TEXT: A Magical Society: 
  Ecology and Culture
  Expeditious Retreat Press
  Cover and Interior Art by Ravindra Rana
  Writing and Editing by Suzi Yee and Joseph Browning
  Layout by Suzi Yee
  WWW.XRPShop.CITYMAX.COM
  
  2
  Interlude 4
  Mapping Your World 7
   
  Beginning Considerations 7
   
  Step One: The Big Picture 8
   
  Step Two: Continents 10
   
  Step Three: Mountains 12
   
  Step Four: Islands and Archipelagoes 15
  Interlude 21
  Ecology 23
   
  Life Roles 23
   
  Food Chains and Food Webs 24
   
  Predation 26
   
  Plays Well with Others 30
   
  Succession 31
   
  The Inner Workings of Magic 32
  Biomes 38
   
  Tundra and Taiga 39
   
  Grasslands 42
   
  Forests 45
   
  Scrubland and Deserts 48
   
  Rivers and Lakes 51
   
  Swamps and Marshes 52
   
  Coastlines, Oceans, and Islands 55
   
  Caves and Underground Environments 57
   
  Mountains 59
  Interlude 60
  Mapping Your World (Part II) 62
   
  Step Five: Weather 62
   
  Step Six: Climate Zones and Rivers 65
  Interlude 70
  Culture 73
   
  Intelligent Races 73
   
  Physical Elements 74
   
   
  Appearances 74
   
   
  Temperate Lands 75
   
   
  Deserts 75
   
   
  Rainforests 76
   
   
  Tundra and Taiga 77
   
   
  High Altitudes 78
   
  Subsistence Pa�erns 80
   
  Material Culture 82
   
  Technology 88
   
   
  Social Factors 88
   
   
  Selling Technology 89
  Table of Contents
   
   
  New Technology 89
   
   
  Development of Magic 90
   
  Ideological Culture 91
   
   
  Alignment 92
   
   
  Language 92
   
   
  Writing 94
   
   
  Religion 94
   
   
  Myths 96
   
   
  Taboo 97
   
   
  Ritual 98
   
   
  Redistribution of Wealth 99
   
   
  Dispute Resolution 99
   
   
  Hospitality 99
   
   
  Birth 100
   
   
  Coming of Age 101
   
   
  Marriage 101
   
   
  Death 102
   
   
  Natural Cycles 103
   
   
  Cultural Rituals 103
   
   
  When Societies Interact 104
  Mapping Your World (Part III) 105
   
  Step Seven: The Origins of the Major
   
   
   Intelligent Races 105
   
  Step Eight: The Movement of the Major
   
   
   Intelligent Species 106
   
  Step Nine: Divergence and Divergent
   
   
   Expansion 107
  Final Interlude 112
  Appendix 113
   
  Formations 113
   
  Places 123
   
  Valuables 128
   
  Plants 135
   
  Animals 140
   
  Magiovores 145
   
   
  Animals 145
   
   
  Fungi 147
   
   
  Gems 148
   
   
  Insects 149
   
   
  Plants 151
   
  Common Dyes 154
  Comments 155
  Using A Magical Society:
   
  Ecology and Culture 156
  Bibliography 158
  Legal Stuff 160
  
  3
  To members of the Council and those who audience these pages,
   
  This treatise presents a collection of ideas, conditions, and advice on world 
  building for others who follow me, may they glean insight from my experiences. 
  I have chosen this path of recording over more extraordinary methods in hopes 
  that, should I complete the task satisfactorily, it may act as a guide for godlings 
  that follow.
   
  Split into three distinct but related parts, the unifying theme of this work 
  is mapping a new world. Book the first concerns the rudimentary decisions in 
  world building and their implications, including but not limited to the manner 
  in which landforms appear, why they appear in that fashion, and advice on 
  creating maps based upon sound physical geography. Book the second concerns 
  ecologies, various biomes and environments created by the interaction of weather 
  and physical geography, the creatures occupying these various environments, 
  and advice on mapping these places. Book the third concerns the limitations 
  environment places on intelligent races, tools of culture that intelligent races 
  use to overcome their environment, and advice on mapping cultures. Following 
  these three sections is a collection of useful reference appendices.
   
  The base world for comparison and reference is Earth, which functions 
  without major magical intercession. All discussed deviations are from the 
  perspective of Earth-like worlds, and numerous examples are drawn from Earth. 
  In this work, magic – a complex factor in world creation—is treated as another 
  source of accessible energy. Like sunlight and geothermal energy, magic is a 
  building block for life and links the traditional features of many fantastic 
  worlds to the intricate mundane web of life: vast underground populations; 
  amazingly lush, fertile, and inexhaustible environments; and a plethora of 
  massive predators whose existence must be magical.
   
  Some argue that gods create worlds. Period. Others point out that gods may 
  be living in a closed system created by a greater force, as godlings’ creations are 
  no more real except to those living in the creation. Regardless of how things are 
  made, our primary goal is proper functioning. Things must work on their own 
  without the constant intercession of their creators, other gods, and their magic. 
  That being said, gods still interfere; however in the best of worlds, it is minimally 
  necessary. With all these considerations, I humbly submit my observances for 
  your enjoyment, scrutiny, and perusal.
  Kierian the Bold
  Petitioner for God of War and Bringer of Justice
  Satisfactory
  *See back for comments
  
  4
        Interlude 
   
  Kierian moaned at the first 
  tinges of consciousness. He opened his 
  eyes and rubbed the sleep from them. 
  As his senses awakened, he noted 
  the strangeness of his surroundings. 
  The air was stiff like a skin pulled 
  over a drum—still, yet stretched with 
  taut energy. The light was neither dim nor 
  luminescent, but it glowed vibrantly. The room was hardly a room, absent of 
  walls, ceiling, and floor. Then there was the gnome sitting ten feet away from 
  him, reclining with a pipe and making scribbles in a little pocket book. Looking 
  up from his writings, he smiled warmly.
   
  “You’re up then,” Noj spoke matter-of-factly as he closed his book. “Good. 
  We have lots of work to do.”
   
  “Where am I?” Kierian asked in confusion. “And who are you?” He 
  placed an anxious hand on the hilt of his blade. 
   
  The fastidious gnome’s smile faded. “You don’t know?”
   
  Kierian rose to his full height, surveying his surroundings. “No. This place 
  is not known to me.”
   
  “Oh dear.” Noj sat down again and motioned for Kierian to take a seat. To 
  Kierian’s surprise, there was a chair for him where there had not been before.
   
  “What sorcery is this?” Kierian drew his sword and looked around. He 
  sensed a change in his blade. The sword was different in his grasp, lighter and 
  weightier at the same time.
   
  Noj looked up muttering Gnomish curses. “Please, just sit down, and 
  we’ll straighten this out.” He opened his brown plaid waistcoat to reveal his 
  possessions, of which were no weapons or devices 
  of sorcery. “As you can see, there is little need 
  for your sword.”
   
   
  Kierian cautiously took a seat 
  but refused to sheath his sword, resting 
  it beside his leg. The gnome flipped to 
  an earmarked page and produced a 
  pencil from his breast pocket. “Are 
  you Kierian of Rockmoor?”
   
  “Yes,” answered the surprised 
  fighter.
  
  5
   
  Noj looked up and nodded in confirmation. He moved the tip of his pencil 
  down the page. “And you slew Korgol the Destroyer, God of War, Bringer of 
  Chaos, Widow Maker, Devourer of Souls, etc?”
   
  Flashes of memory sparked a recollection. There was a battle, a victory, 
  then lightening; it wasn’t natural, but powerful. “Yes. I suppose I did,” conceded 
  Kierian.
   
  Noj closed his book with a reaffirming smile. “Then there is no mistake. 
  You are Kierian of Rockmoor, God of War, Bringer of Justice.” The satisfied 
  gnome noted Kierian’s blank expression. “Don’t worry. Everyone starts out with 
  a short title. You’ll get more as time goes on, though most gods would abandon ‘of 
  Rockmoor’ for something less… common.”
   
  Kierian stood, pacing back and forth for a few moments. “So let me get 
  this straight.” Kierian’s precise steps echoed crisply in the emptiness. “I kill a 
  god, and I take his place. Easy as that?”
   
  “Yes and no,” Noj replied with a hint of scholasticism. “The position is 
  temporarily empty, and a period of chaos will reign until the new God of War 
  asserts him or herself. Since you killed the last God of War, you have precedence 
  to fill the position, provided you prove ready.”
   
  Kierian’s brow furrowed, and he took his seat again. Pacing on a non-
  existent floor unsettled him while the lingering traces of mortal suspicion and 
  doubt interfered with his divine intelligence. “Ready?”
   
  “Yes. There is the small matter of the task.” Noj relit his pipe, realizing 
  this was going to take a while.
   
  Kierian leaned toward the gnome. “What’s ‘The Task’?”
   
  “The trial of the gods where you must prove able to wield your divinity.”
   
  Kierian loosed his sword from its sheath. Shining in the eerie glow of this 
  place, the godling decided to call it the Blade of Righteousness. “Bring whatever 
  foe or beast the gods dare pit against me.”
   
  Noj shook his head and stifled his laughter. “No, nothing of that sort. You 
  killed Korgol the Destroyer, Spiller of Blood, Foe of Peace, Friend of Death, etc. 
  That alone proves your prowess, regardless through might, wisdom, or trickery. 
  Now you must prove your understanding.”
   
  Kierian was well over six feet tall, seventeen stone, encased in gleaming 
  metal armor, and bore the Blade of Righteousness. This was all the understanding 
  he had ever needed. “What must I do?” he asked in a dubious tone.
   
  Noj answered plainly, “You must create a world.”
   
  Kierian roared, releasing peels of laughter in the expansive space. “You 
  really had me going for a moment. ‘You are the new God of War.’ That’s great. 
  Who put you up to this? Was it Cora? ‘Cause I didn’t mean to leave her in the 
  pit trap. I just got sidetracked on the way for help, and by the time I got back, 
  she was already in town.”
  
  6
   
  “Why do I get the difficult ones?” Noj thought to himself. “Suit yourself. 
  Create something. Think of something, and shape it in your mind. You can give 
  it smells and texture and taste. Go ahead.” The terse edge in the gnome’s tone 
  and the imperious wave of his hand did not escape Kierian’s notice. He closed his 
  eyes and began creating. It was quiet and still. Then the smell of meat pie filled 
  the air. Kierian opened his eyes to a golden-brown meat pie whose juices were 
  bubbling through the buttery crust along side a frothing mug of ale.
   
  “Did I do that?” Kierian asked incredulously.
   
  “It wasn’t me,” answered Noj. “I’m a vegetarian.” Kierian crept forward 
  and held the warm pie in his hands. “It’s not real, you know,” injected the 
  gnome. “Nothing created here is, except for those living within the creation 
  itself.”
   
  The famished warrior bit into the pie. It felt like he hadn’t eaten in ages. 
  Warm juice and ale dribbled down his chin as he washed it down with a deep 
  drink. It was the best tasting meat pie and ale he had ever eaten, but something 
  was strange. It was a bit off. No, it was entirely wrong. “Where are we?” Kierian 
  asked with a new intensity.
   
  Noj straightened upon hearing the Voice of Divine manifest in the 
  fighter’s tone. “The testing ground. It’s where godlings practice creating and test 
  their theories on world building.”
   
  “And who are you?” Kierian’s mind focused into a singularity. The food 
  vanished like a memory.
   
  The gnome stood and bowed to his new lord. “Noj Danask, well versed in 
  the knowledge and engineering of building worlds. I am here to assist you. I put 
  into motion that which you desire for your world. You will record your findings, 
  and should the Council approve your process, you will come into your full 
  divinity.”
   
  “And if I refuse?” Kierian’s serious demeanor gave him a ferocity that Noj 
  hadn’t seen as of yet. 
   
  “Then you are neither here nor there, neither mortal nor god, shunned 
  from enjoying the innocence of one and the power of the other.”
   
  They sat in silence together until Kierian rose and cleared his throat. 
  “Right then. Where do we start?”
   
  Noj opened his book. “At the beginning.”
  
  7
  Mapping Your World
   
  Maps are home to the stuff of legends and nightmares: Atlantis, Xanadu, 
  terra incognita, “Here there be dragons!” A wise gnome once said, “A good map is 
  almost a history.” Maps show the past: treasure maps, maps of dead empires, and 
  maps of sunken ancient lands. Maps show the present possibilities: harsh deserts, 
  fertile meandering rivers, steamy jungles, and barrier mountains populated by fiercely 
  independent people. Maps also show the future, for well I know that every conquer 
  looks towards a map and dreams of empire. Maps may represent a world clearly like 
  the finest prose or as cryptically as the best of poetry. It is because of this that I have 
  chosen to use maps in creating my world.
   
  Though maps of pen and paper do not require much in divine power, they 
  are not so easily made. Most are unaware of all the landforms and physical geography 
  worlds demand. Where to place mountains, rivers, swamps and deserts are important 
  questions that must be answered, even for worlds which deviate from our given base 
  planet, Earth. The more a world mimics the basic forces of nature, the more engrossing 
  the world becomes for those living in the creation. The goal then becomes a map of the 
  world that can run itself without magic, for if we create such a world, any magic we do 
  implement simply adds to its charm.
   
  Originally I found building a planet that requires as li�le magic as possible an 
  odd request, especially considering my new abilities. Now I know it a valuable lesson. 
  Once we godlings know how a mostly non-magical planet works, we can step away 
  from the basic design into more complex and fulfilling ones. Bears, tigers, and even 
  dinosaurs may be interesting, but they all pale in comparison to the complexity of a 
  fully functioning magical world inhabited by orcs, ankheg, and dragons. 
   
  Beginning Considerations
   
  It’s tempting to run into world creation before thinking about the world as a 
  whole, hastily plopping down mountains, rivers, deserts, and jungles. When enthusiasm 
  gets the best of patience, however, godlings end up with ragtag worlds whose geography 
  and biomes make no sense and must be supported by magic. Although magic is an 
  important part of every world, magic shouldn’t be used to explain how a river flows 
  over a mountain, except in very special circumstances. Magical geography should be 
  used to intensify experiences, not explain everyday phenomenon. Remember godling, 
  the initial magic allowance for building first worlds is slim; maximize your potential by 
  minimizing your mistakes. Such mindful consideration may one day lead to building 
  whole planes created entirely through magic. But as of yet, that is the future.
   
  One of the best ways to minimize mistakes is through observation. Any artist 
  will tell you that seeing the world properly is the first step in creation. Before making 
  maps, spend some time with a good world atlas; it contains everything we need to 
  know about making independent, viable worlds and realistic maps. Hopefully the 
  remainder of this tome expands your knowledge base, allowing you a new sight in how 
  the world works through an atlas. For example, consider continents. Though we have 
  all been taught seven traditional continents, this artificial division impedes accurate 
  physical vision. There are really only four giant landmasses on Earth, along with 
  several smaller islands. Of these four giant landmasses, two of them have very small 
  isthmuses separating them roughly in half. 
   
  In this quest for proper vision, every step of the mapping process should 
  involve some visual aid, even if you are planning a deviant, themed world, such as an 
  archipelago world. You will benefit from time spent looking at Earth. Accurate vision 
  prevents jarring inaccuracies and makes new worlds require less magic. If you’re of 
  
  8
  the scholarly bent or find your gnome to be lacking in forthrightness, find an ancient 
  tome concerning geology or physical geography. Look for one in the library. There 
  are several available, and they will cover the processes of creation to minute details. 
  Sometimes details are exactly what you want. Please read through this whole section 
  before beginning your map. It will help you create a be�er world.
  Step One: The Big Picture
  The Heavenly Spheres
   
  Before starting a new world map, a creator must make decisions about what the 
  world looks like and how it interacts with the ma�er outside of its atmosphere. Is the 
  universe just like the base material one, but with more or less magic? Is the new planet 
  the center of the solar system? Do crystal spheres hold everything in their unchanging 
  order, or do the gods move the planets and sun? Perhaps the world rides along on the 
  back of a giant turtle? These types of questions and their answers are part of the fun in 
  creating new worlds.
   
  Ironically, it is here that we have the most flexibility with new worlds. The same 
  intelligent creatures that don’t like rivers flowing uphill have no problems accepting 
  a world surrounded by crystal spheres that move the celestial bodies across the sky 
  while intersecting the many planes. Magic on a massive, universal scale is more easily 
  accepted than on a small scale because creatures don’t interact with astrophysics as 
  much as they interact with gravity. Sometimes the big miracle is the most believable.
   
  Dealing with the various cosmological and world-shaping possibilities is 
  beyond the scope of this treatise. Flat worlds, water worlds, and hollow worlds all 
  have their place in the metaverse, but their unique pa�erns require serious dedication 
  to their exploration and power beyond what godlings possess. Our focus is on Earth-
  like worlds, but that’s far from limited. Even on the strangest prime material planes, 
  standard types of weather and erosion usually play their part upon landmasses, just 
  like they do on Earth. It’s just the way the multiverse likes to work.
  Axial Tilt and Seasons
   
  Earth sits slightly tilted at 23.5° and rotates around this axis every 24 hours, 
  forming a day. It also revolves around the sun every 365.25 days, forming a year. These 
  three simple things—axial tilt, length of a day, and length of a year—are some of the 
  most important aspects of any new world. They will have the greatest effect upon what 
  a new world looks like.
   
  Planets maintain their axial tilt and rotation, regardless of where they are in 
  their annual cycle. A planet’s rotation around its axis creates day and night, shi�ing 
  exposure to the sun’s rays in its rotation. Axial tilt determines seasons with winter 
  occurring when the planet is tilted away from the sun and summer when the planet is 
  tilted toward the sun. When one hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, the other is 
  tilted toward the sun, meaning that while it’s winter in one hemisphere, it’s summer in 
  the other. Axial tilt also influences the length of day and night through the creation of 
  seasons.  The amount of time the hemisphere is subject to the sun’s rays determines the 
  number of daylight hours. During the winter, the days are short, and the nights long, 
  while during summer the reverse is true.
   
  You can create a grid by identifying the points on the top and bo�om of the 
  planet around which the plant rotates, known as the poles. This grid allows you to 
  pinpoint any specific location in relation to the poles, which are fixed points. Latitude 
  is the distance measured north and south of the equator, with the equator at 0° and the 
  poles at 90°. On Earth (or any planet 8,000 miles in diameter), each degree of latitude 
  is roughly 69 miles, which varies due polar fla�ening, but only by about 0.5 a mile. 
  Since axial tilt provides us both with seasons and a way of locating specific places on a 
  
  9
  planet, it also provides us a useful way of measuring daylight times. Using latitude in 
  conjunction with axial tilt conveys a lot of information about a planet’s daylight hours 
  and climate.
   
  Axial tilt determines the lower and upper limit of daylight on your planet. 
  The lower limit of daylight is the place that experiences at least one complete day 
  of darkness and one complete day of light a year. On Earth, this takes place at 66.5° 
  latitude, which also correlates with the artic regions of the planet (66.5°-90°). As you 
  travel closer to the poles, you experience more days of continuous light and continuous 
  dark. Around the poles, day or night can last weeks. The upper limit of daylight is the 
  place where the sun is directly overhead for at least one day of the year. On Earth, this 
  takes place at 23.5° latitude, exactly 23.5° from the equator, which correlates with the 
  tropical zones (0°-23.5°). As you approach the equator, you experience more days with 
  the sun directly overhead.
  Notes on Deviant Axial Tilts
   
  When you chose the axial tilt of a new planet, you are also determining the 
  location of the artic circles and the tropics, which influence basic climate. For planets 
  to be Earth-like, axial tilts must be close to Earth’s range (15°-32°), depending on how 
  much seasonal variation a godling wants. The greater the axial tilt, the more seasonal 
  Equator
  Equator
  North Pole
  North Pole
  South Pole
  South Pole
  Sun
  Sun
  Direct Rays
  Direct Rays
  June 21
  December 21
  North Tropic
  North Tropic
  North Artic
  North Artic
  South Tropic
  South Tropic
  South Artic
  South Artic
  
  10
  variation. Keep in mind that a lot of the temperate climates rely 
  upon snowmelt for much of their water. A smaller axial tilt may 
  result in more widely spread deserts than on our base planet 
  because not enough snow melts. On the other hand, too much 
  tilt could result in more widely spread deserts because not 
  enough snow falls.
   
  Deviations in the axial tilt also change the 
  distribution of surface heat on the planet: the larger the 
  tilt, the more even the distribution of heat. With a tilt of 
  23.5°, Earth’s heat is more evenly spread than if its tilt was 
  15°. To build a planet where heat is evenly distributed 
  over the surface, a tilt of around 54° is required. This 
  extreme tilt, however, would lead to a world very 
  different than Earth. But there are also methods of 
  changing climate without choosing a drastic axial 
  tilt and all the implications that result from such a 
  decision. For example, if you want a colder plant, 
  perhaps your world has a larger orbit around the sun. 
  Of your planet is exactly like Earth, but is currently 
  experiencing an ice age.
   
  Planetary climatology is one of the most 
  complex subjects in world creation, so no godling 
  should feel inadequate at a world whose climate is 
  not 100% accurate. Although striving for perfection 
  and realism brings its own sort of accomplishment, 
  you should always weight the effort verses the 
  return on every part of world building.
  Step One: Example
   
  I’ll record my thoughts while creating my 
  world along with each step. Step one is easy for me, 
  as I don’t want to add any more complications than 
  necessary. I’ll create a world that’s the same diameter 
  as earth, the same distance from its sun, the same 
  daily and yearly cycles, and with an axial tilt of 24°. 
  This allows me to focus on other ma�ers right now. 
  My flat world will have to wait. 
  Step Two: Continents
   
  Continents are striking features of any map, 
  but they are merely the tips of larger plates that float 
  along the world’s surface. Plate tectonics describe the 
  very slow thermal convection system at work inside 
  the planet. This slow convection brings deep magma 
  to the surface while pulling crustal material down. In 
  this process, continents slowly move over the surface 
  of the world. Tectonics elegantly create many geological 
  phenomenon, most notably mountain formation, and 
  allow us the joy of watching our continents move around 
  like the hardening crust of cooling gravy. You may, of course, 
  create a world where continents move for reasons other than 
  tectonic activity, but you will have to supplement the natural 
  geothermal forces with your own magic. I would not suggest 
  No Seasons or 
  Hyper   Seasons?
   
  Axial 
  tilt 
  determines 
  many 
  vital 
  aspects 
  of 
  a 
  world. Choosing a tilt 
  far from Earth’s leads to 
  a very different world. A 
  world with a 0° tilt has no 
  seasons because the sun is 
  always in the same place 
  in relation to the planet. 
  Each individual location 
  on the planet receives the 
  same amount of sunlight 
  all year round, making day 
  and night the only temporal 
  variations in solar energy. 
  In order to achieve a 0° tilt, 
  the equator lines up with 
  the plane of ecliptic, the 
  plane that passes though 
  the sun and the every point 
  of the planet’s orbit around 
  the sun. This would radically 
  change the appearance your 
  world, given Earth’s reliance 
  on deferential temperatures 
  in climate, erosion, and other 
  world-shaping phenomenon. 
   
  A world where the 
  poles lie upon the plane of 
  the ecliptic (90° tilt) is in even 
  worse shape. Nearly half of 
  the planet has a never-se�ing 
  summer sun while the other 
  half has a never-rising sun. 
  Spring and fall are the time 
  of rising and se�ing suns, 
  and the equator is the best 
  place for the growth of 
  glaciers. Mass migration 
  is a possible solution for 
  Earth-like life to survive 
  in such a world, though 
  inhabitants of this type 
  of 
  world 
  probably 
  rely 
  on 
  magical 
  energy to provide 
  other 
  survival 
  methods.
  
  11
  such a course of action. Besides larger expenditure of magic, removing tectonics also 
  affects the ecological aspects of your world.
   
  How do you start building a world? Start drawing shapes. Don’t focus on 
  making good coastlines or craggy �ords. Just start placing general blobs where 
  your landmasses are at the current time. To mimic Earth, focus on three to five large 
  landmasses with one to three of them having small isthmuses connecting two larger 
  “continents.” This instantly provides a new world with the “right” feel with very li�le 
  effort on the part of the creator. If something isn’t pleasing, simply move on to the next 
  idea.
   
  A�er placing landmasses, consider the plates they rest on and how they could 
  have moved through time. Every landmass is the part of a plate of rock that “floats” 
  along at the surface of the planet. Plates generally extend miles into the ocean before 
  ending. For reference from the base world, South America abu�ed North America and 
  Africa; Africa abu�ed Eurasia, North America, India, and Antarctica; and Australia 
  abu�ed India and Antartica.
   
  To simulate this effect in your world, take the landmasses you created and fit 
  them together like pieces of a puzzle. Don’t worry if you have to shave pieces off or add 
  a land bridge somewhere. In geologic time, oceans rise and fall, continents crash into 
  each other, pieces cleave off larger plates, and plates separate. When creating a world, 
  you have the advantage of dictating history rather than recording it. A�er making these 
  modifications, notice the boundaries where the plates previously intersected. There’s a 
  good chance that mountains form at these intersections. If mountains aren’t there, hills 
  may be. This is not the only method of creation, though creating a new world “with 
  age” is fairly common. Most gods have li�le desire to wait the billions of years it takes 
  the universe to naturally create intelligent life.
  Africa
  North
  America
  Asia
  South
  America
  India
  Australia
  Antarctica
  Pangaea
  
  12
  Step Two: Example
   
  Please reference the map provided. I’ve drawn out some hasty coastlines for 
  two large landmasses connected by small isthmuses along with a single large island/
  continent. You’ll notice the peninsula on continent B ju�ing out westward. I drew 
  this because I like the shape. However, this probably means that that peninsula is 
  mountainous since almost all such peninsulas from our base planet are mountainous. 
  There are some exceptions (Florida), but most peninsulas are mountainous (Italian, 
  Iberian, Malaysian, Kamchatka, Scandinavian, Korean, Baja). This also means that I’ve 
  probably got a subduction zone offshore because most of these peninsulas do as well. 
  I’ll keep that in mind as I go along.
   
  I’ve also drawn do�ed lines showing where my continents linked up in their 
  pangea stage. This will help me place my mountains in the next step. If you’ll note, 
  I’ve placed the equator, the tropic lines, and the artic lines (24° from the equator and 
  24° from the poles respectively) based upon the tilt decided upon in step one. This isn’t 
  important now, but it does impact on weather later on.
  Step Three: Mountains
   
  Once continents have been roughly outlined, and you’ve gone back in time to 
  crunch all the continents together, placing mountains becomes a lot easier. Mountains 
  form in a number of ways, the majority of which result from tectonic plate collision. 
  Plates collide in three different mountain-building ways: oceanic plates collide with 
  continental plates, oceanic plates collide with oceanic plates, or continental plates 
  collide with continental plates. Mountain creation is generally a coastal affair. The 
  majority of inland mountains were once near a coast, although some are the result of 
  upli�ing or folding.
  Mountains Formed by Collision
   
  Whenever a continental plate meets an oceanic plate, the continental plate 
  pushes the oceanic plate underneath it because continental material is less dense. 
  This collision, known as subduction, thrusts the continental plate upward and creates 
  mountains. At the same time, subduction forces the oceanic plate downward, creating 
  subduction zones, the deepest of which are called trenches. As the oceanic plate moves 
  down, oceanic material re-melts and o�en works its way to the continental surface, 
  forming volcanoes. Shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes usually accompany 
  oceanic-continental mountain building, so don’t put your favored race there unless 
  you’re willing to periodically watch everything they build fall down or get covered 
  with lava. When two oceanic plates meet, either plate could be the one subducted, 
  depending on the direction of movement. The subduction zones of two oceanic plates 
  usually result in deeper oceanic trenches. Instead of forming mountains, two colliding 
  oceanic plates form a string of volcanically created islands. When two continental plates 
  collide, known as suturing, both crustal plates resist subduction, but eventually one 
  yields, forming massive mountains. Continental collisions don’t form volcanic ranges, 
  but they create many shallow-focus earthquakes.
  Mountains Formed by Vulcanism
   
  Mountains also form independent of tectonics, based solely upon vulcanism. 
  Vulcanism is the movement of magma from the interior of a planet to the exterior. One 
  common type of volcanically formed mountain is the dome mountain, which forms 
  when magma pushes upward into the crust of the earth. Laccoliths, large bodies of 
  slow-moving magma, form between horizontal layers of preexisting rock. The magma 
  is so thick that it resists flowing. Meanwhile more viscous magma feeds into the 
  mushroom-shaped laccolithic dome and forces the thick magma upward. The dome 
  
  13
  mountain’s 
  creation 
  process 
  produces rounded-top chains, 
  the Black Hills of South Dakota 
  serving as a good example.
   
  Vulcanism also results 
  in the most obvious mountain 
  creation—volcanoes. 
  Although 
  volcanoes are usually associated 
  with 
  subduction 
  of 
  tectonic 
  plates, some places are simply 
  “hot spots,” or places that 
  allow magma to rise near the 
  surface. 
  Although 
  volcanoes 
  are spectacular and dangerous, 
  they 
  are 
  not 
  very 
  good 
  mountain builders. Mountains 
  chains built predominately by 
  volcanic activity are usually 
  shorter (in length and height) 
  than mountains built in plate 
  collision.
  Ri�ing
   
  With 
  plates 
  crashing 
  into each other and forming 
  mountains, it stands to reason 
  that there are other places where 
  plates are dri�ing apart and 
  forming new crustal material. 
  Divergent boundaries are highly 
  volcanic areas, and they form ri� 
  valleys lined with mountains 
  when a continental plate splits. 
  Divergent 
  boundaries 
  are 
  responsible for breaking Earth’s 
  Pangea around 200-135 million 
  years ago, se�ing the pieces adri� 
  into their current locations.
  Mountains to Molehills
   
  Mountains compose 11% 
  of the continental surface. There 
  are unlimited possibilities when 
  creating the geologic history 
  of your world, but this work 
  directs the focus on mapping the 
  mountains. For more information 
  and detail, consult your gnome 
  or a historical geography tome. 
  Armed with the knowledge of 
  where and how mountains form, 
  you now have the tools to map 
  mountains in your world.
  X
  Y
  Continents X and Y crash together, increasing the subduction 
  mountain range.
  X
  Y
  The oceanic part of plate Y is 
  subducted beneath plate X.
  Volcanic island
  formation.
  X
  Y
  Plate Y stops subducting as its 
  continental portion reaches the 
  subduction zone.
  Volcanic island
  formation stops.
  X
  Y
  Subduction changes direction. 
  Now X subducts under Y.
  Subduction mountain 
  range forms
  Suturing and 
  Mountain Building
  
  14
   
  First, consider the giant proto-continent you formed from smashing your 
  current continents together. Consider placing mountains where two continental masses 
  collided in the imaginary proto-continent’s history. Also look at the intersections or 
  boundaries that later formed unique continents from the proto-continent. 20-40% of 
  these boundaries have mountain ranges associated with them. Many mountains form 
  a�er the proto-continent breaks up. For example, smaller continental plates calve off 
  the major plates, which then crash into a larger continental plate. Both the Alps and the 
  Himalayas formed in this manner.
   
  Now consider the continents’ current coastlines and decide which of them 
  have mountains due to oceanic plate subduction. Roughly 25-50% of all mountains are 
  associated with oceanic plate subduction. To give a familiar flavor from Earth, try to 
  place your subduction mountains north to south. The two major subduction mountains 
  on Earth (Rockies and Andes) run north to south.
   
  The remaining mountains formed in proto-continent period are more difficult 
  to place. Older mountains, like the Appalachians, o�en result from complex series of 
  collisions, subductions, and accretions. Older mountains may be placed just about 
  anywhere on the map, and their placement goes hand-in-hand with the placement of 
  upli� or volcanic mountains. A godling must rely upon his good sense when placing 
  the remaining mountains. Again, mountains compose about 11% of the continental 
  surface.
   
  The final thing to consider when mapping mountains is their height. Which 
  mountain ranges are rocky, tall, and forbidding, and which mountain ranges are 
  rounded, shorter, and more passable? Mountains that are currently growing due to 
  oceanic subduction or continental suturing are rocky and tall, becoming less so as 
  they age. The mountains that are not growing may be rocky and tall or rounded and 
  low, though only the oldest mountains, whose growth stopped prior to the break up 
  of a proto-continent, become rounded. Mountains created by volcanism are usually 
  rounded and shorter, regardless of their age. It’s also not unusual for a mountain range 
  to undergo several different phases of mountain growth, like the Andes. The Andes 
  are rather old mountains, some parts six times as old as the Alps, but they look “brand 
  new” due to current growth from oceanic subduction.
   
  To use more examples from Earth, the Alps are older than the Himalayas, yet 
  both ranges are rough and rugged, although the Himalayas are much more so. The 
  Appalachians are very old, and they show their age. Incidentally, the Appalachians 
  experienced various mountain-building periods similar to the Andes, but it has been a 
  very long time since the last of the series of mountain-building episodes occurred in the 
  Appalachians, which accounts for its aging appearance.
  Step Three: Example
   
  I’ve filled in the mountains on the map. Mountain ranges A and D are formed 
  by the collision of continents A and D. Range B results from continent A and B spli�ing 
  as well as from subduction. When a ri� occurs, one plate usually goes off in one direct 
  and the other continues its path. This o�en creates a new subduction zone since one of 
  the two plates isn’t moving exactly along with the ri�’s movement. Mountain range C is 
  pure subduction while mountain range E is a mixture of separation and collision. The 
  split of continent E and D formed the north-south part, and the east-west part is from a 
  plate that separated from E and then returned again. Range BE is subduction created.
   
  But I’m jumping ahead of myself here. What I really did was put down the 
  mountains where I thought they looked good, where they pleased my eye a�er looking 
  at atlases for a long time. I came up with how they were formed a�er I already put them 
  on the map. This is the great freedom of trusting your eye when placing mountains. If 
  you look at atlases, find their pa�erns, and mimic them somewhat, the reasons for your 
  mountains’ existence become almost self-explanatory.
  
  15
  Step Four: Islands and Archipelagoes
   
  Islands play integral parts in every world, teeming with exotic locals, expensive 
  spices, treacherous misty rocks, and unique flora and fauna. Islands come in different 
  sizes. Some are practically continents in and of themselves, while others are nothing 
  more than the eroding tops of volcanoes that managed to break the water’s surface. 
  Islands Connected to Continents
   
  Larger islands are commonly caused by variations in sea level. These islands 
  are actually part of a large continental plate, but they appear to be separate due to the 
  current water level. The UK islands are a great example. They are on the same plate with 
  the rest of northern Europe, but they are separated by water due to the current ocean 
  level. Should water levels drop, as in the last Ice Age, a land bridge forms between 
  England and France. Another good example is some of the islands off the Southeast 
  Asian coast. To place this type of island in your world, slightly expand the continents in 
  certain areas and create islands by inserting a shallow causeway or sea between them 
  and the main continent.
  Islands Formed By Ri�ing
   
  Some of the largest islands are small sections that broke off larger continental 
  landmasses, forming their own plate. The distance between islands on ri�ed plates and 
  their parent continent indicate how old they are, the oldest islands farther away from 
  their parent continent. Madagascar and Greenland are good examples of islands that 
  were once part of a continental landmass. Another good example is the Indian Sub-
  Continent. At one time it was an island calved off of Africa, which collided with Asia, 
  building the Himalayas. Place these islands by cleaving off part of a continent and dri� 
  the plate away from its parent continent, the oldest ri�ed islands traveling the farthest 
  from their parent continent. Ri�ed islands cannot travel over oceanic subduction 
  zones to get to their present location. Occasionally islands migrate long distances to 
  eventually accrete into new continents and form mountains, and such ri�ed islands 
  may have subduction zones between them and their new continents in the period 
  before they accrete. In general, the farther an island dri�s from their parent island, the 
  more unique their flora and fauna, but this is be�er addressed in the ecology section of 
  this work.
  Islands Formed by Volcanic Activity
   
  Volcanic activity is responsible for the majority of the islands, either at 
  subduction zones or hotspots. At subduction zones, where an oceanic plate is 
  subducting under a continental plate or another oceanic plate, volcanic activity o�en 
  creates a string of islands. These island chains and their volcanoes usually curve due 
  to the spherical nature of planets. Just as pressure applied to a ball creates a rounded 
  dimple, the pressure of colliding plates on a spherical planet results in curved 
  subduction zones, volcanoes, and islands. To place this type of island, look for areas 
  where subduction occurs, especially around oceanic trenches, where two oceanic plates 
  collide. Continental plates o�en extend out into the ocean, sometimes hundreds of 
  miles. When islands form in the subduction zone of extended continental plates and 
  oceanic plates, the island chains also curve. Many great island chains form this way on 
  Earth; Japan, the Philippines, the Aleutians, the Caribbean islands, New Zealand, and 
  most of Indonesia are creations of volcanic activity in subduction zones.
   
  Volcanic activity in oceanic hot spots also create islands, though must smaller 
  in scope. Most hot spot islands and island chains are less than 100 miles in diameter, 
  usually around 20 miles in diameter. Since hot spots are stationary and oceanic plates 
  are not, island chains form as volcanoes go through active and dormant stages while 
  
  16
  the island’s plate moves over the hot spot. Hawaii is an 
  excellent example: as the oceanic plate moves, the 
  hot spot remains stationary, creating the islands 
  in sequence. The oldest Hawaiian island is 
  Kauai (5.6 million years), and the youngest 
  is Hawaii proper (less than 1 million years). 
  The youngest island tends to be the largest, 
  while older islands are usually smaller. 
  Since most are formed by volcanic 
  activity, oceanic islands tend to be rather 
  mountainous. The newest islands are 
  the rockiest, while older ones are less 
  rocky. 
   
  Hot spots are places where the 
  crust is thinner, allowing the magma 
  to escape to the surface. Oceanic 
  island-forming hot spots are easy to 
  locate because no one is certain why 
  they form in the first place. Simply put 
  them where you like. I recommend 
  placing hot spot islands, like Hawaii, 
  at serendipitously convenient places 
  for ship travel. Nothing quite beats 
  the excitement of a long voyage by ship 
  to a strange new island. Unlike Hawaii 
  however, the majority of hot spot islands 
  form in more volcanically active areas 
  closer to subduction zones.
   
  Hot spots also occur on continental 
  plates, though 75% of Earth’s 40+ hot spots 
  are oceanic. Yellowstone is an example of 
  continental hot spots, where they create surreal 
  landscapes full of geysers, hot mud pits, and 
  volcanoes. Again, wonderful places for adventure.
   
  Archipelagoes
   
  Archipelagoes are collections of islands that extend from larger bodies of land. 
  The term applies to both massive collections of islands, such as the western portion 
  of Indonesia, as well as long extensions of smaller islands, such as the Aleutians. 
  Archipelagoes are usually island chains resulting from volcanic activity in subduction 
  zones, although a few are the result of sea level variation. Really large collections of 
  islands are the result of several subduction zones in close proximity to each other. For 
  example, volcanic activity from three major subduction zones formed the thousands 
  of islands that constitute the Indonesian islands. They are usually mountainous since 
  most archipelagoes are created through volcanic activity in subduction zones.
  Plates
   
  Though we have been discussing tectonic plates and their role in mountain 
  and island formation, it is far easier to put the plates in a�er placing major mountains, 
  islands, and archipelagoes in your world. Remember that your responsibility is mapping 
  the world in its current time. All geologic history may be retro-engineered. First place 
  subduction zones on the map beside the mountains, islands, and archipelagoes they 
  created. 
  Island Worlds
   Though 
  a 
  popular 
  idea 
  among 
  godlings, 
  a 
  world 
  consisting 
  entirely 
  of 
  islands 
  is extremely difficult to achieve 
  without great expenditures of magic. 
  The majority of continental landmass 
  is felsic rock, so light that once it is 
  extruded from the earth, it strongly resists 
  subduction. On the other hand, oceanic 
  crust is made from dense mafic rock, which 
  is why oceanic crusts usually subduct under 
  continental rock. Felsic rock’s lesser density 
  results in continental landmasses because 
  extruded felsic rock stays on the outside of 
  the crust.
   Though this process makes justifying 
  archipelago worlds more difficult, here are 
  a few non-magical suggestions. Perhaps the 
  world is very young, and all the felsic rock 
  has yet to surface and form large continents. 
  Perhaps only the known world is an 
  archipelago. For example, thousands of 
  miles filled with islands form where two 
  or three oceanic plates meet in the middle 
  of a large ocean, and their inhabitants 
  do not know of the outside world. 
  How the intelligent creatures got 
  there, and how they forgot about 
  the world they came from is at 
  your discretion, but such is the 
  art of composing great 
  creations.
  
  17
   
  Then identify the areas where upwelling magma forms new crustal material 
  and drives two plates apart or splits one plate apart. This ri�ing creates ridges as two 
  parallel mountainous lines form on either side of the new crust. Most of the ridges on 
  a planet are oceanic (roughly 90%), though continental ri�ing is responsible for forcing 
  the continents apart. Continental ri� valleys widen and eventually fill up with water, 
  creating separate independent continents. As new material expands a ri� valley, plates 
  move away from the ridges. Place major ridges in the ocean, usually where subduction 
  zones occur on both sides of the ri�. In the Pacific Ocean, the ridge pushes new oceanic 
  plate material into subduction zones all around the ocean, creating the Andes, Japan, 
  and the Aleutians.
   
  Oceanic plates moving away from ri� valleys do not always subduct under 
  another plate. Sometimes they travel together in the same direction. For example, 
  the growing Mid-Atlantic ridge pushes both American continents west and Africa 
  northeast, but no mountains are forming along the east coast of South America and the 
  west coast of Africa because those continental plates are traveling in the same direction 
  as the oceanic plate. In some cases, oceanic and continental plates slip alongside each 
  other when moving in a similar direction. This creates great slip faults like the San 
  Andreas Fault and produces a lot of earthquake activity. Oceanic ridges are not as 
  important as other plate activity, but they cement what is going on tectonically on a 
  new world and point out areas that experience a significant number of earthquakes.
  Step Four: Example
   
  I’ve determined the basic (very basic) plate structure of my world. There’s a 
  large ri� (oceanic ridge) between continents BE and CD. This follows along with how 
  they fit in the pangea stage. There’s also a ridge between A and B for pre�y much the 
  same reason. The subduction zone off B’s peninsula is where the oceanic crust (created 
  at the ri�) is pushed under B’s continental plate. This means that mountain range A 
  formed both by ri�ing as well as subduction. I’ve also added the two subduction zones 
  that are creating mountain ranges BE and C. This could mean that at one time continents 
  B and E were separated and the subduction zone linked them together through its 
  mountain building, but it doesn’t have to. I’ve also included a small oceanic subduction 
  zone offshore of E. This is where the ridge is subducted under the continental shelf of 
  E (which extends under the water). I’ve only placed one slip plate in the ocean between 
  continents AB and E. I’ve also indicated the suturing on continent E where its calved 
  island is crashing back and the suturing between continents D and A where they’re 
  coming together.
   
  With this in mind, placing islands on the map is fairly simple. The large 
  peninsula on B gains an archipelago, and islands form over the subduction zone 
  offshore of E. More islands form along the slip plate. I’ve also placed some continentally 
  connected islands (like England) and a few hotspot islands (like Hawaii). This gives you 
  rough guidelines when you actually place your islands in creation. Namely, this lets 
  me know where to put larger islands and why they are there. A more thorough look at 
  plate structures would also provide more islands, but I’m only summarily addressing 
  the plate details.
  
  18
  Mapping your World~ Steps 1 & 2
  A
  B
  C
  D
  E
  
  19
  Mapping your World~ Step 3
  A
  B
  C
  D
  E
  
  20
  Mapping your World~ Step 4
  A
  B
  C
  D
  E
  
  21
  Interlude
   
  Kierian threw down his pencil and ran his hand through his hair. The 
  prim gnome raised his brow and cast an inquiring look from behind worn lenses. 
  “Come across a snag?” Noj asked continuing his work.
   
  “I don’t understand,” Kierian stated simply.
   
  “Your intellect is more than adequate for the task at hand.” The quill 
  scratched the parchment, cutting deep and filling the wound with ink. 
  “Perhaps you should try looking at the map upside down. A new perspective does 
  wonders…”
   
  The godling pushed away from the desk with unexpected force. “No, I 
  understand the map,” he answered indignantly. The gnome lowered his quill 
  and raised his head. Silence reigned. Noj waited for a satisfactory explanation 
  while Kierian grasped for words.
   
  “I’m a god, right?”
   
  “Yes and no,” the gnome answered forthright. “You have a sort of divinity 
  with the potential powers of a god without the actual authority of the gods.”
   
  Kierian’s head nodded ambivalently. “Ok, so I’m not a full-
  functioning god yet, but I’ve definitely got more abilities than 
  a mortal.” A point Noj readily corroborated with a 
  nod. 
   
  “Then why can’t I just make it up? Why 
  do I need all this?” Kierian spread his arm 
  across his packed desk. “Pens, inks, paper, 
  rulers, t-squares, balances, and this circular 
  thing.”
   
  “It’s called a compass,” Noj injected.
   
  “I don’t care what it’s called. I’m not 
  using it,” decreed Kierian.
   
  Noj removed his spectacles with a 
  serious countenance. “It’s not a matter of 
  ‘can’ and ‘cannot.’ It’s a matter of ‘should’ 
  and ‘should not.’ If you want to put a river 
  there, fine. But it’s not consistent with the 
  remainder of your map.” He pulled a pointer 
  from his waistcoat. “This should be the dry 
  side of the mountain. Sustaining a river there 
  will be a constant drain on your magical 
  resources. As for the accoutrements of the 
  
  22
  trade,” he returned his spectacles on the crook of his knobby nose, 
  “methodical planning before creation is advisable for someone of 
  your inexperience.” Noj stared down through his small circular 
  lenses. “There is little more horrific than creation gone awry.”
   
  Kierian’s shoulders rolled forward under the austere gaze, 
  collapsing his otherwise proud, taut frame. He couldn’t name the 
  weariness that overcame him. He had ample rest and sustenance 
  and hardly lifted his sword, yet he hadn’t felt so tired since that 
  forced march through the Okepa Swamp. He needed distraction. 
  Only nothing here was real. The dapper gnome was the closest 
  thing to company, and his interest lie in writing, maps, and 
  machines. The godling took a pencil in hand, twisting it between 
  his fingers.
   
  “How many worlds have you built with godlings?”
   
  “One hundred seventy-two. Only in the service of three 
  godings have unsatisfactory worlds been created.” Noj looked 
  up from the adding machine. “And you’re not going to be the 
  fourth.”
   
  “What was your favorite world?” Kierian asked 
  nonchalantly, brushing aside Noj’s ramrod determination.
   
  The old gnome stared off into distant memories. “Each one 
  has its moments. There was Hawtho, created by Lilia Goddess of 
  Song, Bringer of Harmony, the Walking Grace, etc. It has the 
  loveliest waterfalls. And Xarkia has striking fjords. Grulok, God 
  of the Forge, created that world. Hasn’t done too much after the 
  task. I think he was relieved that his world was satisfactory and 
  didn’t want to attract anymore attention.” Noj chuckled to 
  himself. 
   
  The godling propped himself upon his left arm. “So does 
  everyone get a gnome? Or are you but one builder?”
   
  Noj looked up with utter surprise. “Didn’t you know? 
  Gnomes are the builders of worlds.” Noj nudged some tools in 
  Kierian’s direction. “It’s time to use the circular thing and set 
  environs down.”
   
  Kierian sighed. “It’s called a compass.”
  
  23
  Ecology
   
  All life depends upon the flow of energy. Energy only comes from a few 
  precious sources: the sun, geothermal energy, and magic. Of these, the vast majority 
  of a world’s energy comes from the sun, followed by magic, and then geothermal 
  sources. Each energy source has creatures that turn it into ma�er. Every bit of ma�er 
  has creatures that turn it back into energy. This is the grand cycle, and its complexity is 
  stunning.
   
  Though the sun radiates massive amounts of energy, life subsists on a small 
  percentage of all the heat and photochemical energy that hits the planet. Solar energy 
  is the primary driver in a planet’s ecosystem, mainly through warming the planet 
  unevenly. The discrepancy of heat creates weather and greatly affects photochemical 
  processes, which create energy used by plants in photosynthesis. Geothermal energy, 
  though orders of magnitude less than the sun, facilitates life in places where the sun 
  cannot reach, like underground or on the sea floor. Magic, on the other hand, flows 
  differently than either the sun’s or the earth’s energy.
   
  Magic is the greatest force in the multiverse, and the only thing comparable to its 
  pervasiveness is light. Light is everywhere in the universe, and only within solid bodies 
  is light excluded. Unlike light, magic permeates everything. It is a critical building block 
  of the multiverse, and even nothingness’ main component is magic. Even vacuums are 
  made of magic. Although everything is made with some magic components, magic, as 
  the ability to use powers or spells to alter reality, isn’t available everywhere. Some places 
  have very low levels of magic, in which the typical functioning of magic can’t occur. But 
  even these places have some magic, just infinitesimally small amounts. Unlike other 
  planetary energy sources, magic is alive and sentient with a will of its own. Magic is the 
  body of a massive entity, and the rest of existence depends on it functioning properly. It 
  is almost as if the multiverse is some sort of parasite on 
  a giant magical creature.
   
  Magical energy permeates everything on a 
  planet, but it is not a static force. Unlike ma�er, 
  which always seeks an even distribution 
  state (entropy), magic always seeks an 
  uneven distribution state. To think of it in 
  other terms, ma�er is by nature lawful 
  while magic is by nature chaotic, 
  although this is a hotly debated topic 
  among the gods. Magic is always 
  moving, either through ley lines or 
  magical topology, and it strongly 
  resists being chained to a single 
  place. It is this resistance to stability 
  that makes preparing arcane spells 
  so arduous and the production of 
  magical artifacts so draining. But 
  there is much to discuss before the 
  inner workings of magic.
  Life Roles
   
  All of this energy flowing 
  onto, into, and through a planet 
  is put to good use. Each energy 
  Cautionary Note
  For every magical planet, there 
  are dozens of non-magical ones (like 
  our base planet), yet the multiverse 
  demands certain constants. Despite the 
  discrepancy of available magical resources, 
  basic catalytic processes (like adaption, 
  natural selection, and evolution) shape life 
  on the most magical planes and even affect 
  how life interacts with the body magic. Though 
  some gladly expend vast amounts of magic to 
  see the world of their imagination, remember 
  that every action has an equal and opposite 
  reaction, even with the body magic. Our reach 
  and power are orders of magnitude greater than 
  mortal magic practitioners, and we are capable 
  of creating greater magical reactions upon 
  ourselves. As gods we must always be aware 
  of the magic budget in the material plane, build 
  our worlds with as li�le magic necessary for 
  its survival, and learn to always ration our 
  power. In a sense, even gods must adapt to 
  their environments or die.
  
  24
  source is consumed/used by organisms (most very small) that turn it into ma�er. Other 
  organisms eat the original organisms, creating food chains and food webs. But before 
  embarking on food webs and chains, we must look closely at the different life roles that 
  cycle the energy on a planet.
   
  All life can be classified into three basic groups: autotrophs (organisms that 
  produce organic material from inorganic chemicals and some source of energy), 
  heterotrophs (organisms that require a supply of organic ma�er or food from the 
  environment), or magiotrophs (organisms that can produce organic material from 
  magical energy alone). Autotrophs form the basic building block for life on any planet. 
  They take inorganic chemicals and transform them into organic tissue via light, heat, 
  or other chemicals. Some examples of autotrophs are photosynthetic bacteria above 
  ground, most plants above ground, and chemosynthetic bacteria at hydrothermal vents 
  or underground. Heterotrophs are the organisms most creatures are familiar with like 
  frogs, cows, lions, fish, and birds. The vast majority of mobile, multi-celled creatures 
  are heterotrophs.  Magiotrophs are very similar to autotrophs except they don’t require 
  anything but magic to create organic material. Most magiotrophs are magiotrophic 
  bacteria, although there are some larger creatures that survive solely on magic, such 
  as the feared disenchanter. Some creatures cross these groups combining various 
  feeding aspects. Carnivorous plants are both autotrophic and heterotrophic since they 
  cannot live without either energy source, and many creatures are mixtures involving 
  magiotrophic behavior. On magical worlds, almost all creatures use some amount of 
  magic as “free energy” to build tissue. Those creatures that don’t utilize magic as an 
  energy source usually have a selective disadvantage, although in some worlds or in 
  magical deserts they have a selective advantage.
   
  We can further divide the heterotrophic group in feeding pa�erns. Biophages 
  (organisms utilizing living material for the majority of their energy), saprophages 
  (organisms utilizing dead material for the majority of their energy), and magiophages 
  (organisms utilizing magic material for the majority of their energy) all occupy the 
  heterotrophic group. For all practical purposes, there are few magiophages that cannot 
  be treated as biophages or saprophages because they gain access to magic stored in 
  tissue similar to how biophages and saprophages gain access to energy from more 
  traditional sources. In other words, most magiophages eat living or dead tissue, and 
  they simply draw the majority of their sustenance from the magic in the tissue as 
  opposed to the tissue itself. However, there are some creatures, like the disenchanter 
  and many undead (or any vitaevorous or psionivorous creature, for that ma�er) that 
  don’t mimic biophages or saprophages.
  Food Chains and Food Webs
   
  There are two food chain systems on every planet: the grazing food chain 
  and the detrital (decomposition) food chain. Autotrophs and magiotrophs form 
  the foundation of every food chain because they’re the creatures that don’t require 
  organic material to create life. Contrary to appearances, the detrital chain has the most 
  energy going through it at any one time. Only deep-water aquatic systems (with their 
  characteristic low biomass, rapid turnover of organisms, and high rate of harvest) have 
  more energy flowing through the grazing chain. But if you’re a gnome or a halfling, you 
  may not be so surprised being intimate with the vast amount of life contained in the soil 
  and its detritus, or so I’ve been informed.
   
  The grazing food chain is most easily observed. Deer in the forest, rabbits 
  nibbling on le�uce, insects eating everything green, ca�le ruminating on grass, and 
  gorgons in their rocky lairs all represent basic consumer groups of the grazing food 
  chain. Only a small percentage of an environment’s net primary production is used by 
  herbivores: only 2.6% in poplar forests, while 30-50% on heavily grazed grasslands. 
  Below ground herbivores like nematodes, scarab beetles, and ground beetles account 
  for the vast majority of herbivorous assimilation.
  
  25
   
  The detrital food chain is the major pathway of energy flow because grazers 
  utilize so li�le of the net production. Millipedes, snails, mushrooms, cave crickets, 
  maggots, slugs and most of the oozes (although some can be quite predatory) are all 
  examples of detrital chain organisms. They play an important, if somewhat disgusting, 
  role in the maintenance of a healthy ecosystem. Everything that’s not eaten by 
  herbivorous grazers eventually ends up as fodder in the detrital chain. We’re all food 
  for the worms.
   
  The detrital chain is based upon decomposition, the reduction of energy-rich 
  organic material by consumers (generally detritivores and decomposers). Whereas 
  photosynthesis and magiosynthesis involve the incorporation of solar energy or 
  magical energy into organic ma�er, decomposition involves the loss of heat energy and 
  the conversion of organic nutrients into inorganic ones. To test this theory, just go to a 
  farmer’s compost heap and stick your hand in. You’ll find that the inside of the heap is 
  quiet warm because of all the heat lost through decomposition. Decomposition includes 
  many processes: the leaching of soluble compounds from dead organic material, 
  fragmentation, bacterial and fugal breakdown, consumption of bacterial and fungal 
  organisms by animals, excretion of organic and inorganic compounds by organisms, 
  and the clustering of colloidal organic ma�er into larger particles. Every non-magical 
  animal is involved with decomposition, as its waste products are primary source 
  material.
   
  These two chains are easily represented thusly. The grazing chain is light/magic 
  > autrotrophs/magiotrophs > herbivores > carnivores > top carnivores. The detrital chain 
  is detritus/magic > microsaprophages/magiotrophs > microbial grazers > microbial 
  predators> top detrital predators. There are many other relationships occurring at the 
  same time that cannot be explained simply, but be�er seen pictorially.
   
  But most relationships in nature are not simple, straight-line food chains. 
  Numerous food chains interlink into complex food webs, with all links leading from 
  producers through an array of primary and secondary consumers. Interestingly 
  enough, food webs (once unraveled) rarely exceed four links because every new layer 
  adds another level of energy transfer inefficiency. Highly productive ecosystems rarely 
  support more links, termed trophic levels. They usually support more species and have 
  more complex webs instead of longer ones. The few land-based ecosystems that exceed 
  four links usually stress magic as a primary energy source. Food webs are usually 
  shorter in fluctuating environments (temperature, moisture, salinity) and longer 
  in environments that have more stable conditions. Highly stratified environments, 
  like forests or pelagic water columns, have longer food webs than poorly stratified 
  environments, like grassland, tundra, and stream bo�oms. The widest food webs (those 
  with the greatest number of herbivores) tend to be the shortest while narrow food webs 
  have the greatest fraction of top carnivores. More complex food webs are actually less 
  stable than shorter ones and are easiest to disrupt. Generalist species most easily invade 
  simple food webs while specialists, capable of exploiting a restricted source of energy, 
  are best able to invade a complex food web.
   
