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  Revision: 5
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  The
  Grammar of
  Engsvanyáli
  
  Credits
  front layout and design
  Victor Raymond
  cover illustration
  Giovanna Fregni
  editorial help
  Chris Davis
  Index
  Krista Donnelly
  
  The Glorious Tongue,
  Blessed of the Gods:
  o
  E N G S V AN Y ÁL I
  r
  By
  Túrisu Ssá hiVáika,
  Scholar Priest of the Temple of
  Lord Qón
  In the City of Púrdimal
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    2
  1. Foreword.
  I had promised that I would translate the
  treatise on Engsvanyáli grammar written
  by my old friend, Lord Túrisu Ssá hiVáika,
  into English to accompany Lord Baréka
  hiShanyál's work on Engsvanyáli history.
  These compositions are taught at many
  temple academies throughout Tsolyánu. A
  linguistic text written for Tsolyáni
  scholars cannot be easily understood by
  those who have no familiarity with the
  author's 
  terminology, 
  pedagogical
  methods, or the fundamentals of his
  culture, however, and I have therefore
  "interpreted" Lord Túrisu's treatise,
  rather than simply "translating" it. This
  has 
  required 
  considerable 
  re-
  organisation and rephrasing. It is my hope
  that Lord Túrisu will understand.
  2. Historical Sketch.
  There are no accurate dates for the early
  history of Tékumel. The Empire of Llyán of
  Tsámra existed in what is now Livyánu some
  25,000 years ago, but the historical record
  is fragmentary. In many cases, even the
  order of the king lists and the dynasties
  themselves is doubtful. As Lord Túrisu says,
  pinpointing a given event is "like a blindfolded
  man who casts a stone at a flying bird."
  Llyáni, the language of Llyán's empire, was
  spoken throughout most of southern
  Livyánu, southern Mu'ugalavyá, and
  eastward across to Khéiris at the mouth of
  the Putuhénu River. Later, the Engsvanyáli
  Priestkings' scholars put together a partial
  grammar, syllabary, and dictionary of Llyáni.
  Without these tools, we should indeed have
  no access at all to Llyán's world. Little
  physical evidence survives from Llyán's
  Empire: the names of a few kings, priests,
  and generals; fragmentary inscriptions; and
  hoards of enigmatic coins that display
  images of a naked man carrying a wand (or a
  two-handed sword?). The longest Llyáni
  document is the "Tablets of Llyán," written
  upon leaves of beaten gold, kept in the
  sanctuary of the Temple of Qame'él in
  Tsámra. All of these together give us hardly
  more than a hint of what the world was like
  in that far-off age.
  After -- or contemporaneous with -- the
  Empire of Llyán came the "Three States of
  the Triangle," a confederation that ruled
  southern Tsolyánu: Úrmish, Jakálla, and
  Thráya. What is known of the Three States
  comes down from their enemies, the Dragon
  Warriors of N'lüss. They state that the
  armies of the Three States did battle with
  the nonhuman Chürstálli, the Ssú, and also
  the Mihálli -- species that are now
  geographically far apart. The reptilian Shén
  record a treaty made with the Three States
  to provide warriors to fight the nonhuman
  Hlüss. There is also the legend of brave King
  Kharaktáya and how he traded his beautiful
  daughter, A'ís Chrái, to the Demons of the
  Dark in return for victory over the Hlüss. The
  Demons are said to have imprisoned her soul
  in the mysterious College at the End of Time,
  where she languishes for eternity.
  Llyáni and the tongue of the Three States of
  the Triangle were probably related. They both
  appear to belong to the southern ("Livyáni")
  branch of the Khíshan stock. It is believed
  that this linguistic family arose from one (or
  more?) of the languages of the Latter
  Times, in turn derived from the Tamil-Arabic-
  Maya argot that was spoken on Tékumel
  before the Time of Darkness.
  The next dynasty to rule much of the
  northern continent was that of the "Dragon
  Warriors." This is not the place to debate
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    3
  what the "dragons" ridden by these fierce
  warriors were; it is enough to note that
  these ferocious warriors swiftly conquered
  the decaying empire of Llyán of Tsámra and
  went on to defeat the Three States of the
  Triangle. They then moved eastward to seize
  the small principalities then ruling Salarvyá.
  Here they stopped, frustrated by the Ssú
  enclave of Ssuyál, by the high peaks of
  Jánnu and Kilalámmu, and by constant
  rebellions. The Dragon Warriors set up their
  black monolithic boundary stelae and went
  no farther. The invasion of the Dragon
  Warriors introduced one of the most  salient
  members of the northern branch of the
  Khíshan family: Bednálljan, also called
  Bednálljan Salarvyáni.
  Small groups of N'lüss raiders and settlers
  had long migrated southward from their
  homeland, quite separately from the Dragon
  Warriors. These people were already mixed
  into the local population of the continent
  (the nature and origins of which is unknown)
  when the Dragon Warriors arrived. The
  newcomers were semi-nomadic, filtering out
  into the hinterlands where they established
  cities and agricultural settlements. In
  eastern Salarvyá they came into conflict
  with the nonhuman Ahoggyá and with the
  sea raiders known as the Nóm. In the west,
  from near modern Fénul, a local leader arose,
  named Gámulu. This man succeeded in
  driving the Dragon Warriors out of much of
  western Salarvyá. His twelfth son, Hó
  Etéhltu, used small, fast galleys to raid and
  conquer the region as far east as Peléis. He
  seized the Dragon Warriors' strongholds on
  the islands of Gánga, Thayúri, and Vrá, and
  his black ships besieged the city of Jakálla
  (though they could not take it) and crossed
  the straits to capture Háida Pakála from an
  unknown nonhuman race that then held it.
  Because of the small, fast galleys they
  preferred, this dynasty became known as
  the "Fishermen Kings." Their language
  almost certainly belonged to an older
  stratum of Bednálljan-related dialects.
  The next major eruption was that of the
  First Imperium, which originated in the
  central plains of modern Tsolyánu and
  spread, as the armies of Queen Nayári "of
  the Silken Thighs" seized the cities of
  Tsolyánu, western Mu'ugalavyá, Yán Kór,
  and southern Salarvyá. The language of this
  vast, chaotic empire was a variety of
  Bednálljan, intermixed with older substrata,
  as mentioned above. Nayári established her
  capital at the city of Purdánim, now
  thought to be buried under the alluvial soil
  somewhere north-west of Thráya. Her
  dynasty laid the foundation stone for a
  powerful empire that was to last for nearly
  3,000 years.
  The foregoing recapitulation is required for
  an understanding of the position of
  Engsvanyáli. The northern ("Bednálljan")
  branch of the Khíshan family formed the
  basis for developments in the centre of the
  continent, while the south-western
  ("Livyáni") group contributed comparatively
  little outside of its own area. What the
  eastern ("Salarvyáni") dialects added is
  problematic.
  As might be expected, Engsvanyáli is
  linguistically closest to the two "daughter-
  languages" at its geographical core: Tsolyáni
  and Mu'ugalavyáni. Salarvyáni is somewhat
  more distant, containing many non-Khíshan
  elements. Livyáni and the tongue of the
  Tsoléi Archipelago are next, while
  Yán Koryáni and Ghatóni are the most
  distant. Milumanayáni holds an intermediate
  position between Yán Koryáni and Tsolyáni,
  while the status of Hijajái, the language(s)
  of Háida Pakála remains to be investigated.
  Non-Khíshan languages existed -- and
  continue to exist -- throughout the region.
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    4
  In the far northeast, the Ái Chè family
  (which displays word-tone) had an effect
  upon Yán Koryáni. It is possible that the
  inhabitants of Chayákku and Nuru'ún
  (speakers of the obscure Zna'yé tongue, now
  used as a secret argot by devotees of the
  Goddess of the Pale Bone) were also
  influential in the north. In the south-west,
  the Sunúz language (again now employed as
  a secret tongue by followers of the Pariah
  Deities, except along the Naqsái Coast of
  the Southern Continent, where there are
  several enclaves) provided an underlying
  stratum for Duruób and its modern
  daughter-tongue, Livyáni. In Tsolyánu, the
  Thu'úsa language, still spoken by the hardy
  mountaineers of the Kúrt Hills, is used as an
  argot by the priesthoods of the Lords of
  Stability. Carvings, coins, pottery, and
  stelae attest to still other tongues as yet
  undeciphered. In addition, one may mention
  the languages of the period before the Time
  of Darkness, and also the tongues of the
  Lords of the Latter Times which followed.
  Numerous remnants of these peoples are
  indeed found, particularly in the labyrinths
  beneath certain ancient cities, but no one
  has succeeded in reading more than the
  numeral symbols of any one of them.
  All of these factors together provide the
  basis for Engsvanyáli: the language of the
  Island of Gánga, on the northern edge of
  the Deeps of Chanayága. By the last
  centuries of the First Imperium, the old,
  "High" language of the Bednálljan court had
  become largely ceremonial. The nobility, the
  priesthoods, and the small upper classes
  used Bednálljan on formal occasions. What
  they -- and the common folk of Béy Sü,
  Jakálla, or Khéiris -- spoke informally is not
  known, although the presence of dialects
  close to Engsvanyáli can be surmised.
  The longest document in early Engsvanyáli is
  the Jurrúmul Pavártio ("The Scrolls of
  Pavár"). This is a religious text, mixed with
  philosophy, reflections on the Gods,
  humankind's place in the cosmos, the
  Planes Beyond, and other matters, all
  phrased in elegant but rather stilted verse.
  They are not the oldest Engsvanyáli texts,
  however: dated government documents from
  provincial courts, personal letters and
  reminiscences, a cookbook, three magical
  treatises, an astrological almanac, and
  scraps of poetry are all preserved in the
  libraries of the Imperium. Nevertheless, the
  Scrolls of Pavár soon came to serve as the
  standard and the criterion for Engsvanyáli
  prose and poetry to follow.
  Engsvanyáli was "pinned in place" by the
  Scrolls of Pavár. The Priestkings declared
  that these had been "given by the Gods"
  and could not be altered in the slightest way.
  "What existed before must exist forever
  after," as the adage says. Conservative to
  the core, the Engsvanyáli had only to point
  to their Gods, their political power, and the
  ancient, crystallised  traditions of their
  empire to justify their efforts to keep their
  language as "it had always been." Temple
  liturgies, hymns, epic poems, and Imperial
  court documents also helped maintain the
  status quo until at last the mighty
  earthquake sunk Gánga Isle beneath the
  waves.
  Over so many millennia one expects -- and
  indeed finds -- linguistic change Even with
  the priesthoods of the temple academies
  sternly maintaining "standards," the
  language slowly metamorphosed to reflect
  regional and class differences, historical
  trends, and innovations. In the south-east,
  for who knows what reasons, the
  Engsvanyáli used alongside Duruób in Livyáni
  temple colleges developed masculine and
  feminine gender markers, a phenomenon
  which Pavár's scrolls lack. In Mu'ugalavyá, a
  series of unaspirated voiceless stops (/p, t,
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    5
  ch, k, q/) was found alongside a set of
  corresponding voiced phonemes (/b, d, j, g,
  G/). There was also an aspirated set (/ph,
  th, chh, kh, qh/), and a glottalised series in
  Classical Mu'ugalavyáni as well: /p', t', ch', k',
  and q'/. None of these displays reflexes in
  "Classical" (1.e. Pavár's) Engsvanyáli.  The
  influence of regional vernaculars was strong.
  In Yán Kór, there was a tendency to drop
  unstressed vowels, resulting in jaw-cracking
  consonant clusters. In Salarvyáni, stops
  were frequently doubled (e.g. /g/ > /gg/). In
  Tsolyáni, the various tense-aspect forms of
  the Engsvanyáli verb were replaced by
  immutable verb stems followed by
  "aspectives" and tense-indicators: e.g. /pál
  dopál/ "is coming," /pál muní/ "came," /pál
  dáimi/ "used to come"). All of these
  phenomena originate in Engsvanyáli, indeed,
  but attained prominence only in limited
  areas.
  Loan-words abound, both into Engsvanyáli
  from regional tongues, and from Engsvanyáli
  into other languages. Old Duruób originally
  seems to have drawn upon Sunúz for some
  of its vocabulary; as the centuries passed,
  many lexemes were replaced by Engsvanyáli
  forms, until, it was said, an educated person
  from Béy Sü could almost read a document
  in "high" Duruób without ever knowing the
  language! The same holds true historically:
  modern Tsolyáni and Mu'ugalavyáni contain
  many, many Engsvanyáli-derived lexemes,
  grammatical patterns, and syntactic
  structures. To the unpractised eye, an
  Engsvanyáli text may appear "just modern
  Tsolyáni in fancy dress"; the differences
  become very real with detailed study. It is
  very difficult at times to say which are
  reflexes of earlier stages of the modern
  languages and which are scholarly
  borrowings directly from Engsvanyáli! In
  some cases both exist: e.g. Tsolyáni /pál/
  "come" occurs side by side with Engsvanyáli
  /falél/ "advent." Since borrowings may have
  occurred at any time during the millennia of
  Engsvanyáli rule, later during the formative
  stages of the modern tongues, or as
  recently as yesterday, the difficulties of the
  scholar are daunting indeed.
  The problem in presenting an Engsvanyáli
  grammar is: WHICH Engsvanyáli? One can
  describe the relatively simple forms of the
  Scrolls of Pavár, but this does not do
  justice to the elaborate compositions of the
  later Priestkings, to regional variations, or
  to innumerable texts on dozens of topics
  that fill libraries from Sraón in Livyánu to
  Ssórmu in eastern Salarvyá. To describe
  even a few of these variants would require
  volumes.
  In this brief work, therefore, an attempt will
  be made to deal only with those structures
  that persisted from the time of Pavár
  through the "High" Period of the Third
  Epoch, omitting minor deviations and
  aberrations that would demand a more
  detailed study.
  3. Phonology.
  3.1. Consonants.
  The inventory of Engsvanyáli consonantal
  phonemes closely resembles those of its
  daughter-languages. The following are
  considered single phonemes, even when
  written with two English letters. Specifically
  local items, such as the glottalised
  consonant 
  series 
  occurring 
  in
  "Mu'ugalavyáni" Engsvanyáli, are omitted.
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    6
  Labials
  Labio-
  dentals
  Dentals &
  Alveolars
  Alveo-
  palatals
  Velars
  & Post-
  Velars
  Glottals
  Stops
    Voiceless
    Voiced
  p
  b
  t
  d
  k, q
  g
  Ä (glottal
  stop)
  Nasals
  m
  n
  ng (¢)
  Fricatives
    Voiceless
    Voiced
  f
  v
  th (÷)
  dh (í)
  ss (è)
  kh (x)
  gh  ( γ)
  h
  Grooved
    Voiceless
    Voiced
  s
  z
  sh (ç)
  zh (z„)
  Affricates
    Voiceless
    Voiced
  ts (c), tl (¬)
  dz
  ( Á ), d l
  (Ò )
  ch (N)
  j (Á„)
  Liquids
    Voiceless
    Voiced
  w
  hl (o)
  l, r
  y
  Engsvanyáli is a "dead" language, and hence
  phonetic values for various items in the
  foregoing chart cannot be accurately
  established. Modern Tsolyáni pronunciations
  are thus followed below. [Further information
  of use to English speakers is provided by the
  translator.]
  /p, t, k, b, d, j, g, m, n, f, v, h, s, z, sh, ch, j, w, y/
  were probably close to their modern
  Tsolyáni counterparts -- and to English. For
  ease of recognition, English "digraphs"
  (two-letter combinations) have been used
  where practical: e.g. "sh" as in "ship," "ch,"
  as in "church."  /g/ is always "hard," as in
  "gun," and never as in "gym" -- which would
  be written /jim/.
  /q/ is a back-velar "k," as in Arabic "Qur'an"
  and never as in "quick."
  /?/ (the glottal stop) is a "catch in the throat," as
  in "oh-oh!" It is understood to occur before
  any otherwise word-initial vowel. It also
  occurs word-medially and finally.
  /ng/, is as in "sing," except that it can occur at
  the beginning of a word as well as medially
  and finally.
  /th/ is the "th" of "thin," and /dh/ is the "th" of
  "this"; Confusingly, English employs "th" for
  both sounds, while the scripts of the
  Khíshan languages have two symbols.
  /ss/ is a retroflexed "s"; this sound occurs in
  Sanskrit and other Indic languages. It is
  frequently found in Engsvanyáli and its
  daughter-languages.
  /kh/ is a back-velar voiceless spirant, as in
  German 
  "ac h ." /gh/ is its voiced
  counterpart; this sound is found in Arabic
  ("ghain") but does not occur in European
  languages.
  /sh/ is as in "ship," and /zh/ is the "s" in
  "pleasure" or the "z" in "azure" -- or the "zh"
  in Russian "Zhukov."
  /ts/ is as in "hats"; it can occur initially,
  medially, 
  and 
  finally. 
  Its 
  voiced
  counterpart, /dz/ (as in "rods") is also
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    7
  found, but this has no separate letter-
  symbol and is written as /d/ + /z/.
  /tl/ is a voiceless alveo-palatal affricate, as in
  "Nahuatl." or "atlatl." It is not the "tl" of
  "bottle." Its voiced counterpart, /dl/, is
  approximately as in "muddle."
  /ch/ is the "ch" of "church" (and never as in
  "ache," "chagrin," German "ach," etc.). Its
  voiced counterpart, /j/, is the "j" -- or the
  "dg" -- of "judge."
  /r/ is a single-tap voiced vibrant, as in Spanish,
  rather than the retroflexed vowel-like "r" of
  American English. Northern Engsvanyáli
  tends to "roll its r's."
  /l/ is a "light" "l," as in "like," rather than the
  "dark" (velarised) "l" of "ball." Its voiceless
  counterpart, /hl/, is as in Welsh
  "Llewellyn."
  The contrast between /p/ and /b/, /t/ and
  /d/, and /k/ and /g/ is generally thought to
  be one of voiceless versus voiced stops. It is
  possible that both sets were voiceless, and
  that the contrast was between aspirated
  versus unaspirated, roughly like the
  difference between the "t's" of "tab" and
  "stab": i.e., phonetic [th] versus [t]. The
  origins of the "glottalised" series found in
  later Mu'ugalavyáni Engsvanyáli are
  problematic. Perhaps this phenomenon is
  traceable to a survival from some lost
  language of the region?
  4. Vowels.
  VOWELS
  The vowels of "Classical" Engsvanyáli are:
  Front
  Unrounded
  Front
  Rounded
  Central
  Unrounded
  Back
  Rounded
  High
  i
  ü
  u
  Mid
  e
  ö
  o
  Low
  a
  The Tsolyáni "school" pronunciation of the
  Engsvanyáli vowels is closely similar to
  modern Tsolyáni, as might be expected: /i/ is
  the "i" of English "machine"; /e/ is the "e" of
  French "fête" (close to English "fate"); /u/ is
  as in English "rule"; and /a/ is the "a" of
  English "father." These are "pure" vowels with
  no offglide, as in Spanish.
  Tsolyáni scholars maintain that from that
  Missúma River westward to the Tsoléi
  Archipelago, the phoneme /ü/ approaches
  the "umalut ü" of German, as in "kühl," and
  /ö/ is close to German "umlaut ö," as in
  "hören." These are said to be "front rounded"
  vowels: /ü/ is the vowel /i/, pronounced with
  the lips rounded as for "u," and /ö/ is
  similarly the vowel /e/ with the lips rounded.
  (Those who find these sounds difficult may
  try the following: say "eeee," as in "heeee
  says;" note that the lips are spread open at
  the corners. While holding this vowel, round
  the lips, as though to say "ooooo" (as in
  "boot"), but do not move the tongue. For
  /ö/, say "aaaaaa," as in "say," and round
  the lips in the same way. A little practice
  should produce acceptable "umlauted" /ü/
  and /ö/ sounds.
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    8
  There is more, however. The grammarians
  claim that east of the Missúma River, /ü/
  and /ö/ were "back unrounded" vowels: i.e. /ü/
  is an /u/ (as in "rule"), but with the lips
  spread wide at the corners, rather than
  rounded. For /ö/, one says "o" as in "note,"
  but the lips are unrounded and spread
  wide at the corners. The sounds thus
  produced are not found in standard English.
  A "high back unrounded vowel" is indeed
  present in Turkish, where it is written as an
  "i" without a dot (/œ/). Another symbol for it
  is an undotted "i" with a bar through it (/ï./),
  or even an "umlaut i" (/ ï /). It is unnecessary
  to provide special symbols for these vowels,
  however, since they do not contrast with /ü/
  and /ö/ and can be represented by these two
  symbols without confusion. Only a few
  Yán Koryáni scholars insist that there was
  a phonemic distinction between the front-
  rounded and the back-unrounded series; this
  is the northern tradition, but grammarians
  from other regions do not agree.
  Some scholars, particularly Mu'ugáyish of
  Tlár, who lived about 1,200 years ago,
  believe that Engsvanyáli had a contrast
  between long and short vowels: he cites
  such pairs as /dash/ "dry, arid," versus
  /daash/ "strap (for fastening a load on
  one's back)." Tsolyáni writers have replied
  that this may have been a contrast between
  a single vowel versus two identical vowels
  separated by a glottal stop: i.e. /dash/ and
  /da'ash/. An intervocalic glottal stop does
  tend to be omitted in normal-speed speech.
  It must be noted, in fairness to Mu'ugáyish,
  that Engsvanyáli script does display a
  special diacritic to indicate a "double vowel"
  (as in /dléè/ "big, large").
  Just as problematic is the case of word
  stress ("accent"). Since no spoken records
  remain, it is difficult to see why this issue is
  so hotly disputed. Modern Tsolyáni and
  Mu'ugalavyáni exhibit phonemic word stress
  (marked with an acute accent: e.g. /á/); they
  also have a secondary stress (shown with a
  grave accent: e.g. /à/). These contrast with
  "no stress," represented with no special
  symbol. For example, in /kolumébabàr/
  "empire," the loudest and most prominent
  vowel is the /é/; the next most prominent is
  the second /à/; the other vowels are
  unstressed. Any other pronunciation is
  identified as incorrect. Present-day scholars
  base their conclusions on their own
  tongues, of course. The Engsvanyáli script
  itself contains no symbols for "accents" --
  nor do Tsolyáni or other modern languages
  for that matter. Yet, over the centuries, a
  tradition has grown up of reading
  Engsvanyáli as though it possessed at least
  two word-stress phonemes that contrast
  with no stress: c.f. /dléè/ "big, large," cited
  above. In this work word stress will be
  written according to such modern Tsolyáni
  scholars  as Páttunu hiQolyélmu of the Clan
  of the Golden Sunburst of Gánga Isle. (He
  claims to own an Engsvanyáli manuscript
  that deals with this matter in detail; he has
  never allowed any other scholar to see it,
  however.)
  Most of the Khíshan languages recognise
  "diphthongs": 1.e. combinations of vowels,
  such as /ai/, /au/, and /oi/. Other
  diphthongs are either written as sequences
  (e.g. /ua/, /oa/, /iu/) or else have a /y/ or /w/
  inserted (1.e. /iya/, /uwa/, /iyu/). The choice of
  which of these two conventions to follow
  differed from period to period, place to place,
  and even scribe to scribe. Special symbols
  exist in the script for /oi/, /ai/, and /au/, and
  a special diacritic is used for /uo/ in many
  texts. Two diacritics are required for other
  vowel sequences.
  5. Morphophonemics.
  (1) The most distinctive morphophonemic
  phenomenon is the employment of
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    9
  "patterns" of prefixes, affixes, and
  infixes occurring with roots to produce
  "stems" used as tense-aspect forms of
  the verb, for plurals, and for other
  purposes. Examples:
  /shején/ "bind, tie (present tense of the
  verb)"; a binding (noun)." Compare:
  /shjanál/ "bindings, ties (plural noun)"
  /shujón/ "bound, tied (past verb)"
  /shiju'ún/ "had bound, tied (far in the past)"
  /shavanján/ "will bind (future)"
  /kishján/ "will have bound (far future or
  future-perfect)"
  /sho'ojnür/ "is bound, tied (passive
  present)"
  (2)  Vowel raising, lowering, and omission are
  frequent features of many structures.
  Vowels usually remain within their point-
  of-articulation categories ("front,"
  "rounded," "central," and "back" in the
  chart in Sec. 4), but they go "up" or
  "down" in height of articulation (i.e.
  "high," "mid," and "low"). Thus, /i/ is
