This was rationalized through single crystal x-ray crystallography and comparative Raman spectroscopy. This understanding is achieved using different technologies such as X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy. These are usually found by X-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy. Materials science has its roots in metallurgy, mineralogy, and crystallography. Using synchrotron radiation frequently has specific requirements for X-ray crystallography. Both reactors were also used for neutron scattering crystallography. This technique is called electron crystallography. These distributions are for example used in geology, crystallography and bioinformatics. Structural elucidation by X-ray crystallography was completed in 1960. Free-electron lasers have been developed for use in X-ray crystallography. Crick taught himself the mathematical theory of X-ray crystallography. They also arise in the applications of finite group theory to geometry and crystallography. He holds an MS degree in organic chemistry, with a specialty in X-ray crystallography. In particular, globular proteins are comparatively easy to crystallize in preparation for X-ray crystallography. This construction is used to visualize directional data in crystallography and geology, as described below.