  One would think that omnivores (those who can eat both meat and plant) 
  would dominate food chains, but the reality is quite different. Although an excellent 
  survival mechanism, omnivores tend to be generalists and hence, cannot digest either 
  meat or plants to the efficiency of true carnivores or herbivores. This means omnivores 
  are not highly prevalent in food chains dominated by larger creatures. Most omnivores 
  can only feed on adjacent trophic levels, but detritivores, insects, and their predators 
  and parasitoids can o�en feed on non-adjacent trophic levels.
   
  Predators may overlap in their exploitation of prey species. Many predators 
  feed upon mice, for example. Top predators may feed on a number of species, or they 
  may concentrate on a few particular species found on trophic levels right below them. 
  In general, the more species of prey an animal exploits, the fewer predators it faces. This 
  isn’t a truism, but it helps indicate a creature’s general trophic level in its environment.
  
  26
   
  Food web invasion o�en has serious disruptive consequences for the web. 
  Introducing a new predator can result in a simplification of the food web; should a 
  new predator out-compete existing predators, the food web becomes less complex. 
  Removing a key predator can have just as disastrous effects. Usually the trophic level 
  just under the predator (the trophic level where most of its prey resides) experiences 
  a population increase. This increased population eats like mad, depleting prey on the 
  trophic level under them. Sometimes the effects are so drastic that starvation hits the 
  increased population (who’s missing one of its prime predators), which affects any 
  other predators that eat them as well.
  Predation
   
  Predation occurs when one organism feeds on another, and the prey dies 
  because of this feeding. Predation is more than a simple exchange of energy; it’s a 
  complex relationship between two or more species. Predators cannot survive when 
  their prey population is too low, and prey cannot survive when predation is too high. 
  Nature regulates the process where most predator and prey populations oscillate 
  within accepted norms through the use of starvation.
  Food Chain
  Detritus,
  Feces
  Microsaprophagous
  primary decomposers
  Macrosaprophagous
  primary decomposers
  Microbial grazers
  Micropredators
  Grazing Food Chain
  Detrital Food Chain
  Solar radiation
  Autotrophs
  Herbivores
  Carnivores
  Top carnivores
  Heat
  
  27
   
  As the predator population increases, it consumes a progressively larger 
  portion of the prey population until the prey population begins to decline. This plentiful 
  amount of food influences the reproductive rate of the predator population until 
  the predator population eventually overshoots the availability of prey. The predator 
  population declines until reproduction of prey more than balances its loses through 
  predation. The prey population then increases, and the cycle begins again. In a balanced 
  predatory-prey relationship, the prey is never quite destroyed while the predator never 
  completely dies out. This is a simplification of the cycle, for it doesn’t take into account 
  genetic changes, stress, emigration, aggression, availability of cover, and difficulty of 
  locating prey as it becomes scarcer. But for our purposes, it is adequate.
   
  Predator-prey relationships are rarely singular. Most predators have a 
  variety of prey to shield them from the worst aspects of the predator-prey cycle. Most 
  predators also have seasonal prey depending upon what type of food is in abundance. 
  For example, bears eat berries (seed eating is predation), fish, or honey (not necessarily 
  predation unless the bear destroys the hive through his actions; if he doesn’t its 
  considered parasitism) in different ratio’s depending upon their seasonally varied 
  abundance. This is beneficial for prey as well, giving them a greater chance in survival 
  since they aren’t the primary food source until they are in abundance. Although these 
  multiple relationships are mostly beneficial, they do have their downsides. If one 
  predatory species is very successful, their success reduces the food supply for the other 
  predators that eat the same prey. This may exacerbate the predator-prey relationship 
  and make downturns harder on the other predators. These other predators, in turn, 
  take a larger amount of their other prey sources and influence more predators through 
  those actions. Again, it is another causal behavior chain that is hard to predict.
  Predator-Prey Systems: Herbivorous
   
  Plant predation (although more precisely “plant parasitism” because most 
  animals don’t actually kill the plant they eat) is the building block upon which 
  carnivorous predation stands. Plants transform water, nutrients and sunlight into edible 
  material throughout every world. Ca�le eating grass, squirrels eating nuts, caterpillars 
  eating leaves, and deer eating tender shoots are all common, everyday occurrences of 
  herbivorous behavior. Almost every plant 
  is subject to some sort of herbivory, and a 
  casual look shows its signs on leaves, bark, 
  or fruit.
   
  Although years of major insect 
  outbreaks 
  or 
  overabundance 
  in 
  some 
  herbivores 
  can 
  drastically 
  increase 
  consumption, herbivores generally consume 
  about 6%-10% of all plant biomass. Though 
  only a small percentage, small changes can 
  have big impacts. Any removal of tissue like 
  leaves, bark, stems, buds, roots, and even 
  sap, reduces a plant’s fitness level, though 
  it probably won’t kill the plant outright. 
  A fitness reduction places the plant at a 
  selective disadvantage to the other plants 
  around it and lowers a plant’s reproduction 
  capability. This reduction in fitness especially 
  impacts juvenile plants as they are already 
  at a selective disadvantage against mature 
  plants.
  Prey
  Predator
  Time
   Population
  Prey
  Predator
  Prey
  Prey
  Predator
  Predator
  Predator
  Prey
  Predation Cycle
  
  28
   
  Trees usually compensate for this predation by increasing photosynthetic 
  efforts in remaining leaves, but young, new leaves are particularly vulnerable. Since 
  it takes more energy to make new leaves than they initially produce, leaves are a net 
  loss to a plant until they fully develop. Once leaves fully develop, they pay back this 
  deficiency and eventually become net producers of energy. When young leaves are 
  predated, the total loss to a plant is greater than when an old leaf is predated. Most 
  trees respond to defoliation with a flush of new growth (this is why gardeners prune) 
  that drains resources otherwise directed toward growth or reproduction. Flush new 
  growth a�er defoliation also draws from the tree’s chemical reserves, which o�en 
  exposes roots to fungi while the plant concentrates on its canopy. Severe defoliation and 
  subsequent regrowth alters trees physiologically. Growth regulators become off kilter 
  as they encourage a tree to bud at the wrong times, resulting in late-forming leaves. 
  This weakens the plant to disease and insect a�acks the following year.
   
  Grasses have a different response to grazing. Unlike trees, grasses are low to the 
  ground, protecting young tissue from grazers. Only the older tissue can be consumed 
  by herbivores. Grazing stimulates production through the elimination of older tissue 
  that is less photosynthetic than younger tissue. Some grasses can only maintain their 
  fitness under grazing, and some dominant species disappear in the absence of grazing.
   
  But the herbivorous predator-prey relationship also affects the predator. Plants, 
  though seemingly passive, play a big role in the fitness of herbivores. For herbivores 
  the quantity of food is usually not a problem, but the quality of food is. The complex 
  digestive process needed to break down plant tissue and convert it to animal tissue 
  requires high-quality forage rich in nitrogen. If there isn’t enough nitrogen in the 
  vegetation, an herbivore can starve to death on a full stomach. Unfortunately, most food 
  is low-quality food, and plants make predation more difficult by developing various 
  natural defenses.
   
  There are two broad categories of plant defensive behavior. One category is 
  large, long-lived, woody plants whose main defense is sheer mass. This defense takes a 
  long time to develop and a great amount of energy. Massive-size plants also have slower 
  defenses; for example, oak trees defoliated by gypsy moths don’t increase the phenolic 
  and tannin content of their leaves until a year later. The other category is shorter-lived 
  plants that possess secondary substances that interfere with herbivorous metabolism, 
  such as toxic proteins like lectins and protease inhibitors, alkaloids, cyanogenic 
  glycosides, cyanolipds, digestive-inhibiting polyphenols, terpenes, 
  tannins, and resins. Plants react to predation by shu�ling their 
  defensive substances to where they’re needed. These substances 
  are usually poisonous to the plant. Sometimes they are 
  stored within cells and only released when the cells are 
  broken; other times they are stored and secreted by 
  epidermal glands and function as a contact poison. 
  Production and storage of these substances are a 
  trade-off for plants, since that energy is not spent 
  toward growth and reproduction. Development 
  of toxic defenses indicates a history of greater 
  predation upon the plants, regardless 
  of their current predation rates. But 
  even with these quick defenses a 
  few herbivores (notably insects) have 
  developed methods to detoxify and 
  digest these plants. Some predators 
  even store the plant’s poisons and use 
  them in their own defenses.
  
  29
  Predator-Prey Systems: Carnivorous
   
  Carnivorous 
  predator-prey 
  relationships 
  differ 
  from herbivorous predator-prey relationships in one 
  key manner: carnivores predate high-quality food, 
  but usually don’t have the required quantity. This 
  dictates a different relationship between eater and 
  eaten. Herbivory supports carnivory, therefore 
  fitness of carnivores depend upon their ability to 
  capture prey, while (at the same time) their prey 
  must be fit enough to overcome plant defenses. In 
  order to survive, herbivores must adapt to these 
  pressures coming from multiple angles. But one 
  thing should be stressed: carnivorous predator-
  prey relationships exist between carnivores just 
  as much as they exist between carnivores and 
  herbivores. Many carnivores prey on smaller 
  carnivores.
   
  More 
  than 
  herbivorous 
  predation, 
  the 
  relationship between carnivorous predator and 
  prey is strongly influenced by the prey’s defenses 
  and the ability of the predator to overcome them. 
  Prey develops an impressive array of defenses in 
  order to make the predator’s task as unsuccessful as 
  possible. Some species have developed pheromones 
  to induce fright reactions in the other members of 
  their population and even in members of closely 
  related species. Arthropods, amphibians, and snakes 
  employ odorous secretions to repel predators. Many 
  arthropods possess toxic secondary substances taken 
  from the plants they eat and stored in their own body 
  while other arthropods, venomous snakes, frogs, and 
  toads synthesize their own poisons. But prey develops 
  more than just these defenses. Many creatures have developed 
  camouflage defenses and cryptic coloration designed to hide from predators. Others 
  use coloration, pa�erns, shapes, postures, movements and other behaviors that 
  prevent detection. Flashing coloration, like extremely visible color patches or even 
  bioluminescence, distract and disorient predators. Warning coloration, like the yellow 
  and black coloration found in many bees and wasps, and mimicry indicates that the 
  animal possesses some dangerous property such as a highly toxic poison or some other 
  chemical defense. But these defenses rely upon some sort of initial experience with 
  the prey to create an association between the color and some sort of unpleasantness. 
  Other animals develop armor as their primary defense. Turtles, armadillos, clams, and 
  many insects (mostly beetles) withdraw into their armor coat or shells when danger 
  approaches. Another type of armor is more aggressive, but just as effective. Quills, like 
  those found on hedgehogs, echidnas, and porcupines are modified hair follicles that 
  present difficulties for most predators.
   
  Behavioral factors have also provided a selective advantage to some species. 
  Alarm calls alert many different types of species to nearby danger. Some animals 
  employ mob tactics, either from a distance or by direct a�ack, to harass predators away 
  from young. Others find that living in groups provides the simplest form of defense. 
  The more they congregate, the less likely a predator a�acks and the less likely that any 
  one particular individual is lost through predation. Maintaining a tight, cohesive group 
  (like schools of fish), make it more difficult for a predator to be successful. A final method 
  Bunny Trouble
  A good example of 
  how predation effects 
  the development of prey 
  is the humble lagomorph. 
  These poor li�le bunnies 
  are so predated upon by so 
  many different species that 
  they have resorted to eating 
  their own feces as a survival 
  mechanism. The rabbit hops 
  out of its burrow, eats like mad, 
  and then jumps back into his 
  burrow as quickly as possible. 
  Safe in his lair, the bunny poops 
  his greenish “first-run” pellets. 
  These have passed through his 
  short digestive system once and 
  are partially broken down. The 
  rabbit then eats them again. 
  The 
  “second-run” 
  through 
  his digestive system absorbs 
  the remaining nutrients, and 
  eventually he deposits the dry 
  pellets outside the burrow. 
  This minimizes the amount 
  of time he has to spend 
  outside the safety of his 
  lair while maximizing the 
  amount of energy he 
  gets from his food.
  
  30
  of defense used against predators is an unusual one. Prey time their reproduction into 
  a very short frame and thereby create an environment where predators may simply 
  take as much as they want without seriously threatening reproduction of the species 
  because there is just too many prey. The predators become satiated in their feasting, 
  and a certain number of prey survive to continue their species. This is a particularly 
  common tactic for large ungulates, like the caribou.
   
  Although prey develop effective defensive tactics, predators evolve three 
  general behaviors that advance their hunting success: ambush, stalking, and pursuit. 
  Ambush hunting involves lying in wait for prey to happen by. Alligators, lizards, frogs, 
  and some insects typically use this method. Ambush hunting has a low success rate, 
  but it requires very li�le energy. Stalking, common for many cats of all sizes, is a slow 
  and deliberate process. The predator has a long search time but a minimal pursuit 
  time. Pursuit hunting is used when the predator knows the general location of the 
  prey. Pursuit time is long, however, so pursuit hunters expend more energy to capture 
  and handle prey. Birds of prey, lions, and wolves o�en use pursuit hunting. In tropical 
  climates, heat regulation o�en becomes a very important limiting factor for how long a 
  predator (and prey for that ma�er) can run. Predators also employ cryptic coloration to 
  blend in with their environment or break up their outlines. Some clever predators mimic 
  their prey. For example, female fireflies mimic the mating flashes of other firefly species 
  to a�ract males of that species. When they arrive, ready for some fun, they promptly kill 
  and eat the male. Poisons are also a common development (spiders, snakes, scorpions, 
  and shrews), and group a�acks (lions, wolves, hyenas) are particularly successful.
  Predator-Prey Systems: Magivorous
   
  Magivorous creatures feed on magic, and magical predator-prey relations 
  naturally develop in magical worlds. There are several different types of magivorous 
  creatures, and they o�en display other predatory traits such as herbivory or carnivory. 
  On many magical worlds, most simple creatures like deer or lions possess a bit of 
  magivorous digestive capability, which allows them to digest some of the magic 
  contained in the various tissues they consume, providing them with additional energy 
  to increase fitness. There are four basic types of magivory: divinivory, arcanivory, 
  vitaevory, and psionivory. Divinivorous creatures eat divine magic, arcanivorous 
  creatures eat arcane magic, vitaevorous creatures eat positive, “life-giving” magic, and 
  psionivorous creatures eat psionic or emotional energy. Many magivorous creatures 
  subsist on a mixture of arcane and divine magic, while the great magivorous predators 
  digest every type.
   
  Though the inner workings of magic are more thoroughly discussed later in 
  this chapter, we must say a few words here. Magivorous predators are rarely purely 
  magivorous. Magic isn’t nearly as strong a source of energy as sunlight, but it has its 
  advantages. Compared to sunlight, magic is more uniformly spread throughout an 
  entire planet (inside and out), and it provides a very important source of energy in places 
  where scarce sunlight or rain prevents mundane life. For large predator, surviving only 
  on magic is more difficult than surviving on traditional energy sources, although ley 
  lines may provide significant energy sources for even the largest creatures.
  Plays Well with Others
   
  Individual behavior varies wildly depending upon species, but the interactions 
  between organisms share a lot of common ground. The primary rule obeyed by almost 
  every creature is, “If it’s bigger than you, avoid it.” This applies to all types of animals 
  throughout all the various life roles. With only a few exceptions, herbivore, predator, 
  and detritivores all shy away from bigger creatures because things bigger than you 
  generally possess a greater threat simply due to their size. This primary rule o�en 
  extends to things of the same size, for even then caution is a worthy trait. Animals 
  
  31
  tend to use caution when dealing with multiple creatures. Several creatures of the 
  same type working together triggers the warning alarm for many creatures. Many 
  predators work in pack groups, and every creature moves out of the way when a herd 
  of herbivores stomps through. Most creatures (even predators) do not a�ack under 
  these circumstances unless they feel threatened or if they have young. The protection 
  instinct is very strong.
  Succession
   
  A�er a devastating war, grassy and non-woody plants seize the abandoned 
  cropland. It is followed by small shrubby growth, and then full-sized trees. Along with 
  the changing plants are their associated insects and animals. When a giant tree falls in 
  the forest, plants quickly claim the sunny plot of ground, prime real estate in the plant 
  world. As glaciers retreat and leave available unclaimed land, weeds and scrubs take 
  root while animals follow their preferred primary producers. The replacement of one 
  community of species with another over time is called succession, and succession is 
  constantly occurring.
   
  Succession is an interesting study. Take the fallen tree in the forest from above. 
  When it falls, say from a windstorm, it is a ready source of shelter and nutrients. The 
  first to exploit it is the bark and wood-boring insects that feed upon the inner bark and 
  cambium. This results in a lot of the bark falling off. Within the wood, beetles or ants 
  dig tunnels and gouge chambers to support their mushroom farms. The wood becomes 
  moister as decay proceeds, though the most accessible nutrients are already depleted, 
  leaving harder stuff behind. Fungi take over because they possess more complex 
  
  32
  cellulose-breaking enzymes. As fungi break down the wood more, plant seedlings 
  take root on the fallen tree. Their roots dig down into the tree, and through these paths 
  they carry more fungus into the heartwood. Eventually the tree’s broken down to so� 
  blocky pieces. At this point, the greatest number of species uses it as food and as shelter. 
  Finally, the tree’s nothing more than a red-brown, mulch-like substance incorporated 
  into the soil. More than likely, a seed from a nearby tree has already grown into a li�le 
  sapling from which (with time and luck) a replacement tree grows.
   
  While succession o�en happens on larger scales, such as areas covered with 
  lava a�er volcanic eruptions, focusing on a single tree shows the majority of the 
  processes involved even on the larger scale. Generally triggered by a drastic change in 
  the environment (like cleared forests, exposed land from glacial retreats, and hardened 
  lava), areas undergoing succession have large concentrations of specific species 
  dispersed throughout the area. Some species eat and reproduce rampantly, taking 
  advantage of the available resources. Many of these opportunistic species behave in 
  such a manner because once succession areas mature, the majority of their population 
  dies to competition and competitors with be�er fitness. On the other hand, only a few 
  must survive to take advantage of another succession zone, leap-frogging from one 
  suitable area to another. For example, weeds and grasses are the first things that sprout 
  a�er a catastrophic ecological event and nigh impossible to completely eradicate once 
  they’ve taken root.
  The Inner Workings of Magic
   
  The following information, as I’m certain your gnome has told you already, isn’t 
  for the eyes or ears of mortals. I’m certain you’ve heard the old saying, “Nature abhors a 
  vacuum.” Well that’s not true; most of nature is a vacuum. What nature really abhors is 
  the truth. You won’t be able to find it anywhere, and if you do, best be prepared for the 
  consequences. But enough with the cryptic mu�erings…
   
  Magic is a sentient creature. Like I mentioned earlier, the multiverse can be 
  viewed as a parasite upon the body magic. More accurately, most gods of magic believe 
  the multiverse has a non-obligatory mutualistic relationship with the body magic. They 
  speculate that both could survive without the other, but association with each other 
  increase their fitness: magic without the multiverse would be even more chaotic, while 
  the multiverse without magic would eventually achieve a state of completely even heat 
  distribution.
   
  Unsurprisingly, magic on a planetary scale is a complex thing. Magic works 
  very similarly to water in that it flows along the path of least resistance. It pools 
  anywhere, regardless of depth, height, or pressure. Unlike water, magic doesn’t usually 
  pool in vast quantities. It is rare to find a magic pool any bigger than a large pond. A 
  magic “stream” is called a ley line, and a magic “pond” is called a terminus. There isn’t 
  any relationship between the amount of magic flowing into a terminus and the size of a 
  terminus; some of the most powerful ley lines have small termini while weak ley lines 
  may have large ones. Ley lines are also unusually straight compared to most water 
  streams. Most ley lines are divinely aligned, and most termini are arcanely aligned, 
  though some ley lines and termini are aligned to both.
   
  Unfortunately for many mages, magic is a subtle energy, and magical topography 
  is characteristically more so. Magical topography takes no consideration of physical 
  situation, and it changes with incredible speed in comparison to physical topography. 
  There is no relationship between physical topography and subtle topography (what 
  spell casters call the magical topography). Subtle topography, as best explained to me, is 
  a giant system of tunnels permeating the entirety of a world, completely unaffected by 
  physical ma�er. I think of these tunnels as veins and arteries in three dimensions with 
  tiny li�le capillaries filling the entirely of the remaining space.
  
  33
  Magic Flows: Ley Lines and Termini
   
  Magic flows exist throughout every world. Some 
  worlds are so poor in magic that only a few, weak 
  flows exist, but the average world has hundreds, even 
  thousands, of flows differing in magnitude. There are 
  several basic types of flows classified according to 
  what the ley line does and what affect the terminus 
  has. All magic flows follow the lay of the subtle 
  topography.
   All magic flows along the general orientation 
  of the ley line, but ley lines don’t remain fixed 
  in one area for very long. In this ma�er they’re 
  similar to rivers, but at a vastly increased 
  period of change. These changes are, 
  however, somewhat predicable. Each magic 
  flow has a particular “flood plain” along 
  which it moves. Most flows oscillate in a 
  10 to 40 year period, moving five feet in a 
  single direction over the period of a single 
  year. Spellcasters hoping to capitalize on a 
  magic flow usually build strongholds that 
  span the entire flood plain area of the ley 
  line. For example, consider a powerful 
  flow traveling north south for ten miles. 
  Every year it moves 5 feet to the west or 
  the east, and every fi�een years it returns 
  to its original seat. The flood plain for 
  this flow moves approximately 75�, and 
  its period (the length of time from the 
  center, extreme west, extreme east, and 
  then back to the center point) is 30 years. 
  Ley lines also vary in width from year to 
  year. This change is more unpredictable 
  than the ley line’s period, but any ley 
  line rarely increases more than double or 
  decreased more than half of its original 
  size. The dynamic width of the ley line 
  alters the size of its flood plain.
   
  The most common magic flow is 
  the magic-rich ley line with a magic-rich 
  terminus. Magic richness increases casting 
  capabilities, but sometimes it comes at a 
  cost. The second most common flow is a 
  magic-rich ley line ending in a terminus 
  that is an elemental portal. The third most 
  common is a magic-rich ley line feeding a 
  null terminus, and the fourth most common 
  type of magic flow is a null ley line feeding 
  into a null terminus. The least common of the 
  classifiable flows is a null ley line feeding into a 
  multidimensional portal. These five flows make up 
  over 90% of all flows in most magical worlds. The 
  remaining flows are almost always unique and have 
  so far defied easy classification.
  Cycles
   
  Everything must 
  cycle; this is an integral 
  function of the multiverse. 
  Every part of a new world 
  must also cycle: water, air, 
  food, 
  energy, 
  tectonics, 
  and 
  even magic. Although infinitely 
  more complex than any cycle that’s 
  limited to a single planet, magic’s 
  cycle 
  extends 
  throughout 
  the 
  multiverse as a whole. Some places 
  have massive concentration levels 
  while others are practically devoid 
  of all magic. Whenever we create 
  something, we must place our new 
  creation somewhere in a cycle, whether 
  it is a new cycle all together or part of 
  a preexisting one. When placing living 
  organisms in your world, diversity is the 
  key to survival; create many independent 
  steps and possible paths to complete the 
  cycle.
   
  My initial world concept was a 
  flat world more like my homeland, rather 
  than the rotund base planet. Each cycle 
  starts and ends at an elemental plane. 
  Thus water that falls off the end of the 
  world heads back into the elemental plane 
  of water, while more water is created 
  from the same source at the center of the 
  world. Tectonics function in the same 
  manner; surface materials are added not 
  by heat convection from the depths of the 
  planet, but from the elemental plane of 
  earth. It also returns there at subduction 
  zones. Such could be done with all of the 
  elemental planes.
   
  Although this is a workable idea 
  for any planet, my gnome informed 
  me that it’s a li�le beyond what we’re 
  expected to create for the council. He 
  wouldn’t go into to much detail, but 
  he intimated that elemental-based 
  generative and destructive forces 
  require a finer sense of balance than 
  the cycles of our base planet. This 
  is understandable, given the need 
  for massive planar gates. One 
  also has to consider the effects 
  of the distributed material 
  on the elemental planes 
  themselves.
  
  34
   
  Magic-rich ley lines flow like life-giving rivers in the desert. Some ley lines are 
  small affairs narrow enough for a running halfling to breach, but most are a decent size. 
  Just like a real river, their effects reach out farther than their width, as concentrated 
  magic seeps into the surrounding air, soil, and rock. Some ley lines intensify any spell 
  cast within their area of effect, and some are powerful enough to damage anyone foolish 
  enough to cast within their range of effect. Magic-rich termini have similar effects, just 
  a different shape.
   
  Magic-rich ley lines feeding elemental portal termini have slightly different 
  characteristics; they tend to favor a particular type of magic as indicated by their portal. 
  They intensify aligned magic while diminishing the opposite element. Some elemental 
  portals are linked to the positive and negative energy sources as well. These two types 
  of elemental portals are the most rare, but also most powerful. Negative portals are the 
  source of many undead while positive portals are o�en holy sites. Of all magic flows 
  ending in an elemental terminus, only 10% of those end in negative or positive portals. 
  Most elemental gates are only medium-sized or smaller, though some are much larger. 
  Negative and positive termini don’t have actual gates (this would result in a massive 
  energy release as the pure positive or pure negative energy touches ma�er), rather 
  places where the shells between the planes are thinner.
   
  Magic-rich ley lines also feed into null termini. These magic flows are hard to 
  understand, but the gods of magic explain that most null termini aren’t really devoid 
  of magic, per se. Over 90% of null termini are actually magic-rich termini with an 
  overabundance of microscopic magiotrophs, happily eating a vast percentage of the 
  magic in the terminus. One would think that this would lead to a great population 
  crash, but it appears most microscopic magiotrophs self-regulate their population to 
  such a degree that the population is almost completely stable. In other words, just the 
  right amount of magic comes out to feed all the magiotrophs, and there’s nothing le� to 
  manipulate.
   
  These magic-rich but effectively null magic termini o�en have massive 
  amounts of vegetation and/or creatures tapping into the abnormally high numbers of 
  magiotrophs in the area. Magical energy feeding the magiotrophs pump large amounts 
  of additional energy to the ecosystem, which a�ract more exploiters. Magic-rich null 
  termini are very similar to oases in comparison to regular terrain. However, don’t try 
  to cast any spells, they won’t work. I wouldn’t spend too much time there either, unless 
  you’re willing to have your mind slowly stripped of its ability to manipulate magic. 
  Some null termini are simply places low in magic. The gods of magic believe these are 
  magical sinks where magic quickly drains elsewhere, leaving behind an area of null 
  magic. Beware of these places as well if you use magic.
   
  Null ley lines feeding into null termini share some characteristics with the 
  above magic flow. Some are places where magiotrophes feed in fast numbers, and these 
  flows teem with subsequent flourishing of life, but the majority are magical sinks. Sinks 
  are places where magic is being shunt elsewhere usually via a time manipulation done 
  by the body magic. I don’t understand the particulars (although my gnome was pleased 
  to explain them to me – at length), but the particulars aren’t important to the broad scale 
  at this point. For what it’s worth, the magic isn’t “missing” at these sinks; it’s simply 
  “somewhere else right now.”
   
  The last of the common magic flows are null ley lines that feed into 
  multidimensional portals.  These compose only a small percentage of all magic flows, 
  and powerful creatures usually guard them jealously. The portal is typically large-
  sized and o�en bigger. The gods believe null ley lines feeding into portals power the 
  connection between two planes. Were the null ley line cease to connect with the portal, 
  the portal would cease to exist. A very few (0.1%) of these portals can be controlled 
  and ordered to link to any plane their master wishes. Needless to say, you had best be 
  prepared if you plan on owning or controlling one of these magic flows.
  
  35
   
  The remaining 10% of magic flows are non-classifiable as they are, in essence, 
  unique to their environment. This means that out of the thousand or so magic flows 
  on any magical planet, around one hundred will be different than the five types listed 
  above. I recommend the library to give you additional ideas about these magic flows.
   
  Magical Metabolisms
   
  Magic on a planetary scale affects every creature’s diet and behavior. Almost 
  every living organism on magical planets possesses some manner of magical or 
  magically-aided digestion. This is not unusual as everything in a creature’s environment 
  exerts influence upon the creature. It also presents us with a very useful classification 
  system: creatures that can exist without magic and those that cannot. Some creatures 
  live almost exclusively on traditional sources of energy, but still require the digestion 
  of magic for survival. Some merely require magic and die of starvation when deprived 
  of adequate magic. Others are unable to perform some magical act through which 
  they captured their prey. Every organism that requires magic for its survival is termed 
  magically dependent.
   
  Magic is a force that fuels life. Magiotrophs “eat” magic and turn it into 
  physical tissue, but this tissue is not the same as non-magically formed tissue. Tissue 
  created through photosynthesis and chemosynthesis leaves no trace of its origin. 
  Magical tissue, however, retains the same amount of magic is spent in tissue creation. 
  This is what the gods of magic call the law of conservation of magic. Magic can never 
  really be “digested,” it is merely used in one form or another. This magically infused 
  tissue travels up the food web, becoming more concentrated at higher trophic levels. By 
  the time an apex predator eats magically infused tissue, the tissue itself almost detects 
  as magic.
   
  Magically dependent creatures use ambient magic in their food to fuel their 
  supernatural abilities or to support a physical structure that is counter to the laws of 
  physics. Without the presence of magic in their food, they would die; storm giants are a 
  good example. The typical storm giant is either a hunter/gatherer or an agriculturalist. 
  The staple of their diet is magic-heavy vegetation farmed from any number of wild 
  highly magical fungi. With hunting, they supplement their diet with top-level predators, 
  who have the most concentrated magic in their tissue. The magic they consume from 
  these two sources supports their physically impossible size and frame while powering 
  their supernatural abilities and spell-like abilities. Storm giants can live on low-magic 
  foods like bread and cheese, but given enough time they develop physical problems 
  from magic deficiency. Without ingesting magic through their food, they perish from 
  magic starvation, just like humans do when they don’t get their required nutrition from 
  their food. Many creatures survive in a state of magical starvation for a long time, but 
  other creatures may not hold out for long. Each organism has a different metabolism 
  which influences how long they can go without eating food containing enough magic 
  to stave off physical difficulties.
   
  Every creature has an optimum level of ambient magic in the food they eat, and 
  every creature possesses a minimum magical intake requirement as well as a maximum 
  intake. Maximum intakes are the level at which a creature cannot safely digest any more 
  magic from that piece of food. Similar to mundane nutrients, every creature’s digestive 
  system can only extract so much energy from a particular piece of food. Though these 
  levels vary from creature and foods, there is only so much benefit creatures can extract 
  from ambient magic in their food. Ambient magic in tissue may exceed a creature’s 
  maximum intake, effectively poisoning the consumer. In this way, magic can be treated 
  like a dangerous substance. Most of the time creatures don’t notice that they’ve eaten a 
  piece of food that’s slightly more magical than they can handle because it’s only a li�le 
  more than their tolerance. However, if the amount of magic is great enough, such food 
  
  36
  can sicken creatures upon consumption. Some tissues are so magical that they kill their 
  imbiber if their consumer can’t assimilate the magic. Magic gives life, but it also takes it 
  away.
   
  An interesting side effect of ambient magic consumption is the change in the 
  consumer. Along with evolution, this is the primary mover in the creation of new 
  species. Once a creature consumes just slightly more magic than he should, that magic 
  works a slow change in his basic structure that is passed along to his children. In this 
  manner, all sorts of creatures evolve, and this process may expedite natural processes 
  to increase variety and speciation. Upon reflection, this makes perfect sense. The body 
  magic and the multiverse are mutualistically bound, nature’s evolution must have 
  its appropriate magical counterpart: a type of magical evolution. Magical evolution 
  and magical adaption play important roles in the creation and maintenance of more 
  “monstrous” species.
  Magical Ecosystems
   
  The most common magiovorous creatures are the microscopic magiotrophs. 
  These tiny creatures only eat magical energy and turn it into organic ma�er. Unlike 
  photosynthetic or chemosynthetic creatures, magiotrophs only require magical 
  energy for this process and nothing else; no water, no nutrients, no oxygen, nothing 
  but magical energy. This powerful ability makes life viable in places that traditionally 
  cannot tolerate life, and it creates the unique monstrous creatures so prevalent upon 
  magical worlds. But before we can talk about dragons, we must spend considerable 
  time discussing the lesser life forms that provide the dragon his sustenance. We must 
  discuss the magical plants, fungi, insects, and lesser creatures that create the base of the 
  pyramid upon which the dragon feasts.
   
  But even now I’m jumping ahead of myself. Before discussing any of this I 
  need to explain the different ways in which magic passes through ecosystems. Magical 
  energy in every ecosystem manifests primarily in two ways. The first is the bounty 
  method. In bounty use, the ecosystem transfers its magical energy into primary 
  producers, turning the worst non-magical desert vegetation into more of a desert/
  very dry grassland mix. The bounty method utilizes magic as a force that combats 
  the limiting factors of the environment (water, soil, sunlight). The other method is the 
  concentration method. These ecosystems transfer their magical energy into supporting 
  tougher life without increasing overall vegetative production. In these systems, plants 
  act like magical sponges that soak up the ambient magic but don’t use it to increase their 
  species overall growth and proliferation like in the bounty method. Instead, they hoard 
  it to provide unique survival traits (mobility, magic use) and to prevent other creatures 
  from utilizing the ambient magic. In other words, plants grab as much magic as they 
  can because if they don’t, something else will, and that likely leads to decreased fitness 
  on the plants part. Most ecosystems are mixes of both the bounty and the concentration 
  methods, but both harsh and lush climates tend to favor the concentration method over 
  the bounty method.
   
  Back to the base of magical ecosystems, microscopic magiotrophs eat 
  magical energy and turn it into organic ma�er. There are three types of microscopic 
  magiotrophs.  Some are independent creatures, like other microscopic organisms, 
  but most have symbiotic relations with some host creature. These symbiotic relations 
  o�en develop into obligatory relationships (hence, the numerous magically dependent 
  creatures), but many are non-obligatory. Microscopic magiotrophs are most o�en 
  found in the digestive systems of animals or in the root systems of plants. In plants, 
  these small creatures turn magical energy into required nutrients (basically mimicking 
  phytosynthesis) while in animal guts the magiotrophs are themselves consumed a�er 
  turning digested magic into organic ma�er. A delicate microscopic magiotrophic 
  balance is maintained throughout the digestive system just like the more traditional 
  
  37
  microbial balance. It must be stressed: magic itself is transformed and stored within 
  the recipient creature, be that plant or animal. Creatures use this magic to fuel their 
  supernatural and spell-like abilities.
   
  Once we pass the microscopic stage there are several magical fungi that feature 
  prominently in the magical food chain. These fungi exist on magic just like regular fungi 
  exist on detrital material. Their fruiting bodies (the mushroom part) are primary food 
  items for underground dwellers. A few of these magic mushrooms provide powers to 
  their imbibers, but most are simple food items. Some of the largest mushrooms act as 
  a sort of underground wood while others convert magic into oxygen or other gases 
  both beneficial and detrimental. Although you would not suspect it, dwarves are 
  loving caretakers for their fungal gardens, feeding them only the best stone dust, dried 
  potions, and ground magic items or metals.
   
  Magical plants shouldn’t be a strange to you. They’re the staple of every 
  magical planet and can be found in every biome. Trying to cull their diversity into 
  a single paragraph seems a hopeless endeavor, but remember that magical plants 
  can occupy any location in food webs; some are producers, others are top predators. 
  Magic provides these organisms with movement and o�en with intelligence. This 
  added to their vegetative prowess is a fearsome combination. Magical plants are o�en 
  hardier than their animal counterparts, able to withstand long periods of drought or 
  starvation.
   
  Just because magical plants are hardy, don’t think that they’re immune to what 
  their ecosystem can throw at them. Magical insects (vermin, to be more precise) are 
  some of the most dangerous creatures on any magical planet. Their shear numbers, 
  efficiency and o�en-militaristic social orders make them worthy of consideration. 
  Although most magical vermin are fairly innocuous and fill a niche much like their non-
  magical brethren, those few that are not innocuous can be truly terrifying. Just ask any 
  villager who’s witnessed giant army ants on the march or who’s fallen prey to highly 
  aggressive magic-using wasps. Everyone knows magic has its greatest effect upon the 
  animal kingdom. It is here that most monsters dwell, and the maddest, strangest things 
  curse the world.
  
  38
  Biomes
   
  Every location on the planet has an associated temperature, rainfall, plant life, 
  and animal life. These associated units are commonly called biomes. Each biome consists 
  of a distinctive combination of plants and animals characterized by a uniform type of 
  vegetation, like grassland or coniferous tress. Each biome shares borders with other 
  biomes. Along these borders the vegetation and animal life exists in differing gradients 
  from one biome to another. These gradients along biomes are called ecoclines.
   
  In addition to these localized changes, there are gradual changes in other 
  ecosystem characteristics brought upon mostly by latitudinal change. There is a general 
  decrease in species diversity, productivity and the general amount of organic ma�er the 
  further north and south of the equator you travel. There is also a corresponding decrease 
  in the complexity of ecosystems, in the size of plants, and in the amount of vertical 
  plant stratification. Growth forms also change (tropical rain forests are dominated by 
  phanerophytes and epiphytes while artic the tundra by hemicryptophytes, geophytes, 
  and therophytes) and wherever there’s a similar environment, similar types of 
  creatures are present. Although species vary greatly, communities tend to have similar 
  physiognomy, showing convergent evolution in action.
  Mean Annual Temperature (Celsius)
  Mean Annual Precipitation (cm)
  450
  400
  350
  300
  250
  200
  150
  100
  50
   
  30         25         20          15          10           5            0           -5           -10
  Tropical
  rain forest
  Tropical
  seasonal forest
  Temperate
  rain forest
  Temperate forest
  Taiga
  Tundra
  Woodland
  (Grassland)
  Shrubland
  Thorn forest
  (Savanna)
  Thorn scrub
  Desert
  Tropic latitude
  Polar latitude
  In certain areas where the climate varies, soil can 
  shift the balance between such types as woodland, 
  grassland, and shrubland. The dotted line encloses 
  the area in which such is most common and in 
  which either grassland or one of the woodly plant 
  environments may form the prevelant vegetation. 
  Note: The tropic and polar latitudes are shown
  World Vegetation
  
  39
  Tundra and Taiga
   
  Tundra and Taiga are two biomes common to cold polar regions and to certain 
  bands along mountains. Tundra is the treeless plain near the poles or the tops of tall 
  mountains while Taiga is the large belt of coniferous forest enclosing the tundra. 
  Although they are unique biomes, they almost always occur side-by-side: where one is 
  found, the other is o�en next door.
   
  Tundra is a treeless plain covered with heath, sedge, mosses, rushes, and 
  herbs. Low temperatures, low precipitation, and a short growing season characterize 
  tundra. Full of lakes and streams, tundra also has extensive bogs when the land is low 
  in relation to its surrounding terrain. On high areas or areas exposed to the brutal wind, 
  the ground is mostly bare rock with a sca�ering of vegetation. The rocks are usually 
  lichen covered, giving a deceptively green color to an inhospitable place. As mentioned 
  above, there are two types of tundra, that around the poles (called artic) and that 
  around mountains (called alpine.)
   
  Much of the artic tundra is the result of permafrost’s actions. Permafrost is the 
  perennially frozen subsurface that can run hundreds of yards deep. Below the thin layer 
  of soil melted by the summer’s heat, a massive piece of permanently frozen earth awaits. 
  Because the permafrost is impervious to water, it forces all water to remain above it. 
  This creates a wet, marshy environment allowing plants to survive even though most of 
  the tundra experiences yearly precipitation levels equal to deserts. Unlike most deserts, 
  there is very li�le evaporation (the air is too cold to hold much water) so life has ample 
  water. There are places called polar deserts where almost no moisture exists, and in fact, 
  the driest place on our base planet is Wright’s Valley in Antarctica.
   
  The alternating yearly freezing and thawing makes for some unusual and 
  seemingly magical pa�erned landforms. As the permafrost forces all water above 
  itself and the water freezes, stones and other debris are forced up from the mass of the 
  permafrost. This forms frost boils, earth stripes, and the most well known of all tundra 
  landforms, stone polygons. Year a�er year, decade a�er decade of freezing and thawing 
  push the rocks and debris together, forming a hex map across the land. Creatures 
  arriving on these plains for the first time are bound to be amazed and wonder what 
  type of being created them.
   
  Alpine tundras have very li�le permafrost and that is mostly at very high 
  elevations. Alpine tundra is not usually as wet as artic tundra because the steeper 
  topography allows the thawed water to flow down the mountainside instead of staying 
  on the surface. In some elevated valleys, alpine tundra bogs may form, but these are 
  uncommon. Alpine tundras don’t have many of the pa�erned landforms for the same 
  reason, and even though precipitation is higher, alpine tundras are dryer.
   
  Tundra vegetation is simple, and there are only a few species. The growth is 
  slow, and most of the functional aspects of the biome are confined to a few groups. The 
  artic tundra is a harsh place with constant soil disturbances from the permafrost cycle 
  while wind-born particles of soil and ice ba�er any life strong enough to take root. 
  Alpine tundra is even harsher, as winds are very strong near the tops of mountains, 
  and temperatures fluctuate even more wildly than in artic tundra. Plants are short by 
  necessity, allowing them to reduce the amount of heat they lose from wind chill.
   
  The most common artic vegetation in boggy ground is co�on grass, sedge, 
  dwarf heath, and sphagnum moss. In well-drained artic tundra, you may find heath 
  shrubs, dwarf willows and birches while crustose and foliose lichens grow on rocks 
  on dry and exposed sites. Alpine foliage is similar but mat-forming plants are more 
  important because they can withstand the constant buffeting wind. Under the mat-
  forming plants is a small, cushioned area with air that can be 65° warmer than the 
  surrounding air, creating a microclimate favorable to insects.
  
  40
   
  Alpine tundra in the tropics is a very unique environment. Tropical alpine 
  regions undergo great seasonal variation in rainfall and cloud cover (o�en from 
  monsoon action) but experience li�le seasonal variation in average daily temperature. 
  Instead of the seasonal variations, alpine tundra experiences daily variation on a 
  spectacular scale: below freezing at night to hot, summer-like temperatures during 
  the day. Since cold is not of a seasonal duration, plants can grow taller. Tropical alpine 
  tundra sports giant, treelike rose�e plants that resist the nightly freezing temperatures. 
  Also, unlike every other type of alpine tundra, these plants get larger (over 18 feet) 
  the higher up you go. These plants are rather unusual as they retain their dead leaves 
  around their stem to reduce heat loss, secrete a mucilaginous fluid about the bases of 
  leaves which functions as a heat-storage device, and possess dense pubescent hairs that 
  reduce convective loss of heat. They’re well adapted to their dramatic environment.
   
  Almost all artic tundra plants are non-seeding (reproducing through vegetative 
  means), but what seeds do fall can remain viable for hundreds of years. Alpine tundra 
  plants are mostly seed propagated. Both environments’ topography plays important 
  roles in density of vegetation. On artic tundra, steep slopes facing the equator and 
  river bo�oms support the most luxurious shrubs, grasses, and legumes (although artic 
  luxury is still slim) while gentle slopes are dominated by co�on grass. Alpine tundra 
  is thickest along the equatorial facing slopes (more light hits those slopes) and along 
  drainage runs.
   
  Primary production on the tundra is very low in comparison to other biomes. 
  Low temperatures, a short growing season (50-60 days in the high arctic up to 160 
  days in low alpine tundra areas), and poor soil nutrient content all conspire to make it 
  difficult for plants to thrive. Plants can only be photosynthetically active on the arctic 
  tundra for roughly three months out of every year. Once snow cover li�s, plants start 
  photosynthesis even though it isn’t terribly effective due to poor leaf development. The 
  plants quickly correct this by using stored energy in their roots and rhizomes to quickly 
  boost leaf production. Plants continue to photosynthesize up to about a month before 
  the return of the snow. All energy is then redirected into root and rhizome production 
  to ensure enough energy for next year. Alpine tundras are generally more productive 
  than artic tundras, but both types’ plants sequester up to ten times the amount of energy 
  in their roots for winter than temperate grassland plants. Hence, the potato.
   
  Tundra animals are also a tough lot. They have some of the most inhospitable 
  environments on any planet with which to contend. But once winter’s grip ends, life 
  springs forth in surprising amounts. Starting from the bo�om and going up, insects are 
  plentiful in artic tundra during the summer. So many in fact they sometimes darken 
  the sky as they rise up in swarms. This process may take a year or two because in the 
  harsh conditions, insect development takes more time 
  than anywhere else. Some bu�erflies (they 
  only fly close to the ground to avoid 
  the ever-present winds) take 
  two years to mature, 
  
  41
  while grasshoppers take up to three. If you ever go to the tundra during summer, 
  prepare to be slowly eaten alive by mosquitoes. So numerous are they that every year 
  some caribou are driven mad and effectively persecuted to death. I’ve known few men 
  tougher than reindeer, so prepare for them if you travel on the tundra.
   
  All of these insects provide excellent prey for birds. Sandpipers, plovers, 
  longspurs, and some waterfowl all enjoy a veritable smorgasbord of insects during 
  summer nesting. Along with birds, shrews make an impact into the insect population, 
  gorging themselves while they have the chance. Meanwhile, lemmings, voles, squirrels, 
  pikas, and hares are busily gobbling as much foliage as they can while trying to avoid 
  ermines, weasels, foxes, minks, bears, lynx, wolves, wolverines, and predatory birds. 
  But the larger predators are more interested in moose, caribou, snow sheep, and the 
  rare muskox. The artic tundra explodes with activity when the cold is finally gone.
   
  Magic adds increased complexity into tundra biomes. Tundra organisms 
  maximize all energy from non-solar sources. Of all biomes, tundras are only equaled 
  by deserts and outshone by underground biomes when it comes to the drastic changes 
  from ambient magic. On most magical planets, magic provides as much energy as the 
  sun on the tundra, and unlike the sun, magical energy is equally distributed throughout 
  the year. As much magic energy is available during the coldest winter months as there is 
  in the height of summer. This magic energy increases the overall diversity on a magical 
  planet beyond what is found on our base planet. Microscopic magiotrophs turn the 
  energy into tissue, and magic moves up the food web through predation, providing a 
  dependable year-round food source and supporting a higher biomass.
   
  Artic druids will tell you that the tundra is a vicious killer if you don’t know 
  what you’re doing. And they’re right. But they won’t always tell you how fragile 
  the tundra’s ecology is and how easy it is to disrupt. Since conditions are so harsh, 
  disturbances o�en result in almost permanent destruction. Something as simple as 
  digging a grave can destroy the life around the site. Not that you’d succeed in making a 
  decent grave; anything you put down is eventually pushed up by the permafrost cycle. 
  Use a bunch of rocks instead.
   
  Taiga (boreal forest) is the largest vegetation formation on our base planet. 
  It covers roughly 11% of the terrestrial surface in a large coniferous belt in the high 
  latitudes. Its northern limit is the southern limit of tundra, but its southern limit is much 
  less distinct. In some places, taiga becomes colder grasslands a�er a short layer of mixed 
  forest. In other areas, taiga loses ground to deciduous trees in the slow switch toward 
  full-sized mixed forest. Taiga o�en stretches shore to shore on the largest of continents. 
  Although it’s not as harsh as tundra, it is still a fierce environment unfriendly to easy 
  se�lement and taming.
   
  Taiga is composed of four vegetation zones: the tundra-forest ectone with open 
  stands of stunted spruce, lichens, and moss; the open boreal woodland with stands of 
  black spruce and lichens; the main forest mainly populated by pines and spruce with 
  breaks of birch and poplars in disturbed (succession) areas; and the mixed-boreal forest 
  ectone where the boreal forest begins to turn into the mixed forests of lower latitudes. 
  Taiga is dominated by spruce, pine, birch, and larch.
   
  Summers are short, cool, and moist while winters are long, harsh, and dry with 
  long-lasting snow. Although not as unbearable as tundra, taiga is far from welcoming. 
  Seasonal temperature differences are the most extreme in deeply inland parts of the 
  taiga and can vary over 200°F. Even with warmer temperatures, li�le light hits the 
  ground because of the dense canopy. This means permafrost still exists under much of 
  the taiga and just like the tundra. Permafrost has a chilling effect upon growth potential 
  of the taiga. It reduces soil depth and impedes infiltration. By deterring drainage, 
  is creates high soil moisture while slowing natural decomposition and reducing 
  vital nutrients to the soil (like nitrogen). But the permafrost’s detrimental effects are 
  ironically increased because of the trees of the taiga themselves. Since the trees are so 
  
  42
  thick, the lack of light under the canopy only allows certain plants to flourish. Thick 
  carpets of mosses grow in the dim light under the spruces and firs while lichens thickly 
  grow under the pines where there is slightly more light. This vegetation (along with the 
  layer of undecomposed needles) acts as an insulator to the permafrost. The colder the 
  soil becomes, the more the permafrost moves towards the surface, and the less soil is 
  available to tree roots. During periods of early warm weather, the roots are still encased 
  in the permafrost, but the tree is loosing water through its leaves. This leads to “winter 
  kill” where a tree dehydrates while standing in moist soil because its roots are still 
  encased in ice and can’t replenish its water needs.
   
  One very beneficial event in the taiga is fire. Fires occur on a fairly regular 
  basis and sweep over hundreds of thousands of acres in periods of drought. All of the 
  trees are well adapted to fire, and unless it is too severe, fire provides a seedbed for 
  the regeneration of trees. Successional hardwoods favor light burns while more severe 
  fires eliminate hardwoods, favoring spruce and pine regeneration. Fires also releases 
  various accumulated nutrients, but more importantly, it improves the conditions for 
  decomposition by warming the soil and exposing organic material to sunlight.
   
  Taiga animal life is more diverse than on the tundra although many species 
  share both habitats. Caribou inhabit the more northerly portion of the taiga, and their 
  yearly migrations o�en lead them off the tundra to find shelter in the trees. They feed 
  off the grasses and sedges growing in the forest-tundra ectone, and they’re especially 
  fond of the lichens living under pines. Moose, the largest of all deer, calls the taiga its 
  home. Also known as elk, it feeds off aquatic and emergent vegetation as well as the 
  alder and willow. Arboreal red squirrels inhabit the conifers and feed on the seeds of 
  spruce and fir along with male flower buds while the prickly porcupine busily feeds on 
  leaves, bark and twigs. Also feeding on tree bark is the dam-building beaver. Deer are 
  found here in the greatest diversity (more species of deer than any other biome), and the 
  bird population is healthy (nutcrackers, woodpeckers, and finches) feeding on seeds, 
  cones, and insects. Many of the bird species migrate south during the harsh winter, 
  however. There are few reptiles or amphibians (it’s too cold in the winter), but the few 
  present give live birth because there’s too li�le sun to properly warm eggs. Insect life is 
  far richer in the taiga than on the tundra.  Major predators include the wolf (feeding on 
  snowshoe hares and other small mammals), the pine marten (the major predator of red 
  squirrels), several other species of weasels, as well as bears, wolves, and lynx.
   
  Taiga animals are clothed in thick, insulating coats of fur or feathers, which are 
  especially luxurious in winter. Many of the animals are also particularly larger than 
  their cousins in kinder climates. This burly size is an advantage because the larger 
  the animal, the smaller its surface area to body mass ratio, which reduces its overall 
  heat loss. The moose (the largest deer), the wolverine (the largest weasel), and the 
  capercaillie (the largest grouse) all make taiga their homes. The cold has also created 
  some of the most valuable pelts in the world on the animals of the taiga: mink, marten, 
  ermine, and beaver.
   
  Grasslands
   
  Grasslands claim 23% of all the land not covered by ice on Earth, and they are 
  grouped into the temperate grasslands (steppe and prairie) and tropical grasslands 
  (savanna). The main difference between the three grassland types is temperature. 
  Steppes are coldest, and savannas are warmest. This creates a different set of species 
  that can survive in each different environment.
   
  Steppes and prairies receive li�le rain. Anywhere from 8.5-30 inches of rainfall 
  in a single year, these grasslands barely receive too much to qualify for a wet desert 
  and not enough for a forest. Savannas receive more rain (19-78 inches a year), but 
  their rain falls on poorer soil and in extremely variable amounts (60-90% of the rain 
  falls in a single period or in two distinct periods). Grasslands also have a high rate of 
  
  43
  evaporation, periodic drought (with periodic severe droughts not being uncommon), 
  a flat or rolling terrain, and animal life dominated by grazers and burrowers. One 
  unusual aspect of grassland is its need for periodic fires for maintenance, renewal, and 
  eliminating encroaching woody plants in the we�er grasslands.
   
  Grasses have adapted to both grazing and fire. Grassy plants consist of leafy 
  shoots called tillers. Each tiller has a leafy blade and a tube-like base growing from 
  short, stem-bearing root nodes. These nodes only grow upward when the plant begins 
  flowering. These grasses are termed bunch or tussock grasses because they grow in 
  bunches across the plains. The grasses that spread through lateral buds on underground 
  stems are called sod or turf grasses. Drier grasslands favor tussock grasses while wet 
  grasslands favors turf grasses. Ironically, both grazing and fire spur vigorous growth 
  from grasses. Grasses wait safely underground, and when the vegetation above ground 
  is destroyed, the belowground vegetation sprouts anew with energy stored in roots. 
  Grasses expend their stored energy quickly to ensure their survival.
   
  Steppe grasslands are the coldest of grasslands and spend around 3 months 
  per year with average temperatures around freezing. The grasses here are all short, 
  hugging the ground like the vegetation of the tundra. Tussock grasses are typically 
  favored over turf grasses, but this depends more on rainfall than temperature. Fescues, 
  feather grass, and daisies dominate the landscape.
   
  There are three types of prairies: tallgrass, mixed-grass, and shortgrass. 
  Tallgrass prairies are well developed in areas that could support forests, but through 
  fire and strong competition, they maintain their hold on the land. The forests usually 
  encroach into tallgrass prairies on hills, sandy areas and along streams and rivers. Big 
  bluestem, goldenrods, compass plants, snakeroots, and bedstraw are the major turf 
  grasses, while needlegrass, side-oats grama, dropseeds, and many different types of 
  daisies are the main bunch-forming grasses. Shortgrass prairie occur where rainfall is 
  infrequent and light. The shallow-rooted grasses maximize the moisture in the upper soil 
  layer and don’t have deeper penetrating roots. Sod-forming blue grama, buffalo grass, 
  wheatgrass, side-oats gram, and li�le bluestem make up the majority of the grasses in 
  shortgrass prairie. Sod is particularly dense in shortgrass prairies. Mixed-grass prairies 
  
  44
  vary between the two others depending mostly on how 
  much rain they receive in any particular year. In we�er 
  years, they favor the tallgrasses while in drier years 
  they favor shortgrass. As you’d expect, mixed-grass 
  prairies are o�en between larger belts of tallgrass 
  and shortgrass, acting as buffer zones wherein 
  species are more or less successful based upon 
  the year’s rain.
   
  Savannas 
  are 
  still 
  very 
  much 
  grasslands, though they enjoy more rain 
  per year than the other grasslands and 
  more woody plants. The most conspicuous 
  plants are flat-leaved grasses that grow 
  as tall as five feet. Typically one or more 
  grass species dominate a particular area 
  and clump, but fairly regular spacing of 
  trees round out the average savanna view. 
  Most trees are short-lived (except for the 
  impressively thick baobab), and detrital-
  processing termites are a conspicuous 
  component of savanna life. Their mounds 
  sometimes grow almost as tall as some of the 
  small trees. Savannas are hot year-round possessing average monthly temperatures 
  rarely lower than 68° during the coldest months. Of all the grasslands, savanna is the 
  most dependent upon fires. Without them, dense woodlands would quickly overrun 
  the savanna.
   
  There is another type of grassland, slightly less natural than the others. 
  Hayfields and pasturelands are vast amounts of grassland created through the work 
  of intelligent species. Most of these grasslands are recovered forestlands, cleared for 
  se�lements and agriculture. When le� without intelligent care, these grasslands quickly 
  revert back to forests, but some develop climax vegetation that resists reverting since 
  they have been under the care of intelligent species for hundreds of years.
   