  modified in some structure-patterns to
  occur as /e/, /ü/ as /ö/, and /u/ as /o/.
  The mid vowels (/e/, /ö/, and /o/) are all
  modified to appear as /a/, although this
  is not universal. Raising -- going "up" on
  the chart in Sec. 4 -- is less commonly
  found: e.g. /ssönör/ "to fear." but
  causative stem (see below) /ssünür/.
  There are many examples of vowel loss
  as well: e.g. /shején/ "tie, bond" and
  /shjanál/ "ties, bonds" (plural), in which
  the first /e/ is omitted, and the second
  is lowered to /a/. All of these phenomena
  will be seen illustrated in subsequent
  Sections.
  (3) "Vowel harmony is also frequent: the
  vowels of some affixes "agree" (the
  Engsvanyáli grammarians' term) with the
  nearest vowel of the stem to which they
  are affixed. This "agreement" depends
  upon the "basic vowel" of the affix. Many
  affix-vowels "agree" entirely with the
  stem vowel: i.e. they "become" the same,
  identical vowel. Others agree in point-of-
  articulation but not in height; cf. (2)
  above and the chart in Sec. 4. In some
  cases, the agreement is complete. In
  others, the height of the affix vowel is
  "influenced" by that of the stem vowel. If
  the affix "basic" vowel is a "low" /a/, and
  the stem vowel is a "mid vowel" (/e, ö,
  o/), the affix vowel is not affected. If the
  stem vowel is "high" (/i, ü, u/), however,
  the affix vowel is raised one "step" on the
  chart: i.e. /a/ to /e/, /ö/, or /o/.
  /su'úm/ "mouth" and /su'úm-ul/ "mouths."
  The plural suffix is /-Vl/, where "V"
  represents an affix vowel that is subject
  to vowel harmony.
  /mzák/ "power" and /mzák-al/ "powers"
  /shutlúr/ "horizon" and /shutlúr-ol/
  "horizons"
  /chotlíng/ "sun, day" and /chotlíng-el/
  "suns, days"
  /vesrém/ "man," plural /vesrém-el/ "men"
  (4) After a stem ending in a vowel, an initial
  vowel of an affix is usually omitted,
  although occasionally, one finds the affix
  separated from the stem by a glottal
  stop. The same is true of final vowels of
  prefixes: before a stem beginning with a
  vowel, the prefix vowel does not usually
  occur.
  /hétla/ "woman," and /hétla-l/ "women"
  /ch-ojáim/ "onto people, the populace."
  /chu-/ "on, onto"
  /katha'-ál/ "sacrifices." This also occurs as
  /kathá-l/; in some dialects the stem is
  considered to end in /'/.
  /m-ossá-l/ "to, for things." /me-/ "to, for";
  /ossá/ "thing, material object"; /-l/
  "plural"
  /f-ehlozh-ól/ "with daggers." /fa-/ "with";
  /ehlózh/ "dagger"; /-al/ "plural" occurs
  as /-ol/ because of vowel harmony
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    10
  6. Verbs.
  The verb of "Classical" Engsvanyáli does not
  inflect for person or number. Descriptions of
  "South-western" (or "Livyáni") Engsvanyáli
  do contain lengthy "conjugations," but
  these are probably due to the influences of
  Duru'ób -- and may be no more than the
  constructions of grammarians looking for
  the familiar! Livyáni recensions of such well-
  known texts as The Scrolls of Pavár display
  subject and object suffixes, but these
  cannot be original to the language since
  they are not found in other dialects or
  periods. The northern dialects, on the other
  hand, employ separate words (i.e. juncture-
  bounded lexemes) for various tenses and
  aspects, presaging modern Tsolyáni in which
  separate "post-verbs" are used with
  immutable stems for most tense/aspect
  formations.
  The "Classical" Engsvanyáli verb of both the
  Northern and the Eastern dialect groups
  consists of a "root"' this occurs with
  various affix-patterns (prefixes, suffixes,
  and vowel infixes) to produce tense-aspect
  "stems." These are then employed as the
  syntactic predicates of verbal sentences.
  Stems also occur alone as "verbal nouns,"
  translatable as English infinitives or gerunds
  (i.e. "(the) going" or "to go.")
  The system is far from predictable. Small,
  limited classes occur; these differ from
  place to place and period to period.
  Constructing an exhaustive Engsvanyáli
  grammar is thus almost an insurmountable
  task. Even Hurún hiKétkolel, Scholar Priest
  of the Temple of Chegárra in Katalál in the
  18th Century (A. S.), did not include all
  occurring forms. His seven-volume work,
  Krüshatldàlidàlikh hitùplandaritsándhàli
  mítlanan ("The Mighty Grammar of the
  Divine, Beloved, and Beautiful Language")
  omits even a few forms used in the Scrolls
  of Pavár!
  6.1. Roots and Stems.
  "Roots" comprise most of the lexemes of
  the language. These consist mainly of two or
  three consonants (symbolised as "C," "N,"
  and "S"), accompanied by one to three
  vowels (represented as "A," "E," and "I"). In
  these formulae, consonant clusters are the
  same as single consonants for root
  purposes: thus, CCAN is treated as the
  same as CAN for affix purposes.
  These letters are used as formulaic
  representations only: "C" stands for the
  first consonant of a root; "A" stands for
  the first vowel and may be actualised as any
  vowel in the language; "N" stands for any
  second root consonant, "E" is any second
  vowel of a root; and "S" represents any third
  consonant.
  Tri-consonantal roots are commonest,
  followed by bi-consonantal roots. Longer
  roots do occur but most seem to be
  borrowings from N'lüss or other, unknown
  languages.
  The vowels and consonants of a root are
  fixed: they do not change. Affixes may alter
  the position of the consonants in a word,
  however, and the vowels of affixes may
  "replace" those of the root. Thus, /shején/
  "to tie, bind" (a /CANES/ root) occurs with
  the infix pattern /u-o/ (denoting past
  action) as /shujón/ "tied, bound" (/CuNoS/).
  The "conditional" pattern /eCNES/ occurs
  with /shején/ as /eshján/ "may tie, may
  bind." The /e/ is a fixed part of the pattern;
  the /a/ is a "lowered" form of the stem vowel.
  "Base stems" function without further
  affixation both as verbs and nouns. As the
  former, they are equivalent to the english
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    11
  "present general tense": i.e. /goes," sees." As
  nouns, they are emplyoyed as gerunds or
  infinitives (e.g. "the going," "to go"). Some
  also signify unit nouns, just as "ship" in
  English is both a verb ("He ships goods to
  another city") and a noun ("The ship sailed
  into port").
  Word stress (/´/) is indicated in the
  examples adduced below, according to
  Tsolyáni "school pronunciation." Note that
  stress cannot be written on /ü/ and /ö/, due
  to limitations of the computer type font. If
  no other stress occurs, the reader can
  assume an "umlaut" vowel in the example is
  stressed.
  (1) Base patterns include bi-consonantal
  and tri-consonantal roots, those with
  three consonants being the most
  common, followed by roots with two
  consonants. Patterns may also include
  two (usually not more) consonants in
  one or more of the "C," "N," or "S"
  positions; these do not affect the root's
  behaviour with affixes, as said above.
  Three "diphthongs" also function as
  unitary vowels: /ai/, /au/, and /oi/. Other
  sequences of vowels are considered
  vowel clusters: e.g. /ia/, /ea/, /ua/, etc.
  Patterns are listed below in rough order
  of frequency:
  C(C)AN(N)ES(S): e.g.
  CANES: /shején' "tie, bind," "to tie,
  bind" and "bonds"; /ghaván/ "be, exist"
  and "being, existence"; /pepím/
  "descend, go down" and "descent"
  CANNES: /kolmék/ "rule, govern" and
  "rule"
  CCANES: /srüdhúr/ "carve, sculpt"
  and "to sculpt, carving"; "sculpture"
  CANNESS: /valthárz/ "store (food)"
  and "cache, store" (noun)
  C(C)AN(N)E: e.g.
  CANE: /törö/ "recite, chant" and
  "chanting, reciting, recitation"; kátha/
  "offer, present" and "offering, to offer";
  /felé/ "come" and "(the) coming,
  arrival"; /lauzhü/ "point, direct" and
  "pointing," "index finger." This stem
  contains one of the diphthongs that is
  treated as a single vowel: /au/.
  CCANNE: /trákte/ "bite off" and "biting off,
  to bite off"
  C(C)AN(N): e.g.
  CAN: /dóm/ speak, say" and "speaking,
  to speak"; /shóng/ "be true" and "truth"
  CCAN: /ssnán/ "eat" and "eating, to
  eat"
  CANN: /mérsh/ "cry, weep" and
  "crying, to cry"
  C(C)A: these are uncommon; e.g.
  CA: /bá/ "fly away (as the spirit of a
  deceased person)" and "spirit"; /má/
  "do, make"
  CCA: /mló/ "go, travel" and "going"
  C(C)AE: bases containing vowel clusters
  are rare: e.g.
  CAE: /ssáo/ "govern (a province)" and
  "to govern, provincial government"
  CCAE: /préu/ "record (data)" and
  "record" (noun)
  (2) Vowel-initial patterns occur but are
  treated as glottal-stop-initial roots: a /'/
  is usually found after an affix ending in a
  vowel.
  ACNES: /élvün/ "weave": c.f. /e'lavön/
  "may weave" (conditional)"; /e'lávnal/
  "weavings, fabrics." If a glottal stop is
  postulated, this root belongs to the
  /CANNES/ pattern.
  (3) Stems employed as nouns usually
  denote a specific act or object, as noted
  above. Abstract nouns require a prefix
  (/üro-/) and a slightly different pattern.
  /felé/ "come"; also "(the) coming (on a
  specific occasion)." Compare: /üroflá/
  "coming" (an abstract concept), and
  such "derived nouns" as /falél/
  "advent," /felán/ "emergence (of the
  Cosmos from the primordial Egg of the
  World")"
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    12
  /lagáz/ "put in, contain (as something in a
  pot)"; also: "cook-pot." An abstract
  noun requires /üro-/: /ürolgáz/
  "containing, holding (as in a pot)"
  /vesrém/ "acts as a man" and "man, male"
  (noun). 
  Compare: 
  /ürovesrám/
  "manliness, behaving like a man"
  hétla/ "acts as a woman" and "woman."
  Compare: /ürohtlá/ "womanliness,"
  behaving like a woman."
  6.2. Tense/Aspect Affixes.
  Tense/Aspect forms are composed of a
  root/stem plus an affix that itself may be
  composed of a prefix, infix, and suffix. There
  are about a half dozen common "Forms." In
  actuality, about twenty tense/aspect forms
  were employed at various times and places
  over the long span of Engsvanyáli history.
  Grammarians do not consider many of
  these as "Standard," however, since they
  are not found in the Scrolls of Pavár.
  Unlike Livyáni and some other modern
  Khíshan tongues, Engsvanyáli does not
  include subject or object affixes in the verb:
  i.e. /felé/ "come" denotes "(I) come," "(you)
  come," "(he/she) comes," "(we) come," etc.
  Subjects and objects, whether nouns or
  pronouns, are indicated by separate words
  (tactic blocks), as in modern Tsolyáni: e.g.
  /lü pöghöl tará/ "I see you (sg.)."
  Common forms include:
  (1) The "present general" tense is composed
  of the base stem (including its vowel(s)).
  This also functions as a noun, as
  described above. One example was given
  in Sec. 5.1, above. Others are:
  /dheméhl/ "hits, strikes"; "to hit, strike";
  "hitting, striking," and "(a) blow"
  /kháish/ "reads"; "to read," "reading," and
  "study (noun)." /ai/ is treated as a
  single vowel
  /méskh/ "is born, generated, produced";
  "giving birth, being produced, to be
  created," and "birth"
  (2) In the later Engsvanyáli of the "Great
  Empire,"  the base stem is used only as
  a verbal noun: "going," "to go." The
  general present is indicated by an infix
  which consists of "stem vowel lowering":
  i.e. /i/ occurs as /e/, /e/ as /a/, /ü/ as /ö/,
  etc. The low vowel, /a/, cannot be further
  lowered and is immutable.
  /dám/ "speaks, says." Stem: /dóm/
  /dhamáhl/ "hits, strikes." Stem /dheméhl/
  /falá/ "comes." Stem: /felé/
  /kháish/ "reads." Stem /kháish/. Note that
  /ai/ cannot be further lowered
  /mlá/ "goes." Stem: /mló/
  /pöpém/ "goes down, descends." Eastern
  dialects use /püpim/ as a base stem,
  while others prefer /pepím/
  /shaján/ :binds, ties." Stem: /shején/
  /ssanar/ "fears, is afraid." Stem: /ssönör/
  /törö/ 
  "recites, 
  chants." 
  Eastern
  Engsvanyáli employs an alternate stem
  /türü/, while Western dialects use
  /terú/, which employs a present /taró/
  (3) The "past" tense is made up of a base
  stem plus an infixed pattern (/-u-o-/)
  that "overrides" the "basic" stem vowels:
  i.e. /CuNoS/. There are a number of
  irregular forms: in stems with base
  vowels /ü/ or /ö/, the infix may occur as
  /-ü-ö-/). A few verbs, particularly in the
  northern dialects, exhibit /-u-a-/). In
  stems of the pattern /CAN/, the past
  pattern is usually /CuN/. The semantic
  range of this form includes past action
  and a past state or condition.
  /bú/ "flew away"
  /dhumóhl/ "hit, struck"
  /dúm/ "spoke, said"
  /fuló/ "came"
  /khúsh/ "read (past)." Note the treatment of
  the diphthong /ai/ of the stem
  /mlú/ "went"
  /mú/ "did, made." Stem: /má/
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    13
  /musókh/ "was born, generated, produced"
  /pru'ó/ "recorded (data)." The glottal stop
  is not part of the base stem
  /ssnún/ "ate"
  /ssunór/ "feared" and also /ssünör/. The
  present stem is /ssönör/
  /ssúo/ "governed (a province)." Note the
  treatment of the vowel cluster.
  /turó/ "recited, chanted." From either
  /türü/ or /terú/
  /unggó/ "fished (with a net)." The base stem
  is /onggá/. This may be a borrowing
  from some pre-Engsvanyáli language in
  Yán Kór
  (4) The "far past" consists of a pattern
  /CiNu'uS/. Stems of the patterns
  /CAN/, /CA/, and /CAE/ occur with a
  pattern /Cu'uC/, /Cu'u/, etc.
  /bu'ú/ "flew away (long ago)"
  /du'úm/ had spoken, said (long ago)"
  /filu´'u/ 'came (long ago)"
  /hitlu'ú/ "acted as a woman, in a womanly
  manner (long ago)"
  /inggu'ú/ "fished (long ago)"
  /khu'úsh/ "read (long ago)"
  /kithu'ú/ "offered, presented (long ago)"
  /mlu'ú/ "went (long ago)"
  /pipu'úm/ "had gone down, descended (long
  ago)"
  /pru'ú/ "recorded (data) (long ago)"
  /shiju'ún/ "tied, bound (long ago)"
  /ssu'ú/ "governed (a province) (long ago)."
  The stem is /ssaó/, and the form is thus
  irregular: it should occur as */ssu'úo/
  /tiru'ú/ "recited, chanted (long ago)"
  /visru'úm/ "acted as a man, in a manly way
  (long ago)"
  (5) The "future" is irregular. It consists of a
  stem (or the first syllable of a stem?)
  plus /-anján/, /-ranján/, /vanjan/ (often
  with vowel changes). Engsvanyáli
  dictionaries list the future form for each
  stem entry.
  /banján/ "will fly away." The stem is /bá/,
  and the affix is /-nján/. In the
  Mu'ugalavyáni recension of "The
  Lament to the Wheel of Black,"
  /bavanján' is found
  /dhemvehlján/ "will hit, strike." Stem:
  /dheméhl/: the affix is /-v- -ján/
  /dovomján/ "will speak, say." The affix
  appears to be /-vA- -ján/ with vowel
  harmony
  /felvenján' "will come." The affix appears
  to be /-v- -nján/
  /ghavánlü/ "will be, exist." A unique and
  irregular form; the present stem is
  /ghaván/
  /manján/ "will do, make." Stem: /má/.
  /mavanján/ also occurs in The Godlike
  Reports of Governor Arumél, Lord of
  the North
  /meskhanján/ "will be born, created." The
  stem is /méskh/. */meskhvanján/ does
  not occur
  /mlanján/ "will go/." The stem is /mló/,
  again with vowel lowering and /-nján/
  /pepvimján/ "will go down, descend." The
  stem is /pepím/, giving an affix /-v-
  -ján/. Again, alternate analsyses are
  possible
  /shavanján/ "will tie, bind." Stem: /shején/,
  with "vowel lowering" (i.e. /a/ instead
  of the /e/ of the base stem) and an affix
  /-van-/; other analyses are possible
  /ssünüranján/ "will frighten." Causative
  stem: /ssünür/ + an affix /-anján/
  /törvönján/ "will recite, chant." The
  vowels are irregular, although the
  Eastern form /törö/ does produce /tör-
  ö-/; the Western stem is /terú/
  /prevunján/ "will record (data)." The affix
  is /-v- -nján/
  (6) The "conditional" consists of a stem
  and affix in the pattern /eCNES/: i.e. a
  word-initial /e/ followed by the first two
  consonants of the stem, the second
  stem vowel (often with vowel-lowering),
  and the third stem consonant. This form
  denotes "may," "should," and "might,"
  and it occurs with verbal particles
  signifying "if," "in order that," and the
  like.
  /ebá/ "may fly away. " Stem: /bá/.
  /edám/ "may speak, say." Stem: /dóm/.
  /edhmáhl/ "may hit, strike." Stem:
  /dheméhl/
  /eflá/ "may come." Stem: /felé/
  /eghván/ "may be, exist." Stem: /ghaván/
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    14
  /ekhásh/ "may read." Stem: /kháish/. The
  treatment of /ai/ is unusual
  /emá/ "may do, make." Stem: /má/
  /emáskh/ "may give birth, create." Stem:
  /méskh/
  /emlá/ "may go." Stem: /mló/
  /eppém/ "may go down, descend." Stem:
  /pepím/
  /epréu/ or /epráu/ "may record (data)."
  Stem: /préu/. Both forms are attested
  /eshján/ "may tie, bind." Stem: /shején/
  /essáo/ "may govern (a province)." Stem:
  /ssáo/
  /essnár/ "may fear." Stem: /ssönör/
  /etrö/ "may recite, chant." This is the
  Northern stem, /törö/; /etró/ (from
  /terú/) is also found
  (7) The "far future" or "future perfect" is
  made up of a stem and affix in the
  pattern /kiCNES/: i.e. /ki/ followed by the
  first two consonants of the stem, the
  second stem vowel (sometimes with
  vowel-lowering), and the third stem
  consonant. This form signifies an act or
  state occurring in the distant future:
  "will ..." or "will have .... -ed"
  /kibá/ "will fly away" and "will have flown
  away." Stem: /bá/
  /kidám/ "will speak, say." Stem: /dóm/
  /kidhmáhl/ "will hit, strike (far future)."
  Stem: /dheméhl/
  /kiflá/ "will come." Stem: /felé/
  /kighván/ "will be, exist (in the distant
  future)" and "will have been." Stem:
  /ghaván/
  /kikhásh/ "will read." Stem: /kháish/
  /kimá/ "will make, do." Stem /má/
  /kimáskh/ "will give birth, create" and "will
  have given birth, produced, created."
  Stem: /méskh/
  /kimlá/ "will go." Stem: /mló/
  /kippém/ "will go down, descend." Stem:
  /pepím/
  /kipréu/ "will record (data)" and "will have
  recorded." Stem: /préu/. /kiprú/ is
  recorded as an alternate
  /kissáo/ "will govern (a province)." Stem:
  /ssáo/
  /kissnán/ "will eat" and "will have eaten."
  Stem: /ssnán/
  /kissnör/ "will fear." Stem: /ssönör/
  /kitrö/ "will chant, recite." This is again the
  Northern stem, /törö/; /kitró/ also
  occurs, from /terú/
  6.3. Other Tense/Aspect forms.
  The above-listed formations are considered
  "standard." Further constructions are
  employed in the "High" Engsvanyáli of the
  later periods. Some of these innovations
  seem contrived and artificial, and thus only
  a few of them are noticed below.
  (1) The "completive" is composed of a stem
  and affix pattern /nishCeNSE/. (usually
  without vowel change). Stems of the
  /CANE/ pattern occur as /nishCeNE/;
  those of the /CAN/ pattern are found as
  /nishCAN/; and those of the /CA/
  pattern appear as /nishCA/. This form
  denotes an action or state that is
  ending or about to end. The time
  reference of this formation is always
  past.
  /nishbá/ "(already) flew away." Stem: /bá/
  /nishdóm/. "(already) spoke, said." Stem:
  /dóm/
  /nishfelé/ "(already) came, finished
  coming." Stem: /felé/
  /nishkháish/ "finished reading." Stem:
  /kháish/
  /nishmá/ "(already) made, did." Stem: /má/
  /nishmló/ "(already) gone," "finished
  going." Stem: /mló/. In some texts the
  /m/ is dropped: /nishló/
  /nishpepmé/ "finished going down,
  descending." Stem /pepím/
  /nishshejné/ "(already) tied, bound,"
  "finished tying." Stem: /shején/
  (2) A "desiderative" ("want to ... ") consists
  of /CAkhunNES/. Stems of the pattern
  /CANE/ appear as /CAkhunNE/; those
  of the /CAN/ pattern occur as
  /CAkhunNA/; and those of the pattern
  /CA/ appear as /CAkhun/ or /CAkhunA/.
  This formation does not appear until the
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    15
  reign of Ssesmúga I or Ssesmúga IV
  (the texts are not clearly dated).
  /bakhuná/ "want to fly away." Stem: /bá/
  /dokhunmó/ "want to speak, say." Stem:
  /dóm/
  /fekhunlé/ "want to come." Stem: /felé/
  /khakhunshá/ "want to read." Stem:
  /kháish/. Note the reflex of /ai/
  /makhún/ or /makhuná/ "want to do, make."
  Stem: /má/
  /shekhunjén/ "want to tie, bind." Stem:
  /shején/
  /ssakhunáo/ "want to govern (a province)."
  Stem: /ssáo/. Also /sakhuná/
  /tekhunrú/ "want to recite, chant." Stem:
  /terú/
  (3) An "obligatory" ("have to ... ") is made
  with the pattern /CANSóm/. Stems of
  the patterns /CANE/, /CA/, /CAE/, etc.
  occur as /CANóm/ and /CAóm/,
  sometimes with vowel harmony. A glottal
  stop frequently separates vowels that
  would otherwise occur together. This
  form is first found in the Personal
  History of the Priestking Nemándu I.
  /ba'óm/ "have to fly away." Stem: /bá/
  /ma'óm/ "have to do, make." Stem: /má/
  /mlo'óm/ "have to go." Stem: /mló/. /mlóm/
  is also found in the Personal History
  /pepmóm/ "have to descend, go down."
  Stem: /pepím/
  /shejnóm/ "have to tie, bind." Stem:
  /shején/
  /ssa'óm/ "have to govern (a province)."
  Stem: /ssáo/
  /ssnanóm/ "have to eat." Stem: /ssnán/
  /ssönróm/ "have to fear, be afraid." Also
  /ssönröm/. Stem: /ssönör/
  /teróm/ "have to recite, chant." Stem:
  /terú/
  6.4. Derived Stems.
  Several "derived stems" are found. These are
  modified forms of the basic stem, with sets
  of special tense/aspect affixes.
  (1) The "causative": "to make (someone) act,
  do" is a "derived stem" made with all of
  the stem vowels raised: i.e. /i, e, a/ are
  realised as /i/; /ö/ occurs as /ü/; and /u,
  o/ appear as /u/. The causative occurs
  with all patterns but with special affixes,
  which are regular. The Scrolls of Pavár
  contain several examples of this
  construction.
  /birá/ "causes to fly away." Stem: /bá/
  /dumrá/ "causes to speak." Stem: /dóm/
  /eghivinrá/ "may cause to be, exist." Stem
  /ghaván/
  /ekhishrá/ "may cause to read." Stem
  /kháish/
  /eshijinrá/ "may cause to tie, bind." Stem:
  /shején/. Note that /-ra/ occurs in the
  "conditional causative"
  /filirú/ "caused to come, made come." Stem
  /felé/
  /hrijrá/ "fills, causes to be full". Stem
  /hréj/
  /kishijinrá/ "will cause to tie, bind (far
  future)." Stem: /shején/
  /kitirirá/ "will cause to recite, chant." Stem
  /terú/
  /mirú/ "caused to do, make." Stem: /má/
  /nyilrá/ "causes to e blue, makes blue."
  Stem: /nyíl/ "be blue." The base stem
  vowel is already high (/i/), and only the
  affixes show that this verb is causative
  /pipimu'úr/ "caused to go down, descend
  (long ago)." Stem /pepím/
  /shijinrá/ "causes to tie, bind." Stem:
  /shején/. The "present causative" affix
  is /-rá/
  /shijinranján/ "will cause to tie, bind." The
  "future causative" affix is /-ranján/
  /shijinrú/ "caused to tie, bind." The "past
  causative" affix is /-rú/
  /shijinu'úr/ "caused to tie, bind (long ago)."
  The "long past causative" affix is /-
  u'úr/
  /ssiurú/ "caused to govern (a province)."
  Stem: /ssáo/
  /ssninrú/ "caused to eat, fed." Stem:
  /ssnán/
  /ssünüranján/ "will cause to fear, frighten."
  This should occur as /ssünürranján/,
  but the /rr/ apparently simplifies to a
  single /-r-/
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    16
  (2) The "passive" is made with the pattern
  /Co'oNSür/. The pattern /CANE/ appears
  as /Co'oNür/; /CAN/ occurs as /Co'oNür/
  also, while /CA/, /CAE/, etc. are less
  regular. The passive is an old formation,
  found in The Scrolls of Pavár and other
  early texts. The tense/aspect affixes have
  special forms.
  /dho'omhlür/ "is hit, struck." Stem:
  /dheméhl/
  /dho'omhlürönjön/ "will be hit, struck
  (future)"
  /dho'omhlürü'ü/ "was hit, struck (long ago)"
  /dho'omhlürü/ "was hit, struck (past)"
  /do'omür/ "is said, spoken." Stem" /dóm/
  /edho'omhlür/ "may be hit, struck
  (conditional)"
  /ekho'oshür/ "may be read." Stem: /kháish/
  /kho'oshür/ "is read." /kho'oshürönjön/
  "will be read"
  /kidho'omhlür/ "will be hit, struck (far
  future)"
  /mo'ür/ "is done, made." For */mo'oür/;
  stem /má/
  /po'oghlürü/ "was seen." Stem" /pöghöl/
  /sho'ojnür/ "is bound, tied (passive
  present)." Stem" /shején/
  /ssno'okhunnür/ "is wanted to eat"
  /sso'ür/ "is governed (province)." For
  */sso'oür/; stem /ssáo/
  The passive does not occur with
  "causative" verbs; instead, a passive
  form of "to be," /gho'onür/, is put before
  the causative verb stem. These are of
  uncommon occurrence.
  /gho'onür filí/ "is caused to come"
  /gho'onürönjön pipím/ "will be caused to go
  down, descend"
  /gho'onürü bí/ "was caused to fly away"
  (3) The "intransitive" form is made from
  semantically transitive verbs with the
  pattern /moCNES/. It is not found with
  intransitive verbs or with causatives. The
  pattern /CANE/ appears as /moCNE/;
  /CAN/ occurs as /moCEN/, while /CA/,
  /CAE/, etc. occur as /moCA/ and
  /moCAE/. This form indicates that a
  transitive action occurs "of itself": it is
  thus like the "passive," except that the
