11–8 All of the offspring
would be tall.
Introduction to Genetics
269
```
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Similar
The text passage is a section from a biology textbook that explains the principles of probability and how they are applied in genetics, particularly in predicting the outcomes of genetic crosses using Punnett squares. It includes a few mathematical questions and examples, such as calculating probabilities of coin flips and genetic crosses.
multiple_questions

the passage contains several questions and examples that involve mathematical calculations or probability, including:
- "if you flip a coin three times in a row, what is the probability that it will land heads up every time?"
- "what is the probability that a tossed coin will come up tails twice in a row?"
- "what is the probability that their child will have dimples?" (in the context of a genetic cross)
- "what percentage of the children will be expected to have dimples if one parent is homozygous for dimples (dd) and the other is heterozygous (dd)?"

however, the passage does not provide answers to these specific questions, though it does explain the principles and methods for calculating such probabilities.
Given a text passage, determine:
    1. If it contains a mathematical question (including word problems or calculations)
    2. If an answer to that mathematical question is provided in the text

First, describe the content structure you found in 1-2 sentences.

Then provide your analysis in the following format:
TYPE: <one of the following values>
- NO_QUESTION
- SINGLE_QUESTION
- SINGLE_QUESTION_WITH_ANSWER
- MULTIPLE_QUESTIONS
- MULTIPLE_QUESTIONS_WITH_ANSWERS
system
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# Download 11–2 Probability and Punnett Squares

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Was this document useful for you?
Thank you for your participation!

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Transcript
```0262_0280_bi_c07_te
3/8/06
10:52 AM
Page 267
11–2 Probability and Punnett Squares
Section 11–2
1 FOCUS
Objectives
W
henever Mendel performed a cross with pea plants, he
carefully categorized and counted the many offspring.
Every time Mendel repeated a particular cross, he obtained
similar results. For example, whenever Mendel crossed two
plants that were hybrid for stem height (Tt), about three fourths
of the resulting plants were tall and about one fourth were
short. Mendel realized that the principles of probability could be
used to explain the results of genetic crosses.
Genetics and Probability
The likelihood that a particular event will occur is called
probability. As an example of probability, consider an ordinary
event like the coin flip shown in Figure 11– 6. There are two
possible outcomes: The coin may land heads up or tails up. The
chances, or probabilities, of either outcome are equal. Therefore,
the probability that a single coin flip will come up heads is 1
chance in 2. This is 1/2, or 50 percent.
If you flip a coin three times in a row, what is the probability
that it will land heads up every time? Because each coin flip is
an independent event, the probability of each coin’s
landing heads up is 1/2. Therefore, the probability of
flipping three heads in a row is:
⫻
⫻
Key Concepts
• How do geneticists use the
principles of probability?
• How do geneticists use
Punnett squares?
11.2.1 Explain how geneticists use
the principles of probability.
11.2.2 Describe how geneticists use
Punnett squares.
Vocabulary
probability
Punnett square
homozygous
heterozygous
phenotype
genotype
Reading Strategy:
Building Vocabulary Before
you read, preview the list of new
vocabulary words. Predict the
relationship between phenotype
and genotype. As you read,
check to see if your predictions
were correct.
= .
As you can see, you have 1 chance in 8 of flipping
heads three times in a row. That the individual probabilities are multiplied together illustrates an important
point—past outcomes do not affect future ones.
How is coin flipping relevant to genetics? The way
in which alleles segregate is completely random, like a
coin flip.
The principles of probability can be
used to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses.
Vocabulary Preview
Ask: What suffix do the words
homozygous and heterozygous
share? (-zygous) Tell students that
-zygous means “yoked” or “joined,”
and the prefix homo- means “same.”
Also explain that a homozygous
organism has two identical alleles for
a certain gene. Ask: If hetero- means
“other,” what does heterozygous
describe? (An organism with two different alleles for a gene)
Reading Strategy
Encourage students to write down
the main headings of the section
before they begin reading. Tell them
to leave room below each heading to
record important ideas as they read.
2 INSTRUCT
Genetics and
Probability
What is the probability that a tossed coin will
come up tails twice in a row?
Make Connections
왘
Figure 11–6 The mathematical concept
of probability allows you to calculate the
likelihood that a particular event will occur.
Predicting What is the probability that the
coin will land heads up?
SECTION RESOURCES
• Teaching Resources, Lesson Plan 11–2,
Adapted Section Summary 11–2, Adapted
Sav11–2,
Worksheets 11–2, Section Summary
e
e
Worksheets 11–2, Section Review 11–2,
Enrichment
• Reading and Study Workbook A, Section 11–2
• Adapted Reading and Study Workbook B,
Section 11–2
• iText, Section 11–2
• Transparencies Plus, Section 11–2
Tim
Technology:
r
Print:
Mathematics Give pairs of students
a paper bag that has 4 items that are
identical except for color. The items
should be the same shape and size.