  Animal life on the grasslands is diverse and healthy. As in all biomes, insects are 
  ever-present: ants, spiders, beetles, grasshoppers and many other species are found in 
  the grasslands. Termites are especially important on savannas. Personally, my favorite 
  insect is the dung beetle. This li�le creature collects poop, rolls it into a ball (sometimes 
  as large as an apple), buries it, feeds on it, and then lays its eggs in it. The young ones 
  finish off the ball when they hatch. This inadvertently spreads seeds, spores, and 
  nutrients. Burrowing creatures also form a basic block of the grassland’s ecosystem: 
  prairie dogs (whose burrows can stretch for hundreds of square miles), armadillos, 
  meerkats, moles, springhares, gerbils, bobak marmots, sousliks, and common hamsters. 
  An uncommon burrower is the burrowing owl, who claims deserted prairie dog 
  burrows and uses them as nests. Another burrower, the ra�lesnake, claims tunnels as 
  well, but when the prairie dogs smell him out, they try to close up the tunnel in which it 
  is hiding. The more aggressive meerkat have been known to chase snakes away through 
  harassing techniques.
   
  But the animals everyone is familiar with on the grasslands are the large grazers: 
  bison, prong-horned antelope, zebra, wildebeest, giraffe, gazelle, elephant, rhino and 
  wild horses. Many of these creatures are major grazers in almost all grassland, and 
  in the case of the bison, they can roam in huge migratory herds numbering up to the 
  millions. Grasslands that lack one or more of these species usually have a replacement 
  species. Kangaroos, those long-distance hoppers, are marsupial replacements for the 
  ungulates in some grassland. In dry grasslands, camels may make an appearance. 
  
  45
  There’s also a good chance your grassland has some species of giant bird, like ostriches, 
  rheas, emus, or moas. These birds have lost the ability to fly but have great running 
  speeds and a good strong defensive kick used against the larger grassland predators. 
  Major predators include lions, leopards, cheetahs, hyaenas, and wild dogs. There are 
  also a great many scavengers like jackals and vultures. Most grassland predators are 
  not above scavenging a fairly fresh kill as well.
   
  Even with all the apparent life in the grassland, the massive herds of grazers, 
  and the packs of predators, the majority of biomass lies beneath the soil in the form 
  of nematodes. Aboveground herbivores only consume 2%-7% of primary product, 
  while underground herbivores account for 13%-46%. The humble creatures have the 
  greatest effect upon grasslands. On the savanna, termites play a very important role 
  in breaking down plant li�er and modifying soil properties. Mound-building termites 
  move tons of soil into large defensive mounds, binding them together with saliva and 
  excrement. Termites need their food partially pre-digested by mushrooms, so they 
  build large fungus chambers underground and deep within the mound to ensure a 
  moist environment. They then harvest the fungi, feeding them with dead vegetation, 
  feces, and dead termites. The subsequent heated air leaves through the fluted top 
  tunnels, replaced by cooler air from side tunnels that breach the surface. In a way, 
  termite mounds breath.
  Forests
   
  Forests have long been one of the most useful biomes for intelligent life, 
  providing wood for heat, buildings, and tools. There are three basic types of forest: 
  coniferous forests (taiga/boreal forests, montane forests, pine forests, and temperate 
  rain forests), broadleaf forests (deciduous forests and temperate evergreen forests), and 
  tropical forests (rain forests, seasonal forests, and dry forests). The boreal forest has 
  already been discussed under tundra and taiga above, so we’ll focus on the remaining 
  six.
   
  Montane forests are coniferous forests in the mountains. Spruce, fir, mountain 
  hemlock, pine, incense cedar, and the giant sequoia compose the majority of montane 
  forests. As you can tell, montane forests share many characteristics with boreal forests, 
  but permafrost doesn’t have its icy grip on montane forests, except perhaps at their very 
  highest elevations. Low-elevation montane forests are dominated by ponderosa pine 
  and include the deciduous quaking aspen before eventually turning into pine forests. 
  Pine forests consist mainly of pine trees, in particular, the scots pine. They occupy 
  much of the colder temperate latitudes. In some places, pine forests turn into temperate 
  deciduous forests without the without disturbance from fire. These pines keep their 
  advantage over the deciduous by being be�er adapted to the fire regime. Pine forests 
  also contain the valuable pitch (for fuel) and white (lumber) pines, the loblolly, longleaf, 
  and slash pines.
   
  Temperate rain forests are forested wonderlands created by mountains. When 
  warm and wet air currents coming off an ocean meet a tall mountain range, they dump 
  massive amounts of water onto the ground below. This usually occurs in tropical regions 
  because few temperate air masses contain enough moisture on a continual basis. But, 
  when this happens in temperate regions, a temperate rain forest occurs.  The most 
  familiar temperate rain forest is along the western coastline of North America where the 
  Coast Range juts up. Temperate forests have milder climates than other areas at their 
  same latitude, but still experience significant snowfall along with summer rain. Total 
  precipitation is around 290 inches per year. Conifers dominate temperate rain forests: 
  western hemlock, mountain hemlock, silver-fir, douglas-fir, and massive redwood 
  trees. All of the trees are well adapted to wet mild winters, dry warm summers, and 
  nutrient-poor soil.
  
  46
   
  Deciduous forests cover vast amounts 
  of the temperate zone. Beech, oak, ash, 
  birch, and magnolia all make deciduous 
  forests their home. Deciduous forests 
  o�en follow rivers deeply into grasslands, 
  creating fingers of green among the 
  grasses. There is tremendous variety 
  among deciduous forests, and each 
  displays their own unique characteristics 
  depending upon what tree or tree group 
  composes the majority of the forest. 
  Temperate evergreen forests occupy the 
  sub-tropical regions of the temperate zone. 
  They straddle the line between temperate 
  and tropical, o�en including mixes of 
  both broadleaf trees and coniferous trees. 
  Eucalyptus, paramo, anacardia gallery, 
  and false beech forests are all temperate 
  evergreen forests. Palm trees, oaks, gumbo-
  lumbo, and magnolias are o�en found in 
  temperate evergreen forests.
   
  Tropical rain forests are mostly 
  restricted to the equatorial zone 10° N and 10° 
  S latitude. This is the area of the planet where 
  temperatures are warm year-round and almost 
  daily rain falls in amounts that are measured in 
  yards per year. Most tropical forests grow below 
  3,250 �., except in situations where extremely strong 
  wind pa�erns can push enough rain to higher elevations, 
  and cannot grow in places that experience more than five 
  months of dry season a year. There is so much vegetation 
  within a tropical rain forest that it’s hard to know where to begin describing. Lowland 
  rain forests are very multi-layered; mountain forest have abundant undergrowth of 
  tree ferns and palms; and cloud forests are continually wrapped in clouds and mist, 
  covering their thickets and epiphyte laden trees. Fingers of rain forests called gallery 
  forests follow river courses onto the savanna. There are over 1.5 million species of 
  plants and animals in an average world’s rainforest, and the rainforest’s importance 
  should not be overlooked.
   
  Seasonal tropical forests are rain forests subject to periodic dry seasons. They 
  share many of the same characteristics with rain forests, but their yearly two-to-four-
  month dry season causes around 30% of all the upper canopy trees to shed their leaves. 
  These rain forests are fairly common in areas with a monsoon season, and the leaves 
  come back either right before the monsoon begins or right a�er. Happily for the forest 
  dwellers, fruiting usually occurs right before the dry season.
   
  Dry tropical forests experience a prolonged dry period; the farther the forest is 
  from the equator, the longer the dry period (up to eight months). During the dry season, 
  the trees and shrubs drop their leaves and stand bare. Just before the rainy season, 
  which can drop even more rain than in the we�est of the wet months for other tropical 
  forests, the trees and shrubs burst back into foliage. The landscape is a uniform green 
  color for this period. Much of the dry tropical forest consists of thorny trees.
   
  Coniferous forests have poor vertical stratification in comparison to deciduous 
  forests. Vertical stratification is the division of communities into distinguishable vertical 
  layers throughout a forest. Some creatures prefer to live their life in the canopy, while 
  
  47
  others spend the majority of their time near the ground. Coniferous forests have poor 
  vertical stratification because most conifers in mature forests have the vast majority of 
  their branches at the crown. The crowns of coniferous forests o�en get so thick that no 
  other plants can easily survive on the forest floor. However, few species of conifers have 
  thinner crown growth, allowing a grassy or shrubby understory.
   
  Animal life in coniferous forests is varied and adapted to the generally colder 
  climates. Insects are prevalent in numbers, but not so in species because of the homogeny 
  of many stands. This lack of insect diversity can lead to catastrophic infestations that 
  devastate large tracks of the forest. Birds are plentiful; chickadees, finches, thrushes, 
  tits, and grosbeaks are all common in coniferous forests. Most mammals are not 
  confined to only coniferous forests (outside of the boreal, which has several exclusive 
  species like the marten and lynx) and are commonly found in deciduous forests; deer, 
  bear, mountain lions, and squirrels are common in coniferous forests.
   
  Coniferous forests are o�en dependent upon mycorrhizae (the symbiotic 
  association of the mycelium of a fungus and the roots of a seed plant) for healthy 
  functioning. Dead trees also make up a very important part of the coniferous forest 
  ecosystem. 10-20% of the forest floor is covered with fallen trees, providing food, 
  protection, animal pathways, and reproductive sites for trees. In coniferous forests, life 
  tends to be more concentrated around fallen trees.
   
  Broadleaf forests possess well-developed vertical stratification. Normal, 
  unevenly-aged forests have an upper canopy consisting of dominant and co-dominant 
  trees, under which is the lower canopy, the shrub layer, and then the ground layer 
  occupied by ferns, herbs, and mosses. This stratification breaks up in evenly-aged 
  forests (due fire, or intensive logging) which only have a well-developed canopy with 
  poorly developed layers underneath (except in open areas). Coverage in broadleaf 
  forests allows li�le light to reach the ground; only about 6% of the midday sun reaches 
  the forest floor. Within this dim forest, humidity is comparatively high from all the 
  plant transpiration, but temperatures are much cooler.
   
  Broadleaf forest animals depend upon this stratification. Some insects are 
  horizon specific and cannot live outside of their adapted layer, but most focus on 
  two layers outside of which they cannot survive. The greatest concentration of life in 
  broadleaf forests occurs just above and just below ground. Many subterranean species 
  share their space with the burrowers: mice, salamanders, squirrels, and shrews. Larger 
  creatures are usually dependant upon the herbs, shrubs, and low trees, but birds of all 
  varieties fly within the vertical stratifications. Some birds favor particular areas, like the 
  woodpecker favors the plot between the shrubs and the canopy, but many use different 
  areas for particular actions. Territory displays may be an upper canopy activity, while 
  nesting is a lower canopy actively.
   
  Tropical forests are the most diverse and life-explosive areas on a planet. Over 
  300 different tree species can be found in a single square mile in the most diverse of 
  rain forests, but all rain forests have impressive plant and animal diversity. Tropical 
  rain forests have five layers of vertical stratification, but these are poorly defined. The 
  top-most layer, the emergent layer, is composed of the tops of trees standing 130-160�. 
  tall. Unlike every other forest, these massive trees are young, rarely more than a few 
  hundred years old. In the constant light and moisture of the tropical rain forest, trees 
  can grow 80 feet in height and 16 inches in girth in just five years. Like every other 
  forest, old trees fall, creating open zones for new vegetation, but these holes are rapidly 
  filled in comparison to other forests. The emergent layer pops up over the canopy layer, 
  making the top of the rain forest look bumpy when viewed from a distance.
   
  The next highest stratification is the canopy proper. Composed mostly of trees 
  80-120�. tall, the canopy absorbs some 70-80% of the sun’s energy. This traps moisture 
  and keeps the forest underneath dark, humid, and still. Under the canopy proper is 
  another continuous layer made up of trees with conical crowns. Under this layer is 
  
  48
  the shrubby layer made of young trees, tall herbs, ferns, and shrubs. At last we reach 
  the ground, occupied by low herbaceous plants and low ferns. These layers mix and 
  shuffle, especially on hillsides (where light can more easily reach the ground), but are 
  generally found in tropical rain forests throughout a planet.
   
  Compared to other forests, tropical rain forests have a conspicuous number of 
  plants dependent on trees to provide them a li� into the light. Epiphytes, climbers, and 
  stranglers are found in great numbers in all tropical forests. The simplist of these is the 
  climber. Climbers (lianas) are vines with stems ranging from fine to cable-like that reach 
  the tops of trees and then expand into the size and shape of a tree crown. Climbers can 
  gain the heights and loop back down to the ground only to ascend once more. Climbers 
  grow prolifically in the rain forest openings, giving rise to the common perception of 
  the impenetrable jungle.
   
  Epiphytes and stranglers begin life the same way, but take different turns 
  quickly. Epiphytes are plants that inhabit niches on trunks, limbs, branches, leaves, 
  shrubs, and even climbers. Epiphytes have aerial roots, lodging themselves in the 
  nooks and crannies of other plants. Mosses, algae, and lichens are common microscopic 
  epiphytes, but the macroepiphytes are vascular plants. The roots of these plants never 
  reach the ground. Many of these plants have developed desert-like adaptations because 
  of their precarious moisture position. At the same time, they support aquatic life (some 
  even have crabs!) in the pools of water they collect at the base of their stem. Stranglers, 
  a�er a�aching themselves securely, put down a series of long roots, eventually strangling 
  the plant they occupy. An important strangler is the strangler fig that provides food for 
  many different creatures.
   
  The floor of most tropical rain forests is a thick mesh composed of roots from 
  hundreds of different plants. Tropical rain forest soil is very poor, and the plants rely 
  upon the top 12 inches of soil for the majority of their inorganic nutrients. These are 
  supplied through the continual detrital rain falling from the forest itself. Enough detritus 
  falls just on the nooks and crannies of the trees alone to support epiphytes (described 
  above), and even more falls to the floor proper. In the soil, you’ll find mycorrhizae, 
  establishing a symbiotic relationship between the mycelium of a fungus and the roots 
  of a seed plant. Since the soil is so poor, tropical rainforests are heavily dependent upon 
  these li�le fungi, even more so than the boreal forest and many coniferous forests. The 
  bases of tropical rain forest trees are o�en bu�ressed to support their vast height. As 
  rain forest tree roots are very shallow, these bu�resses (usually plank-like or stilt-like) 
  help the trees get a good grip in the unsteady soil by spreading their weight over a 
  larger area.
   
  Surprisingly, although diversity of animal species is unmatched in the tropical 
  rain forest, density is not. This is partly because of the complex vertical stratification 
  in tropical rain forests; there is simply more space within which to support life. On 
  grasslands, there’s only the surface and just under the surface, but in a tropical rain 
  forest, there are a hundred or more feet above ground in which life goes on. Extreme 
  specialization of some species also deters high density, such as only eating the leaves of 
  one particular tree or only laying your eggs on one particular caterpillar. But don’t let 
  this paragraph fool you; animal life in tropical rain forests is everywhere, and usually 
  in some mind-boggling strange form.
  Scrubland and Deserts
   
   Scrubland and deserts cover more than 25% of Earth’s surface. These two 
  biomes are usually found in close proximity with each other. Scrubland is characterized 
  by a large number of shrubs, few trees, and lots of grass. The size of the shrubs varies 
  from the tall eucalypt shrubs that are 15-25�. tall to the dwarf shrubs less than 16 inches 
  tall. Most scrubland is the result of low rainfall, low soil-nutrient levels, and periodic 
  fire. Scrubland can be created through logging, land clearing or land-intensive activities 
  by intelligent species.
  
  49
   
  There are two main scrubland groups: warm scrublands (mediterranean or 
  chaparral) and cold scrublands (heath). Warm scrublands have long dry seasons (usually 
  5-8 months) and warm-to-hot temperatures year-round. Those scrublands experiencing 
  their rainy season in conjunction with winter o�en do most of their growing, fruiting, 
  and flowering during winter, in contrast to most other biomes. Summer is usually a hot 
  time with temperatures sometimes surpassing 100°F. During this dry, hot time, many 
  plants die off completely, and some species survive only as seeds during this hard 
  period. Other plants die back to underground storage organs like bulbs or tubers.
   
  Water storage is important for scrubland plants, and they’re well adapted for 
  it. Some shrubs are deciduous, shedding their leaves for the dry season, just like others 
  shed their leaves for the cold season. Some shrubs have small, leathery leaves to reduce 
  water loss while others develop roots so deep they can access the water table and 
  continue growing year round. There’s a price to pay for this however. Because they’re 
  always green and growing, they a�ract the a�ention of grazers, both insect and larger 
  grazers. The plants have therefore developed methods to counteract this. Some have 
  armed themselves with thorns and tough leaves while others have developed chemical 
  defenses involving strong, distasteful juices as protection from grazers, which also 
  deter other plants from invading their territory.
   
  Unfortunately, or fortunately depending how you want to look at it, these same 
  juices are highly flammable. During the height of summer, these juices are heavily 
  extruded to ward off grazers and eventually cause inevitable fires. Some bushes are so 
  flammable that a spark from a falling rock can make them burst into flame. These fires 
  destroy all the scrubs and allow herbs and grasses to have a strong period of growth for 
  a few years. The shrubs return in under a decade, however, and their chemical defenses 
  limit the space where grasses and herbs can grow between adjacent shrubs.
   
  Cold scrubland (heath) vegetation is an assemblage of dense to semi-dense 
  growth of shrubs adapted to fire. These shrubs have thick-walled cells and waxy, hard 
  leaves with small surface area. Many of these shrubs are found in other ecosystems like 
  deciduous forest. Heathlands only occur on nutrient-poor soils. They’re extensive in 
  
  50
  artic regions and common in alpine areas throughout the world. They’re also found in 
  lowland poor soils that are commonly waterlogged. Heathlands also experience fires 
  just like their warm-climate cousin, but not as regularly.
   
  Both types of scrublands o�en play an important successional role before being 
  replaced by a forest if the soil is adequate. As many scrublands are the result of misuse 
  by intelligent species, and given enough time alone, some eventually regenerate into 
  forests. These scrublands are o�en thick with blackberrys, hawthorns, greenbriers, and 
  dogwoods, which rank high as wildlife food.
   
  Scrublands have their own particular wildlife. The ever-present insects, mule 
  deer, coyotes, jackrabbits, sage grouse, kangaroo, wallaby, and many different types of 
  rodents all make scrublands their home. Birds are common in scrublands, and many 
  migratory birds use them in their travels. Several species are particularly adapted, 
  and even dependent upon, farmland hedgerows. Since these hedges o�en stand for 
  hundreds of years, the whitethroat, linnet, blackbird, and yellowhammer have all 
  adapted to this specific niche. Sheep and goats are excellently suited to scrublands, 
  being close-to-the-ground grazers.
   
  Deserts are defined by rainfall: extreme deserts have less than 2.75 inches of 
  rain a year, true deserts have less than 4.75 inches of rain a year, and semideserts have 
  less than 16 inches of rain per year. Deserts occupy two distinct belts between 15° and 
  35° latitude north and south of the equator. Deserts generally form in three ways: 
  through high-pressure zones, mountain ranges, and continental depth. High-pressure 
  zones result from the sun’s energy and the Coriolis effect, mountain ranges create rain 
  shadows on their leeward side (most air moisture drops as rain on their windward 
  side), and the interior of large continents are so far removed from the ocean that the 
  winds have already dropped all their moisture by the time they get there. Where more 
  than one of these comes into play at once major deserts occur, like the Sahara with its 
  high-pressure zones and continental depth.
   
  Deserts have a wide range of temperatures, both annually and daily. Deserts 
  can be cold as well as hot. Since there is li�le moisture or vegetation to absorb solar 
  energy, almost all (90%) of the sun’s energy penetrates and heats the ground. This makes 
  the temperature differences from day to night great. Desserts have stark topologies, 
  ironically o�en partially shaped by water. Without vegetation, the unprotected soil 
  erodes away under the strength of strong windstorms. When rare rain occurs, it is o�en 
  very violent and forms flash floods through arroyos out onto the playas. Eventually 
  the water finds a low spot, and for the briefest time, lakes stand in the desert. But 
  they quickly evaporate away under the unforgiving sky, leaving only dry lakebeds, 
  glistening with the salt particles le� behind from the leached soil.
   
  Dessert plants vary depending upon rainfall. Semideserts can verge on being 
  grasslands or scrublands, while extreme deserts have very li�le plant life and only in 
  certain locations. Common plants to all deserts are cacti of some variety and short 
  grasses, usually bunched as opposed to turf. Some cacti grow to massive size like 
  the saguaro, but most are much smaller. All of them are well adapted to the limited 
  rainfall and possess strong defenses (o�en thorns or chemical defenses) against what 
  few grazers live in the desert. Some plants (drought evaders) only live during the brief 
  periods of rain, and then die a�er making seeds for the next time moisture is available, 
  but most dessert plants are drought resisters.
   
  Animals develop the same two adaptations. Some are drought 
  evaders that go into a dormancy stage during dry periods. For 
  example, the spadefoot toad remains underground in a gelatinous-
  lined, watery cell and only makes brief reproductive and feeding 
  appearances during the “rainy season.” Intelligent species in the 
  desert are not above making these toads’ watery cells a source of 
  water in necessity. Nothing’s quite as refreshing as a bit of toady 
  
  51
  water to quench a thirst! Desert food webs are generally simple in comparison to other 
  biomes, both in width and length. In semi-desserts, like on savannas, termites can play 
  major roles in the ecosystem by reducing, transporting, and concentrating nutrient 
  resources.
   
  Reptiles are common in deserts along with birds. Reptiles need significantly 
  less food than mammals, and birds have a big advantage with flight. Since resources 
  are o�en sca�ered over large distances, flight makes survival easier than terrestrial 
  movement. Few large animals call the desert home, but camels, oryx, wild horses, 
  pumas, and coyotes successfully survive the desert’s challenges. A few rare herds 
  of elephants survive in the true desert by constantly moving from oasis to oasis and 
  mixing their environment with forays into the savanna. These elephants of the desert 
  remember the location of each oasis, even though some are days apart through sandy 
  country.
  Rivers and Lakes
   
  The first of our aquatic biomes, rivers and lakes are created by water’s search 
  for equilibrium in its environment. Only a fraction of a percent of all the water on a 
  planet is in rivers or lakes, but this fraction is very important to life. Rivers and lakes 
  are always life-rich zones, especially in harsh dry lands. Besides their life-giving 
  similarities, rivers also share physical characteristics. Every river, regardless of its size, 
  begins somewhere as a spring or a seepage area, or they begin as an outflow from a 
  pond, lake, or glacier. The water drains away from its source, following the lay of the 
  land and underlying rock formations. This rill erodes small furrows that eventually 
  turn into gullies. As it continues its downward movement, especially in steep areas, the 
  water picks up a load of debris and carries it along. This helps the river cut more quickly 
  as debris-laden water abrades the ground and rock faster than water without debris. 
  Sooner or later the water deposits its load on its bed, along its bank, or in a pond, lake, 
  sea, or ocean. In a mountain, this erosion eats away more strongly at the head of a gully, 
  eventually cu�ing it backward up the slope and increasing the drainage areas.
   
  Close to its source, a stream is usually small, straight, and swi� because of the 
  generally steeper gradient, and some possess waterfalls or rapids. Downstream, where 
  the gradient is less steep, the stream’s speed decreases, and it may start to meander, 
  leaving behind its load of sediment on its banks or on its floodplain. Whenever a stream 
  flows into a lake or a river flows into the sea, the speed of the river is suddenly checked 
  by the large body of water. This forces the river to quickly deposit most of its debris 
  load in a fan shaped pa�ern known as a delta. These deltas can be immense, but most 
  of them are much smaller.
   
  Streams are classified into orders depending upon their merging. For example, 
  streams without any tributaries are first-order streams. Whenever two streams of the 
  same order merge, they become one stream of the next highest order. In other words, 
  a second-order stream is created when two first-order streams meet, and two second-
  order steams joining together create a third-order stream. Streams are generally 
  headwater streams if they belong to orders 1-3 (around 16 inches to 30�. wide), 
  medium-sized streams if they belong to orders 4-6 (around 30-150�. wide), and rivers 
  if they belong to orders 7-12 (around 150�. to a mile or more wide). These are useful 
  approximations, and as always, some rivers are atypical.
   
  River speed and size determine river life. Fast rivers are more barren than slow 
  ones, and large ones are more populated than small ones while higher order rivers have 
  larger organisms and usually more diversity as well. Few plants can live in streams 
  with a stony bed, but mosses, liverworts, ferns, shrubs, and trees o�en grace their 
  riverbanks. In dryer climates, trees and shrubs can follow streams or rivers through 
  terrain they could not normally survive. Headwater streams are typically swi�, fairly 
  cold, and o�en lie in forested regions. 90% of their organic input comes from detritus 
  
  52
  from the surrounding terrain falling 
  into the stream, with a large portion 
  of that being leaves. Headwaters that 
  are out in the sunshine can get the 
  majority of their organic material from 
  autotrophs, but even then, most of that 
  material ends up in the detrital (as 
  opposed to the grazing) food chain. 
  At this point, all creatures are fairly 
  small as the streams are fairly small, 
  but these headwater streams and 
  medium-sized streams act as detrital 
  collectors from their drainage basins. 
  Feeding a full-sized river with great 
  amounts of detrital material provide 
  a good stable base upon which to 
  support larger life. Full-sized rivers 
  support many creatures. Insects, fish, 
  birds, mollusks, crustaceans, hippos, 
  crocodiles, turtles, manatees, o�ers, 
  beavers, and even freshwater dolphin 
  all live within the water. The river also 
  supports life outside of its banks simply 
  by being a source of drinking water.
   Lakes 
  are 
  depressions 
  in 
  the 
  landscape filled with water. This doesn’t 
  sound like much, but lakes have long 
  entranced intelligent species with their 
  ready resources. Lakes are anywhere 
  from 3�. to 6,500�. deep (or deeper) and 
  provide a constant resource to intelligent life. Along their banks, lakes possess very 
  similar vegetation and wildlife as do rivers, but o�en without as great a worry of flood. 
  Lakes are vertically stratified just like any three dimensional environment with certain 
  species favoring shorelines while others prefer the depths. Lakes provide a constant 
  source of water, and life is denser near them.
   
  Both the vegetation and wildlife around lakes depend upon the surrounding 
  landscape. However, lakes can have a geographically isolated effect upon the water-
  breathing creatures within them. In this manner, lakes function like aquatic islands; 
  places where evolutionary specialization occurs. Old and large lakes can have many 
  species unique to their waters and can even hold the last few remnants of ancient 
  species that have been out-competed by newer species throughout the rest of the world. 
  Every great lake has its special monsters.
  Swamps and Marshes
   
  Swamps and marshes are wetlands where the rivers and lakes mesh with 
  the soil, lands in which the water is just as important as the soil in life’s movement. 
  Wetlands come in three basic varieties with significant differences: basin wetlands 
  (wetlands created by depressions in the land and by water flowing vertically), riverine 
  wetlands (wetlands created by rivers and streams and by water flowing in one 
  direction), and fringe wetlands (wetlands created along the coast of large lakes, seas, 
  or oceans and by water flowing in two directions). Wetlands dominated by herbaceous 
  vegetation are called marshes while wetlands dominated by trees are called swamps. 
  Wetlands in which a significant amount of water is retained in decaying vegetation are 
  
  53
  called peatlands or mires. Peatlands dominated by sedges and in which water flows 
  up are called fens. Peatlands in which the majority of the water arrives in the form of 
  precipitation and are dominated by sphagnum moss are called bogs. Moors develop 
  where the compressed peat of mires acts as a barrier between the water and the soil. 
  The water collects on top of the moor (much like water and permafrost actually) and 
  forms a perched water table above the true soil. Some of the most dangerous bogs are 
  termed quaking bogs. These bogs form when a lake basin slowly fills in from above as 
  layer a�er layer of sphagnum moss falls to the lake floor. Eventually large floating mats 
  of moss completely cover large pools of water, creating a death trap for any unlucky or 
  foolish creature.
   
  Swamps and marshes are very rich ecosystems with productivity of the best 
  wetlands matching that of rainforests. Vegetation is measured along the hydrosere, an 
  imaginary line running from the dry outer edges to the heart of the wetlands. Along 
  this line plants slowly adapt to the increasing water levels. Sometimes as plant material 
  builds up, water plants (like waterlily) are slowly replaced with emergent species 
  that normally root in the shallows. These emergent species o�en grow fast and thick, 
  papyrus being a good example. Papyrus forms in floating mats that break away from 
  the main body and float away (similar to icebergs calving off of ice shelves, but much 
  smaller of course).
   
  In swamps trees compose the main part of the vegetative biomass, and they 
  are adapted to their submerged existence. As the ground is unstable, they develop 
  bu�ressed roots to keep them upright.  They o�en develop aerial roots that peep 
  over the water top to collect needed oxygen because there is very li�le oxygen in the 
  soil under the water. This is particularly evident in mangrove swamps. Mangrove 
  trees, whose stilt-like roots provide both stability and oxygen to the plant, dominate 
  mangrove swamps. Mangrove swamps are salt-water swamps found along coastlines 
  that play a slow and important role in claiming land from the ocean. As they grow 
  and die and grow and die, they slowly build up the swampland above the sea level 
  while pushing the boundaries of the swamp further out into the sea. The basket-like 
  complexity of the mangrove roots provides a haven for the young of many ocean fish.
  
  54
   
  Marshes are composed mainly of herbaceous vegetation like bulrushes, 
  papyrus, ca�ails, wild rice and many different types of grasses. Marshes can be both 
  fresh water and salt water. The majority of marshes tend to be fresh water, but along 
  seas or oceans, salt-water marshes are fairly common. Salt-water marshes o�en have 
  tidal concerns not addressed in freshwater marshes. Depending on the tide, the 
  marsh can be nearly dry, almost completely submerged, or any step in between. These 
  marshes are the home to the ubiquitous fiddler crab. These fellows have both lungs and 
  gills, endure periods of cold winter without oxygen, have salt-control systems allowing 
  them to move freely between salty and fresh water, omnivorously eat algae and small 
  animals, and turn over the soil like earthworms as they dig their burrows.
   
  All wetlands are rich with animal life. Their many different water levels 
  provide great environments for crabs and many other crustaceans. Fish find wetlands 
  good environments because they provide continual detrital food as well as good 
  shelter for the small fry. This o�en leads to vast amounts of waterfowl that find food 
  comparatively easily. Herbivores find wetlands a haven of many sorts. Snails, geese, 
  mallards, and hippos all find plenty of food. On prairie marshes, the muskrat is o�en 
  the top herbivore, capable of eating out emergent vegetation to create open-water 
  marshes. Mink prey upon the muskrats and usually keep their numbers to reasonable 
  levels. Other small predators include raccoons, foxes, weasels, and skunks that keep the 
  waterfowl numbers in check. Larger predators feature the fearsome crocodile, alligator, 
  and anaconda. These three reptiles are renowned ambush predators.
  
  55
  Coastlines, Oceans and Islands
   
  Oceans, coastlines and islands are as variable as the climate in which you find 
  them, but they almost always share some similar characteristics. Freshwater coastlines 
  teem with life as animals of all sorts enjoy the constant water source. Saltwater coastlines 
  teem with marine life, as over 90% of all the life in an ocean exists within 150 miles of 
  shore. Freshwater islands usually find themselves occupied because of their defensive 
  abilities, and saltwater islands are breeding grounds for strange and unique creatures, 
  becoming an oasis of marine life in the deep ocean.
   
  Far in the north and south of a world, coastlines are the rare places where life 
  exists. Cold breeding grounds for seals, walruses, penguins and many different fish 
  create a ring of life around dead, barren land. The coastlines of the rest of the world are 
  just as important, even if not occupied by thousands of languishing mammals. Coasts 
  vary with environments; they can be sheer cliffs, sandy beaches, mudflats, rocky beaches 
  or any combination. Coasts are constantly changing as well, not only from undercu�ing 
  and sand migration, but also from tidal effects. On some coasts, the tidal range can 
  
  56
  be greater than 50 feet. 
  All of these different 
  e n v i r o n m e n t s 
  contain 
  different 
  species adapted to 
  the rhythm of the 
  coastline.
   
  Estuaries 
  are 
  a 
  type 
  of 
  coastline 
  where 
  rivers feed into the 
  ocean. 
  Freshwater 
  mingles with the salt 
  water to create semi-
  enclosed 
  parts 
  of 
  the 
  coastal ocean where fresh 
  water and salt mater mixes. 
  As the river nears the sea, 
  they drop their sediments into the riverbed just inside the mouth 
  of the river. These sediments build dam-like barriers to the river, but the 
  river keeps finding new ways to the ocean. Though this process sounds similar 
  to delta building, the process that makes estuaries is not as advanced as deltas. You 
  could say that deltas were at one time estuaries, but not all estuaries turn into deltas. 
  If a river’s flow is slow, the ocean tide may roll up the river, creating a tidal surge and 
  giving rivers miles from the sea a brackish taste. It is not unheard of for sharks to swim 
  up these tidal rivers and are sometimes found miles inland. But most rivers don’t 
  experience this effect and instead throw out a layer of freshwater over the salt water 
  of the ocean. Since freshwater floats on salt water, this area of fresh water created by 
  a river can sometimes be immense. For example, the biggest river on our base planet, 
  the Amazon River, creates a layer of drinkable freshwater over the ocean 40 miles out 
  to sea before mixing with the salt water. Needless to say, the marine life in this area is 
  unique.
   
  Coastlines are so o�en rich in life because they provide photosynthetic 
  phytoplankton (especially where oceans upwell nutrients). Phytoplankton are like 
  the plants of the sea; they are the building blocks upon which almost all ocean life 
  depends. Remember my earlier statement that terrestrial food web rarely exceed four 
  trophic levels? In the open ocean, there are commonly five to six different trophic levels. 
  Phytoplankton are eaten by herbivorous zooplankton, who are eaten by carnivorous 
  zooplankton, who are eaten by small carnivorous fish, who are eaten by larger 
  carnivorous fish, who are eaten by very large carnivorous fish (dolphins, sharks), who 
  are then sometimes eaten by the monstrous tyrants of the seas. Ocean food webs are 
  o�en long and wide, but some species intensely specialize into smaller food webs just 
  like their terrestrial neighbors.
   
  The deep ocean is a different ma�er completely. Life is strange, harsh, and 
  largely depends upon the dead ma�er that falls from above in a constant putrid 
  rain. The deep ocean is dark, cold, and highly pressurized, but creatures calling the 
  endless depths their home are well equipped. Bioluminescence is common and used 
  for a�racting prey (angler fish), defensive purposes (some jellyfish), and as a way of 
  finding a mate. At the bo�om of the sea are filter feeders (slow detritus-eating bo�om 
  movers), quick opportunist detrital feeders, and predators. Food is relatively consistent 
  though scarce, and feeding frenzies ensue when great amounts of detrital material 
  makes its way to the bo�om. When a large creature (like a whale) dies and sinks to the 
  sea floor, it provides plentiful food for the benthic creatures for a year and half. 
  
  57
   
  The deep ocean is also home to hydrothermal vents found along volcanic 
  ridges. These springs constantly vent very hot water rich in minerals (mostly sulfides). 
  Temperatures around these vents get as high as 550°F, heating the surrounding water 
  from its typical 35°F to 45°F-60°F. These vents support a rich diversity of unusual life. 
  Giant clams, mussels, polychaete worms, and crabs of many different species live 
  around the chimney-like black and white smokers (vents are defined by the color of 
  material they extrude). The primary producers in this environment are chemosynthetic 
  bacteria that oxidize the sulfur compounds to form organic ma�er. The consumers of 
  these creatures have developed unique ways to avoid sulfur poisoning that would 
  happen with most other organisms.
  Caves and Underground Environments
   
  There are three main types of caves: limestone caves, lava caves, and ice 
  caves. Limestone caves are the caves most familiar to explorers, and they are the most 
  common. They form when water dissolves limestone on its way through the water table 
  or down to the table. The water dissolves limestone due the acidity picked up as it falls 
  through the air and travels through stone. Most other stones are more resistant than 
  limestone (although gypsum and halite are exceptions to this rule) and are not eroded 
  in such a manner. Over long periods of time, these small erosions create large caves or 
  even massive cave complexes.
   
  This erosive process usually begins on the surface. Over time sinkholes form on 
  the surface feeding the cave system. Over these cave systems, water doesn’t flow very 
  far on the surface before descending into a sinkhole. Some sinkholes become clogged 
  with debris, plugging the drain into the cave system and creating sinkhole ponds. 
  These sinkhole ponds also unplug and drain several acres of water into the cave system 
  overnight. More disturbing are sinkholes that result from collapsing caves.  These 
  sinkholes are as deep as 150 feet and several acres in size. The pockmarked terrain 
  feeding cave systems is called karst topography.
   
  Within the cave proper, the same erosive process creates many mineral 
  decorations. As the mineral-laden water moves, it deposits some of its load through 
  evaporation. This creates the numerous pleasing formations found in caves. Many 
  of them are carbonate speleothems, and they’re classified according to their shape. 
  Stalactites, stalagmites, soda straws, cave bacon, columns, draperies, and flowstones 
  are all carbonate speleothems, decorating natural underground environments.
  
  58
   
  Opposite of limestone caves are lava caves, created through the movement 
  of lava from geological hotspots (mostly volcanoes). Lava flows eventually enclose 
  themselves because the outer layers harden while the inner layers still flow, carving 
  long tubes under the hardened shell. If the lava evacuates the tube, lava caves are 
  born. Lava caves share formations with limestone caves, but they’re formed differently. 
  Cooling lava creates tube formations as it splashes, drips, flows, and spa�ers.
   
  Ice caves are caves created in large pieces of ice, usually glaciers. Most ice 
  caves form as flowing water etches open areas within the ice. Sometimes ice caves form 
  when ice breaks open, snow fills the crack, and the snow compacts into ice, though this 
  method is more rare. Ice caves are particularly dangerous to explore, as they are the 
  most transitory of all caves and o�en unstable. Unlike limestone caves and lava tubes, 
  ice caves fluctuate faster than typical geography since water cuts through ice rather 
  than stone.
   
  In general, caves have a very stable environment in comparison to the surface. 
  Everything changes much slower, though change does occur. Temperatures vary based 
  upon air movement, and the slight discrepancies between the deep cave and the surface 
  cave create wind. The slight differences in humidity also create the cave’s form of rain: 
  the alteration of the dew point. Some places are naturally more humid and wet than 
  others. But all of these things only occur in “live” caves. “Dead” caves no longer have 
  water flowing through them and contain almost no life.
   
  Cave life is minimal without photosynthesis. There are three types of cave 
  life. Troglobites can only complete their life cycles inside a cave system (eyeless fish, 
  shrimp, and crayfish). Troglophiles can complete their life cycles in caves if there is 
  food enough (worms, snails, cave crickets, cave spiders). Troglexenes cannot complete 
  their life cycles inside a cave, but use caves for shelter or other important behaviors 
  (bats, rats, flies). Much of the life depends upon the detrital chain; for example, flowing 
  water brings decomposing creatures to feed the eyeless fish, shrimp and crayfish. Some 
  caves support chemosynthetic life, though this relies on hydrothermal venting or water 
  traveling through super-saturated stone. Magic plays its greatest role underground, 
  where magiotrophs form the base for a complex underground food chain.
  
  59
  Mountains
   
  Mountains are the most variable of terrain. Within them you may find boreal 
  forests, grasslands, wetlands, and scrublands. Almost any of the other environments 
  may be found in mountainous regions. Mountains are most influenced by latitude. 
  If two mountains are of the same height, the mountain in the higher latitudes has 
  fewer climate zones than the mountain found closer to the equator. The next factor is 
  mountain elevation; for every 200 �. (roughly) the average temperature drops 0.7°F. 
  Another main influencer on ecosystems is rain; a mountain usually has a “wet” side 
  and a “dry” side depending on the general direction of the wind. The difference may be 
  slight, but rainfall differentials increase with tall mountains and wind that consistently 
  flow from one direction. The last factor is sunlight. Many mountains have a sunny and 
  a shady side that greatly influences what plants flourish. Mountains are a microcosm of 
  the greater systems on a planet.
   
  Mountains act as islands on an earthly sea. Their creatures develop in sheltered 
  environments that tend to favor specialization and speciation. This is not to say that 
  mountains only have unique species; many mountain species live both on the slopes 
  and the flatlands.  However, mountains facilitate small and specialized ecosystems 
  when compared with the surrounding terrain. Some mountain ranges are home to 
  dozens of different species of the same creature, and some creatures are only found on 
  particular mountains. This effect is most noticeable on tropical mountains, as the cool 
  temperatures found on their slopes are to be found nowhere else for hundreds, perhaps 
  thousands, of miles.
   
  Reading over these short descriptions of mine, I see their incompleteness. Each 
  one of these concepts and environments are complex enough for an entire library’s 
  worth of books, and my a�empt to cull such massive amounts of information into a 
  few spare paragraphs seems feeble. For all our power of discernment, perception, and 
  synthesis, we are still severely limited in one unfortunate manner. Without asking the 
  right questions, we cannot hope to find the answers so easily perceived once the proper 
  questions are asked. Hopefully these writings spur the right questions in your world-
  building effort. If nothing else, they should prevent you from making some basic faulty 
  assumptions.
  6,096 m.
  (20,000 ft.)
  4,572 m.
  (15,000 ft.)
  3, 048 m.
  (10,000 ft.)
  1,524 m.
  (5,000 ft.)
  Tropical highland zonation
  Temperate highland zonation
  Zone of permanent
  snow
  snowline
  snowline
  Zone of alpine
  meadows and
  forests
  Zone of permanent
  snow
  Zone of
  grains
  Agricultural zone
  Agricultural zone
  Zone of alpine
  meadows and
  forests
  
  60
  Interlude
   
  Kierian gazed into the mirror, hardly recognizing the eyes that stared 
  back. His ink-stained fingers touched his cheek; the contact did little in way 
  of reassurance. He found it difficult to enumerate the subtle changes in his 
  countenance. Though he wasn’t aged, his eyes garnered a visage only old age 
  and wisdom granted. Like his hands, once rough and calloused from battle, his 
  face lost its coarse quality, graced with lines from an oft-furrowed, pensive 
  brow. Kierian was uncertain how such a softened face emanated strength and 
  authority rather than lessening; yet he did not doubt his growing presence.
   
  The godling marked time by the moments between working, and Kierian 
  could no longer ignore the sum of such moments. How much time has passed since 
  he began creating? What of his world? Were they all still there, frozen since 
  the moment of his ascension? Or are they all long past bones in their graves? 
  These thoughts tread lightly, but Kierian felt their weight increase steadily. He 
  assumed becoming a god provided him with more answers. He didn’t anticipate 
  that he would ask different questions once he got there.
  
  61
   
  Noj entered whistling and sidestepping a cheerful jig, attracting Kierian’s 
  gaze from his reflection. The gnome was more burdened than usual: more rolls 
  of parchment under his arm, more knickknacks and notes bulging from his 
  pockets, and a definite gleam in his umber eyes. “Do you know what today is?”
   
  “Gnome Appreciation Day?” Kierian posed with amusement at his 
  assistant’s gaity.
   
  “No. Today you create your world and fill it with creatures. No more 
  rulers and compasses for you.” The giddy gnome danced, putting everything 
  away. “I was up all night with your notes and sketches, and I’ve run a few 
  dozen schematics. So far the only problem seems to be with the Petola fault line, 
  but it’s nothing a few mountains can’t solve.”
   
  Kierian nodded complacently with a curt, “that’s good.”
   
  Noj’s eye’s narrowed with study. “Something the matter?”
   
  “No,” Kierian put his hand on the curling parchment and feigned interest 
  in the Petola fault line. “What makes you think something’s wrong?”
   
  “It’s just that I couldn’t help notice your lack of enthusiasm. You’ve 
  been wanting to test your divine abilities, yet not so much a ‘hurrah’ upon my 
  announcement.”
   
  The godling retracted his hand and his feigned interest. The parchment 
  rolled inward. “How long have we been at this, Noj?”
   
  “Well, time works differently here, so it really depends on which standard 
  of time you compare it to. If you are using standard divine time…”
   
  Kierian shook his head, forgetting the gnome’s literal tendency. “No, 
  that’s not what I mean. If I were to go back, how much time has passed since I 
  killed Korgol?” Kierian ran his hands through his once-short hair.
   
  Noj removed his lenses with his small, wizened hands. “You can’t go back. 
  You know that.”
   
  Kierian grinned a pensive, devilish, private smile and laughed tersely. 
  “Yes, I suppose I do. I’m a god after all.”
   
  “Come. We’ll put your world together.” He unraveled the parchment and 
  weighted the ends. “Then we’ll start with the dragons.”
  
  62
  Mapping Your World
  (Part II)
  Step Five: Weather
  Generative Forces
   
  Mapping weather pa�erns is the most complex subject so far and requires 
  more information than the previous steps. Only a�er we place all the landmasses can 
  we infer global weather pa�erns. Assuming a world relatively similar to Earth in tilt 
  and orbit around the sun, global weather pa�erns follow a few basic rules. Weather 
  is a planet’s a�empt to equalize the heat it receives from the sun. The sun’s rays warm 
  oceans and lakes, and heat rises off land and water into the atmosphere. The warming 
  of the atmosphere results in weather. Ho�er air becomes less dense, rises, and displaces 
  the cooler air in the atmosphere. The poles are cooler because the sun’s rays transfer less 
  heat due to their low angle near the poles. Near the equator, the sun’s rays strike the 
  planet more directly and transfer more heat. This difference in heat distribution drives 
  air currents and ocean currents in a pa�ern of motion called convection.
   
  Besides this heat imbalance, there is one other major creator in weather pa�erns: 
  the Coriolis effect. The Coriolis effect is the curving of the air and water currents due to 
  a planet’s rotation. Since most planets rotate, you can thank the universe’s preference 
  for circular movement for making your work more complex. As the cooler air from the 
  poles makes its way towards the equator, the planet rotates eastward. The air current 
  thus bends towards the west with respect to the surface and continues to bend because 
  the speed of the surface increases the closer the air gets to the equator. The reverse 
  happens with the warm air that rises from the equator and makes it way to the poles. 
  Weather is less complex on 
  planets that do not rotate 
  on an axis. Planets rectify 
  the heat imbalance with a 
  simple airflow and a water 
  flow. Generally, a cool wind 
  blows from the poles to the 
  equator in a straight line. At 
  the tropics, the air warms 
  and moves to the top of the 
  atmosphere, heading back 
  to the pole from which it 
  came. Water currents follow 
  the same general pattern. 
  Deep cold waters flow to the 
  tropics, and warm tropical 
  waters flow back to the poles. 
  The only changes in airflow 
  result from mountains or 
  large bodies of water, while 
  continents stand as the sole 
  disruptors to water flow.
  It Does Not Move
  Equator
  30 N
  30 S
  60 N
  60 S
  H
  H
  L
  L
  
  63
  The Coriolis effect forces “pile-ups” of this upper level air because it can’t make it’s way 
  unimpeded back to the pole. The air north and south of the equator (at around 20°-30° 
  north and south) can’t escape to the poles fast enough. High-pressure areas build up, 
  push down on the planet, and create winds towards the north and south. These winds 
  are also deflected because of the Coriolis effect and move diagonally westward. This 
  equatorial gyre is repeated twice more until they reach the poles. Each gyre creates an 
  alternating wind pa�ern. The trade winds move west, the westerlies move east (given 
  that name because the wind blows from the west as it moves east), and the easterlies 
  move west.
   
  Air and water gyres are the final things created by the Coriolis. Water and air 
  are both affected by the planet’s rotation and develop not only convection currents (the 
  currents established by temperature differences), but also giant rotation currents. North 
  of the equator, water and air circle in a clockwise pa�ern: south of the equator, water 
  and air circle in a counter-clockwise pa�ern. The air currents heavily influence the 
  surface-water currents, but deeper ocean currents (similar to the upper air currents) do 
  play a small role in water pa�erns. Bodies of water, landmasses, and mountains further 
  complicate these general air and water pa�erns.
  Water and Land
   
  Although the sun is weather’s primary driver, the oceans provide the life-
  giving water that the sun’s heat moves through the planet. The movement of water 
  on a planet is fairly complex, but it can be easily simplified for mapping purposes. 
  Water evaporates under the sun’s heat and collects in the air forming clouds. When 
  the moisture level of the air becomes greater than it can hold (usually because a 
  temperature change) rain falls back on the surface of the planet. The movement of air 
  carries this water vapor off the oceans and onto the land (most of the rain on a planet 
  comes from oceanic evaporation) and into the life on the land.
  0
  30
  30
  60
  60
  It Does Move
  Polar high
  Polar high
  Polar easterlies
  Polar easterlies
  Subpolar low
  Subpolar low
  Westerlies
  Westerlies
  Subtropical high
  Subtropical high
  Northeast trade winds
  Intertropical convergence zone
  Southeast trade winds
  This diagram shows the 
  Coriolis effect at work 
  on Earth and can be 
  applied on any other 
  planet of similar make. 
  Notice 
  how 
  surface 
  air is flowing up at 
  the equator and at the 
  subpolar lows. High-
  altitude air is flowing 
  to the surface at the 
  subtropical highs and 
  the polar highs. This also 
  shows the gyres going 
  clockwise in the north 
  and 
  counterclockwise 
  in the south. The polar 
  highs produce a very 
  strong and steady wind, 
  called the katabatic.
  
  64
   
  Water is generally subject to the air currents and their subsequent rain pa�erns, 
  but it also influences them. The oceans heat and cool slower and to a lesser degree 
  than land. This difference is very important. Water can store about five times the heat 
  energy that land can store, which means water can absorb about five times more energy 
  without its temperature increasing. The sun’s rays are also diffused over a much greater 
  area of water (since light can penetrate water), which further reduces the maximum 
  temperature water reaches in comparison with land. Water is also mobile allowing 
  convection to distribute uneven heating easier than land and the unlimited amount of 
  moisture in water means it can evaporate (and hence cool) unlimitedly when compared 
  to land. All of this means that because water retains more heat, it cools slower during 
  winter than land; conversely it takes longer to heat up once summer arrives again.
   
  All of water’s unique properties have significant effects upon weather, and 
  over time, climate because it changes temperatures. The ho�est and coldest places on 
  a planet will be on the interior of continents, far away from the influence of the oceans. 
  The oceans act as a great heat sink; absorbing heat in summer and releasing it in winter. 
  You should look at the amount of water in the northern and southern hemispheres 
  of your new planet. The hemisphere with the most water will have less variance in 
  annual temperature ranges for each latitude. On Earth, the Northern Hemisphere is 
  39% land while the Southern Hemisphere is 19% land. This causes the more extreme 
  temperatures typical of the Northern Hemisphere.
   
  Land has just as great an impact upon weather and climate as water. Unlike 
  water, land quickly gains and loses heat. This leads to generally more erratic winds 
  over landmasses than over oceans as the land cools quickly and in different proportions 
  depending on its vegetative cover (the more plants, the slower it gains and loses heat; 
  the fewer plants the quicker the process). This difference in cooling is noticeable in 
  mountainous areas as mountains have more surface area per square mile than most 
  other terrain types and particularly noticeable in deserts, which lose their day’s heat 
  very quickly. Another important difference in weather over the land and over water is 
  humidity. More evaporation occurs over water, so most humid air (the air that brings 
  rain) comes from evaporation over oceans or other large bodies of water, like the Great 
  Lakes. Most of the rain falling on the continents comes from evaporation off the oceans. 
  Thus, if a continent is large, the centers will be very dry because most of the moisture 
  has already dropped out of the wind. Central Asia (Gobi Desert) is a good example of 
  this.
   
  Terrain types and their respective vegetation levels influence weather 
  through their respective heat absorption and release levels, but mountains are the 
  only geographical features capable of affecting weather pa�erns outside of the sun’s 
  influence. Mountains are physical barriers to wind and the cause massive disturbances 
  in weather pa�erns, particularly rainfall. Air rises as it goes up a mountain, cooling it. 
  This cooling reduces the amount of moisture the air can hold and o�en results in rain. 
  This means, that in general, a mountain range will have a wet and a dry side. If the 
  range is a large one and winds are fairly consistent in their direction, the mountain can 
  create a rain shadow, effectively creating a desert. This can even happen on a smaller 
  scale, like the island of Hawaii, where the eastern side receives the trade winds and an 
  annual rainfall of 150 inches while the other side of the island only receives 9 inches of 
  rain a year. A few (or a pair in the case of Hawaii) mountains can dramatically change 
  weather. 
  Mapping the Phenomenon
   
  Mapping all of the complexities of weather is something simply beyond the 
  need of most new worlds. The general principles discussed above should provide you 
  with enough raw information to look at your maps and make some decisions.
  
  65
   
  First, you should basically mimic the air pa�erns as influenced by the Coriolis 
  effect. This provides a baseline that is agreeable to every other assumption about the 
  working of weather. Adopting the basic ocean currents to the new world is the next 
  step. Continental placement will affect this more than air pa�erns, but as long as the 
  same general pa�erns of movement (gyres, areas of lows and highs) are maintained, 
  the currents should closely mimic the Earth’s because they’re also influenced by heat 
  and rotation. Our goal is to make a map that takes into account the natural functions of 
  the universe. Before we can put down an ancient jungle kingdom, we’d best make sure 
  it’s where the planet is going to naturally create a jungle. We can use magic to do it, but 
  pre-planning avoids a lot of post-creation headaches.
   
  Around the equator and around 60° N and S there are wet zones. Around 30° N 
  and S (and more exactly the tropics) will be dry areas. This is a gross simplification, but 
  it’ll get us where we need to go for right now. Mountains will affect the degree of rain, 
  so be certain to indicate rain shadows based upon wind movement.
  Step Five: Example
   
  To map the weather, I used the equator, the tropics, artic circles, and latitudes 
  30º and 60º. Since my tilt is very Earth-like, I don’t have to worry about weather 
  pa�erns drastically diverging from Earth norms. I drew in the wind pa�erns based 
  upon the Coriolis effect. A�er the air, I mapped the water currents, showing the typical 
  gyre pa�erns. This is fairly straightforward, even though it’s a very complex physical 
  process. I then mapped in the wet and dry latitudinal zones, again based upon the 
  Coriolis effect.
   
  Throughout this process, I’ve made a lot of arbitrary, but plausible, decisions. 
  The movement of the wind is more complex than I’ve shown, but again, the pa�ern 
  generally follows what I’ve put down. The same is true of ocean currents. They 
  almost all follow the gyres according to their hemisphere (clockwise in the north, 
  counterclockwise in the south), but there are some exceptions. I have a few currents 
  that split and head in differing directions, but even these currents eventually follow 
  the overall pa�ern. For example, the current off the east coast of continent B splits and 
  flows up the coastline while the other part gyres up to continent C. The coastal flow up 
  continent B eventually gyres back and rejoins at continent C. A good example of split 
  currents is the Atlantic Equatorial Current. It travels from Africa to South American and 
  splits. One flow goes south along the east coast of South America, and the other flows 
  along the northern coast of South America. The southern split maintains the traditional 
  counterclockwise gyre, but the northern current crosses the equator and eventually 
  gyres clockwise as part of the Florida Current and the Gulf Stream. Generally, cold 
  currents are moving from high latitudes to low latitudes, while warm currents are 
  moving from low latitudes to high latitudes. On my world, a strong cold current flows 
  from the south to the north along the west coast of continent E while a warm current 
  moves north along the east coast of continent B.
  Step Six: Climate Zones and Rivers
   
  Climate is where rain and temperature mix, therefore latitude, altitude, and 
  wind pa�ern all shape climates. An idealized world has the pa�ern shown in the List 
  of Climate zones. Place each type of climate on your map in roughly the same manner. 
  Again, pay a�ention to where the wind blows and where the mountains are. General 
  elevation may play a role depending on how vast an area you’ve elevated. The Tibetan 
  plateau is a good example of an elevated area changing the expected climate. More than 
  elevated areas, ocean currents play an important role in determining climate. Warm 
  currents heat the air around them, making Europe very habitable for example, while 
  cold currents can temper a warm climate. Cold currents sometimes reduce rainfall along 
  
  66
  coastlines because they cool 
  the air above them, restricting 
  the amount of water the air 
  can carry.
   
  Rivers are easy to 
  place at this scope; we’re just 
  looking to place a few major 
  rivers 
  on 
  each 
  continent. 
  Remember that water flows 
  downhill and wet areas have 
  more water than dry areas. 
  Rivers are the easiest part 
  of this step, so have fun and 
  pay a�ention to where they’re 
  going, because they’ll be the 
  cradles of your forthcoming 
  civilizations. 
  Overall, 
  this 
  step is the most complex of 
  all the mapping steps. The 
  vast diversity of climate and 
  the intricacies that make up 
  each climate can’t be modeled 
  without extraordinary effort. 
  But even this very basic 
  climate map of the world will 
  help when discussing cultural 
  development.
  Step Six: Example
   
  Following the general wind pa�erns, I first placed equatorial areas with heavy 
  rain. The mountain range BE is packed with water because it’s not only on the equator, 
  but the mountains catch the water and send it downstream in torrents. The northern 
  part of continent D is very wet since there’s nothing interfering with winds, as is the 
  northern part of continent A. These areas are probably rainforests because they have a 
  lot of rain and plenty of sun.
   