  focus is on the action and not on the
  actor. Thus, instead of "It was broken
  (by someone)," this form centres upon
  the "breaking": "it was broken (of itself,
  or without reference to any actor)." In
  modern slang: "it got broke."
  /emodhméhl/ "may be hit, struck." Stem:
  /dheméhl/
  /kimodhméhl/ "will be hit struck (far
  future)"
  /midhmu'úhl/ "was hit, struck (long ago)
  /modhméhl/ "is hit, struck." This is not
  passive: no "actor" occurs. It may also
  be rendered colloquially as "gets hit."
  /modhmehlranján/ "will get hit, be struck"
  /modhméhlu/ "was hit, struck"
  /mokháish/ "is read" or "gets read."
  /momá/ "is done, made" or "gets done."
  Compare /mo'ür/ "is done, made,"
  which implies an actor: /vülti momá/
  "the work (/vül/ + /-ti/ "the") is done,
  gets done" versus /vülti mo'ür/ "the
  work is done (by someone unnamed or
  unknown)"
  6.5. Verbal Enclitics.
  Further nuances are produced by the use of
  "adverbial" enclitics  with verbal forms. These
  are similar to modern Tsolyáni tense/aspect
  indicators: e.g. /pál dopál/ "is coming"; /pál
  dáimi/ "used to come." In Engsvanyáli these
  are written separately from the verb they
  follow, but there is a question as to whether
  they carry primary stress or not. Some of
  the most frequent are:
  /án/ "interrogative": /dheméhl án/ "is
  hitting, striking?" /tá felé án?/ "are you
  (sg.) coming?"
  /dáth/ "imperfect: action occurring over a
  long period, past, present or future":
  /mlú dáth/ "ised to go," /mlanján dán/
  "will go (many times over a long
  period)"
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    17
  /jé/ "about to ...": e.g. /felé jé/ "about to
  come"; /pupóm jé/ "was about to go
  down, descend"; /felvenján jé/ "will be
  about to come." Future examples are
  uncommon
  /ké/ "stative": the focus is on a resultant
  state after the action of the verb. This
  is sometimes equivalent to "has ...ed":
  /mlú ké/ "has gone" (and is no longer
  present: in a state of having gone)
  /lün/ "imperative." Engsvanyáli has no
  special verb form or paradigm for the
  "imperative": the present stem is used
  with /lün/: e.g. /tüsmáru mló lün!/ "You
  (pl.) go!" /dheméhl lün!/ "(You) hit,
  strike!"
  /már/ "continuative": "is ...ing": e.g. /mló
  már/ "is going"; /pöghöl már' "is seeing,
  looking"; /ssnún már/ "was eating" (a
  past example)
  /neté/ "condition contrary to fact, would
  have..." /dhumóhl neté/ "would have
  hit, struck." This usually occurs with
  "past" verbs, but present/future
  conditions contrary to fact can be
  expressed by a "present conditional"
  verb + /neté/: /edhmáhl neté/ "would
  hit, strike" (but will not do so)
  /nín/ "reciprocal": /dheméhl nín/ "hit one
  another"
  /ón/ "mythological time": /dúm ón/ "spoke,
  said (in the time of the Gods)." This is
  used with "past" or "far past" verb
  forms only
  /pé/ "hortative": "let..."  Usually with the
  conditional: e.g. /möllör emlá pé/ "let
  him go!"; /lü eflá/ "let me come!"
  /thám/ "habitual": /dheméhl thám/
  "habitually hits"; /dhumóhl thám/
  "habitually hit (past)"; /edhmáhl thám/
  "may habitually hit (conditional)"
  /tlé/ "reflexive": /dheméhl tlé/ "hit oneself"
  /vér/ "repetitive": dheméhl vér/ "keeps
  hitting, striking"
  Two (and sometimes more) verbal enclitics
  can occur with the same verb form. Modern
  scholars pronounce these combinations
  with only one word stress, however, as
  though they were unitary compounds.
  /mló már lün/ "keep on going!" Modern
  spoken: /mló marlün/ the main stress is
  carried by /mló/, and the /ü/ of /lün/
  bears a secondary stress
  /dheméhl tlé vér/ "hit oneself repeatedly."
  Modern spoken: /tlevér/. /dheméhl
  tleverlün/ "hit yourself repeatedly!"
  This kind of example is dear the
  grammarians but is probably unlikely to
  occur in real texts or speech
  /ssnu'ún ón thám/ "habitually ate (long
  ago)." Pronounced: /onthám/. The
  order of the verbal enclitics is
  relatively fixed: one does find */thám
  ón/. Variations do appear in texts from
  different places and times, however
  /turó jé neté/ "would have been about to
  recite, chant." Pronounced jeneté/ or
  even /jneté/
  6.6. Negation.
  There are four words for "not": one denotes
  general present and past negation, a second
  signifies future negation; a third is an
  "emphatic" ("never") without time reference;
  and the fourth denotes "don 't ...," used with
  imperatives. These elements occur directly
  before verb forms.
  /yágga/ "not (general present and past)":
  /yágga mló/ "does not go"; /yágga mlú/
  "did not go"
  /trá/ "not (future)": /trá dhemehlján/ "will
  not hit, strike"; /trá kidhmáhl/ "will not
  hit, strike (far future)"
  /yallán/ "not, never (emphatic)": /yallán
  ssnu'ún/ "never ate"; /yallán mlanján/
  "will not go"
  /tó/ "don't!": /tó mló lün!/ "don't go!"; /tó
  felé lün/ "don't come!"; /tó pöghöl lün/
  "don't look!"
  6.7. Verbal Phrases.
  (1) Sequences of two verbs occur, in which
  the first belongs to a small class
  denoting "know how to," "intend to,"
  "stop ..ing," etc., and the second is a
  "conditional" form.
  /lü nithó emá/ "I know how to do (it)."
  /nithó/ "know how to"
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
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  /tá yágga kejjá essnán ma'nitíla/ "you (sg.)
  do not intend to eat the food." /kejjá/
  "intend to"
  /möllör purkhú engrés/ "he stopped calliing
  out." /perkhé/ "stop ...ing"; past
  /purkhó/
  (2) A unique case is /úùl/ "should, ought."
  More emphatic is /úùlsa/ "must, have
  to." These are followed by "conditional"
  verbal forms.
  /möllör úùl emlá/ "He should, ought to, go"
  /lü úùlsa echál/ "I must sit down." /chél/
  "sit down"
  /mssöl úùlsa emzhákh/ "They must return."
  /mizhékh/ "return, go back"
  6.8. Nominal Forms.
  As stated in Sec. 6.1, almost any stem can
  occur as either a present tense verb or as a
  noun. This is true of even the commonest
  lexemes denoting material objects.
  /bás/ "house" (noun) and "houses, shelters"
  (verb)
  /cherék/ "sword" (noun) and "strikes with a
  sword" (verb)
  /cheréng/ "bread" and "makes, bakes
  bread"
  Sometimes the semantic connection is less
  easily discerned. At times it is almost
  indiscernible, although there is usually an
  historical connection that can be found by
  reference to one of the great dictionaries.
  Not all stems are equally freuqnet in both
  nominal and verbal usages, of course; for
  some, no noun use is attested, others do
  not occur as verbs in the existing literature.
  /dlefév/ "(soldier's) boot, travelling boot."
  This is not found as a verb, although
  various semantic possibilities do come
  to mind
  /jijéng/ "thinks." This is only employed as a
  verb; the word for "thinking" or
  "thought" is /malgáish/ from another
  stem meaning "thought, idea," which
  does not occur as a verb
  /mafádh/ clay pot, pottery" and "stews,
  cooks a stew"
  /náru/ "hill of skulls (after a victory the
  losers' skulls were stacked up as a
  warning!)" and "rules with cruelty."
  This is apparently a reference to
  Queen Nayári of the First Imperium,
  who raised mounds of her enemies'
  skulls and governed with great cruelty
  /shirún/ "diamond" and "sparkles"
  /si'ír/ "(male) cat" and "attacks fearlessly."
  Literary only
  "Derived noun" formations are constructed
  with elements prefixed to verbal stems.
  (1) The "active participle": a noun or
  adjective denoting the performance of
  an action: "...ing" This is made by
  prefixing /mes-/ to a stem. The first
  stem vowel is then either omitted or
  lowered.
  /mesdhméhl/ "striking, hitting. The
  "adjective formant" suffix, /é/, can be
  added to produce a noun modifier:
  /mesdhmehlé taghán/ "(the) striking
  soldier, the soldier who is hitting."
  /taghán/ "soldier" and "fights in a
  trained fashion (as a soldier)"
  /meskhetlué cheréng/ "burning bread":
  "bread that is on fire." /khitlú/ "burn,
  heat"
  /meskhetlué hlóm/ "(the) burning fire."
  /hlóm/ "fire" and "blazes, flares up"
  (2) The "passive participle": a noun or
  adjective denoting that the verbal action
  has been performed upon an object:
  /ha-/ is prefixed to a transitive or
  causative stem. Before a following vowel,
  this occurs as /h-/.
  /hadhmehlé taghán/ "the soldier who is hit,"
  "(the) 'stricken' soldier"
  /hakhetlué bashé/ "burned ashes." /bashé/
  "ashes"
  /hakhetlué cheréng/ "burned, charred
  bread"
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    19
  /hakhetlué hlóm/ "(a) burned fire, (a) fire
  that has gone out"
  (3) The prefix /khe-/ signifies "male actor,"
  "one who performs the action regularly
  or as a profession." A "female actor" is
  similarly indicated by /vo-/. It is said that
  these two affixes are the origins of the
  Livyáni masculine suffix /-az/-/-z/ and
  the feminine /-ab/-/-b/-/-eb/, as well as
  the   Mu'ugalavyáni   masculine  suffix
  /-ish/-/-sh/ and the feminine /-a/. The
  Tsolyáni "ignoble" suffix /-ikh/-/-kh/ may
  also be derived from /khe-/, but the
  Tsolyáni "noble" suffix, /-koi/ probably
  originates from /kharé/ "glory," which in
  very late Engsvanyáli becomes /khaé/ or
  /khái/. The Yán Koryáni "inanimate" prefix
  /v-/-/ivú-/ may also be related to /vó/,
  but it is difficult to see a connection
  between the Yán Koryáni "animate" prefix
  /n-/-/nú-/ and /khe-/. Salarvyáni does
  not seem to provide any cognates.
  /khechréng/ "(male) baker. /cheréng/
  "bread"
  /khedhméhl/ "(male) hitter, beater"
  /khefnétl/ "(male) licentious person, rake."
  /fenétl/ "copulate"
  /khekron/ "(male) scribe." /kurón/
  "writing" and "writes"
  /khesrödhür/ "(male) sculptor." /srüdhür/
  "sculpt.." Note the treatment of the first
  stem vowel after the consonant cluster
  /sr/
  /khonngá/ "(male) net-fisherman." /kh-/ +
  /onggá/
  /vochréng/ "(female) baker." /cheréng/
  "bread"
  /vodhméhl/ "(female) hitter, beater"
  /vofnétl/ "(female) licentious person," and
  "priestess (of Dlamélish or Hriháyal)."
  A female prostitute is /khelésh/, and a
  male is /nrúkh/ -- two entirely different
  lexemes
  /vokrón/ "(female) scribe"
  (4) "Place of" is signified by a prefix /khal-/,
  often with vowel loss or harmony. This is
  frequent for shops and professional
  premises, as well as for other places.
  /khalchál/ "chair, seat." Stem: /chél/ "sit"
  /khalchréng/ "bakery." Stem: /cheréng/
  "bread"
  /khalfnétl/ 
  "boudoir, 
  courtesan's
  bedroom." Stem: /fenétl/ "copulate"
  /khalkhásh/ "library, study, place for
  reading." Stem: /kháish/ "read"
  /khalkhitlú/ "hearth, fireplace." Stem:
  /khitlú/ "burn." */khalhlóm/ "place of
  fire" is not used
  /khalkrón/ 
  "scriptorium, 
  place 
  for
  writitng." Stem: /kurón/ "write"
  /khalprú/ "record-office." Stem: /préu/
  "record (data)"
  /khalráin/ "painter's (artist's) studio. Stem:
  /ráin/ "paint (a picture)." The
  treatment of the stem diphthong is
  interesting; one might expect */khalrín/
  or possibly */khalrán/ (?). Compare
  "library," above
  /khalshnál/ "temple": "place of worship."
  Stem: /shunál/ "worship." This stem
  does not appear in modern languages
  except in a few Engsvanyáli loanwords:
  e.g. durushnál/ "(inner) shrine (of a
  temple)"
  /khalsrödhür/ "sculptor's studio." Stem:
  /srüdhür/ "sculpt"
  (5) "Instrument for ..." is made with a prefix
  /le-/-/l-/.
  /ledhméhl/ "club, bludgeon." Stem:
  /dheméhl/ "hit, beat"
  /lekrón/ "pen, writing instrument." Stem:
  /kurón/ "write." There are several
  other words for "pen" as well
  /leprú/ "record-book." Stem: /préu/
  "record (data)"
  /leshján/ "binding cord (for slaves or
  animals)." Stem: /shején/ "tie, bind"
  /lelvün/ "(weaver's) loom." Stem: /elvün/
  "weave"
  (6) A noun-like construction denoting "while
  ...ing," "at the time of ...ing" is made with
  a prefix /pa-/-/p-/  (later Engsvanyáli
  /po-/ or /poso-/) followed by a present
  stem. Continued action is indicated by
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    20
  reduplicating the stem, sometimes with
  vowel lowering.
  /panché, mlú már/ "While singing, (he) was
  going along." /noché/ "sing (a secular
  song)"
  /pakrón, lü ssnún/ "While writing, I ate."
  /kurón/ "write"
  /pafévfav/ möllör chunóth/ "Laughing and
  laughing, he walked." /fév/ "laugh" is
  reduplicated with stem vowel lowering;
  /chenéth/ "walk, stroll"
  /posomlá, möllör tushór kranuónla/ "At the
  time of going, he bought a book." /mló/
  "go"; /tishér/ "buy"; /kranuón/ "book";
  /-la/ "direct object, accusative"
  (7) "Having ...ed"  is constructed with a
  prefix /dla-/-/dl-/ or /dlan-/ plus a
  present stem. /dlan-/ usually occurs
  before vowels, and /dl-/ is rare. This
  denotes an action completed before
  that of the main verb. Vowel lowering is
  common. This prefix provides a "temporal
  absolute": i.e. a clause separate from the
  action of the main verb; cf. also /ké/
  VClit "has ...ed," which gives a stative
  sense to the main verb.
  /dladám, chúl/ "Having spoken, (he) sat
  down." /dóm/ "speak, say"; /chél/ "sit
  down"
  /dlamársh, möllör gudó kayál/ "Having
  wept, he wiped (his) eyes." /mérsh/
  "cry, weep"; /gudá/ "wipe"; /kái/
  "eye," pl. /kayál/
  /dlanshákh, mssöl mukhnó mssöllá/ "Having
  died, they buried them." /shákh/ "die";
  /mokhná/ "bury." This can be
  ambiguous: /dlanshákh/ can refer
  either to the subject or to the object
  (8) "At the moment of" consists of a prefix
  /wekh-/ + a present stem.
  /wekhshákh/ "at the moment of dying"
  (/shákh/ "to die")
  /wekhtümül/ "at the moment of marriage"
  (/tümül/ "marry")
  7. Nouns.
  Nouns consist of (a) unaffixed stems; cf.
  Secs. 6.1 and 6.8; (b) stems + the noun
  formant affixes discussed in Sec. 6.8 ff.; (c)
  stems + derivational affixes; and (d)
  compounds of two or more stems, possibly
  plus an affix of (b) or (c). Adjectives and
  adverbs are also sub-types of nouns.
  7.1. Derivational Affixes.
  Noun derivational affixes are few, as
  opposed to affixes used to derive nouns
  from verbs; cf. Sec. 6.8 ff. Many of these
  are difficult to define and are of limited
  occurrence. A few examples will suffice.
  /khruss-/ "horrid, ugly, disgusting":
  /khrusspöghlé/ "disgusting, ugly or
  horrid sight, ugly scene" (/pöghöl/ "see,
  look"); /khrussnakhár "gruesome
  corpse" (/nekhár/ "dead body");
  /khrussdám/ "rude speech, insult"
  (/dóm/ "speak")
  /mye-/ "beloved": e.g. /myétl/ beloved girl,
  sweetheart (fem.)" (/hétla/ "woman");
  /myeklán/ "beloved man, sweetheart
  (masc.)" 
  (from 
  /kól/ 
  "hero?");
  /myevúm/ "beloved child" (/vúm/
  "(male or female) child, infant");
  /myezúr/ "beloved cat (female)"
  (/zurá/ "(female) cat")
  /nra-/ "grand, elegant": e.g. /nramnü/
  "palace" 
  (cf. 
  Tsolyáni 
  /müni/
  "palace"; the stem /-mnü/ does not
  otherwise occur in Engsvanyáli);
  /nradéq/ "court costume, ceremonial
  robe" (Bednálljan /dzéhlq/ "dress?");
  /nrasséth/ "compliment, elegant
  phrase" (the origin of /-sséth/ is not
  known); /nradám/ "honorific speech,
  flowery language" (/dóm/ "speak, say")
  /tla-/ "kinship group": /tlamzhér/ "fathers":
  one's genetic father plus his brothers
  and one's mother's sister's' husbands
  (/mizhér/ 
  "father"); 
  /tlangétl/
  "mothers": one's genetic mother plus
  her sisters and one's father's brothers'
  wives (ngétl/ "mother"); /tlakotané/
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
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  "brothers": one's genetic brothers and
  the offspring of the two terms just
  discussed above; also "brother" in the
  sense of a fellow member of a
  priesthood 
  or 
  society 
  (/kotán/
  "brother"); this is the origin of the name
  of the Tlakotáni dynasty, the current
  rulers of Tsolyánu
  /üro-/ "abstract noun formant" has been
  discussed in Sec. 6.1 ff.
  7.2. Compounds.
  Compounds of stems tend to be unique and
  idiosyncratic. Most consist of two (very
  rarely three) present stems, sometimes with
  vowel changes. Many of these are ancient
  and difficult to analyse into their
  components. Afew examples will suffice.
  /achèdhenlé/ "silver-bright (adj.). /aché/
  "silver" + /dhenél/ "gleam, glow,
  shine"
  /ghalshuréng/ "sleeping mat." /ghalé/
  "sleep" (rare and literary, except in
  this compound) + /shuréng/ "mat"
  /helshján/ "shoelace, bootlace." /héla/
  "shoe, footgear" + /shején/ "tie, bind"
  /pùrnelám/ "vision of loveliness" (poetic
  term for a beautiful girl). /puwár/
  "graceful, lovely" + /nilám/ "dream"
  /rü'ütlákh/ "skull-splitter": a two-handed
  axe or sword. Possibly from /rü'ümátl/
  "skull, pate" (probably an ancient
  compound in itself) + tlakhkhá/ "split,
  cleave in two"
  /chàrdokhér/ "Priestking (of Éngsvan hla
  Gánga)." The elements making up this
  compound are unknown
  /shoshchüsé/ "Dwelling (in) Shadow": term
  for the hideous Tsüghiyúr, one of the
  less-pleasant nonhuman Interplanar
  races. /shósh/ "dwell, crouch (as a
  beast in a lair)" + /chüsán/ "shadow."
  (Possibly the origin of /shóshche/
  "Ch'óchi (the great ruined city in
  Mu'ugalavyá?)
  7.3. "Prepositional" Prefixes.
  As with many modern Khíshan languages,
  locative, directional, and relational concepts
  are expressed by a set of prefixes + stems.
  Most of these prefixes have two forms: (a)
  one ending in a vowel before a noun beginning
  with a consonant, and (b) a second with no
  final vowel before stems beginning with a
  vowel. A few are of a consonant-vowel-
  consonant pattern; this occurs before all
  stems and is invariable. Locational and
  directional prefixes precede the derivational
  prefixes discussed above.
  /chu-/-/ch-/ "upon, onto": /chudhumá/ "on
  (a) head." /dhumá/ "head." Also
  /chudhmá/
  /dán-/ "through": /danazhá/ "through a
  city."  /azhá/ "city" and "be populous"
  /fa-/-/f-/ "with (instrumental)": /fachrék/
  "with a sword."  /facherék/ also
  occurs. See also the following:
  /fagh/ "with (accompanying), in the
  company of": /faghvesrém/ "with a
  man." Cf. /fa-/
  /khang-/ "up to, until, by": /khangjúl/ "until
  tomorrow." /júl/ "tomorrow"
  /mau-/-/maw-/ "after, behind (in space or
  time)": /mauhétla/ "behind a woman";
  /mawazhá/ "behind a city." Note the
  interchange between /au-/ and /aw-/.
  In later texts this is found as /mav-/
  before /u/, /o/, /ü/, and /ö/: /mavossá/
  "behind a thing" /ossá/ "thing, object"
  /me-/-/m-/ "to, for, toward": /mevesrém/
  "to a man, for a man"; /vesrém/ "man";
  /mabás/ "toward a house"
  /makh-/ from, away from: /makhwadhür/
  "from (a) market"
  /mru-/-/mr-/ "in, into": /mrazhá/ "in, into a
  city"
  /po-/-/p-/ "after (only in reference to
  time)": /poháf/ "after yesterday." /háf/
  or /hafá/ "yesterday"
  /qass-/ "like, resembling": /qasstaghán/
  "like a soldier." /taghán/ "soldier"
  /run-/ and also /ru-/-/r-/ "under, beneath":
  /runfawá/ "under (a) foot." /fawá/
  "foot"; /razhá/ "under a city." /ru-/-/r-/
  is a later variant
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
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  /shü-/-/sh-/ "before (a time)": /shüdlasú/
  "before today." /dlasú/ "today"
  /yal-/ "without": /yalcherék/ "without a
  sword, not having a sword"
  Some items are less common as prefixes
  but are found with the "adjective/adverb
  formant" suffix /-é/-/-né/ as independent
  words. Some of the prefixes listed above are
  also employed in this way.
  /bukhé/ "across": /bukhé hakó/ "across a
  river." /hakó/ "river"
  /ghöné/ "beside, at the side of": /ghöné
  tlekéng/ "beside the door." /ghön/
  side"; /tlekéng/ "door"
  /mathé/ "behind": /mathé zhamó/ "behind,
  on the other side of a mountain."
  /zhamó/ "mountain"
  /okhré/ "in front of": /okhré bás/ "in front
  of a house." /bás/ "house." Also written
  as /okhrebás/
  /runé "under, underneath, beneath"; cf. the
  preceding list: /runé ngól/ "under a
  floor." /ngól/ "floor"
  /shirs/ "out, out of, outside": commonly
  /shirsé/ or /shirsné/: /shirsé mapét/
  "out of a bottle"
  /thuné/ "high above, up, over": /thuné
  azhá/ "high above a city, over a city. In
  some dialects /thu-/-/th-/ occurs
  without /-né/
  Many locatives and directionals occur as
  adverbs with the adjective/adverb formant
  suffix /-é/-/-né/ with verbs.
  /be'ésh bukhé chuló/ "A boy swam across."
  /be'ésh/ boy, youth"; /bukh/ "across";
  /chilú/ "swim"
  /lü mruné mlú/ I went inside." /mrú-/-/mr-/
  "into, inside" + /-né/ "adjective and
  adverb formant"
  /lümö shirsné chúl/ "We sat outside."
  /shirs/ "out, out of, be outside. /shirsé
  is also found
  /möl runé hlumó/ "It fell underneath."
  /hlamá/ "fall"
  /möllör dhoné tlushó/ "He ran back." /dho-/
  "back, returning" +/-ne/; tleshé/ "run"
  /tá runé mló lün/ "You (sg.) go down!"
  7.4. Gender.
  "Classical" Engsvanyáli, as found in the
  northern, eastern and Miu'uigalavyáni
  recensions of the Scrolls of Pavár, exhibits
  no gender distinctions for nouns: /vesrém/
  "man" is grammatically the same as /hétla/
  "woman": i.e. the agreement of affixes, verbs,
  and adjectives is the same for both words.
  In a few cases, different affixes do
  distinguish a male from a female: e.g. /khe-/
  "male actor" and /vo-/ "female actor"; cf.
  Sec. 6.8 (3), above., but this is uncommon.
  On the other hand, Engsvanyáli texts
  composed or copied in Livyánu do indicate
  gender for singular nouns: the masculine
  suffix is /-ash/-/-sh/, and the feminine
  feminine is /-af/-/-f/. Plural nouns do not
  distnguish gender but use the "gender-
  neutral" suffix /-al/ (etc.) "plural." This
  dialectal gender distinction probably
  originates in Duru'ób or some other ancient
  non-Khíshan language, and scholars from
  other areas speak of Livyáni grammarians
  with disdain. Modern Livyáni has
  morphological gender distinctions for all
  nouns:  /-az/-/-z/-/-ez/ for masculines  and
  /-ab/-/-b/-/-eb/ for feminines. Mu'ugalavyáni
  also has gender affixes: /-ish/-/-sh/
  "masculine," and /-a/ "feminine." Modern
  Tsolyáni, on the other hand, marks most
  "noble" nouns with /-koi/ and "ignoble" nouns
  with /-ikh/-/-kh/.
  In "Livyáni" Engsvanyáli, gender affixes are
  employed mainly with nouns that have real
  sexual gender: e.g. "man," "woman," "girl,"
  "boy"; they are rarely used with inanimates
  or abstracts, and only occasionally with
  animals.
  /be'éshash/ "boy, youth
  /dailéf/ "girl, young woman"; standard:
  /dailé/ or /dhailé/; modern Livyáni:
  /dáileb/ "Maiden" (title of the
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
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  mythological mistress of the god
  Ndárka)"
  /hétlaf/ "woman"
  /vesrémash/ "man"
  Livyáni scribes further muddled the matter
  by writing the "masculine" and "feminine"
  suffixes with ideographic glyphs instead of
  letters. Glyphs for masculine and feminine
  singular were placed after stems, sometimes
  before other suffixes and sometimes after
  them. This doubtless saved scribal time and
  effort but leaves one wondering whether
  these endings were indeed pronounced or
  were only w r i t t e n  for the sake of
  "correctness." Only a few other Ideographic
  gltphs for whole words occur in Engsvanyáli,
  but these are more frequent in modern
  Livyáni and Mu'ugalavyáni.
  7.5. Number.
  "Classical" Engsvanyáli -- the language of
  Pavár, as nearly as it can now be
  reconstructed -- displays two numbers:
  "singular" and "plual.'" An affix for "total
  plurality" is found as early as the works of
  Dharumésh Mssá IV "The Singer of Gentle
  Songs," during the First Epoch, and two
  further types of "plural" were introduced in
  the reign of Empress Tratikánte I, before the
  Flower Wars. These are the "distributive":
  scattered objects, as opposed to a single
  group of objects;  and the "paucal": a few
  objects, distinct from the plural, which
  denotes a larger group.
  (1) The "plural" consists of a suffix added to
  stems: /-al/-/-l/, and /-Vl/ (where "V"
  stands for a vowel affected by vowel
  harmony). Sometimes the stem displays
  vowel loss or other changes as well.
  Plural individual and specific nouns
  require this suffix, while abstract and
  mass nouns employ the plural affix only
  to express special nuances (cf. English
  "water" and "waters").
  /azhál/ "cities." /azhá/ "city" + /-l/
  /dailél/ or dhailé'el/ "girls." The latter is a
  northern form -- as though the stem ends
  in a glottal stop
  /dhmál/ "heads, tops." /dhumá/ "head, top"
  + /-l/ with loss of a stem vowel
  /hakól/ "rivers." /hakó/ "river" + /-l/
  /janggúrul/ "battles." /janggúr/ "battle" +
  /-Vl/
  /lelvünül/ "(weaver's) looms"; /lelvün/
  "loom" + /-Vl/
  /pöghlöl/ "sights, views"; /pöghöl/ "sight,
  view" + /-Vl/
  /preu'ál/ "records (pl. noun)." An example
  of the /-al/ form of the suffix with
