TEXT: THE 
  TSOLYANI 
  LANGUAGE 
  Part I 
  M.A .R. Barker 
  
  THE TSOLYANI LANGUAGE 
  Part I 
  By M.A. R. Barker 
  An Empire of the Petal Throne 
  Playing Aid 
  
  © 1978 M. A. R. Barker 
  Minneapolis - Bey sfi 
  The research upon which is work is based was performed pursuant to a 
  contract with the High Chancery of the Tsolyani Imperium at Avanthar. 
  The l\uthor wishes to express his gratitude to Lord Cha'.imira hiSsa'.nmirin, 
  Provost of the High Chancery of the Tsolya'.ni Imperium at Avantha'.r, with-
  out whose kindness and cooperation this work would not have been possible. 
  A debt of thanks is also owed to those who served as informants on this 
  project: Mr. Trasttn~ hiTa'.nkolel, and Miss Kalusll hiViridame, of Jakalla. 
  First printing 1978 
  Second printing 1981 
  Adventure Games Inc 
  871 Edgerton St. 
  St. Paul, MN 55101 
  (612) 776-6089 
  EMPIREOFTHEP£TAI. THRONE ©1979~6nce 
  
  Table of Contents 
  1. 000. 
  INTRODUCTION 
  2. 000. 
  PRONUNCIATION 
  l 
  2. l 00. 
  CONSONANTS 
  l 
  2. 200. 
  VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS 
  3 
  2. 300. 
  WORD STRESS AND INTONATION 
  4 
  3. 000. 
  GRAMMAR 
  4 
  3. l 00. 
  NOUNS 
  4 
  3. 110. 
  NOUN CLASSES 
  5 
  3. 120. 
  DEMONSTRATIVES 
  6 
  3. 130. 
  QUANTIFIERS 
  7 
  3. 140. 
  LOCATIVES 
  7 
  3. 150. 
  PERSONAL ATTITUDE PREFIXES 
  8 
  3. 160. 
  GENERAL ATTITUDE SUFFIXES 
  9 
  3. 1 70. 
  THE POSSESSIVE SUFFIX 
  IO 
  3. 180. 
  THE NOBLE/IGNOBLE/PLURAL SUFFIXES 
  10 
  3. 190. 
  NOUN DERIVATION 
  11 
  3. 200. 
  ADJECTIVES 
  12 
  3. 210. 
  THE ADJECTIVE FORMANT SUFFIX 
  13 
  3. 220. 
  NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 
  13 
  3. 230. 
  THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE SUFFIXES 
  14 
  3. 300. 
  PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVES 
  15 
  3. 310. 
  PRONOMINAL SETS 
  15 
  3. 311. 
  THE FIRST PERSON SINGULAR 
  15 
  3. 312. 
  THE FIRST PERSON PLURAL 
  16 
  3. 313. 
  THE SECOND PERSON 
  16 
  3. 320. 
  DEMONSTRATIVES 
  18 
  3. 330. 
  AFFIXES OCCURRING WITH THE PRONOUNS 
  AND DEMONSTRATIVES 
  18 
  3. 400. 
  ADVERBS 
  . 
  19 
  3. 410. 
  INTERROGATIVES 
  21 
  3. 500. 
  VERBS 
  22 
  3. 510. 
  VERBAL PREFIXES 
  23 
  3. 511. 
  THE REFLEXIVE AND THE RECIPROCAL 
  24 
  3. 512. 
  THE CAUSATIVE 
  24 
  3. 513. 
  THE TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE 
  FORMANTS 
  24 
  3. 514. 
  THE INTENSIVE 
  25 
  3. 515. 
  THE BENEFACTIVES 
  25 
  3. 516. 
  THE ATTITUDE PREFIXES 
  25 
  3. 520. 
  VERBAL SUFFIXES 
  26 
  3. 521. 
  THE IMPERATIVES 
  26 
  3. 522. 
  NOMINAL-ADJECTIVAL DERIVATIONAL 
  SUFFIXES 
  27 
  3. 523. 
  TEMPORAL ABSOLUTIVE DERIVATIONAL 
  SUFFIXES 
  28 
  3. 530. 
  TENSE-ASPECT INDICATORS 
  29 
  3. 531. 
  THE FUTURE AND THE HORTATIVE 
  30 
  3. 532. 
  THE ASPECTIVES 
  31 
  3. 533. 
  THE TENSE INDICATORS 
  33 
  3. 540. 
  COMPOUND VERBAL FORMATIONS 
  35 
  3. 600. 
  CONJUNCTIONS 
  37 
  3. 700. 
  MINOR CLASSES 
  39 
  3. 710. 
  SENTENCE-INTRODUCING PARTICLES 
  39 
  3. 720. 
  ENCLITICS 
  39 
  3. 730. 
  SENTENCE-ENDING PARTICLES 
  40 
  3. 740. 
  INTERJECTIONS 
  40 
  3 . 800. 
  SYNTAX 
  41 
  3. 810. 
  THE NOUN PHRASE 
  41 
  3. 820. 
  SENTENCES 
  42 
  iii 
  
  3. 821. 
  3. 822. 
  3. 823. 
  3. 824. 
  3. 825. 
  IMPERSONAL SENTENCES 
  !MP ERA TIVE SENTENCES 
  INTRANSITIVE SENTENCES 
  "COPULA" SENTENCES 
  TRANSITIVE SENTENCES 
  4. 000. 
  A GUIDE FOR TRAVELLERS 
  4. l 00. 
  USEFUL EXPRESSIONS 
  4, 200. 
  GETTING ACQUAINTED 
  4. 300. 
  TRAVEL, THE WEATHER, INNS 
  4. 400. 
  SIGHTSEEING 
  4. 500. 
  SHOPPING 
  4, 600, 
  EMPLOYMENT 
  4, 700, 
  A DINNER PARTY 
  4. 800. 
  ENTERTAINMENTS 
  4. 900. 
  BUSINESS 
  4, 1000. RELIGION 
  4. 1100. EMERGENCIES ANO HEAL TH 
  4. 1200. MILITARY 
  5. 000. 
  ENGLISH -TSOLYANI VOCABULARY 
  5. I 00. 
  MEASUREMENTS 
  6. 000. 
  TSOLYANI-ENCLISH VOCABULARY 
  7. 000. 
  SCRIPT 
  iv 
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  45 
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  47 
  48 
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  51 
  :>2 
  53 
  55 
  :>6 
  :>8 
  :>9 
  61 
  93 
  94 
  125 
  
  ; 
  THE TSOLYANI LANGUAGE 
  By M.A. R. Barker 
  1. 100. INTRODUCTION, 
  The following is a bri1d outline grammar of modern Tsolyani, shorn of many of its 
  details and finer points, and simplified for the use of students who are not acquainted with 
  technical linguistics. Travellers, businessmen, scholars, and others who have interests 
  in Tsolyanu will find the list of common phrases which follows the grammar useful, and a 
  short vocabulary of common words is also appended. It must be understood that this little 
  work is only a beginning, and the linguist or more deeply interested scholar of Tsolyani 
  culture will only find enough here to whet the appetite. lt is hoped that such students will 
  then go on to make further studies, visit the Tsolyani, and add to this rather humble 
  beginning. 
  Tsolyani is a member of the Kh{shan family of languages, related to its neighbours, 
  Mu' ugalavyani, Salarvyani, and Livyani. More distantly, Tsolyani has historical connec-
  tions with Yan Koryani, Pechani, Ghat6ni, and other minor languages. All of these are 
  descended from Engsvanyali, the language of the "Golden Age. " Engsvanyali, in turn, can 
  be traced back through Bednalljan Salarvyani to the languages of the Three States of the 
  Triangle. There are no documents older than the few fragments preserved of Lly;fni, and 
  linguistic history before the Empire of Llyan of Tsamra can only be guessed at. It may 
  also be noted that there are totally unrelated tongues within the original culture-sphere of 
  Engsvanyali - - languages which seem to bear no relation to those mentioned above. These 
  include, for example, Pijj~foan (or P ' jj~na~). N'lyssa, Saa Allaqiyani, and Jannuyani. 
  2. 000 PRONUNCIATION. 
  2. 100. 
  CONSONANTS. 
  The sounds of Tsolyani are transcribed in a phonemic alphabet, but certain concess-
  ions have been made for the benefit of English readers unfamiliar with phonetic symbols . 
  lt may be noted that this transcription has NO silent letters, and each letter (or pair of 
  letters, in the case of /ch/, /sh/, etc.) has only ONE pronunciation, except as noted 
  below. A word such as /tum6/ is thus pronounced "too-MAY" and not * 11toom." (The use 
  of English spelling here is deliberate.) The Tsolyani alphabet w ill not be introduced here 
  but will be provided later. 
  p 
  the [p J of English "spin, 11 a 
  voiceless bilabial stop with no 
  aspiration 
  the [t] of Spanish "tu" or French 
  "t6," a voiceless dental stop with 
  no aspiration 
  ch 
  k 
  the[~ ] ("ch") of English "church, " 
  a voiceless alveopalatal affricate 
  with less aspiration than in Eng lish 
  the [k] of English "skin, " a voice-
  less mid-velar stop with no aspira-
  tion r.c 
  
  q 
  b 
  d 
  g 
  ts 
  tl 
  v 
  th 
  dh 
  s 
  sh 
  zh 
  the Arabic [ q), a voiceless back-
  velar stop with no aspiration1 a 
  "k" pronounced farther back in 
  the throat (a layman's definition)1 
  NOT the "q" of "quick" or "quo," 
  which is really a writing for (kw) 
  the glottal stop {? ] 1 
  the 11t 11 of a 
  Cockney pronunciation of a word 
  like "bottle" ("bo'le"). /•/also 
  occurs in such English inter -
  jections as 11uh-oh 11 or "unb-
  unh" (= "no"). In Tsolyani this 
  sound must be carefully main-
  tained and not slurred over, since 
  it may be the only difference be-
  tween two words: e.g. /ra'i/ 
  "shepherd" vs. /rai/ "to ford 
  (a river)" 
  the [b) of English "boy," a voiced 
  blilabial stop 
  the [d) of Spanish "dos , " a voiced 
  dental stop 
  the [J) ("j") of English "judge," a 
  voiced alveopalatal affricate 
  the [g) of English "gun, " a voiced 
  mid-velar stop. 
  NEVER the "g" 
  of "gym" 
  the(¢') ("ts") of English "fits," a 
  voiceless grooved dental affricate 
  the (~) ("ti") of Aztec "atlatl, " a 
  voiceless lateral dental affricate. 
  NOT the "tl" of English "little" 
  the (f) of English "fish," a voice-
  less labiodental fricative 
  the [v) of English "vine," a voiced 
  labiodental fr icative 
  the [ Q) ("th 11) of English "thigh" 
  or "with, " a voiceless interdental 
  fricative 
  the (Cf) ("th") of English "thy" or 
  "this, "a voiced interdental frica -
  tive. 
  The difference between the 
  two "th' s" is obscured by English 
  spelling 
  the [s) of English "sing," a voice-
  less grooved alveolar fricative 
  the [z) of English "zoo," a voiced 
  grooved alveolar fricative 
  the[~) ("sh") of English "ship," 
  a voiceless grooved alveopalatal 
  fricative>:~>:< 
  the ('!I:) ("zh" etc.) of English 
  "azure 11 or "pleasure," or of 
  Russian "Zhukov, 11 a voiced 
  grooved alveopalatal fricative 
  2 
  SS 
  h 
  hl 
  r 
  kh 
  gh 
  m 
  n 
  ng 
  w 
  y 
  the [ ~ J of Sanskrit, a voiceless 
  grooved retroflex (or cerebral) 
  fricative. No English counterpart: 
  an "s" pronounced with the tongue 
  tip turned back upwards to touch 
  behind the alveolar ridge, which 
  gives this sound its peculiar sibi-
  lance 
  the (h) of English "hat," a voice less 
  glottal fricative. 
  Note that this 
  sound can occur at the ends of syl-
  lables and words, unlike English: 
  e. g. 
  /p~h/ "strap, lace" 
  the[+) ("U") of Welsh "Llewellyn, 11 
  a voiceless lateral dental fricative 
  the (1) of Spanish "le" or "el," a 
  voiced lateral dental fricative. A 
  "light l" -- not the "dark l" of 
  syllable- or word- final "l" in Eng-
  lish1 contrast Spanish "mal" with 
  English "Mall" 
  the [r) of Spanish "pero," a voiced 
  dental single-tap vibrant. Not the 
  American "r" of "bar," etc. 
  When 
  doubled (i. e. when /rr/ occurs), 
  this produced a trill, as in Spanish 
  11perro 11 
  the (x) ("kh" or "ch") of German 
  "ach" or Scots "loch " a voiceless 
  mid-velar fricative./,, 
  the [y) ("gh") of Arabic "ghayn," a 
  voiced mid-velar fricative. This 
  is made by producing a "hard g" 
  (as in "ug-ga ") and opening the clo-
  sure a little in order to allow a 
  little air to escape. Parisian French 
  has a similar sound in its pronuncia-
  tion of 11r 11 as in "Paris." Rare in 
  Tsolyani except in loanwords 
  the [m] of English "my, 11 a voiced 
  bilabial nasal 
  the (n) of Spanish "no," a voiced 
  dental nasal 
  the [u) ("ng") of English "sing," a 
  voiced velar nasal. Not the "ng" of 
  English "finger, " which is repre-
  sented by /ngg/. Note that "ng" 
  can occur at the beginning of words 
  in 'fsolyani: e.g. /ngangmuru/ 
  "greetings! 11 
  the [ w) of English "wine, " a voiced 
  bilabial continuant 
  the [ y) of English "yes, " a voiced 
  palatal continuant 
  