  The next step is to place the transitional areas that are more wet than dry. These 
  were placed north and south of the very wet areas. Most are probably deciduous forests 
  mixed with the remnants of rainforests, grasslands mixed with deciduous forests, and 
  the beginning of the dryer lands. They could be simply grassland as well. Notice that 
  these two zones are mostly within the tropic bands. Their placement also reflects what 
  the wind is doing. On continent A, this zone loops around because the wind is coming 
  from a particular direction while on continent D, the zone remains more horizontal for 
  generally the same reason. You could change these zones based upon what you wish 
  to happen. As long as they’re relatively in the same location, such change can easily be 
  supported.
   
  The next step moves into dryer lands by placing the transitional dry zone. 
  These are mostly grasslands/scrublands, and they generally abut the transitional wet 
  zones. Such zones are plentiful throughout the dry latitudinal zone and o�en abut a 
  dessert zone. I didn’t place these zones next on the map, however. It’s easier if you go 
  right to the deserts, and then look to see where these zones fit best.
   
  Deserts are almost always along 30° N, 30° S, or the tropic lines. I placed my 
  deserts along these areas and paid particular a�ention to wind direction. The desert on 
  continent A is in a dry zone, but it also has a range of mountains that interfere with rain, 
  List of Climate Zones
  Artic/Polar Region-North of Artic Circle
  Wet Zone- Mostly south of 60 N
  Transition from Dry to Wet Zone
  Transition to Desert Zone
  Desert Zone-Tropic Circle and 30N
  Transition to Desert Zone
  Transition from Wet to Dry Zone
  Very Wet Zone- Equator
  Transition from Wet to Dry Zone
  Transition to Desert Zone
  Desert Zone-Tropic Circle and 30S
  Transition to Desert Zone
  Transition from Dry to Wet Zone
  Wet Zone-Mostly north of 60 S
  Artic/Polar Region-South of Artic Circle
  
  67
  so it stretches farther north into the we�er latitudinal zones. A similar thing happens 
  with the desert on continent D. The desert on A exists because it’s in the dry zone, but 
  notice that I placed a dry transition zone along the southern coast. The ocean air is 
  relatively dry in this zone, but what li�le moisture it holds drops along this curve. All 
  things considered, the desert on A is probably fairly wet for a desert until you go in 
  deeper. The great desert on E was the hardest to place because there are many factors to 
  weigh. It is a mixture of dry zone, wind pa�erns, mountain range and large landmass. 
  For these reasons, I decided that this was the Sahara of my world: the big, sandy, 
  unfriendly desert.
   
  I then placed the dry transitional zones between the deserts and the wet 
  transitional zone. It’s much easier to do it this way, even though you have to consider 
  the next wet transitional zone leading to the wet band around 60° north and south 
  latitude. Again, I found it easier to just jump zones and place the midlatitude wet zones 
  before placing both the dry transitional zones and the wet transitional zones.
   
  Placing the next wet areas was very easy. I just followed the wind pa�erns and 
  land as I did with the equatorial wet zones. These wet zones aren’t as wet as the equator, 
  so if you find yourself faced by a large continent, the water won’t travel as far inland 
  as it would at the equator. I mapped my midlatitude wet zones, then placed my wet 
  transitionals, and finally the dry transitionals. These dry transitional zones are mostly 
  grassland/scrublands while the wet transitional zones are mostly forest/grassland 
  mixes. The midlatitude wet zones can be temperate rain forests if there are mountains 
  to catch enough rain, like along the Pacific Northwest coast. With all that done, I capped 
  of my world with the cold zones north and south of the artic circles. These zones can 
  be grasslands, boreal forest, or tundra depending on their rainfall and how close they 
  are to the poles. I haven’t differentiated between the polar climates for this map, but by 
  now, you should be familiar enough to place your taiga and tundra without guidance.
   
  Next, I placed rivers on each continent, keeping in mind wind pa�erns and 
  general elevation. Most of them are straightforward and not worth mentioning except 
  for the major river on continent B that runs through the desert. This river provides 
  water in the otherwise dry expanse and will no doubt play a role in intelligent creatures’ 
  interactions. It could also mimic the Nile as its headwaters are in wetlands. If I wanted, 
  I could make these headlands have a particularly rainy period that would mimic the 
  yearly floods of the great river on Earth. I think I will.
  
  68
  Mapping your World~ Step 5
  Very Wet Zone
  Dry Zone
  Dry Zone
  Wet Zone
  Wet Zone
  
  69
  Mapping your World~ Step 6
  Very Wet
  Transition to Wet
  Transition to Dry
  Desert
  Transition to Dry
  Transition to Wet
  Wet
  Polar
  
  70
  Interlude
   
  “It looks so small from here.” Kierian peered at the rotating globe marbled 
  with ethereal clouds. “I’ve eaten roasts bigger than that.”
   
  “This is the macro prospective,” replied Noj. The duo stared entranced.
   
  “It is beautiful,” Kierian conceded.
   
  “They all are from this distance. There’s a sort of symmetry and sense 
  from this perspective,” Noj answered nonchalantly. “Now we need intelligent 
  races.”
   
  Kierian cleared his throat. “Yes, I was going to talk to you about that. 
  You see I’m not very good with people.” The godling shuffled his feet. “I was the 
  one who wasn’t allowed to talk around others because they always took things 
  the wrong way.” Shifting his weight, he chuckled. “Once Delaine put a zone of 
  silence on me because she was tired of hearing my ‘silly’ ideas. So I followed her 
  around all day, and she was flapping her arms like a chicken and yelling.” 
  Keirian grinned. “At least I couldn’t hear her complaining in the silence.”
  
  71
   
  “I hardly see the problem,” the gnome said in a slight tone of dismissal. He 
  cranked the lever on the oily adding machine. “You’d be surprised how many gods 
  don’t really get along with people. Just think of them as creatures without fur, 
  claws, talons, or ferocious bites—creatures that think. They’ll ply their skills 
  of survival, just as the falcon swoops and the serpent strikes.” The assistant 
  continued crunching numbers.
   
  “Isn’t that a bit irresponsible?” Kierian asked speculatively.
   
  “Excuse me?” Noj replied over the noise of moving parts as he pulled the 
  lever again.
   
  Kierian paused to consider his words carefully. “I’m just saying, people 
  have certain expectations of their creator. How would they feel if I spent more 
  time figuring out how much biomass there is in a square mile of rainforest than 
  I did on them?”
   
  Noj stopped transcribing numbers, and a growing quiet fell on the room as 
  he stopped pumping the machine. He removed his spectacles. “So you’re saying 
  you want to know more about people…” The sentence lingered as the gnome 
  wiped his glasses on his soft undershirt. “Something like, if I may interpret your 
  request, research intelligent beings and their behavior?”
   
  Kierian shrugged his shoulders nonchalantly. “I think it’s only fair…”
  Noj slid off his stool and placed his glasses on the end of his knobby nose. “I know 
  the perfect place. Follow me.” Noj stood in front of Kierian and did a full turn. 
  A pair of thick double doors appeared before them.
   
  “When do I get to do that?” Kierian asked curiously.
   
  “When you become a member,” Noj answered pushing the brass handles.
   
  “Where are we going?”
   
  Noj whispered, “To the library.”
   
  A head bobbed between two stacks of books piled high on the desk, stamping 
  books and scribbling notes in ledgers. The unkempt halfling had a rhythm to 
  his work. Open, pound, close, pound, scribble. Open, pound, close, pound, scribble. 
  “Ahm,” Noj cleared his throat loudly.
   
  “Welcome to the Library of the Gods. Please deposit your belongings in a 
  locker,” the halfling recited by rote without looking up from his accounts. “And 
  mind the books,” he said with a bit more caution. “They are nervous today. New 
  knowledge about.” The halfling continued his work. Open, pound, close— 
   
  “Since when has Merrick the Tender not had time to welcome a guest of 
  the library,” Noj asked incredulously, “and an old friend at that?”
   
  “Noj!” The surprised halfling climbed down from his desk and greeted 
  Noj with a hearty shake of the arm. “You’ll have to pardon the mess. It’s 
  been utter chaos since the knowledge of Verdistum sprouted last week. A very 
  
  72
  delicate time, you know. We’ve been pruning and clearing out 
  the nonsense. It can greatly threaten the life of new knowledge.” 
  Kierian peered around the front desk to find fields of books, scrolls, 
  and parchment. Neatly groomed in rows with stepladders, the 
  library teemed with words, some spilling out of their books all 
  together. Kierian walked along the long-extending rows. Every 
  so often he’d see another halfling, taking books down, shelving 
  books, grooming the stacks, and unless he was mistaken, one was 
  fertilizing a section of papers.
   
  “As I was saying, I have a godling in need of your assistance. 
  He’s preparing for the task and wants to brush up on the nature 
  of intelligent creatures before populating his world.”
   
  “Oh certainly. I’ll just need his personal information, and 
  we’ll register him in the system,” Merrick replied cheerily pulling 
  out some forms. The disheveled halfling searched his person for a 
  pencil, finally unearthing one from behind his ear.
   
  Kierian approached the librarian. “Do you know someone 
  is spreading manure on a whole section of books?”
   
  “Oh, you must be talking about Ketta in ‘Grondelian 
  Agricultural Studies,’” Merrick answered lowering his voice. 
  “It’s a bit of a pet project of hers. She tends to it every week. No one 
  keeps memory for such knowledge any more. And who can blame 
  them? Grondel sunk into the ocean ages ago.” Merrick looked 
  over the forms and handed Kierian a small card. “This gives you 
  access to the stacks, and here’s a map of the library by subject. I 
  strongly suggest first-time visitors hire a guide and keep clear of 
  this section.” He crossed out a section in red ink. “Restricted access 
  to librarians only.”
   
  Kierian studied the map as they walked toward ‘Human 
  Nature.’ “They have an audio section!” the godling pointed out 
  with enthusiasm. Noj’s disdainful glance silenced that line of 
  inquiry. The godling nodded toward the forbidden section as they 
  passed by. “What’s in this section?”
   
  Noj whispered intently, “Poisonous knowledge.”
  
  73
  Culture
   
  Like water seeks low ground, plants seek the sun, and animals seek water, 
  so too do intelligent creatures share common motivations woven into the very fabric 
  of the multiverse. These common stresses, tendencies, and behaviors do not always 
  manifest themselves in the same manner, but their similarities o�en outweigh their 
  differences. Intelligent creatures that develop in similar environments o�en share 
  similar adaptations, typically through shared information or through independent, 
  parallel development. These adaptations to environment occur on three levels: genetic, 
  physiological, and behavioral.
   
  Genetic adaptations take the most time to develop due the pervasive nature of 
  the adaptation. Physiological adaptations are changes in how the body works without 
  changing the very nature of the body. To understand physiological adaptations, consider 
  two communities of the same species, one living in the mountains, and the other living 
  in the lowlands. Though they are the same species, people living in mountains have 
  a more efficient respiratory system as a physiological response to the oxygen-poor 
  air. Now consider the difference between elves and dark elves. What originated as 
  a physiological adaptation to underground living became a genetic adaptation with 
  enough time and isolation. But behavior adaptation, the fastest method of acclimating 
  to a given environment, is the greatest tool of survival for intelligent creatures. O�en 
  termed collectively as culture, behavioral adaptations include material objects, 
  processes, and ideologies. They are the sum of everything people produce, do, and 
  think, which is implicitly learned by every member of that society. Despite the unique 
  nature of each kind of adaptation, all are driven by environmental stress.
   
  As with every step of the creation process, the truisms presented in this chapter 
  harness the inertial power of the multiverse rather than counter them with magic to 
  sustain something “unnatural,” for lack of a be�er term. When you create something 
  challenging this inertial state and do not support it with magic, it has a way of adapting 
  and taking its “natural” place in the world. These truisms reflect a connection between 
  environment and adaptation, but do not assert a simple causal relationship. Many 
  elements develop together over time, and the results of such evolution are these 
  truisms.
   
  All this having been said, intelligent races are the most difficult part of your 
  world to predict. Though they instinctually and unknowing obey these truisms, their 
  intelligence and ingenuity produce a wealth of possible outcomes. With this unique 
  and sometimes damning trait of intelligence, we begin the discussion with common 
  environmental limitations and their subsequent adaptations. From there follows all 
  the decisive points of cultural development including subsistence pa�erns, material 
  culture, technology, religion, and interaction within and between societies.
  Intelligent Races
   
  Every godling must decide which races inhabit their world. Though the typical 
  array includes humans, dwarves, elves, gnomes, half-elves, half-orcs, halflings, and a 
  sundry of goblinoids; that does not preclude the creation of new races with different 
  distinguishing traits. Adequate intelligence is the only requirement for creating culture, 
  intelligence’s brainchild for overcoming limiting factors of environment. Due to my 
  own bias, I’ll use terms common to humans, though the principals expressed apply to 
  other intelligent races.
  
  74
  Physical Elements
   
  Environment is the ultimate determinant of a society’s traits, either directly or 
  indirectly. It is important to see the environment from a mortal perspective, and not 
  from a divine perch. Each environmental trait limits the choices people can make in 
  order to survive. It shapes their appearance, clothing, housing, demographics, social 
  organization, and subsistence pa�ern. For example, not enough fresh water has its 
  obvious drawbacks, but too much rain or rain at the wrong time of year destroy crops 
  just as readily as drought. Forests hold a wealth of resources, but they must be cleared 
  for permanent housing, farming, and animal husbandry.
   
  When choosing a home for your new society, consider the physical limitations 
  of their environment. Mountains; canyons; hilly, rocky terrain; swampy marsh; lack 
  of wood; lack of pack animals; inadequate vegetation due to poor soil; insufficient 
  or erratic rain; seasonal floods; large, wide rivers; man-eating predators; abundance 
  of poisonous flora and fauna—all these factors determine how a society must adapt 
  to survive. Rarely are these adaptations deliberate decisions by the society to be�er 
  their chances of survival. They are usually “how things are done,” and those with a 
  selective advantage for that environment survive and pass their practices on to the 
  next generation. The bulk of adaptive strategies are behavioral because intelligence 
  creatures have the brainpower to manipulate their environment for survival. The most 
  basic behavioral tactics are clothing, housing, methods of storing food for winter and 
  times of stress, and culturally subscribed routines and habits that mitigate the hazards 
  of the environment.
  Appearance
   
  Though each race has its own pool of physical traits that visibly distinguishes 
  them, the environment imposes subtleties upon all creatures. Those living in warm, 
  humid areas have darker skin coloring than those living in cooler, drier environments. 
  Inhabitants of especially 
  dry areas o�en 
  take on a yellow 
  or reddish brown 
  skin tone. Societies 
  inhabiting warmer 
  climates generally 
  possess smaller  
  body sizes and, 
  their protruding 
  body parts (e.g. 
  tails, ears, bills, 
  noses) are more 
  prominent, 
  which is why ice 
  trolls tend to be 
  larger than their 
  swampy brethren, 
  though their 
  ears and noses 
  are relatively 
  smaller.
  
  75
  Temperate Lands
   
  Temperate forests and grasslands are the base environments in terms of 
  rainfall and annual temperature. These locations have agreeable climate for most of 
  the year, and the biggest obstacle is securing enough food and warmth to survive 
  winter. Temperate forests are ideal living conditions with ample wood, vegetation, and 
  animals. With more rainfall than grasslands, temperate forests also have more sources 
  of fresh water (rivers, streams, lakes). Strategies in temperate grasslands must account 
  for less wood and water than temperate forests.
   
  Inhabitants of temperate lands are generalists that adapt to numerous geological 
  and climatic conditions. Since their environment is not extreme, their adaptations are 
  the most varied, and their solution to any one condition is not as effective as specialists 
  surviving in extreme conditions. In other words, they survive the winter, but not nearly 
  as efficiently as someone living in the artic tundra.
   
  Se�led groups have permanent housing and usually engage in food production. 
  Wood is the favored building material, while skins, sod, and stone may also be used. 
  Nomadic people have portable homes, usually skins or woven cloth draped over wood 
  or bone frames. Skins and woven cloth provide the bulk of shoes, clothes, and other 
  protective gear, while beads, feathers, stones, gems, and handicra�s decorate the 
  society. Fishing plays a large role in societies living near rivers and coasts. Nomads 
  store food by smoking, drying, or salting meats and fish and by storing seeds, nuts, and 
  grains. They o�en use gourds, skins, and po�ery for storing food and water. Hunter-
  gatherers and agriculturalists fare well in temperate climates. They o�en trade with 
  other groups for the goods they need but cannot provide for themselves.
  Deserts
   
  Hot, arid, and windy, deserts are unfriendly places to life. Despite extreme heat 
  during day, severe cold at night, and the scarcity of life-giving water, people inhabit the 
  desert. It typically takes one to two weeks to acclimate to the desert, with the biggest 
  problem being dehydration and loss of electrolytes. Unaccustomed to the heat, new 
  visitors sweat too much to compensate for the sweltering heat and lose a lot of water 
  and salts. Natives of the desert, however, have lower body temperatures and pulse rates 
  during rest and moderate work, reducing the amount of energy and heat the body must 
  mitigate. The ideal desert body is long and lean with low subcutaneous fat, increasing 
  the surface area to weight ratio that promotes cooling.
   
  The ideal clothing is loose fi�ing, loosely woven clothes with narrow openings 
  for hands and feet, allowing evaporation and insulation from the elements. Layers of 
  such clothing protect against wind and solar radiation. Sandals with soles that extend 
  one inch in all directions are common footwear, while turbans, scarves, or other fabric 
  covers the head and provides shade from the sun. Incidentally, minimal clothing is best 
  for heavy labor because it allows for less heat and more evaporation.
   
  Homes in hot, arid places are made of high heat-capacity material, such as 
  adobe, mud, and stone, which absorb heat in the daytime and radiate it at night. These 
  thick-walled, compact permanent homes are close together, sometimes wall-to-wall, 
  to prolong heating and cooling of the entire unit of homes. Cooking fires are outside 
  of homes to reduce heat, and some people build semi-subterranean homes. Semi-
  permanent homes rely on ventilation, o�en tents with parts that close during the heat 
  of the day and open at night. At least one group forgoes all shelter and sleeps through 
  desert nights as cold as 32°F huddled around a fire. By sleeping under their cloaks, with 
  their feet toward the fire, and close enough to share body heat, this tribe creates a toasty 
  77°F microclimate.
   
  Due to the dry conditions, most desert societies are hunter-gatherers, herders, 
  or traders. The only places apt for agriculture are the rare desert rivers and oases, fed by 
  underground fresh water springs. Hunter-gatherers receive most of their nutrients from 
  
  76
  gathering nuts and vegetation, while successful hunts provide protein. Herders are 
  semi-nomadic, traveling to seasonal grounds in search of water for their herds. Herding 
  camels, sheep, goats, cows, or any combination of these, herders rely on knowledge 
  passed from generation to generation on watering sites, cyclical pa�erns of catastrophic 
  drought, and how to lead their herd and families to safety in those times. Herders o�en 
  keep mostly female animals due to their milk production and periodically bleed the 
  animals to gain sustenance without killing the animal. Traders risk the hazards of the 
  desert to move goods around, providing money and other necessities for their families. 
  Navigating by the stars, traders must move from watering hole to watering hole, 
  survive the vicious sand storms, provide for their pack animals, and may spend up to 
  half a year away from their families.
  Rainforests
   
  Rainforests are dim, steamy jungles packed with life. Like desert people, 
  rainforest inhabitants have lower body temperatures and pulse rates during rest and 
  moderate activity. Unlike living in the desert, sweating does not mitigate the heat due 
  to the humidity of the rainforest. Natives tend to sweat less, and when they sweat, 
  they lose fewer electrolytes than someone who is not acclimated. Though visitors 
  can acclimate to the heat and humidity, it is more difficult than acclimating to deserts 
  because sweat evaporation loses many of its benefits in rainforests. Many behavioral 
  adjustments compensate for ineffectual sweating. The best clothing is less clothing, 
  maximizing exposed surface area for sweat evaporation.
   
  To escape the still, sweltering heat of the jungle floor, inhabitants build their 
  se�lements on a rise of ground near a water source to enjoy the small breeze that comes 
  off the water. Houses are typically built with a wooden frame and a thatch or woven mat 
  roof. Occasionally the floor is raised above the ground to provide more air circulation 
  and keep rodents and snakes out. Some homes have no walls, easily releasing the heat of 
  the day. Other homes are completely closed off to keep heat in during the chilly nights. 
  Some have retractable mat walls that roll up during 
  the day, but keep heat in during the night. These mats 
  are typically woven reeds or leaves. Work starts early 
  with moderate work throughout the morning. Most 
  people are sedentary by midday and stay indoors or 
  under shade. A�er the heat of the day subsides, more 
  moderate work is performed upon need. One cultural 
  practice that promotes cooling is daily baths.
   Rainforest societies practice hunter gathering, 
  animal husbandry, and agriculture. Hunter-
  gatherers are usually nomadic 
  due to the nature 
  of 
  dispersal 
  and 
  cyclical 
  blooms. 
  Plants bloom and 
  produce 
  fruit 
  at 
  different times of year 
  to lessen the competition 
  between species. Plants 
  of the same species are 
  usually highly dispersed 
  because a seed’s chances of 
  survival are higher the farther 
  away it is from its parent plant. 
  This makes gathering food that 
  
  77
  much more difficult. Hunter-gatherer societies living near coasts and rivers usually 
  engage in fishing, which makes permanent se�lements more viable. Animal husbandry 
  typically revolves around pigs. Societies feed pigs their vegetative surplus, which isn’t 
  as easy to preserve as meat and grain. Pigs o�en become status symbols in such a 
  society; more pigs equate to more surplus in a given family.
   
  Agriculture in the rain forest depends on controlled burns. Known as swidden 
  agriculture, these burns return the nutrients to the soil while killing fungi, parasites, 
  insects, and pathogenic bacteria dangerous to crops. Crops are vertically layered, 
  mimicking the typical growth in the rainforest and reducing the chance of crop-
  wide catastrophe. Roots, beans, grains, small fruit trees, taller palm trees, and giant 
  co�onwood trees all grow in the same footprint, building up rather than across. This 
  type of agriculture maximizes available water and sunlight while minimally taxing the 
  rain forest. This type of agriculture also requires less effort on the part of the farmer 
  because fewer trees must be cleared. A�er a few years of growth, agriculturalists begin 
  another field and leave the spent soil fallow for secondary growth to take over (usually 
  7-10 years minimum). They tend to pick fields around their se�lements, creating circles 
  of primary and secondary growth around their villages.
  Tundra and Taiga
   
  Extreme cold, short growing seasons, and low biomass plague inhabitants of the 
  tundra and taiga. People of extreme cold environments adapt in such a way to endure 
  colder temperatures for longer amounts of time without suffering damage. Their bodies 
  maintain their temperature even when their extremities are exposed to near-freezing 
  conditions. Despite popular conjectures, artic dwellers are not extra fa�y. They are 
  actually quite lean with slightly higher base metabolic rates and increased blood flow to 
  their extremities. On a biological level, people of the cold are unique because they retain 
  brown adipose tissue throughout their adulthood. This tissue, present in all babies and 
  young children, allows people to warm themselves without shivering, expending less 
  energy to maintain body temperature. Most people lose this tissue as they get older, but 
  people of the artic retain this tissue throughout their lives.
   
  Active lifestyles, clothing, and housing are selective advantages cold-dwellers 
  use for survival. Throughout spring and summer, inhabitants commonly perform all 
  manner of strenuous activities like sledding, hunting, and sporting, thus using motion 
  to generate heat. Clothing and housing create microclimates that keep cold-dwellers in 
  relative ease. Clothing must insulate against the cold and release heat during strenuous 
  activity. If heat is not released, sweat next to the body freezes, creating an icy blanket 
  against the skin. Usually made from skins, furs, and (sometimes) traded textiles, layers 
  of clothing create a functioning microclimate trapping warm air next to the skin. In the 
  artic, outer garments are waterproof and impermeable, while providing ventilation by 
  widening the exposed area around the hands, feet, midsection, and neck. Expanding 
  and contracting the openings with string binding determine the amount of ventilation. 
  Dry grass insulates gloves, boots, and stockings while absorbing the moisture from 
  perspiration. Warm headgear, either hats or hoods of parkas, is vital for minimizing 
  heat loss.
   
  Nomadic people live in tents made of dark-colored skins to absorb solar energy. 
  Some consisting of 60+ skins, these large tents are double-layered, sewn canvasses that 
  fit over wooden or bone frames. The use of inner and outer tents enhances insulation 
  and creates dead space that warms cold, outside air before entering the inner tent. 
  Permanent housing is usually made of wood, stone, sod, or sometimes ice. Cold 
  inhabitants build semi-subterranean homes and/or cover their homes with sod or snow 
  to insulate their microclimate. Semi-subterranean homes descend shallowly into the 
  earth and lead into curved passages. Both the descent and the passageways reduce 
  the amount of wind and cold air that penetrate in living space. A�er the passageway, 
  
  78
  the house returns to ground level with warm air fed by fire and 
  body heat. Ventilation holes prevent overheating while raised 
  floors and skins along the ceiling and walls further insulate the 
  family. Other people build homes above ground, but cover 
  their homes with a heavy layer of sod for insulation and wind 
  resistance.
   
  People living in the artic also experience days of 
  continuous sunlight and continuous darkness, which 
  affects circadian rhythm and can lead to depression, 
  mania, or serious disassociated states. Religious 
  observances, feasts, and rites allow natives to socially 
  cope with winter stress and days without sunlight. 
  These feasts are o�en times of redistribution of goods 
  to the needy, relieving social tension and reinforcing 
  social bonds. People living in artic tundra are 
  hunter-gatherers. Elk (caribou), reindeer, birds, fish, 
  walruses, seals, and the occasional small whale are 
  the main food source of these societies. These animals 
  are usually the only resource available to people of 
  the artic, who must trade for what they cannot make. 
  In the taiga, there is enough vegetation for keeping 
  herds and occasional minimal agriculture. The taiga 
  forests also provide wood for building tools and 
  homes, though many herders live in large tents with 
  fixed winter quarters.
  High Altitudes
   
  Most societies live under 5,000 feet altitude, 
  though there are those who live in mountains and 
  high-altitude plains. The two main physiological 
  barriers to high-altitude life are cold temperatures 
  and low-oxygen air. The third is securing sustenance 
  at such heights, where vegetation and animal life are 
  severely reduced. Like other inhabitants of extreme, 
  cold climates, high-altitude dwellers are not as 
  susceptible to cold. Some mountainous people do 
  not wear shoes or gloves though they work the fields 
  in windy, cold conditions. High-altitude people also 
  retain brown adipose tissue for non-shivering heat 
  production, which most people lose a�er childhood.
  Clothing and styles of housing are behavioral 
  adaptations to the cold. Wearing many layers of clothing 
  insulate the body and create toasty microclimates close 
  to the skin. Outer garments are tightly woven, dark 
  heavy wool to absorb the sun’s heat, while inner garments 
  are loosely woven to encourage insulation. Besides skirts, 
  pants, blouses, shirts, shawls, and vests, people also wear 
  hats with wide brims for warmth and protection from the 
  sun. Permanent homes are built out of piled stones or foot-
  thick adobe walls. Homes are built close together for shared 
  heat, and sometimes they build communal walls that break the 
  wind. Nomadic people live in tents made of thick skins or yak hair. At their 
  winter site, they o�en dig sunken floors and construct walls to break the wind.
  Elves in 
  Rainforests
  Though 
  rainforests 
  are full of life, that life 
  depends on maintaining 
  a sensitive balance. Every 
  member (bacteria, insects, 
  vegetation, animals) relies 
  on the others for survival; 
  overusing those resources 
  can destroy this highly-
  specialized ecology. Elves 
  as a race are long-lived 
  and chaotic, two traits that 
  are selective advantages for 
  their favored home site. Elven 
  societies, composed of long-
  lived individuals, have an 
  advantage in foresight—their 
  natural lifespan and collective 
  generational knowledge o�en 
  span over hundreds of years. 
  Each generation must feed its 
  people for centuries, making 
  dependable and renewable food 
  supplies necessary. Through 
  the ages of adaptation, those 
  which garner sustenance from 
  their 
  environment 
  without 
  damaging the forest beyond 
  repair are the ones who 
  reproduce and pass their 
  cultural values to the next 
  generation. Elves also have 
  adaptations that limit their 
  population density, ensuring 
  that their needs do not 
  surpass what they can take 
  without disrupting nature’s 
  balance. 
  Elves 
  do 
  not 
  reproduce until a�er their 
  first 
  century, 
  delaying 
  fertility and population 
  growth. Elves also tend 
  to be chaotic, which 
  usually produces less-
  dense societies.
  
  79
   
  Low-oxygen air cannot be so easily handled through behavior. People who 
  receive inadequate oxygen to their tissue suffer the symptoms of hypoxia, which 
  include headache, nausea, insomnia, and inability to perform normal tasks. Most 
  visitors experience shortness of breath, hyperventilation, or some of the more serious 
  side effects of hypoxia, but over time people adjust. Natives born and raised in 
  high-altitudes have physiological adaptations, namely 
  the ability to take in more air without experiencing 
  hyperventilation, more efficient methods of transferring 
  oxygen to cells, and increased lung capacity. Some 
  natives do not have these adaptations or lose them 
  while staying in lowlands for extended periods of 
  time. These unfortunate people o�en suffer from 
  chronic mountain sickness, their blood thickens, 
  and they must be bled every two or three weeks if 
  they want to remain at a high altitude.
   
  Inhabitants of high-altitude areas are typically 
  agropastoralists, relying on crops, herds, and 
  dung. On high plains, delineation of land is fairly 
  straightforward, but mountains have vertical 
  zones of growth that depend on altitude. The 
  agricultural zone lies below 5,000 feet, where 
  most people in the world live and staples thrive 
  (barley, wheat, maize, and rice depending on 
  climate). At 5,000 feet, alpine meadows and 
  forests dominate, though cleared forests produce 
  (depending on climate) potatoes, beans, manioc, 
  and certain strains of wheat, maize, and apples. 
  Snow o�en appears at 10,000 feet, though tropical 
  areas still have trees and alpine meadows at that 
  altitude. Beyond 15,000 feet is the zone of permanent 
  snow.
  Dwarves Underground
  Dwarves are a perfect 
  example 
  of 
  how 
  environment shapes a race. 
  Carving 
  a 
  subterranean 
  home in the very rock of your 
  world, dwarves rely on sources 
  of energy besides sunlight. 
  Geothermal energy and sulfur-
  based life aside, underground 
  ecosystems 
  rely 
  heavily 
  on 
  magiotrophes. In every part of 
  underground food webs, the 
  level of ingested magic increases. 
  Dwarves 
  metabolize 
  this 
  increased magic consumption 
  to display their characteristic 
  resistance to hostile magic. This 
  may also explain their hardy 
  nature, though some a�ribute 
  it to their active lifestyle and 
  cultural emphasis on warriors. 
  Dwarves are also short, a big 
  advantage when cu�ing your 
  living space out of rock.
  6,096 m.
  (20,000 ft.)
  4,572 m.
  (15,000 ft.)
  3, 048 m.
  (10,000 ft.)
  1,524 m.
  (5,000 ft.)
  Tropical highland zonation
  Temperate highland zonation
  Zone of permanent
  snow
  snowline
  snowline
  Zone of alpine
  meadows and
  forests
  Zone of permanent
  snow
  Zone of
  grains
  Agricultural zone
  Zone of alpine
  meadows and
  forests
  maize-beans
  wheat-apples
  manioc
  sugar
  cacao
  bananas
  rubber
  rice
  coffee
  potatoes
  barley
  wheat-flax
  maize
  Mountainous
  Crops
  
  80
   
  Given these vertical zones, most mountain-dwellers seasonally travel to exploit 
  as many resources as possible. Wintering in the lowlands (Do not let the name fool 
  you. They are still really high up in the “lowlands”), the farmers plant staples and less 
  tolerant crops in early spring while herders graze their herds at the lowest level of 
  alpine meadow. As time passes and snow melts, the farmers plant frost-tolerant strains 
  at higher altitudes, and herders brings their herds higher to new alpine meadows, 
  uncovered as the snow melts. Besides the obvious benefits of participating both in 
  herding and farming, high-altitude dwellers also have a valuable resource, dung. Used 
  for fertilizer and dried out for fuel, dung is an important resource to those people who 
  live in places with li�le to no wood.
   
  Crops at high altitudes are subject to severe cold and relatively short growing 
  seasons. One hardy plant that thrives both in the wild and as a harvested crop is the 
  humble potato. The cold conditions lessen the number of fungi, parasites, and bacteria 
  that prey on potatoes. One frost-tolerant strain planted late in the season in high 
  altitudes is so impalpable that it must be sliced, dried, and ground before the bi�er 
  taste goes away, making it a good food store for winter. But even with these detractions 
  it can be eaten, and other foods will not grow at the same altitude.
   
  The herd provides meat, wool, skins, bone, and milk, preserved as bu�er and 
  cheese. Herds usually consist of sheep, goats, or yaks, though llamas and alpacas are 
  also herded. Sheep and goats produce milk for part of the year, while yaks produce milk 
  all year long. Making cheese preserves excess milk that supplements the community’s 
  dietary needs in winter and times of scarcity.
  Subsistence Patterns
   
  Subsistence pa�erns are how societies feed themselves. They affect social 
  organization, demographics, and available resources for housing, clothing, and 
  cra�s. Hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, and agriculturalists are the three basic types of 
  communities, but they are not mutually exclusive groups. Though most races begin 
  as hunter-gatherers, there is not an established evolutionary sequence from hunter-
  gatherer to food producer. Subsistence pa�ern affects how culture develops, and each 
  subsistence pa�ern places different limitations on culture.
   
  Hunter-gatherers have the lowest population density when compared to other 
  types of communities. They live in small, nomadic communities, usually moving 
  between established sites depending on seasons or climatic conditions. Hunter-
  gatherers’ first priority is obtaining food. Because they obtain their food from diverse 
  sources over a larger geographical area, they actually have more stable living conditions 
  and rarely experience food shortages. The remainder of their time and resources goes 
  into other cultural pursuits developing cra�s, music, entertainment, religion, and 
  rituals. Living in small bands with kin, hunter-gatherers rarely require or develop 
  complexity in leadership, economics, and social stratification.
   
  Pastoralists are food producers that rely heavily on their herds, consisting 
  of domesticated large animals. Depending on circumstance, their herds may be 
  different animal species or a single animal species. Sheep, goats, camels, yaks, cows, 
  reindeer, llamas, and alpacas are the most common animals in herding. Pastoralists are 
  typically found where soil is poor or climatic conditions do not favor growing food, 
  making agricultural pursuits comparably less fruitful than herding. Most pastoralists 
  rely on migration of the herd to provide enough grazing year round. Migration on 
  mountains is vertical and in arid places from water hole to water hole. Pastoralists rely 
  on every part of the animal. Milk, meat, and sometimes blood feed the community. 
  Bu�er, cheese, dried, salted, or smoked meats provide winter stores for food. Manure 
  fertilizes fields and gardens, and when dried, acts as fuel. Communities use lard and 
  oil for many purposes, from fuel to cra�s. Bones makes bows, hand tools, tent frames, 
  needles, cra�s and ornamentation. Sinews make thread, innards make bags and 
  
  81
  inflatable ra�s, and skins provide clothing. Many 
  pastoralists gather food, trade with agricultural 
  communities, or participate in some agriculture to 
  supplement their diet and resources. Pastoralists 
  usually have larger communities and support 
  larger population densities than hunter-gatherers, 
  though many continue a semi-nomadic lifestyle 
  through their herd migrations. Pastoralists 
  also have more organization in leadership and 
  social relationships (especially with ownership 
  and dispute resolution) due to the presences of 
  herds.
   
  Agriculturalists produce food by growing 
  domesticated plants. Agricultural societies have 
  at least one staple crop, usually a grain or a tuber, 
  and the most successful have two, which produce 
  a protein when combined. Many agriculturalists 
  supplement their diet with gathering, hunting, and 
  animal husbandry. Agriculture originates in places 
  where many potential domesticates are present due 
  to ecological diversity over a relatively small area. 
  Agriculture spreads from these centers in waves, 
  taking root where growing food is more productive 
  than other methods of subsistence. Geographical and 
  ecological barriers may retard or prevent the spread 
  of agriculture due to difficulty in migration or the 
  unsuitability of the original domesticates in a different 
  climate. There are many stages to agriculture, from the proto-
  garden to intense, commercial endeavors. Regardless the intensity of the farming, 
  agriculture establishes two facts: the society is sedentary, and the society makes more 
  food. A sedentary society requires a smaller geographic area to derive its sustenance 
  and de facto has a higher population density. The society that makes more food will 
  have a larger population. This is not a simple cause and effect, rather an autocatalytic 
  process where rise in food production and rise in population propel each other in a 
  cycle that intensifies as it continues.
  Effects of Agriculture
   
  These basic byproducts of agriculture o�en create more autocatalytic processes 
  giving greater complexity in leadership, economics, and social stratification. In small 
  kin-based societies, decisions are usually made as a whole, without a defined, visible, 
  office-holding leader. Most internal conflict occurs between kin, and other members of 
  the society apply social pressure to resolve the conflict peaceably. Social stratification 
  is minimal since everyone is basically doing the same thing-acquiring food. Hunter-
  gatherer economies are much simpler because there are no specialists or full-time 
  cra�smen, and nomadic/semi-nomadic societies are on the move and travel light. They 
  do not make or collect many material goods. Compare this generalized view of hunter-
  gatherers to agricultural societies. Sedentary living permits people to collect things 
  without thought of having to move them constantly. Food production and surplus 
  make it possible for a society to support non-food producing individuals, which fuels 
  cra�smanship, inventors, political leaders, and religious offices. Engaging in agriculture 
  creates a seasonally pulsed labor force, which may be employed for public works like 
  temples, monuments, irrigation, and dams.
  Home on the Range
  Other large creatures may be 
  candidates for domestication 
  in your world. They must be 
  mostly herbivorous with a wide 
  selection of foods they can eat. 
  They have to be efficient eaters, 
  yielding 
  higher 
  percentages 
  of meat and/or milk for the 
  food they consume. Animals 
  with faster growth rates are 
  usually be�er candidates for 
  domestication 
  than 
  animals 
  that take a long time to mature. 
  Animals with nasty dispositions 
  or with a tendency to panic when 
  people come close make poor 
  herding animals. Animals with 
  elaborate or particular mating 
  rituals are difficult to breed 
  in captivity, while animals 
  that have hierarchies with 
  dominate leadership and 
  overlapping 
  territories 
  in the wild are apt for 
  domestication.
  
  82
   
  As this physical complexity develops, social and political realms evolve with 
  greater complexity. As societies grow, communal decision-making becomes difficult, 
  and power gravitates to a central, decision-making figure. This figure becomes the 
  arbiter in internal conflicts (which become more frequent as societies grow beyond kin-
  based communities) and the spokesperson for the society in external conflict. As the 
  centralized figure welds more power and responsibility, other figures and offices evolve 
  creating a bureaucracy. This centralized power may employ public works, organize 
  food production to support the dense population, and pool the resources of the entire 
  society into his vision. When agricultural surplus frees members of the society from 
  producing food, social stratification intensifies because everyone is no longer doing 
  the same thing, wielding the same power in decision making, and owning a sparse 
  collection of goods. A discrepancy of wealth from occupation is the oldest line of social 
  stratification.
   
  Though agriculture is the cause of all that bards and poets hail as marvels of 
  civilization, it is here that I must insert a cautionary tale. At some point, a civilization 
  reaches maximum food production without an end to population growth. Sometimes 
  the soil’s fertility is spent a�er centuries of continuous cultivation. Sometimes a people 
  deforest their environment and destroy their soil through increased salinity. Other 
  times food production is moved outside the original se�lement, 
  which has since urbanized. With disruption of trade, densely 
  populated capital cities brew hungry, discontent factions that 
  rip the civilization apart or weaken it from within for invaders 
  to plunder. Uncontrolled population growth is o�en a key 
  factor in a civilization’s downfall.
   
  The limiting factors to agricultural intensification 
  are environment, technology, and social organization. 
  Some environments are less conducive for agriculture. 
  For example, rainforests must be cleared and burned 
  before agriculture can take place. Rainforest inhabitants 
  have a limited space in which they cultivate without 
  disturbing the forest and hampering secondary 
  growth. In additions to these considerations, swidden 
  agriculture generally does not produce high yields 
  compared to arable soil. But despite these limitations, 
  agricultural societies flourish in the rain forest. 
  Inadequate technology also limits the extent and 
  productivity of agriculture. Some thick, fertile soils 
  require heavy plows before they become arable. 
  Other places require greater organization before 
  agricultural pursuits are viable, like places with 
  erratic or inadequate water. Once people ban 
  together and organize their efforts, wells, dams, and 
  irrigation ditches turn ground into fertile soil. But 
  even with these behaviors, some soil is simply not 
  suitable for agriculture, and raising crops  never out-
  competes herding, hunting, or gathering.
  Material Culture
   
  Material culture consists of everything 
  a society makes and is strongly influenced by 
  environment, 
  subsistence 
  pa�ern, 
  and 
  societal 
  development. Environment determines the raw 
  materials available for building and cra� making. 
  Ambling Towards 
  Domestication
  What steps led hunter-
  gatherers to separate 
  stock from wild strains, 
  control its reproduction, 
  and consequently create 
  mutualistic 
  relationships 
  between 
  man 
  and 
  his 
  environment? 
  Agriculture 
  begins with hunter-gatherers 
  who have semi-permanent 
  homes or sites. Being messy 
  and disruptive, they break 
  up the soil when they create 
  se�lements, 
  excrete 
  waste, 
  and disseminate the seeds of 
  their main food supply. From 
  here they take tedious baby 
  steps towards agriculture as 
  they throw seed of preferred 
  plants on the ground, aerate 
  the soil, burn away brush 
  to clear the ground for their 
  favored plants, select species 
  that produce more seeds, 
  and 
  create 
  technology 
  to 
  aid agriculture. Though this 
  process seems simple and 
  intuitive as an a�erthought, 
  it can take millennia to 
  develop.
  
  83
  Communities living near forests use wood in house construction, while communities 
  on the tundra rely on bone, skins, and snow. Communities in hills and mountains are 
  more likely to develop metallurgy than communities in the rainforests, where heavy 
  rains continually leech the soil. This prevents minerals from depositing and prevents 
  metals from being easily available on the surface. Subsistence pa�ern determines how 
  many and what type of cra�s a society makes. Wool, felt, and furs are more likely to 
  clothe pastoralists, while textiles develop in agricultural communities, usually growing 
  co�on or flax. Hunter-gatherers travel light due their nomadic tendencies, making their 
  few cra�s light, easy to move, and multi-purposed. Societal development determines 
  the amount of resources available for making and trading cra�s; more complex societies 
  usually have more wealth, resources, manpower, and trade contacts. 
   
  Most cra�s concern food, clothing, or shelter. Though cra�s typically serve 
  a purpose, there are other forces that shape the appearance and function of society’s 
  cra�s. As societies become more complex, their cra�s and buildings become more 
  complex, specialized, and ornate. This is partially due to sedentary societies who 
  have the luxury of filling permanent homes with useful and decorative cra�s. The 
  growing complexity of social stratification also promotes the collection of goods while 
  agriculture supports more full-time specialists. Mirroring the growing complexity in 
  other facets of agricultural societies, their cra�s become more specialized and ornate. 
  Rather than have an all-purpose basket, members of more complex societies may 
  have indoor baskets and outdoor baskets, or many baskets, each with one specialized 
  purpose. To visually accentuate this specialization, cra�s take on different materials, 
  shapes, colors, or designs. These differences may be solely decorative, but they are 
  o�en also functional. For example, baskets designed for picking fruit may hang over 
  the body, while baskets for transport are designed for carrying on the head.
  Food Cra�s
   
  Food cra�s are objects that gather, store, produce, process, preserve, and cook 
  food. Food cra�s vary depending on available resources and climate, but they fulfill 
  basically the same purposes. The most common cra�s store food and water, such as 
  baskets, sacs, trays, and jugs. Made from wood, animal innards, po�ery, woven reeds, 
  bamboo, straw, hollowed gourds, and carved stone, these containers find use in the 
  simplest of societies. More complex cra�s emerge to increase the amount to food, 
  including weapons for hunting, digging sticks for unearthing tubers, tree-climbing 
  ropes, fishing hooks, and nets. Tools invented for food production are numerous and 
  varied. Pastoralists create lassos to capture animals for herds, churns for making bu�er, 
  containers to pack cheese, and more ways of preserving/cooking meat, milk, and 
  blood. Farmers have the most accoutrements by far: hand tools for planting, weeding, 
  winnowing, and threshing; plows for breaking tough ground; harnesses for plow 
  animals; grinding machines; storage to keep grains dry; and cu�ing devices for picking 
  fruit, to name a few.
   
  Many other materials and cra�s come from food cra�s. Consider how 
  much straw a farming community has a�er harvest, or how much skin, bone, and 
  tendon a herding community has a�er slaughter. These “le�over” resources spur 
  the development of other cra�s when a society has enough surplus food to support 
  specialists. Another consideration is how food cra�s and methods affect other cra�s. 
  For example fire starters, originally only used for warmth, become a tool in cooking 
  food. With time that technology may spread to baking bread, firing po�ery, or working 
  metal through the development of vents and bellows. A�er all, weaponry is just an 
  offshoot of improved hunting/processing tools turned against intelligent races.
  
  84
  Clothing Cra�s
   Clothing cra�s include all the accoutrements involved 
  in making clothes. The first clothes are animal skins, 
  skinned with stone tools, sewn together with 
  tendon thread and bone needles. Animals 
  prized for their warm fur or water resistant 
  skins are elk, deer, bear, beaver, o�er, 
  and seal. More complex clothes 
  require 
  more 
  cra�s 
  for 
  production. Herders 
  keeping sheep and 
  other wooly animals 
  invent 
  cra�s 
  for 
  combing and spinning 
  wool 
  or 
  compacting 
  lint into felt while those 
  who wear leather develop 
  tanning methods. Communities 
  with wild or cultivated flax, hemp, 
  co�on, or other such vegetation invent cra�s for processing, spinning thread, weaving, 
  and sewing techniques. There are other alternate sources of clothing. At least one tribe 
  beats bark until it is so� enough to sew, another extracts silk from worms, while a third 
  makes water-resistant cloaks from bird feathers.
   
  Though people use clothing as protection from the elements such as rain, 
  sun, wind, or cold, it isn’t long before people decorate clothing and add accessories 
  to visually advertise their social status. Sewing techniques, different styles, unique 
  garments, pa�erns, dyes, stamps, embroidery, beading, and fasteners accentuate plain 
  clothing. Like other pieces of material culture, clothing cra�s become more specialized 
  and diverse. Due to larger populations and more complex social stratification, physical 
  appearence becomes an immediate indicator of status. In some societies, married 
  women wear different jewelry and clothing than single women, or important events 
  and holidays have affiliated a�ire. Sometimes clothing designates members of the same 
  profession or society. Most o�en clothing speaks to the wealth of an individual. Certain 
  raw materials are considered more valuable due to strength, durability, texture, color, 
  rarity, or design, and only wealthy people can afford such clothing.
  Housing Cra�s
   
  The tools and materials with which people build homes and the furnishing 
  within the home constitute housing cra�s. Intelligent races make homes in every 
  environment: underground, in caves, on water, in trees, and in cliff sides. The ingenuity 
  of building materials knows no end: mud, wood, straw, bamboo, grass, reeds, rocks, 
  canvas, and skins comprise most housing. Portable homes are usually sown canvas or 
  skins stretched over a wooden or bone frame. They can be small affairs or large tents 
  housing dozens of people. Using two tents and stuffing insulation between them keep 
  inhabitants comfortable. Permanent homes vary depending on the available resources. 
  Adobe, wa�le and daub, sod, and bricks are good building materials for societies short 
  on wood and stone, but plentiful in dirt and straw. Other homes have a wooden or 
  bamboo frame lashed together, either in a rectangular or circular configuration. Thatch 
  (dry straw or grass) and woven reeds are fairly water resistant walls and roofs. Some 
  homes are stacked stones or stone and mortar, while others carve homes out of rock in 
  cliffs or tall stone towers. Societies even make homes on water, lashing boats and ra�s 
  together, making “land” out of woven reed mats, or building homes on stilts. Homes 
  reflect the environmental challenges in their construction. For instance, homes are 
  Hand
  Spinning
  
  85
  o�en built in stilts in area with frequent flooding. 
  People living in hot, dry areas o�en build adobe 
  housing complexes with shared walls to slow 
  heating during the day and retain heat at 
  night. Homes in cold areas with high winds 
  are sometimes sunken into the earth or 
  covered with sod.
   
  Along with the actual structure, 
  people make cra�s to fill their home. 
  Homes o�en have some sort of 
  furniture, storage, and lighting. Like 
  food and clothing cra�s, homes and 
  their wares become more decorative 
  and specialized as societies grow in 
  complexity. 
  Nomadic 
  societies 
  keep these cra�s simple, easy 
  to move, and multi-purpose. 
  Household cra�s may be no 
  more than a woven mat that 
  rolls up easily, a generic woven 
  basket, and a nightly fire 
  for warmth and light. With 
  permanent 
  housing 
  comes 
  more household cra�s with 
  more specialized uses. Sparse 
  multi-purposed, single roomed 
  homes become larger and 
  partitioned. Spaces and rooms 
  acquire 
  specific 
  purposes, 
  such as bedrooms for sleeping 
  and kitchens for cooking. 
  Furniture expands to beds, 
  tables, stools, and pillows. 
  An assortment of boxes, pots, 
  jars, trays, and baskets hold 
  their belongings, while shelves 
  and cabinets designate space 
  for storage within the house. 
  Torches, 
  candles, 
  lanterns, 
  lamps, braziers, and fireplaces 
  warm and light homes, while 
  cra�smen 
  invent 
  even 
  more 
  goods to fill homes.
  Transportation Cra�s
   
  Transportation cra�s are 
  goods that move things around: 
  carrying 
  carcasses a�er 
  a 
  hunt, 
  moving crops from the field to the 
  se�lement, 
  carrying 
  babies 
  while 
  continuing work, and moving goods for 
  trade. The earliest cra�s for transportation 
  rely on manpower and sometimes doubling 
  as storage containers. For example, a walking 
  Pottery
   
  The 
  science 
  behind 
  po�ery begins with clay. Because 
  of clay’s plasticity and its ability 
  to keep its shape upon drying, 
  clay pots become one of the primary 
  cra�s in sedentary societies. Another 
  reason for po�ery’s popularity is the 
  accessibility of clay, a common material 
  found in numerous environments. Most 
  clay is red or brown with lots of impurities, 
  while white clay, used to make porcelain, 
  has substantially fewer impurities. Working 
  and pulling the clay produces stronger pots 
  by releasing trapped air and some impurities. 
  Po�ers employ various methods in making 
  pots. The coil method starts with a length of clay 
  (like a snake), twisted and stacked into shape 
  and smoothed down. Some start with a lump of 
  clay spun on a rotating wheel powered by foot. 
  Working with the circular motion of the rotating 
  wheel, po�ers use their hands, shells, sticks, and 
  other tools to shape and etch the pot.
   
  Different types of fuel and kilns also 
  develop as cra�s become more prolific. The first 
  po�ery was likely fired in open pits fed by dung 
  or wood. As po�ery develops, po�ers invent closed 
  kilns insulated with wood and charcoal, increasing 
  kiln size and temperature through insulation. Plain 
  earthenware vitrifies at 1800°F, while stoneware and 
  porcelain (very white stoneware) hardens at 2300°F. 
  The addition of chimneys and vents allow po�ers 
  to control the amount of oxidation in firing, which 
  greatly affects the coloring of the po�ery.
   
  With increasing societal development and 
  technology, po�ers embellish their po�ery with 
  colors, glazes, and designs. Most coloring agents 
  in po�ery are ground minerals, commonly copper, 
  cobalt, or iron. Copper creates greens and blues, 
  cobalt blue, and iron can produce almost any 
  color when used in the right amount, ground to 
  the right size, and added to the right base. Glazes 
  add a finishing sheen to raw po�ery. Glazes are 
  substances glossed on po�ery that melt at low 
  temperatures compared to po�ery’s hardening 
  temperature. Early glazes are clay blends, 
  while later technology incorporates ground 
  glass. Po�ers also add ground minerals 
  to color glazes, carefully guarded secrets 
  among cra�smen. Besides coloring and 
  painting designs, po�ers also add 
  decorative pieces onto the surface 
  of po�ery, known in the trade as 
  spriging.
  
  86
  society without dra� animals may move liquids in round-bo�omed po�ery designed 
  to balance on the head. Upon arrival these pots rest on a stand, keeping the pot stable 
  despite its rotund shape. Societies with domesticated or tamed dra� animals have 
  more transportation accoutrements. Harnesses, saddles, and yolks make animal 
  power accessible to societies. Hauling supplies, carrying people, and plowing fields 
  are the most obvious uses of dra� animals. Not all large animals make appropriate 
  dra� animals. The most common mundane dra� animals are ca�le, horses, yaks, 
  water buffalo, oxen, camels, and elephants. With these animals come cra�s for taming, 
  birthing, feeding, grooming, healing, riding, and decorating them.
  Public Works
   
  Public works are buildings or projects undertaken with the pooled resources 
  of a society. From mounds created by moving vast amounts of dirt to towering 
  monuments, public works are structures that require great amounts of resources and 
  manpower. These projects do not usually occur until societies se�le 
  into permanent sites. Though it is hotly debated whether need 
  for such projects sparked the beginning of governmental 
  institutions or such institutions predate public endeavors, 
  the fact is that the two are interrelated. The presence of 
  public works a�est to the complexity of the society. 
  Larger projects require more resources, people, 
  wealth, surplus food, and a developed, centralized 
  governmental machine to allocated them. Some 
  public works improve the condition of society, 
  such as irrigation systems, sewers, and defensive 
  structures. Others further support the institutions 
  of the centralized power, such as temples, palaces, 
  housing complexes, and tombs. Some leaders 
  envision monumental works that a�est the 
  greatness of their people.
  Entertainment Cra�s
   
  Entertainment cra�s are those things that 
  societies create to stave off boredom, an inevitable 
  byproduct of intelligence. Even the most basic 
  societies have periods with nothing to do, so 
  people invent ways to pass the time. The most 
  common cra�s associated with entertainment are 
  games and musical instruments. The most basic 
  games began with items found naturally: stones, 
  sticks, shells, nuts, and other debris. People fashion 
  pieces for amusement from available resources 
  according to their environment and subsistence 
  pa�ern. Societies make tiles, dice, marbles, and 
  cards from carved stone, wood, and ivory. Thick 
  shells and gourds make good cups for catching or 
  throwing small objects. Hunters and herders make 
  dice from knuckles, teeth, and carved bone and balls 
  from inflated bladders. The more societal complexity, 
  the more complex their games and specialized their 
  toys become. Games acquire particular pieces and parts 
  with unique a�ribute while goals and rules become more 
  intricate.
  Dyes
  Color is a  precious 
  commodity. 
  Through 
  countless trial and error, 
  societies use elements from 
  their environment to dye 
  textiles, paint wood, glaze 
  po�ery, and decorate their 
  bodies. Predominately used 
  for decoration, colors quickly 
  become status markers, both in 
  quantity and quality. The most 
  common sources of color are 
  vegetable ma�er. Barks, roots, 
  flowers, fruits, resins, gums, 
  nutshells, 
  and 
  saps 
  provide 
  various hues. People also make 
  dyes from animal secretions, 
  dried 
  insects, 
  and 
  ground 
  minerals. 
  People 
  mix 
  these 
  colorants with other substances 
  to make the color stick. Po�ers 
  mix colorants with other clays or 
  pieces of glass. Textile dyers use 
  chemical solutions (mordants) 
  before, during, and a�er dying 
  to ensure color fastness and 
  control the hue. People mix 
  colorants with oil or lard to 
  paint their faces and bodies. 
  Fruit 
  pulp 
  (mixed 
  with 
  organic acids) dyes hair, 
  while painters use binders 
  (e.g. egg yolk, linseed 
  oil, milk) with their 
  colorants.
  
  87
   
  The same is true of musical instruments. Basic musical entertainment may 
  only require singing, chanting, or rhythm from natural objects, like clapping hands 
  or beating hollow logs. Societies produce musical instruments from a broad list of 
  materials, including wood, bone, stone, metal, clay, gourds, tendons, and animal 
  guts. Many of these material resonant when agitated, making them self-sounding 
  instruments. Though each material and its specific use generate a different sound, 
  there are basics types of instruments. Most basic are rhythm instruments that make no 
  specific tone, like drums, scrapers, and beating sticks. Some rhythm instruments also 
  have melody, like chimes, xylophones, and tympanis.
   
