Increased glucose levels results in the activation of metabolic pathways leading to increased oxidative stress. Salicylate toxicity works by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation. Several inflammatory cytokines are induced by oxidative stress. GAPDH acts as a reversible metabolic switch under oxidative stress. UCPs are transmembrane proteins that decrease the proton gradient generated in oxidative phosphorylation. Antimycin A is an inhibitor of cellular respiration, specifically oxidative phosphorylation. Not all inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation are toxins. They also provide protection for organs against metabolic, oxidative, and chemical stresses. They are believed to activate enzymes involved with oxidative phosphorylation. Deletions or mutations to segments of mtDNA lead to defective function of oxidative phosphorylation. Antioxidants act as a defense mechanism against the oxidative stress. Hsp70 proteins can act to protect cells from thermal or oxidative stress. The effect is thought to be from stimulating inflammation and increasing oxidative stress. ATP synthase then ensues exactly as in oxidative phosphorylation. Formaldehyde inhalation changes the sensitivity of immune system, which influences oxidative stress.