  *It is noteworthy that the unaspirated /k/ contrasts with an aspirated /kh / in a few 
  Mu'ugalavyani loanwords -- a contrast rather like the two "k's" of English "school" and 
  "cool" or "skin" and ''kin." Mu'ugalavyani aspirated /kh/ is a modern reflex of the g lotta-
  lised /k/ of the older form of the language, and it is preserved only in a few names and 
  words of archaic nature. The situation is com,Plicated by the fact that some northern 
  Tsolyani dialects have the aspirated stop (/kh/) now in place of the fricative /kh/ ([x ]). 
  Thus, in the north one hears / khatun/ "name, " instead of /khatun/ ([xatun]J. In the south, 
  on the other han"\\ one would find /khatun/ ([xatun]), and this contrasts with the Mu'ugalav-
  yani loanword /k atun/ "name of a species of fruit. " 
  **While almost all "sh" digraphs stand for [li] (the "sh" of "ship"). a few Salarvy<foi 
  loanwords preserve an "aspirated s": an [s] with a strongly aspirated relea se, which 
  sounds rather like the [s ] + [h] of English "icehouse. " In order to avoid confusion, occur-
  rences of this aspirated /sh/ will be written with a raised "h 11, e.g. /shahad/ "male 
  slave of the lowest class." This sound is rare in Tsolyani and tends to be replaced by /s/. 
  The list given above is partially based upon Tsolyani perceptions of their language 
  and upon their writing system. There are other sounds which could just as well have been 
  included as unit phonemes1 e. g. 
  there is a voiced /di/ which could be posited as the 
  counterpart of voiceless /ti/, a voiced /dz/ which could be established as the voiced 
  counterpart of /ts/, and a whole series of voiceless nasals (/hm/, / hn/, and /hng/) which 
  could be set up as the voiceless counterparts of voiced / m / , /n/ , and /np,/ respectively. 
  Thus, where a Tsoly<foi scribe has one letter for /ts/, he must write a / d/ followed by a 
  /z/ for /dz/. The Tsolyani script is based partly upon historical considerations and 
  partly upon cultural perceptions, of course, and it thus does not represent an accurate 
  linguistic analysis. Such theoretical considerations need not disturb the beginner. 
  2. 200. 
  VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 
  There are six vowel phonemes: 
  e 
  a 
  u 
  0 
  the (i) of "machine," a high front 
  unrounded vowel. Never the "i" 
  of "bite" or ''bit." Like the [i] 
  in Spanish "mi," the Tsolyani 
  /i/ has no final y-like offglide 
  the Spanish [e ] of "me" or "se, 11 
  a mid front unrounded vowel. 
  Similar to English "a 11 in "face" 
  or "fate, " but without the final 
  y - like offglide. Never the "e" of 
  English "me" or "met" and never 
  silent, as in English "us~" 
  the [a] of midwestern American 
  "father, " a low central unrounded 
  vowel. Never the "a 11 of "face, 11 
  "above, " or "cat" 
  the [u] of Spanish "tu," a high 
  back rounded vowel. Similar to 
  "u" in English "flute" but without 
  the final w-like offglide. Never 
  the "u 11 of "but 11 or "put 11 
  the ( o] of Spanish "no, " a mid back 
  rounded vowel. Similar to English 
  110 11 as in "note" but without the 
  final w-like offglide. Never the 
  no 11 of "cot, 11 11off, 11 "woman, 11 
  etc. 
  u 
  in western Tsolyanu (the dividing 
  line being roughly the Missuma 
  River) this is the German umlaut 
  "U" of "fUr , " a high front rounded 
  vowel. In the east, however, this 
  vowel is the [1] of Turkish, the "i 
  without a dot": a high central un-
  rounded vowel. Some western Ame-
  rican dialects have a contrast be-
  tween this (1] and other vowels: 
  e. g. 
  "just" as in "he's a just man," vs. 
  "gist" as in "the g ist of it," vs. 
  "jist" as in 
  11he 1s jist comin'" (a 
  "Cowboy Western pronunciation"). 
  The last of these is similar to the 
  Tsolyani vowel discussed here. It 
  is this [ i) pronunciation which is 
  preferred in the Tsolyani capital 
  and at court. In preceding trans-
  scriptions of Tsolyani the author 
  had used the symbol "y" to repre-
  sent both this vowel and also the 
  consonant / y/, but this has given 
  rise to confusion1 therefore the 
  "umlaut U" is being substituted in 
  this text. 
  It is up to the student to 
  decide which of the two pronuncia-
  tions to adopt. The second part of 
  the name of the capital, /bey sfJ./ 
  is thus / sU/ or / s1/ - - never "sea 11 
  or "soo" or "sigh" 
  Tsolyani has no counterparts of the English vowels found in the following words: 
  "cut" ((:oi]), "cat" ((ae]), "kit" (( ~]), "pet"((£ ]), "put" (['11]), and "law"([~]) . Some of these 
  -- and other vowels as well -- occur in other languages of Tekumel, however. 
  Several diphthongs are recognised in the script and are represented by separate 
  3 
  
  letters and diacritics. These include /au/ (the "ou" of "out"), /oi/ (the "oy" of ''boy"), and 
  /ai/ {the "i" of "I" or "nice"). Almost all possible sequences of two vowels are found in 
  Tsoly;foi, except that the vowel /U/ does nQt enter into any combinations. Aside from the 
  "recognised" diphthongs noted above, all other vowel sequences require two letters {or dia-
  critics) in the writing system. The scribe thus has a single symbol for /ai/ but must write 
  / u / +/a/ for /ua/. No three-vowel clusters exist (e.g. */aia/ or "/oua/). Each member 
  of a Tsoly<foi diphthong retains its individual pronunciation and is clearly enunciated: e.g. 
  / oi/ sounds more like "oh-ee" {the English spelling is deliberate), rather than like the "oy" 
  of "boy." 
  Z. 300. 
  WORD STRESS AND INTONATION. 
  There are two "word stresses" (or "accents"): a main stress {written/'/) and a 
  secondary stress {written /' /). Thus , one says /TE-ku-mel/ rather than / te-KU -mel/ or 
  / te-ku-MEL/. Stresses are not indicated in the script, and the learner must memorise 
  them and use the correct stress pattern when he learns the consonants and vowels of the 
  word. Unstressed vowels maintain their full pronunciation and length, unlike English, in 
  which unaccented syllables all tend to become slurred "uh's." 
  A single Tsolyani word may 
  have only one main stress {/' /)but may have as many as three secondary stresses (/' /) --
  a feature particularly true of longer compounds. 
  · 
  Individual intonation patterns can each be described in terms of rises and falls, but 
  the student will find it difficult t.o learn these from a printed page, and perhaps the best 
  method is to employ a native tutor. A declarat ive statement can be characterised as having 
  a falling pattern at the end, very similar to the declarative pattern of English. 
  This is 
  symbolised by/./. A "yes-or-no" question rises at the end, indicated by /? / . 
  The end of 
  a clause or phrase within an utterance is set off by a partial fall and a slight rise, marked 
  by /, /. Emphatic patterns may be marked with /! /, although they differ from comparable 
  English patterns in their particulars. A sentence containing a question word {e.g. "who?") 
  has a high pitch on the stressed syllable of the question word and a low pitch thereafter to 
  the end of the utterance. These patterns are part of the information communicated by the 
  system, of course, and the student must attempt to learn them correctly. One might note 
  the case of a traveller who wished to complement a senior Tsolyani official upon his noble 
  lineage -- and who used the "sarcastic~scoffing" intonation pattern by mistake instead of 
  the "emphatic-approval" pattern he sought. The results were, needless to say, unpleasant. 
  3. 000. GRAMMAR. 
  3. 100, NOUNS. 
  In its simplest form, the Tsolyani "noun" consists of a single root morpheme: e.g. 
  /qadar/ 
  "war, battle. 11 Such a root functions as a monomorphernic noun stem, occurring 
  with various prefixes {elements added before the root) and suffixes {elements added after it). 
  A noun stem may also be composed of a root + a "derivational affix": e.g. /k6lumel/ 
  "emperor, " which consists of /k6lum/ "to rule, govern" t /-el/, an agent-forming suffix 
  derived from Engsvanyali /elli/ "to do, make." Another example from the same root is 
  /kolumebabar/ "empire," which contains /k6lum/ + a stem formant /e/ {which always 
  takes the main stress away from the preceding root)+ /-babar/, a derivative of ancient 
  Bednalljan Salarvyani /-vavra/ "place in which ... is done. " 
  Students need not concern 
  themselves with eytmologies and word-origins. Each new word should be learned as a new 
  unit for the present. Only those affixes need be studied which are "active" or "productive" 
  in the living language, and neither /-el/ nor /-babar /are "active" (i.e. one cannot add 
  them freely to large numbers of roots to form derived noun stems). 
  There is no formal difference between a ''basic noun root" and a "basic verb root," 
  A great many roots function entirely as noun stems, and there is a smaller class of verb 
  roots which occur only as verb sterns. There is also a large group which may have both 
  functions: e.g. /gadal/ "to worship" which may also mean "the worship" or "the wor-
  shipping. 11 Compare English "I run" with "The run is a long one." Of the examples given 
  above, /qadar/ "war, battle" may also be used as a verb signifying "to fight a war "and 
  /k6lum/ "to rule" may denote "the rule" or "the ruling. 
  11 Derived sterns such as /k6lumel/ 
  "emperor" and /kolumebabar/ "empire" occur as nouns only, however, and as a general 
  rule it may be stated that derivded stems usually function as one or the other but not both. 
  As an example of a rnonomorphemic noun stem which cannot function as a verb, one may 
  cite /veshu/ "house" which can never mean "'"to house (someone)," Further examples 
  given passim below will make this clear. 
  4 
  