  Some instruments are powered by breath. Flutes (e.g. panpipes, duct flutes, 
  and recorders) are hollow tubes with a mouth-hole, played when air passes over the 
  mouth-hole. Reed instruments (e.g. clarinets, zummara, bagpipes, oboes) use a single 
  or double reed instead of a mouth-hole, creating a shrill tone with a woody resonance. 
  Horns and trumpets sound when player’s lips compress and control the air flowing 
  through the instrument. Though many associate metal with horns and trumpets, ivory, 
  seashells, and animal horns are also played in this fashion.
   
  Stringed instruments rely on the natural resonance of materials under tension, 
  typically plucked, strummed, or bowed. Cavernous chambers are sometimes added 
  to amplify the natural resonance of the taut string. Strings are made from animal guts, 
  tendons, and metal, while their chambers are predominately made of wood. Stringed 
  instruments may be the last instruments in the development of music, due to the 
  complexity required for the simplest of musical bows. A few examples include bows, 
  harps, lyres, lutes, fiddles, pianos, mandolins, and zithers.
   
  It may appear that I have spent an undue amount of time on entertainment 
  cra�s, but only because entertainment is so vital to mortal existence that few societies 
  live without it. Many societies a�ribute music and games with high importance, so that 
  certain songs and games are performed on important occasions, or in celebration of life 
  events. Each society has its own sound, its own song, and its own way of entertainment 
  that speaks to the root of all it values. To find its song is to see into its very core.
  Ornamentation
   
  Ornamentation is a pervasive occurrence in all societies; the desire for 
  ornamentation is strong in even the most basic cultures. In early egalitarian societies, 
  decoration mirrors the reoccurring themes cultures interact with. For example, 
  farming societies may embellish with representations of crops, blooming trees, and 
  other agricultural elements, while horse herders use braids and twists for decoration, 
  commonly used in horsehair cra�s. These representations may come to symbolize 
  larger ideas, such as fecundity, renewal, and cultural pride.
   
  As population increases, egalitarian societies (where leadership is not clearly 
  defined) centralize power into individuals and offices. Increasing wealth and social 
  discrepancies among the society intensify social stratification. Ornamentation becomes 
  the first visible cue denoting an individual’s wealth and status, indicative of their 
  reproductive fitness. As the need for differentiation increases, so does complexity in 
  ornamentation, which permeates through all parts of material culture.
   
  Though each culture has different styles and techniques, certain truisms can be 
  ascertained. Ornamentation as a visual cue for distinction relies on rarity. Perhaps the 
  materials themselves are rare, such as shells, minerals, metals, dyes, and stones that are 
  scarce or not locally found. Sometimes techniques and technology require an unusual 
  level of mastery, and few (if any locally) can produce the ornamentation. Lastly, social 
  pressure limits who can wear certain ornamentation, such as jewelry only married 
  women can wear, or a style of clothing reserved for artisans.
   
  There are three basic types of ornamentation: those applied to the body, 
  those applied to other cra�s, and those that exist solely for decoration sake. Body 
  
  88
  embellishments include piercing, scarification, ta�ooing, and painting. Locations, 
  colors, pa�erns, and degree of coverage vary from culture to culture. Dressing up 
  possessions take on many forms: carving wood, scorching leather, engraving metal, 
  dying textiles, painting furniture, embroidering clothes, stamping fabric, embossing 
  paper, lacquering boxes, and bejeweling daggers. Some objects become so ornate that 
  they lose their functionality, like ceremonial jade knives or lace gloves. Lastly, there are 
  those items that have no purpose but to be beautiful and striking, such as sculptures, 
  paintings, drawings, woodcuts, carvings and ornamental gardens.
  Technology
   
  People tinker. This is the beginning of all technology. At any particular moment 
  over a large enough area, some part of the populace is being inventive. Technology is 
  another autocatalytic process, wherein technological advances spark more advances. 
  This self-driven process relies on two truisms of innovation. First, any advances 
  depend on mastery of simpler, basic problems. For instance, a society cannot have 
  po�ery or metallurgy without proper technology for creating ho�er fires. Second, new 
  technologies arise from the recombination of materials and methods. Introduction of 
  a new material or a new methodology spurs more technological innovation by simply 
  recombining them with known materials and methods. Therefore the key to technology 
  is not inventing new items and methodology (people will always tinker), but rather 
  ge�ing societies to accept, use, and maintain technology while gaining exposure to new 
  ideas for further technological advancement.
  Social Factors
   
  The main factor in technology is geography and subsistence pa�ern. All 
  things being equal, technology develops fastest in large productive regions with 
  large populations of intelligent races, many potential inventors, and many competing 
  societies. Of course, all things are rarely equal. The primary prerequisite for determining 
  a society’s technological level is sedentary societies producing surplus food that supports 
  would-be inventors, but it is also a question of when food production began. The earlier 
  a society begins food production, the longer is can support full-time specialists and 
  create more innovations.
   
  Barriers to diffusion are one aspect that deters technological advancement. 
  Geographical barriers, like especially rugged mountains, oceans, and narrow isthmuses, 
  impede the movement of people, and de facto the spread new ideas. Ecological 
  barriers such as changes in latitude or drastic changes in climate and ecology slow 
  technological advances for the same reason. Borrowed technology spreads much faster 
  than independent innovation, and these barriers to migration effectively isolate certain 
  areas and the societies that live there. The distribution of intelligent races is another 
  possible technological deterrent. Some continents just don’t have many people or have 
  dispersed societies. Without exposure to different ideas and many nearby competing 
  societies to encourage adopting potentially advantageous technology, societies are le� 
  to slower, independent invention.
   
  There are other social factors that affect technological development. Long life 
  expectancy gives possible inventors more time to create, as well as encapsulate a greater 
  array of knowledge within a single generation. Cultures that support technologies by 
  creating and then teaching them to the next generation are more likely to maintain 
  technological knowledge on a cultural level. Societies with a scientific outlook, 
  risk-taking behavior, or tolerance of diverse views (opposed to strongly traditional 
  societies) are more likely to invent and adopt new technology. Literate cultures also 
  have an advantage because they can preserve their knowledge and use that of previous 
  generations.
  
  89
  Selling Technology
   
  Like all other things, technologies compete for survival through adoption and 
  maintenance by societies. Cultures are more likely to adopt innovations with easily 
  observable economic advantages in comparison to current technology. People also 
  support technology that promotes social prestige, which explains the vast resources 
  allocated to ornamentation and cra� specialization. Lastly, societies adopt new 
  technology more readily if they do not counter other vested interests. For example, 
  the royal construction foreman, whose cousin makes bow drills for a living, strongly 
  discourages using new hand drills in his projects, even though they may have a 
  technological advantage.
   
  The first stage of adoption is accepting the technology. Once new materials 
  and methods garner tacit acceptance in a culture, people explore possible uses of 
  the imported technology. Sometimes local applications stray far from their intended 
  purpose. Some societies import the technology without ever developing it locally. 
  Some may have a paucity of inventors due to lifestyle, others may have not mastered 
  the prerequisite skills for local manufacture, or political forces may close the line of 
  inventive inquiry. Then there are those societies that maintain new technological 
  knowledge through local production and combining new technology with established 
  materials and methods. Technology survives in societies that use, produce, and teach 
  them to following generations. This is especially true of cra� techniques, where 
  materials and method are highly-guarded secrets passed only to apprentices.
  New Technology
   
  There are three ways to obtain new technology: trade, emigration, and 
  espionage. New ideas and technology disperse through established trade contacts, 
  making the movement of ideas directly tied to the movement of people and their wares. 
  People and their ideas are more fluid on continents whose main length is east/west 
  rather than north/south. Staying within the same general latitude (which determines 
  length of day and influences rainfall and climate) causes less stress to migrating plants, 
  animals, people, and the exchange of ideas. Geographical barriers and drastic ecological 
  changes hamper the movement of people, such as two temperate areas separated by a 
  vast desert. In that instance, the desert deters exchange between cultures on either side 
  of the desert because plants, animals, and societies accustomed to temperate climate 
  have not evolved the strategies to survive desert environment. 
  Should there be a desert society that has trade relations with 
  both temperate neighbors, trade and idea exchange may 
  proceed with ease. Some societies obtain new 
  technology from a different type 
  of 
  movement, 
  emigration. 
  Whether 
  voluntary 
  or 
  coerced, emigration moves 
  people around, from an 
  individual to an entire 
  cultural group. Their 
  food, animals, cra�s, 
  and technology are 
  all potentially new 
  to whomever they 
  encounter in their 
  migration. Espionage 
  is covertly obtaining 
  information 
  from 
  an outside source 
  
  90
  without knowledge or approval of said outside source. Whether obtaining the seed 
  of a valuable fruit, the location of a silver vein, or the type of weapons another society 
  uses, espionage is as old as conflict itself. Acts of espionage typically root from martial 
  conflict, economic gain, or competition in cultural advancement.
   
  Societies typically borrow technology in two methods. One method begins 
  with obtaining a complete picture of how things work and then emulating the design. 
  Once a society understands the emulation, they can modify the technology for their 
  purposes. The other method is the simple spread of ideas; it takes a very small thing to 
  spur people to tinker. Partial, incomplete information about a new technology reaches 
  a community, which in and of itself can inspire invention. Technology is not limited to 
  cra�s; it may also encompass crops, domestic animals, languages, writing/alphabets, 
  philosophies, religions, governmental structures, laws, sciences, and the arts. 
  Development of Magic Use
   
  Magic is everywhere. Certain creatures develop the ability to convert magic into 
  sustenance or into supernatural abilities. Some intelligent races evolve physiological 
  adaptations to magical geography, but most pay li�le heed to the ambient magic 
  around them. People learn to use magic in their quest to manipulate their environment 
  for survival. Like technology, intelligent beings invent new ways to use magic and how 
  to accomplish different effects. Unlike technology, not everyone can manipulate magic 
  to produce desired effects.
   
  Intelligent beings first harness the body magic through performing rituals and 
  projecting their collective energy into accomplishing small, simple effects. These first 
  effects are typically sporadic, inconsistence, and unreliable. They know that certain 
  objects, words, actions, and concentration allows them to harness magic, but they do not 
  know the exact components and combinations. The next leap in magic use is individuals 
  that direct magic. These proto-spellcasters use their force of character or unconscious 
  congruity with the multiverse to channel ritual energy into more-developed effects. 
  Though intelligent beings’ use of magic is limited at this point, they now know certain 
  individuals have the ability to concentrate and direct magic, some be�er than others.
   
  The first casters are most likely adepts and bards. As prevalent as entertainment 
  is in all societies, bardic abilities do not go unnoticed for long. Adepts (proto druids and 
  clerics) discover their ability to use magic through their healing effects, always a need for 
  a community’s injured and sick. From there, cultural diversity plays a large part in how 
  societies develop magic use, depending on the level of social complexity, temperament, 
  cultural mores, and exposure to other societies. Hunter-gatherer societies may be 
  the first to develop spellcasting rangers, while clerics of seafaring societies may only 
  develop air, luck, travel, and water domains. Agricultural societies may develop druids 
  before clerics, and only through urbanization do clerics become as prolific as druids. 
  Communities of desert traders may use stars and astrological objects to channel magic 
  and may be the first communities to discover create water. Highly stratified societies, 
  which depend on communalism over individualism, may not produce sorcerers, while 
  some societies may shun magic use for its unnatural results. Thus, it is gross mistake to 
  think that all types of spells, spellcasters, and spellcasting are available to all societies 
  at the same time. Magical knowledge spreads much like technology, through trade, 
  emigration, or espionage.
   
  There are two points of consideration. First, magic is a resource, and you can 
  always over exploit a resource. Second, the body magic is sentient with its own will. As 
  great civilizations grow, produce more spellcasters, and manipulate more magic, their 
  will greatly overrides the will of the body magic. This “unnatural” manipulation of 
  magic on such a large scale o�en agitates the body magic, which treats such behavior 
  like an infection. The body magic has many ways of righting itself. It may lend its might 
  and favor to less-advanced enemies of the civilization or incite war between many 
  magic-using societies. Both bring the downfall of spell-using societies, and bury their 
  
  91
  knowledge under ruins. The body magic may bombard the infection with a plague 
  of magiovores, leaching away (or cleansing the area, depending on your perspective) 
  the society’s magical resources. Other times, it may simply redirect magic. One day, 
  spellcasters cannot cast their highest-level spells, magic knowledge is disappearing 
  from their records, and once-magical items become mundane trinkets. Sometimes 
  the body magic takes a longer path and renders the transfer of magical knowledge 
  impossible; suddenly teachers cannot teach their students, for their students cannot 
  learn.
  Ideological Culture
   
  Ideological culture is a society’s beliefs and practices. Unlike material culture, 
  these things are intangible, yet reflected in every societal aspect. Natural instincts 
  promote current survival with li�le to no thought beyond present stresses. Intelligence 
  creates temporal awareness, giving intelligent races tools to overcome their short-term 
  survival instinct. Certain practices, beliefs, and taboos develop within the community 
  that increase the long-term survivability of the community, and the survivors pass these 
  customs to the next generation. In this way, ideological culture is merely an intelligent 
  adaptation to the environment, furthering the survivability of the community. For 
  example, when you create a successful society living in the desert (which cannot 
  support large, densely-populated groups), create cultural practices that retard 
  population growth. Delayed marriage, long nursing of children, sexual taboos limiting 
  the times and conditions for copulation, and martial pursuits that regularly prune the 
  community are a few ideas.
   
  Creating cultural beliefs and practices would be much easier if intelligent 
  creatures were not conscious, introspective beings. The benefit and burden of 
  intelligence manifest in the urge to constantly fiddle with things while promoting 
  the status quo. In this unconscious pursuit, societies create cultural practices that 
  are selective advantages, and they also create many with li�le to no benefit. As these 
  adaptations pass from generation to generation, societies develop a special reverence 
  for them. From a mortal perspective, ideological culture is an intangible, unifying force 
  that links individuals to the society and to other individuals in the society, both past and 
  present. How people view their culture is very complex, though it is important to note 
  that most societies resist changes to their cultural assumptions, ironically unaware that 
  change is only constant method of survival.
   
  Despite their intelligence, societies are rarely conscious of the motivation 
  behind their cultural paradigms; rather they see their culture as the natural way things 
  are done. This lack of awareness coupled with reverence for tradition makes culture 
  creation all the more complex. For example, consider an island community. Keeping 
  pigs and feeding them vegetable surplus that would otherwise go bad is a selective 
  advantage to the community. They store their perishable surplus into pigs, which can 
  be slaughtered and eaten upon need. Over time pigs supplant their original purpose as 
  surplus storage and become a measure of status (the more pigs, the wealthier the family, 
  the higher their social standing). Given enough time and surplus, the community as a 
  whole may gear their food production to raise more pigs (consequently a�aining more 
  perceived status within the community), while producing proportionally less food for 
  the people of their community. If this switch in food production takes place, pigs become 
  competitors for food resources rather than the consumer of surplus food. Although 
  keeping pigs has now become a selective disadvantage, this island community may 
  continue keeping pigs and using them as a measure of status because of an a�achment 
  to cultural mores.
   
  Communities, their environment, and their cultural adaptations are a delicate 
  balance to maintain. When traits are taken individually, they may seem to have no 
  selective advantage but are beneficial in combination with other cultural adaptations. 
  The balance is harder to maintain as cultures interact with new concepts, religions, 
  
  92
  knowledge, technology, magic, and trade goods. When cultures collide, individuals 
  of the community must decide how these things fit within their cultural paradigms, 
  creating many different approaches from a similar cultural basis. Only the survivors 
  pass their culture to the next generation, which may account for the visceral reverence 
  societies ascribe to their beliefs, practices, and cra�s.
   
  Though communities and their cultures develop uniquely, all societies address 
  certain key stresses with similar social adaptations. While we separate culture in 
  categories and discuss social functions of cultural practices, remember that societies 
  rarely contrive their cultural mores to have those affects. Also remember that societies, 
  cra�s, ideologies, and institutions evolve concurrently, constantly creating, altering, 
  and shaping one another.
  Alignment
   
  The natural world is true neutral, each member playing its role in a larger 
  balance. When creatures develop intelligence, they have the ability to shape or 
  determine their alignment separate of the natural world. Certain alignments have 
  selective advantages within certain sets of conditions. For example, lawful people may 
  have a selective advantage in environments with scarce but reliable resources. The 
  best survivors in this environment rely on order, hierarchical leadership, and rigid 
  accounting of resources. On the other hand, chaotic societies may have a selective 
  advantage in environments with scare and erratic resources. Their flexibility and less-
  ridged social structure promote the survival of the species in this situation.
   
  Most hunter-gatherer societies are chaotic in nature, with small, tightly-bound 
  groups, low population densities, and li�le to no external hierarchical structure outside 
  of their group. With the rise of agriculture, societies tend to show more lawful traits 
  by forming larger communities, intercommunity organizations, and codified social 
  structures. Pastoralists o�en fall somewhere in the middle, depending on their level 
  of nomadic behavior. In general, the smaller the piece of land a society relies upon for 
  survival, the more lawful they tend to be.
   
  Similar trends exist in moral alignments as well. Good societies have a selective 
  advantage in environments where reciprocity is the best method of ensuring individual 
  survival. It is important to note that violence, competition, and selfish motivation take 
  place in good societies, but on a whole they are not the favored method of conflict 
  resolution and social interaction. Evil societies have a selective advantage where 
  competition for resources is intense, and eliminating the competition best ensures 
  individual survival. It should be noted that societies o�en act like their opposed 
  alignment under unique stress. Good societies may engage in genocide while evil ones 
  may support their neighbors against oppressors, but both societies, over time, vastly 
  favor actions consistent with their alignment.
   
  A few observations on these trends—neutral societies are generalists, while 
  deviating from neutrality makes societies more specialized. Neutral and good societies 
  are more likely to form complex civilizations while evil societies rarely form complex 
  civilizations unless they are also lawful in nature. And lastly, there are gradations in 
  these terms, and the degree of selective advantage derived from them varies from 
  situation to situation.
  Language
   
  Communication between members of a community plays a vital part in culture 
  formation, the most obvious being verbal communication. Intelligent races create 
  language by assigning arbitrary sounds to objects and manipulating those sounds 
  to express new, complex ideas. Language always reflects the needs of its speakers. 
  For example, societies of the artic have more ways to express “snow” and “ice,” all 
  bearing the subtle differences that materially affect their lives. One term may apply to 
  
  93
  “first snow,” while another refers to “the snow that 
  foreshadows a winter storm.” They may have one 
  word for “ice that is safe to cross with a sledge 
  team,” while another term applies to thin ice. 
  People who live a leisurely-paced lifestyle may 
  express everything in the present tense and use 
  key words that mean “in the distant past,” “in 
  the recent past,” or “sometime in the future.” A 
  society active in trade may borrow many words 
  from other languages and assimilate them into 
  their own tongue.
   Without 
  going 
  into 
  fricatives, 
  dentals, 
  aspirated consonants, and diphthongs, we can 
  safely assert that languages sound different. 
  Languages using endings to indicate number, 
  tense, and gender usually rhyme because the 
  same endings appear over and over. People 
  living near the sea o�en speak with a singsong 
  cadence, mimicking the sound of moving water. 
  Some only use monosyllabic words and employ 
  tonal subtleties to impart meaning. Other 
  languages take preexisting words and squish 
  them together to create new words, making long, 
  lumbering sentences.
   
  Language is extremely important to a society. 
  The power of words permeates all cultures, hinting 
  at words of power, bless, and curse. Many societies 
  have myths concerning the origin of their language. 
  Some propose the gods gave them their language 
  (which you can do, but my gnome does not recommend 
  it—be�er that they do it themselves). Others speak of a 
  progenitor language of divine origin that is lost to mortal 
  ears, and of course, theirs is the closest derivative language. Though 
  this may be true for certain races, the main creators of different languages are physical 
  isolation and colloquial adaptation.
   
  Typically a smaller group splinters from a larger 
  community. Initially they speak the same language, but given 
  enough time and isolation from each other, they develop 
  different languages. Spoken language easily mutates 
  with use. Certain words and phrases are used more 
  o�en, while others die from lack of use. Groups use 
  different idioms to express similar ideas, but idioms 
  only bear their meaning within their cultural 
  context. Words get clipped, mispronounced, and 
  adapted into different meanings, while certain 
  sounds shi�, making languages entirely different 
  from their original roots. In more advanced 
  societies, different classes o�en use different 
  words, so communication within the same 
  community is not always uniform.
   
  Language also mutates through conquest. 
  Conquerors may force subject people to adopt their 
  language, weakening their subject’s cultural ties. 
  Words of Power
  Every society has particular, 
  unique methods of channeling 
  magic, most requiring verbal 
  components. Though these words 
  of power are unique to each caster, 
  they are highly influenced by 
  cultural factors. Allusions, idioms, 
  and cultural bias determine the 
  path through which spellcasters 
  evoke their powers. While druidic 
  casters prefer to channel nature 
  itself, clerics typically address more 
  abstract forces, like the god of war 
  or the power of good. Bards rely 
  upon stories, myths, and cultural 
  history, while sorcerers are more 
  introspective with their focus. 
  Wizards prefer to use older, 
  archaic languages, in the hopes of 
  tapping a primeval power. Other 
  generalizations fall along racial 
  lines and regional locations. 
  Dwarves are more likely to 
  call upon the strength of the 
  mountain than elves, while a 
  spring-fed lake in the desert 
  evokes 
  more 
  magical 
  a�ention than your 
  average body of 
  water.
  Oral Traditions
  Having a wri�en language 
  is not a prerequisite for 
  cultural sophistication. Some 
  societies reinforce and preserve 
  their culture through strong 
  oral traditions. Storytelling is an 
  art form that passes the society’s 
  mores through retelling myths 
  and history to the next generation. 
  Societies with wri�en languages 
  also 
  use 
  oral 
  traditions 
  to 
  reinforce their cultural mores 
  because 
  writing 
  is 
  o�en 
  inaccessible to the majority of 
  people in a community.
  
  94
  Subject people may retain their language but learn 
  the conqueror’s language for trade, communication, 
  and administration. Subject people may retain their 
  language but absorb much of their conqueror’s 
  language. A fusion language may emerge with 
  traces of both languages.
  Writing
   
  Writing assigns arbitrary symbols to the 
  arbitrary sounds that constitute language. The most 
  basic form of writing is pictorial representation of an 
  object. For example, early pictographic writers who 
  want to express the sun draw a circle with rays shooting 
  out from the circle. Over time, that symbol comes to 
  represent not only the sun but also the idea of light. As wri�en 
  languages age, their symbols simplify because the need for exact distinction decreases 
  with familiarity. With the example of the sun pictorial, why use six rays when three 
  will get the point across? As writing develops, pictorial representations become more 
  abstract, until there is no visible connection to the picture and the object it describes.
   
  Some wri�en languages further mutate into syllabic representations, where a 
  symbol indicates a certain type of sound. Given our previous example with sun, over 
  time people no longer put rays, and now simply write a circle. Say the word for sun is 
  pronounced “bi-ma.” When someone wants to write a different word whose first sound 
  is “bi,” they write a circle. This process proceeds with symbols continuing to change 
  and simplify over time. While some wri�en languages progress in this manner, others 
  may begin as syllabic languages and continue their refinement from there.
   
  The tools originally used in writing o�en determine the shape of symbols and 
  le�ers. Clay tablets promote straight lines with indentions and writing tools without 
  uniform shape. For example, an isosceles triangle easily produces four different 
  symbols (point up, point down, point le�, point right), while a circle can only express 
  one. Writing on large leaves (like banana leaves) produce curved scripts because 
  straight lines cut the leaves. Writing on hard surfaces, like stone, promotes straight lines 
  because curves are difficult in that medium. Many societies do not create their own 
  wri�en language, but borrow an alphabet from another society, adopt the symbols of 
  similar sounds, and modify the symbols over time. Such things occur between societies 
  that trade and in conquered societies.
   
  It is important to note that wri�en language may vary greatly from spoken 
  language. In general, the greater number of speakers and/or the greater geographical 
  separation of its speakers produce a larger gap between wri�en and spoken language. 
  Writing o�en lags behind spoken language because its rules of usage are not as flexible, 
  and literacy slowly works through the echelons of society. Writing is primarily for 
  leaders, the wealthy, and their accountants/managers. Literacy spreads through the 
  populace starting with people of higher social standing. As it becomes more mundane, 
  elite groups within society quickly adopt the social responsibility of writing, striving to 
  keep language pure and dictating rules of usage to that end. This can, of course, make 
  writing inaccessible to many of its speakers. Other times it unifies a large geographical 
  area with a common wri�en language while its inhabitants speak different languages.
  Religion
   
  Religion is a cultural adaptation for intelligent races to resolve their intellect 
  with their wisdom. It is one of the great truisms of the multiverse that truth cannot 
  be spoken, only heard; such is the guiding principal behind religion. On an abstract 
  level, religion gives individuals a route to everything greater than a single individual: 
  Tree Rat
  Languages that do not have 
  a 
  syllabic 
  alphabet 
  but 
  a 
  logographic system express ideas 
  in unique ways. For example, let’s 
  say @ is the symbol for “tree.” 
  To express “grove,” I would 
  write @@. To express “forest,” I 
  would write @@@. To express 
  “squirrel,” I would write @# 
  (# meaning rat), making 
  the exact translation of 
  squirrel, “tree rat.”
  
  95
  their society, the sky, death, the universe, and gods. Religion provides an explanation 
  as well as a solution to life’s problems through taboos, rituals, and atonements. On a 
  concrete level, religions codify the society’s beliefs, which are adaptations themselves, 
  and regulate the behavior of individuals so a community can function with less friction 
  (a task of growing importance as population density increases).
   
  Most races initially worship natural phenomena or a specific part of nature. 
  This may be a nearby mountain, a river whose fish and water feed the community, 
  or an animal that the community hunts. As the society develops, its religious ideas 
  may shi� or expand. Religious ideas become more abstract to accommodate the 
  expanded knowledge of the society. Suddenly the mountain is not god, but is home 
  to an anthropomorphized god. The surrounding forest is also worshipped along with 
  the river. The specific animal is no longer the sole focus of worship, but the animal 
  spirit in everything. Some religious focuses become removed from nature, usually 
  in conjunction with urbanization and separation from the natural world. Instead of 
  worshiping the god that brings rain, people worship the goddess of the hearth, or the 
  force of law. Though the evolution of religion follows this general pa�ern, the evolution 
  of any specific society’s religion does not have to follow this sequence.
   
  When creating a society’s religious beliefs, look at their landscape, subsistence 
  pa�ern, and societal development/history. Majestic parts of their environment may 
  prove worthy of worship. Rivers and lakes provide daily requirements, while mountains 
  and large rock formations induce awe by their size or orientation. Natural caves provide 
  shelter and are sometimes filled with spectacular mineral formations. Volcanoes and 
  earthquakes demand a�ention by their violence, if for no other reason. People of the 
  artic that experience days of continuous darkness and days of continuous daylight 
  probably have religious explanations and rituals ascribed to such phenomena.
   
  Next consider what they eat. A society usually worships that which it perceives 
  as providing it food. Hunter-gatherers usually have an animistic religion, showing 
  respect for the animal that gives its life to feed the community. This respect for the 
  animal is a selective advantage for hunter-gatherers because it counters instinctual 
  over-predation and encourages them to use all parts of the animal, for wasting any 
  part would be ungracious. Such cultural adaptations encourage long-term survivability 
  for hunter-gatherers. Pastoralists o�en revere their herds, ascribing social spiritual 
  
  96
  relationships between the animal and the community. For example, ca�le-herding 
  societies may see the cow as a mother figure, providing milk, clothing, and fuel; or 
  horse people may value speed and strength, two a�ributes encapsulated in their herd. 
  Pastoralists also ascribe to abstract ideas, like fertility (increasing and strengthen the 
  herd) and health (warding off disease). Agriculturalist religions focus on natural cycles 
  and things affecting the harvest. Ample, timely rainfall; fertile fields; seasonal cycles 
  occurring at predicable intervals; warding off disease and pests; and the intimate 
  connection between the fruits of the field and the community they feed is common in 
  agricultural religion.
   
  Finally, consider the history and development of the society. Religious ideals 
  are old companions to intelligent races, but the institution of religion does not begin 
  until communities se�le into permanent sites, food production frees people to become 
  full-time religious functionaries, and centralized powers use deep-rooted beliefs to 
  justify mobilization of resources. Literacy also affects developing religions. Societies 
  that preserve thoughts, doctrine, and history in writing create a potentially larger pool 
  of cultural knowledge, while information passed orally has an effective limit, both in 
  size and complexity. Older developed societies typically have more complex beliefs 
  and practices because they have more remnants from religious customs of the past that 
  must be reconciled with the religion of the day.
   
  Another factor is cultural temperament. Martial societies value physical 
  strength, victory in ba�le, and o�en look at things through the eyes of a warrior. One 
  martial society may value mercy as a result of such violent history, while others may 
  justify their pursuits through religion with a “holy fighter” paradigm. Societies active 
  in trade o�en revere that which guides and protects them during their travels. Stars 
  hold a special place in trading societies, as well as hospitality since traders o�en find 
  themselves visitors in another man’s land. Seafaring societies revere water, wind, stars, 
  and the forces that protect the boat and its sailors. Societies in pursuit of philosophy 
  value knowledge, “scientific” understanding, and quantifying. 
  Religious societies are more likely to retain religious 
  integration in every aspect of life, due to its ideological 
  stronghold in culture. Such societies practice a million 
  small rites as they perform daily tasks.
  Myths
   
  Myths are the cultural stories passed from 
  generation to generation. They o�en explain how 
  things originated; why things are the way they 
  are; and who is to blame for death, unhappiness, 
  starvation, and other unpleasant aspects of life. 
  Myths preserve the past, record the present, and 
  foreshadow the future through a cultural lens. 
  Usually spoken or sung, myths socially unify 
  the community through shared knowledge, 
  for everyone knows the stories, players, and 
  endings. But the recounting of myth, a ritual 
  of remembrance itself, grounds each individual 
  further into his community.
   
  Myths are shaped by religious focus, 
  environment, and general outlook. For example, 
  communities living in extreme, hostile environments 
  are intimately familiar with harsh realities and carry 
  this into their myths. They o�en have imperfect 
  creation myths, where the creator/god makes a mistake 
  Creation Myths
  Every society is curious 
  about how they came into 
  existence. Almost all myths 
  start with a divine creator. 
  Sometimes the creator makes the 
  world and then populates it with 
  people. Other times people come 
  first, and god must then create 
  a world for them. Most creation 
  stories involve a creator giving, 
  breathing, or sweating life into 
  soil and making man. Some myths 
  give a special distinction to the first 
  man and/or woman. Either they 
  are created in a way unique from 
  the others, or they have greater 
  powers. 
  Regardless 
  of 
  the 
  actual events of their existence, 
  maintaining 
  uncertainty 
  (though uncomfortable for 
  intelligent beings) is a main 
  fuel for their ingenuity.
  
  97
  during creation. Death usually plays a prominent role in 
  stories, with a comic tension between mortals and their 
  creators. Gnomes usually have trickster heroes in their 
  myths, o�en ge�ing the be�er of larger, more powerful 
  beings. People living in wet areas tell creation stories 
  where the world is initially all water, and a divinity 
  forms land by touching mud dredged up from the 
  bo�om of the water.
   
  Some myths claim to recount history, events 
  that actually happened, were recorded, and are 
  now retold. Historical myths are commonly used in 
  describing ba�les, survival through physical trials, 
  and the lives of prominent social figures. This may 
  be a play by play of a war between the virtuous 
  free people fighting off vile oppressors. Perhaps 
  it speaks of a catastrophic event that their people 
  survived, like a volcanic eruption, flood, or extended 
  drought. Many tales speak of virtuous people and 
  their foils, giving the community concrete examples 
  of expected and unacceptable behavior. One important 
  point about historical myths: the further back the event, 
  the more poetic license taken by storytellers and bards.
   
  Other myths convey morals that further flesh out a 
  society’s character. What do these people think is important, 
  what do they think is a virtue, and what cultural quirks arise when things get complex? 
  These tales either blatantly point out acceptable or unacceptable behavior, or they 
  recount tricky situations without answers, le�ing the community shape its current 
  feeling on the ma�er.
   
  One trait that permeates all myths is balance. Things usually exist in opposition 
  pairs like day and night, or a pair of brothers, one wise, and the other foolish. When 
  numbers are used, they repeat themselves throughout the story. When numbers are 
  applied to opposition pairs, the numbers are usually equal; if there are seven dwarves, 
  there are seven elves. Imbalances in number usually imply that something is wrong or 
  justifiably unequal.
  Taboo
   
  Taboos are foods, behaviors, and objects that individuals abstain from in 
  accordance to their cultural mores. Taboos usually originate from religious beliefs, 
  though they sometimes outlive their root religion. Though the majority of taboos 
  do not provide a scientifically measurable benefit, taboos are an integral part in the 
  development and continuation of culture. Their primary goal as an adaptation is social 
  organization. Some taboos have additional benefits that promote personal and societal 
  welfare. For example, not eating pigs (and therefore not keeping pigs) reduces pig and 
  human disease interchange (common cause of many diseases in human societies). 
  When a society designates which hand you eat from and which hand you wipe your 
  ass with, people avoid contact with the dirty hand, which reduces incidence of disease. 
  Other societies never taste their food during the cooking process or before serving, 
  another taboo that prevents spreading diseases.
   
  Food taboos define and categorize food by how, when, and when not to eat 
  certain things. While some cultures simply forbid people from eating types of food, 
  many societies create sets of conditions for consumption. Consider a society in which 
  pregnant women are supposed to eat a certain type of root, thought to help the baby 
  grow to term. Perhaps this root is scarce in nature and difficult to cultivate, so women 
  who are not pregnant are forbidden to eat this root. In fact, part of the prestige associated 
  Who Came First?
  Worlds 
  with 
  multiple 
  intelligent races usually 
  have two or more racial 
  societies claiming to be the 
  first 
  race. 
  This 
  treasured 
  position 
  of 
  first 
  creation 
  seems too much temptation for 
  otherwise rational intelligent 
  beings, 
  leading 
  them 
  into 
  philosophical 
  and 
  religious 
  ba�les, and sometimes into 
  actual combat. While some 
  societies are prone to fight for 
  an implied superiority that 
  dates back to beginning of 
  time, others are content in 
  embracing a single divinity 
  as 
  their 
  creator 
  and 
  regarding themselves her 
  treasured creation.
  
  98
  with pregnancy is the ability to eat this root, and one way to announce a pregnancy is to 
  serve the root to the expectant mother at a dinner party. Food taboos may also cross into 
  the medicinal realm. Certain foods cure symptoms, while other foods bring on physical 
  problems and should be avoided. Taboos may also dictate how something is prepared 
  before it can be eaten, again sometimes physically beneficial, other times completely 
  arbitrary but uniformly so.
   
  Taboos surrounding objects are more abstract, o�en embodying a culture’s 
  anxieties. For example, a society with low population growth and a high incidence of 
  miscarriages may have object taboos associated with pregnancy. Perhaps the conception 
  bed cannot be moved until the baby is born, or pregnant women cannot use knives or 
  other sharp objects for the first three months of the pregnancy. Seafaring societies have 
  many taboos concerning their boats and ships. Women cannot touch the prow of the 
  boat, lest the navigator loose his way. Do not leave on a fishing venture without tying a 
  banana leaf to the stern with red string. While many of these taboos seem unhelpful at 
  best and arbitrary superstition at worst, some have their benefit. For example, consider 
  the taboos passed down from generation to generation on cultivating crops, firing 
  po�ery, metallurgy, and shipbuilding.
   
  Behavioral taboos regulate how people interact within a society, as well 
  as outside their society. The most common behavioral taboos deal 
  with sex. Many cultures do not approve of incest, homosexuality, 
  or bestiality. Others prohibit having sex while a woman is 
  breastfeeding, before a hunt, or religious ceremony. Other 
  taboos ease social tension by defining and prohibiting 
  behavior that causes friction. Sharing sexual partners 
  a�er reproduction is one such taboo. In conjunction 
  with rituals, taboos regulate how people are suppose 
  to behave in certain situations and demand accordance 
  by reinforcing belief in supernatural forces that punish 
  disobedient individuals. This may not be as blatant a 
  lightening bolt striking your house, but perhaps your 
  cow is ill because you did not give your brother’s first 
  son an appropriate gi� at his 30th day party.
  Ritual
   
  Rituals are observances and events that 
  societies perform, engaging in formal periods of 
  concentrated, enjoyable association. Though some 
  have their roots in religious ideology, they are 
  all social events with social benefits. Like taboos, 
  rituals give the community social structure through 
  different approaches. Rituals that redistribute 
  wealth, resolve disputes, and promote hospitality 
  ease tension between members of the same 
  community. Rituals that celebrate life cycles and 
  natural cycles alleviate individual anxiety over the 
  greater forces that affect their lives. Though rituals are 
  social affairs, they can also be personal journeys. The 
  beneficial affects of ritual rarely lie in the particular 
  components of the ritual, but their significance to 
  the individual performing the ritual. Rituals create 
  culturally defined paths of proper thinking and feeling 
  before completing a task, from simple tasks like walking 
  out the front door to complex ones like building a boat.
  Avatars
  Revealing your will 
  to your subjects is not 
  always easy. O�en the 
  barrier between divine 
  and mortal comes down 
  to a question of familiarity. 
  When you wish to interact 
  with mortal races, choose a 
  place that evokes reverence. 
  Holy groves speak strongly 
  to elves, but hardly to orcs. 
  Rolling hills of green pasture 
  draw halflings’ hearts, while 
  the stalwart strength of stone 
  strikes true to dwarves. For 
  gnomes, try a damp cave with 
  shining 
  mineral 
  formations 
  and 
  sparkling 
  gems. 
  A�er 
  choosing an appropriate place, 
  next manifest in a guise they 
  understand and revere. Carry 
  sacred cultural objects, appear 
  as their herd animal, or wear 
  the robe of resplendent feathers 
  from a mythic bird—whatever 
  it takes to get the message 
  across. You are divine, you 
  have something to say, they 
  be�er listen, and follow 
  instructions. But remember 
  the universal truism: the 
  truth cannot be spoken, 
  only heard.
  
  99
  Redistribution of Wealth
   
  People living in close proximity to each other irritate one another; that is 
  another great truism of the multiverse. Culture provides adaptations that ease this 
  tension by establishing a standard operating procedure and socially accepted methods 
  of expressing and expelling social tension. The oldest and most common method 
  of easing tension is through redistribution of wealth. Some cultures throw feasts 
  where wealthy families give portions of food to poor families. Other cultures create 
  sharing partners between unrelated families to increase the overall survivability of the 
  community. Some fishing communities create mini-stock exchanges, where families 
  own shares in different fishing boats, ensuring a larger number of people have food, 
  even when some boats do not catch any fish. Agricultural societies may allow young 
  and old members of the community to glean the fields a�er harvest, supplementing 
  their family’s food supply. Some societies use this principle to garner friendly relations 
  with neighboring communities. In general, sharing the wealth makes more people 
  happy. Societies that engage in ritual redistribution of wealth also uphold the virtue of 
  the rich, either through virtuous praise or as a symbol of status (i.e. I am rich enough to 
  slaughter and give away ten pigs).
   
  Other methods of ritual redistribution of wealth are not as friendly. Some 
  herding cultures promote internecine raiding to redistribute wealth from the older, 
  weaker generation to the younger generation. These raids provide the prerequisite 
  wealth for young men to marry and create the next generation. Other cultures raid 
  neighboring communities, common in places of scarce resources and plentiful but 
  poor land. When communities become too large, social friction may lead to a fracture. 
  Sometimes this fracture is voluntary, and individuals leave the larger group to found 
  their own community. Other times this fracture is forced upon the dissidents. Fracturing 
  is one way that intelligent species move around their planet.
  Dispute Resolution
   
  Cultures mitigate friction by establishing methods of dispute resolution 
  enforced through social pressure. Dispute resolution sometimes overlaps with 
  redistribution of wealth when losses are equated to a fiscal equivalent. For example, 
  if someone’s son eloped with another man’s daughter without paying the proper bride 
  price, there may be a fiscal compensation for the loss of a daughter (used to create food 
  sharing partners and alliances). In egalitarian societies, the whole community may 
  preside over the dispute. As societies become more centralized, key figures like chiefs, 
  leaders, or religious figures preside. Some cultures use rituals to resolve disputes, 
  leaving it up to god and his interpreter. A few methods include reading oracles, augury, 
  consulting spirits, interpreting tossed dice, undergoing ordeals, and trial by combat, 
  which test the veracity of the disputants’ claims.
  Hospitality
   
  Hospitality is a cultural adaptation that codifies the treatment, reception, or 
  disposition toward visitors. This codification creates social order among the community 
  and subsequently defines proper behavior based on status within the community. The 
  codes of hospitality vary greatly from society to society. What is a proper greeting 
  when welcoming another man’s daughter into your home? Do guests bring gi�s 
  when they visit someone else’s home? Do hosts offer food and drinks to visitors? Are 
  visitors supposed to accept? Who sits where during community feasts? How long do 
  daughters-in-law tolerate their visiting mothers-in-law a�er the birth of a child? Some 
  cultures expand this codification into extensive sets of social rules. In societies that 
  measure familial importance by age, families record the exact time of birth to properly 
  categorize their members by status. Some communities use wealth as a determinate of 
  treatment, though each society measures wealth in different ways. Diversified cultures 
  
  100
  may also determine reception through occupation, e.g. merchants are be�er received 
  than grocers, who are be�er received than laundresses, who are be�er received than 
  septic cleaners.
   
  Hospitality also affects how cultures treat outsiders. Some cultures pay 
  outsiders the highest honor, offering them the choicest food, drink, accommodation, 
  and entertainment. Others are outright hostile, seeing foreign intrusion as a threat 
  regardless of context. Most cultures are somewhere in between, mixing a healthy 
  measure of pleasantry and caution. Some communities treat outsiders as a source of 
  entertainment amused at their physical differences and ignorance of how things work. 
  People who receive more visitations from outsiders have more developed customs 
  concerning their treatment and reception.
  Birth
   
  Cultures o�en celebrate or communally observe the stages of life, maintaining 
  personal and social order. Celebrations of birth are very common because of their 
  symbolic ties to renewal, fertility, and creation. Some societies tie a religious significance 
  to births. For instance, some societies think newborns are closer to the divine and 
  prevent them from crawling on the ground, lest they resemble animals. Other societies 
  may see birth as a vulnerable time when the divide between the spiritual world and 
  the physical world is thinner. Such cultures may seclude the child and mother for a 
  set amount of time to ensure the survival of both. There may be certain foods, stories, 
  dances, songs, and instruments associated with a new birth in the community. One 
  society may serve colored eggs at birthing celebrations, another may recite the creation 
  story of the first birth, while another only allows flutes and female singers to ensure 
  the baby’s first sounds are sweet. Many communities name the baby, dedicate the baby 
  to a patron deity, or perform an act of ritual decoration, like piercing, body painting, 
  makeup, or circumcision. Societies usually have different rituals depending on the sex 
  of the baby, reinforcing from birth the cultural mores of each gender. Not all births 
  are celebrated events; some cultures practice infanticide. Other cultures may even 
  cannibalistically cull their population, saving only the heartiest of young.
  “Only devils eat
  in the dark...”
  
  101
  Coming of Age
   
  Coming of age celebrates an adolescent’s passing from childhood into 
  adulthood. The rituals usually differ according to gender, with different criteria and 
  celebratory customs for males and females. Female coming of age usually has to do 
  with fertility, marriage, or the birth of a first child. Some societies physically signal adult 
  females through clothing, color, adornment, body painting, or scarification. While some 
  cultures treat female coming of age with less fanfare, others throw festivals announcing 
  their daughter’s eligibility in marriage. Males usually have to undergo a task before 
  coming into their adulthood. This could be a physical journey, where they leave as 
  children but return men. For example, boys of herding societies may enter manhood 
  when they leave the women and travel with the herds. Some cultures may determine 
  an age of adulthood and symbolically reenact the journey in a ceremony.
  Marriage
   
  Marriage is a social recognition and celebration of union. Cultures ascribe 
  different rights with marriage, but most make a formal arrangement between two 
  people who are mating partners and share the responsibilities of a common household, 
  though they may live in separate buildings and responsibilities may be gender-based. 
  Though marriage is between two people, it is o�en a communal affair. Approval from 
  both families is not an unusual prerequisite to marriage, as well as an exchange of gi�s. 
  Sometimes males must have a certain level of fiscal resources before marriage; other 
  times the bride’s family may have to pay a dowry, sometimes considered an inheritance 
  to their lost daughter and her new family. In some societies, marriage must occur within 
  the community, while other societies insist people marry outside their community to 
  create more mutual ties. Others call for long periods of engagement to ensure the 
  female is not pregnant with another man’s baby. Most cultures codify who may marry 
  whom according to social status.
   
  Regardless the particulars, marriage usually constitutes its own status for both 
  men and women. A married woman may garner more respect and higher social standing 
  through her marital status and her husband’s status. Women usually physically signal 
  their marital status through distinct clothing, jewelry, or adornment. Married men 
  also garner prestige through their wives 
  and their children, which manifests 
  differently in each society. Some 
  cultures may translate higher number 
  of children with robust virility. Other 
  cultures may view children and wives 
  from a fiscal vantage, where both are 
  expensive and having many a�ests to 
  a great wealth.
   
  Each 
  culture 
  celebrates 
  marriage differently but there are a few 
  common threads. Many observances 
  have a pre-ceremonial seclusion based 
  upon gender. The female members of 
  the community prepare the bride, while 
  the male members prepare the groom. 
  Appropriate teasing, singing, dancing, 
  and advice solidify cultural bonds and 
  ease personal anxiety over a life change. 
  Certain clothing is only worn during one’s 
  marriage day, as well as body ornamentation. 
  Processions 
  unite 
  the 
  secluded 
  couple, 
  making marriage ceremonies a communal 
  
  102
  event—sometimes sober, other times with boisterous song, chanting, or music. Many 
  marriage celebrations have a religious component, where the couple stands before a 
  divine witness who substantiates their bond. Then the community breaks into feasting 
  and drinking, paid for by the families of the newlywed couple. Like all rites, marriage 
  customs are passed from generation to generation and create a cultural continuity that 
  expands a personal stage in the life cycle into a communal celebration.
  Death
   
  Death rituals are present in almost every culture. All things die, and intelligent 
  creatures spend their lives in the knowledge of their inevitable end. Cultural adaptations 
  relieve this stress by providing answers about the unknown and solutions through 
  ritual. Many cultures explain death as a function in a greater cycle of life. Some cultures 
  believe the dead live on in a spiritual realm, while others believe the dead rejoin a 
  greater overarching spirit. Cultures may believe the body dies, releasing the spirit to 
  enter into a newborn body, while others think the spirits of the dead walk among the 
  living, capable of interfering for good or ill. Cultural adaptations provide a method of 
  categorizing death while easing personal anxiety through rituals. Death rituals are a 
  social context to express and release personal fear, grief, and anger.
   
  All cultures have rules to follow when someone from their community dies. 
  Death rituals are meticulously followed because of a visceral fear of discontent spirits 
  returning to wreck havoc. Sometimes these rituals are somber, other times they are 
  celebrations, lest the spirit think everyone will miss them too much and decide to linger. 
  First, certain people prepare the body for the a�erlife, either members of the family or 
  religious figures. Bathing, dressing, anointing with prized oils, covering with special 
  colored cloth, and applying makeup or a likeness of the dead are common methods of 
  preparing the body. Some societies embalm or preserve the body, while others extract 
  vital organs. Some preparations require proper ambience, like incense, music, praying, 
  or repeated weeping. Some prepare gi�s to the dead to use in the a�erlife, such as 
  food, tools, cra�s, and luxury goods. Processions are common in death rituals, guiding 
  the spirit to its final destination. In one culture, when someone dies away from their 
  community, family members carry the body back home so the spirit finds its way to rest. 
  Along the road, they talk to the spirit, engaging it so it doesn’t rest prematurely.
   
  The actual ceremony usually takes place in geographic locations with religious 
  significance. Societies may build a cairn around the body high on the mountain, 
  releasing the spirit closer to the heavens. Cultures that burn their dead on pyres may 
  release the ashes over a sacred lake. Communities may build tombs facing east, so 
  the dead experience rebirth every morning. Other cultures may bury their dead in 
  a sacred clearing circled by ancient, knowing trees. Seafaring people may set their 
  dead adri�, embarking on their last journey to sea, while some feed their dead to 
  the vultures, returning them into the cycle of life. Ceremonies usually include music, 
  singing, chanting, and praying. A religious figure typically leads the community in 
  ritual, cathartic in its familiar cadence. The ceremony makes death a social affair, and 
  some societies demand certain behaviors. Some communities demand wives to throw 
  themselves on their husband’s pyres to show their devotion. Sometimes women must 
  weep continuously for many days to show proper respect. Others designate a period 
  of mourning where certain behaviors are prohibited (e.g. remarriage, drinking, eating 
  certain foods, wearing certain clothes), and a symbol of remembrance is worn (e.g. a 
  ban around the arm, a colored ribbon worn in the hair).
   
  While most cultures view death as the end of physical life, there are those who 
  seek to diminish death’s grasp. Some sought to restore life to lost loves, only to animate 
  the dead. Others sought to bypass death, only to live in death for eternity. Still others 
  found pleasure in death itself and brought death down wherever they went. Intelligent 
  beings give life to some of the greatest atrocities in their quest for resurrection magic, 
  for giving life is not the same as restoring life.
  
  103
  Natural Cycles
   
  Natural cycles hold a cherished place among intelligent races. People live 
  their lives by these cycles; gathering fruits, nuts, and seeds according to their unique 
  ripening, hunting animals abundant during various times of the year according to 
  migration and birthing pa�erns, moving herds for water and grazing, planting crops 
  at appropriate times, and predicting the tides all depend on mindful observance of 
  nature’s rhythm. Ritual observance of natural phenomenon o�en depends on a culture’s 
  subsistence pa�ern, environment, and unique history. For instance, farming societies 
  celebrate solstice because changes of season cue specific agricultural activity. Herding 
  communities celebrate spring as mating season and summer a time of birthing, relying 
  on the fecundity of their animals for survival. Fishing and seafaring communities 
  celebrate cycles of the moon because of their significance in tidal pa�erns. Communities 
  living in areas with dry springs and heavy summer rains ritually celebrate the life-
  giving wet season. Other events like solar and lunar eclipses, continuous days of night 
  (artic areas), volcanic activity, comets, annual flooding, and atmospheric disturbances 
  (e.g. aurora borealis) may also garner regular observances.
   
  Rituals for natural cycles encompass many elements. Some involve supplication 
  or thanks, in which giving gi�s to divine representatives is common, whether they are 
  objects, locations, or religious intermediaries. Some use reenactments that symbolize 
  natural events with songs, dances, and performances. Lastly, all rituals involving 
  natural cycles are mindful of the passing of time; whether through lunar cycles, 
  solstices, or the movement of the stars, cyclical nature is the ultimate timepiece. So 
  pervasive and visceral are these cycles that religions o�en use these days for religious 
  celebrations. Sometimes the ritual takes on a religious character as the society develops 
  institutionalized religion; other times religions choose these days to bolster the 
  celebration of their religious ideals and rites.
  Cultural Rituals
   
  Cultural rituals are social events particular to cultural history. They usually 
  involve historic events or figures upheld in community, mixed with a good dose of 
  storytelling, heroism, and political maneuvering. These acts of remembrance take on 
  a ritualistic tone when cultures ascribe specific social behaviors with their celebration. 
  For instance, a culture celebrates the heroic death of a sea captain (killed in defense of 
  the city) by baking dense bread and throwing it out to sea on the day of his death so the 
  fishes will not disturb his body for food.
   
  Religious ritual is another type of culturally specific event. Every community 
  has its own method of religious observances, though some ascribe membership to a 
  larger religious community. Some religious rituals are similar to historic cultural rituals 
  in practice. They celebrate the historical figures and events of the founders/agents of 
  the religion. Religious and secular powers may politicize religious rituals to influence 
  the populace at large. For example, an impending war may cause community leaders 
  to focus on the righteous might of historic religious figure rather than his serenity and 
  mercy developed later in life.
   
  Other religious rituals focus on ideological directives posed by religious leaders. 
  More commonly called rites, these socially ascribed practices vary in purpose. Some are 
  reminders of religious tenants and reinforce desired behavior through emotional ties 
  to religion. Many rites are associated with cleansing or purifying. Socially, this allows 
  religion to define what emotions/actions are good and reinforce their beliefs through 
  ritual purification for wrongdoing.  Many rites overlap or engulf rituals concerning life 
  cycles. Birth, coming of age, marriage, and death are all potential ideological property 
  of religions.
  
  104
  When Societies Interact
   
  There are only two ways people interact, peacefully or hostilely. Instinct and 
  history lies with hostility, from small tribal scuffles to large military affairs. The social 
  trend is for smaller groups to merge into larger groups. This occurs either through 
  actual conquest or from smaller groups banning together against hostile, external 
  forces. In warfare, outcomes vary depending on overall population density. When 
  population density is relatively low, defeated societies move farther away from their 
  victorious neighbors. When population density is moderate, there are insufficient 
  vacant areas for the defeated people to flee, and victors do not have social or economic 
  complexity to require slaves. The victors most likely kill the men, possibly take the 
  women for marriage, and take over the territory of the defeated community. With high 
  population density, victorious societies, by now chiefdoms or even states, have use for 
  slaves in intensive food producing schemes. Victors typically leave the defeated society 
  in place, but deny them political autonomy and demand regular tribute in food, goods, 
  or money. In short, the victors engulf defeated societies. One aggressive action may 
  trigger a chain of migrations as the “losing” tribe from one conflict displaces a weaker 
  tribe, who then displace another tribe weaker than themselves.
   
  Peaceful interaction among societies typically involves trade. Many specialized 
  societies o�en trade with neighboring societies, specialized in a different, compatible 
  way. For example, high-altitude herders trade their animals’ dung for lowland farmers’ 
  food, or coastal fishing communities trade meat for inland farmers’ crops. Trade is also 
  a way for people to acquire new things in a world where resources and specialized 
  cra�s are localized. For example, some societies produce different color dyes or have 
  different types of minerals and stones. Each society has unique pa�erns, symbols, 
  and designs typical to their culture. Clothing made from animals living in highly 
  specialized environments (silk or cashmere) is only produced by societies occupying 
  those regions. Overlapping trade partnerships carry goods, ideas, and technologies 
  across vast continents and through different ecologies. 
  
  105
  Mapping Your World
  (Part III)
  Step Seven: The Origin of the Major Intelligent Races
   
  The origins of major intelligent races largely depend on what type of creation 
  you want, but it is always easiest to work with the system than against it. Given that 
  assumption, I also know that you probably want to create your own races by hand, 
  so we’ll find a way to do both. What nature likes to do is create environments that 
  apply pressures on creatures to survive. By adapting to these pressures and passing 
  adaptations to further generations, creatures undergo physical and behavioral changes. 
  In this way, a small creature becomes a large one given millions of years. In this process, 
  some creatures develop intelligence. Intelligence is a shortcut adaptation compared 
  to all others. Intelligence allows a creature to recognize the systems around them as 
  systems and not just stimuli. It also allows them to be�er manipulate their environment 
  to suit their needs rather than waiting for genetic and evolutionary adaptations. It’s a 
  very powerful adaptation, and it’s what we gods are interested in. Eventually these 
  intelligent creatures learn to survive in almost every environment through their 
  cleverness. They may even find a way to traverse over large bodies of water, given 
  enough time, experiment, and luck. It seems impossible that an island in the middle of 
  a huge ocean would be populated, but it happens. As long as intelligent creatures can 
  survive, they’ll continue to expand their territory.
   
  The movement and expansion of intelligent creatures are our focus for mapping. 
  But before you start mapping where your races originate and where they migrate, you 
  need to decide what your major races are going to be. How many intelligent species 
  are you going to have, knowing that wars are inevitable, and some species may have 
  selective advantages over others? In other words, you should be prepared to lose a few 
  of your races due to any number of factors, luck being an important one. Of course, you 
  can always create them again, but let’s keep our magic expenditures to a minimum and 
  prevent unnecessary expenses.
   