  inserted glottal stop
  /zimúl/ "flours": i.e. various types of flour;
  /zimú/ "Dná-grain flour"
  (2) The "total plural" consists of a stem
  plus /-aba/-/-bá/-/-Vbá/. This denotes
  the total number of the noun. "V"
  represents a vowel affected by vowel
  harmony. Sometimes the stem exhibits
  vowel loss as well. This affix orignates
  from the stem /habú/ "be total, added
  up" and "total"; the "total plurality affix
  is rather uncommon and is frequently
  replaced by a plural noun with the
  adjective /onúe/ "all."
  /azhabá/ "all cities." /azhá/ "city"
  /basabá/ "all houses." /bás/ "house"
  /cherkebá/ "all swords." /cherék/ "sword"
  /kranuonbá/ "all books"
  /nlü'übá/ "all years." /nlü'/ "year." Also
  /nlüübá/ and even /nlübá/
  /muthubá/ "all dirt, soil." /muth/ "dirt, soil,
  earth"
  /nukhomobá/ "all legions (military units)."
  /nukhóm/ "legion." Also /onúe
  nukhomól/
  /otulengbá/ "All hail!" Address to a god.
  This ritual invocation is probably
  analyseable as /o-/ "hail!"; /tuléng/
  "praise (of a deity)" (used in modern
  Tsolyáni for "sun"); + /-ba/ (and should
  be /-eba/). Other analyses have also
  been proposed
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    24
  (3) The "distributive" occurs in later texts. It
  consists of a suffix /ajjé/-/-Vjjé/-/-jjé/
  added to a stem. This appears to be
  derived from an otherwise rarely used
  stem  /jáj/ "be scattered here and there."
  Vowel harmony and occasional loss of an
  unstressed stem vowel occur.
  /azhajjé/ "cities": scattered cities: one city
  here, another there, etc.
  /dhanggólojjé/ "(scattered) fortresses."
  /dhanggól/ "fortress"
  /jurrumujjé/ "(scattered) scrolls." /jurrúm/
  "scroll."
  /kheshshujjé/ 
  "(scattered) 
  archers."
  /sheshú/ "shoot a bow"; for /kheshshú/
  "archer," see Sec. 6.8 (3)
  /nukhomojjé/ "legions": units not grouped
  together but here and there
  /preu'ajjé/ "(scattered) records." An
  example of /-ajje/ with inserted glottal
  stop. The stem /préu/ does not
  otherwise contain a glottal stop
  (4) The "paucal" ("a few...") is rare. It
  consists of a stem plus /-VkVl/-/-kVl/.
  Both of the vowels of the affix are
  govewrned by vowel harmony with the
  last vowel of the stem. No derivation is
  known for this form. Other features are
  as for the other plural affixes, above.
  /azhakál/ "a few cities"
  /be'éshekél/ "a few boys"
  /kheshshukúl/ "a few archers"
  /nukhomokól/ "a few legions"
  /preukúl/ 
  "a 
  few 
  records." 
  Not
  */preu'akál/
  /qorudukúl/ "a few generals." /qordú/
  "general" and "plan, make strategy." A
  loanword from Bednálljan
  7.6. The Definite Article.
  A "definite" noun is indicated by a suffix /-ti/
  "the" added to a stem (plus any of the plural
  endings). The grammarians declare that /-ti/
  should be employed with ALL definite nouns,
  whether they be specific, abstract, personal
  names, singular, plural, etc. In some cases,
  this /-ti/ is optionally omitted for reasons
  that are unclear. See also Sec. 7.7, below. A
  single symbol for /-ti/ was employed in the
  Engsvanyáli script, even in very early texts.
  /azháti/ "the city"; /azhá/ "city." And:
  /azhálti/ "the cities"; /azhábáti/ "all
  the cities"; /azhajjéti/ "the (scattered)
  cities"; and /azhakálti/ "the few cities"
  /khalshnálti/ 
  "the 
  temple"; 
  /runé
  khalshnálti/ "underneath the temple";
  /mrukhalshnalálti/ "in the temples";
  /mekhalshnalabáti/ 
  "to 
  all 
  the
  temples"; /chukhalshnalakálti/ "on a
  few temples." The unstressed initial
  vowels of the total plural, distributive,
  and paucal suffixes can also be omitted:
  e.g. 
  /mekhalshna l b áti/ 
  and
  /chukhalshnalkálti/
  /khúti "the water"; /khú/ "water"
  /shenúti/ "the ocean"; /shenú/ "ocean"
  /taghánabáti/ "all the soldiers"; /taghán/
  "soldier"
  /ürofláti/ "the coming" /üro-/ "abstract
  noun formant"; /fla-/ from /felé/
  "come." Definite abstract nouns
  require /-ti/
  7.7. The Possessive Suffixes.
  In "Classical" Engsvanyáli, the head noun of
  a possessive construction is marked with a
  suffix /-o/ "of": e.g. "the book of the boy,"
  "the houses of the city."Scribes often
  inserted an optional glottal stop between /-
  ti/ "the" and /o/: /-ti'o/.
  By the reign of Báshdis Mssá I of the First
  Epoch, a single glyph was introduced to
  stand for the combination /-tio/-/ti'o/; this
  was used until the end of the Engsvanyáli
  period.
  Possessed noun(s) are unmarked: i.e. "boy"
  in "the book of the boy." Note that the
  "definite article" /-ti/ usually occurs only with
  the head noun (the first element of a
  possessive construction) and not with
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    25
  possessed nouns in the phrase.  It is not
  incorrect to add /-ti/ to all nouns in the
  phrase, but the grammarians state that
  this makes for a "heavy" style. If the head
  noun is definite, thus, all nouns in the
  phrase are assumed to be definite also: e.g.
  "the book of (the) father of (the) boy." In
  order to render "the book of a father of a
  boy," one places the numeral /fer/ (northern
  /ferú/) "one, a" before each possessed
  indefinite noun. An indefinite plural is
  expressed by /hrané/ "some."
  /kranuóntio vesrém/ "the book of (the)
  man": "the man's book." Both nouns are
  seen as definite. /kranuóntio vesrémti/
  is not incorrect but is stylistically less
  favoured. /kranuóntio fer vesrém/ "the
  book of a (= one, indefinite) man";
  /kranuonóltio vesremél/ "the books of
  (the) men; /kranuonóltio hrané
  vesremél/ "the books of some (=
  indfinite) men"; /fér kranuóno vesrém/
  "a (= one, indefinite) book of (the)
  man"; /fér kranuóno fér vesrém/ "A
  book of a man"; /hrané kranuonól
  hrané vesremél/ "some books of some
  men": both nouns are indefinite!
  /mzakáltio mzhenggúo azhá/ "the powers of
  the lord of the city"
  /nchákhtio mrizhún/ "the army of (the)
  king." /nchákh/ "army"; /mrizhún/
  "king (of a non-Engsvanyáli realm)
  /tinémti'o mridlenél/ "the Home of the
  Gods." /tiném/ "heavenly home,
  paradise"; /mridlén/ "god"
  In the oldest texts, the entire noun phrase is
  marked by one  /-o/, as though to signify
  that the preceding nouns in the phrase are a
  single connected unit. One must then read
  the first noun as possessing the second,
  the second the third, etc. In these texts
  noun possession is thus indicated
  syntactically, as well as by /-o/. This
  practice appears to have falling into disuse
  during Pavár's time. The Scrolls are not
  consistent, and different versions vary.
  /jiné mardlánalo/ "the Home of the Gods."
  Early /jiné/ for /tiném/ "paradise";
  /mardlán/ "god" for later /mridlén/
  /jurrúmul pavárti'o/ (or /-tio/) "(the)
  Scrolls of Pavár." Note that it is
  /pavár/ that is marked with the definite
  article and the possessive suffix /-o/!.
  In later Engvansyáli this would be
  /jurrúmultio pavár/
  /kronuón tsahláno/ "the book of the sage."
  Early /kronuón/ "book" for later
  /kranuón/; /tsahlán/ "sage, wise man,
  scholar"
  Further archaic possessive suffixes include:
  /-ra/-/-ro/, /-mé/-/-m/, and /vür/-/vü/. These
  were obsolete and nearly forgotten even in
  Pavár's time. Scholars believe that these
  were required for different noun "classes" in
  the early Engsvanyáli that arose out of the
  shambles left by the fall of the First
  Imperium. They are now seen mostly in very
  ancient texts (or texts that pretend to be
  ancient!) and in inscriptions in stone and
  clay discovered in western Tsolyánu and
  eastern Mu'ugalavyá. They do not appear in
  the great Tablets of the High King, found
  near Tsámra in Livyánu, nor are they
  encountered in early Ensgvanyáli materials
  from Salarvyá.
  /dhuma'álme fidhu'úl/ "the heads of the
  enemies." From The Scroll of the
  Scarlet 
  Brotherhood. /dhuma'ál/
  occurs later as /dhmál/ "heads," and
  /fidhu'úl/ "enemies, foes" is found as
  /fedhúl/ (sg. /fedhú/)
  /jurrúmra miye'eklun tlakotáne/ "The
  Scroll of the Scarlet Brotherhood." One
  finds /jurrúmtio/ in later texts.
  /miye'eklún/ "scarlet" is also archaic;
  in the Classical language this appears
  as /miyeklé/
  /ma'álra mleké dalé/ "the Deeds of the
  Great King." From an inscription on a
  mountainside near modern Tu'únmra.
  /ma'ál/ "deeds" occurs in the Classical
  language, which also has /mál/ and
  /maál/ without a glottal stop; /mlék/
  "king" (later /mrizhún/, apparently
  from a compound */mleksun/ "mighty
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
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  king," with /sün/ or /sún/ "mighty");
  /dalé/ "great, large" occurs later as
  /dléè/
  /shlönölvür khewadzelél/ "the Chlen-
  beasts of the farmers." From The Deeds
  of the Great King. Later /shlenél/
  "Chlen-beasts" (sg. /shlén/) and
  /kheutselél/ "farmers" (sg. /kheutsél/
  from /wetsél/ "to farm, farming")
  /vraivür mzhénggúr vashné/ "the law of the
  wise lord." From a marble tablet found
  near a tomb outside Tumíssa. /vrái/
  "law" (later /vráinü/ "law, make a
  law"); /mzhénggur/ "lord" (later
  /mzhenggú/); /vashné/ "wise, learned"
  (later /vashán/ + /-e/)
  7.8. Modifiers.
  7.8.1. Adjectives.
  A single suffix (/-é/-/-né/) is employed to
  construct adjectives (noun modifiers) and
  adverbs (verb modifiers). In archaic
  Engsvanyáli an alternant /-néa/ is also
  encountered. A few adverbs and numeral
  words do not occur with any affix and are
  uninflected; cf. below. Adjectives can either
  precede or follow the noun they modify.
  Adverbs similarly precede or follow verbs. In
  poetry and flowery Imperial texts, these
  modifiers tend to follow nouns and verbs,
  while the opposite is true of informal and
  colloquial styles. Local preferences also
  exist, as well as usages that differ from
  period to period.
  /kheprénti purón kharené/ "The warrior
  fought 
  gloriously." 
  /kheprén/
  "warrior"; /pirén/ "fight (as a warrior);
  /kharené/ "glorious, gloriously"
  /kranuonólti onúe/ "all the books."
  Equivalent to less-common (and later)
  /kranuontibá/; cf. Sec. 7.5 (2). In some
  styles /onúe/ can also precede the
  noun it modifies
  /kranuóntio mishatlnéa üroshjanál/  "the
  Book of Ebon Bindings." /mishatlnéa/
  "ebon, jet black" (more recent
  /mishatlé/); /üroshjanál/ "bindings"
  from /shején/ "tie, bind"
  /lü mló mentlé/ "I went there." Lit. "to
  there": /me-/ "to + /nutlé/ "there"
  /lümö fuló medhlé/ "We came here. Lit. "to
  here"; /dhilé/ "here"
  /möllör chuló murghé/ "He swam strongly."
  /chilú/ "swim"; /múrgh/ "strong
  (physically, be strong"
  /nramnüti dléè/ "the great palace."
  /nrámnü/ "palace"; /dléè/ "great,
  large." This adjective usually follows
  the noun it modifies
  /nukhómti mzaké/ "the powerful legion."
  /nukhóm/ "legion"; /mzaké/ "mighty,
  powerful"
  /tá funé dhuzón/ "Where did you (sg.)
  hide?" /funé/ "where?"; dhozón/ "hide
  (oneself)"
  /möllör mölárö fuló ké/ "He has come (i.e.
  is in a state of having come) now."
  /möláró/ "now" does not occur with   /-
  é/-/-né/ but is found with certain
  prepositions, etc.
  There are no "comparative" or "superlative"
  forms. One says, for example, "big from X,"
  "old from X" for the former and "big from all"
  and "old from all" for the latter.
  /mölkraunónti dléè makhokranuónti/ "This
  book is bigger than that book." Lit. "big
  from that book." "/möl/- "this";  /o-/
  "that"; cf. Sec. 6.8 (4)
  /mölzmúrti nyepésh makhozmurúlti/ "This
  building is older than those buildings."
  Lit. "old from those buildings." /zmúr/
  "building, edifice"; /nyepésh/ "old (of
  things)
  /mölvesrémti süng onúe makhvesremél/
  "This man is older than all." Lit. "old
  all-from-men." /süng/ "old (of persons)
  7.8.2 Numerals and Quantifiers.
  Numerals, certain quantifiers, and other
  elements are used as adjectives (with no
  adjective suffix!) and as noun stems,
  sometimes with plural, etc. suffixes. Several
  common adverbs also require no suffixes
  but may occur with them in appropriate
  contexts.
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    27
  /basáltio tlúmo vesremél/ "the houses of
  five of the men." Numerals occur with
  possessive, objective, etc. suffixes and
  are thus classed as a type of adjective
  /denutlám cheshríl/ "a thousand trees."
  /denutlám/ "thousand"; /cheshrí/ "tree
  (generic term)." Two thousand is /ghám
  denutlám/, etc.
  /denutlám metaghanál/ "to, for a thousand
  soldiers"
  /denutlámtio cherkál/ "the swords of the
  thousand." /cherék/ "sword"
  /dhesén felvenján/ "How many will come?
  /dhesén/ "how much, how many";
  /felvenján/ "will come, from /felé/
  "come"
  /fér vesrém/ "one man, a man." /fér/ "one,
  a." No adjective suffix occurs
  /gavím zlákhal/ "six dogs." The numeral
  formant suffix /-m/ is frequently
  omitted in less formal texts
  /ghám hetlál/ "two women." /ghám/ "two"
  /jrathál mzanján/ "Some will leave." /jráth/
  "some"; /méz/ "leave, depart"
  /medenutlám/ "to, for a thousand"
  /möl kranuóno ré?/ "It (is) whose book?"
  Lit. "book of who?" /ré/ "who?" In
  older Engsvanyáli, this would be
  /kranuón réo/; cf. Sec. 7.7
  /mrishtám taghanál/ "a hundred soldiers."
  /mrishtám/ "hundred." "Two hundred"
  is /ghàmrishtám/, "three hundred" is
  /vèmrishtám/, etc.
  /mzhám azhál/ "four cities." /mzhám/ "four"
  /onu'ól mlanján/ "All will go." /onú/ "all"
  occurs here with the plural suffix
  /onúe kranuonól/ "all the books" or
  /kranuonól onúe/. Style determines
  which order is used
  /sultsám makhbasál/ "from ten thousand
  houses." /sultsám/ "ten thousand"
  /suorólti makhré?/ "The money is from
  whom?" /súor/ "coin, money"; /makh-/
  "from" + /ré/
  /tá meré suoróltila pézh?/ "To whom do you
  give the money?" /pézh/ "give";  /me-/
  "to, for" + /ré/
  /tlatúm mnozhól/ "ten hymns." /tlatúm
  (archaic: /tlatlúm/) "ten"; /mnózh/
  "hymn, sacred song"
  /tlúm dhalpél/ "five streets." /tlúm/ "five";
  /dhalpé/ "street,avenue"
  /tüsmáru mrudhsén spesján/ For how much
  will you (pl.) sell (it)?" /mrudhsén/ "in
  (= for) how many, how much?"; /supés/
  "sell"
  /tutlám dzate'él/ "a million people."
  /tutlám/ "million"; /dzate'él/ people
  /vém basál/ "three houses." /vém/ "three"
  /vesél/ "thirty." The decades after "ten"
  are constructed with a digit numeral
  (minus /-m/) plus /-sel/: /ghasél/
  "twenty"; /mzhasél/ "forty"; /tlusél/
  "fifty," /gavisél/ "sixty, /horosél/
  "seventy"; /ghemesél/ "eighty";
  /fetlusél/ "ninety"
  7.8.3. Demonstratives.
  Demonstratives ("this," "that") often occur
  as noun prefixes: "this-man," "that-woman."
  In this usage, no plural forms exist. The
  "definite article" /-ti/ is often added to a
  noun with a demonstrative, although this is
  not obligatory. Demonstrative elements
  follow possessives, adjectives, and
  prepositions. The place of independent
  demonstratives is taken by the pronouns"
  /möllör/ "he, she/, /mssöl/ "they," /möl/ "it."
  /ö-/ is prefixed to these pronominal stems
  to produce "that one," "those," etc. These
  occur with the pronominal affixes; cf. Sec. 8.
  /mölvesrémti/ or /mölvésrem/ "this man"
  /qassmölvesrémti/ "like the man";
  /qassmölvesremélti/ "like the men"
  /ossamáthti/ "that ship"; /ossamáthálti/
  "those ships"; /chumölssamáthti/ "on
  this ship"; /chossamáthti/ "on that
  ship." 
  /chu-/-/ch-/ 
  "on, 
  onto";
  /ssamáth/ "ship (generic term)"
  /osumétl/ "that pretty child." /sumétl/
  "handsome boy, pretty child." This
  nickname has now become a proper
  name in modern Tsolyáni as /osumétlu/
  /möl halé/ "This (it) (is) good." /halé/
  "useful, beneficial." -- not morally
  "good." The nearest concept to "moral
  good" is /khayán/ "noble, according to
  one's perceived 'Skein of Destiny';
  noble (person)"
  /ömssö zaghé/ "Those (are) bad." /zágh/ "be
  bad, defective, useless"
  /ömssól krajurúl/ "Those are officers."
  /krajúr/ "(military) officer, captain"
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    28
  /ömöl ssané/ "That is bad." /ssán/ "be
  ignoble, against one's perceived 'Skein
  of Destiny'"
  /ömöl karkhás/ "That (one) (is) a foreigner.
  /karkhás/ "foreigner, lesser person."
  From Bednálljan /khurvásh/?)
  /ömssör zalál zhémé/ "Their (= of those)
  blades (are) bloody." /zál/ "blade";
  /zhém/ "blood"
  7.9. The Direct Object.
  A definite direct object is signified by an
  affix /-la/ added after any plural suffix and
  also after any definite article. /-la/ cannot
  occur together with the possessive or
  adjective/adverb suffixes; see above. On the
  other hand, an indefinite direct object
  requires no /-la/. This suffix may be used,
  however, if strong emphasis on the noun's
  "object status" is desired.
  /lü pughól vesrémla/ "I saw a man." The
  focus is upon "man" as the object of the
  seeing
  /lü pughól vesrémtila/ "I saw the man." Also
  /vesreméltila/ 
  "the 
  men";
  /vesrémabàtila/ 
  "all 
  the 
  men";
  /vesrémajjètila/ "the (scattered) men";
  /vesrémekèltila/ "the few men"; cf.
  Sec. 7.5. The presence of the
  secondary stresses is problematic, but
  this is how modern scholars pronounce
  these formations
  /tá dhumóhl réla?/ "Whom did you (sg.)
  hit?"
  /lümö ssuoróltila sufó/ "We found the
  money. /sefé/ "find"
  /tüsmáru jánla mú?/ "What did you (pl.)
  do?" /ján/ "what?"
  /mssöl merakhtétila ssuór púzh/ "They gave
  money to the guard." /me-/ "to for";
  /rakhté/ "(palace) guard"; /pézh/
  "give." This is the normal order for
  sentences with both an "indirect" and a
  "direct" object
  Another object suffix, /-tla/, is found in very
  early inscriptions in the Caves of the Blue
  Fish, near Khirgár.  This was obsolete and
  archaic even in Pavár's time, and later
  grammarians either do not know of it or
  claim that it is a survival from Bednálljan. It
  may be related to the object prefix of
  modern Tsolyáni, /tla-/, but this is uncertain.
  /lü onúe ferzhu'últla mumór endé/ "Indeed,
  I slew all the foes." /ferzhu'úl/ "foes"
  occurs in later Engsvanyáli as
  /fedhu'úl/ or /fedhúl/; /memár/ "slay,
  slaughter"; /endé/ "indeed, emphatic."
  From the Inscription of the Inner Wall
  in the Fifth Cavern
  8. Pronouns.
  The Engsvanyáli pronoun system is
  considerably simpler than those of many
  modern Khíshan languages. Three persons
  are distinguished: first, second, and third,
  and two numbers: singular and plural. There
  are also special forms for inanimates: "it"
  and "they (non-persons, abstracts,
  animals)." Special possessive and object
  suffixes occur with the pronominal stems.
  Many of the pronouns also exhibit special
  stems used with the prepositional prefixes;
  c.f. Sec. 7.3. The pronouns are:
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    29
  Forms
  1st
  sg.
  2nd sg.
  3rd sg.
  3rd sg.
  inanimate
  1st pl.
  2nd pl.
  3rd pl.
  3rd pl.
  inanimate
  Subject
  lü "I"
  tá "you"
  möllör
  "he/she"
  möl "it,
  this"*
  lümö
  "we"
  tüsmáru
  "you pl."
  mssöl
  "they"
  mssö
  "they"
  Possessive
  lür
  "my"
  taré
  "your"
  mölré
  "his/her"
  mölé "its"
  lümré
  "our"
  tüsmaré
  "your pl."
  mssöllé
  "their"
  mssör
  "their"
  Objective
  lürá
  "me"
  tará
  "you"
  möllá
  "him/her
  "
  mölá or
  möl "it"
  lümá
  "us"
  tüsmára
  "you pl."
  mssöllá
  "them"
  mssól
  "them"
  After
  Prepositions
  -lü or
  -l
  -tá or -t
  -möl
  -mö
  -lüm
  -tüm
  -mssö
  -ssö or -sö
  *See also Sec. 7.8.3.
  Examples:
  /lür kranuón/ "my book." A strongly
  definite nuance is obtained by
  employing /-ti/ "the": /lür kranuónti/
  lit. "my the-book."
  /möllör ömölmrubásti wenép dáth/ "He
  used to live in that house. /wenép/
  "live, dwell"; /dáth VClit "used to"
  /chulü/ "on me." /chu-/ "on, onto."
  Colloquial (?) also  /chúl/
  /möllör pughól mssöllá/ "He/she saw them"
  /möllör mzhúm mölá/ "He/she killed it."
  /mzhém/ "kill"
  /mrumö/ "in it"
  /okhré mö/  or /okhremö/ "in front of it"
  /makhlüm/ "from us"
  /maumssö/ "after them"
  /tüsmáru jughó má möl/ "You (pl.) failed to
  do it" /jaghá/ "fail to ..." Note that
  /mölá/ is possible, but the objective
  form is only occasionally used for
  nonspecific objects. Such nonspecific
  objects are also frequently omitted
  entirely: this example is complete and
  correct without either /mölá/ or /möl/
  Certain objective forms have alternants
  ending in /-u/ in the northern Engsvanyáli
  dialect: e.g. /lürú/ or /lürü/ "me," tarú/ "you
  (sg.), /tüsmáru/ "you (pl.), and even a few
  instances of /möllü/ "him/her" and /mssöllú/
  "them."
  Near the end of the Engsvanyáli piriod, one
  encounters hints of the development of
  specialised pronouns for various ranks and
  occupations, as in modern Tsolyáni. The
  Priestkings referred to themselves as
  /lüsán/ "I-powerful," and later still as
  /lükolmék/ "I-ruler." "You" also became: /tá/
  "you (sg.)," /tüsmáru/ "you (pl.)" for an
  equal, /tüsmesán/ "you (pl.)-powerful,"
  /tüsmedléè/ "you (pl.)-great," and
  /tüsmedzarén/ "you (pl.)-noble," etc. Modern
  Tsolyáni has carried this process farther,
  developing whole sets of specific pronouns
  for various social classes and occupations.
  Mu'ugalavyáni, on the other hand, hasdone
  away with "pronouns" entirely, choosing to
  use "this-one-here" for "I," "that-one-there"
  for you," and a class of special noun
  phrases for the third person. Livyáni,
  Yán Koryáni, and to some extent Salarvyáni,
  include pronominal subject affixes in the
  verb forms.
  Words like /ré/ "who?," /rerén/ "which (of a
  group)?" /gésh/ "who, which (relative)," /hún/
  "someone," /hotlán/ "something," /vór/
  "many, much," etc. are not treated as
  pronouns but as nouns and adjectives,
  employing the relevant suffixes.
  /ömöllör ré?/ Who is that?"
  /hún felé már/ "Someone is coming." /már/
  VClit "cotinuative, is ...ing"
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    30
  /melü hotlán pézh lün, messnán/ "Give me
  something to eat," Lit. "To me
  something give-imperative, for eating"
  9. Minor Classes.
  Several classes of non-inflected "particles,"
  conjunctions, interjections, etc. are found.
  9.1. Conjunctions.
  Conjunctions connect words, clauses, and
  sentences. Common are:
  /á/ or unstressed /a/ (?) "and": /lü fuló á
  pughól/ "I came and saw"; /shoríshti á
  qosónzti ghané mlú/ "the priest and the
  high-priest both went" (/shorísh/ "(low-
  ranking) priest"; /qosónz/ "high ritual
  priest"; /ghané/ Adj and Adv "both");
  /kokún á mölré khoforól/ "Kokun (a
  legendary hero) and his friends."
  (/khofór/ "friend, be friendly")
  /angái/ "although": /angái möl nyilé, lü
  tharú teshrenján/ "Although it is blue, I
  will buy (it) anyway." /nyíl/ "be blue"
  /dáz/ "for, since." /dáz möllör fuló, lü
  jenyés/ "Since he came, I am angry."
  /jenyés/ "be angry"
  /efákhm/ "then, thereupon": /möllör
  damodé shuzók. efákhm nyunór/ "He
  was sick for a long time; then he died."
  /damodé/ Adv "for a long time";
  /shezék/ "sick, ill; /nyenér/ "die
  (honorific)"
  /mél/ "but": /lü yágga gém möllá, mél lür
  hétla nyó./ "I do not like him, but my
  wife does (lit. otherwise)." /gém/
  "like"; /nyó/ "otherwise"; cf. below
  /nyó/ "otherwise, the opposite." This is
  used both as a conjunction and as a sort
  of "replacement" for a whole contrary
  statement. /möl khüng grané; nyó lü
  etshér neté/ "It is too red; otherwise I
  would buy (it)." /khüng/ Adv "too,
  excessive"; /grán/ "red." See also the
  example given under /mél/, above
  /pré/ "that." Introduces indirect speech,
  quotations, and perceived events: /lü
  furzóhl pré möllör felé jé/ "I said that
  he is about to come." /ferzéhl/ "say,
  tell"; /mssöl pughól pré chághti
  fassuoról hréj/ "They saw that the
  chest was (lit. is) filled with gold
  coins." /chágh/ "box, chest"; /hréj/ "be
  filled"
  /rasán/ "because": /vunyó rasán mölré
  akhétti jrulón möllá/ "(She) fled
  because her sister hated her." /vünyá/
  "flee, run away"; /akhét/ "sister";
  /jrelé/ "hate"
  /sú/ "when": /sü lü fuló, mssöl dziyö dhilé
  ghuvón ké/ "When I came, they were
  (were in a state of) already here."
  /dziyó/ "already, from before"
  THE ENGSVANYALI SCRIPT
  The following is a font map designed for
  use with a Macintosh computer. The
  phonemic values of the letters are
  indicated in small type in lines 2 and 4 of
  each section of the table. This map is for
  the reversed  (right-to-left) version of the
  font. In order to use it, one types the
  document normally, from left to right; then
  the text is copied and taken over into a
  graphic programme, where one "selects all"
  and employs the "flip horizontal"
  command. The text is now correct. For
  those who prefer to write from left to right
  (somewhat less common in Engsvanyáli), a
  second type font is available, identical to
  that below except reversed.
  