  The order of elements within the noun-unit is as follows: 
  Demonstrative + Quantifier + Locative + Personal + NOUN STEM+ General + 
  Attitude 
  Attitude 
  Prefix 
  Suffix 
  Possessive + Noble/Ignoble/Plural 
  Suf.fix 
  Suffixes 
  A Tsolyani "noun" may thus consist of eight elements (and of these, the Personal 
  Attitude Prefixes and the General Attitude Suffixes may be repeated o r may consist of two 
  or more elements!). 
  An example is1 
  / mssuranqurubrutuplansavaldUisayal/ 
  "in all these beloved, great, (and ] 
  powerful cities." (/mssuran- / 
  "these" (a Demonstra tive), / q'ilru-/ 
  "all" (a Quantifier), /br u- / 
  "in" (a Locative Prefix), /tuplan-/ 
  ''beloved" (a Personal Attitude Prefix)i / savS.1/ "city" (a Noun 
  Stem), / -dUi/ "great, large" (a General Attitude Suffix)1 / -sa/ 
  "powerful" (another General Attitude Suf!ix)1 
  / -yal/ 
  "plural" (the 
  Plural Suffix)) 
  Before the student becomes too alarmed at this lengthy string of syllables, it is 
  necessary to point out (I) that these prefixes, stems, and suffixes all follow one another 
  neatly as do boxcars in a train, and (2) the use of so many elaborate prefixes and suffixes 
  in one noun-unit is not characteristic of ordinary speech but rather is limited to the highly 
  florid documents of Tsolyani o!!icialdom, to religious texts, and to other ceremonious 
  usages. It may also be noted that some of the Personal Attitude and General Attitude 
  affixes can be made into "adjectives" by the addition of a special suffix, and such elements 
  as /t'ilplan-/, /-dUi/, and / -sa/ can be taken out of the noun-unit entirely and added as 
  separate adjective "words. " These matters depend largely upon stylistics and need not be 
  gone into further here. 
  lt is convenient to discuss the c lasses of Tsolyani noun stems first, then to turn to the 
  prefix classes, and fina lly to the suffixes. 
  3. 110. 
  NOUN CLASSES. 
  Nouns are divisible into three groups: 
  (a) "noble, 11 (b) "ignoble , 11 and (c) "nonclassi -
  !iable (i.e. too noble or too ignoble for classification). 11 This division is basic to the lan-
  guage, and there is no other kind of "gender" (i.e. no "masculine" or "feminine" or 
  "neuter "). 
  This classification applies to SINGULAR nouns only1 all plurals are treated 
  alike (cf. below). 
  The "noble" class includes stems denoting males, high-status terms, ranks, clan 
  names, Imperial buildings and works, predominantly male or "noble" pursuits , 11 a·nd other 
  concepts which possess positive status value in this wholly class-conscious society. It is 
  necessary to anticipate the discussion of the Noble/ Ignoble/ Plural SufCix class and note that 
  the marker of the "noble" noun class is the suffix / -koi/. This is added to the noun stem 
  (or to a noun + affixess cf. below). Examples: 
  / basrimkoi/ 
  "man" (stem: / bil:srim/) 
  /kasikoi/ 
  "captain, officer commanding a Cohort of 400 men" (ste m r / ka:si/ ) 
  /qadil:rkoi/ 
  ''war, battle" (stem: 
  / qadar/) 
  /m8nikoi/ 
  "(Imperial) palace" (stemr / mUni/) 
  /mrfogukoi/ 
  "nobleman, lord" (stemr /mrfogu/) 
  This suffix is also added to noun ste~s denoting females of high statusr e.g. 
  /arid<!'.nikoi/ "woman who has legally declared here independence from clan and 
  family control" (stemr /aridani/) 
  /kolumssanrakoi/ "princess" (stem: /kolumssanra/) 
  The "ignoble" class contains noun stems denotin& "non-noble" beings and objectsr 
  most females, children, animals , inanimate things, abstractions, low-caste o ccupations, 
  etc. etc. The indicator of this class is / - ikh/ after nouns ending in a consonant and / - kh/ 
  after those e nding in a vowel. Examplesr 
  /savalikh/ 
  "city" (stemr /sav<!'.l/) 
  /kha'.shikh/ "pa in, evil, unhappiness" (st em: /khash? 
  / shazfrikh/ 
  "terrain, land, country" (stem1 / shazrr ) 
  /laithikh/ "village" (stem1 
  / laith/) 
  5 
  
  Examples of "ignoble" noun stems ending in a vowel: 
  /hukh/ "water" (stem: /hli/) 
  /h!akh/ '!fire " (stem1 /hla/ ) 
  /veshukh/ "house, home" (stem, /veshu/) 
  /thialakh/ "girl, maiden " (stem1 /thiala/) 
  A special convention is used to mark stems ending in / i/1 a dash which has no pro-
  nunciation is inserted after stem- final /i/ to indicate that the /i/ is part of the stem and not 
  part of the suffix / - ikh/. Otherwise ambiguity might result. E.g. 
  /mani-k1 "food" (stem1 /mani/ - - not "'/man/+ /-ikh/) 
  /hagi-kh 
  "day" (stem: / h<igi/ - - not * /h<ig/ + /-ikh/) 
  If no dash occurs, the /i/ is part of the suffix /-ikh/. E.g. 
  /ml'r!shikh/ "fish" (stem: / m(r1sh/ -- not */m(rishi/ + / -ikh/ ) 
  The third noun class is termed "unclassifiable" for wont of a better name. It contains 
  items which do not take either the "noble" / - koi/ or the "ignoble" /-ikh/-/-kh/. Many mem-
  bers of this class are personal or place names, which do not occur with the Noble/Ignoble 
  suffixes1 e. g. /kagesh/ "Kagesh" (a man's name), /bey s(J/ "Bey Sy" (the capital city of 
  Tsolyanu1 note that in the transcription used in this book, /U./ is employed rather than the 
  / y / used in earlier works). Other "too noble" stems include: 
  / k6lumel/ "emperor, " 
  /mrtlan/ "god," /tirikelu/ "the Petal Throne. " "foo ignoble" stems include: / ssana/ 
  "dancing girl, low-class courtesan," /shahad/ "male slave of the lowest class," /tlekku/ 
  "dog." Compared to the other two classes, this class is rather a small one. 
  Verb-noun stems which denote the abstract nominalisation of the verbal meaning are 
  found with /-ikh/-/-kh/: e.g. /gadalikh/ "the worship, the worshipping," /pagalikh/ "the 
  seeing, viewinQ. beholding." "Too noble" or "too ignoble" stems require no suffix, howeveri 
  e.g. /k6lum/ "to rule" may occur with no suffix denoting "the ruling, the rule"1 /hurshel/ 
  "to squat down to relieve oneself" similarly occurs with no suffix denoting "the squatting 
  down to relieve oneself. " 
  It is worth anticipating again to note that /-koi/ is used with a verb-noun stem to 
  signify the male actori e. g. /gadalkoi/ "the (male) worshipper, " / pagalkoi/ "the (male) 
  seer, beholder," /k6lumkoi/ "the (male) ruler." A female actor is then denoted by another 
  suffix /-ra/ (of which more will be said below) + / -koi/ if she is noble, and by /- ra/ + /-kh/ 
  if ignoble: e.g. /gadalrakoi/ "the (noble female) worshipper," /pagalrakoi/ 
  "the (noble 
  female) seer, vi,wer," /k6lumrakoi/ "the (noble female) ruler," /gadalrakh/ "the (ignoble 
  female -- or ignoble male) worshipper," /pagalrakh/ "the (ignoble female , etc.) seer, be-
  holder, viewer." ln order to indicate the actor, /-koi/, /-rakoi/, and /-rakh/ may be added 
  even to members of the "unclassifiable" group: e.g. /hurshelkoi/ "the (noble male) who 
  squats to relieve himself," /hurshelrakoi/ "the (noble female) who squats to relieve herself," 
  /hurshelrakh/ "the (ignoble female or male, etc. ) who squats to relieve him/her/itself." 
  Semantic considerations preclude some possible combinations: e.g. * /k6lumrakh/ cannot 
  occur since ,the act of ruling is always intrinsically noble 1 even a hated or despised ruler is 
  not termed '' /k6lumrakh/, and such emotional colourings must be indicated in other ways. 
  3. 120. DEMONSTRATIVES. 
  As mentioned in Sec. 3. 100, the first prefix class is that of the Demonstratives. 
  Tsolyani has no definite or indeflnite articles (i.e. 
  "the," "a," or "an"), and thus / basrim-
  koi/ expresses "man," "the man," or "a man" as demanded by context. For great specifica -
  tion, however, a Demonstrative may be prefixed to the noun. There are really only two of 
  tlrese1 /m"Asun-/ "this'' for singular nouns, and /mssuran-/ "these" for plural nouns. Two 
  further elements may be added· to these two items to indicate distances farther from the 
  speaker 1 / -'l:>nul-/ for medium distance, and /-j"Aga-/ for much greater distance. The six 
  possibilities are thus: 
  /m"Asunbasrimkoi/ "this man" 
  /mssuranbasrimyal/ "these men" 
  /m"Asun'l:>nulbasrimkoi/ "that man" 
  /mssuran'l:>nulbasrimyal/ "those men" 
  /m"Asunj"Agabasrimkoi/ "that man (way over there)" 
  /mssuranj"Agabasrimyal/ "those men (way over there)" 
  As will be seen below, /masun/ and /mssuran/ (with primary stresses) may occur as 
  separate words denoting "he, she, it (nonhonorific)" and "they (nonhonorific)" respectively. 
  It may be noted here that if one wishes to express "~man" (i.e. 
  one indefinite man), 
  6 
  
  one must employ the Quantifier /pru-/ "one" (cf. below): e.g. /prub<l'.srimkoi/ "a man, 
  one man." This, however, may also denote "~one man," and only context will clarify 
  whic h is meant. 
  3. 130. 
  QUANTIFIERS. 
  The second prefix c lass contains those e lements which quantify the noun: i.e. all 
  numerals and such items as /quru-/ "all," /hlbn- / 
  "any," /buru-/ 
  "many, much," /t"tl.i-/ 
  "a few," /zh"fl.-/ "some," /l'/.Jm- / 
  "too few, too little, " /kau-/ "too many, too much," and 
  /y"fl.111.-/ "no, none." Examples: 
  /qurub<l'.srimyal/ "all men, all the men" 
  /mssuranqurub<l'.srimyal/ "all these men" 
  /mssuranbnulqurub<l'.srimyal/ "all those men" 
  /hlbnb<l'.srimkoi/ "any man" 
  /t"tl.ib<l'.srimyal/ 
  "a few men" 
  /zh"fl.savalyal/ "some cities" 
  /l'l.Jmhasuyal/ "too little money" 
  /k"fl.uhasuyal/ "too much money" 
  /y"fl.llJ.hasukh/ "no money, not money" 
  /buruhasuyal/ "much money" 
  /,Prusav<!:likh/ "one city, a city" 
  /gasav<l'.lyal/ "two cities" 
  /tl~sav<l'.lyal/ "ten cities" 
  /mssuranbnultl~sav<l'.lyal/ "those ten c ities" 
  If one wishes to emphasise these quantifiers, one may also treat them as separate 
  word-units and make "adjectives" out o f them by adding the "adjective formant" suffix (cf. 
  below) /-in/-/-n/. Adjectives precede nouns in Tsoly<l'.ni. E.g. 
  /qurun b<!:srimyal/ "all men" (the re is a slight emphasis upon "all") 
  /,Prun b<l'.srimkoi/ "a man, one man, the one man" (slightly emphatic) 
  /galats<l'.n k6lumel/ 
  "the sixty-second emperor" (except for "one hundred, " 
  "one thousand," "ten thousand, "and "one million," the larger numerals 
  are only rarely prefixed directly to a noun, occurring instead as adjec-
  tives, as shown in this example) 
  It may also be noted at this time that many of t hese quantifier elements can occur 
  alone as 
  11nouns
  11 (i.e. 
  in such utterances as "some came, 
  11 11a few saw me," "ten were 
  there, " etc.). These elements then require the presence of the Noble/ Ignoble or Plural 
  suffixes, as do other nouns. Examples: 
  /k<l'.uyal/ "too many" 
  /hl6nkoi/ "any (noble person)" 
  /hl6nikh/ "any (ignoble person or thing)" 
  /quruyal/ "all" 
  /y<l'.IIJ.koi/ "no (noble person), none" 
  /,Prukoi/ "one (noble person)" 
  /tl~yal/ "ten" 
  /buruyal/ "many" 
  /burukh/ "much (of a quantity)" 
  3. 140. 
  LOCATIVES. 
  The third prefix class contains some items which are traditionally termed "cases" 
  in Latin (and hence English) grammarbooks: e.g. /tla-/ 
  "the 'accusative' case , the marker 
  of the direct object of a transitive verb. " Others of this class have meanings similar to the 
  English "prepositions": e. g. /bru -/ · "in. 11 The fact is that this class can best be described 
  as containing "locative" elements which indicate the noun's relationships in space, in time, 
  and in relation to the action of the verb of the utterance. The "accusative" prefix /tla - / 
  thus denotes the noun's location with regard to the action of the verb of the clause, a concept 
  not familiar, perhaps, to English- speaking students! 
  One very important point must be made at once: whenever a prefix of this class (or 
  the class which follows this , for that matter) occurs with a noun, then the Noble/Ignoble 
  suffixes do NOT occur with that noun. Thus, one says / brusav<l'.l/ "in the city" and NEVER 
  "'/brusav<l'.likh/. The plural suffix /-yal/ occurs after a p r efix+ noun, however. The 
  following examples will demonstrate some of the commoner prefixes of this class, but the 
  list is by no means exhaustive. 
  7 
  