  Once you’ve chosen your major races, place them next to major rivers or within 
  50 miles of the shore. Also, don’t put them at high altitudes; it’s easier closer to sea level. 
  Now move them around. Move them up and down the river they occupy, and then 
  watch them jump to other environments that abut their home river. Given hundreds of 
  thousands of years, they’ll be everywhere, and may have already killed off each other. 
  That’s their nature. We don’t have the right to change that as godlings. But instead of 
  creating “finished” races, you should create ancestor races rather than creating each 
  race from scratch. Ancestor races are the “proto-races” from which other races spring 
  forth. This can explain how some races are capable of interbreeding (but not always) 
  and eases the first steps of a complicated history.
  Step Seven: Example
   
  I’ve decided on the major intelligent races in my world: elves, dwarves, humans, 
  gnomes, halflings, orcs, goblins, hobgoblins, and kobolds. That’s a lot of intelligence 
  and perhaps not all of them will make it through.
   
  Placing these races is a bit of a challenge, so I began with ancestor races. The 
  river on continent E is the birthplace of one of my ancestor races: the ancestor race of 
  humans, elves, and orcs. Some of these can interbreed when this whole process is done, 
  so I need to address the different environmental pressures that caused the ancestor race 
  
  106
  to diverge. But that is later. The rivers along the mountain range on C are the birthplace 
  of the ancestor race for the dwarves, gnomes, and halflings. All the “li�le people” on 
  one continent pleases me. The ancestor race of the goblins and hobgoblins appear on 
  the desert river on continent B. This leaves only the kobolds, which come from the 
  rivers on continent A. Right now I’ve four centers of origination. This is a good number, 
  and there’s only one large landmass (continent D) without major intelligent species.
  Step Eight: The Movement of the Major Intelligent Species
   
  Our next mapping step is to move our ancestor races out of their swaddling-
  lands and into the territories they’ll claim as birth lands. There are a few things that 
  we should consider in this step. The most important is rivers. People prefer to move 
  and populate areas all along rivers rather than deviate away from rivers. It’s easy to 
  understand; water is life. Next, it’s easier for creatures to stay in their own familiar 
  climate zone than to move out of it, making east/west movement easier than north/
  south movement. Sources of food (plants and animals) and appropriate shelter are 
  more similar east/west than north/south because climate is more variable north/south. 
  Altitude also plays a role here. People se�le lowlands before highlands, all things 
  considered. These lands of easy expansion are birthlands of the ancestral race.
   
  Move your ancestor groups around according to these primary factors. They 
  quickly claim these parts of the world, then they move into less familiar terrain. 
  This second migration is harder to define and occurs for many different reasons, but 
  remember the above two factors. If one of your ancestor races moves east/west and 
  encounters a river, they’ll expand to fill that river as well. In a way, it’s sort of like the 
  children’s game leapfrog. It’s in this manner that the great north/south rivers play an 
  important role, because although the climate changes faster, at least one thing is staying 
  the same. North/south movement is much faster with a river than without. The last type 
  of expansion is the most likely to fail, but the most spectacular: sea expansion. When a 
  population becomes crowded and there’s nowhere to easily expand, internal war and 
  more daring expansion a�empts occur. Wind direction and ocean currents are the two 
  most important aspects of expansion. If a race can move with water and air currents, 
  their chances of finding shore greatly increase.
   
  Once your ancestor races go through two, possibly three expansions, there is a 
  good chance they have encountered another race or a significant physical barrier, like 
  a desert or mountain chain. These things both limit expansion for different reasons. 
  Meeting another race inevitably leads to violent conflict while meeting a great physical 
  barrier inevitably stalls expansions. How you wish to handle the conflict is up to you, 
  but assuming that your races are both competitively viable through similar or different 
  survival strategies, you’ll probably have a rough line of racial control that moves back 
  and forth throughout time. Of course, one race can get a permanent upper hand and 
  drive another into less fruitful lands, but even then, the “dominant” race doesn’t “own” 
  these lands like it does their birthlands. It takes a long time for dominant races to engulf 
  subject races at this point. More than likely, periodic warfare continues indefinitely as 
  the subject race in the hills and forests a�ack the dominant race that owns the valleys 
  and plains.
   
  Two final notes: don’t forget the coastline and consider spacial restraints. Even 
  well developed worlds have the majority of their populations (up to 70% in worlds with 
  billions, yes billions, of people) within 50 miles of the coast. Coasts are great sources of 
  food, and the call of the water pleases nearly every intelligent humanoid ever created 
  with its cyclic to’s and frow’s. Spatial restraint may start speciation off earlier in an 
  ancestral race, and it o�en leads to quicker overseas expansion.
  
  107
  Step Eight: Example
   
  This example is best understood by looking at the included map. Each age 
  shows the progressive expansion of each ancestor race as time goes by. All of this 
  expansion takes place before agriculture and the development of cities; the extended 
  nomadic family is the unit of these intelligent animals. Also remember these ages are 
  really ages; they’re thousands of years, even hundreds of thousands.
   
  My ancestor races take off along rivers and along the east/west axis first. The 
  goblin/hobgoblin group claims all of continent of B, the elf/human/orc ancestor race 
  claims all of E, the future dwarves/halflings/gnomes claim continent C, and the kobolds 
  claim continent A. There are a few points of interest in the migrations according to each 
  age. The first age is the riverine and east-west expansion period. During this time, each 
  race takes the easiest route of expansion. During the second age, the goblin/hobgoblin 
  moves along the great north-south river through the desert to expand along the more 
  hospitable coast while the elf/human/orc group and the kobolds expand along the 
  coast of their respective continents. Both groups avoid their deserts. The second age is 
  also the end of easy expansion for the dwarven/gnome/halfling group, meaning their 
  densities increase and speciation may occur. During this period, I had them start to 
  show differences in build, height, and behavior according to their preferred terrain, 
  but they’re still one race right now. The kobolds have also run up against the mountain 
  group caused by continents A and D colliding. This barrier stops them for a long time 
  until they learn to adapt.
   
  The third age is an exciting one because the dwarves/gnomes/halfings make 
  it across the ocean to continent D through the beneficial ocean and air currents. They 
  find a land that, although containing a lot of different plant and animal life, is very 
  similar to the land they le� behind. They survive and continue to reproduce, claiming 
  the northern portion of continent D. During this period they make first contact with 
  another intelligent species, the kobolds. The kobolds have finally go�en through (and 
  around) the mountain chain on the isthmus between continents A and D. They found 
  the environment harsh, but survivable, with the land north of the mountains be�er 
  than the land south. In the north, they meet the dwarf/gnome/halfling ancestral race. 
  Chaos, madness, and death ensue. Don’t try to stop it, you can’t. I don’t find it very 
  fair either. For the human/elf/orc and hobgobling/goblin group, the third age is more 
  like the previous one. They both expand where it’s easiest and most familiar. They do 
  manage to conquer their local desert environment, but density is so low it’s almost non-
  existent.
   
  The fourth age claims all the land on the world for some intelligent ancestor 
  races. Although some islands were conquered earlier, all islands are now populated by 
  intelligent proto-races. The isthmus between continents A and E rage with conflict as 
  the human/elf/orc group has finally met the hobgoblin/goblin group. Continent D has 
  become the most hotly contested real estate in pre-history because not only have the 
  gnome/dwarf/halfing ancestor race and the kobolds taken part of it, but the intrepid 
  orc/human/elf group has grabbed a hold on the southern tip.
  Step Nine: Divergence and Divergent Expansion
   
  Once expansion slows down for any reason and large portions of a race have 
  spent significant amounts of time in differing environments, species divergence occurs. 
  Given the magical nature of our worlds, this divergence can be extensive and very 
  sudden. This step creates the races we’re all familiar with: elves, humans, dwarves and 
  all the other various humanoids. Depending on what races you want on your world, 
  you’ll need to look at the environments where your ancestral races se�led and select 
  the one which is most associated with what you desire. For example, you’ll probably 
  want your dwarves to come from rocky mountainous areas. A�er se�ling divergence, 
  you can start sub-speciation if you wish. The various different sub-races are reflections 
  
  108
  of additional specialization to a particular environment. My gnome cautions me to not 
  get “out of hand” on this, but that’s his preference. You’ll have your own, I’m sure.
  Once you locate where the new races develop, they expand. During this expansion, 
  the ancestral races are still around, and every newly developed race is still capable 
  of breeding with them as well as each other, but this won’t last for much longer. The 
  young races quickly out compete their forefathers, and their territory expands while 
  the ancestral races’ territory diminishes. This is very similar to the manner in which 
  the ancestral race originally spread throughout the world, but faster and more deadly. 
  Given enough time, the ancestral races that spawned children races are no more, and 
  only a few of their descendent races are even capable of interbreeding.
   
  But what of the ancestral races that don’t evolve into new races? These are not 
  as rare as one would think, and they don’t stop evolving. There’s no way to stop that, 
  not for we godlings. The ancestral races that survive are just that, survivors. They are 
  scrappy and more than likely hold their own against all comers. These are the races 
  that may even outlast the other “more developed” races. What they o�en do however, 
  is undergo sub-race development pa�ern directly, spewing out sub-type a�er sub-
  type, all well developed to exploit their particular environment and all capable of 
  interbreeding with all the other sub-types. This is o�en greatly to their advantage.
  Step Nine: Example
   
  Now that everyone’s got nowhere to go, they se�le down to constant conflict 
  with themselves and their neighbors and specialize. Over the ages, they learn a 
  particular environment well and find particular ways to exploit it. Eventually, magic 
  takes a hold of them, and nature pressures them into different races. Again, this takes a 
  very long time, and now they may start toying with a new thing called agriculture.
  The races have finally developed enough to be individually discernable. As shown on 
  the map, each race rose from a particular area within their ancestral race’s territory. 
  Every ancestor race sprouts younglings except for kobolds—they’re like the roaches of 
  intelligent species. Eventually I’ll have them expand to all the continents (just like every 
  other race), and they’ll just be too numerous and cra�y to destroy. Good must always 
  have something to be wary of. Anyway, back to the map.
   
  Kobolds watch their territory diminish on continent D as gnomes and humans 
  expand over two ages. On continent E, humans expand inward, eventually claiming 
  most of the desert and the coastline, separating the majority of orcs from elves. Elves 
  and orcs lose the ability to intermingle through this geographic separation over a few 
  more ages, but elves and humans continue to breed through their wars and alliances. 
  Goblins hold their own, until they meet hobgoblins, who conquer them completely and 
  use them as a servant race. Dwarves and halflings expand, destroying their progenitor 
  race, but then they hold their own as dwarves start to delve deep for the first time, 
  relieving the pressure on their society.
   
  It’s important to remember that every race has diversity within their group. For 
  example, the dwarves have the underground/mountainous branch as well as the more 
  artic types living on the northern shoreline of B. The kobolds cover so many different 
  terrains that every possible subsistence/cultural pa�ern can be found on continents 
  A and D. The hobgoblins may develop the first kingdoms along their Nilesque river 
  because the soil is naturally fertile, renewable, and predictable, conditions that may 
  make agriculture quickly surpass hunting/gathering as the main subsistence pa�ern. 
  Also, the stability of the river prevents the universal abuse of land done through short-
  term survival needs that tends to destroy civilizations and thus promote continual 
  occupation of the same land for hundreds of generations. Other races will have similar 
  differences develop within their race. Don’t assume that all elves come from forest 
  people and all halflings are gardeners.
  
  109
   
  That’s it. The races now have their terrain, their histories, and their reasons for 
  how they are as well as where they are. Eventually dwarves find themselves carving 
  kingdoms out of kobolds’ mountains and in elvish mountains. The la�er location leads 
  to tragedy a�er elves betray dwarves to goblins, and an enmity exists for eons. But 
  every race eventually makes its way around the world, given enough time. Through 
  this whole process, I’ve spent some of my magic energy to push their developments the 
  way I want them to go (can’t leave everything to chance), but only minimal amounts are 
  needed through this process to get a reasonable amount of what you wish. Budgeting 
  our magic is the most important aspect or our divine existence, and your world is a 
  reflection of judiciousness.
   
  But that’s another story. My work here is done.
  Ah... Things were simplier then...
  
  110
  Mapping your World~ Steps 7 & 8
  Age 1
  Age 2
  Age 3
  Age 4
  Age 5
  
  111
  Mapping your World~ Step 9
  Age 1
  Age 2
  Age 3
  
  112
  Final Interlude
   
  “Sign here.” Noj motioned with the end of the quill. Kierian penned 
  “Kierian the Bold, God of War, Bringer of Justice.” The gnome blew on the fresh 
  ink before closing the book.
   
  “So that’s it. Nothing left to do but wait,” Kierian said, shrugging his 
  shoulders hesitantly.
   
  “You can always practice your abilities, or visit the library,” Noj suggested 
  as he packed up his supplies. “Merrick said they got the loveliest scenery books 
  from Veradil the other day.”
   
  Kierian watched his assistant, so efficient in his movements. Likely 
  he never expended any extraneous energy. The godling shifted his attention to 
  his world, swaddled in wisps of clouds. The spring thaw trickled down, filling 
  diminished riverbeds and lakes, while rain fell over the highlands. “Do you 
  think I’ll pass?” Kierian asked in a far away voice.
   
  “That will be for the Council to decide.” Noj gathered the last of his things 
  and carefully wrapped the manuscript in cloth.
   
  The summer sun warmed the artic, calling all manner of large mammals 
  and flightless birds to mating season. Violent storm clouds poured heavy summer 
  rains over the tropics, while wind-whipped, water-torn rock scuffed off island 
  volcanoes. Kierian chanced a questioned. “What do you think of my process?”
   
  Noj answered warmly, “I think you did your best.” 
  With that he left.
   
  It was hypnotic, watching the globe spin, the 
  seasons marching along one after another. Kierian 
  watched little figures move on small continents with 
  such purpose. It all unfolded before the godling, and 
  he couldn’t help but look. 
  He 
  thought 
  back 
  to 
  something his friend 
  once told him long ago. 
  Nothing is real except 
  for those living within 
  the creation itself.
   
  Kierian the Bold, 
  prospective God of War and 
  Bringer of Justice, sat back 
  in a self-fashioned throne 
  and had a beer.
    
  “Bollocks.”
  
  113
  Appendix
  Formations
   
  Aragonite: A calcium carbonate crystal that decorates caves. These long, 
  needle-like crystals form when the water reaches high magnesium to calcium ratio, 
  which intensifies in evaporation. It is not uncommon to find calcite formations 
  tipped with aragonite spikes and tinsels.
   
  Arêtes: A ridge crest between two cirques in close proximity. As the glaciers 
  move downhill, they can cut into the rock between the two cirques. Arêtes are the 
  narrow, serrated spine of rock between two cirques.
   
  Artesian Wells: Wells formed by faults in impermeable top layer of rock. 
  This water comes from far away sources, carried though a layer of permeable 
  (porous) rock in between two layers of impermeable rock. When fault line occurs, 
  the weight of the accumulated water forces water up through the fault line, 
  reaching the surface. They can occur in any environment, but are particularly 
  important in dry climates. For example, the Ne�a Oasis has 152 springs, all from 
  artesian wells.
   
  Atolls: A coral reef encircling a landless lagoon. Atolls are ring-shaped 
  and consist of strings of closely spaced coral inlets separated by a narrow channel 
  of water. They are the final stage of volcanic islands, a�er the volcano dies and 
  the land is eroded below the surface. Sometimes rock fragments and soils collect 
  on coral reefs in atolls, forming a circle of new islands. 
   
  Barchans: Crescent-shaped sand dunes. Barchans are formed by strong 
  steady winds blowing from a single direction in dry deserts. As the wind blows, 
  sand grains fall over the crest and double back on themselves, forming a steep 
  leeward face. Over time this process makes steep crests lined up in a triangular 
  formation. Example: Great Western Erg.
   
  Barrier Islands: Long narrow sandbars built up in shallow offshore 
  waters. They run parallel to the coast and are anywhere from a few hundred 
  yards to several miles in the sea. They are the result of debris collected where 
  large waves begin to break in shallow waters of continental shelves. Barrier 
  islands prevent new seawater from penetrating the waters between the shores, 
  creating a lagoon between the mainland and the barrier island. Over time, 
  mudflats form from deposited silt, turning the lagoon into marshy waters. 
  Example: Padre Island.
   
  Barrier Reefs: Coral reefs around a volcanic island that forms a lagoon 
  around the island. Dense coral reefs growing in close proximity form a wall 
  around the island based on the underwater slopes of the volcano. This wall 
  prevents fresh sea water from entering the lagoon, save the brief openings in 
  the coral reef. Example: Bora Bora, Great Barrier Reef.
   
  Batholiths: Enormous rocks with a surface area of 40+ square miles. 
  These single rocks form when magma collects under the surface and pushes 
  against the surface without erupting through it. When the magma cools, a 
  single rock is formed that will later be exposed through erosion. Batholiths 
  can be single features, though they o�en form the core of major mountain 
  ranges. Example: Sierra Nevada (California).
   
  Brine lakes: Bodies of water with high concentration of salts and li�le 
  to no oxygen. Brine lakes were bodies of water that once emptied into the 
  ocean, but have since been separated from their traditional drainage. Usually 
  the lake is raised through upli�ing and can no longer drain into the ocean. 
  
  114
  Sometimes the ocean or sea has disappeared in long past geologic time. As the lake is 
  fed by traditional sources without any drainage, salt concentration rises when water 
  deposits salt as it evaporates. Another cause of brine lakes is alkaline springs, where 
  lakes are fed from springs that travel through rocks with high salt content. The 
  spring water leeches the salt from the rock and feeds the lake salt water. Salt deposits 
  gather at the shore and also form columns that break the surface of the water. Some 
  communities harvest this salt for trade. Some brine lakes are so saturated with salt 
  that it is near impossible to sink or dive into the water. Virtually no life, shy of few 
  bacterium and microorganisms, can live in brine lakes. Brine lakes can also be found 
  in larger bodies of salt water, such as the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. 
  They remain a separate distinct system within the ocean, maintaining a higher 
  salinity than the salt water surrounding them. Example: Dallol Salt Plain, Dead Sea, 
  Mono Lake.
   
  Calderas: Large steep-sided basins created when volcanoes erupt, collapse, 
  or do both. Though rare, they are spectacular formations because the crater le� 
  behind is many times larger than the original volcanic vent(s). When magma 
  levels drop, the weight of the volcano is no longer supported by upflowing 
  magma. If this pressure is not mitigated, the volcano collapses, forming a 
  caldera. Sometimes the calderas become lakes, other times they become fertile 
  ground with mineral-rich volcanic soil. Examples: Crater Lake, Ngorongoro 
  Crater.
   
  Canopy: The treetop section of the rainforest. Over 50% of the biomass in 
  the rain forest is found in the canopy. The trees in the canopy do not touch or 
  overlap but fit together like puzzle pieces. They shut out sunlight for the forest 
  below and lock in the moisture and heat below the canopy. They also act as an 
  effective wind block, keeping the air in forest floor humid, hot, and still.
   
  Canyons: Created by upli�, erosion, and rivers. Canyons usually form 
  in sandstone and limestone. River erosion is the primary creator of sandstone 
  canyons, although mass wasting and upli� play a significant role. Limestone 
  canyons commonly form when caves or cave systems (honeycombed 
  throughout the rock by underground water flow) collapse. Examples: Bryce 
  Canyon, Cheddar Gorge, Grand Canyon, Gorge Du Verdon.
   
  Cave bacons: A short drapery with iron bands striping horizontally. When 
  seen through a light source, it looks impeccably like bacon due to the reddish 
  hue of the iron and the wave of the drapery.
   
  Cave balloons: Small gas-filled pouches made of hydromagnesite found 
  on cave walls. Solutions under pressure (forced out, not free flowing) seep 
  through cracks and pores. They encounter moonmilk as they come out, and the 
  gas fills the moonmilk like a rubber balloon. 
   
  Cave blisters: Rounded mineral deposits on cave surfaces that are filled 
  with sediment or another mineral. They form when solutions are forced out 
  of small cracks and holes by capillary pressure.
   
  Cave bo�lebrushes: Cave formations hanging from the ceiling with a 
  narrow top and a thick bulbous bo�om. They form when stalactites are 
  immersed in a cave pool for a long time. If the pool is supersaturated with 
  calcite, underwater mineral formations will cover the stalactites, forming a 
  thick bulb or cap, giving the bo�lebrushes their name.
   
  Cave pearls: Concentric mineral deposits that look like pearls, though 
  they are sometimes elliptical or square. They are found in shallow cave pools 
  where water drips and calcite forms around sand, rocks, or other objects. 
  Continuous dripping can create pearls the size of golf balls. 
  
  115
   
  Cave ra�s: Sheet-like deposits that form on cave pools. Sometimes they stick 
  to the walls, forming shelfstones, or they fall to the bo�om of the pool. When many 
  ra�s stack together, they form ra� cone stalagmites.
   
  Caves: Areas carved out of rock by water. They are found anywhere there 
  are massive limestone deposits at or near the surface. Water percolates through the 
  bedrock, eroding underground streams, tunnels, and caverns as it goes. Rock floors, 
  steep passages, the presence of canyons, and tight meandering curves are telling 
  signs that a fast flowing river cut the cavern. Slow rivers leave behind level passages, 
  silt and sand covered floors, tube-like passages, and sweeping curves in elongated 
  sections of meandering paths. There are o�en decorative deposits of calcite covering 
  the floor and ceiling. Some features associated with caves are columns, scallops, 
  stalactites, stalagmites, and other speleothems. Example: Amarnath Cave, Blue 
  Gro�o, Chedder Gorge, Fingal’s Cave, Frasassi Caves, Jaguar Cave, Mammoth 
  Cave, Red Flute Cave, Wakulla River.
   
  Cenotes: Vertical sha�s filled with water. They are sinkholes where the 
  ground collapsed, making an entrance into the cave below. They are similar to 
  moulins in ice caves. 
   
  Chemoclines: Where freshwater aquifers intersect pockets of sulfur-
  saturated, oxygen-depleted water. Strange things live here.
   
  Cirques: The place where alpine mountain glaciers once originated. 
  Repeated episodes of glaciation erode the mountain, forming a broad, gently 
  sloping floor and steep side and head walls. When the glacier travels down hill, 
  fragments of the cirque are carried away with the flowing ice. They vary in size, 
  from a few acres to a few square miles. When cirques become lakes, they are 
  called tarns. Example: Cirque de Gavarnie.
   
  Cols: The area where two cirques have cut into the rock and through the 
  arête that once divided them. The cut in the arête varies in size.
   
  Coral Reefs: Usually grow on continental shelves or around volcanic 
  islands. Coral requires shallow water (no deeper than 180 feet) whose year-
  round temperature is no less than 68°F (20°C). They have calcium carbonate 
  skeletons covered in so�, colorful tissues of all shapes. Coral eat single-celled 
  algae to build reefs through secreting more calcium carbonate. Extensive 
  coral reefs act as surf breakers, leaving the immediate water around the coast 
  relatively calm. Around volcanic islands, reef can become so dense they become 
  barrier reefs. Coral reefs are home to countless species of fish, sponges, and 
  echinoderms. Examples: Bora Bora, Great Barrier Reef.
   
  Cupola: A dome-like rising in the ceiling of lava tubes. They usually 
  form when windows to upper passages are sealed off with cooled lava.
   
  Deltas: Land formed at the mouth of the river where more sediment is 
  dropped faster than the sea can remove it. Sometimes deltas form within the 
  river’s own bed, forcing it to cut new channels. Deltas come in all sizes, but 
  the largest have been forming for millions of years. For example, the Indus 
  River has formed most of Pakistan, and Bangladesh is the largest delta in the 
  world with soil deposited by the Ganges and Brahmaputra River. Examples: 
  Okavango, Mississippi Delta, Nile Delta.
   
  Desert fogs: Deserts on the coast may receive precipitation from 
  the atmosphere. A dense night fog rolls 50 miles inland every 10 days in the 
  Namib Desert. The fog condenses into thick dew, which provides more water 
  in the region than rainfall.
   
  Eskers: Long ridges of stratified dri�. As a glacier recedes, streams 
  tunnel through the glacier carrying gravel and debris. When these streams 
  are stopped up, the debris collects, making sinuous ridges called eskers. 
  Eskers are usually a few dozen feet high, a few dozen feet wide, and up to a 
  hundred miles long.
  
  116
   
  Ergs: Large areas of sand. In sharp contrast to the desert plains layered with 
  gravel, rocky plateaus, and salt flats, ergs have a surface layer of sand that is highly 
  subject to wind. Winds that blow in one direction form barchans, or crescent-shaped 
  dunes. Winds that constantly change direction create all manner of dunes, from 
  huge mounds to broad troughs edged by teeming sides of sand. Due to the lack of 
  obstacles, wind speeds in ergs are as fast as 30 mph and o�en create sandstorms. 
  Ergs can even migrate up to 30 meters a year if driven by a strong and steady wind 
  heading in a single direction.
   
  Estuaries: When a river flows slowly into the sea, tides sometimes push salty water 
  upstream. Estuaries are coastlines with water flowing in both directions and are 
  home to a mixture of both salt and fresh water tolerant creatures. Like any wetland, 
  they are rich in life, and they vary in size from a small stream to huge areas of salt-
  flooded marsh.
   
  Fault lines: The lines where two tectonic plates meet. When plates slide 
  against each other (either in opposite directions or in the same direction traveling 
  at different speeds), they cause earthquakes. Example: San Andreas Fault
  Fibrous Speleothems: Cave crystals that are fibrous or filament-like in nature. 
  They form when saturated water is squeezed out of pores and deposit minerals 
  when they hit air. The four types are hair, co�on, rope, and snow, determined by 
  the size of the pore of which it was squeezed through.
   
  Fjords: A long, narrow, steep-walled, u-shaped coastal inlet. As glaciers 
  expand and recede with global temperature changes, they gouge out rock and 
  earth from the river valley, creating �ords. Examples: Milford Sound, Sogne�ord
   
  Flowstones: Mineral deposits that cover a surface or wall in a sheet. They 
  o�en have draperies at the bo�om and also form canopies. Bell canopies are 
  classical mushroom-shaped features formed when flowstones form around rocks 
  or clay and the material is later washed away. Baldacchino canopies form when 
  the water level drops in the cave, exposing the belly of flowstone and its bare 
  underside.
   
  Gas Hydrates: Undersea deposits of solid methane. Methane is usually a 
  gas, but becomes solid under enormous pressures found on the deep sea floor. 
  When a piece of methane breaks off, it returns to its gaseous state, expanding 
  into a giant bubble. The methane bubble erupts upon reaching the surface, 
  which scientists speculate as a possible cause of spontaneous sinking of ships. 
  If ships are far away from the bubble or exactly on top of the bubble, they are 
  fine. But if ships are in the area between the stagnation point and the edge of the 
  mound, it’s sinking fast because enough water does not support part of the ship. 
  Scientists are not sure how large these bubbles can get. Example: Witches Hole
   
  Geothermic areas: Areas where heat from the core of the earth vents to 
  the earth’s surface. Sometimes these vents are violent and unpredictable, others 
  are constant sources of energy, capable of being harnessed by animals and 
  humans alike. Though the cause of geothermic locations is unknown, some 
  speculate that the earth’s crust is thinner or more susceptible to fracture in 
  geothermic areas. Sulfur is o�en released in large quantities in geothermic 
  areas, making the area smell like ro�en eggs. Geothermic areas that manifest 
  on land produce volcanoes, geysers, hot springs, and mud pots. Geothermic 
  areas in the oceans may create pockets of life in otherwise barren places. 
  Example: Strokkur, Whakarewarewa.
   
  Geysers: Pools of steaming water that periodically erupt and send boiling 
  water in the air. Though most active geysers shoot water less than 150 feet 
  into the air, some have been recorded to shoot water as high as 1,500 feet into 
  the sky. They are o�en found near hot springs, where underground water 
  has come into contact with heated rocks or magma. Examples: Old Faithful, 
  Pohutu, Stori Geyser.
  
  117
   
  Giant’s ke�les: Deep cylindrical potholes carved out of rock by erosion. 
  When water takes a sudden change of direction, it causes a circular current, be�er 
  known as a whirlpool. The water and any debris caught in the whirlpool carve out 
  large bowl-like depressions up to 20 feet deep. Example: Bourkes Luck Potholes.
   
  Glaciers: Massive, long-lasting accumulation of compacted snow and ice 
  that forms on land. Alpine glaciers (glaciers in mountainous regions) slowly flow 
  downhill, carving out flat-bo�omed, U-shaped valleys in their wake. On level land, 
  glaciers flow outward under their own weight. The upper and middle parts of 
  glaciers move faster than the sides and base, which are slowed by friction. If a glacier 
  pushes as far as the sea, its snout breaks up into icebergs and float away. Glaciers 
  also shape the landscape with various formations: arête, cirque, col, esker, �ord, 
  hanging valleys, horn, kame, ke�le, moraine, nunatak, paternoster lakes. Examples: 
  Athabaska valley glacier, McBride Glacier.
   
  Green Iceburgs: When a glacier moves over seawater, forming an ice 
  shelf, bits of seawater rich in organic material freeze onto the underside of the 
  shelf. When an iceberg calves off of the ice shelf, it usually flips, exposing part of 
  the green underside. Most ice shelves contain no green ice.
   
  Hanging valleys: Small glacial valleys high above the floor of the main 
  valley. They form when a large glacier carves out the main valley and smaller 
  glaciers feed into the larger glacier. From the surface of the ice field, the two 
  seem level, but the smaller glacier does not carve out the rock as much due to less 
  weight and debris. A�er the ice melts, the small tributary glacier valleys drop off 
  into the main valley. Hanging valleys are prone to form waterfalls.
   
  Halocline: A fog-like layer separating freshwater and saltwater. Bizarre 
  creatures inhabit these waters.
   
  Horns: Steep-sided pyramidal rock pinnacles formed by expansive 
  erosion on the headwall where three or more cirques meet. Examples: 
  Ma�erhorn
   
  Hot Springs: Areas where underground water has come into contact 
  with heated rocks or magma and subsequently forced up to the surface. The 
  mineral-rich water comes to the surface heated, sometimes boiling. As the spring 
  water cools (or in some cases evaporates), mineral deposits form. Hot springs 
  on slopes o�en form terraces of travertine or silica, depending on the mineral 
  content of the water. Examples: Lake Bogoria, Mono Lake, Whakarewarewa.
   
  Ice caves: Caves inside of glaciers shaped by melt water. Like water 
  cu�ing through limestone, melt water cuts through the ice, continually flowing 
  toward the sea. Some ice caves form through steam from volcanic vents. Ice 
  caves tend to be long horizontal caves with banded sides and ceilings of packed 
  snow. If rivers encounter faults, they cut down creating deep pits call moulins. 
  Eventually the water finds its way out and forms the headwaters of a �ord. 
  Because the walls are glacial ice, the cave reflects and transmits color from 
  mineral deposits and light sources, giving an eerie glow to the freezing air. 
  Cave-ins are more common in ice caves than traditional caves because of 
  their snow ceiling. Ice caves are also highly mutable due to seasonal cycles of 
  melting and refreezing. Example: Kyerksgöll.
   
  Ice shelves: A massive portion of an ice sheet that projects out over 
  the ocean. They can extend up to hundreds of miles into the sea. Ice shelves 
  can get 2,400 feet thick inland and rise hundreds of feet above the sea. 
  Ice shelves move anywhere from 5-10 feet a day, pushed from behind by 
  glaciers, from above by snow, or from below by ice. Large pieces of the ice 
  shelf fracture and break off, forming huge ice burgs, one reported larger than 
  Belgium. Example: Ross Ice Shelf.
  
  118
   
  Kames: Mounds of sediment deposited as the glacier recedes. Melt waters push 
  out gravel and larger debris from the glacier, which builds in fans or deltas against 
  the edge of the ice. A�er the ice melts, the mound partially collapses and forms hills 
  of stratified dri�, called kames.
   
  Ke�les: Depressions in the earth made by large pieces of ice le� behind from 
  glacier movement. These depressions o�en fill with water, creating ke�le lakes. The 
  typical depth is 10 meters or less, while the diameter varies from tens of meters to a 
  kilometer.
   
  Lagoons: A body of quiet salt or brackish water. They usually form in areas between 
  mainland and a barrier island or a barrier reef. In the case of barrier islands, lagoons 
  become choked with sediment and/or silt deposits that become marshes, mudflats, or 
  meadow. In the case of volcanic barrier reefs, the lagoon will eventually become atolls 
  as volcanoes die and erode away. Examples: Bora Bora, Padre Island.
   
  Lava balls: Lava balls form when pieces of a lava tube’s ceiling break off 
  and fall into moving lava. Moved along by a molten river, the lava ball grows in 
  size, similar to a snowball rolling downhill. These lava balls are found stuck to 
  the ceiling, pushed through windows or skylights and deposited on the side, or 
  wedged in tight constrictive passages of the lava tube.
   
  Lava falls: Waterfalls of lava found on the lower levels of lava tubes. These 
  molten waterfalls behave like typical waterfalls. The turbulence of the falling lava 
  cuts a deep basin below, forming lava lakes and sunken plunge pools in larger 
  falls. Lava falls can cutback into the supporting rock through thermal erosion, 
  melting away the rock. When the lava flow recedes, it leaves a high-ceiling 
  chamber downstream which marks the lava flow at the height of the falls. 
   
  Lava roses: A drip formation found on the floor of lava caves. These li�le 
  roses form when sheets of molten lava drip from the ceiling. The center depresses 
  from continual layers of falling lava sheets, making the center of the roses, while 
  the individually cooling sheets of lava form the petals. Lava roses also form 
  when upwelling lava boils up through the partially solidified floor.
   
  Lava Tube Caves: Caves that are carved by molten lava. They usually 
  form on the sides of volcanoes or along gullies and trenches. The top of the lava 
  hardens, insulating the bo�om of the lava and allowing it to carve out caves by 
  melting the rock, not by erosion. Lava tubes have carried fluid lavas 50 or more 
  miles from their source. Many lava tubes are close to the surface (less than 20 
  feet and sometimes less than a foot). Consequently, the upper layers of a lava 
  tube may have tree roots hanging from the ceiling like tinsel or beaded curtains. 
  Depending on the type of lava, the walls and floors may be rough and bumpy 
  with piece of pure aa lava (called clinker floors), or smooth and ropy pahoehoe 
  lava. Lava tubes have their own collection of formations: cupola, lava ball, lava 
  falls, lava roses, runners, shark tooth stalactites, splash stalactites, sunken plunge 
  pools, tubular lava stalactites, upwelling lava, and windows. Examples: New 
  Mexico’s El Malpais.
   
  Mangrove swamps: Coastal wetlands found in tropical and sub-tropical 
  regions. They are o�en found in estuaries and protected tidal bays. Mangrove 
  swamps are where salt and freshwater intermingle with the tide. The basis 
  of mangrove swamps is the mangrove tree, whose aerial roots allow them 
  to flourish in the shallow brackish waters. These trees hold the soil down 
  and create an ecosystem for salt-loving plants, algae, bacteria, filter feeders, 
  wading birds, fish, and crocodiles. Mangrove swamps also act as nurseries for 
  big sea-faring fish like sharks and tarpons. They diminish shoreline erosion, 
  reducing the negative effects of heavy surf and incoming storms.
  
  119
   
  Meteor Craters: Craters made when a meteor or meteorite hits the Earth. 
  They are circular bowl-like depressions with a steep rim that o�en rises higher than 
  the plain. Meteor craters are huge, the largest on Earth with a diameter of two miles 
  and depth of 800 feet. Meteors do not have to be particularly large compared to the 
  crater they leave behind. What they lack in size and weight they make up in velocity. 
  The 70,000 ton meteorite that formed Meteor Crater in Arizona was traveling 29,960 
  mph, making a blast equivalent to 20,000 tons of TNT. The impact devastated an area 
  with a radius of 100 miles from the point of impact. Geologically, meteor craters are 
  distinct from volcanic-made craters in the presence of rare forms of silica created 
  under the high temperatures and pressures of impact. Examples: Chubb Lake, 
  Meteor Crater.
   
  Moonmilk: A so�, white, claylike substance present on the walls of many 
  caves. It is gooey and pasty (like plaster of Paris) when wet and chalky when dry. 
  It is a carbonate, dripwater precipitate. 
   
  Moraine: Mounds or ridges of debris and till deposited by glaciers. 
  They are usually much longer than they are wide, though they can be as wide as 
  several miles. Glaciers push off debris in various directions and at various times, 
  leaving different types of moraines. The debris le� behind when the glacier is at 
  its greatest advance is a terminal moraine. Ground moraines form when a glacier 
  recedes at an even rate, depositing a thin layer over a broad region. Ground 
  moraines o�en fill old channels and level the terrain, disturbing preexisting 
  drainage pa�erns. This can result in great swampy areas. When a glacier pushes 
  its debris to the side, it forms a lateral moraine. When glaciers meet, their lateral 
  moraines moves along with the two glaciers, forming a medial moraine.
   
  Mud flats: Areas where mud collects that appear as a solid sheet of mud. 
  They are generally found in coastal locations, especially in estuaries. Though 
  they appear solid, the ground underneath is so� mud. The illusive swamps can 
  consume those who step in, sucking them in like quicksand. In deserts, they 
  are created by seasonal collections of water, which is then absorbed in the dry 
  soil, becoming a muddy swamp. The summer sun dries the surface of the mud, 
  giving it the appearance of firm ground. Examples: Cho� Djerid.
   
  Mudpots: Areas of boiling mud, heated by geothermic sources. 
  Mudpots are hotsprings that do not have much water. The water in a mudpot is 
  very acidic, and it dissolves nearby rock into small pieces of clay. This clay then 
  mixes with the hot water to create mud. Hot steam rising from below causes 
  the mud to bubble and pop as the steam is released into the air. Though most 
  are small, mudpots can get as large as 70 feet across. Some people call them 
  “porridge pots” when the mud is particularly thick. Examples: Gumper.
   
  Nunataks: A hill or mountain completely surrounded by glacial ice.
   
  Paternoster lakes: Series of shallow lakes o�en connected by streams, 
  rapids, and waterfalls. They form when glaciers pluck out a sequence of small 
  basins in a glacial valley and fill with water when the glacier recedes.
   
  Petrified forests: Wood turned into stone. In order for this process 
  to take place, dead trees are usually swept away by water and collected in 
  areas that are covered with thick deposits of mud, sand, and ash from nearby 
  volcanoes. Over time silica permeates the dead trees on a cellular level. The 
  minerals either take on the shape of the cells, creating a copy of the tree or 
  the silica replaces the wood cells, creating an inert replica of the tree. The 
  trees are quartz or crystallized into semiprecious quartz, such as agate, jasper, 
  onyx, carnelian, or amethyst. The petrified logs are covered by sediment that 
  eventually becomes sandstone and shale, both relatively so� rocks. Erosion 
  and upheaval exposes the petrified wood.  Examples: Petrified Forest, Sigri.
  
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  Plugs: The solidified volcanic vent of a dead volcano. When a volcano dies, the 
  remaining magma in its vent cools in the shape of the vent, forming a very hard rock. 
  Erosion exposes these dramatic plugs that rise out of the surrounding landscape as 
  wide as the volcanic vent. Though plugs are a single giant rock, some plugs appear 
  as a cluster of basalt columns, shaped into hexagons as they slowly cool. These basalt 
  plugs are still a single rock, only fluted by the cleavage of the rock. Example: Devils 
  Tower, Le Puy de Dôme.
   
  Oases: Areas in the desert that have natural supplies of fresh water. This water 
  comes from far away sources, carried into the desert through a layer of permeable 
  (porous) rock in between two layers of impermeable rock. Oases form where the top 
  layer of the impermeable rock has eroded, exposing sand to the permeable rock. The 
  water then seeps up through capillary movement, watering the soil. Oases can also 
  form around artesian wells. Examples: Ne�a Oasis.
   
  Red tides: When the sea turns red from the abundance of dinoflagellates. 
  These tiny red marine organisms thrive when super-abundant nutrients combine 
  with continuous sunshine, coloring the water red or brown. Large blooms 
  are dangerous for sea life, consuming most of the oxygen in the water and 
  asphyxiating fish. Red tides also produce a virulent poison, dangerous to humans 
  who eat mussels, clams, and other seafood.
   
  Runners: Lava stalactites that form on the walls or on other stalactites. 
  They look like dripping paint or veins that come out of the rocky landscape.
   
  Sandstone arches: Naturally occurring arches made of sandstone resulting 
  from erosion. They take on red, pink, lavender, and brown hues, depending on 
  the time of day. Rivers in canyon formation carve out arches, as well as rain and 
  wind erosion. The highest arch is 309 feet tall spanning a canyon 278 feet wide. At 
  its peak, the arch is 42 feet deep and 33 feet across. The longest natural arch spans 
  291 feet, but its arch is only 6 feet thick, bone-thin compared to the erosive forces 
  at work. Examples: Delicate Arch, Landscape Arch, Rainbow Bridge.
   
  Sandstorms: A solid wall of swirling sand, o�en occurring in ergs. They 
  can form quickly due to the fast and frenzied wind that blows unimpeded across 
  the sand. Gravel and course sand swirl low, from the waist down. Thinner sand 
  moves above the gravel, burrowing into every crack. Dust and the finest sand 
  whirl high in the air and can travel great distances. This layer blocks out the sun, 
  not only in the heart of the storm, but for many miles out.
   
  Scallops: Indentions in cave walls that indicate the speed and direction 
  of water flow. Small 1 inch scallops are indicative of fast flowing water, while 
  large 10 inch scallops are formed from slow moving water. The steep side of the 
  scallops is upstream.
   
  Shark tooth stalactites: Broad stalactites that come to a point at the bo�om. 
  They form from accretion as excess lava pushes outward in the cooling process. 
  As the still moving molten rock flows by, it deposits a thin layer of lava, which 
  cools and builds upon the protrusions. It’s similar to dipping candles, where 
  layer a�er layer builds the stalactite.
   
  Shelfstones: Ledges that stick out of the walls over cave pools or a�ach 
  to other speleothems dipping into the cave pool. Calcite builds laterally 
  and underneath the ledge, thickening the shelf over time. Shelfstones are 
  particularly stunning when the water has drained from the cave pool and the 
  shelfstones remain marking the water line.
   
  Showerheads: A rare cave formation only found in tropical caves, 
  showerheads are calcite formations that form on the ceiling under a seep site. 
  They sprout out in a conical shape with a narrow top and a wide bo�om. 
  Sometimes they are more cylindrical in nature.
  
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  Sinkholes (dolines): Rounded depressions formed by dissolution of 
  carbonate rocks (e.g. limestone). Sinkholes are where surface runoff enters ground 
  water circulation, eroding rock as it filters into the ground. The soil se�les leaving 
  the sinkhole. They range in size from shallow depressions few yards in diameter to 
  hundreds of feet deep and a few miles in diameter. They are good indicators of cave 
  formations in the rock below and can be caused by the collapse of a cave ceiling 
  (collapse dolines). When sinkholes become plugged with soil and no longer filter 
  water in the ground, they become ponds. Sometimes sinkhole ponds can become 
  unplugged, and a body of water as large as several acres can disappear overnight. 
  When sinkholes link and intersect, they form valleys called uvala. They can also 
  leave tall pinnacles and pillars behind called tower karsts.
   
  Sno�ites: Acid-secreting microbial strands that hang like viscous stalactites. 
  The tips of some sno�ities are 0.0pH. They are found in caves that have a 
  high content of hydrogen sulfide, methane, and carbon monoxide because the 
  microbes are chemosynthetic, using the natural chemical reactions of such gases 
  to build cells. In some caves, the walls and ceilings are completely covered with 
  a white gypsum paste carrying acid-secreting bacteria. Long (1-2 inch) sno�ities 
  are called “stringers,” while two-inch disks are called “phlegm balls.” Example: 
  Cueva de Villa Luz.
   
  Soda lakes: See Brine lakes.
   
  Splash stalactites: Stalactites that form when frothing lava flows 
  through the lava tube, debris from the ceiling falls down and splashes lava onto 
  the ceiling, or when lava flow rises and falls repeatedly, dipping at the ceiling. 
  Splash stalactites can form new stalactites or merely cover preexisting stalactites. 
  The dipping method produces symmetrical stalactites, while other methods of 
  splashing create irregular jagged features.
   
  Spla�ermites: A type of stalagmite that has upright protrusions that arc 
  around the center of the spla�ermite. They form in caverns with tall ceilings 
  where water falls faster and is more likely to bounce upon impact. Besides 
  bouncing, the water must deposit calcite rather quickly before the water 
  trickles down. These factors makes cool, dry cave entrances and tropical caves 
  preferred locations for these towers of stone flowers.  
   
  Speleothems: Cave deposits of calcium carbonate and sulfates that 
  decorate the walls, ceilings, and floors. The most common are stalactites and 
  stalagmites, which are spires hanging from the ceiling and shooting up from 
  the floor. When they meet, they form columns. Helictites are stalactites that 
  grow in all directions, defying the laws of gravity in their formations. Water 
  along sloping ceilings form draperies that ripple and curve, shimmering 
  various colors depending on the mineral content of the water. Flowstones are 
  thin sheets covering the walls and over ledges, but they require lots of water. 
  If water makes its way to the floor, travertine rimstone dams may form, 
  becoming rimstone pools if they fill with water. Rare, but beautiful, are 
  gypsum flowers and sulfate deposits that form under dry passages beneath 
  sandstone caprocks, where stalactites are incapable of forming.
   
  Stalactites: Needles and spires hanging from the ceiling of a cave. 
  They form along cracks in the ceiling where water seeps through and 
  deposits calcium carbonate as it loses CO2. Travertine soda straws indicate 
  slow dripping water. Fast water forms stalactites as well as stalagmites 
  underneath, forming a column if they meet. Stalactites do not form where 
  harder rock covers the limestone.
   
  Submarine Volcanoes: Underwater volcanoes created by movement 
  and friction of tectonic plates. Volcanoes that grow tall enough break the 
  water and form islands. Most islands are formed by submarine volcanoes 
  
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  resulting from the subduction of an oceanic plate under another oceanic plate or 
  a continental plate. Occasionally submarine volcanoes formed by ri�ing (plates 
  moving apart) or slipping (plates moving laterally) also form islands. Examples: 
  Anak Krakatau, Bora Bora, Iceland, Surtsey.
   Sunken plunge pools: When lava lakes and pools cool, the surface cools first. 
  The interior of the pool contracts as it cools, which sometimes results in the crust 
  collapsing. A similar but more drastic effect occurs when the interior lava drains 
  out.
   Tarns: Lakes that are deep cirques filled with water.
   Tower karsts: A landform based on sandstone or limestone riddled with caves, 
  underground streams and passageways. Upheavals in the Earth’s crust raise the 
  ocean floor above sea level and expose the rock to erosive forces. Water and wind 
  eat away the so�er, more porous rock, turning fissures into tunnels and caves. 
  Eventually the land becomes a plain checkered with towering turrets, pinnacles, 
  and honeycombs of sturdier rock. Examples: Guilin Hills, Metéora, Monument 
  Valley, Nam Bung Park, Ürgüp Cones.
   
  Travertine dams: Terraces of travertine caused by water bearing calcium 
  carbonate. There are three methods of formation. First, they can form by 
  evaporation where nightly floods evaporate with the heat of the sun, leaving 
  travertine behind. Second, they can form by rapid cooling of mineral-rich water 
  from hot springs. Lastly, streams move slowly, allowing intermi�ent patches 
  of swamp and vegetation. The plants release a chemical that dissolves calcium 
  carbonate and forces it out of the solution. Under intense solar energy, the 
  mineral hardens into travertine. The unifying factor in all methods of formation 
  is the presence of terraces, where one pool can lead to the next. Examples: Band-e 
  Amir, Jupiter Terrace at Mammoth Hot Springs, Pamukkale Springs, Strokkur.
   
  Tubular lava stalactites: Stalactites that form from the release of gas rather 
  than pure drip. As the ceiling lava cools, all the trapped gas pushes out, forcing 
  part of the lava out and dripping into a stalactite. Initially the stalactites are 
  hollow like soda straws, but they o�en fill up.
   
  Upwelling lava: When lava flow is constricted in the caves, the lava can 
  surge back or go through windows and entrances. Sometimes they pick up 
  lava balls or boil through semi-solid floors above. There are even miniature 
  volcanoes found in lava tubes where upwelling lava erupted through the 
  floor.
   
  Volcanoes: Where magma erupts at the surface and forms piles of volcanic 
  rock. Volcanoes form where magma has access to the surface, either because 
  of subduction and ri�ing or at volcanic hot spots. Volcanoes form on land and 
  underwater (submarine volcanoes), and are generally conical with a crater at 
  the peak. Where there are volcanoes, there are earthquakes, though most of 
  them are imperceptible. Active volcanoes eject cinder, ash, pumice, tephra, 
  lava, or any combination of these elements. Incidentally, pumice is the only 
  stone that floats. Examples: Mount Fuji, Mount Vesuvius, Ürgüp Cones.
   
  Waterfalls: Abrupt descent of a stream. While waterfalls vary in size and 
  ferocity, a common phenomenon in waterfalls is undercu�ing. Undercu�ing 
  occurs when the rock underneath the surface is so�er than the rock on top. 
  The turbulence of the falling water erodes at the so�er rock, leaving the 
  ledge of the waterfall unsupported. It will eventually fracture and place the 
  waterfall further upstream. Examples: Angel Falls, Iguaçu Falls, Niagara 
  Falls, Victoria Falls.
   
  Wetlands: Flat plains that are submerged in water for part of the year but 
  are shallow enough to permit plant growth. They are usually found in coastal 
  plains, broad river valleys, or recently glaciated areas and are result of mud 
  
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  and silt deposits from rivers. Rivers flowing into the ocean can deposit enough mud 
  and silt to form land, pushing salt water back and forming lagoons amidst sandy 
  bars and muddy islands. However, if there is a strong ocean current, this cannot 
  occur. In marshes, grasses, reeds, and rushes root in the so� sticky mud while their 
  leaves break the water’s surface for sunlight. In swamps the main vegetation are 
  trees. Wetlands are important stops for migratory birds. Example: Everglades, Las 
  Marimas, Mississippi Delta, Okefenokee Swamp.
   
  Windows: Passages that connect different levels of lava tubes. The lower 
  levels, o�en the last to cool, sometimes come up through the windows to shape the 
  upper levels.
   
  White sand deserts: White sand deserts derive from gypsum rather than 
  silica, which gives sand its typical coloring. Though gypsum (calcium sulphate) is 
  a common mineral, white sand desert require lots of gypsum concentrated in 
  one area before they’ll develop. A combination of upheavals, erosion, gypsum-
  rich water, evaporation, and subsequent deposits of gypsum all led to the White 
  Sands in New Mexico. Lake Lucero’s surface has a crusty layer of glassy selenite 
  crystals that powder when rubbed between fingers. This is the source of the 
  White Sands Desert as wind erodes the crystals and replenishes the ever-moving 
  white sands.
  Places
   
  Amazon River: Fed by Lake Lauricocha in the Peruvian Andes, the 
  Amazon drains a flat-bo�omed basin covering 2.5 million square miles. The 
  basin is so flat that the gradient of the river rarely drops more than 1 inch per 
  mile. Per second, the Amazon River flows ten times the amount of water than 
  the Mississippi River does. The second longest river in the world, the Amazon 
  deposits so much water into the Atlantic Ocean that it pushes the salt water 
  more than 100 miles back, creating a huge freshwater lake in the ocean.
   
  Angel Falls: The highest waterfall in the world, located in Venezuela. 
  Angel Falls flow off Devil’s Mountains (9,842 feet above sea level) and falls 
  3,210 feet (979 m.) total. The first drop is 2,650 �., while the second is 560 �. 
  Together these two cascades are 18 times higher than Niagara Falls.
   
  Ayers Rock: This massive block of sandstone found in 
  Australia’s Northern Territory is the remainder of mountain 
  chain long since eroded. The climb to the top is 5,289 feet as 
  the rock towers over the otherwise flat plain. The iron ore in the 
  sandstone causes it to change color throughout the day: black 
  to deep mauve during the night, reds and pinks at dawn, silver 
  when it rains. The strata of Ayers Rock show the geologic history 
  of the primeval ocean floor that once occupied the center of 
  Australia 500 million years ago. Ayers Rock is worshipped by 
  the Aborigines with paintings of religious scenes in the more 
  sacred caves.
   
  Bosque de Piedras: The forest of rocks found in the Peruvian Andes 
  is a testament to water and ice erosion. Over the centuries, water and ice 
  sculpted pinnacles and spires that rise out of the flat altiplano. Unlike tower 
  karsts, these giant pillars are volcanic rock, much harder and resistant than 
  sandstone or limestone. Some pillars reach as high as 300 feet.
   
  Chocolate Hills of Bohol: Evenly rounded hills on a small island in 
  the Philippines. These 1200 limestone hills are perfectly even, each 100-300 
  feet high stretching across 20 sq. mi. From above they look like eggs in a 
  carton. They are usually emerald green, but during the dry season (February-
  
  124
  May), the vegetation dies, turning the hills brown, thus giving them their name. The 
  inhabitants claim the hills are actually the tears of a mythical giant, spurned by the 
  mortal woman he so dearly loved. 
   
  Cho� Djerid: A large mudflat southeast of the Ne�a Oasis. It doubles as a seasonal 
  lake and floodplain for the Ne�a Oasis’s 152 artesian wells and springs. The land 
  becomes a swamp of salty mud whose surface hardens as it’s baked by the intense 
  sun. Unknowing travelers soon find out the ground underneath is so�, not unlike 
  quicksand. In the past, safe passage across the Cho� Djerid was lined with trunks of 
  palm.
   
  Cueva de Villa Luz: Home to the cave of the sno�ities. Fed by the Lake of the 
  Yellow Roses, the walls are covered by a gypsum paste, while the same substance 
  hangs from the ceiling like viscous stalactites. This toothpaste-like goo carries acid-
  secreting bacteria with the corrosive strength of car ba�ery acid (up to 0.0pH). The 
  bacteria are chemosynthetic, using the natural chemical reactions to build cells. 
  The cave has extreme levels of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen 
  sulfide, which give the cave its ro�en egg smell. These gases are so abundant 
  that certain parts of the cave are dangerously low in oxygen, requiring humans 
  to bring oxygen. As these gases interact with oxygen and water, the bacteria aid 
  the chemical reactions and build cells at the same time, creating the acidic slime 
  on the walls. Midges and fish eat the bacteria, while other insects eat the midges, 
  creating a bizarre microecology that relies on sulfur rather than oxygen.
   
  Death Valley: Located in California, it is the lowest and driest place in 
  North America. Its lowest point, coming in at 282 feet below sea level, is a saltpan 
  called the Badwater Basin. Once a lake full of flora and fauna, it is now a 10,000-
  year-old parched, cracked clay plain. It is also home to the moving rocks. Rocks 
  dot the sparse landscape, leaving trails of hard mud in their wake. These rocks, 
  some as heavy as 700 pounds, move by themselves, and no one is sure how. 
  Some think runoff from the mountains and periodic torrential rainfall create 
  muddy plains for movement by wind. Others think ice may move the rocks, 
  forming mini-ice sheets in the frigid night that pushes the rock along. Moving 
  up to 100 feet in a night, no one theory has prevailed. Along the Racetrack 
  Playa, some rocks move in parallel paths, while others change course at varying 
  angles.
   
  Giant’s Causeway: On the north coast of Northern Ireland, 
  basalt columns line 900 feet of the coast and continue 500 feet into 
  the sea. Each individual column is 15-20 inches across, shaped 
  into regular polygons. Most are six-sided with the occasional 
  four, five, or ten-sided column. The columns fit together so 
  well, it looks like a stone-paved street from above. Formed from 
  slow cooling lava, the basalt cooled faster on top, shrinking and 
  causing cracks that worked their way down the entirety of the 
  column. The formation is thought to extend inland, hidden by 
  cliffs and green landscapes that have yet to be eroded.
   
  Great Ri� Valley: A huge chain of lakes, ravines, volcanoes, and seas in 
  east Africa and the Middle East, stretching from Mozambique to Syria. Two 
  plates are pulling apart in east Africa, tearing the Earth’s mantle apart and 
  causing the land along the boundary to subside. This tectonic motion opens 
  the earth to molten rock, forming volcanoes.
   
  Guiana Highlands: A range of huge flat-top mesas towering above the 
  Amazon rainforest. Each sandstone mesa has sheer walls, cut out of the 
  landscape like giant tower karsts. Steep cliffs, surrounding bogs, and fast-
  flowing rivers isolate mesas from the landscape and from each other, creating 
  a unique ecosystem on each tabletop. With 100 mountaintops, the highest 
  
  125
  fla�op mountain is Mount Roraima at 9,094 feet. Guiana Highlands are also home 
  to the tallest waterfall, Angel Falls. Falling in two cascades (2,650 feet and 560 feet 
  respectively), the drop is 18 times larger than Niagara Falls.
   Guilin Hills: Flat plains in southern China do�ed with steep-sided 
  pinnacles, limestone hills, and extensive cave systems below 
  ground. Once the ocean floor, the Guilin landscape is mostly 
  light, porous limestone, while harder rock caps the pinnacles. 
  The limestone is deeply eroded and absorbs much of 
  the rain and runoff, leaving the surface comparatively 
  dry. The cave systems are o�en three dimensional, with 
  underground sinkholes, caves, streams, and passageways. 
  Besides running through the hills, the Xi River is also home to 
  the cormorant fishermen, who use birds in their fishing.
   