  Reversed Engsvanyáli Font Map
     `
    1
    2
    3
    4
    5
    6
    7
    8
   9
   0
    -
    =
  `
  1
  2
  3
  4
  5
    6
  7
    8
     9
    0
   o1
  ai
  1 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 0
  -
  =
   ~
   Man,
  Masc.
   Woman,
     Fem.
   Empire Priest-
  king
   Enemy
     ^
    10
   10000 1000
  100
    Oi
    Ai
  @ # $ % ^
  * ( ) _ +
    q
   w
   e
   r
   t
   y
   u
   i
   o
   p
   [
   ]
   \
  q
   w
    e
    r
     t
    y
    u
     i
     o
    p
    ü
    ö
   au
  q w
  er t y
  u
  i
  o p [
  ]
  \
  Deity
    dh
    E
  Noble
  -ti   Temple
    U
    I
    O
  Plural
    Ü
     }
  Au
  QW ER T Y UI O P {
  |
   a
   s
   d
   f
   g
   h
   j
   k
   l
  ;
  '
    a
    s
    d
     f
    g
    h
    j
    k
    l
  -e
  Glottal
  as d f gh j k l
  ; '
   A
  sh
   dl
   th
   gh
  City
  Demon
  Lord
   hl
  -a
  -ti-o
  A S D F G H J KL : "
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    32
   z
   x
   c
    v
    b
    n
    m
   ,
   .
   /
     z
    kh
    ch
      v
      b
     n
      m
    ,
     .
  Vowel
  Length
  z x c v b n m ,.
  //
    zh
    ss
   ts
  uo
   tl
     ng
    ny (ñ)
    -la
   Ö
     ?
  Z X C
  V B N M < > ?
  Top line: English lower case key name on keyboard
  Second line: Engsvanyáli phonetic values on lower case keys: e.g. th, dh
  Third line: lower case Engsvanyáli letters
  Fourth line: Engsvanyáli phonetic values on shift keys
  Fifth line: upper case Engsvanyáli letters
  Other symbols include special suffixes, ideographs for common words, etc.
  TEXT SAMPLE.
  The following is a stanza from the Mu'ugalavyáni recension of "The Lament to the Wheel of
  Black." It is spelled phonemically, without ideographs. The special grammatical symbols have been
  employed however.
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    33
  mZenNuT maxcroFT tukloL mruvan
  dum On: mexprenel Ajam mrusan
  m]lr; cerek truto mrudogsel wumoL
  m]olr; feWu'ul mrumorWar jukoL
  m]lar] cesl[n Gell[n xofor s[n: 
  mzak
  marDan: ESnor: Esn]r mrucak
  1. mzhenggúti makhchróthti tuklóhl mruván.
            -      -  u / -        -      u / -   -       u / -
  The Lord / from the battle-line / stood forth / in (the) battlefield.
  2. dúm ón-a mekhprénel ajám mrusán.
         -    -    u 1/  -     -   u /  - -     u / -
  (He) spoke (in mythological time) / to (his) comrades / gathered / in majesty.
  3. mölré cherék trutó mrudogsél dumóhl
         -   -    u / -     -  u /  -   -     -2 /  u -
  His / sword / glittered / in rage / (he) struck
  4. mölré fedhú'ul mrumordhár jukóhl
         -   -   u /  -  -      u / -     -     u / -
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    34
  His /  foes /  in hostility / glared
  5. mölárö chés lün, ghél lün, khofór sün-a mzák
      (u - u)3     -     -   /   -     -       u  /  -  -   u / -
  (Now) /  attack! / strike!  / (O) friend, / mighty and powerful!
  6. mardlánal eshwán-a esnör mruchák
         -     -   u / -    -    u / -   -     u / -
  (That) /  the Gods / may tremble and / fall down / in terror!
  The metre is the "Tariskánte Bright Bird":  - - u /  - - u / - - u / -. ("-" = a heavy, long or closed
  syllable; "u" = a light, short or open syllable.) Note that the connective /a/ "and" is sometimes
  given separate status as a long or short syllable; in other places it is treated as a suffix joined
  to the preceding consonant.
  1 /ón/ VClit "mythological time" also occurs as /óna/ or /oná/ in poetic texts.
  2 The third syllable should be /-e/, an open syllable to conform to the metre: "enraged" instead of "in rages." It
  is possible that the singer was meant to slur over the "extra" /l/.
  3 The first word /mölárö/ "now," is a filler, probably intended to be a "bridge" for the singer.
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
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  Engsvanyáli-English Vocabulary
  -aba -ba -Vba NSuf (total) plural
  -ajjé -jjé -Vjjé NSuf distributive plural
  -al -l -Vl NSuf plural suffix
  -é -né NSuf adjective/adverb formant.
  Archaic also: -néa
  -la NSuf direct object (noun)
  -o NSuf of
  -ti NSuf the (definite article)
  -VkVl -kVl paucal: a few...
  -mé -m NSuf of (archaic)
  -ra -ro NSuf of (archaic)
  -tla NSuf direct object (archaic)
  -vür -vü NSuf of (archaic)
  á  and a Conj and. The status of the stress
  is unclear
  aché silver; achèdhenlé silver-bright (adj.)
  akhdár north; akhdaré north (adj)
  án VClit interrogative
  angái Conj although
  azhá city; be populated, crowded; azhál
  cities (pl.)
  bá fly away (as the soul of a deceased
  person; spirit; bú flew away (past); bu'ü
  flew away (far past); banján or bavanján
  will fly away (future); ebá may fly away
  (conditional); kibá will fly away (far
  future); nishbá already flown away
  (completive); bakhuná want to fly away
  (desiderative); ba'óm have to fly away
  (obligatory); birá causes to fly away
  (causative); gho'onürü bí was caused to
  fly away
  bás house; to shelter, house
  bashé ashes
  be'ésh boy, youth; be young and strong
  bukhé NPrep and Adv across
  chàrdokhér Priestking (of Éngsvan hla
  Gánga)
  chél sit; seat; chúl sat; chalvanján will sit;
  echál may sit; chíl cause to sit, seat;
  khalchál chair, sitting place, seat
  chenéth walk, stroll
  cherék sword; strike with a sword; cherkál
  swords (pl.)
  cheréng bread; bake bread; khechréng
  (male) baker; vochréng (female) baker;
  khalchréng bakery
  cheshrí tree (generic); cheshríl trees (pl.)
  chilú swim; chuló swam (past)
  chotlíng sun, day; chotlingél suns, days
  chu- ch- NPrep upon, onto
  dailé or dhailé girl, young woman; dailél or
  dhaile'él girls (pl.)
  dalé big, large, grand (archaic; cf. dléè)
  damodé Adv for a long time. The origin of
  this item is unknown
  dan- NPrep through
  dath VClit imperfect, used to ...; action over
  a long period
  dáz Conj for, since
  denutlám Num thousand
  dhalpé (urban) street, avenue; dhalpél
  streets (pl.)
  dhamré chain, fetter; dhamré'e chained,
  fettered (adj)
  dhanggól fortress; dhanggolól fortresses
  (pl.)
  dhefév (soldier's) boot
  dheméhl hit, strike; blow; dhamáhl hits,
  (later form); dhumóhl hit, struck (past);
  dhemvehlján will hit (future); edhmáhl
  may hit (conditional); kidhmáhl will hit
  (far future); dho'omhlür is hit (passive);
  dho'omhlürü was hit (past passive);
  dho'omhlürü'ü was hit (far past
  passive); dho'omhlürönjön will be hit
  (future passive); edho'omhlür may be
  hit (conditional passive); kidho'omhlür
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
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  will be hit (far future); modhméhl is hit
  (intransitive); modhmelú was hit (past
  intransitive); midhmu'úhl was hit (far
  past);
  e m o d h m é h l  may be hit
  (conditional intransitive); kimodhméhl
  will be hit (far future instransitive);
  modhmehlranján will be hit (future
  intransitive); mesdhméhl (one) hitting
  (active participle); hadhméhl hit,
  stricken, struck (passive participle);
  khedhméhl
  (male) hitter, beater;
  vodhméhl (female) hitter; ledhméhl
  club, bludgeon
  dhenél gleam, glow, shine
  dhesén Adv how much, how many?;
  mrudhsén in how much? for how much?
  dho- dh- NPrep back, returning; dhoné Adv
  back, returning, again
  dhilé Adv here; medhlé to here, hither
  dhozón hide (oneself); dhazvanján will hide
  dhú Adv why?
  dhumá head, top; dhmál heads. tops (pl.);
  archaic: dhuma'ál heads (pl.)
  dla- dl- dlan- VPref having ...ed. Temporal
  absolute; cf. Sec. 6.8 (7)
  dlasú today, be current
  dléè  be big, large (verb and adj.)
  dóm speak, say; speaking, saying; dám
  speaks (later form); dúm spoke (past);
  du'úm spoke (far past); dovomján will
  speak (future); e d á m  may speak
  (conditional); kidám will speak (far
  future); nishdóm already spoken
  (completive); dokhunmó want to speak
  (desiderative); dumrá causes to speak;
  do'omür
  is 
  spoken 
  (passive);
  khrussdám rude speech, insult; nradám
  honorific speech, flowery language
  durushnál inner shrine of a temple; shunál
  worship; duru- ?
  dzarén noble, be noble (of high rank)
  dzaté' person; dzate'él or dzaté'l people,
  group
  dziyó Adv already
  efákhm Conj then, thereupon
  efáre adj left (hand)
  ehlózh dagger; be sharp-pointed; ehlozhól
  daggers
  élvün weave 9cloth); weaving; e'lavün may
  weave (conditional); khelvün (male)
  weaver; volvün (female) weaver; lelvün
  loom;
  lelvünül looms; khalelvün,
  khal'elvün, or khalvün weaving-shop
  endé Part emphatic; indeed!
  fá- f- NPrep with (instrumental)
  fagh NPrep and Stem  be together; faghé
  together
  fawá foot. Archaic also for "to walk"
  fedhú be opposed, enemy, foe; fedhu'úl or
  fedhúl foes (pl.); archaic: fidhú; still
  more archaic: ferzhú and ferzhu'úl
  felé come, arrive; coming, arrival; falá comes
  (later form); fuló came (past); filu'ú
  came (far past); felvenján will come
  (future); eflá may come (conditional);
  kiflá will come (far future); nishfelé
  already came (completive); fekhunlé
  want to come (desiderative); filirú
  caused to come; gho'onür filî is caused
  to come; üroflá coming (abstract); falél
  advent; felán emergence (of the Cosmos
  from the Egg of the World)
  fenétl copulate; khefnétl (male) licentious
  person, rake; vofnétl (female licentious
  person; priestess of Dlamélish or
  Hriháyal; khalfnétl boudoir, courtesan's
  bedroom
  fér Num one, a
  ferzéhl
  say, tell; furzóhl said, told;
  farzehlanján will say, tell
  fetlúm Num nine; fetlusél Num ninety
  fév laugh; fú laughed
  funé Adv where?; mefné whither, to where?
  gavím Num six; gavisél Num sixty
  gém like, feel friendly toward; gúm liked;
  ghavamján will like
  gésh who, which (relative)
  ghalshuréng sleepnig mat. ghalé "sleep" is
  rare except in this compound
  ghám Num two; ghasél Num twenty; ghané
  Adv both
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    37
  ghaván is, to be, exist, being, existence;
  ghuvón was (past); ghavanlü will be;
  eghván may be (conditional); kighván will
  be (far future); eghivinrá may cause to
  be (conditional causative); gho'onür is
  caused to be; gho'onürü was caused to
  be; gho'onürönjön will be caused to be
  ghemém Num eight; ghemesél Num eighty
  ghuré stink, smell bad; ghorvanján will stink;
  üroghré stench
  grán red, be red; grané Adj red
  gudá wipe; gudó wiped; godvanján wll wipe
  ha- VPref passive participle, ...ed
  habú be total; total, aggregate
  háf or hafá yesterday
  hakó riiver; hakól rivers (pl.)
  hal good, be good (beneficial, useful); halé
  Adj good
  haréd heart; to beat (as a heart); huród
  beat (past)
  helá shoe, footgear; helshján shoelace,
  bootlace
  hétla woman; act like a woman, be womanly;
  hetlál women; ürohtlá womanliness
  (abstract); hitlu'ú acted as a woman
  (far past)
  hlamá fall (one object)
  hlóm fire; blazes up, flares
  horóm Num seven; horosél Num seventy
  hotlán something
  hrané Adj some. hrán is said to be a stem,
  but it does not seem to occur by itself;
  cf. also jrathé
  hréj be filled; hrúj was filled; hrajvenján will
  be filled; hrejé Adj filled; hríj fill, cause to
  be filled (causative)
  hún someone
  jaghá fail to ...; jughó failed; jaghvanján will
  fail
  ján Adv what?
  janggúr battle, fight a battle; janggurúl
  battles (pl.)
  jé VClit about to ...; jeneté or jneté would
  have been about to ...
  jenyés be angry; junyós was angry;
  janyesján will be angry
  jijéng think; jujóng thought; jejvengján will
  think; khejjéng thinker
  jiné home of the gods, paradise (archaic);
  cf. tiném
  jrathé Adj some (a larger number than
  hrané, q.v.)
  júl tomorrow
  jünütl draw upon, rely upon; junótl drew
  upon; jönvötlján will draw upon; ejnötl
  may draw upon
  jurrúm scroll; roll up (a document);
  jurrumúl scrolls (pl.)
  kái eye; kayál eyes (pl.)
  karkhás foreign; be a foreigner; foreigner
  kathá offer, present; gift, sacrifice (also
  kathá'); kathál or katha'ál gifts,
  sacrifices; kithu'ú offered (far past)
  ké VClit stative: has ...ed. Cf. Sec. 6.5
  kejjá intend to (+ conditional verb); kujjó
  intended; kajjanján will intend to
  kháish read, study; reading, study; khúsh
  read (past); khu'úsh read (far past);
  khavashján will read; ekhásh may read
  (conditional); kikhásh will read (far
  future); nishkháish already read
  (completive); khakhunshá want to read
  (desiderative); ekhishrá may cause to
  read (conditional causative); kho'oshür
  is read (passive); ekho'oshür may be
  read 
  (conditional 
  passive);
  kho'oshürönjön will be read (future
  passive); mokháish is read (intransitive);
  khalkhásh library, study
  khal- VPref place of...; khalchál chair, sitting
  place; khalchréng bakery; khalfnétl
  boudoir, 
  courtesan's 
  bedroom;
  khalkhásh library, study; khalkhitlú
  hearth; khalkrón scriptorium, place for
  writing; khalprú record-office; khalráin
  (painter's) studio; khalshnál temple,
  place of worship; k h a l s r ö d h ü r
  (sculptor's) studio
  khang- NPrep until, up to, by
  kharé be glorious; glory; kharené  glorious,
  gloriously (adj. and adv.)
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    38
  khayán be noble, according to one's
  perceived 'Skein of Destiny'; noble
  (person); khayané Adj noble
  khe- VPref (male) verbal actor, ...er;
  khechréng (male) baker; khefnétl (male)
  licentious person, rake; khekrón  (male)
  scribe; khesrödhür (male) sculptor;
  khonngá (male) net-fisherman
  khelésh (female) prostitute, prostitute
  oneself; cf. also nrúkh
  khenyú corpse (male or female). Cf. nyenér
  die (honorific) ?
  khofór friend, be friendly; khoforól friends
  (pl.); khafvorján will be friendly
  khitlú burn; heat; khetlonján will burn;
  meskhetlué burning (active participle);
  hakhetlué burned, charred (passive
  participle); khalkhitlú hearth
  khruss- NPref horrid, ugly, disgusting:
  khrusspöghlé ugly sight; khrussnakhár
  gruesome corpse; khrussdám rude
  speech, insult
  khú water
  khüng Adv too, excessively; khüngé Adj
  excessive
  kokún Kokún: proper name of a legendary
  hero. Original meaning unknown
  kól (male or female) hero; kolól heros (pl.)
  kolmék rule, govern; kolmékku sovereign,
  lord (title of address)
  krajúr military officer, captain; command a
  small military unit
  kurón write, writing; kurón wrote (the past
  form is identical with the base stem);
  korvanján will write; khekrón (male)
  scribe; vokrón (female) scribe; khalkrón
  scriptorium, place for writing; lekrón
  pen, writing-instrument; kranuón book;
  kranuonól books (pl.); archaic: kronuón
  lagáz put in, contain (as something in a
  pot); cook-pot
  lauzhü point, direct; pointing; index finger;
  elzhö may point
  lavái Nclit even
  le- l- VPref instrument for...; ledhméhl club,
  bludgeon; lekrón pen, writing instrument;
  leprú record-book; leshján binding-cord;
  lelvün (weaver's) loom
  lü Pron I; lür my; lürá me (obj.); -lü -l m e
  (obj. after prepositions) lüsán I-powerful
  (used by a Priestking); lükolmék I-ruler
  (used by a Priestking)
  lümö Pron we; lümré our; lümá us (obj.);
  -lüm us (obj. after prepositions)
  lün VClit imperative
  má do, make; doing, act, action, deed; mú
  did (past); manján (future); emá may do
  (conditional); kimá will make (far future);
  nishmá already made (completive);
  makhuná or makhún want to do
  (desiderative);
  ma'óm have to do
  (obligatory); mirá causes to do; mirú
  caused to do (past); mo'ür is done
  (passive); momá is done (intransitive);
  mál (archaic: ma'ál) deeds (pl.)
  makh- NPrep from, away from
  ma'ní food; be edible
  mafádh clay pot, pottery; stew, cook a stew
  in a pot
  malgáish thought, idea
  mapét (small) bottle
  már VClit continuative, is ...ing
  mardlán god, deity (archaic); cf. mridlén
  mathé NPrep and Adv behind, on the other
  side of
  mau- maw- NPrep after, behind
  me- m- NPrep to, for
  mél Conj but
  memár slay, slaughter, cut to pieces;
  mumór slew; mamranján will slay;
  khemmár slayer, slaughterer
  mérsh to cry, weep; crying, weeping;
  murósh cried; marvashján will cry
  mes- VPref active participle, ...ing
  méskh be born, created, generated,
  produced; creation, birth; musókh was
  born (past); meskhanján will be born
  (future);
  e m á s k h  may give birth
  (conditional); kimáskh will give birth (far
  future)
  méz depart, leave; múz left, departed;
  mzanján will leave
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    39
  mishatlé ebon, jet-black (adj.); archaic:
  mishatlnéa
  miyeklé Adj scarlet; archaic: miye'eklún
  mizhékh return, go back, come back;
  muzhókh returned; mezhvekhján will
  return; emzhákh may return
  mleké king (archaic)
  mló go, travel; going;  mlá goes (later form);
  mlú went (past); mlu'ú went (far past);
  mlanján will go (future); emlá may go
  (conditional); kimlá will go (far future);
  nishmló already gone (completive);
  mlo'óm or mlóm have to go (obligatory)
  mnózh hymn; sing a hymn to a god; mnúzh
  sang a hymn; mnavazhján will sing;
  mnozhól hymns (pl.)
  mokhná bury (a corpse)
  mokhná bury (a corpse); khalmakhná
  cemetery
  möl Pron it; molé its; mölá or möl it (obj.);
  -mö it (obj. after prepositions)
  möl- Demon this, these
  mölárö Adv now
  möllör Pron he, she; mölré his, her; möllá
  him, her (obj.); -mól him, her (obj. after
  prepositions)
  mrév west; mrevé western (Adj)
  mridlén god, deity; mridlenél gods (pl.)
  mrishtám Num hundred
  mru- mr- in, into, inside; mruné inside (Adv)
  mssö Pron they (inanimate); mssör their;
  mssöl them; -ssö -sö them (obj. after
  prepositions)
  mssöl Pron they, these; mssöllé Pron their,
  of these; mssöllá them (obj.); mssöl
  them (obj. after prepositions)
  múrgh be strong (physically); murghé
  strong, strongly (adj. and adv.)
  múth dirt, soil, earth
  mye- NPref beloved: myétl beloved girl,
  sweetheart; myeklán beloved man,
  sweetheart; myezúr beloved (female) cat
  mzák power; be powerful; mzakál powers
  mzhám Num four; mzhasél Num forty
  mzhém kill; mzhúm killed; mzhavamján will
  kill; khemzhám killer; hamzhám one who
  has been killed, victim; mzhu'úm death
  mzhenggú lord, master; be powerful;
  mzhenggúl lords; archaic: mzhenggúr
  nakhár corpse, dead body
  náru hill of skulls; rule cruelly (like Queen
  Nayári of the First Imperium)
  neté VClit condition contrary to fact: would
  have ...
  ngól floor
  ngurés cry out, shout, yell; ngurós cried
  out; engrés may cry out; ngarvasján will
  call out
  nín VClit reciprocal, each other
  nithó know how to (+ conditional verb)
  nlü' year; nlü'ál or nlül years (pl.)
  noché sing, song; khenché (male) singer;
  vonché (female) singer
  nra- NPref grand, elegant: nramnü grand
  palace;
  n r a d é q  court costume,
  ceremonial robe; nrasséth elegant phrae,
  compliment; nradám honorific speech,
  flowery language
  nrúkh (male) prostitute; cf. khelésh
  nukhóm legion (military unit); nukhomól
  legions (pl.)
  nutlé Adv there; mentlé to there, thither
  nyenér die (honorific); nyunór died;
  nyanverján will die; cf. khenyú corpse (?)
  nyepésh old (of things); be old
  nyil be blue; nyuló was blue; nyelvenján will
  be blue; nyilé blue (adj)
  nyó Conj Adv otherwise, the opposite
  o Interj hail! greetings!; otuléngba greetings,
  praises (to a god); cf. Sec. 7.5 (2)
  o- Demon that, those
  nyepésh "old (of things)
  ojáim people, populace; be populated
  okhré NPrep and Adv in front of
  ón VClit mythological time (tense/aspect)
  onggá fish with a net; unggó fished (past);
  inggu'ú fished (far past); khonngá (male)
  net-fisherman
  onú be all; totality; onu'ól all (pl. subject);
  onúe all (adj)
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
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  ossá thing, material object; be material,
  solid;  ossál things, objects
  pa- p- VPref while ...ing, at the time of; also
  po- and poso-
  payúl sound, to; be audible; üropyúl sound
  (abstract)
  pé VClit hortative: let ...
  pepím go down, descend; descent; püpím
  (Eastern form); pöpém goes down
  (Eastern); pipu'úm went down (far
  past); pepvimján will go down (future);
  eppém may go down (conditional);
  kippém will go down (far future);
  ni s hp ep m é finished going down;
  pepmóm have to go down (obligatory);
  pipimu'úr caused to go down (far past
  causative); gho'onürönjön pipím will be
  caused to go down
  perkhé  stop ... ing; purkhó stopped;
  parkhvanján will stop
  pézh give; púzh gave; pazhvanján will give;
  epázh may give (conditional)
  pirén fight (as a warrior); pervanján will
  fight; kheprén fighter, warrior
  po- p- NPrep after (time only)
  po- poso- see pa-
  pöghöl see, look; sight, view; pughól saw;
  pöghvalján will see; po'oghlürü was seen
  (past passive); pöghlöl sights, views
  (pl.); üropghöl sight, seeing (abstract);
  khrusspöghlé ugly, horrid sight
  pré Conj that. Introduces indirect speech
  and also perceptions
  préu record (data); recording; record;
  preu'ál records (pl. noun); pru'ó recorded
  (past); pru'ú recorded (far past);
  prevunján will record (future); epréu or
  epráu may record (conditional); kipréu
  will record (far future); khalprú record-
  office
  puwár graceful, lovely; pùrnelám vision of
  loveliness, pretty girl
  qordú general (military rank); plan strategy;
  qorudúl generals (pl.)
  qosónz high ritual priest
  ráin paint (a picture); kheráin (male) artist;
  (female) voráin (female) artist; khalráin
  artist's studio
  rákh or rakhál Adv when?
  rakhté (palace) guard, guardsman