  /k6lumel/ "emperor" (there is no "nominative" prefix"1 the noun (or the noun 
  + the Noble/Ignoble/Plural suffixes) serves alone as the "nominative case") 
  /hik6lumel/ "of the emperor" (/hi-/ "of") 
  /molk6lumel/ "to the emperor" C/mol-/ 
  "to, towards") 
  /tlak6lumel/ "emperor" (/tla-/ is the "accusative case marker," indicating 
  the direct object of a transitive verb) 
  /mikk6lumel/ "from the emperor" (/mik-/ "from") 
  / bruk6lumel/ "in the emperor" (/bru-/ "in") 
  /thamk6lumel/ ''by the emperor" (/tham-/ ''by, with (instrumental)") 
  /,Pagk6lumel/ "with the emperor" (/pag-/ "with, accompanying") 
  /chaluk6lumel/ "for the emperor" (/chalu-/ "for, on behalf of") 
  /somsavf.l/ "upon, above the city" C/som-/ "upon, on, above") 
  /santaqun/ "down upon the ground, floor" (/san-/ "down up.:>n, down to") 
  /tisavf.l/ "through the city" </ti-/ "through") 
  /ssyik6lumel/ "like the emperor" C/ssyi-7 "like, resembling") 
  /dhuraMl/ "under the table" (/dhu-/ "under, beneath, below") 
  /gurengrallOl/ "in front of the table" (gureng-/ "in front of"1 note also 
  /gurlOngikh/ "front (of something)") 
  /cheqf.mi/ ''before today" (/che-/ ''before, prior to") 
  /tuqf.mi/ "after today" (/tu-/ "after") 
  Further examples with other prefix classes: 
  /mll.sunbruqadi!:r/ 
  11in this battle" 
  /mssuranbruqadf.ryal/ "in these battles" 
  /mssurantlebruqadf.ryal/ "in these ten battles" 
  /gll.tisavf.lyal/ "through two cities" 
  /mssuran!Jurumikbf.srimyal/ "from all these men" 
  /zhll.tunalUnyal/ "after some years" 
  /mll.sunburumolhasu/ "to this much money" 
  /mssuranjll.gatll.ithambf.srimyal/ ''by those (over there) few men" 
  This c lass presents a problem for the English-speaking studentr in English the 
  preposition precedes the rest of the noun phrase: e.g. 
  ·~those few men." In Tsolyf.ni 
  one saysr "those-few-£y-men." 
  There are also a few "discontinuous" prefixes in Tsolyf.ni: i.e. prefixes with 
  meanings similar to those of this class, but which consist of a separate "word" which pre-
  cedes the noun phrase, followed by a prefix in its proper place in the phrase order. These 
  are rather uncommon and seem to be historically "frozen" phrases which have become single 
  units in the language. Examples: 
  /kf.idis mssuranqurubrukf.siyal/ "found amongst all these captains" (/kf.idis 
  ... bru-/ denotes "found amongst") 
  /mugra df.si mll.sunl>nulmikk6lumel/ "from the place of that emperor" (/mugra 
  df.si ... mik- / 
  signifies "from the place of") 
  3. 150. PERSONAL ATTITUDE PREFIXES. 
  The fourth and last class of prefixes contains a group of elements which describe 
  one's own personal attitude towards the noun of the construction: one's feelings towards the 
  noun, assertions about the natµre of the noun as seen through one's own eyes, etc, This 
  class also contains elements which indicate the "time" of the noun in. reference to that of the 
  speaker or to the context. Again, it must be strongly noted that if a member of this class 
  occurs, then the Noble/lgnoble/Plural suffixes do NOT occur. lt may also be remarked 
  that in the highly stylised literature of the upper classes, it is not uncommon to find two or 
  even three of these Personal Attitude Prefixes occurring with one noun. Examples: 
  /pll.lk6lumel/ "the yesterday emperor" (i.e. "the person who was emperor 
  yesterday"1 /pf.likh/ "yesterd~y" also occurs as a noun) 
  /tsokutlk6lumel/ "the last-year emperor" (i.e. 'the person who was emperor 
  last year"1 /tsokutlikh/ "last year") 
  /hoql>k6lumel/ "the future em;eror" (i.e. "the person who will be emperor 
  in the future"1 /hoq6kh 
  "the future") 
  /tuplankf.si/ 
  "the beloved captain" (cf. / tuplanikh/ 
  "love, adoration, admi-
  ration (non-sexual affection) "i 
  /tupll.nk6lumel/ "the all-powerful emperor" (cf. /tupf.nikh/ "omnipotence") 
  /shll.rzakasi/ "the captain whom l somewhat humourously despise" (cf, 
  /shf.rzakh/ "contempt, slight irony mixed with contempt") · 
  8 
  
  /toqusaval/ "the city.of which 1 stand in awe" (cf. /toqukh/ "awe, wonder-
  ment") 
  /korusskasi/ "the captain whom 1 despise and hate" (cf. /kor)issikh/ "violent 
  hatred and contempt") 
  /chiq~kbasrim/ "the comically inept man, the man whom I consider to be a 
  clumsy fool" (cf. /chiq~kikh/ "comic ineptness, clumsiness") 
  These prefixes follow the Locative Prefixes (but cf. below): e.g. 
  /mikp1Uk6lumel/ 
  "from the yesterday emperor" (i.e. "from the person who 
  was emperor yesterday") 
  /molzhavusaval/ "to the fearsome city" (cf. /zhavukh/ "gloominess, fear -
  someness, a feeling of apprehension and a premonition of misfortune") 
  Such noun constructions can be quite lengthy in literary Tsolyani. E.g. 
  /mssuran~nulqurumolzhavusavalyal/ "to all those feared cities" 
  It is also not uncommon for more than one Personal Attitude Prefix to occur with one 
  noun stem. These prefixes can also be reduplicated (i.e. repeated) in order to give greater 
  emphasis to the emotional state they denote. E.g. 
  /paltuplankasi/ "the beloved person who was captain yesterday" (also: 
  /tuplanpalkasi/1 the order of these prefixes vis-a-vis one another i s 
  quite free and depends upon such imponderable stylistic factors as the 
  sentence "rhythm," particularly in speeches, rituals, etc. ) 
  /tuplantuplankasi/ 
  "the most beloved captain" 
  /toqutupantupank6lumel/ "the most omnipotent emperor of whom I stand in 
  awe" 
  As shown above, these "prefixes" may also occur as inde.Pendent nouns. They also 
  are found as adjectives (with the adjective formant suffix / -in/-/ -n/. It is thus possible to 
  consider these not as "prefixes" but as compounds of noun stems. Tsolyani grammarians, 
  however, state that they are primarily prefixes and that their use as independent nouns is 
  a secondary and rather recent development. These elements are indeed found primarily as 
  prefixes, but their use as independent stems is becoming more and more common. In 
  modern Tsolyani one now hears /zhavun molsaval/ "to the feared city" (with /zhavu/ + /-n/ 
  as a true adjective used independently) just as often as the older construction, /molzhavu-
  saval/. The formulation of the Tsolyani grammarians is still perhaps the best description, 
  but it is becoming less accurate with the passage of time. 
  A dialect note may be added here. Throughout southern Tsolyanu the Locative Pre-
  fixes precede the Personal Attitude Prefixes, as seen above. 
  In some northern d ialects, 
  particularly around Khirgar, the opposite order is found: e . g. instead of /moltuplansaval/ 
  "to the beloved city," one hears /tuplanmolsaval/. In the Khirgari dialect, a Personal Atti-
  tude Prefix even precedes the first element of one of the "discontinuous" Locative Prefixes: 
  e.g. /tuplankaidis brusavalyal/ "found amongst the beloved cities, 11 instead of / kaidis 
  brutuplansavalyal/. The southern usage is more widespread and should be followed by the 
  beginning student. 
  3. 160. GENERAL ATTITUDE SUFFIXES. 
  The prefix classes are followed by the noun stem. Since noun, stems and classes were 
  discussed in Secs. 3. 100 and 3. 110, there is no need to describe them further here. 
  The first suffix class contains a large number of suffix elements (or perhaps "secon-
  dary compounding stems? 11 ) which denote "objectively held" attitudes towards the noun. 
  These items describe the status, rank, size, and other clearly perceptible qualities of the 
  noun - - including emotional attitudes towards the noun whic h are shared by others besides 
  the speaker. 
  A pair of examples will demonstrate this: 
  /korusskasi/ 
  "the captain whom I despise and hate" (Compare:) 
  /kas\gakoi/ 
  "the hated captain" </koruss-/ denotes an attitude which is held 
  by the speaker, the suffix / -ga/ signifies an attitude held generally by 
  society or which is demonstrable to all) 
  As the example shows, the presence of a General Attitude Suffix does not affect the 
  occurrence of the Noble/ Ignoble/Plural suffixes. 
  / -koi/ does not occur with a noun + a 
  Personal Attitude Prefix or a Locative prefix (e. g. 
  / korlisskasi/ , /brusaval/). but /-koi/ 
  must occur with a noun having no prefix but having a General Attitude Suffix (e.g. / kasiga-
  koi/). Further examplest 
  9 
  
  /ba:srimgakoi/ 
  "the hated man" 
  /rn'll.sunba:srimgakoi/ "this hated man" 
  /mss\l,rang'll.ba:srirngayal/ "these two hated men" (/g'll. - / "two" is a Quantifier 
  prefix, while /-ga/ "hated, despised" is a suffix, these are homophones 
  and have no historical or semantic connection) 
  / sava:lsakh/ "the mighty city" </- sa/ 
  "powerful, mighty") 
  /sava:ldllli-kh/ 
  "the large city" </-dllli/ "large, big, great "1 
  the dash is in-
  ser ted to indicate that the suffix is / -dllli/ and not * / -dU/ + / - ikh/) 
  / sava:ldhllli -kh/ "the beautiful city" </-dh'll.li/ "lovely, beautiful") 
  / sava:lni-kh/ 
  "the small city 11 (/-ni/ "small, little ") 
  More than one of this class may occur with one noun, and they may also occur redupli-
  cated to provide extra emphas is . 
  E .g. 
  /ba:srimgagakoi/ "the most hated man" 
  /savalsasakh/ "the very powerful city" 
  /savaldlllidllli -kh/ "the very large city" 
  /savald'll.lidh'll.lisakh/ 
  "the large, beautiful, powerful city" 
  I savalnidhllli-kh/ "the little, pretty city" 
  /brusavaldlllidlllidh'll.lisa/ 
  "in the very large, beautiful, powerful city" (/-kh/ 
  does not occur because of the presence of the Locative Prefix / bru-/ 
  "in") 
  /rnllsunjligapr1°imoltoq\l,tup'll.nt\l.plank61umeldUid'll.lisanikU/ 
  "to that (distant) one 
  most great, mighty, living emperor whom l love, consider omnipotent, 
  and of whom I stand in awe" (heading of an elaborate literary ode to the 
  ernperor 1 /-nikU/ "living" is another General Attitude Suffix) 
  Some of these elements may occur as independent stems, and there is a growing 
  tendency to treat all of these suffixe s as s uc h. The student must learn correct usage from 
  a tutor. E . g. 
  /da:li-n/ 
  "big, large, great" </-n/ is the adjective formant suffix) 
  /dha:li-n/ "pretty, beautiful, lovely" 
  /dha:li-kh/ ''beauty, loveliness" 
  /sa:kh/ "might, power" (a neologism, according to Tsolyani gramma rians) 
  A member of this class of special interest is / -ra/ 
  "contemptible, despicable, 
  ignoble. 11 This suffix may be added to many ~terns denoting persons lo signify either "des-
  picable, contemptible" or else simply "feminine. " In the latter meaning 7-ra/ may be 
  followed by / -koi/ to indicate a noble female or by /-kh/ for a female who is ignoble in 
  status. 
  C f. also Sec. 3. 110 above. 
  E . g. 
  /kasirakoi/ "the contemptible captain" (orr "a captain who is a noble woman") 
  /kolumssankoi/ 
  "prince " (compare.) 
  /kolumssanrakoi/ "princess " (or possibly "prince who is despicable") 
  /gada:lkoi/ "(male) worshipper" (compare:) 
  /gadalrakoi/ "(noble female) worshipper" (and:) 
  /gadalrakh/ 
  "(ignoble male or female) worshipper" 
  3. l 70. 
  THE POSSESSIVE SUFFIX. 
  The second suffix class contains only one member: 
  / - mra/ 
  "of, - ' s . " As in Eng-
  lish, thus, there are two ways of expressing possessionr /hi-/ 
  "of" (a Locative Prefix) 
  and / - mra/ 11- 1 s. " They both mean the same. / -mra/ is tending to become obsolete except 
  with demonstratives and pronouns. E.g. 
  /Msimrako'i/ "the captain's" (equivalent to /hika:si/ "of the captain") 
  /savaldlllimrakh/ 
  "the great city's " (= /hisavaldllli/ "of the great city") 
  /Msirnrakoi brusaval/ "in the captain's city" (= /brusaval hikasi/ "in the 
  city of the captain"1 note the difference in word order) 
  3. 180. THE NOBLE/IGNOBLE/PLURAL SUFFIXES. 
  The last class of noun suffixes contains three members1 / -koi/ 
  "noble," / - ikh/-
  /-kh/ "ignoble," and / - yal/ "plural. " These have been discussed sufficiently above. lt 
  may only be noted that while there are three classes of nouns in the singular (i.e. "noble," 
  "ignoble, 11 and "unclassifiable "). there is only one class in the-pluralr /-ya!/ occurs with 
  all plural nouns. / -yal/ also occurs after nouns which occur with the Locative and Personal 
  Attitude Prefixes, while / -kol/ and /-ikh/- / - kh/ do not. 
  E.g. 
  /Msiyal/ 
  "captains, the captains" 
  10 
  