  Iguaçu Falls: On the border between Brazil and Argentina, the Iguaçu 
  Falls consist of 275 individual falls. Formed from hard volcanic rock (basalt), the 
  rocks o�en force the water around islands and into various channels. During the 
  rainy season, the water flow of the falls is 2,812,500 gallons a second. The water 
  decreases drastically during April to October, and every 40 years they dry up 
  completely.
   
  Keli Mutu: A volcano on the Island of Flores in the Pacific. Alongside the 
  volcano are three differently colored crater lakes. Tiwoe Atu Polo (Lake of the 
  Bewitched People) is a dark striking red due to the high iron salts in the rock. 
  Tiwoe Noea Moeri Kooh Fai (Lake of the Young Men and Virgins) and Tiwoe 
  Ata Mboepoe are green due to the sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. The Lake of 
  Young Men and Virgins is an opaque green due to the volcanic vents that smoke 
  when eruptions are eminent, whereas the other is a clear, transparent green. 
  Though crater lakes of these colors are not unusual, finding all three in such 
  close proximity is unique.
   
  Lake Baikal: Located in southeast Siberia, Lake Baikal is the deepest 
  and oldest lake in the world. Holding one-fi�h of the world’s fresh water, it is 
  the result of tectonic scaring where a portion of the Earth’s crust collapsed and 
  formed a deep sheer-sided chasm. When it filled with water, Lake Baikul was 
  born. With a maximum depth of 5,314 feet, it is home to numerous endemic 
  species, many living in the deep. Lake Baikal will eventually link with the Artic 
  Ocean, cu�ing Asia in two.
   
  Lake Titicaca- A high-altitude lake in the Andes Mountains, nestled 
  between parallel ranges in the Altiplano. Though the largest freshwater lake 
  in South America, Lake Titicaca has high salinity due its drainage and high 
  evaporation rate (due to high altitude, strong sun, and frequent winds). The 
  lake is the mythical birthplace of the Incas and home to Uru Indians, who 
  harvest the totora reeds for food, building homes and canoes, and creating 
  artificial islands on the lake itself. The Indians live on tightly bound bundles 
  of totora (nearly 2 m. thick). They build structures, plant crops, and harvest 
  more totora on these islands.
   
  Lechuguilla Cave: A deep cave in New Mexico rich in rare mineral 
  formations. Closed to the public, only 100 miles of the cave have been mapped. 
  Unlike most caves that are carved through surface runoff, Lechuguilla Cave is 
  carved from the bo�om up by rising springs. The water was rich in hydrogen 
  sulfide, which formed the sulfuric acid that ate away the rock at a rapid rate. 
  One notable room is the Chandelier Ballroom with selenite crystal up to 20 
  feet long and branching throughout the entire room.
  
  126
   
  Mammoth Cave: The longest cave in the world with the cave entrances in 
  Kentucky. Its mapped passages are more than 300 miles. Due to its formation, the 
  oldest passages are in the front of the cave and branch into 3 to 5 major branches. Pre-
  Columbian Indians made the cave their home around 2000 B.C. but abandoned the 
  caves around the time of Christ.
   
  Matopos Hills: Home of the balancing rocks in Rhodesia. The balancing rocks are 
  of different sizes, stacked at precarious angles and sometimes appear to defy physics. 
  Glaciers brought large granite boulders in their advance and stranded them in their 
  retreat. Weathering and erosion shaped these granite boulders and their surrounding 
  rock, forming granite outcrops. Although some formations look like one good shove 
  would topple the whole column, these stones have withstood millennia of erosive 
  forces. The San of the area built structures mimicking these granite outcrops, used 
  them for burial grounds, and created Bantu shrines at these sites.
   
  Metéora: On the plain of Thessaly in northern Greece, 24 giant rocks shoot 
  out of the ground to soaring heights. Once the seabed, these pillars were eroded 
  by water, wind, and extreme temperatures. Some reach 1,800 feet tall, while 
  others are a few hundred feet tall. They are home to ascetics and monks that built 
  in the hollows and fissures of the rock. The sheer cliff walls promoted their ideals 
  of solitude while also offering them protection in more uncertain times. Once 
  home to 24 monasteries, only five are still inhabited.
   
  Niagara falls: The waterfall between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. The 
  average flow of Niagara is 1.25 million gallons (5.7 million liters) a second. The 
  absence of sediment and sand create the pure white mist and spray that covers 
  the falls. Niagara Falls recedes as the turbulence from the falls cuts back into the 
  so� shale and sandstone. Eventually, the unsupported rock at the top of the falls 
  fractures and falls. Both the US and Canada divert water for hydroelectricity, 
  lessening the erosion of the falls.
   
  Ngorongoro Crater: 100 square miles of grassland in present-day Tanzania 
  formed by an extinct volcano that collapsed. Once volcanically active during the 
  formation of the Great Ri� Valley, the floor of crater lays 2,000 �. below the rim, 
  and its grasslands support numerous wildlife, including lions, hyenas, zebras, 
  wildebeests, elephants, and hippos. Two rivers feed the crater’s swamps and 
  soda lakes. The brine lakes are favored breeding sites for flamingos, since few 
  birds can stand such saline levels.
   
  Okavango Delta: A large wetland surrounded by the Kalahari desert. 
  Spanning over 6,000 sq. mi., the Okavango delta is the river that never finds 
  the sea. It is the last remnant of an ancient water system that has since dried 
  up over time due to ri�ing and climate changes. Areas close to the river are 
  perennial swamps, while drainage areas further out become sandbanks and 
  saltpans during the dry season. Even during the dry season, subterranean 
  water flows, though few plants and animal can access the deep water table. 
  In the drier regions, this juxtaposition of water and desert create unique life 
  for permanent residence with unique adaptations. Plants retain moisture in 
  their leaves and roots, while other develop large tubers, one as heavy as 260 
  kilograms holding 200 liters of water. Many creatures are nocturnal or burrow 
  their homes. In the wet regions (Panhandle), papyrus and palm accompany 
  hippos and crocodiles. Because of its abundant water, the Okavango has long 
  been a haven for animals, vegetation, and people.
   
  Olgas: The upli�ed remnants of an ancient mountain chain 
  on the bo�om of the ocean that has since been eroded into a 
  string of giant domes. Found in Australia, the tallest of the 30 
  domes is Mount Olga, peaking at 3,509 feet. The aborigines 
  revere the rocks and look to their caves as a source of shelter, 
  
  127
  hunting, and fresh water. Cave paintings and other remnants reveal the San have 
  known about the rocks for 40,000 years.
   
  Pamukkale: Along the side of Cal Dagi Mountain in Turkey, snow-white 
  cliffs of travertine step down from the hot spring. The steps of the terrace are actually 
  warm pools of mineral-rich water supported by a wall of fluted travertine rock. The 
  hot water floods the cliffs at night, and the heat of the day evaporates the water, 
  depositing more travertine in its place. The hot spring deposits 148,500 cubic feet of 
  travertine a year.
   
  Ruwenzori Mountains: These mountains in central east Africa are the 
  beginning of the White Nile River. Unlike the other mountains in 
  the region, they are not formed from volcanic activity, but from 
  drastic upli� due to tectonic movement. Though located at the 
  equator, it is home to extensive glaciers and glacial lakes. The 
  range has nine peaks over 16,000 feet, though they are rarely 
  seen behind the thick clouds and dense mist. The mountain 
  receives moist air coming off the Congo Basin, resulting in two 
  meters of precipitation a year. This intense moisture alongside 
  ample year-round solar radiation creates swamps and marshes 
  in the foothills, lush evergreen zones further up the base, and 
  giant vegetation in the upper slopes beyond the tree line. Some 
  vegetation grows up to 20 times their traditional height in these 
  favorable conditions. The Ruwenzori are also known as “The 
  Mountains of the Moon.”
   
  Sudd: The marshy area fed by the White Nile before it joins the Blue Nile. 
  This marsh absorbs so much of the White Nile’s flow that it only contributes a 
  fi�h of the water in the annual flooding of Egypt. The Sudd is 251,000 square 
  miles of papyrus and lotus.
   
  Surtsey: An island off the coast of Iceland that formed from an 
  underwater volcano. For two days in 1963, a column of gas, steam, scoria, and 
  ash shot into the air. A�er the eruption, an island of volcanic fragments emerged. 
  Islands of this nature are usually eroded away, since they are formed from 
  fragments piled together and not from liquid lava that solidified. Fortunately 
  for Surtsey, a subsequent eruption the following year formed a cone around 
  the island, allowing the underwater volcano to spew liquid lava, bonding the 
  volcanic fragments of Sutsey together.
   
  Tepuis:  Flat-topped, sheer-sided mountains where the borders of 
  eastern Venezuela, Brazil, and Guyana meet. Hard, volcanic rock on top of 
  a sandstone plateau protected the lowers layers from erosion, while more 
  sandstone formed on top of the metamorphic rock. Over geologic time, the 
  plateau split apart, and the sandstone on top of the metamorphic rock eroded, 
  creating flat summits with sheer sides that are widely dispersed. Each of the 
  tepuis is isolated from each other, and they support flora and fauna unique to 
  their mountaintop. Mountaintops vary; some are thickly forested, pi�ed with 
  hollows and bogs, coated with sharp contorted rocks, or covered with pillars 
  and arches. Others have deceptive black rocks that look like metamorphic 
  rock, but are actually eroded sandstone covered with black algae.
   
  Ürgüp Cones: Located in central Turkey, these cones, pyramids, 
  needles, and honeycombed cliffs have been home to peasants and religious 
  men for over 2,000 years. Volcanic material covered the area with horizontal 
  layers of lava, ash, cinder, and mud. Water and weather eroded the landscape 
  until all that remained was tufa (made from ash) protected by black basalt 
  boulders (formed from cooled lava). These pinnacles were carved out to 
  make homes, churches, and whole communities. Uneven flights of stairs, 
  
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  thick insolated stone walls, and carved windows and doors mark generations of 
  inhabitants, while agriculture on the volcanic soil thrives with proper irrigation.
   
  Witsand: An island of white sand dunes in the Kalahari Desert. The island is six 
  miles long and two miles wide, remaining separate from the red sands of the Kalahari. 
  A row of quartzite kopjes traps the sands blowing from the Kalahari, building a low 
  sand mountain. Water trapped in the quartzite seeps into the sand, bleaching it white 
  or gray-blue. Among the white sand dunes are fulgurites, misshapen stalagmite-like 
  formations made of fused sand particles when lightening struck the sand. Local 
  superstition treats these white dunes with caution. 
   
  Yucatán Peninsula: Home to the theoretical location of the crater that ended the 
  Cretaceous Period and brought 50% of all species to extinction, notably large land 
  animals. With no surface stream draining into the ocean, all the water drains through 
  underwater caves and channels. Throughout the peninsula, there are vertical 
  sha�s filled with water (cenotes) that lead into these caves. The Mayans gathered 
  their water from underground caves and cenotes and built their monuments on 
  top of or near cenotes, considered sacred to the ancient religion.
  Valuables
   
  All prices listed are approximations. Adjust prices as needed. Generally, 
  prices will be lower the closer to the production source.
   
  Adamantine: Adamantine is a very hard metal found in a few, very 
  precious veins and in some meteorites. Adamantine veins are always deep, so 
  only subterranean societies typically mine for adamantine. Every millennia or so, 
  a surface adamantine vein is found. These veins usually play out a�er producing 
  only a few hundred tons of useable adamantine. This is o�en enough, however, 
  to dictate the rise and fall of some societies. Adamantine is a rare metal in that 
  it also has no set color. It is o�en found in small amounts in a mithral vein. 
  Climate/Terrain: Underground or mountains. Value: 2,000gp/lbs.
   
  Allspice: Allspice is a short, smooth barked tree with impressive foliage. 
  Li�le white flowers show from among the leaves and the tips of branches hang 
  with bunches of green berries resembling peas. These fruit are picked, placed 
  in a bag to sweat a few days and then sun-dried on broad platforms for five 
  to ten days. Allspice is impossible to transplant from its native region, so it is 
  a very valuable spice. Climate Terrain: Warm wet mountainous forests. Value: 
  8gp/lbs.
   
  Amethyst: Purple amethyst is a variety of quartz. The finest crystalline 
  amethyst occurs in gas cavities (geodes) in volcanic rocks. Climate/Terrain: 
  Mountains, hills, or underground Value: varies (usually around 100gp each).
  Anise: Anise grows to almost two feet in height and is characterized by a 
  long, green stem topped off with white, fluffy flowers, which appear during 
  the summer months. As the flowers die, small brown seeds that are hairy 
  and sweet to eat soon follow. Even though the plant grows mostly in warm 
  climates that have dry air and mild winters, the plant has been exported 
  to colder climates with moderately successful results. However, in such 
  instances, the seeds only ripen during warmer-than-average summers. The 
  plant’s flowers exude a pleasantly fragrant scent. Anise seed is an extremely 
  popular spice, so much so that small kingdoms can sustain themselves on 
  exporting the seed to lands where it doesn’t grow. Climate/Terrain: Any dry, 
  warm land. Value: 3gp/lbs.
   
  Barley: Barley is a staple grain. Barley is o�en eaten as porridge or ground 
  into flour. It is one of the earliest cultivars and is used to make beer as well as 
  eaten. It is a hardy crop that can grow in most locations. It has good calcium 
  
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  and magnesium levels, but its yield is less than wheat. Barley is usually grown as 
  a secondary grain crop for three main reasons: it helps reduce catastrophic failure 
  through single crop dependence; it is easily used to make beer; and it has a shorter 
  growing season than wheat and can be grown at higher altitudes. Barley can also be 
  grown in light soils under which wheat performs more poorly, but both barley and 
  wheat require at least 40°F to grow. Climate/Terrain: Any but the coldest/we�est. 
  Value: 1cp/2lbs.
   
  Beaver: Large rodents, beavers live mostly in cold coniferous forests where 
  they construct elaborate burrows in ponds they create by damning rivers with trees 
  they chew down. Beavers eat trees and store winter food underwater. Their pelts are 
  valuable and shed water well. They live in adult pairs and several previous years’ 
  worth of young. Climate/Terrain: Cold forests near water. Value: 2gp/pelt.
   
  Brass: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It has a pleasing color and 
  is o�en used for decorative purposes. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or 
  underground Value: 3sp/lbs.
   
  Bronze: Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and is harder than copper 
  alone. It was used for weaponry before more advanced metallurgy techniques 
  developed. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground Value: 3sp/lbs.
   
  Cacao: A 40-foot tall evergreen tree, cacao is valuable for its seeds, which 
  are roasted and pulverized to make chocolate and cocoa. The seeds contain 
  much fat and the mildly stimulating alkaloid, theobromine. Cocoa is obtained by 
  removing most of the fat, called cocoa bu�er, and chocolate results when most 
  of the fat is retained. The Inca used cacao seeds as a currency. Climate/Terrain: 
  Warm, wet forest. Value: 10gp/lbs.
   
  Caraway: Caraway is the botanical cousin of cumin. Like cumin is a small 
  plant, but with fruits slightly smaller than that of cumin. It’s milder in taste and is 
  not as long lasting. Caraway is o�en called a cold-country spice and is typically 
  used in breads like pumpernickel and in cabbage soups. Caraway is used in 
  several cheeses like Gouda and Munster. It is also used in some grain alcohols 
  to add a unique taste. Climate/Terrain: Temperate grasslands and warmer cold 
  grasslands. Value: 5gp/lbs.
   
  Cardamom: Cardamom is a clumpy plant with long green gli�ering 
  leaves on long stalks. At their base bloom splendid cluster of mauve and 
  whitish-pink flowers which give place to fruits that resemble small shiny olives. 
  The fruits are collected August through April by hand and then dried in the sun. 
  Good cardamom possesses slightly knobby pale green capsules that protect the 
  tiny, so� black berries within. Climate/Terrain: Warm wet mountains. Value: 
  13gp/lbs.
   
  Cinnamon: Cinnamon a large woody shrub usually kept at no more 
  than six feet in height. Its bark is peeled off the thin (less than one inch in 
  diameter) branches right a�er the rainy season. The bark is then dried and 
  eventually ground into power before being used as a spice. Cinnamon is a 
  very old spice and has been transported throughout the world for millennia. 
  Climate/Terrain: Warm monsoonal grasslands. Value: 1gp/lbs.
   
  Cloves: Cloves are the buds of a tall (40�.) tree. The buds are picked 
  just as they begin to turn pink and then they are dried for three days. The 
  buds then turn into hard li�le nails familiar throughout the world. Clove oil 
  has strong antiseptic powers. It is an anti-bacterial, an anti-fungal, and an 
  analgesic. It is commonly used to treat toothaches and makes its way into 
  smoking tobacco to add a rich flavor and a tingly feeling. Clove trees can be 
  transplanted, but it is very difficult. Climate/Terrain: Warm wet forests. Value: 
  15gp/lbs.
  
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   Coffee: Coffee comes from one of three main trees: the 
  Arabian, the Liberian, and the Congo coffee trees. They 
  group up to 30-50 feet tall, and the fruits are at first 
  green but become bright red and finally purple. These 
  fruits are husked to reveal the beans that are ground 
  to produce coffee. Climate/Terrain: Temperate forests. 
  Value: 10gp/lbs.
   Copper: Copper is a very common metal found mostly 
  in chalcophyrite and bornite. It is found in large isolated 
  ore deposits or in massive low-grade depositional areas. Copper 
  is easy to shape and is alloyed with zinc to make brass and with tin to make bronze. 
  Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground Value: 5sp/lbs.
   
  Coriander: Coriander is an annual herb that belongs to the carrot family. 
  The unripe fruits have a smell that has been compared to that of bedbugs. 
  However when ripe, the seeds have a distinctive sweet citrus/mint/musty aroma 
  and have been an important spice throughout history. Coriander is also used for 
  its leaves (o�en called cilantro). The bright green plant reaches heights of 16 to 
  24 inches with small white or pink flowers. Climate/Terrain: Temperate or Warm 
  grasslands or hills. Value: 5sp/lbs.
   
  Cumin: Cumin is the li�le seed (1/5 of an inch) of a plant around a foot high 
  which sets its pale pink flowers in graceful umbels on frail stalks that undulate in 
  the warm breeze. Cumin is a very old spice native to mediterranean climates. It’s 
  o�en used in breads, falafels, beans, soups, and spiced meats. Climate/Terrain: 
  Warm temperate and warm grasslands. Value: 5gp/lbs.
   
  Diamond: Diamond is the hardest of all known minerals. It ranges in 
  color through yellow, brown, pink, green, and blue. Red diamond is very rare. 
  Diamonds are found on the surface as crystal fragments in river gravels off of 
  volcanic drainages. Underground they are found mostly in kimberlite source 
  rocks in volcanic pipes with roots between 100 and 200 miles into the earth. 
  Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground Value: varies (usually 
  around 5,000gp each).
   
  Electrum: Electrum is o�en called “white gold” and it is a mix of silver 
  and gold. Electrum is rarely found naturally. Climate/Terrain: Rarely found in 
  mountains, hills, or underground Value: 25gp/lbs.
   
  Emerald: Emerald is the green variety of beryl. It is found on the surface 
  as crystal fragments in river gravels. Underground they are found mostly in 
  veins with calcite and pyrite (fools gold). Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or 
  underground Value: varies (usually around 1,000gp each).
   
  Ermine: This li�le (barely 1 foot) carnivore’s pelt is used to trim coats, 
  stoles, and neckpieces. It’s a fierce li�le creature, a�acking creatures much 
  larger than it. Climate/Terrain: Cold forests and scrublands. Value: 7gp/pelt.
  Fox: Foxes are clever carnivores, and their fur has always been in demand. 
  They’re usually solitary hunters (sometimes mated pairs will hunt) who prey 
  mostly on small vertebrates. Climate/Terrain: Cold and temperate forests, 
  scrublands, and marshes. Value: 7gp/pelt.
   
  Garnet: Garnet is a group name for a set of gems: almandine (red and 
  purplish red), pyrope (red and purplish red), spessartine (orange red), 
  grossular (orange, green, or colorless), and demantoid (green). Garnets 
  have been carved into broaches, diadems, and cameos throughout history. 
  Garnets are usually found in igneous rocks. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, 
  hills, or underground Value: varies (usually around 100gp each).
   
  Ginger: Ginger is a rhizome with a multitude of knobby protuberances. 
  The plant resembles a reed that stands over three feet tall and sports a 
  
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  panoply of long, tapering, sword-shaped leaves. The rhizome is harvested once the 
  leaves begin to fade and is cleaned and set out to dry for three or four days. Ginger 
  is o�en pickled, dried, spiced, and sugared. Climate/Terrain: Warm wet grasslands. 
  Value: 2gp/lbs.
   
  Gold: Gold is the noble’s metal. Gold is, ironically enough, gold in color and 
  very so�. It is found in stream deposits and in smaller sized chunks (called grains) in 
  gravel and sand. Gold is also found in veins both on the surface and underground. 
  It is o�en found in underground quartz veins. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or 
  underground Value: 50gp/lbs.
   
  Iron: Iron is a very common metal found in hematite ores. Iron is very tough 
  and hard, yet easy to work. It can be cast, forged, rolled and alloyed with other 
  metals. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground Value: 1sp/lbs.
   
  Ivory: Ivory is the hard, smooth yellowish dentine forming the main part 
  of the tusks of the elephant. A similar substance forms the tusks or teeth of other 
  animals, such as the walrus and the hippo. Ivory is a very durable substance 
  that is used for creating carved works of art or for tools in places where wood is 
  scarce. Ivory’s value is dependent upon the size of the piece in a manner similar 
  to gems: larger pieces are more valuable than their mere weight would suggest. 
  Climate/Terrain: Wherever elephants, hippos and walruses are found. Value: 
  10gp/lbs.
   
  Jade: Jade is actually two different types of stone. The rarest type, jadeite, 
  may be white, orange, brown or lilac. The most prized jadeite is a translucent 
  emerald-green variety called “imperial jade.” Nephrite, the other jade, is more 
  common and is used for larger jade sculptures or ornamentation. Jade is a 
  tough rock that can even be used for weapon handles. Jade is usually found 
  as weathered boulders and cobbles in stream deposits or in glacial sediment. 
  Underground jadeite is usually found in nodules in serpentinite. Nephrite 
  is also found underground in serpentinite, but at much greater frequencies. 
  Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground. Value: varies (usually 
  100gp each)
   
  Lapis Lazuli: Lapis lazuli is a vivid blue gemstone composed of lazurite 
  and sodalite with smaller amounts of white calcite and speaks of brassy colored 
  pyrite. The best varieties are found in white marble veins. Climate/Terrain: 
  Mountain, hills or underground. Value: varies (usually 10gp each)
   
  Lead: Lead is found mostly in galena ore. It is the densest and so�est 
  common metal and is very resistant to corrosion, but it is not very strong. It is 
  worked mostly from limestone deposits and it is o�en found in conjunction 
  with silver deposits. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground Value: 
  5cp/lbs.
   
  Mace: Mace is a deep red membrane that cradles the stone in the middle 
  of a nutmeg fruit. Within the stone lies the nut that is the nutmeg spice. Mace 
  covers the stone in a netlike formation. Mace is carefully cut from the stone 
  and sun-dried for several days until it changes color from the deep red into 
  an orangey brown. It is then used whole or ground. Mace tastes similar to 
  nutmeg, but is more pungent and doesn’t stain foods as much as the brown 
  nutmeg. Climate/Terrain: Warm wet forests. Value: 12gp/lbs.
   
  Maize: Maize (also known as corn) is a staple crop.  The maize plant 
  is a tall, annual grass. It has deep roots and requires abundant moisture for 
  ideal development, but it can survive and produce well under dry conditions. 
  Although it is a hardy plant, it does require at least 50°F to grow. Maize seed 
  return is massive compared to other grains: a 1 to 150 return is not unusual. 
  This o�en provides cultures relying upon maize a significant population 
  advantage. Climate/Terrain: Temperate and Warm grasslands or hills. Value: 
  1cp/2lbs.
  
  132
   
  Manioc: Manioc is also known as cassava or tapioca. It is a plant whose starchy 
  roots are prepared much like potatoes. They can be toxic uncooked, and they are o�en 
  grated and squeezed to extract the potentially poisonous sap. They are then dried and 
  made into a meal much like flour. Manioc can also be fermented to create alcoholic 
  beverages. Manioc is a very useful staple crop that requires at least 8 months of warm 
  weather to grow. Climate/Terrain: Warm grasslands (savanna) and Warm Forests. 
  Value: 1cp/2lbs.
   
  Marten: Martens are arboreal weasels with valuable pelts. Climate/Terrain: Cold 
  and temperate forests. Value: 4gp/pelt.
   
  Mink: A semi-aquatic weasel, minks spend a lot of their time foraging in the water 
  for mollusks, crustaceans, and fish. It has very so� fur. Climate/Terrain: Cold and 
  temperate waterlines. Value: 6gp/pelt.
   
  Mithral: Mithral is a very hard silvery metal usually found deep 
  underground. Some mithral veins contain small amounts of adamantine. Climate/
  Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground Value: 1,000gp/lbs.
   
  Muskrat: A large rodent with dark, glossy fur. It is found in fresh, 
  brackish or saltwater marshes, ponds, lakes, and rivers. Climate/Terrain:  Cold 
  and temperate waterlines. Value: 1gp/pelt.
   
  Nutmeg: Nutmeg trees stand thirty of forty feet high, have dense green 
  foliage with tints of gold, and bear flowers and fruits throughout the year. The 
  fruits are about the size of a small apple and turn from green to ivory yellow. 
  When ripe, the fruit split in two to reveal its treasure. The stone of the fruit 
  contains the nut and around the stone is the deep red aril more commonly known 
  as the spice mace. Within the stone is the nutmeg proper. Enterprising cultures 
  soak the nuts in limewater before exporting them, thus ensuring they cannot 
  germinate and threaten a very lucrative trade. Climate/Terrain: Warm wet forests. 
  Value: 11gp/lbs.
   
  Oats: Oats are a staple crop cultivated for its grain as well as for fodder. 
  Oats are usually eaten as porridge or ground into flour and mixed with wheat. 
  Oats are long-day plants and thrive on a wide variety of soils. Oats are very 
  hardy and require only 40°F to grow. Climate/Terrain: Temperate grasslands, 
  hills. Value: 1cp/2lbs.
   
  Opal: Opal looks much like mother of pearl and comes in clear, milky, 
  gray, or black. Opals show a bright rainbow of colors (blue, green, yellow, and 
  red) because of the tiny silica spheres inside the mineral. Most opal is formed 
  over a long period of time in sedimentary rocks, but some opals form in gas 
  cavities in volcanic rock. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground 
  Value: varies (usually around 1,000gp each).
   
  O�er: O�ers are playful aquatic carnivores’ whose fur has long been in 
  demand. Climate/Terrain: Cold and temperate waterlines. Value: 8gp/pelt.
  Paprika: Paprika is a mixture of ground mild red peppers. It is o�en sweet 
  and used to color all sorts of dishes like potatoes, ragouts, vegetables, meats, 
  fishes, sheep-milk cheeses and more. Climate/Terrain: Temperate or warm 
  grasslands or hills. Value: 1gp/lbs.
   
  Pepper: Pepper grows in long, thick bunches on a creeper. Pepper naturally 
  grows on trees like coconut, palms, jackfruit or other trees occasionally sport 
  a pepper creeper, and their sparse canopies allows the sun to filter down and 
  ripen the li�le bunches of pepper fruit. The peppercorns are detached by hand 
  when still green and not quite ripe. The bunches are then put out to dry for 
  several days until they shrivel and adopt the familiar puckers and dark color. 
  Pepper is a spice used throughout history and is traded far and wide. Climate/
  Terrain: Warm wet forests. Value: 2gp/lbs.
  
  133
   
  Peppers (spicy): Spicy peppers are staple foods for some cultures and exotics 
  spices for others. The heat in the peppers is a chemical defense to reduce animal 
  predation that has ironically increased predation by many intelligent species. Over 
  a hundred different spicy peppers exist and they are usually preserved by drying, 
  although some are pickled to create hot chutneys. Climate/Terrain: Temperate and 
  warm grasslands or hills.
   
  Peridot: Peridot is a transparent green gem variety of olivine, a mineral 
  common in basaltic lavas and some deep-seated igneous rocks. The most valuable 
  stones are golden-green and deep-green colored. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, 
  or underground Value: varies (usually around 50gp each).
   
  Platinum: Platinum is a silvery metal that is very hard. It is common found 
  in a variety of minerals with the most common being sperrylite. Most platinum 
  minerals occur as very small grains in nickel deposits, but platinum grains are 
  also commonly found in gold workings. Very rarely, large nuggets of platinum 
  are found. The largest recorded weighs 21.4 lbs. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, 
  hills, or underground Value: 500gp/lbs.
   
  Potato: Potatoes are a staple crop. They are eaten boiled, baked, fried 
  and stewed. They can be ground, dried, and made into flour. They can also be 
  made into alcoholic beverages. Potatoes require only 40°F temperatures to grow. 
  Climate/Terrain: Any hills, grassland, or forest. Value: 1cp/2lbs
   
  Rice: Rice is a grass whose fruits help feed the majority of humanity. 
  Rice grows to around 3 �. tall and requires a lot of water to grow, as flooding the 
  paddies is necessary. Rice has a high yield, more than any other staple besides 
  maize. Climate/Terrain: Warm wet grasslands, hills or mountains (terrace 
  farming). Value: 1cp/2lbs.
   
  Ruby: Ruby is the red variety of corundum. It is found on the surface 
  as crystal fragments in river gravels. Underground it is commonly found in 
  any volcanic rock, alkali balsalts, kimberlites, lamproids, and lamprophyres. 
  Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground Value: varies (usually 
  around 1,000gp each).
   
  Rye: Rye is a staple grain, used to make flour. It is an extremely hardy 
  grain, o�en grown where other grains will not grown. It is also o�en used for 
  fodder and silage. It thrives in infertile areas and is renowned for it’s ability to 
  grow on sandy soils. Climate/Terrain: Any grassland. Value: 1cp/2lbs.
   
  Sable: A mustelid (like o�ers, minks, martens and weasels) whose fur 
  is highly valued. It is primarily a predator of mice, chipmunks, squirrels, small 
  birds and sometimes fish, but it also eats fruits. Climate/Terrain: Cold forests, 
  grasslands, hills, and mountains. Value: 10gp/pelt.
   
  Saffron: Saffron is the unchallenged emperor of spices. The only spice 
  that comes from a flower, saffron comes from the night-blooming, mauve flower 
  Crocus sativus. The flowers three red stigmas are removed and dried and 
  then either used whole or crushed. A pound of saffron requires at least 60,000 
  flowers. Before long distance trade routes became more of a commonplace 
  occurrence, saffron was o�en worth more than its weight in gold. Saffron 
  is used in breads for celebration purposes and in riso�os for a rich dining 
  experience. Climate: Warm or temperate (no hard freezes) grasslands. Value: 
  15gp/lbs.
   Salt: Salt is a mineral required by mammals. It is found in a 
  natural crystalline form called halite. It is o�en deliberately 
  harvested/mined by humans for trade or consumption. Two 
  typical ways of doing so is through flooding a low-lying area 
  with sea water and then le�ing it evaporate leaving the salt 
  behind or by going to an ancient sea bed (now a salt flat) 
  
  134
  and prying out slabs of salt. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, desserts, coasts, or 
  underground Value: 5gp/lbs.
   
  Sapphire: Sapphire is the blue variety of corundum. It is found on the surface as 
  crystal fragments in river gravels. Underground it is commonly found in any volcanic 
  rock, alkali balsalts, kimberlites, lamproids, and lamprophyres. Climate/Terrain: 
  Mountains, hills, or underground Value: varies (usually around 1,000gp each).
   
  Seal: Seals are cold-water mammals whose young o�en have luxurious coats. 
  Climate/Terrain: Cold seas and cold sea shores. Value: 2gp/pelt.
   
  Silver: Silver is a common precious metal. It tarnishes easily and is much less 
  valuable than platinum or gold. Silver is usually found in conjunction with lead 
  deposits or with copper deposits. Silver is easily workable and tougher than gold 
  so it is commonly used for durable jewelry. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or 
  underground Value: 5gp/lbs.
   
  Sugar: Sugar comes from the sugarcane. This 9-15�. tall plant gives a 
  sugary juice when crushed, and this juice is boiled down and dried to form sugar. 
  Sugarcane also produces molasses and is an important part of rum production. 
  The young plant can be eaten raw or cooked, and the plant’s reeds can be used 
  to make thatch, mats, and screens. Sugarcane only grows in the tropics and 
  subtropics with hot, humid climates alternating with dry periods. Climate/
  Terrain: Warm grasslands or hills. Value: 5gp/lbs.
   
  Taro: Taro is a root crop, similar to manioc and yams. It is most commonly 
  known as poi (the traditional staple food of native Hawaiians). Taro contains an 
  irritant that is removed during cooking. Taro is usually eaten peeled and boiled 
  or fried, like potato chips. Taro is also crushed, dried, and made into flour. 
  Climate/Terrain: Warm grasslands, forests, or hills. Value: 1cp/2lbs.
   
  Tea: The tea tree can grow up to 30 feet, but it is usually trimmed under 
  cultivation to maintain a low and shrub-like profile. Tea leaves are picked and 
  dried promptly to create green tea or are picked and fermented to create black 
  tea. Tea contains the alkaloid theine, a stimulant, an astringent, and a nervine. 
  It also contains tannin, which is responsible for the bi�er taste of the beverage 
  if the tea is brewed too long. Climate/Terrain: Temperate or warm, wet forests 
  (usually mountainous). Value: 10gp/lbs.
   
  Tin: Tin is found in cassiterite and is hard, heavy, and difficult to scratch. 
  Tin has a low melting point and does not corrode easily. Pewter, commonly 
  used for figurines and sculpture, is an alloy of roughly 75% tin and 25% lead. 
  Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills, or underground Value: 1sp/lbs.
   
  Topaz: Topaz is a gem found in several colors: colorless, pale blue, pink, 
  or the most valuable, golden yellow called “imperial topaz.” Topaz is found 
  mostly in granites and pegmatites, and some gem-quality topaz crystals weigh 
  several pounds. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills or underground. Value: 
  varies (usually 500gp each).
   
  Tourmaline: Tourmaline has the greatest color range (yellow, green, blue, 
  pink, brown, mauve-gray, “watermelon,” graduating colors) of any gemstone 
  and some single crystals are multicolored. Tourmalines are o�en cut into 
  fanciful shapes such as leaves to show off their graduated colors. The best 
  tourmalines are found in pegmatites. Climate/Terrain: Mountains, hills or 
  underground. Value: varies (usually 100gp each).
   
  Turmeric: Turmeric is a large-leaved herb whose 
  rhizome is ground to make the yellow spice commonly 
  called turmeric or tumeric. It is mainly used in 
  conjunction with other spices (in curries). Climate/
  Terrain: Warm grasslands or hills. Value: 5gp/lbs.
  
  135
   
  Vanilla: Vanilla is a creeper plant that climbs up tropical trees (casuarina or 
  vacoas) and flourishes in the heat and damp shade. The fruits appear a month a�er 
  pollination and are le� to ripen, a process that takes seven or eight months. The fruits 
  look like oversized green beans when they are harvested. A�er harvesting they are 
  blanched in 125°F water for three minutes to halt vegetative reproduction. They’re 
  then le� to sweat in wool-padded crates for twelve hours or so. A�er tanking they’re 
  dried alternatively on racks and in an oven for a week before being placed in the 
  sun a few hours a day for an additional week. The pods are then closeted away in 
  greaseproof paper lined crates for eight months. Especially valuable vanilla is le� 
  in the crates for an additional two years, in which time it is frosted with tiny white 
  crystals of pure vanillin. Vanilla is pollinated by a limited number of species, and 
  when removed from its natural environment, it must be hand pollinated or it will 
  not produce pods. Climate/Terrain: Warm wet forests. Value: 13gp/lbs.
   
  Yam: Yams are a staple root crop that are usually baked, boiled, or 
  mashed. They have a long dormancy period that allows them to store well. 
  They are usually trellised aboveground to ensure greater yield. Climate/Terrain: 
  Warm grasslands, hills, and forests. Value: 1cp/2lbs.
   
  Wheat: Wheat is the most familiar grain to many people. It is a grass 
  whose grains are ground to make bread. Its grains are also used to make beer 
  and other alcoholic beverages. Its straw is used to make mats, baskets and 
  fodder. Wheat requires 40°F to grow and favors dark soils rich in nitrogen, 
  cloudless warm days, and well-distributed low levels of rainfall. Climate/
  Terrain: Temperate and warm grasslands. Value: 1cp/lbs.
  Plants
   
  Artic willow: A species of tree on the Arctic tundra that stands a few 
  inches tall.
   
  Banyan tree: A tree that grows aerial roots and creates multiple trunks. 
  It starts with a single trunk with another tree. It grows aerial roots toward the 
  ground, supporting and feeding the parent branches. Banyan trees continue to 
  grow more secondary roots, expanding the territory of the tree. Banyans create 
  small forests that long outlive the parent tree, the most famous in Calcu�a 
  covering 243 acres. Banyans are sacred trees in India, planted near temples.
   
  Baobab tree: Inhabiting arid environments, the Baobab tree has a 
  bulbous trunk with razor-sharp spines amid its leaves and branches. They are 
  as fat as they are tall, with an average diameter of 33 feet and a height of 39 
  feet. Its roots spread out in each direction for 300+ feet. Storing water in the so� 
  fibrous wood in its truck, a baobab tree stores up to 22,000 galleons of water 
  during the rainy season. During the dry season, it sheds its leaves to avoid 
  evaporation and waits for the rain to return, when it sprouts white flowers 
  and produces fruit. Its pulpy fruit, referred to as monkey fruit, is high in 
  vitamin C. Some ambitious people have excavated the baobab for shelter.
   
  Bird’s nest fungus: A small cup-like fungi 5 mm in diameter with 
  4-5 capsules that carry its spores, resembling a bird’s nest filled with eggs. 
  The capsules are a�ached to the nest by a stalk. When rain strikes the nest, it 
  launches a capsule out of the nest and breaks the outside of the stalk. Inside 
  the stalk is a sticky rope that can stretch up to 8 inches long, grounding the 
  flying capsule to a nearby branch. The capsule winds its way around the 
  branch like a tetherball and hangs from the tree. When it dries, the capsule 
  will burst, releasing the spores into the air.
   
  Blood flower: A milkweed whose sap is lethal to insects. It secrets a 
  milky rubbery liquid when its leaves or stems are damaged. It also a�racts 
  bees with it fragrant nectar and traps them in a chamber. The strong bees 
  escape, but not before the blood flower drops its pollen sac.
  
  136
   
  Brazil nut tree: Found in South American rainforests, these trees rely on the orchid 
  bee for pollination. It produces nectar in a coiled hooded area, so only strong large 
  bees (orchid bees) can li� the hood and obtain the nectar. As the bee’s body rubs 
  against the hood, it picks up pollen and distributes it from flower to flower. Its fruit 
  is a cluster of brazil nuts in a casing. The lid of the casing breaks open when ripe, 
  exposing the brazil nuts. A small rodent known as the agouti is one of the primary 
  predators and disperser of the brazil nut. It breaks through its tough shell, but in 
  times of plenty, agoutis bury brazil nuts for later and o�en forget where they are 
  buried.
   
  Calabash tree: A tree found in rainforests in Central and South America and the 
  West Indies. Pollinated by bats, their flowers are scentless during the day and exude a 
  strong smell of sweating cheese at night, which is a�ractive to bats. Native people use 
  their pulpy fruit, found inside hard green woody shells, for medicinal purposes.
   
  Carnivorous Pitcher Plant: These natives of the rainforests supplement 
  their photosynthetic diet with insects and small animals. Though each species 
  has developed differently, all carnivorous pitcher plants have a pool of digestive 
  juices and bacteria, consuming those who fall in. They look like pots of varying 
  sizes, some growing 30 feet tall with pitchers 12 inches in length. The pitchers are 
  usually green, sometimes with red insides. Some species develop a lid to close 
  in creatures, while others have sweet nectars to entice insects. The heliamphora 
  heterodoxa, thought to be one of the first carnivorous plants, has a spoon at the 
  top of the pitcher that contains slightly narcotic nectar. The cobra lily is a pitcher 
  plant incognito. It has the appearance of a striking cobra with nectar in the 
  “fangs” of the plant. Insects enter and become disoriented, eventually falling into 
  a pit of digestive juices deep in the pitcher. Pitcher plants also eat small mammals 
  and reptiles that fall in or those that a�empt to steal the insects crammed in their 
  pots.
   
  Cercropia tree: A rainforest tree that live symbiotically with ants and 
  scale insects. Scale insects eat the sap of the tree and excrete honeydew. 
  Unfortunately, scale insects cannot penetrate the bark of the tree. Ants live 
  inside the hollow branches of the Cercropia tress and farm scale insects because 
  they eat the honeydew they excrete, while giving them access to the Cercropia’s 
  sap. The tree leaves protein-rich capsules and nectar at the base of its leaves for 
  the ants that in turn protect the tree from other predators. Cercropia trees do 
  not have chemical defenses like so many other rainforest plants because of their 
  mutualistic arrangement.
   
  Coryanthes orchids: These orchids create a trap for pollinating insects. 
  They make fragrant-smelling nectar that a�racts male bees. The fragrance 
  compounds have a narcotic effect, causing the doped up bee to fall into a well 
  (formed by convoluted petal growth). The only path out is lined with pollen, 
  which he will deposit at the next flower he visits. Unfortunately, drugged bees 
  sometime take up to 45 minutes to find the way out.
   
  Cuscuta: Parasitic plants that sweep the floor looking for a host plant. 
  Once one of its stems find a host, they curl around it and constrict. This 
  signals more stems and suckers that clamp on the host’s tissue, injecting 
  toxins. Cuscuta abandon their roots to feed off their prey, finding another a�er 
  it dies or dying with their host. Should two cuscuta stems meet and inject each 
  other with poison, nothing happens, but many viruses transmi�ed by these 
  parasitic tangles are responsible for serious crop damage across Europe.
   
  Cycad: When native to rainforests, this leafy plant produces a highly toxic 
  poison, warding off insects, animals, and humans alike. In Costa Rica, the 
  caterpillars of the lycaenid bu�erfly eat the leaves of the toxic cycad, synthesize 
  the poison, and use it for their own defense, making them poisonous as well. 
  They are brightly colored red with yellow strips to signal their toxicity.
  
  137
   
  Date palm: Produces dates, an energy-rich, nutritious fruit. They grow up to 
  30 meters high and live for 200 years. Date stone are ground and fed to animals. Their 
  leaves are dried for weaving baskets and other goods, their sap can be made into a 
  wine (lagmi), and a�er it stops producing fruit, its wood makes good timber.
   
  Epiphytes: Plants that grow above ground using other plants or objects for 
  support. They are not parasitic on their host trees, merely using them for height 
  and be�er exposure to light. They do not have contact with the soil, so nutrients 
  and water shortages are pressing concerns for these hangers on. Subsequently, they 
  have many desert adaptations that collect and store water efficiently. Some epiphytes 
  grow aerial root systems that intertwine and catch falling plant debris, absorbing 
  the nutrients. Many have tightly rolled funnel-shaped leaves that direct water and 
  debris to the plant base for absorption. These tanks of nutrients and water are also 
  home for insects and small frogs. Some epiphyte tanks are so nutrient-filled that 
  trees will grow roots into the epiphytes they host. Epiphytes are commonly 
  found in rainforests, where moist conditions supply the needed water. Common 
  epiphytes are bromeliads, orchids, ferns, mosses, lichen, and liverworts.
   
  Giant Sequoia: Found on the western slopes of California’s Sierra 
  Nevada, these trees grow to 250+ feet and 100 feet around. Their fire-resistant 
  bark accounts for their incredible longevity, some dating back 3,000 years.
   
  Grass tree: A weed found in Australia’s semi-arid deserts. This plant 
  thrives on fire, relying on fire to stimulate new growth. Without fire, the vertical 
  annual growth is less than 1 inch, but with proper burns, the grass tree is as tall 
  as nine feet. A�er a bush fire, new shoots quickly replace the burnt top foliage, 
  while the old leaves surround, protect, and bulk up the base of the trunk. They 
  grow spikes 9 feet long packed with tiny flowers, and they sometimes produce 
  multiple trunks. The height of the plant increases with more burns, and these 
  plants naturally live at least 350 years. 
   
  Greater bladderwort: An aquatic plant found in swampy conditions. 
  Camouflaged in its environment, this nine-foot long rootless plant feeds on 
  insects, crustaceans, and larvae. It catches and digests its prey in translucent 
  sacs that grow along the stalks of the plant. The sacs (5 mm across) have 
  trapdoors and valves that maintain lower pressure inside the sacs. When prey 
  triggers the trap, touching antennae around the trap door, the valve relaxes and 
  sucks the creature in the sac. The trap door shuts, and the digestive juices start 
  pumping.
   
  Liana: Vines that seek support from other trees. They make up a 
  significant portion of the vegetation in rainforests, climbing their way up to the 
  canopy on the sides of other tall trees. Once they reach the canopy, they spread 
  out from their host tree and compete for solar radiation. Lianas vary in size 
  from small vines to thick woody stems up to 1.5 feet in diameter and over 3,000 
  feet in length. Unlike some parasites, lianas do not feed off their host trees, 
  merely using them for architectural support.
   
  Melon cactus: This new world cactus looks like a green bulbous 
  melon with a thimble on top. The first years of growth are a fleshy, green 
  stalk with spikes. It then grows a brown fuzzy cap that resembles a fez or a 
  thimble. The brown cap, up to three feet tall, is covered with buds and small 
  supple spines that turn into downy fleece. The green stem soaks up water to 
  feed the cap, the buds flower and bear fruit at night, while the fleece protects 
  the florets from dehydration.
   
  Mycorrhizal fungi: Rainforest fungi that weave their threads around 
  and inside the roots of canopy trees, drinking sugar and nitrogen from the 
  trees. The trees in turn absorb the nutrients released by these detritivores.
  
  138
   
  Myrmecophytes: Rainforest trees that live symbiotically with colonies of ants. The 
  tree provides food and shelter for the ants, and the ants defend the tree from leaf-
  eating predators.
   
  Ophrys orchids: A genius of plants that mimic female bees and wasps to lure males 
  into pollination. Though there are 30 different species, all ophrys have metallic-
  colored flowers that mimic the shape and color of a female insect’s body, down to the 
  furry texture. The flowers also release a smell secreted by the female insects. Once the 
  male is on top of the flower, the orchid packs two pollen sacs on his back, fertilizing 
  the next ophrys orchid that seduces him.
   
  Parasol fungi: A fungi in the Amazon rainforest with tiny parasols 6 mm across. 
  The Auka Indians make a paste from the fungi and spread it on a breastfeeding 
  mother to cure her infant’s diarrhoea.
   
  Pebble plants: Plants in southern Africa that look like stones. They mimic 
  the rock formation they call home in color, form, and texture. To tolerate arid 
  climates, the pebble plants have two leaves fused into a sphere. They store sugar 
  and water in their cells, able to survive drought for weeks. Every year new leaves 
  sprout in between the old leaves and absorb their moisture. The old leaves fall, 
  leaving scars beneath the new leaves at the bas of the plant. You can count the 
  scars to determine the age of the pebble plants, some dating 200 years old.
   
  Phototoxic: Chemicals found in plants that are harmless by themselves 
  but form a poisonous compound when exposed to light (due to a chemical 
  reaction with ultraviolet light). Many plants in rainforests use phototoxicity to 
  deter predation, though caterpillars have found a way around it. Caterpillars will 
  feed on these plants at night and curl under the leaf during the daytime to protect 
  them from ultraviolet light.
   
  Podostemaceae: A family of aquatic herbs that thrives on the ledges 
  of Iguaçu Falls. They are short (less than four inches) flowering plants that 
  resemble water lichen or mosses. They fix themselves to the rocks by means of 
  a sucker. When the dry season lowers the water level, the plants immediately 
  flower and release pollen to fertilize nearby plants. Their fruit ripens within a 
  few days, drop on a nearby rock, and affix to the rock. When the water rises, the 
  seeds germinate and produce new plants. 
   
  Prussic acid: A toxin that inhibits respiration. Certain plants of the 
  rainforest produce a chemical that turns into prussic acid when its cells are 
  disrupted by a predator’s bite.
   
  Pu�all: A type of fungi that spreads reproductive spores on its own. 
  When young, the pu�all is so� but becomes increasing bri�le and delicate as it 
  matures. Eventually it will become so fragile that any impact (even that of a rain 
  drop) causes the outer casing to explode and release the dust-like spores into 
  the air to colonize new ground.
   
  Puya raimondii: A member of the pineapple family that grows in the 
  Andes. It flowers once in its entire life and then dies. In the dry cold of the 
  Andes, this bromeliad builds a trunk up to eight feet tall and 32 inches wide. 
  Spiky leaves 47 inches long surround the trunk, as well as hook thorns along 
  the border. Besides protecting the plant from herbivores, the leaves also 
  insulate the trunk and prevent the sap from freezing. A�er 100 years, the 
  plant reaches maturity and sprouts a floral crown that is 13 to 20 feet tall, 
  consisting of several hundred branches curled tightly around the central 
  spike. Such a crown carries up to 8,000 flowers. When the flowers wither, 
  they release millions of seed, and the plant dies. 
   
  Rafflesia: This Southeast Asia rainforest plant is the largest flower in the 
  world, up to 3 feet across and 24 pounds. It parasitizes the roots of lianas, 
  and the flower is the only part of the plant above ground. Wrapped tightly 
  
  139
  for most of the year, the rafflesia blooms for a few days with giant petals and a large 
  bulbous center. Its coloring is mo�led to imitate a carcass, and the rafflesia strongly 
  smells of ro�ing meat to a�ract flies, its main pollinators.
   
  Ricin: A protein highly toxic to humans, killing on a one to one ratio on a 
  cellular level. This substance is found on the seed coat of the castor oil plant.
   
  Rose of Jericho: A plant that wilts and shrivels in dry weather, but fills out 
  and turns green again when there is water. Rose of Jericho is found in North Africa 
  and parts of the Middle East.
   
  Saguaro cactus: Shaped like a candelabra, this cactus grows up to 50 feet tall 
  and 28 inches wide. This plant grows slowly, waiting up to 75 years before it sprouts 
  its first offshoot. Though the shoots grow out horizontally, they quickly turn up 
  and grow parallel to the main stem. These giants live centuries by obtaining water 
  through a shallow root system radiating from the main stem, as far as 100 feet 
  out. A deep root with lateral extensions anchors the tree to the ground. With this 
  double root system, the cactus can store enough water to last a two-year drought. 
  White blossoms open at night, and the saguaro cactus also produces a crimson 
  fruit whose fermented pulp makes tequila.
   
  Skunk cabbage: A plant that produces a poison that causes paralysis, 
  sometimes death. It warns off would-be predators with its foul stench. Skunk 
  cabbage sprouts early in the spring, producing its own heat. During the 12-14 
  days of flowering, the skunk cabbage produces enough heat to stay 36°F above 
  the ambient temperature. It is not uncommon to find budding skunk cabbages 
  on snow-covered ground with the snow melted around them.
   
  Sundew: Small jewel-like plants that eat insects. They bloom into 
  a radiant circle covered with oval glands that shimmer like nectar-covered 
  lollipops. These glands are actually covered with sticky glue that trap insects, 
  like a natural flypaper. Once the insect is trapped, the glands become tentacles, 
  pulling the insect toward the center of the sundew, where the glands secret acid 
  and enzymes. A�er the insect is liquefied, the glands absorb the broth.
   
  Stinkhorn: A fungi that sprouts from an egg-shaped fungal mass on 
  the surface. It has unpleasant-smelling sticky residue on its tip to a�ract flies 
  that disperse their spores. Flies eat this substance and their feet and bodies are 
  covered with the tiny spores embedded in the goo.
   
  Strangler fig: Found in rain forests, the strangler fig surrounds another 
  tree and prevents its host tree from gaining sufficient nutrients. Birds deposit 
  strangler fig’s seeds onto the canopy, where they germinate in accumulated 
  soil. Strangler figs drop roots along the host tree’s side, quickly becoming 
  a competitor for light and nutrients. They continue to drop roots until they 
  completely surround the host tree. When the host tree dies, the strangler fig’s 
  roots constitute an outer trunk while the inside is hollow.
   
  Tortora reed: A reed indigenous to Lake Titicaca. The native Indians 
  harvest the plant and build reed boats for travel and fishing. The Uru live 
  on floating islands made from tortora reeds. They build homes, churches, 
  and even plant crops on the reed mats. Anchored to the shallow part of Lake 
  Titicaca, the Uru add fresh layers of ma�ed reed to replace the underside that 
  rots in the water. The reed islands average two meters in depth.
   
  Traveler’s tree: A tree native to Madagascar with a palm trunk and a 
  fan of leaves that spread out 180 degrees. These trees are designed for water 
  collection. Ragged-edged leaves direct water down long stalks to a sheath by 
  the trunk. These sheaths act as reservoirs for thirsty travelers. Since leaves fan 
  out into a half moon, they catch every drop of water falling in their proximity. 
  Traveler’s trees are home to many creatures and watering stops for birds and 
  humans (giving the tree its name). These trees flower ten inch long white 
  
  140
  flowers and produce a blue fleshy fruit. Birds, who are fond of the tree’s fruit, are the 
  main dispersers of their seed.
   
  Victoria amazonica: A giant lily pad with an upturned rim found in the Amazon 
  basin. Spanning seven feet across, the lily pad has sharp spines on the underside of its 
  pad, along the stem, and on the exterior of its budding white foot-wide flowers. This 
  giant lily pad can hold a person’s weight, and certain animals in the Amazon basin 
  sleep on the lily pad.
   
  Welwitschia plant: Found in the Namib Desert, this sprawling dwarf tree is no 
  taller than a few feet but spans over five feet in diameter. It has long leathery leaves 
  that ta�er and stream in the arid wind. It’s anchored by a woody root that grows over 
  six feet long. When the desert fog rolls in, the plant absorbs moisture through pores 
  on the leaves’ surface and through its root system. The welwitschia waits for rain to 
  releases its seed and provides its seeds with enough food to last until the next 
  rain, up to five years. These tough plants never grow more than 62 miles from the 
  Atlantic Ocean and live a long time, the oldest dating back to the time of Christ.
  Animals
   
  Angwantibos: African rainforest lemurs with short, undeveloped tails. 
  These small (usually less than a foot long) primates cling to trees with their hands 
  and feet. Walking hand over hand along the trees and branches, the angwantibo 
  feeds on insects and vegetation on the low shrub layer of the forest.
   
  Army ants: Ranging from two to twenty millions ants, these large colonies 
  eat everything in their path. Their strong hook-like jaws can quickly strip of 
  carcass of its edible parts. Due to the size of their colonies, they o�en migrate and 
  conduct raids, marching in columns 50,000 strong. American Indians used the 
  army ant to stitch wounds, forcing the ant to bite either side of a cut. Once the skin 
  was closed, its body was removed, leaving only the jaws.
   
  Aye-ayes: Found in Madagascar’s rain forest, the aye-aye is the smallest of 
  the lemurs (max. body length of 17.5 inches, max. tail length of 24 inches). It is a 
  night feeder, consuming insect larvae, eggs, shoots, and fruit. Each hand has an 
  exceptionally long middle finger used to tap on trees and capture wood-boring 
  insects inside the trees. 
   
  Bleached earless lizards: The typical brown earless lizard of New Mexico 
  has a pale relative living in the White Sands Desert. Curious and fast runners, 
  these lizards shed their tails if seized and grow new ones. 
   
  Blister beetles: Insects whose larvae practice collective mimicry. Larvae 
  group together, forming the shape of a female bee. When they a�ract a male bee, 
  as many larvae as possible cling to the male bee’s chest. When the male bee does 
  find a female bee, the larva let go and feed off the female bee’s eggs.
   
  Bombardier beetles: Insects that spray corrosive substances from the end 
  of their abdomen. These beetles store chemicals in a chamber in their abdomen 
  with a muscle-controlled valve. When threatened, the bombardier beetle 
  mixes the chemicals and brings them to a boil. The subsequent 
  gases 
  close the valve and shoot the boiling liquid out the tip of the 
  abdomen with a loud pop.
   