  ré who?
  rerén which (of a group)?
  rü'ümátl skull, pate; rü'ütlákh skull-splitter,
  two-handed axe or sword
  run- ru- r- NPrep under, beneath; runé
  NPrep and Adv underneath
  sefé find; sufó found; safanján will find
  sha'án gold (metal); sha'ané golden
  shákh die (nonhonorific); shukhókh died;
  shavakhján will die
  s h a r á n  live, be alive; s h u r ó n  lived;
  sharvanján will live; sharsün life:
  compound of sharán live + sün mighty,
  powerful
  shején bind, tie; binding; shjanál  or
  shajanál bindings, ties, bonds; shaján
  binds (later form); shujón bound;
  shiju'ún had bound (far past);
  shavanján will bind; eshján may bind
  (conditional); kishján will have bound;
  nishshejné already bound (completive);
  shekhunjén want to bind (desiderative);
  shejnóm have to bind (obligatory);
  shijinrá causes to bind (causative
  present);
  shijinrú caused to bind
  (causative past); shijinranján will cause
  to bind (causative future); shijinu'úr
  caused to bind (far past causative);
  eshijinrá may cause to bind (causative
  conditional); kishijinrá will cause to bind
  (far future causative); sho'ojnür is
  bound (passive)
  shenú ocean
  s h e s h ú  shoot a bow; leshshú
  b o w ;
  kheshshú archer
  shezék ill, sick, be sick; shuzók was sick;
  shazvakján will get sick; kheshzék sick
  person, patient; khalshzék hospital,
  infirmary
  shírs outside, outside of, be outside; shirsé
  or shirsné NPrep out, out of
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    41
  shirún diamond; sparkle
  shlén Chlén-beast; shlenél Chlén-beasts
  (pl.); archaic: shlön and pl. shlönöl
  shóng be true; truth; shúng was true
  (past); shavangján will be true
  shorísh priest (low-ranking). This is the rank
  Pavár seems to have held
  shósh dwell, crouch (as a beast in its lair);
  shúsh dwelt; shavashján  will dwell;
  shoshchüsé Dwelling Shadow: term for
  the nonhuman Tsüghiyúr
  shü- sh- NPrep before (time)
  shunál worship; khalshnál temple, place of
  worship; durushnál inner shrine
  shuréng mat; ghalshuréng sleeping mat
  shutlúr horizon; shutluról horizons
  si'ír (male) cat); attack fearlessly
  srüdhür carve, sculpt; (act of) carving,
  sculpting; sculpture; khesrödhür (male)
  sculptor; khalsrödhür sculptor's studio
  ssáing eat (honorific); üross'úng eating,
  meal, dinnner
  ssamáth ship; sail a ship
  ssán  be bad, ignoble; ssané Adj baf, ignoble
  ssáo govern (a province); governing,
  provincial government; ssúo governed
  (past); ssu'ú governed (far past); essáo
  may govern (conditional); kissáo will
  govern (far future); ssakhunáo want to
  govern (desiderative); ssa'óm have to
  govern (obligatory); ssiurú caused to
  govern (past causative); sso'ür is
  governed (passive)
  ssnán eat; eating; ssnún ate (past);
  kissnán will eat (far future); ssnanóm
  have to eat (obligatory); ssninrú caused
  to eat, fed; ssno'okhunnür is wanted to
  eat (desiderative passive)
  ssönör fear, be afraid; fearing; also ssünör;
  ssunór feared (past); ssönöranján will
  fear (future); e s s n á r  may fear
  (conditional); kissnör will fear (far
  future); ssönróm or ssönröm have to
  fear (conditional); ssünürrá frightens
  (causative); ssünüranján will frighten
  sumétl pretty child, handsome boy
  sú Conj when (introduces a temporal clause)
  sún (or sün) be mighty, regally powerful;
  suné mighty, powerful (adj)
  süng old (of persons); be old
  suór money; large Engsvanyáli gold coin;
  suoról money(s), coins (pl.)
  supés sell; supós sold; spesján will sell;
  khespés seller, merchant
  su'úm mouth; su'umúl mouths (pl.)
  tá Pron you (sg.); taré your; tará you (obj.);
  -ta -t you (obj. after prepositions)
  taghán soldier, act as a soldier
  terú (or törö) recite, chant; recitation,
  chanting; törö recites (Eastern); taró
  recites (Western); turó recited (past);
  tiru'ú recited (far past); törvönján will
  recite (future); etrö  and also etró may
  recite (conditional); kitrö may recite
  (conditional); tekhunrú want to recite
  (desiderative); teróm have to recite
  (obligatory); kitirirá will cause to recite
  (far future causative)
  thám VClit habitual, keep on ...ing
  tharú Part anyway, no matter
  thu- th- and thuné- NPrep and Adv high
  above, up, over
  tiném Home of the Gods, paradise; archaic:
  jiné
  tishér buy, purchase; tushór bought;
  teshrenján will buy; khetshár buyer,
  customer
  tla- NPref kinship group: tlamzhér father,
  father's brothers, and mother's sister's
  husbands; tlangétl mother, mother's
  sisters, and mother's brothers' wives;
  tlakotané (later: tlakotáni) brothers,
  brethren
  tlakhkhá splt, cleave in two
  tlatúm Num ten; archaic: tlatlúm
  tlé VClit reflexive, ... oneself
  tlekéng door
  tleshé run
  tlúm Num five; tlusél Num fifty
  tó NegPart don't! Negative imperative (with
  verb + lün)
  törö See terú
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    42
  trá NegPart not (with future and far future
  verbs)
  trakté bite off; biting off, bite
  tsahlán sage, wise man; be wise, scholarly
  tuléng praise (a deity, king); cf. Sec. 7.5 (2)
  tümül marry
  tuntlám Num million
  türü See terú
  tüsmaré Pron your (pl. or honorific)
  tüsmáru Pron you (pl.); tüsmaré your;
  tüsmára you (obj.); -tüm you (obj. after
  prepsotions);
  tüsmesán you (pl.)-
  powerful (honorific); tüsmedléè you
  (pl.)-great (honorific); tüsmedzarén you
  (pl.)-noble (honorific, of high rank);
  üro- NPref abstract noun formant: e.g.
  üroflá coming; ürolgáz containing,
  holding (as in a pot)
  ürütl victim; ürütlül victims
  úùl VPart should,  ought to (+ conditional
  verb)
  úùlsa must (+ conditional verb)
  vakhái lead; leader; vukhó led; vakhvanján will
  lead; vakháil leaders
  valthárz store (food); cache (of food)
  vashán wise (knowledgeable); archaic adj.
  vashné
  vér VClit repetitive, keep on ... ing
  vesrém man; act like a man, be manly;
  vesremél men; ürovesrám manliness;
  visru'úm acted as a man (far pas)
  vo- NPref (female) verbal actor, ...eress;
  vochréng (female) baker; vofnétl
  (female) licentious person; priestess of
  Dlamélish or Hriháyal; vokrón (female)
  scribe
  vór Adj many, much
  vrái law, be legal; vrail laws (pl.) khevrái
  lawyer
  vül work; (the) work; vul worked (past);
  völanján will work (future)
  vúm child, infant (male or female)
  wadhür market, bazaar
  wekh- VPref at the moment of
  welé Adv how?
  wetsél to farm, farming; khalwetsél or
  khalutsél farm (place); khewetsél or
  kheutsél farmer
  yádu hand; yadúl hands
  yágga Negpart no, not (present and past)
  yal- NPrep without
  yallán Negpart not, never (emphatic)
  zágh bad, defective, useless; zaghé Adj bad
  zál sharp (as a blade), be sharp; blade; zalé
  Adj sharp
  zhém blood, be bloody; zhemé Adj bloody
  zimú (Dná-grain) flour; zimúl (various kinds
  of) flour (pl.)
  zlákh dog (male); zlakhál dogs (pl.)
  zmúr building, edifice; to build
  zurá (female) cat; myezúr beloved cat
  English-Engsvanyáli Vocabulary
  a, one Num fér
  about to ... VClit jé
  above, over, up NPrep thu- th-; Adv thuné
  abstract noun formant NPref üro-
  across NPrep bukhé
  act, action, deed má
  action over a long period: imperfect VClit
  dáth
  adjective suffix -é, -né
  advent falél
  afraid, be ssönör
  after (time) NPrep po- p-
  after, behind NPrep  mau-
  again, back, returning Adv dhoné
  alive, be sharán
  all, aggregate, totality, be total habú
  all, totality onú
  already Adv dziyó
  and Conj á or a
  angry, be jenyés
  anyway Part tharú
  archer kheshshú
  army nchákh
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    43
  arrive felé
  ashes bashé
  at the moment of VPref wekh-
  attack fearlessly (as a cat) si'ír
  audible, to be payúl
  avenue, urban street dhalpé
  away from NPrep makh-
  back, returning, again NPrep dho-; Adv
  dhoné
  bad, defective, useless zagh
  bad, ignoble ssan
  bake (bread) cheréng
  baker (male) khechréng; (female) vochréng
  bakery khalchréng
  battle janggúr
  be, to ghaván
  beat (as a heart) haréd
  because Conj rasán
  bedroom, boudoir khalfnétl
  before (time) NPrep shü- sh-
  behind, after NPrep maw- mau-
  behind, on the other side of NPrep and Adv
  mathé
  beloved mye-; myeklán (male) sweetheart;
  myétl (female); myevúm beloved child
  beneath, under NPrep run- ru- r-
  beneficial, useful hal
  beside ghöné. Cf. ghön side
  big dléè
  bind, to shején
  binding üroshján
  binding-cord (for animals or slaves) leshján
  birth méskh
  bite off trakté
  blade, be sharp zál
  blaze, flare up hlóm
  blood, bloody  zhém
  blow (hit, stroke) dheméhl
  bludgeon, club ledhméhl
  blue nyíl
  bonds, ties, bindings (pl.) shjanál o r
  shajanál
  book kranuón; archaic: kronuón
  boot dlefév
  bootlace helshján
  born, be méskh
  both Adj and Adv ghané
  bottle mapét
  boudoir, courtesan's bedroom khalfnétl
  box, chest chágh
  boy, youth be'ésh
  bread cheréng
  brethren tlakotáné
  brother kotán; tlakotané brothers, brethren
  building, edifice zmúr
  burn khitlú
  bury (a corpse) mokhná
  but Conj mél
  buy tishér; buyer (male) khetshér; (female)
  votshér
  by, until, up to NPrep khang-
  cache (of food) valthárz
  captain, military officer krajúr
  carve srüdhür
  cat (female) zurá; beloved cat myezúr
  cat (male) si'ír
  cemetery khalmakhná
  ceremonial robe, court costume nradéq
  chain dhamré
  chair, seat khalchál
  chant, recite terú or törö
  chest, box chágh
  Chlén-beast shlen; archaic: shlön
  child, infant (male or female) vúm
  child (pretty, handsome) sumétl
  cleave in two tlakhkhá
  club, bludgeon ledhméhl
  coin (gold) suór
  come felé
  command (a small military unit) krajúr
  condition contrary to fact VClit neté
  contain (as in a pot) lagáz
  continuative, is ... ing VClit már
  cook-pot lagáz
  copulate fenétl
  corpse (of an honoured person) khenyú Cf.
  nyenér die (honorific)
  c o r p s e  nakhár; 
  gruesome 
  corpse
  khrussnakhár
  created. be méskh
  creation méskh
  cry out ngurés
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    44
  cry, weep mérsh
  customer, buyer (male) khetshér; (female)
  votshér
  cut to pieces, slay, slaughter memár
  dagger ehlózh
  day (sun) chotlíng
  death mzhu'úm
  deed, doing má
  defective, useless, bad zágh
  descend pepím
  deed, act ma
  depart, leave méz
  diamond shirún
  die (honorific) nyenér
  die (nonhonorific) shákh
  dinner üross'úng
  direct object suffix -la
  direct, point lauzhü
  dirt, soil, earth múth
  distributive plural NSuf -ajjé
  do má
  dog (male) zlákh
  don't! NegPart tó
  door tlekéng
  draw upon jünütl
  dream nilám
  dwell, live wenép;  dwelt wunóp; will dwell
  wonvapján or wonápján
  dwell, crouch (as a beast in its lair) shósh;
  will crouch shavashján;  shoshchüsé
  Dwelling in Shadow (term for the
  nonhuman Tsüghiyúr)
  each other VClit nín
  earth, dirt, soil múth
  eat (honorific) ssáing
  eat ssnán
  ebon, jet black (adj.) mishatlé
  edible, be ma'ní
  eight Num ghemém
  eighty Num ghemesél
  elegant, grand NPref nra-
  elegant, polite phrase, compliment
  nrasséth
  emergence (of the Cosmos from the Egg of
  the World felán Cf. felé come
  emphatic particle, indeed! Part endé
  enemy, foe, be opposed fedhú; archaic:
  ferzhú
  even (singled out) lavái
  excessive, too khüng
  exist ghaván
  eye kái; pl. kayál
  fail to ... jaghá
  fall (one object) hlamá
  farm, to wetsél farm (place) khalutsél or
  khalwetsél
  farmer kheutsél
  father mizhér; tlamzhér fathers, including
  father's brothers and mother's sisters'
  husbands
  fear ssönör
  fetter dhamré
  few, a few NSuf -VkVl
  fight a battle (as an army) janggúr
  fight (as a warrior) pirén
  fill hríj. Causative of hréj. Cf. Sec. 6.4 (1)
  filled, be hréj
  find sefé
  fire hlóm
  fireplace, hearth khalkhitlú
  fish with a net onggá
  fifty Num tlusél
  five Num tlúm
  flare up, blaze hlóm
  flee, run away vünyá
  floor ngól
  flour (Dná-grain) zimú
  flowery, honorific speech nradám
  fly away (soul after death) bá
  food ma'ní
  foe, enemy fedhú
  foot fawá
  for, since Conj dáz
  for, to NPrep me-
  for a long time Adv damodé
  foreign; foreigner karkhás
  fortress dhanggól
  forty Num mzhasél
  four Num mzhám
  friend, be friendly khofór
  frighten ssünür
  from NPrep makh-
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    45
  general (military rank) qordú
  gift kathá
  girl, young woman dailé or dhailé
  give pézh
  gleam, glow dhenél
  glorious kharené
  glory kharé
  go down pepím
  go, travel mló
  god, deity mridlén
  gold (metal) sha'án golden, gold-coloured
  Adj sha'ané
  gold coin suór
  good (noble) khayán
  good (useful, beneficial) hal
  govern (a province) ssáo
  govern kolmék
  graceful, lovely puwár; fision of loveliness
  pùrnelám
  grand, elegant NPref nra-
  great (archaic) dalé
  group of people dzate'él
  guard (palace guardsman) rakhté
  habitual, keep ...ing VClit thám
  hand yádu
  hate jrelé
  having ...ed VPref dla- dl- dlan-
  he, she  Pron möllör
  head, top dhumá
  heart haréd
  hearth, fireplace khalkhitlú
  heat, burning khitlú
  her/him (obj.) möllá
  her/him (obj. after prepositions)   -möl
  her, his Pron mölré
  here Adv dhilé
  hero, heroine kól
  hide (oneself) dhozón
  hill of skulls, rule cruelly náru
  him/her (obj.) Pron möllá
  him/her (obj. after prepositions) -möl
  his, her Pron mölré
  hit dheméhl
  hither, to here medhlé
  horizon shutlúr
  horrid, ugly, disgusting k h r u s s - ;
  khrusspöghlé horrid, disgusting sight
  hortative, let ... VClit pé
  hospital (place to be sick), infirmary
  khalshzék
  house, to house bás
  how? Adv welé
  how much, how many? Adv dhesén
  hundred Num mrishtám
  hymn (to one of the gods) mnózh
  I Pron lü I-powerful (used by a Priestking)
  lüsán; I-ruler (by a Priestking) lükolmék
  idea, thought malgáish
  ignoble ssán
  ill, sick shezék
  imperative VClit lün
  imperfect, used to..., action  over a long
  period VClit dáth
  in front of NPrep and Adv okhré
  in, into, inside NPrep and Stem mru- mr-
  indeed Part  endé
  index finger lauzhü
  infant (male or female) (female) vúm
  infirmary khalshzék
  insult, rude speech khrussdám
  intend to kejjá
  interrogative VClit án
  it Pron möl
  it (obj.) Pron mölá or möl
  it (obj. after prepositions) Pron -mö
  its Pron mölé
  keep ...ing, habitual VClit thám
  keep ...ing, repetitive VClit vér
  kill mzhém
  king (archaic) mleké
  king (non-Engsvanyáli) mrizhún
  large dléè
  laugh fév
  law vrái
  lawyer khevrái
  lead, direct vakhái
  leader vakhái
  leave, depart méz
  left (hand) efáre
  let... (hortative) VClit pé
  library. study khalkrón
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    46
  licentious person, rake (male) khefnétl;
  (female) vofnétl
  life sharsün. A compound: "live-powerful"; cf.
  sharán
  like (feel friendly toward) gém
  like, resembling NPrep qass-
  live, be alive sharán
  live, dwell wenép
  long time, for a Adv damodé
  look, to pöghöl
  loom (weaving) lelvün
  lord, master mzhenggú
  lord, sovereign (title) kolmékku
  lovely, graceful puwár; pùrnelám vision of
  loveliness
  make má
  man vesrém
  many, much vór
  market wadhür
  marry tümül
  master, lord mzhenggú
  me (obj.) Pron lürá
  me (obj. after prepositions) Pron -lü -l
  meal (dinner; honorific) üross'úng
  merchant, seller khespés
  mighty, powerful (as a king) sún (or sün)
  million Num tuntlám
  money; large gold coin suór
  mother ngétl; tlangétl mothers, including
  mother's sisters and father's brothers'
  wives
  mountain zhamó
  mouth su'úm
  much, many vór
  must VPart úùlsa
  my Pron lür
  mythological time VClit ón
  negative imperative, don'† NegPart tó
  never NegPart yallán
  nine Num fetlúm
  ninety Num fetlusél
  no Interj yágga
  noble (according to one's 'Skein of Destiny')
  khayán
  noble (of high rank) dzarén
  north akhdár
  not (future) NegPart trá
  not (present and past) NegPart yágga
  now mölárö
  objective suffix NSuf -la
  objective suffix (archaic) NSuf -tla
  ocean shenú
  of NSuf -o; (archaic:) -ra -ro; -mé -m; -vür
  -vü
  offer kathá or kathá'
  officer (military), captain krajúr
  old (of persons) süng
  old (of things) nyepésh
  on, onto chu-
  one, a Num fér
  oneself, reflexive VClit tlé
  opposed, be; foe, enemy fedhú
  otherwise, opposite Conj nyó
  ought to VPart úùl
  our Pron lümré
  out, out of, outside, be outside shirs; NPrep
  shirsé or shirsné out of, outside
  over, up, above NPrep thu-
  patient, sick person kheshzék
  palace nramnü
  paradise, home of the gods tiném
  paucal, a few... NSuf -VkVl
  pen, writing instrument lekrón
  people (group) dzate'él
  people, populace ojáim
  person dzaté'
  plan, make strategy qordú
  plural (distributive) NSuf -ajjé
  plural (total) NSuf -aba
  plural NSuf -al
  point, to lauzhü
  populace, people ojáim
  populated, populous, be azhá
  pot, pottery mafádh
  power mzák
  praise (a deity, king) tuléng
  present kathá
  pretty child, handsome boy sumétl
  priest (low-rankng) shorísh
  priest (high ritual) qosónz
  Priestking of Éngsvan hla Gánga
  chàrdokhér
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    47
  produced, be méskh
  prostitute (female) khelésh
  prostitute (male) nrúkh
  put in, contain lagáz
  rake (licentious person) khefnétl
  read, to kháish
  reciprocal, each other VClit nín
  recite, chant terú or törö
  record (data) préu
  record-book leprú
  record-office khalprú
  red grán
  reflexive, oneself VClit tlé∫
  rely upon jünütl
  repetitive, keep on ...ing VClit vér
  resembling, like NPrep qass-
  return, to (go back) mizhékh
  returning, back, again NPrep dho-; back,
  again Adv dhoné
  river hakó
  roll up (a document) jurrúm
  rule cruelly náru
  rule, to kolmék
  run tleshé
  sacrifice kathá
  sage, wise man tsahlán
  sail (a ship) ssamáth
  say dóm
  scarlet (adj.) miyeklé; archaic: miye'eklún
  scholar, wise man tsahlán
  scribe (male) khekrón; (female) vokrón
  scriptorium, writing-place khalkrón
  scroll jurrúm
  sculpt, sculpture srüdhür
  sculptor, artist (male) khesrödhür; (female)
  vosrödhür
  seat (noun) chél; seat, chair khalchál
  seat (causative stem) chíl
  see pöghöl
  sell supés
  seven Num horóm
  seventy horosél
  sharp (as a blade) zál
  sharp (as a sharp point, a dagger), be
  ehlózh
  she, he möllör
  shelter, house bás
  shine (mirror, metal) dhenél
  ship (generic) ssamáth
  shoe helá
  shoelace helshján
  shoot a bow sheshú
  should VPart úùl
  shout ngurés
  shrine (inner) durushnál
  sick, ill shezék
  sick person, patient kheshzék
  side ghón
  sight, view, seeing pöghöl
  silver aché; achèdhenlé silver-bright (adj.)
  since, for Conj dáz
  sing noché; (male) singer khenché; (female)
  vonché
  sister akhét
  sit chél
  six gaví
  sixty gavisél
  skull rü'ümátl
  skull-splitter (nickname for a two-handed
  axe or sword) rü'ütlákh
  slay, slaughter, cut to pieces memár
  sleeping mat ghalshuréng
  smell bad ghuré
  soil, dirt, earth múth
  soldier taghán
  some Adj hrané
  some (a larger number than hrané) Adj
  jráth
  someone hún
  something hotlán
  song (secular) noché
  sound, to payúl
  sovereign, lord (title) kolmékku
  sparkle shirún
  speak dóm
  split, cleave in two tlakhkhá
  stench üroghré
  stew, cook a stew in a pot mafádh
  stink ghuré
  stop ...ing perkhé
  store (food) valthárz
  street, avenue dhalpé
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    48
  strike dheméhl
  strike with a sword cherék
  stroll, walk chenéth
  strong (physically) múrgh
  studio (painter's) khalráin; (sculptor's)
  khalsrödhür
  study, library khalkrón
  study, to kháish
  sun chotlíng
  swim chilú
  sword cherék
  temple, place of worship khalshnál
  ten Num tlatúm
  ten thousand Num sultsám
  that Conj pré. Introduces indirect speech
  that, those Demon o-
  the. definite article NSuf -ti
  their Pron mssöllé
  their (inanimate) Pron mssör
  them, these (obj.) Pron mssöllá
  them (obj. after prepositions) Pron -mssö
  them (inanimate obj. after prepositions)
  -ssö -sö
  them (inanimate obj.) Pron mssöl
  then Conj efákhm
  there Adv nutlé
  thereupon Conj efákhm
  they, these Pron mssöl
  they (inanimate) Pron mssö
  think jijéng
  this, these Demon möl
  thither, to there mentlé
  thought, idea malgáish
  thousand denutlám
  thirty Num vesél
  three Num vém
  through NPrep dan-
  tie, to shején
  to, for NPrep me- m-
  today dlasú
  together NPrep fágh
  tomorrow júl
  too, excessively Adv khüng
  top, head dhumá
  total, added up habú
  travel, go mló
  tree (generic) cheshrí
  true, be shóng
  truth shóng
  twenty Num ghasél
  two Num ghám
  ugly NPref khruss-
  under, beneath NPrep run- ru- r-
  underneath NPrep and Adv runé
  until, up to NPrep khang-
  up, above, over NPrep thu-; Adv thuné
  upon NPrep chu-
  us (obj.) Pron lümá
  us (obj. after prepsotions) Pron -lüm
  used to ..., imperfect VClit dáth
  useful, beneficial hal
  useless zágh
  victim ürütl; pl. ürütlül
  view, sight, seeing pöghöl
  vision of loveliness, pretty girl pùrnelám
  walk, stroll chenéth
  warrior, fighter kheprén
  water khú
  we Pron lümö
  weave elvün
  weaver (male) khelvün; (female) volvün
  weaving-shop khalelvün, khal'elvün, or
  khalvün
  weep. cry mérsh
  west mrév
  what?Adv ján
  when Conj sú
  when? Adv rákh or rakhál
  where? Adv funé
  which (of a group) Adv rerén
  while, at the time of ...ing pa-
  whither, to where? mefné
  who (relative) Adv gésh
  who? Adv ré
  why? Adv dhú
  wise (knowledgeable) vashán; adj. vashné
  wise, wise man, sage tsahlán
  with (instrumental) NPrep fá-; fagh- with
  (accompanying)
  without NPrep yal-
  woman  hétla
  work vül
  