  /mikkasiyal/ "from the captains" 
  /qurumiktuplankasiyal/ "from all the beloved captains" 
  /mikkasisayal/ "from the powerful captains" 
  /mssuransavaldll.lidll.lisayal/ "these very great, powerful cities" 
  3. 190. 
  NOUN DERIVATION. 
  Any discussion of Tsolyani noun derivational formations is complicated by the fact 
  that many such constructions are very limited in occurrence, of irregular and unpredictable 
  form, and are not actively productive in the modern language1 cf. 
  the discussion in Sec. 
  3. 100 of /ko lum~babll.r / 
  "empire. " Another example which may have caught the student's 
  eye is /kolumssankoi/ 
  "prince," composed of /k6lum/ "to rule" + / -ssan/ 1 the latter ele-
  ment seems to mean "offspring of ... " but it is found in only a few constructions: e.g. 
  /mringussankoi/ "son of a nobleman" (/mrfngukoi/ 
  "high nobleman"). /pachussankoi/ 
  "son of a lord" (/pachukoi/ "lord," a rank lower than that of /mrrngukoi/). 
  it has been stated in preceding sections that some prefixes and suffixes can occur as 
  independent stems (+ the appropriate affixes, of course). These were (a) the Demonstra-
  tives, (b) the Quantifiers, (c) the Personal Attitude Prefixes, and (d) some of the General 
  Attitude Suffixes. On the other hand, the Locative Prefixes, the Possessive Suffix, and the 
  Noble/Ignoble/Plural Suffixes do not appear as independent stems. Further examples are: 
  /tuplanikh/ "loveableness, quality of being loved" (cf. Sec. 3. 150 -- and note 
  the change of stress from secondary to primary when this item assumes 
  independent status) 
  /palikh/ "yesterday" (cf. /pll.1-/ in Sec. 3. 150) 
  /ra'M./ "contemptibleness1 
  ignobility1 
  femininity" (cf. / -ra/ in Sec. 3. 160) 
  As stated in Sec. 3. 110, an abstract noun denoting the verbal action is made by adding 
  /-i'M./-/-'M./ to a stem. The male doer of the action is mad e by adding / -koi/, and the female 
  actor is expressed by a stem + / - rakoi/ (if she be noble) or / - rakh/ (if ignoble). This pro-
  cess is widespread in the language. Further examples: 
  /d(mlalikh/ 
  "the hit, the hitting" (/drmlal/ "to hit, strike, beat") 
  / d(mlalkoi/ "the (noble male) hitter" 
  /dfmlalrakoi/ 
  "the (noble female) 1'itter" 
  /dfmlalrakh/ "the (ignoble male or female) \'>itter" 
  /tuplankoi/ "the (noble male) beloved" 
  /tuplanrakoi/ "the (noble female) beloved" 
  /tuplanrakh/ "the (ignoble male or female) beloved" 
  /rakoi/ "the (noble male) who is contemptible" (a neologism, /rarakoi/ "the 
  (noble female) who is contemptible" and /rarakh/ "the (ignoble male or 
  female) who is contemptible" are possible but not attested) 
  Another construction denoting the actor consists of the stem + / -mo/, a stem formant 
  derived from /moyr/ "to make, do"1 this is used whenever the presence of a Locative Prefix 
  or a Personal Attitude Prefix makes it impossible to add / -koi/ , /-rakoi/ , or /-ra'M./. E.g. 
  /mikgadalmo/ "from the (noble male) worshipper" ('' /mikgadalkoi/ is not 
  possible because of the presence of / mik - / , and /mikgadal/ is ambiguous: 
  it may mean "from the worship" as well as "from the worshipper" --
  /mikgadal/ is indeed found with both meanings in older texts, however) 
  /mikgadalmora/ 
  "from the (female or ignoble) worshipper" (the distinction 
  between a noble female and an ignoble person or thin~ is lost after a pre-
  fix, since it is not possible to add /-koi/ or / -ikh/ -/-kh/) 
  /gadalmokoi/ 
  "the (noble male) worshipper" (= / gadalkoi/1 
  no difference) 
  /molssaingmoyal/ "to those wno eat" (/ssaing/ 
  "to eat") 
  /thamk6lummodll.lisa/ "by the great and powerful (noble) one who rules" 
  The thing or person acted upon is denoted ?y / -mogu/ , perhaps derived historically 
  from the passive construction /moyr gual/ 
  "to be done"1 e.g. 
  /k6lummoguyal/ 
  "those who are ruled" 
  /ssaingmogukh/ "the thing which is eaten, that which has been eaten" 
  /gadalmogukoi/ "the (noble male) who is worshipped: 
  a deity" 
  /mikd(mlalmogu/ 
  "from the one who was hit, from the stricken one" 
  /hipagalmogura/ "of the one (noble female or ignoble person or thing) which 
  was seen" 
  /mll.sunmoyrmoguni-kh/ "this little (thing) which was done" 
  11 
  
  Reasons of space prevent a complete listing of all noun-derivational elements. The 
  following are common and noteworthy, however: 7 - lu/ "the instrument with which one per-
  forms a verbal action"1 / -to/ "the person who performs a verbal action as a profession"1 
  / -kan/ 
  "the place where the verbal action is performed"1 /-gashu/ "the seller of an object"1 
  / -gash<!n/ 
  "the place where an object is sold, a ... shop. " E.g. 
  / vayunlukh/ "key" (/vayun/ 
  "to open": "the instrument with which one opens") 
  /vayuntokh/ 
  "gate-guard, doorkeeper" ("the ignoble person who opens as a 
  profession") 
  / gada'.lkanikh/ 
  "place of worship, shrine" (/gada'.l/ 
  "to worship"1 this is not the 
  usual word for "temple," however) 
  / d!mlallukh/ 
  "mace" (/d!mlal/ "to hit, strike"1 technically, this should de-
  note any striking instrument, but it has become semantically "frozen" in 
  the meaning of "mace") 
  /ssa'.nutokh/ "dancer" (/ssa'.nu/ "to dance"1 i.e. "the ignoble person who 
  dances as a profession") 
  /ma'.rashtokh/ "professional mourner" C/ma'.rash/ "to weep, cry") 
  / ssa'.ingkanikh/ "dining room" (i.e. "the place where one eats") 
  /cha'.rutokoi/ "executioner" (/chliru/ "to impale"; this profession is consi-
  dered honorific in Tsolya'.nu) 
  /cha'.rulukh/ "impaling stake" (i.e. "the instrument with which one impales"; 
  also termed / gushtrakh/, which simply means "post, stake") 
  / purdigashukh/ "fruit-seller" (/purdi-kh/ "fruit") 
  /purdigash<!nikh/ 
  "fruit-shop" (note the strees change) 
  / jayul<!nggll.shukoi/ 
  "armourer" (/ jayul<!n/ 
  "armour"; this profession is also 
  treated as "noble "1 note that final / n/ before a suHix beginning with / g/ 
  tends to become / nng/ (phonetically [ng))J in the writing system, how-
  ever one may find either "-n-g" or "-ng-g-") 
  /)ayul~ngash<!n ikh/ "armourer's shop" 
  /murigash<!nikh/ "sweet-seller's shop" (/muri-kh/ 
  "sweets, candy") 
  Names of nations and peoples are complicated by the existence of ancient "frozen" 
  formations. 
  In Classical Tsolya'.ni, a tribe or nation was denoted by the addition of / -hiylinu/ 
  to a place-name , and the people of that community were then signified by the addition of/-?!/ 
  to this. Thus, /ts61/ (a place name now lost in the mists of history) was made into / ts61-
  hiya'.nu/, and its people were the /ts61-hiya'.nu- e/. In time, these have become / tsolya'.nu/ 
  and /tsolya'.ni/. Similarly, /sala'.rv-hiya'.nu/ has become / salarvya'./ (with the loss of final 
  /-nu/). Sala'.rvu is said to be a place on the shores of Lake Mrissutl. In the case of /ya'.n 
  k6r/ , the / -ya'.nu/ suHix has been dropped entirely, but its people are still the / ya'.n korya'.ni/ . 
  Mu'ugalavya'., named after Lake Mu'uga'.llu, is similarly constructed, with the loss of the 
  final / -nu/ and some further sound changes. In passing, it should be mentioned that some 
  educated Tsolya'.ni attempt to maintain the foreign pronunciation of place- and nation-names; 
  one thus hears / mu'ugalavya'.nggi/ instead of / mu'ugalavya'.ni/, with the Mu'ugalavylini form 
  of / -ya'.ni/. A person from that nation is sometimes called / mu'ugalavylinggish/ , retaining 
  the Mu 1ugalavylini masculine noun ending / - ish/ -/ -sh/. 
  Further noun-derivational formations will be noticed as they occur. 
  3. 200. ADJECTIVES. 
  As has been shown above, 1nany items translatable in English as "adjectives" are 
  found as noun prefixes and suffixes (or "secondary compounding stems, " if one likes) in 
  Tsolya'.ni. Some of these elements occur independently, while others do not. As in English, 
  there are stems which !unction only as nouns (e. ~· /ma'.ni-kh/ "food"), many more which 
  occur as both noun and verb stems (e.g. / gada'.l/ "to worship, the worship"), others which 
  !unction as noun and adjective stems both (e. g. 
  /patha'.i-kh/ "sensual love" and /pathlii-n/ 
  "sensual, lusty, loving"), still others which occur as noun-verb-adjective (e.g. /k6lum/ 
  "to rule, the rule" and /k6luman/ "ruling (adj.)"), and another group which occur as stems 
  of various kinds and also prefixes or suffixes (e.g. /da'.li-kh/ "greatness," /da'.li-n/ "big," 
  and /-dali/ "big (as a noun suHix)"). Usage must be learned by the student. 
  In spoken Tsolya'.ni and in informal written documents, adjectives precede the noun 
  they modify. 
  In the high-flown language of the court and in formal written documents, how-
  ever, adjectives may also follow their noun. Both orders are found in poetry. E.g. 
  /dha'.li-n na'.ti-kh/ "the beautiful room" (spoken or informal, compare:) 
  /nliti-kh dhlili-n/ 
  "the beautiful room" (formal style) 
  12 
  