  Bu�on beetles: Found in the Namib Desert, they excavate 
  parallel furrows in the sand at right angles to the 
  direction of the wind. When the desert fog rolls in, the 
  moisture is captured on the ridges of the furrows 
  and anxiously devoured by the beetles.
   
  Camels: 
  Highly 
  adapted 
  to 
  desert 
  environments. They can lose up to 1/3 of their 
  weight before it becomes harmful. They reduce 
  their loss of water by excreting concentrated urine and 
  
  141
  nearly dry feces. Course hair protects them from solar radiation and whipping sands. 
  Long bushy eyelashes and thick lids protect their eyes from sand, while closing their 
  nostrils at will prevent them from breathing in sand. They tolerate greater levels of 
  dehydration before it becomes debilitating, and they recoup their liquid loss quickly 
  when they do have access to water.
   
  Clown anemone fish: Fish found in coral reefs that hide from predators 
  inside large sea anemones. Their body secrets a mucus which protects them from the 
  anemones’ poison. 
   
  Cormorant: Birds that dive for their prey and stay under water up to 30 
  seconds. They wait to consume their food until they resurface, shaking their catch 
  before they swallow. Fishermen have domesticated the cormorant along the River 
  Xi in China. They fit a tight collar around the cormorant’s neck preventing the bird 
  from swallowing any but the smallest prey. When the bird dives for fish and 
  resurfaces, the fisherman collects the catch.
   
  Cowfish: A fish that took a different evolutionary path. They have an 
  exterior of fused plates, forming a carapace around the fish. Typically box-shaped 
  with a triangular cross-section, their slight horns give the cowfish its bovine-
  inspired name. Most abundant in tropical waters, cowfish are brightly colored 
  and appear to hover through the water due to their unique physiology. Unlike 
  other fish, they use their use their fins for rotary motion and use their tail as a 
  rudder. They also inflate themselves as a means of defense (like pufferfish), and 
  release an ostracitoxin against predators. Using a similar blowing mechanism, 
  cowfish blow jets of water into the sand with their mouths, uncovering their 
  meals of crabs and shrimps. Some cowfish grow as large as 20 inches, though 
  those kept in captivity are o�en no larger than 12 inches.
   
  Cu�lefish: Predacious carnivorous cephalopods (head foot). Related to 
  squids and octopi, the cu�lefish is actually a mollusk, phylum of snails, clams, 
  and slugs. Like other cephalopods, they change their coloring and move very 
  fast in the water. Beneath the cu�lefish’s mantle is a cavity lined with muscles. 
  Through contracting and relaxing these muscles, the cu�lefish controls how 
  much water is in the cavity and allows it to float motionless in the water. The 
  cu�lefish takes off by shooting water out of its cavity through a muscle funnel 
  (whose width it can also control).
   
  Damselflies: These relatives of the dragonfly have four independently 
  beating wings, giving them ultimate control of their flight. In rainforests, giant 
  damselflies hunt for webs of orb-weaving spiders, mesmerizing them with their 
  wings. The giant damselfly then snatches the spider, snaps its thorax and eats 
  the remaining juicy abdomen for dinner.
   
  Elephant birds: Standing 10 feet tall and weighing 1,000 pounds, the 
  elephant bird is a foraging vegetarian due its inability to fly or run fast. Its egg 
  weighs 20 pounds, measures 14 inches in length, and has a capacity of two 
  gallons. Once found in Madagascar, this giant bird is now extinct.
   
  Emperor penguins: These flightless birds return to ice shelves in 
  winter when all other creatures have le�. They gather under the cliffs by 
  the thousands, identifying their mate by each bird’s unique song. Without 
  any materials for nesting, male birds carry the egg laid by the female. They 
  position the egg on their feet and se�le their warm belly over the egg until it 
  hatches.
   
  Extremophiles: Microbes that survive extreme conditions: heat, 
  acidity, salinity, pressure, cold, and other environmental constraints deadly 
  to more familiar life. A�er Streptococcus mitis went to the moon and made 
  it back alive, scientists had speculated panspermia-the seeding of microbial 
  life from one planet to another. Some studied microbes resumed metabolic 
  
  142
  activity a�er being frozen for thousands of years. “The planets are always swapping 
  spit.” ~Chris McKay, astrobiologist at NASA’s Ames Research Center.
   
  Flag bugs: Rainforest insects that suck the sap of the poisonous passion flower. It 
  stores the toxins and uses it for its own defense. To flag its toxicity, its body and wide 
  flag-like legs take on vibrant colors. If predators still a�ack, the flag bug waves its leg 
  to distract the predator away from the body. This apparently works since flag bugs 
  are frequently found with one or both of their legs missing.
   
  Flamingos: Tall birds with skinny legs, o�en revered in the form of lawn ornaments 
  in Florida. They are pink (sometime crimson and vermilion) because their diet is high 
  in alpha and beta-carotene, either through brine shrimps or blue-green algae, which 
  turns red a�er it dies. They prefer shallow waters to feeding and nesting. While 
  adults eat diatoms, seeds, blue-green algae, crustaceans, and mollusks, their young 
  eat “crop milk,” a dark red secretion high in fat and protein from the upper 
  digestive tract of male and female flamingos. Although flamingos drink fresh 
  water, flamingo colonies are o�en found in the high-saline lakes of Africa, where 
  they can nest with li�le competition from other animals.
   
  Flying snakes: Arboreal snakes that live in the rain forests of South and 
  Southeast Asia. These snakes glide from tree to tree by jumping from a tree and 
  fla�ening their bodies into parachutes or gliders. They ride the air currents to the 
  next tree or safely onto the ground. They are typically 3-4 feet in length and can 
  cover 300 feet (100 meters) in one glide.
   
  Giant Clams: The largest type of clam, some longer than 4 feet. Though 
  fabled man-eaters, giant clams are filter eaters, receiving nutrients from the algae 
  living in its tissue. Giant clams also receive their vibrant colors from the algae. 
  Giant clams are found in shallow waters, and once they begin to grow, they stay 
  in the same place for life. They also move very slow, taking several minutes to 
  close their shells.
   
  Giant Pangolins: A large ant and termite eater covered in scales. This 
  African forest native, growing up to 4.5 feet long and 75 pounds, can eat up to 
  200,000 ants a night. They are nocturnal animals that burrow homes up to 120 
  feet long and 15 feet underground. With the aid of their tails, they can walk 
  bipedally, and when they walk on all fours, they curl their front feet under to 
  protect their claws. This would be the human equivalent of walking on your 
  wrists. When they are startled, they tuck their head between their front feet, 
  using their strong shoulders as armor. If touched, they curl in a ball. The scales 
  on their tail are sharp and can be used as weapons.
   
  Gemsboks:  In the Kalahari these antelope cool their hot blood to normal 
  body temperature by circulating it in extensive capillary networks in the nose 
  before it enters the brain.
   
  Glass frogs: Arboreal frogs found in rainforests. They are usually varying 
  shades of green that are partially translucent. Their internal organs are visible 
  where they have translucent skin, typically around their stomachs. They lay 
  their eggs, which are also translucent, on leaves while the male frogs stand 
  guard.
   
  Golden bamboo lemur: Endemic of Madagascar, this lemur feeds on 
  young bamboo shoots despite the high levels of cyanide in the plant. The 
  golden bamboo lemur can tolerate otherwise toxic levels of cyanide. Though 
  specialized in his feeding habits, this primate does not have much competition 
  for bamboo, lethal to most other animals.
   
  Golomyanka: A deep-water fish found in Lake Baikal. Eight inches long, 
  scaleless, and completely transparent, this fish lives in depths of 1,650 feet. 
  A third of its body weight is oil. It comes to the surface at night, feeding on 
  
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  zooplankton. It must descend before the water heats to 45°F (7°C), or else the oils in 
  its body liquefy, resulting in death. Unlike most fish, female golomyanka do not lay 
  eggs, but give birth to live larvae—an event they rarely survive.
   
  Headstander beetles: Found in the Namib Desert, they perch on top of the 
  dunes upside down with their backs to the wind and their heads between their legs. 
  In this position the desert fog condenses on their carapaces and trickles into their 
  mouth.
   
  Hippos: Large, moody wetland creatures. These streamlined giants weigh in 
  at 2+tons, grow to 15 feet long, and are capable of holding their breath for 5 minutes. 
  Built to lounge in the water, their eyes, nostrils, and ears are above water while the 
  remainder is below water. Hippos also hear through air and water at the same time. 
  Called infrasound, this duel hearing allows hippos to communicate long distances 
  regardless if they are underwater. It is speculated that they “hear” in the water 
  through the large blob of blubber under their jaw, similar to how dolphins use 
  their fa�y forehead to channel sound. Though they are herbivores, hippos are 
  notoriously bad tempered and will a�ack other large animals. For a smaller 
  brand of hippos, consider the pygmy hippos of West Africa that are only 40 
  inches tall and 500 pounds each.
   
  Huankele: A giant frog found at the bo�om of Lake Titicaca. The frog 
  grows up to two feet long and breaths through his skin, rarely coming up to the 
  surface for air.
   
  Katydids: Insects that specialize in subterfuge. These cricket relatives 
  take on the shape and color of leaves found in their native habitat or the 
  appearance of other insects. When camouflage fails, they have a second pair of 
  differently colored wings that they flash. These startle wings are typically bright 
  colors and have eyespots to divert the a�ack from vital spots. They are especially 
  abundant in the Amazon rainforest.
   
  Lar Gibbons: The smallest of apes that live primarily in Asian 
  rainforests. Also called white-handed gibbon, these primates have long arms 
  that swing them from tree to tree, strides up to 50 feet long at 35 mph.
   
  Leaf-cu�er ants: Ants that take vegetation back to their underground 
  nests and finely shred them. Worker ants process the shredded leaves and sow 
  them with fungi spores, farming the fungi gardens that feed the ants. One 
  Costa Rican tree (hymenaea courbaril) has produced a fungicide in its leaves to 
  deter these ants.
   
  Magnificent bower birds: A bird whose male member is resplendent 
  in color. Unfortunately, this bird lives on the rainforest floor where li�le of the 
  sun’s light penetrates the canopy. This bird systematically defoliates patches of 
  canopy far above, choreographing sha�s of light that will penetrate his bower 
  and illuminate his iridescent coloring, a�racting a mate in the process.
   
  Marsupial frogs: Frogs that carry their eggs in a sac, located on the 
  female’s back. The female lays the eggs, the male fertilizes them and places 
  them into the female’s sac. A�er four weeks, the eggs hatch and up to thirty 
  froglets emerge from the sac. Female pygmy marsupial frogs carry their 
  fertilized eggs in a sac under the skin, giving the appearance of boils across 
  the back. When the eggs hatch, frogs emerged from busted boils.
   
  Mudskippers: Fish that survive in water and on land. Commonly 
  found in mangrove swamps, mudskippers spend most of their time on land 
  and actually move faster on land than in water. So adjusted to brackish 
  water, the mudskipper dies if placed in saltwater or freshwater. Though they 
  have gills for breathing underwater, they also have mechanics for extracting 
  oxygen on land. They carry water in their expandable gill chambers or in 
  their mouths, allowing them to walk on land and still extract oxygen from 
  
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  water. They can also extract oxygen from their wet skin, easy replenished by rolling 
  in a puddle every few minutes. They walk with a front pair of fins that act like arms 
  (complete with elbows) while a secondary pair of fins in the back act like suckers, 
  allowing the mudskipper to cling to wet surfaces. Its eyeballs protrude, not unlike 
  periscopes, and move independently of each other. During mating season, the males 
  take on more color and perform courtship displays, such as erecting their dorsal fins, 
  doing push-ups or spectacular flips out of the mud, and flaring their dorsal fin at the 
  top of the leap.
   
  Nerpa seals: One of the world’s two freshwater species of seal. Found in Lake 
  Baikal, they breed on the frozen lake in winter and give birth in snow lairs from late 
  February to early April. In winter they make air holes in the ice and maintain them by 
  gnawing from below, making life above and below the frozen lake possible.
   
  Nudibranchs: Shell-less mollusks commonly called “sea slugs.” 
  Sometimes mistaken for worms, nudibranchs have brilliant colors, possibly to 
  warn of the noxious chemicals (including sulfuric acid) it secretes for would-
  be predators. Some nudibranchs feed on creatures with stinging cells, separate 
  the stinging cells from their prey while its inside their digestive system, and 
  move said stinging cells into their own skin for protection. Found in reefs, these 
  hermaphroditic creatures range in size, from as small as a fingernail to human 
  size.
   
  Rain frogs: Frogs that live their lives on land. Common to Central and 
  South American rainforests, these frogs lay their eggs on leaves and moss, 
  hatching tiny froglets six millimeters long. These frogs come to maturity on land 
  instead of in water. This is only possible in water environments where they do not 
  dry out.
   
  Sharp-beaked ground finches: A bird found in the Galápagos Islands that 
  drinks blood. It pecks at seabird’s wings and tails and drink their blood.
   
  Shield bugs: Type of insect found in Australian rainforests. Brightly 
  colored and iridescent, these insects use color to flag toxicity or unpleasant taste 
  to predators, though most are harmless. They also group together, intensifying 
  their color signal and deterring predators. Tasty, nontoxic insects would not 
  gather together so boldly, would they?
   
  Susu dolphins: The fresh water dolphins found in the Ganges and Indus 
  River. They are blind and use echolocation and their sensitive front flipper to 
  find food in the murky waters.
   
  Swallowtail bu�erflies: The larva of these rainforest inhabitants imitates 
  bird droppings, effectively camouflaging them from birds and other predators.
   
  Tapirs: These pig-looking animals actually belong to the odd-toed hooved 
  animal family (perissodactyls) like horses and rhinos. Three of the four species 
  reside in Central and South America, with the fourth living in Southeast 
  Asia. Their weight varies from 300 to 800 pounds, depending on species. 
  They gravitate toward wet climates and usually live near water. Voracious 
  vegetarians, they o�en have problems with local farmers.
   
  Tardigrades: Microscopic animals that resemble teddy bears: li�le legs 
  bowed outward, a full tubular body, tiny eyes and structures around its head. 
  As small as a tenth of a millimeter, tardigrades have changed li�le in over 
  65 million years. They are multicelled creatures with rudimentary blood and 
  immune systems and a brain. They live in hot springs, frozen tundra, and 
  deserts, feeding off algae through a sucker mouth. Tardigrades have evolved 
  to tolerate repeated freezing by creating its own antifreeze and encouraging 
  the growth of ice crystals on a cellular level, preventing its cells from rupturing 
  as human cells do. Frozen tardigrades achieve cryptobiosis and come back to 
  life a�er thawing. 
  
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  Tent bats: Tiny fruit-eating bats found in rainforests. Two inches long, these 
  small bats eat the midrib of a large leaf, causing the sides of the leaf to droop. Tent 
  bats make these leaf tents for shelter, typically in groups of 15-20 bats. In these 
  groups, there is only one male, the rest comprising his harem. 
   
  Tree ants: Australian rainforest insects that make their nests from leaves. 
  They sew the leaves together with a sticky silk substance extruded from their 
  queen’s larva, gently squeezed like a tube of toothpaste. Their relatives in Central 
  Africa and South East Asia are called “weaving ants.”
   
  Three-toed sloth: Frequenters of Central and South American rainforests, 
  the three-toed sloth spends most of its time sleeping, hanging in the trees (up to 
  19 hours a day). It has no external ears or tail and hangs on to the trees with its 
  long hollow claws, of which the middle claw is the largest. It descends to the forest 
  floor to urinate and defecate once a week. Its coat of long course hair is home 
  to beetles, moths, and colonies of algae, which tint its fur green. When the sloth 
  descends to the forest floor, beetles lay their eggs in the sloth’s excrement and 
  hop back on their sloth. When they eggs hatch, the insects fly into the canopy 
  and find their own sloth-based microclimate.
   
  Thorn bugs: Insects with a disguising carapace shaped like a thorn. 
  Besides providing camouflage from predators, rainforest thorn bugs are brightly 
  colored to alert predators to their impalpability.
   
  Troglobites: Animals restricted to cave life due to adaptations. These 
  specialists typically lost functional eyes, coloration, and the ability to cope with 
  variable temperature and moisture conditions. They rely on other senses, which 
  develop with hypersensitivity to compensate for lack of sight. Typical examples 
  are beetles, spiders, millipedes, mites, fish, crayfish, shrimp, and flatworms.
   
  Woodpecker finches: Birds on the Galápagos Islands that uses tools 
  to extract insects. In absence of woodpeckers on the Galápagos, woodpecker 
  finches hold cactus spines or twigs in their mouth and probe cracks and crevices 
  for food. Sometimes they spear a grub, other times they disturbs the insects, 
  forcing them out. When insects surface, the finch drops the tool and snatches 
  his meal. They are so cra�y that finches will shape a twig if an appropriately 
  sized one it not available.
  Magiovores
  Animals
   
  Angler Lizard: Angler lizards are similar in appearance to geckos, but 
  larger. Not including the long semi-prehensile tail, the largest angler lizards 
  are around three feet long, but the average size is around 1.5 feet. These lizards 
  have long, barbed tongues that magically glow at the tip. They also have 
  wide-toed feet (they’re arboreal during the day) and can magically walk on 
  water. At night, the angler lizards descend from the trees and spread out 
  over the shallow parts of lakes and ponds. They flick their tongues out over 
  the water like fireflies and eat what fish come to the surface. Occasionally 
  an angler lizard catches something too big and loses part of its tongue, but 
  it will quickly regenerate. Angler lizards are magically dependent animals 
  that require magic, air, water, and food to survive. They are only found along 
  wooded waterways or lakes and only in temperate and tropical areas.
   
  Bone Render: Looking li�le different than a regular shrew, bone 
  renders possess magically powerful jaws and an enhanced digestive system. 
  Once the larger scavengers have their way on vertebrate carcasses, bone 
  renders rise up from their holes (much like prairie dogs’ holes, but smaller) 
  and start eating away at the bone itself. This process is a very noisy one, 
  
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  and forever remembered once heard. Bone renders have a truly noxious scent they 
  spray for self defense which is on par with skunk scent. Bone renders are magically 
  dependent animals that need magic, bones, air, and water to survive. They are found 
  mostly on grasslands and scrublands.
   
  Bountiful Deer: Bountiful Deer (also knows as deer of plenty) travel in small herds 
  (6-10) and usually avoid se�led areas. These speckled deer radiate a constant plant 
  growth effect where they roam and tend to have a territory of several hundred square 
  miles. During their migrations, most of the land in the area is under a plant growth 
  enrichment effect for only a few days, but mating grounds benefit the most (almost 
  a full month). Deer of plenty use the overgrowth aspect of plant growth to avoid 
  predators, and they have so far eluded domestication. Any captured deer of plenty 
  usually dies of a mixture of fright and dehydration within 1d6 days. Bountiful deer 
  are not magically dependent animals (although their plant growth won’t work 
  without magic) that need grass, air, and water to survive. They can be found 
  anywhere regular deer are found. A knowledge (nature) DC 20 check is required 
  to identify a bountiful deer and a knowledge (nature) DC 25 check is required to 
  identify the mile radius area effect of a bountiful deer mating ground.
   
  Cavern Ooze: The cavern ooze is a tiny ooze posing no threat to anything 
  larger than itself. Cavern oozes have two types of secretions, a mild paralytic and 
  an acidic. It uses these two secretions to capture is prey, bats. A cavern oozes hold 
  onto the ceilings of caverns, lying in wait for a bat to land nearby. It then slides 
  up to its pray and uses it paralytic ooze to capture it. Once captured it devours 
  the bat in a few hours. During the night, cavern oozes leave their caves and 
  circle round the nearby fruit trees while secreting a light acid. This acid kills the 
  surface plants, and leaves behind a layer of microscopic detrital feeders who start 
  to decompose the dead plant material. In effect, the ooze helps fertilize the fruit 
  plants, ensuring the survival of its prey. Cavern oozes are magically dependent 
  animals that require magic, air, water, and food to survive. The are only found 
  in or near caverns containing bats.
   
  False Grass: The bane of herders and ranchers, false grass is a vicious, 
  predatory worm that cryptically disguises itself as normal grass. The helpless 
  grazer bites through the false grass, swallowing it with the rest of the true grass. 
  In the creature’s digestive system, the predator takes hold, quickly reproducing 
  and slowly starving the host creature to death by interfering with food 
  absorption. Once the creature dies, the worms eat the animal from the inside 
  out in a glu�onous and reproductive frenzy. Occasionally false grass expands to 
  catastrophic levels, destroying entire herds in a period of months and leaving the 
  creatures that depend on those herds without food. If a carnivore or omnivore 
  consumes a piece of meat from an infected herbivore, a fortitude check (DC 
  10) is required to avoid infestation. An infested carnivore only suffers a –2 to 
  all actions because of nausea for three days until the false grass is naturally 
  destroyed by their body’s defenses. False grass is a magically dependent 
  animal that needs air, water, magic, and food to survive. False grass is most 
  common on grasslands, but some are found on the tundra.
   
  Flying Gulper: Flying gulpers are small constricting feathered snakes 
  native to tropical rainforests that use magic to fly. They’re mostly arboreal and 
  nocturnal, hunting at night for birds, snakes, insects, and basically anything 
  else that fits inside its mouth. Flying gulpers occasionally venture out to sea, 
  gulping small surface fish. Flying gulpers are magically dependent animals 
  that need magic, air, water, and food to survive. They are only found in 
  tropical rainforests.
   
  Fright Owl: At first glance, a fright owl looks similar to many species 
  of woods owl. Like most owls, they are stealthy predators, but they have 
  
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  developed a unique method to flush out their prey. Again, like most predators, the 
  fright owl’s vision easily picks up movement, but prey who have frozen in place or 
  sought cover are hard to discern. The fright owl uses its terrifying hoot as its main 
  hunting mechanism. Any creature failing a will save (DC 14) suffers the effect of 
  a cause fear spell. Fright owls are magically dependent animals (they cannot hunt 
  successfully enough without using their hoot- they eventually suffer a slow death of 
  starvation) that need magic, air, water and food to survive. They are common in any 
  forest, but some fright owls are similar to ground owls and are found on the plains.
   
  Ore Rats: These shiny black rats have adapted to life underground. Using 
  magic, they digest metallic minerals to sustain themselves. A single ore rat needs 
  less than 1⁄4 oz. of worked metal or 1 oz. of a metal ore to survive for a few days. Ore 
  rats can move slowly through earth like Xorn (some scholars put forth the idea that 
  ore rats were originally from the elemental plane of earth) at a speed of 10 feet a 
  minute. An ore rat infestation is the bane of a good mine, but the presence of ore 
  rats on a mountain may lead the stealthy (or wilderness wise) to a new source 
  of minerals. Ore rats are magically dependent animals that need magic, metallic 
  minerals, and water to survive. They need only drink once a month and are only 
  found underground or on the surface in very rocky terrain.
   
  Shade Slug: Preferring darkness, these three inch long, dark-hued slugs 
  dwell in virtual seclusion beneath rocks, homes, and dense shrubs. Few pay the 
  slimy creature any a�ention, but ingesting the live, foul-tasting, mollusk bestows 
  low-light vision for two hours. Successfully ingesting the slug requires a will save 
  (DC 10) and a fortitude save (DC 10); otherwise the ingester spits it out or vomits. 
  Correctly identifying the shade slug requires a knowledge (nature) check of DC 
  15. Shade slugs are not magically dependent mollusks (but without magic they 
  grant no low-light vision) that require air, water, and food to survive. They are 
  found only in tropical and temperate forests.
  Fungi
   
  Bloodmat: This dark red fungus lives in low areas prone to collecting 
  blood, such as carnivorous lairs, slaughterhouses, or torture chambers. It is 
  harmless until reaching the fruiting stage. At this point (about a year in most 
  situations) a flat and thick mushroom grows (called a “mad steak”). Looking 
  like a spongy, bloody brick, it is o�en eaten by carnivores. This usually drives 
  them mad with terrible hallucinations, and the creature feels an overwhelming 
  urge to flee that lasts for three days. Most creatures run until their heart fails 
  or they drop from exhaustion or dehydration. The fungus then takes hold in 
  the creature’s body and put out its reproductive spore bodies. These edible 
  red mushrooms then release their spores into the air within a week. Bloodmat 
  is a magically dependent fungus that needs magic, blood, water, and air to 
  survive. It is found anywhere its requirements are met. Bloodmat poison can 
  be made from the mad steak. Bloodmat poison: Ingested, DC 24, Initial effect; 
  Panicked and hallucinatory, Secondary effect; Panicked and hallucinatory; 
  Duration of effect; 3 days.
   
  Death’s Bloom: This large, brilliantly colored mushroom is found 
  only on the heads of dead bodies. If ingested they cause temporary madness 
  and euphoria. However, they also grant 1d6 random memories from the 
  deceased. Some may be useful, such as the exact process for casting a spell 
  or the command word for a magic item, while others will be less useful, such 
  as visions of cleaning a table or of stargazing. Death’s Bloom is a magically 
  dependent fungus that needs magic, air, water, and a host to survive. The 
  poison in a Death’s Bloom requires a fortitude save (DC 15) and causes 
  initial and secondary damage of 1d6 temporary Wisdom ability damage. The 
  
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  ingester is also afflicted with acute paranoia (treat his a�itude as unfriendly) for a 
  period of 1d6 hours.
   
  Lifegiver: This yellow fungus is most commonly no larger than a dwarf’s forearm, 
  but whole caverns can be coated in a single continuous carpet of lifegiver if moisture 
  levels are high. It fruits twice a year, and its fruits fill with mostly oxygen and some 
  helium. These so� purple pu�alls then float up to the top of the cave, remaining 
  until their outer layer decomposes or is punctured by protruding stone. When this 
  happens the pu�alls release their spores into the air. Lifegiver fungus continually 
  expels breathable air throughout the year, a great benefit for all underground 
  creatures. Enough lifegiver fungus in a single cavern can create underground air 
  currents upon which their spores can reach new places. Given enough time, this 
  fungus can create caves as they slowly eat away at the surrounding stone, which 
  it uses as food. Lifegiver is a magically dependent fungus that needs stone and 
  magic, to survive. It is mostly found underground and, although it doesn’t need 
  water to survive, is more successful in moist conditions.
   
  Somnolent Moss: This purple moss thrives in dry areas and uses water 
  as its primary food. It only grows in extremely dry areas (too much water kills 
  it instantly) and it emits a sweet smell to a range of 10�. that has the same effect 
  as a very powerful sleep spell (fortitude save DC 12) that lasts for a week. The 
  moss eventually covers a victim that falls asleep in a period of days. A creature 
  gets a single additional saving throw a�er two days, but if that is failed, the fate 
  of the creature is sealed as the moss drains the water from the creature, leaving 
  a perfectly desiccated corpse. Mummies and other intelligent desert dwelling 
  undead favor somnolent moss and o�en place patches of it throughout their 
  lairs. Somnolent moss is a magical dependent fungus that needs magic, air, and 
  water to survive. Somnolent moss is only found is deserts.
  Gems
   
  Crystal Grazer: The crystal grazers are a family of many colored crystal 
  la�ices through which air travels. This living crystal filters the underdeep air 
  of microscopic magiovores, much like ocean sponges filter the ocean’s water 
  for its food. Crystal grazers inhale carbon dioxide, store it in small hollow 
  structures within their crystal la�icework, and use the carbon dioxide in their 
  digestive process. The multi-colored crystal grazers are o�en found clinging 
  to underground areas frequented by living creatures that profit greatly from 
  their air purification side effect. Intelligent races o�en create caves containing 
  lifegiver moss and crystal grazers throughout their strongholds. Identifying 
  a crystal grazer requires a knowledge (dungeoneering) check DC 10. Crystal 
  grazers are magically dependent gems that require magic, carbon dioxide, 
  and food to survive. They are only found underground or in caves. Sunlight 
  eventually breaks down their crystalline structure, killing them.
   
  Long Hauls: Long hauls are small crystalline life forms found in the 
  underdeep. They’re shiny and look like a mixture of mica and dry seaweed. 
  In desperate situations, carbon-based life can eat long hauls and find enough 
  sustenance to survive. A single long haul provides three days’ worth of 
  sustenance for a medium-sized creature. The sustenance is slowly released 
  over the three-day period, but hunger is not assuaged even though all needs 
  are being met. Long hauls taste awful and are usually found in small groups 
  of three or four. If consumed for more than ten days, long hauls act like 
  poison (Ingested, DC 15, Initial effect; 1 Con, Secondary effect; 1d8 Con) and 
  do not provide nourishment. Identifying a long haul requires a knowledge 
  (dungeoneering) check DC 10. Long hauls are magically dependent gems 
  requiring magic and stone to survive. They are only found underground.
  
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  Insects
   
  Assassin Caterpillar: The innocuous orange-spot bu�erfly has a very 
  dangerous beginning. The larval stage is a large caterpillar (about 6 inches long) with 
  many hard spines that act like hypodermic needles. These spines inject a powerful 
  hemotoxin into a victim. A DC 15 fortitude save is required to avoid the initial 
  permanent damage of 1 constitution point. The secondary save is DC 15 as well and 
  if failed, 2 hit points per hour are lost. This usually results in the quick death of the 
  hapless victim whose body blackens around the puncture site from the breakdown 
  of his arteries and veins. A neutralize poison or heal stops the damage, but regular 
  healing via healing magic can postpone the inevitable if these two methods are not 
  available. Assassin Caterpillars are magically dependent insects (the orange-spot 
  bu�erfly is a pure magiovore) that need magic, air, water, and preferably the 
  leaves of a fruit plant (grapes, apples, pears, cherries, etc.) to survive. Only the 
  toughest of leather prevents the poison injection, but any metal does the trick.
   
  Bookworm: The bookworm is a tiny, 1-inch long, gray, seemingly normal 
  worm. It is the bane of scholars, wizards and sages, for its primary source of food 
  is the paper, wood, and leather that make up books. Bookworms cannot harm 
  living creatures but they burrow through wood, leather, rope, and paper very 
  quickly. They ignore the hardness of such materials and deal a point of damage 
  per hour to such materials. Bookworms are magically quick and agile (moving at 
  20�. per round) and seek to avoid being seen. They can alter their coloration (DC 
  20 to see a camouflaged bookworm) to protect themselves from predators. Since 
  bookworms are particularly fond of magical books and scrolls, it’s speculated that 
  bookworms are a strange form of magically altered grub. But originations aside, 
  a bookworm can destroy one spell level per hour through its burrowing. A�er 
  eating a full ten levels of spells, a bookworm makes its escape to form a chrysalis 
  at some safe place. Within two months, a spell moth is born. Bookworms are 
  magically dependent insects that require magic, water, air, and food to survive. 
  They are most common in temperate or tropical civilized areas, but they are 
  very rare even there.
   
  Bowel Beetles: The dark brown dung beetles have 
  adapted a magical way to ensure their food supply. 
  Whenever a medium size or larger creature comes 
  within 5 �. of the bowel beetle, it may release a magic 
  pheromone that induces the creature to evacuate its 
  bowels. A fortitude save (DC 12) avoids this effect, but a 
  failure results in the victim having 1 minute to prepare 
  for the inevitable. Bowel beetles are o�en used in 
  juvenile pranks, but some pranksters find themselves 
  as much a victim as their intended. Bowel beetles 
  are magically dependant insects (the pheromone 
  release induces the search for food, without the 
  release the beetle never searches for food beyond 
  immediate sensory range) that need magic, air, 
  water, and food to survive. They are most common 
  on grasslands, but can be found in any temperate or 
  tropical environment.
   
  Clikkit: Relatives of the common cricket, 
  clikkits differ from their more prevelant cousin 
  in one notable way: they are sensitive to magical energy. Clikkits only chirp 
  when within 30 �. of a magical aura (such as a spell or magic item). Although 
  similar to a regular crickets chirp, the clikkits chirp is more staca�o, requiring 
  a listen check (DC 25), survival check (DC 20), or knowledge (nature) (DC 
  
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  20) to tell the difference. If an hour or more is spent under tutelage listening to tell 
  the difference, the DC’s lower 5 points to 20, 15, and 15 respectively. Intelligent 
  forest species have been known to use clikkits as sentries. Clikkits are not magically 
  dependent creatures (but magic is required for them to detect magic auras) that 
  require water, air, and food to survive. They are found mostly in temperate and warm 
  forests, but there is a species that live underground; the cave clikkit.
   
  Cruel Guest: The cruel guest is a parasite much like a mite or a bedbug and is 
  found in similar circumstances. Once infected a creature loses 1 point of constitution 
  per day while suffering a cumulative –1 penalty to a�ack rolls, skill checks, and 
  saving throws from the pain of the burrowing parasites. When reduced to 0 Con, the 
  host dies. A cure disease spell or drinking a quart of dragon blood kills the creature. 
  Cruel Guests are magically dependent insects that need magic, water, a warmish 
  environment (beds, piles of leaves, nests), air, and a host creature to survive. They 
  are common in civilized areas, although they usually appear more like a plague 
  than an everyday occurrence.
   
  Double Bug: The double bug is a brown beetle with a single horn. It spends 
  most of its time on fallen trees, eating furrows into the wood. It has a very unique 
  defense mechanism. When any creature of diminutive or larger size comes 
  within five feet of the double bug, it makes a mirror image of itself to distract any 
  potential predators. It can only create one image, but that is o�en enough. Double 
  bugs are magically dependent insects that need magic, wood, water, and air to 
  survive. They are common in boreal forests, and less so in deciduous forests.
   
  Spell Moth: This gray, normal looking moth is much sought a�er by spell 
  casters. It is the adult form of the bookworm and when eaten, it conveys a spell 
  into the eater’s memory. This has various effects depending upon the eater. First, 
  either the intelligence, wisdom, or charisma of the eater must be 10 or greater; if 
  this is not the case, nothing happens upon consumption. If one of these statistics 
  is above 10, the highest statistic is used to determine what spell has been gained 
  (if the statistics are the same, the class preference is used first and if that is still 
  insufficient, random determination results). A�er all of this is determined, a 
  single 1st-level spell is gained as a spell-like ability (Su) useable once per week. 
  If based upon wisdom, it will be from the druidic list; if based upon intelligence 
  it will be from the sorcerer/wizard list; and if from charisma it will be based 
  upon the bard list. A creature can only have three spells gained from spell moth 
  consumption. If more are consumed, it acts as a tremendously lethal magical 
  poison (fortitude save DC 35 or die) and does not result in any increase in gained 
  spells. Spell moths do not detect as magic and require a knowledge (nature) 
  check of DC 30 to properly identify. A spell moth is a magically dependent insect 
  that requires magic, water, air, and food to survive. They are extremely rare and 
  usually found in temperate or tropical civilized areas.
   
  Stonemite: The stonemite may be considered the underdeep equivalent 
  of the termite. Living on stone (opposed to wood), stonemites o�en make 
  their nests in stalactites, stalagmites, or columns. Within these formations, 
  the colony expands over a period of many years (sometimes hundreds) 
  until a new pair slides through stone to find another suitable cavern system. 
  Stonemites eat a mixture of stone dusts, crystals, and fungi, which they grow 
  inside their nests in special chambers. To ensure survival of the a new colony, 
  mating pairs roll in the spores of the colony’s food caves so that when they 
  find an appropriate cave, livegiver fungus, crystal grazers, and long hauls 
  invade the cave to create a more stonemite-friendly environment. Stonemites 
  are a very important function is the growth of livable caverns throughout the 
  underdark. They have several different castes: workers, soldiers, digesters 
  
  151
  (who turn stone dust into a syrupy liquid that humanoids can eat, but which tastes 
  disgusting), water-makers (who use magic to create minisule amounts of water), 
  and the queen. Stonemite colonies can have up to several million members and can 
  eat 5 sq. �. of stone in a year’s time. Stonemites are magically dependent creatures 
  that need water, air (very li�le in comparisons to non-magical insects), and stone to 
  survive. They are only found underground.
   
  Terror Wasps: The bright red terror wasps evolved more than a mild 
  protective sting for hive defense. When any creature of small or larger size comes 
  within 20�. of a terror wasp nest, the nest swarms and a�acks. Its victims are usually 
  quickly frightened away as the wasps terror a�ack (DC 18 or become panicked) 
  takes hold, and those that aren’t are still subject to their sting a�acks. Terror wasps 
  are considered a delicacy by many tropical races and are the favored food treat for 
  shambling mounds. Terror wasps are magically dependent insects that need 
  magic, fruit, air, and water to survive. They are found mostly in tropical rain 
  forests, but seem to be moving into deciduous forests.
  Plants
   
  Bamboon: This magical, high-quality bamboo is treasured by many 
  cultures. If allowed to grow to full size, it achieves an impressive width and 
  girth. Any object made from bamboon is treated as a natural masterwork item. 
  The only disadvantage of bamboon is that the growing plant is a voracious 
  magiovore. If a stand of more than five bamboon plants occurs within a 10�. 
  area, that area is effectively a null magic zone. Bamboon can out compete regular 
  bamboo, but it o�en kills itself off through its magical greediness. Some cultures 
  carefully tend to their bamboon, using it as defensive measures in permanent 
  defensive structures.  Bamboon is a magically dependent plant that needs magic, 
  air, water, soil, and sunlight to survive. Bamboon is a tropical plant that grows 
  anywhere bamboo can be found.
   
  Elysium Grass: This yellow grass looks like many other savanna flora, 
  growing as high as three or four feet with wide, sharp-edged blades and fluffy 
  seedpods. It is an aggressive grower and tends to choke out other plants. The 
  elysium plant is a magic sponge, soaking up all the nutrients in the ground 
  to reduce competition and relying mostly on magic. It soon overbalances the 
  ambient magic and creates a null-magic zone around itself in which no spell, 
  spell-like ability, or supernatural ability will function. Elysium plants take hold 
  quickly and can rapidly destroy the fertility of an area, but they are usually 
  kept in check by self-selection; the majority of elysim plants end up starving 
  themselves to death within five years. This leaves a wake of poor soil behind the 
  plants that is soon subject to normal succession. Elysium grass is a magically 
  dependent grass that needs magic, water, air, and soil (however poor) to 
  survive. It is mostly found on dryer grasslands, but it is sometimes found 
  underground if soil is available.
   
  Houseplant: A rare, magical version of the baobab tree, the 
  houseplant is alike in all ways (DC 27 knowledge (nature) to identify) except 
  when hallowed out and used as a home by an intelligent spellcaster. When 
  occupied by a spellcaster, the houseplant drains a 1st-level spell (DC 20 will 
  save to resist) and casts a hallow spell (or unhallow if spellcaster is evil) with 
  a zone of truth associated spell effect using the drained magical energy. The 
  draining occurs every morning or every midnight (if evil). It is uncertain how 
  or why the houseplant acts in such a manner, but scholars think there must 
  be some selective advantage in its behavior. A few scholars postulate that the 
  plant may be deliberately using intelligent species for propagation, but it is 
  
  152
  not a widely held view. The houseplant is a magically dependent plant that needs 
  magic, water, soil, air, and sunlight to survive. It is rare and found only in terrains 
  occupied by its non-magical cousin, the baobab.
   Lumin: This small insectivorous, flowering plant remains dormant during the day. 
  At night it opens up, releasing its anemone-like flowers that glow with a so� magical 
  light. This light is very a�ractive to insects that the plant traps and eats. Lumins are 
  epiphytes, decorating the trees of the forest in an eerie green-yellow light. Lumins 
  are magically dependent plants that require magic, water, air, and food to survive. 
  They are most common in tropical forests, but are also found in warmer temperate 
  forests.
   Spriggan Tree: The spriggan tree (also known as the lung tree) is the largest plant 
  in most fantasy worlds. Growing to a truly gargantuan 800 feet tall with a base 
  circumference of more than 300 feet, the spriggan tree gets its name from its 
  unusual growth cycle. For half of its long life (over 350 years) it grows up and 
  for the remaining half it shrinks. At mid-growth, when the tree is at its tallest, it 
  is o�en used as a nest by large flying predators. The tree’s acorns are jug sized 
  and edible although not very tasty and you had best hope it doesn’t land on your 
  head when it falls. A single mid-growth spriggan tree can provide weeks worth 
  of work for lumbermen and on the rare occasions when a mid-growth tree falls, 
  a large swath of the forest is taken with it, creating a bounty for successional 
  activity. Spriggan Trees are magically dependent trees that need magic, water, 
  air, soil, and sunlight to survive. They are only found in tropical or temperate 
  rain forests.
   
  Spy Grass: A small flowering plant, not much different than a dandelion, 
  spy grass is the bane of secrecy. Spy Grass has developed an unusual survival 
  method; it telepathically scans a passing creature’s mind to learn of the “best 
  location” for its growth and reproduction. The spy grass then slowly moves 
  to that location at a speed of six inches a day. For those who can communicate 
  with plants, spy grass provides additional information. If the communicator 
  can sway the plant from its normal unfriendly a�itude to friendly or be�er, the 
  person gains a window into the minds of those who have passed by within 10�. 
  of the plant. This provides the person with knowledge of who (or what) has 
  passed in the past week and, if the spy grasses a�itude is helpful, the person 
  gains access to a single train of thought of every scanned creature. This memory 
  could be important or trivial. Identifying spy grass requires a DC 20 knowledge 
  (nature) check or a spot check of DC 25 to notice the plant has moved and then 
  a DC 15 knowledge (nature) check. Spy grass is a magically dependent plant 
  that needs magic, sunlight, water, air, and soil to survive. Spy grass is found in 
  temperate and tropical environments where grass or flowers are found.
   
  Subtle Creeper: This greenish yellow creeper a�aches itself to the subtle 
  topography as opposed to the physical topography. This leads to masses 
  of apparently floating vegetation, as the creeper o�en doesn’t touch any 
  physical object at all. Some creepers appear to grow from the ground, but 
  are just growing from where the subtle topography matches the physical 
  topography. These particular “grounded” creepers then seem to grow up 
  into thin air. Thankfully, subtle creepers are slow growing plants with low 
  reproductive rates and rarely grow thicker than a thin rope. Birds (and 
  stirges) o�en use subtle creepers, weaving them into very safe aerial nests. 
  Subtle creepers are magically dependent plants that need magic, sunlight, 
  and air to survive. Subtle creepers are found in all temperate and warm 
  environments.
  
  153
   
  Trollsbane: Trollsbane is a tasty herbal plant that looks much like the 
  typical onion (DC20 knowledge (nature) to identify) and tastes almost exactly 
  the same (trollsbane is a li�le more acidic). Trollsbane receives its name from its 
  magical defenses. An hour a�er ingestion, the eater’s skin starts to secrete a strong 
  acidic substance for the next two days (DC20 fortitude save negates). Although the 
  individual is immune to the substance, anything the creature touches suffers 10hp 
  of acid damage per round. This damage ignores hardness. For trolls however, this 
  process stops their natural regeneration without provoking the acidic secretion, 
  which opens them to the vicious culling typical of a band of trolls. Most trolls 
  who ingest trollsbane find themselves eaten by their own tribe. Other creatures 
  o�en refer to this plant as “Skyclad” because wearing any clothing is impossible 
  while the oozing lasts. A creature can only imbibe a dozen or so trollsbanes in their 
  lifetime because eventually the acid starts to affect the imbiber, killing all but 
  the heartiest. Many a�empts have been made to contain the acid secretions, but 
  as of yet, no method has been successful in stopping the acid’s breakdown into 
  a neutral substance within a day. Trollsbane is a magical plant that needs air, 
  water, soil, magic, and sunlight to survive. It is most common in forests and in 
  wet, marshy areas.
  
  154
  Colorant
  Source
  Color
  Animals
  Coccus ilicis insect
  Ground dried bodies of females
  Red (kermes)
  Cu�lefish, squid, octopus
  Ink sack
  Dark brown/black
  Lac insect
  Secretion
  Red and blue
  Mollusk
  Gland fluid
  Tyrian purple
  Purpura shellfish
  Secretion, oxidizes when exposed to air
  Red/blue violets
  Plants
  Agrimony
  Leaves and stalks
  Golden yellow
  Bixa orellana
  Fruit pulp
  Red-orange (anna�a)
  Comfrey
  Leaves
  Deep yellow
  Cutch
  Gum resin
  Brown
  Elderberry
  Berries
  Lavender
  Heather
  Tips
  Pale green
  Hyssop
  Leaves
  Forest green
  Indigo
  Leaves of the plant fermented into paste
  Deep blue
  Lily of the valley
  Leaves and stalks
  Kelly green or beige
  Madder
  Ground root
  Deep rich reds
  Onion (red)
  Skins
  Maroon
  Parsley
  Leaves
  Yellow green
  Safflower
  Flower
  Yellow
  Minerals
  Azurite
  Powered
  Blue
  Brown clay
  Powered
  Ocher
  Chalk
  Powered
  White
  Charcoal
  Powered
  Black
  Cinnabar
  Powered
  Vermilion
  Green clay
  Powered
  Umber
  Hematite
  Powered
  Red
  Lapis lazuli
  Powered
  Blue/green blue
  Malachite
  Powered
  Green
  Orpiment
  Powered
  Yellow
  Realgar
  Powered
  Orange
  Common Dyes
  
  155
  Comments
  A crude attempt. Banal, trite and boring. Shows only the most 
  basic of understanding. Adequate. D-
   
  ~Gwarl, God of Magic, The Revealer, He Who Sees All,
   
   
  The Watchman, The Luminary, The One Asked.
  Complex and thorough. Excellent content and presentation, A+. 
   
  ~Dieonvar, Goddess of Fertility, The Fruitful, The Progenitor, The Great Mother,
   
   
  The Prime Mover, She Who Scolds the Stupid, The Milk Bringer, The Lusty.
  Lacking in thought and showing no understanding of godly complexity. Useful for 
  starting a fire. The gnome should be punished. F.
   
  ~Alhenatan, God of Death. Bearer of No Names.
  Acceptable. Shows a decent grasp of the basic concepts of world building. Could use more 
  complex weather examples. For instance, he should have mentioned how when the planet 
  moves, the part receiving the direct rays of the sun shifts, and how such shifting changes 
  the prevailing wind patterns. He also forgot to mention anything explaining how planets 
  go through hot, cold, and even iceball stages. Monsoons? Fronts? Nice penmanship. C.
   
  ~Graleos, God of the Wind, Bringer of Rain, Bolt-Wielder, Justice of the Meek,
   
   
   Destroyer of Hope, Sun-Driver.
  Well Done! Good Show! A+.
   
  ~Lord Persival Unprorious, God of Fellowship, Bringer of Good Tidings, He Who Speaks No Ill, 
   
   
  Delight of the Seven Realms, Whisperer of the Body Magic.
  Could have used a map showing the biomes of the base planet. Poorly researched and so general as to be 
  almost useless. The lack of specific notes makes it impossible for the reader to check sources. It didn’t tell 
  me anything I didn’t already know. F. 
   
  ~Gralak, God of Wisdom, Keeper of Ancient Knowledge, The Great Librarian, The Tome Keeper,
   
   
   The Listener.
  Wonderful! The best I’ve ever read. Simply excellent! A++.
   
  ~Ungruk, Goddess of Famine, Wife of War, She Who Feeds the Rich, Trampler of Justice.
  Needs polish, but generally correct. Brief and eludes some important factors. An acceptable basic primer 
  for godlings possessing little prior knowledge of universal matters. Good bibliography for real study. B-
   
  ~Pocinsil, Goddes of Terror, She Who Rules The Night, The Fear Mother, Bride of Fear and Blood,
   
   
  Moon-Bringer, The Jaws that Bite.
  Weighted Score: C-. Satisfactory.
  Hi, Kierian. Now you’re a member. 
   
  ~Noj, God of Creation, The God Maker.
  
  156
  Using A Magical Society:
  Ecology and Culture
   
  When we thought of this book a�er winning three golden Ennies awards at last year’s GenCon, 
  we knew we had our hands full. Producing a single book that explains the complexities of world building, 
  ecology, and the development and behavior of culture? Talk about a daunting task! Through our reading 
  (check the bibliography for some truly great works), we’ve harvested the bounty of historical and scientific 
  knowledge and distilled it into game useful information.
   
  Since you’ve made it this far, we know you like the book, but because it’s so unlike every other 
  published D20 system book, we thought to share some of our ideas behind the writing of A Magical 
  Society: Ecology and Culture and how you can apply it to your game. Like our first book, A Magical 
  Medieval Society: Western Europe, A Magical Society: Ecology and Culture is designed to increase your 
  knowledge about the environment your players interact with as they game. We packed MMS:WE with 
  knowledge to help you run a medievalesque game. We’ve packed MS:EC with information regarding the 
  entirety of your world. As opposed to focusing on one particular location, we’ve broadened our scope, 
  providing knowledge that increases the overall enjoyment of your world.
   
  Most gaming books are designed to provide mechanics that support a particular flavor of gaming. 
  This paradigm is usually great, but the standard formula is inadequate when discussing world building 
  activities. Most GMs don’t want, nor need, a randomized system of world building according to tables 
  and charts. We need to know how things work so we can make what we want to happen, happen.  And, 
  although this is a fantasy game, we also want to know what we’ve made is close enough to the real world 
  to help players suspend their disbelief and focus on role-playing.
   
  It’s with this in mind that we wrote A Magical Society: Ecology and Culture. The sections on 
  mapping your world should have obvious gaming benefits. They’re a quick guideline in making plausible 
  worlds that are pleasing to the eye. The information provided should lead you to a world that could 
  happen, providing a framework for the fantastic. Knowing where the rain belts are on your planet may 
  not seem that important, but once the environment is rooted in reality, the effects of magic are that much 
  greater. A world where deserts and jungles meet, where rivers commonly flow uphill, and where winds 
  always blow in the direction the players wish to sail can make for great gaming. As long as everyone’s 
  having fun, whatever’s going on in the environment is perfect, no ma�er how unreal. But magic really 
  comes to the forefront when it is uncommon. If your world mimics Earth, the magical changes you put 
  into your world become that much more impressive, and once your players start to understand how the 
  natural world works, the disruption of the natural becomes even more engrossing.
   
  What we GMs really do is create a se�ing, populate that se�ing with interesting things, and then 
  interact the se�ing with the players. In order to create great se�ings, we need to understand what’s going 
  on within a se�ing. Every part of the ecological sections is waiting to be pulled out and focused upon as 
  a foil for some action in a game. Every GM has had their players on the edge of their seats just by saying, 
  “You notice the crickets have stopped chirping.” The information in this section provides you (and your 
  players) information on what is natural. And once the natural environment has been set, small disturbances 
  become more foreboding.  Horror authors know that taking the normal and slowly changing it creates 
  tension in the reader. This same tension can be created for players by slowing changing their environment 
  until they’re holding their breath on every word, certain that the next syllable spells doom. The expectation 
  of action can be as enjoyable as action itself, and a reasonable period of expectation makes the action more 
  satisfying. Killing the villain who’s plagued the PCs for years is more enjoyable than simply slaughtering 
  the next adversary. The same can be said of your environments.
  
  157
   
  The two ecology sections explain what’s on your map. They add depth to your creation. The 
  explanation of predator-prey relationships gives you knowledge to create some truly unusual monstrous 
  challenges for your PCs while providing information on how food webs and energy flows. These ideas will 
  be fully expanded upon in our forthcoming book, A Magical Society: Aggressive Ecologies (2005), but you 
  can start working on your strange and dangerous environments right now. If you have outdoorsy characters, 
  how ecologies deal with energy flow is particularly interesting. Righting a disrupted environment can be 
  a great adventure for a druid or ranger, and each section should include enough information to help you 
  build the se�ing for just such an adventure. They’ll challenge your players in different ways and create 
  unique experiences.
   
  The culture section is another obviously useful addition to any GM’s knowledge base. How people 
  adapt to extreme environments, how knowledge disperses, what physical things a society makes, how 
  rites and rituals influence daily life, and how people interact are all part of every well-run campaign. This 
  section provides additional interest and depth to every world because it asks the right questions, leaving 
  each GM to come up with the answers they prefer for each of their cultures. Again, most GMs don’t want, 
  nor need, charts and tables randomizing their cultures. In fact, a�er reading our culture section, we hope 
  you’ll see how the environment and the cultures around them influence every society. Randomization 
  would probably be more detrimental that beneficial in the long run.
   
  The appendix is like walking over the earth and picking up bits and pieces. Animals, plants, unique 
  and interesting places, valuable materials and foodstuffs, and pages of magically dependent creatures all 
  deepen your players’ immersion in the environment you create for them. Every entry provides a good idea 
  for a role-playing encounter, and it takes li�le more than a hop, skip, and jump to move mundane creatures 
  into the realm of monstrous. The weirdness of nature o�en fits right into a magical world. The appendix 
  also makes populating your world easier: each unique location can be placed on your map, each creature 
  placed in its appropriate biome, and every valuable accounted for when considering how your cultures 
  utilize that particular resource. Mapping, ecology, biomes, and culture give you the typical; the appendix 
  gives you the exceptional.
   
  However, to get the most out of this book we recommend you do a li�le additional work. Although 
  we’ve tried to synthesize large amounts of complex information into a quick and useful gaming resource, 
  we realize that one of the most powerful ways to reach your players and to get them deeply into your game 
  is through visual aids. Unfortunately, we simply can’t provide visuals for the hundreds of unique things in 
  this book, but there is one place where images of all these things are accessible: the Internet. Jump online 
  and look up any of the entries in our appendix, and you’ll find breathtaking imagery that’s only a print 
  bu�on away from entering your world. Again, the hardest part of creating a great environment is knowing 
  what questions to ask.
  We hope this book provides those questions.
  Joseph Browning and Suzi Yee
  Expeditious Retreat Press
  February 6tht, 2004.
  
  158
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  159
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  160
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  products contributed to the Open Game License by the Contributor (g) “Use”, 
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  and otherwise create Derivative Material of Open Game Content. (h) “You” or 
  “Your” means the licensee in terms of this agreement.
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  15 COPYRIGHT NOTICE
  Open Game License v 1.0 Copyright 2000, Wizards of the Coast, Inc
  System Reference Document Copyright 2000, Wizards of the Coast, Inc; authors 
  Jonathan Tweet, Monte Cook, Skip Williams, based on original material by E. 
  Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson
  Disenchanter from the Tome of Horrors, Copyright 2002. Necromancer Games, 
  Inc; Author Scott Greene based upon original material by Roger Musson.
  Bookworm from the Tome of Horrors, Copyright 2002. Necromancer Games, Inc; 
  Author Scott Greene based upon original material by Gary Gygax.
  Purple Moss  from the Tome of Horrors, Copyright 2002. Necromancer Games, 
  Inc; Author Scott Greene based upon original material by Jean Wells.
  Occult Lore Copyright 2002, Trident Inc. d/b/a Atlas Games; authors Keith Baker, 
  Adam Bank, Chris Jones, Scott Reeves, and Elton Robb
  Minions: Fearsome Foes Copyright 2001, Bastion Press, Inc.
  Open Game Content from The Penumbra Bestiary Copyright 2003, Trident Inc. 
  d/b/a Atlas Games; editor Michelle A. Brown Nephew.
  Nyambe: African Adventures Copyright 2002, Trident Inc. d/b/a Atlas Games; 
  author Christopher W. Dolunt
  Open Game Content from The Penumbra Bestiary Copyright 2003, Trident Inc. 
  d/b/a Atlas Games; editor Michelle A. Brown Nephew.
  Into the Green Copyright 2003, Bastion Press, Inc.
  A Magical Society: Ecology and Culture, Copyright 2004, Expeditious Retreat 
  Press, Authors Suzi Yee and Joseph Browning
  The entirety of this work is 100% 
  open game content, excluding the 
  Open Game License, company name, 
  all logos and art, authors’ names, 
  artist’s name, and title.
  Legal Stuff
  
  He killed the God of War.
  He ascended into his divinity.
  No one told him that was the easy part.
   
  Between these covers rests the treatise of Kierian the Bold, 
  prospective God of War and Bringer of Justice. Upon reaching his 
  divinity, he encountered contest he could not resolve with his sword. 
  Peer into the inner workings of the multiverse, the body magic, and 
  how gods build their worlds. From a divine perch, unravel the grit of 
  tectonics, the capricious wiles of weather, the lay of magical geography, 
  the cycles of predation, the span of ecological diversity, and the 
  complexities of cultural development. Told from the perspective of 
  creating and mapping a new world, discover the knowledge lost and 
  buried in the age of gods and heroes. Until now…
   
  Following in the footsteps of A Magical Medieval Society: 
  Western Europe (Gen Con ENnies 2003 Best Se�ing Supplement), A 
  Magical Society: Ecology and Culture provides real world phenomena 
  for a fantasy game.
  Build Your World. Be�er.
  USD $27
  XRP1003
         A Magical Society: Ecology and Culture         Expeditious Retreat Press XRP1003
  
SOURCE: textdata/thevault/_GM Books/World Building & Game Design/ Misc #, A/A Magical Society - Ecology and Culture.pdf