  Engsvanyáli Grammar
  Page    49
  worship shunál
  would have ... VClit neté
  write, writing kurón
  year nlü'
  yell ngurés
  yesterday háf or hafá
  you (pl., obj. after prepositions) Pron -tüm
  you (pl. and honorific) Pron tüsmáru
  you (pl. obj.) Pron tüsmára
  you (sg. obj. after prepositions) Pron -ta -t
  you (sg. object) Pron tára
  you (sg.) Pron tá
  young man, boy be'ésh
  young woman, girl dailé or dhailé
  your (pl. and honorific) Pron tüsmaré
  your (sg.) taré
  youth, boy be'ésh
  
  Index
  A'ís Chrái (Person) .....................................................................2
  Ahoggyá (Non-human) ............................................................3
  Arumél (Person)......................................................................13
  Baréka hiShanyál (Person).........................................................2
  Bednálljan Empire (Nation)..................................................3, 4 
  Béy Sü (City) ...........................................................................4,5
  Caves of the Blue Fish (Geographic Feature) ......................28
  Ch'óchi (City)............................................................................21
  Chayákku (Nation).....................................................................4
  Chlén beast (Fauna) .................................................................26
  Chürstálli (Non-human)............................................................2
  College at the End of Time (Other Planar) ............................2
  Deeps of Chanayága (Geographic Feature)............................4
  Demons of the Dark (Demon).................................................2
  Dragon Warriors (Nation) .....................................................2,3
  Dwellers in Shadow (Demon)..........................................21,41
  Egg of the World.................................................................11,36
  Emperors
   