  3. 210. THE ADJECTIVE FORMANT SUFFIX. 
  Adjectives are made from stems by the addition of /-in/-/-n/-/-an/. SLems ending in 
  a consonant take / - in/1 those ending in a vowel add / -n/1 and a small group ·of "unclassifi-
  able" stems require /-an/. Other than this, adjectives are not "declined": i.e. they need 
  no further affixes in order to "agree" with their noun. This is true also of adjectives used as 
  "predicate complements": e.g. 
  "big" in "the man is big" or "he makes it big." E.g. 
  /gadalin basrimkoi/ "the worshipping man" 
  /gadalin basrimyal/ "the worshipping men" 
  /gadalin molbasrim/ "to the worshipping man" 
  /gadalin molbasrimyal/ "to the worshipping men" 
  /k6luman basrimkoi/ "the ruling man" (/k6luman/ "ruling" is a member of 
  the /-an/ subclass1 "'/k6lumin/ is incorr};tl 
  /shahadan pedhukh/ "the slave-like enemy" (/s ahadan/ "sla vish, .slavelike" 
  is another /-an/ adjective) 
  /mnlanan k6lumel/ "the divine emperor" 
  (/mrtlanan/ "god-like, divine" is 
  another /-an/ adjective) 
  /basrimkoi dali-n gual/ 
  "the man is big" 
  /basrimyal dali- n gual/ "the men are big" 
  /basrimkoi moyr ma sun dali-n/ "the man makes it big" 
  /basrimyal moyr mss6.ran dali -n/ 
  "the men make them big" 
  Adjectives can be used as noun stems and occur with the full range of affixes. E.g. 
  /dalikoi/ "the large (noble male) one" 
  / dalirakoi/ "the large (noble female) one" 
  /dalirakh/ "the large (ignoble male or female) one" 
  /moldali/ "to the large (noble male or inanimate) one" 
  /moldalira/ "to the large (ignoble male or fema le) one" 
  /molt6.planni/ "to the little beloved (noble male or inanimate) one" 
  /molt6.plannira/ "to the little beloved (ignoble male or fema le) one" 
  Adjectives may be compounded and/or reduplicated for emphasis. 
  element in the compound requires the /-in/-/-n/-/-an/ suffix. 
  E.g. 
  Only the last 
  /dUidali-n/ 
  "very large" (note the stress change) 
  /sasan/ "ve7 powerful" 
  / dhll.lidhali-n 
  "very beautiful" 
  /moldhll.lidhali/ "to the very beautiful (noble male or inanimate) one" 
  /mikdUidalisa/ "from the very large, powerful (noble male or inanimate) one" 
  3. 220. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
  Numerals may occur as Quantifier Prefixes (Sec. 3. 150); they are also found inde-
  pendently as nouns and adjectives. 
  As a noun, / pr6./ 
  "one" occurs with the appropriate 
  Noble/Ignoble Prefix and is grammatically singular. Other numerals take / - ikh/-/-kh/ 
  (irrespective of nobility or ignobility) when they denote the totality of a number: e.g. "the 
  six are here"1 they take / -yal/ when they do not signify the totality: e.g. 
  "I saw six (of 
  them)." As adjectives, all numerals occur with / -in/ - /-n/1 none takes / -an/ . 
  There are separate stems for the numerals from one through ten, for each decade 
  (e.g. 
  "twenty, 11 "thirty," "fifty"), and for "hundred," "thousand," "ten thousand," and 
  "million." All other numerals are compound s of these stems: e.g. /gll.bitle/ "sixteen" 
  consists of /gll.bi -/ "six"+ /tle/ "ten. " Multiples of hundreds, thousands, etc. are c om-
  pounds o f a numeral+ the stem for ''hundred, " "thousand , " etc. similarly: e. g. /gll.bi-
  tauknel/ 
  " s ix thousand" consists 0£ /gll.bi - / "six " + /tauknel/ "thousand. " E.g. 
  /,Prlikoi gual/ "there is one (nobl e male)" 
  /thampr6/ ''by one (noble or inanimate)" 
  /gabi-n basrimyal/ "six men" or "the six men" (also / gll.bibasrimyal/, with 
  /gll.bi-/ as a Quantifier Prefix) 
  /gabi-kh gual/ "there are the six" (i.e. there are only six) 
  /gabiyal gual/ "there are six" (i. e. out of a large: number: nontotality) 
  /gll.bitlen basrimyal/ "sixteen men, the sixteen men" 
  (/gll.bitl~basrimyal/ is 
  possible, buL Quantifier Prefixes lar$er than "ten" are not common) 
  /gll.bibnun basrimyal/ "thirty-six men" (/gll.bi-/ "six"+ / bnu/ "thirty" 
  + /-n/) 
  13 
  
  /tll>hrunelin b<!srimyal/ "seventy-five men" (/tlb-/ "five" + /hrunel/ "seven-
  ty"+ /- in/) 
  /gabitauknelin basrimyal/ "six thousand men" (/gabi-/ "six"+ /tauknel/ 
  "hundred"+ /-in/) 
  /gatauknelin, blmriktan, mrihal6n nalUnyal/ 
  "two thousand, three hundred, 
  fifty-four years" (/ga-/ "two, 11 /tauknel/ "thousand," /bl -/ 
  "three," 
  /mrikt<!/ "hundred," /mrl-/ "four," /hal6/ "fifty')' note that all three 
  compounds in this numeral series require / -in/-/-n 1 one may also say 
  /bls~mr umriktan , mr~hal6n nalllnyal/ "twenty-three-hundred, fifty-four 
  years": /bl- / "three," /s~mru- / "twenty, 11 etc.) 
  "One at a time, " "two at a time, " etc. are made by the reduplication of the numeral 
  adjective complete with its /-in/-/-n/ ending. 
  "Each one," "each two," etc. are signified 
  by the reduplication of the stem in compound form, with only the last element followed by the 
  /-in/-/-n/ suffix. E.g. 
  /,Prun prun p<!lli/ "come one by one, one at a time! " 
  /g<!n gan palli/ "come two by two, two at a time!" 
  /pruprun veshukh/ "each house" (lit. 
  "one-one house", there is also a 
  Quantifier Prefix (and hence adjective) stem for "each," however": 
  /hll:>nu-/) 
  /gag<!n veshuyal/ "each two houses" 
  /gabig<!bi-n bruves'huyal/ 
  "in each six houses" 
  Ordinal numeral adjectives are not differentiat ed from the cardinal numerals just dis-
  cussed. The noun occurring with the ordinal numeral is singular, however, while the form 
  used with the cardinals is plural. The only exception to this is the existence of a special 
  stem for "first" (/parshel/) which is different from /pru/ "one." E.g. 
  /gabi-n basrimkoi/ "the sixth man" (cf. /gabi-n b<!srimyal/ 
  "six men") 
  /prulats<!n k6lumel/ "the sixty-first emperor" (cf. /prulatsan k6lumelyal/ 
  "sixty-one emperors") 
  /blmriktan, hrusrmi-n b<!srimkoi/ "the three hundred and forty-seventh man" 
  (cf. /blmriktan, hrusrmi- n basrimyal/ "three hundred and forty-seven 
  men") 
  There are separate stems for "one half, " "one quarter, " and "three quarters. 11 
  Other fractions are made of a prefix /dlen-/ + the numeral stem. !£the following noun is 
  singular, the fraction denotes part of the item or substance1 if the following word is plural, 
  the fraction signifies part of the plurality. E.g. 
  /eshan mniyal/ "half of the stones" (compare:) 
  /eshan mni-kh/ "half of the stone" (a single stone) 
  /narun mniyal/ "one quarter of the stones" 
  /f<!ishun mni-kh/ "three quarters of the stone" (a single stone) 
  /dlentl6n mniyal/ "one fifth of the stones" (/tl6/ "five") 
  /dlensemrun mniyal/ "one twentieth of the stones" 
  /eshakh gual/ "there is one half (of a single unit)" 
  /eshayal gual/ "there are one half (of a plural number)" 
  3. 230. THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE SUFFIXES. 
  The comparative form of the adjective is made by addin$ /-y,al/ to the stem + the 
  adjective formant suffix / -in/-/-n/-/-an/. Phonetically, /-in/ + /-gal/ becomes /-inggal/ 
  ([iogal]). Most written texts do not show this phonetic assimilation, however, and continue 
  to write "n" + "g, " rather than "ng" + "g. " The superlative is made similarly by adding 
  / -galu/ to the stem+ /-in/-/-n/-7-an/. Historically, /gal/ is derived from the Engsvan-
  yali enclitic for "than," and / -galu/ originates in Engsvany<Hi /gal onuo/ "than all -emphatic. 
  11 
  Comparative and superlative adjectives may function as nouns and adjectives by themselves, 
  with the addition of the appropriate affixes. 
  E . g. 
  /masun dhali-nggal masun i;u<:tl/ "she (it) is more beautiful than she (it) (is)" 
  (note that the second /masun/ requires no prefix, /dhali-nggal/ signi -
  fies "more beautiful than, " and the following noun, etc. is simply 
  "nominative" (= with no Locative Prefix) in form) 
  /lum dali-nggal maisur gual/ 
  111 am l<:.rger than he (is)" 
  / lum dalidali-nggal m<!isur gual/ "I am much larger than he (is)" (reduplica-
  tion of the comparative adjective gives greater emphasis) 
  /m~sunveshukh dhali-nggal gual/ "this house is more beautiful" 
  14 
  
  /m~sunv6shukh dh;i:li-nggal m~sunbnulv6shukh gu;i:l/ 
  "this house is more beau-
  tiful than that house" 
  /m~sunv6shukh dh;i:li-nggalu gu;i:l/ 
  "this house is the moat beautiful" 
  /m~sunv6shukh dh;i:li-nggalu mssuranbnulquruv6shuyal gu;i:l/ "this house i s the 
  most beauti!ul o! all those houses" (no word !or "o!" is needed1 /dh<l'.li-
  nggalu/ implies this) 
  /m;i:sun dh<l'.li-nggalin thi;(lakh gu<l'.l/ "she is the more beautiful maiden" (the 
  comparative is used as a true adjective here, and the adjective formant 
  su!!ix must occur at the end1 
  it thus appears twicer once after /dh<l'.li/ 
  and again after /-gal/) 
  /m;i:sun dh;i:li-nggalun thi;i:lakh gu<l'.l/ 
  "she is the most beaitu!ul maiden" {/-n/ 
  occurs a!ter /-galu/ because the superlative is u sed as an adjective) 
  /d;i:li-nggalukoi p<l'.l munr/ "the largest (male noble) one came" 
  / moldh<l'.li- nggalura/ "to the most beautiful (!emale or ignoble) one" 
  3. 300. PRONOUNS ANO DEMONSTRATIVES. 
  The pronominal system of the Kh(shan language family originally seems to have dis-
  tinguished n ine person-number forms: "l, 11 "you (singular)," "he (male -noble)," "she-it 
  (female-ignoble)," "we (indusive), " "we (exclusive)," "you (plural), " "they (male-noble)." 
  and "they (female-ignoble)." 
  No language of this group possesses exactly this system today. 
  Mu'ugalavy<l'.ni, for example, has done away with pronouns entirely and uses the demonstra-
  tives instead: e.g. 
  "I" is expressed as "this-one-here, " "you" as "the-one-opposite," 
  "he" as "that-one-there," etc. Salarvy<l'.ni has four sets of gender-based pronouns: mascu-
  line, feminine, neuter, and divine (i.e. in reference to the gods). 
  Livy;i:ni has masculine 
  and feminine pronoun sets also, but has added classifier affixes for social status and also 
  for physical shapes .. Y<l'.n Koryi:ni has no masculine -feminine distinction but does possess 
  special neuter forms in the third person. 
  It is Tsoly<l'.ni, however, whic h has diversified 
  the ancient system the most1 considerations o! rank and status have led to the development 
  of sets of first and second person pronouns. The old third person pronouns have been dropped 
  entirely, on the other hand, and the demonstratives have taken their place: e.g. there is 
  now no distinction between "he" and "this (male -noble) one"1 only the latter is used. Eac h 
  pronominal and demonstrative set will be discussed below. 
  3. 310. PRONOMINAL SETS. 
  3. 311. THE FIRST PERSON SINGULAR. 
  There are six forms for "l"r 
  /Un/ "I (lowest class, ignoble)" 
  /lu/ "I (low c lass)" 
  /lum/ "l (middle class)" 
  /luk<l'.n/ 
  "I (upper class)" 
  / salum/ "I (noble class)" 
  / kosalum/ "I (the empe ror or empress only)" 
  Correct use of these pronouns implies a clear recognition of one' s place in Tsoly<ini 
  society. This is almost always easy sinc e visible insignia of rank, clan , wealth, and social 
  position abound, Slaves, peasant women and children, and certain very low castes of free 
  men (e. g . latrine sweepers) employ / lrn/ . 
  Higher categories of s laves , m a le peasants, 
  labourers, and others use /16./, The most common form is / lum/, sinc e this is appropriate 
  for middle class Tsoly<l'.ni such as merchants, soldiers, priests , o£!icials of minor status, 
  craftsmen, wealthier peasants, etc. / luki:n/ is employed by wealthier persons: clan-
  chiefs, senior merchants, upper-rank priests, military officers, minor nobility, etc. 
  /salum/ is used by high priests, great nobles, generals, hereditary heads of important 
  clans, imperial bureaucrats of the upper echelons , members of the Imperial family, etc. 
  The pronoun /kosalum/ can be employed only by the emperor or empress1 misuse is a 
  punishable offense. 
  A person may wish to honour (or flatter) a listener of equal or superior rank by 
  c hoosing a pronoun lower than that which is appropriate for him. For example, in a group 
  of people where / !um/ is proper for all, one speaker may elec t to u s e / lu/ for himself in 
  order to show himself as humb.le. Similarly, a middle class person may select / lu/ instead 
  of / !Um/ when addressing a minor noble. Persons for whom / lum/ or even / luk<l'.n/ would 
  be proper may refer to themselve s a s /Id/ or even / Un/ when in conversation with a high 
  noble or a prince of the empire. All p e rsons, without exception, employ / lrn/ when address-
  ing the imperial presence in Avanthi:r. lt may be noted that the converse of this practice is 
  15 
  