Ask: What is the probability of picking a red item? (1/4 or 25 percent)
Of picking a red item two times in
a row? (1/4 ⫻ 1/4 ⫽ 1/16) Then,
instruct students to pick an item from
the bag 20 times, then 50 times. Ask:
Did your results equal your calculated probabilities? (The more times
students pick from the bag, the closer
their actual results will be to the predicted probability.)
Answers to . . .
1/4 or 25 percent
Figure 11–6 1/2 or 50 percent
Introduction to Genetics
267
0262_0280_bi_c07_te
3/8/06
10:52 AM
Page 268
Father’s genotype
is dd (2 even digits)
11–2 (continued)
Punnett Squares
4638
How are dimples inherited?
Materials copy of page from telephone book,
Objective Students will be able to
conclude how dimples are inherited.
calculator
Skills Focus Applying Concepts,
Drawing Conclusions
Materials copy of page from telephone book, calculator
Time 15 minutes
Advance Prep Photocopy several
pages from a telephone book.
Strategies
• Demonstrate the use of a 4-digit
number to represent the genotypes of the parents in a genetic
cross.
• Show students how to set up and
use Punnett squares, if necessary.
Expected Outcomes Students
will determine the probability of
having a child with dimples based
on the genotypes of the parents.
Calculated probabilities will vary
depending on the genotypes of the
parents.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Class averages will vary but will
usually be close to 75 percent dimples, the result of a cross between
two heterozygotes.
2. 100 percent because the allele for
dimples (D) is a dominant allele.
1. Write the last 4 digits of any telephone number.
These 4 random digits represent the alleles of a
gene that determines whether a person will have
dimples. Odd digits represent the allele for the
dominant trait of dimples. Even digits stand for the
allele for the recessive trait of no dimples.
2. Use the first 2 digits to represent a certain father’s
genotype. Use the symbols D and d to write his
genotype, as shown in the example.
3. Use the last 2 digits the same way to find the
mother’s genotype. Write her genotype.
Procedure
Probability and
Segregation
Address Misconceptions
Beginning genetics students often
misinterpret probable genotypic and
phenotypic ratios as actual numbers
of offspring. Provide opportunities to
calculate “actual” ratios using F2 corn
cobs or experimental data. Students
should set up Punnett squares and
compare the predicted ratios with
the “actual” ratios.
268
Chapter 11
Mother’s genotype
is Dd (1 even digit
and 1 odd digit)
4. Use Figure 11–7 as an example to construct a
Punnett square for the cross of these parents. Then,
using the Punnett square, determine the probability that their child will have dimples.
5. Determine the class average of the percent of
children with dimples.
Analyze and Conclude
1. Applying Concepts How does the class average
compare with the result of a cross of two heterozygous parents?
2. Drawing Conclusions What percentage of the
children will be expected to have dimples if one
parent is homozygous for dimples (DD) and the
other is heterozygous (Dd)?
Punnett Squares
Tt
Tt
T
t
T
TT 25%
Tt 25%
t
Tt 25%
tt 25%
왖
Figure 11–7
The principles of
probability can be used to predict the
outcomes of genetic crosses. This
Punnett square shows the probability
of each possible outcome of a cross
between hybrid tall (Tt) pea plants.
The gene combinations that might result from a genetic
cross can be determined by drawing a diagram known as
a Punnett square. The Punnett square in Figure 11–7
shows one of Mendel’s segregation experiments. The types
of gametes produced by each F1 parent are shown along
the top and left sides of the square. The possible gene
combinations for the F2 offspring appear in the four
boxes that make up the square. The letters in the
Punnett square represent alleles. In this example, T
represents the dominant allele for tallness and t represents the recessive allele for shortness.
Punnett
squares can be used to predict and compare the
genetic variations that will result from a cross.
Organisms that have two identical alleles for a particular trait—TT or tt in this example—are said to be
homozygous (hoh-moh-ZY-gus). Organisms that have
two different alleles for the same trait are heterozygous
(het-ur-oh-ZY-gus). Homozygous organisms are truebreeding for a particular trait. Heterozygous organisms
are hybrid for a particular trait.
All of the tall plants have the same phenotype, or
physical characteristics. They do not, however, have the
same genotype, or genetic makeup. The genotype of one
third of the tall plants is TT, while the genotype of two
thirds of the tall plants is Tt. The plants in Figure 11–8
have the same phenotype but different genotypes.
UNIVERSAL ACCESS
Inclusion/Special Needs
Give students additional opportunities to practice
calculating probabilities by making available a
“probabilities kit.” In this “kit,” provide coins and
a grab bag with colored beads, colored sticks, or
any other manipulative that differs only in color.
You might have these students pair up with
advanced students to predict probabilities and
observe the outcomes.
Less Proficient Readers
Challenge students to write an instructional manual for using Punnett squares. Students should
include a labeled diagram of a Punnett square in
their manual, as well as step-by-step directions on
how to use one and why Punnett squares are useful tools for geneticists.