  Báshdis Mssá I..................................................................24
  Dhárumesh Mssá IV, Singer of Gentle Songs .............23
   
  Gámulu I .............................................................................3
   
  Hó Etéhltu ..........................................................................3
   
  Nemándu I........................................................................15
   
  Ssesmúga I.........................................................................15
   
  Ssesmúga IV......................................................................15
  Tratikánte I, Greatest Empress......................................23
  Éngsvan hla Gánga (Nation) ... 2, 9, 12, 22, 24, 25, 29, 35, 41 
  Fénul (City)..................................................................................3
  Fishermen Kings  (Nation).......................................................3
  Flower Wars (3464-3490 J.V.) ................................................23
  Gánga (Province).....................................................................3,4
  Háida Pakála  (Nation)...............................................................3
  Hlüss (Non-human)...................................................................2
  Hurún hiKétkolel (Person) .....................................................10
  Inscription of the Inner Wall in the Fifth Cavern ...............28
  Jakálla (City)............................................................................2-4
  Jánnu (Nation)............................................................................3
  Katalál (City)............................................................................10
  Kharaktáya (Person)...................................................................2
  Khéiris (City)......................................................................2,4,10
  Khirgár (City)...........................................................................28
  Khíshan Family  (Languages).............................. 2,6,8,12,21,28
  Kilalámmu (Nation)..................................................................3
  Kúrt Hills (Geographic Feature)..............................................4
  Lament to the Wheel of Black (Epic)...............................13,32
  Languages
   
  Aí Chè..................................................................................4
   
  Arabic...................................................................................2
   
  Bednálljan..................................................................3,24,28
   
  Classical Engsvanyáli ......................................4,5,10,22-25
   
  Classical Mu'ugalavyáni .....................................................5
   
  Duruób......................................................................4,10,22
   
  Early Engsvanyáli....................................................... 25-28
   
  Engsvanyáli ..............................1-6,8,10,12,16,17,19,23,30
   
  Ghatóni................................................................................3
   
  Hijajái ...................................................................................3
   
  Livyáni............................................... 3,4,10,12,19,22,23,29
   
  Livyáni Engsvanyáli................................................. 3,10,22
   
  Llyáni....................................................................................2
   
  Mayan...................................................................................2
   
  Middle Engsvanyáli..........................................................28
   
  Milumanayáni......................................................................3
   
  Mu'ugalavyáni......................................3,5,8,19,22,23,29,32
   
  Mu'ugalavyáni dialect of Engsvanyáli ........................4,5,7
   
  Old Duruób.........................................................................5
   
  Salarvyáni.................................................................. 3,19,29
   
  Salarvyáni dialect of Engsvanyáli......................................5
   
  Sunúz.................................................................................4,5
   
  Tamil ....................................................................................2
   
  Thu'úsa.................................................................................4
   
  Tsoléi'ini...............................................................................3
   
  Tsolyáni.................................... 3,5-8,11,12,16,19,22,27-29
   
  Tsolyáni dialect of Engsvanyáli ........................................5
   
  Yán Koryáni............................................................. 3,19,29
  Yán Koryáni dialect of Engsvanyáli.................................5
   
  Zna'yé...................................................................................4
  Latter Times (Events)............................................................2,4
  Livyánu (Nation).....................................................2,4,22,23,25
  Llyán (Nation)..........................................................................2,3
  Llyán of Tsámra (Person).......................................................2,3
  Lords of the Latter Times (Government)..............................4
  Maiden (Person) ......................................................................22
  Mihálli  (Non-human)................................................................2
  Missúma River  (Geographic Feature).....................................7
  Mu'ugáyish of Tlár (Person).....................................................8
  Mu'ugalavyá (Nation)...............2,8,10,14,19,21,23,25,28,30,33
  N'lüss (Nation)........................................................................2,3
  Naqsái Coast  (Nation) ..............................................................4
  Nóm (Non-human)...................................................................3
  Nuru'ún (Nation).......................................................................4
  Páttuna hiQolyélmu  (Person) ..................................................8
  Pavár (Person)........................................................5,23,25,28,41
  Peléis (City).................................................................................3
  Personal History (of the Priestking Nemándu I) (Book) ....15
  Planes of the Beyond  (Other Planar)......................................4
  Priestkings (Government) ................................................. 35,38
  Purdánim (City) .........................................................................3
  Púrdimal (City)  1 
  Putuhénu River  (Geographic Feature)....................................2
  Salarvyá (Nation) ..................................................................3,25
  Saying
  Like a blindfolded man who casts 
    a stone at a flying bird.  (Tsolyáni).................................2
  What existed before must exist forever after.
    (Engsvanyali).....................................................................4
  Scholar Priest  (Rank)............................................................1,10
  Shén (Non-human).....................................................................2
  Southern Continent  (Geographic Feature) ............................4
  50
  
  51
  Sraón (City) .................................................................................5 
  Ssórmu  (City).............................................................................5 
  Ssú (Non-human)....................................................................2,3
  Ssuyál  (Nation) ..........................................................................3 
  Tablets of Llyán (Book).............................................................2 
  Tablets of the High King  (Book)..........................................25 
  Tariskánte Bright Bird (Metre) ...............................................34 
  Tékumel ......................................................................................2 
  The Book of Ebon Bindings  (Book)....................................26 
  The Deeds of the Great King (Book) ...................................26 
  The Glorious Tongue, Blessed of the Gods: 
   
  Engsvanyáli (Book)............................................................1 
  The Godlike Reports of Governor Arumél, 
   
  Lord of the North (Book)...............................................13 
  The Mighty Grammar of the Divine, 
   
  Beloved and Beautiful Language (Book).......................10 
  The Scroll of the Scarlet Brotherhood  (Book)....................25 
  The Scrolls of Pavár  (Book)......................4,10,12,15,16,22,25 
  Thráya  (City) ...........................................................................2,3 
  Three States of the Triangle  (Nation)..................................2,3 
  Time of Darkness  (Events)...................................................2,4 
  Tlár  (City) ...................................................................................8 
  Tsámra  (City) ........................................................................2,25 
  Tsoléi Archipelago  (Nation) ....................................................7 
  Tsolyánu  (Nation) .......................................................2,3,4,8,25 
  Tumíssa  (City)..........................................................................26 
  Túrisu Ssá hiVáika  (Person)..................................................1,2
  Tu'unmra  (City) .......................................................................25 
  Úrmish (City).............................................................................2 
  Vrá (Province).............................................................................3 
  Yán Kór  (Nation)..............................................................3,8,13
  
SOURCE: textdata/thevault/Empire of the Petal Throne/Tékumel Supplemental/Tékumel Netbook #5 Grammar of Engsvanyáli [r5].pdf