  not found: 
  a speaker never uses a pronoun higher than his status permits in order to aggran-
  dise himself1 
  this would simply demonstrate his stupidity and inability to reco~nise his 
  proper social place. A speaker who is entitled to /lum/ therefore never uses /luk<in/, unless 
  his status in the society is increased to the' appropriate rank. Foreigners entering Tsoly;fou 
  should use / lum/ in dealing with most people but should be prepared to employ /lu/ or /lfo/ 
  when confronted with persons of the upper or noble classes. 
  A woman speaking to women employs the same system as men do. 
  When speaking of 
  herself in the presence of male equals, however, she employs a pronoun one rank lower 
  than that appropriate to her status. A middle class woman thus uses /lum/ for "I" when 
  conversing with female equals and inferior males, but when she speaks before males of her 
  own class (i.e. males who use /lum/), she refers to herself as / 16./. A high noble lady 
  s imilarly employs / salum/ before women of her class and male inferiors, but when she 
  speaks to high noble males, she uses / luk<ln/ or even /lum/. There are two exceptions to 
  thisr (1) an Arida'.ni woman (i. e. a woman who has legally declared herself independent of 
  cl.an and family strictures and assumed equal status with males) uses the same pronouns as 
  males do, and (2) an empress always uses / kosalUm/. 
  Certain eastern dialects, such as those around Thra'.ya and Jaikal6r, have further 
  forms for "I. " Under the influence of Salarvya'.ni, perhaps, these dialects have developed 
  two complete series: male-noble versus female-ignoble. The male-noble series is the 
  same as that,iven above. The female-ignoble set consists of: /l!n/ )equivalent to both 
  /l!n/ and /lu in the male set)J . /16n/ (equivalent to /16.m/)J /lutMn 
  (equivalent to /luka'.n/)1 
  and /salutl6n/ (equivalent to /salum/). / kosalUm/ remains the same. The same cultural 
  considerations apply, as in the we st: e.g. 
  a woman who uses /len/ to her female equals and 
  male Inferiors employs /Hn/ before males of her own social class 1 an upper class lady who 
  uses /lutlen/ to her female equals and to her male inferiors employs /l~n/ before males of 
  her own rank, etc. 
  3. 312. THE FIRST PERSON PLURAL. 
  There are only two forms for "we " in Tsolya'.ni: 
  /16.mi/ 
  "we (inclusive)" and / lUma-
  ma/ 
  "we (exclusive). " The former is used when the person spoken to is included in the 
  action, and the latter is employed when that person is excluded. For example, /lumi mule/ 
  "we (inclusive) go" implies that the person spoken to is part of the "we" and will go along, 
  / lumama mule/ 
  "we (exclusive) go" indicate~ that the hearer is not part of the "we" and is 
  not going with the group. 
  The class-based pronoun differentiations found in the singular do not exist in the plu-
  ral. As Tu'unme hiChakotlekka says in his treatise "Atlesudhhliyal hiDarilsa'.nsadhhli hi-
  Kolum<!babhr" (The Beauteous Pronouns of the Powerful and Elegant Language of the lmpe-
  rium)r 
  "In the singular, a man may see himself and know his own rank and status rela-
  tive to others. In the plural, however, men may join together and act, and 
  they may be of various ranks and classes. Shall we then have one pronoun for 
  a group of five men of the middle class and one of noble rank, versus another 
  for four men of the former and two of the latter? To permit diversification 
  would make speech impossible!" [Canto XXXVU, verses 94-98) 
  3. 313, THE SECOND PERSON. 
  It is convenient to treat both singular and plural forms for "you" under the same 
  heading. The Khfshan language family once had only a form for "you (singular)" a,..d another 
  for "you (plural), " as stated above 1 by the time that Tsolya'.ni appears as a dialect of 
  ancient Engsvany<lli, however, various honorific forms had appeared, and these have conti-
  nued to multiply until now there are some thirty-four pronouns for "you" in regular use! In 
  addition to these, the grammarians cite several other forms which are either obsolete or 
  whic h are limited to very special groups or circles. 
  It is first necessary to distinguish "ordinary" pronouns from the "special" ones used 
  to create ce rtain stylistic effects. The former are employed in everyday discourse, the 
  latter add considerations of rank and status. 
  The "ordinary" forms for "you" are: 
  /tsa'.m/ 
  "you (singular, lowest class)" 
  /tlumi/ "you (plural, lowest class)" 
  /tusmi/ "you (singular, middle class)" 
  /tl6.miyel/ "you (plural, middle class)" 
  /tusmidlHi/ "you (singular or plural, upper class)" 
  lo 
  
  /mlsritusmidUi/ "you (singular or plural, noble class)" 
  A person of the lower social orders (i.e. one who uses /lrn/ or /lu/ for "I") address-
  es an equal, male or female, as /tsam/, and if they are,lural, he uses /tlumi/. He calls 
  his superiors /tusmi/, /tusmidllli/, or /mlsritusmidllli according to their status. A man 
  of the middle class speaks to inferiors as /tSam/ or /tlumi/, to equals as /tusmi/ and 
  /tlumiyel/, and to those of higher status as /tusmidllli/ or /mlsritusmidllli/ as they require. 
  Persor.s of the upper and noble classes follow similar patterns. Men and women both use the 
  same status-pronouns for the same types of addressees: e.g. 
  a lady of middle status calls 
  her social equals of either sex /tusmi/ and /tlumiyel/ just as her husband does. 
  There is also the added dimension of familiarity. In the privacy of the bedchamber 
  even a high noble addresses his wife as /tsam/, and she may respond in kind. Amongst 
  intimate family members and retainers he may call her /tusmi/, instead of /mhritusmi-
  dllli/, and she may reply with /tusmi/ or /tusmidllli/ in return. Close friends of both sexes 
  often address one another as /tsam/ or /t6.smi/, irrespective of rank. The beginner must be 
  cautious in applying this principle, and it is proper to ask whether the other person mind" 
  being treated as a familiar or not. 
  Note also that while this practice may be applied tc. 
  equals and inferiors, one cannot use it with superiors. 
  The "special" pronouns are either singular or plural according to context. Some 
  include specific sex reference, but most are usable to members of either sex. They are 
  used to create particular stylistic effects, and the beginner should learn those most useful 
  for his or her lifestyle since to know and use them properly is a mark of good breeding. 
  The recognised "special" pronouns for "you" are: 
  /tsamunga/ "the 'you' of ultimate inferiority": to slaves and the very lJwest 
  social classes as a mark of extreme aversion 
  /tloshuntsam/ "the 'you' of discriminating contempt": to those of any rank 
  who have earned the contempt and hatred of the speaker 
  /keshitsam/ "the 'you' of placid indifference": to social inferiors who appear 
  to be pushing for undeserved respect 
  /Uuntsam/ "the ' you' of pleasurable delight": to a courtesan or concubine 
  with whom one is having a relationship 
  /tsammeri/ "the ' you' of heart's desire": to a lover or beloved 
  /tll.smiketlan/ "the 'you' of polite anonymity": 
  to a respectable-appearing 
  person whose precise social rank cannot be distinguished 
  /tusmingaru/ "the 'you' of honourable youth": to a young man or woman of 
  respectable status, used by an e lder 
  /tll.smichan/ "the 'you' of gentle chiding: to a respectable person whom one 
  wishes to belittle, ridicule, or scold mildly 
  /tusmis!mu/ "the 'you' of wide journeying": to a respectable foreign person 
  /tusmikru/ "the 'you' of courteous alienness": to a nonhuman 
  /tll.smikang/ "the 'you' of martial v ictory": to a soldier or military,officer of 
  the lower ranks (through the rank of /kasikoi/ "captain") 
  /tusmishan/ "the 'you' of perfect piety": to a priest or priestess 
  /tusmiyalu/ "the 'you' of the seeking of the spirit": to a learned elder scholar 
  /tll.smitenga/ "the 'you' of pleasant dealings": to a respected merchant 
  /tll.smitlevu/ "the 'you' of the fealty of many": to a respected clansman or 
  clanswoman, whether of one's own or another clan 
  /dlllnotusmi/ "the 'you' of present service": to one's master or mistress, to 
  a superior officer in the bureaucracy, priesthood, etc. 
  /tsinentusmi/ "the 'you' of continuous respect": to a parent or senior family 
  member 
  /eyultusmi/ "the 'you' of the dispersal of solitude": to a spouse or senior 
  concubine 
  /tll.smire/ "the 'you' of discourse before the people": to persons unknown but 
  of respected status, used in documents and speeches 
  / dlakantl:tsmi/ "the 'you' of obeisance in peace": to persons of the upper 
  class: minor nobles, clan-chiefs, bureaucrats of m iddle rank, etc. 
  /sreletl:tsmi/ "the 'you' of proper admiration": to the wife or senior concu-
  b ine of a person of the upper classes 
  /tl:tsmitlakomelu/ "the 'you' of profound submission": to a person of noble 
  status, a governor, high imperial official, general, etc. 
  /tusmitleshu/ "the 'you' of gentle glory": to a lady of noble status, a wife or 
  concubine of a high noble, an Aridani official, etc. 
  /jageltl:tsmi/ "the 'you' of divine reverence": to a high priest or priestess 
  17 
  