0262_0280_bi_c07_te
3/8/06
10:52 AM
Page 269
Probabilities Predict
Averages
Probability and Segregation
Look again at Figure 11–7. One fourth (1/4) of the F2 plants have
two alleles for tallness (TT); 2/4, or 1/2, of the F2 plants have one
allele for tallness and one allele for shortness (Tt). Because the
allele for tallness is dominant over the allele for shortness, 3/4
of the F2 plants should be tall. Overall, there are 3 tall plants
for every 1 short plant in the F2 generation. Thus, the ratio of
tall plants to short plants is 3 : 1. This assumes, of course, that
Mendel’s model of segregation is correct.
Did the data from Mendel’s experiments fit his model? Yes.
The predicted ratio—3 dominant to 1 recessive—showed up
consistently, indicating that Mendel’s assumptions about
segregation had been correct. For each of his seven crosses,
about 3/4 of the plants showed the trait controlled by the
dominant allele. About 1/4 showed the trait controlled by the
recessive allele. Segregation did indeed occur according to
Mendel’s model.
Probabilities Predict Averages
Probabilities predict the average outcome of a large number of
events. However, probability cannot predict the precise outcome
of an individual event. If you flip a coin twice, you are likely to
get one head and one tail. However, you might also get two
heads or two tails. To be more likely to get the expected 50 : 50
ratio, you would have to flip the coin many times.
The same is true of genetics. The larger the number of offspring, the closer the resulting numbers will get to expected
values. If an F1 generation contains just three or four offspring, it
may not match Mendelian predicted ratios. When an F1 generation contains hundreds or thousands of individuals, however, the
ratios usually come very close to matching expectations.
Build Science Skills
Designing Experiments Give students a coin or a bag with 2 or 3
beads that differ in color. Ask them to
design an experiment to show that
probabilities cannot predict the outcome of an individual event.
3 ASSESS
TT
Homozygous
Tt
Heterozygous
Figure 11–8 Although these
plants have different genotypes
(TT and Tt), they have the same
phenotype (tall). Predicting If you
crossed these two plants, would their
offspring be tall or short?
Key Concept How are the
principles of probability used to
predict the outcomes of genetic
crosses?
2.
Key Concept How are
Punnett squares used?
3. What is probability?
4. Define the terms genotype and
phenotype.
Assign students different traits in
peas. Then, instruct them to set up a
Punnett square to show the cross
between two heterozygous pea
plants for their trait. Students should
give both the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of the offspring.
Reteach
Give student pairs a list of genetic
crosses between parents of various
genotypes. Instruct pairs to use
Punnett squares to show the possible
outcomes of the crosses.
11–2 Section Assessment
1.
Evaluate Understanding
Drawing Punnett Squares
Imagine that you came upon
a tall pea plant similar to
those Mendel used in his
experiments. How could you
determine the plant’s genotype with respect to height?
Draw two Punnett squares to
show your answer.
5. Critical Thinking Problem
Solving An F1 plant that is
homozygous for shortness is
crossed with a heterozygous F1
plant. What is the probability that
a seed from the cross will produce a tall plant? Use a Punnett
square to explain your answer
and to compare the probable
genetic variations in the F2
plants.
The genotype of the tall pea plant
is determined by allowing the
plant to self-pollinate. If the plant
is heterozygous, there is a 25 percent chance that an offspring will
be short. If the plant is homozygous, then all offspring will be tall.
Students should draw Punnett
squares to show both possibilities.
If your class subscribes to the iText,
use it to review the Key Concepts in
Section 11–2.
11–2 Section Assessment
1. The way in which the alleles segregate is random, and probability allows the calculation
of the likelihood that a particular allele combination will occur in offspring.
2. To predict and compare the genetic variations that will result from a cross
3. The likelihood that a particular event will
occur
4. Genotype: actual alleles present for a trait, or
genetic makeup; phenotype: visible expression of the alleles, or physical characteristics
5. 50 percent; Punnett square:
T
t
t
Tt
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Answer to . . .
Figure 11–8 All of the offspring
would be tall.
Introduction to Genetics
269
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The text passage is a section from a biology textbook that explains the principles of probability and how they are applied in genetics, particularly in predicting the outcomes of genetic crosses using Punnett squares. It includes a few mathematical questions and examples, such as calculating probabilities of coin flips and genetic crosses.

TYPE: MULTIPLE_QUESTIONS

The passage contains several questions and examples that involve mathematical calculations or probability, including:
- "If you flip a coin three times in a row, what is the probability that it will land heads up every time?"
- "What is the probability that a tossed coin will come up tails twice in a row?"
- "What is the probability that their child will have dimples?" (in the context of a genetic cross)
- "What percentage of the children will be expected to have dimples if one parent is homozygous for dimples (DD) and the other is heterozygous (Dd)?"

However, the passage does not provide answers to these specific questions, though it does explain the principles and methods for calculating such probabilities.