  /qalotusmi/ "the 'you' of eminent splendour": to a member of the imperial 
  family, male or female 
  /toquntusmidalisa/ 
  "the ' you' of awed wonder": to a prince or princess who is 
  an heir to the Petal Throne 
  / srllnosantusmidlUidalisa/ "the 'you' of supernal omnipotence": to the emperor 
  or empress only 
  It can be seen that these forms consist of the pronoun bases /tsam/ and /tusmi/ + 
  various compound elements. 
  Two of the latter are clearly the General Attitude Suffixes 
  /-dali/ 
  "great" and / -sa/ "powerful, mighty. " The majority are derived from ancient 
  Bednalljan Salarvy<foi or from Engsvany<Hi and are not otherwise active in the modern lan-
  guage. 
  Thus, for example , /dzagg1H/ once denoted a high post in the sacerdotal hierarchy 
  of the Engsvan hla G:inga empire, but in modern Tsolyani / jag•H-/ occurs only in the 
  "special pronoun" / jageltusmi/ "the 'you' of divine reverence" used to a high priest or 
  priestess (but cf. Sec. 3. 320 below). 
  3. 320. DEMONSTRATIVES. 
  As has been stated, the old third person p r onouns have disappeared entirely, and the 
  demonstratives for "this" and "these" now also serve for "he, 11 "she, 11 "it, 11 and 11they. '' 
  Two of these forms have been seen as noun prefixes in Sec. 3. 120, but when used indepen-
  dently, several others occur: 
  /masun/ "this" (ignoble or female)~', "he, she, it (ignoble or female)" 
  /mssuran/ "these (ignoble or female)"1 
  "they (ignoble or female)" 
  /maisur/ "this (noble male)"1 "he (noble male)" 
  /mssuri/ "these (noble m ale)"; "they (noble male)" 
  /komaisur/ "this (high noble male or female)"; "he, she (high noble male or 
  female)" 
  /komssuri/ "these (high noble ma le or female)"1 
  "they (high noble male or 
  fema le)" 
  /srllnosanmaisurdalidalisa/ "he, s he (the emperor or empress only)" 
  The demonstrat ive for "that" is made by adding / -onul/ to the stems for "this, " and 
  "that (over there)" consists of these same stems t / -jaga/. The plurals are made similarly. 
  Cf. Sec. 3. 120. In collo9uial speech, / -onul/. becomes just / -o/ , and / - jaga/ i s shortened 
  to /-ja/ (in the west) or / -je/ (east of the Missuma River). E.g. 
  /masunonul/ 
  "that (ignoble or female)"1 
  "he, she, it (ignoble or female)" 
  (colloquial: /masuno/) 
  /mssuranonul/ "those (ignoble or female)"; "they (ignoble or £<>male)" 
  (colloquialr /mssurano/) 
  /maisuronul/ 
  "that (noble male)"; 
  "he (noble male)" (colloquial: /maisuro/ ) 
  /maisurjaga/ "that (noble male over there)"; "he (noble male over there)" 
  (colloquial /maisurja/ or /maisurje/) 
  /komssuriyonul/ "those (high noble male or female)"1 
  "they (high noble male 
  or female)" (colloquial: 
  / komssuriyo/ 1 note tha t / i/ + / o/ = /iyo/) 
  Neither / -onul/ or /-j'Aga/ can be added to the pronoun denoting the emperor or emp-
  ress. however. 
  Further honorific demonstratives are employed by the c ourtiers o f the palace at 
  Avanthar1 these are made by adding the compound elements seen in Sec. 3. 313 to the demon-
  strative stems1 e.g. /k9maisurtleshu/ 
  "she (of a high noble lady), " /jagelmaisur / 
  "he 
  (of a high priest)," etc. Most Tsolyani consider these forms to be overly affected, however, 
  and the student need not learn them. 
  3. 330. AFFIXES OCCURRING WITH THE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVES. 
  Nouns, pronouns, demonstratives, adjectives, etc. are a ll really subclasses of a 
  larger major word class which may be termed "substantives. " Thus, both pronouns and 
  demonst ratives are found with certain of the affix classes seen above. 
  The Quantifier Pre -
  fixes (Sec. 3. 130) have a limited use with these forms1 the Locative Prefixes (Sec. 3~140) 
  are common1 the Personal Attitude Prefixes and the General Att itude Suffixes (Secs. 3. 150 
  and 3. 160) are also sometimes found1 and the Possessive Suffix (Sec. 3. l 70) is the most 
  usual way of making a possessive adject ive out of a pronoun, and it also occurs with the 
  demonstratives. 
  The Quantifier Prefixes occur with the plural pronouns and demonstratives meaning 
  18 
  
  "all of ... , " "some of ... , " etc. 
  The same meanings may be expressed by constructions 
  employing the possessive affixes /-mra/ "-'s" and 7hi -/ 
  "of." E.g. 
  /qurutlumi/ "all of you" (lowest class; also /tlumimra quruyal/ "your all" 
  or /q,uruyal hitlumi/ "all of you" with /hi-/ "of") 
  /bll.rulumi/ "many of us" (inclusive; also /lumimra buruyal/1 /buruyal hi-
  lumi/ is possible but not considered elegant since /hi-/ "of" is rare 
  with the first person pronouns) 
  /yUUmssuri/ "none of these, them" (noble males also: /mssurimra yallikoi/ 
  or /yalUkoi himssuri/1 /-koi/ is required because the referent is an 
  honorific male) 
  /hl1>nkomssuri/ "any of these, them" (high noble male or female1 /komssuri-
  mra hl6nkoi/ or /hl6nkoi hikomssuri/ are also possible) 
  /prumssuran/ "one of these, them" (ignoble or female1 also /mssuranmra 
  prukh/ or /prukh himssuran/) 
  /gllbitl~mssuranbnul/ "sixteen of those, them" (ignoble or female; also 
  /mssuran1>nulmra gllbitleyal/ or /gllbitleyal himssuranbnul/) 
  /hal1>lumama/ "fifty of us" (exclusive; also /lumamamra hal6yal/1 /hal6yal 
  hilumama/ is possible but inelegant1 cf. /burulumi/ above) 
  Pronouns and demonstratives occur with the affix classes listed above much as nouns 
  do. The Personal Attitude Prefixes and the General Attitude Suffixes are infrequent, however, 
  and /-dllli/ "great" and / -sa/ "mighty" are not found after those forms which already con-
  tain these suffixes (e.g. /tusmidllli/ "you (singular or plural , upper class)." E . g. 
  /mollum/ "to me" (middle class) 
  /tlalum/ 
  "me" (middle class1 direct object of a transitive verb) 
  /lummra/ "my" (middle class; /hilum/ 
  "of me" is less idiomatic) 
  /thamtusmi/ "by you" (singular, middle class) 
  /pagmasun/ "with this, him, her, it" (ignoble or female) 
  /pagmaisurdllli/ "with this, him, the great one" (noble male: 
  lit. 
  "with-him-
  .grea t"1 it is difficult to translate such forms directly into Englis h) 
  /mikkomaisursa/ "from this, him, her, the mighty one" (high noble male or 
  female1 cf. the preceding example) 
  /chalutsam/ "for you" (singular, lowest class) 
  /qurubrumssurike/ "in all of these, them, the brave ones" (noble male; / -ke/ 
  "brave, heroic" is a General Attitude Suffix) 
  /moltuplanmssurandhl!lidhllli/ "to these, them, the beloved and very beauti-
  ful ones" (ignoble or female) 
  /ssyisrlinosanmaisurdlllidl!lisa/ "like him, her" (the emperor or empress) 
  3. 400. ADVERBS. 
  Several small classes which function as modifiers of adjectives or of predicates may 
  be described under this general heading. 
  Two common adjective modifiers are: / burr/ "very" (cf. /buru/ "many, much") 
  and / nail!/ "quite, rather, somewhat, -ish"1 e.g. 
  /burr dali-n/ "very large" (roughly = / dl!lidali-n/ ) 
  /nail! dali-n/ "quite large, somewhat large, biggish" 
  Negative adverbs precede the verb stem. These include: /ya/ "no, not" (western1 
  /yala/ is used in the east)i this negates statements about past or present time. /tha/ "no, 
  not" negates statements about future time and also imperatives and conditionals. There are 
  three forms for "never": /yal/Jn/ (past time), /thalUn/ (future time), and /yathal!ln/ (both 
  past and future time: all time). E.g. 
  /lum ya mule/ 
  "I do not go" (eastern: / !Um yala mule/) 
  /lum ya mule munr/ "l did not go" (eastern: /lum yala mule munr/J 
  / lum ya mule dopal/ "I am not going" (eastern: /!Um yala mule dopal/; 
  /dopal/ "present continuous time" is a verbal aspect indicator) 
  /lum mal ul $Ual tha mule/ "l will not go" 
  / tha muleli! / 
  "do not,o!" (to a s ingle person) 
  /lum yaH:ln mule munr 
  "I never went" 
  /lum mal ul gual thalUn mule/ 
  "1 will never go" 
  /lum yathalUn mule/ "l never went and will not go" (/yathalUn/ negates the 
  statement for the past, the present, and for all time to come) 
  /lum tha mule bapal/ "I may not go" (conditional) 
  19 
  
  Various adverbs of place and time require no special affixes. Some occur with the 
  Locative PrefLxes. E.g. 
  /dahlte/ "here" 
  /on6tl/ "there" 
  /jagetl/ "over there" 
  /eru/ "now" 
  /orll/ "then, at that time" 
  /ngeru/ "sometimes" (repeated, /ngeru ngeru/ means "once in awhile") 
  /etlU/ "again, another time" 
  /mikdahlte/ 
  "from here" 
  /kener,u/ "up to now, as yet" 
  /tu'or!J./ "after then" (note the glottal stop between a prefix ending in a vowel 
  and a stem beginning with one) 
  /bru'on6tl/ "in there" (cf. the preceding example) 
  Another type of adverb consists of a stem t the adjective formant suffix / - in/- / - n/-
  / -an/ (Sec. 3. 210). Amongst these are various unique stems, some common time words , 
  and a number of items derived from the Locative Prefixes. Some of the time word stems 
  are considered nouns, and when a Locative Prefix occurs, the adjective formant suffix is 
  dropped, adverbs made from the Locative Prefixes themselves do not drop the /-in/-/-n/-
  /-an/, however, after another Locative Prefix. Some e xamples will make this clear. 
  /tatlan/ "also" (a unique stem1 * /tatla/ is not otherwise found) 
  /tsrn/ "back, again" (as in "to give back, " "come back"; another unique item) 
  /pazhan/ "forever" (another unique item1 /prazhurikh/ 
  "eternity" is histo-
  rically related) 
  /parshen/ "at first" (another unique stem, undoubtedly related to /parshelin/ 
  "first, " an ordinal numeral) 
  /dhun/ "down, below" (cf. the Locative Prefix /dhu-/ "under, beneath") 
  /s6min/ "above, up" (cf. the Locative Prefix /som-/ "upon, on, above") 
  /J.>agin/ "along, in accompaniment" (cf. /pag-/ "with, accompanying") 
  /tun/ "afterwards, later" (cf. /tu-/ "after") 
  /chen/ "before, previously" (cf. /che-/ ''before, prior to") 
  /brun/ "inside" (cf. /bru-/ "in") 
  /tsfren/ "outside" (/tslre-/ "out of" is another Locative Prefix) 
  /zhulin/ "tomorrow" (/zh\>:l-/ is a Personal Attitude Prefix, and / zhulikh/ 
  functions as a noun) 
  /palin/ "yesterday" (/pal-/ is another Personal Attitude Prefix, and / palikh/ 
  is a noun) 
  /tsomun/ "at dawn" (/tsomu-/ is yet another Personal Attitude Prefix, and 
  /tsomukh/ is a noun) 
  /hagi-n/ "daily" (/hagi-/ is only rarely a Personal Attitude Prefix, but 
  /hagi-kh/ is a frequently found noun denoting "day") 
  Some examples of the foregoing with Locative Prefixes: 
  /kenpazhan/ "until forever" (the /-n/ is retained with this stem) 
  /mikdhun/ "from below" (the /-n/ is kept here also since this item is made 
  from a Locative Prefix itself) 
  /mikbrun/ "from inside" (cf. the preceding example) 
  /moltsfren/ 11to the outside" (cf. the preceding examples) 
  /kenzhul/ "until tomorrow" (this stem is treated more as a regular noun and 
  hence loses its ending after a Locative Prefix) 
  /tupal/ "after yesterday" (cf. the preceding example) 
  /bruhagi/ "during the day" (cf. the preceding example) 
  The stem /jabr/ denotes "time. " With the Quantifier Prefixes and t the adjective 
  formant suffix /-n/, one obtains "once," "twice, 11 "three times, 11 "many times, 11 etc. 
  Note 
  that /jabr/ does not s ignify "time" as an abstract, this is /tlaq61ikh/. E.g. 
  /J.>rujabr-n/ 
  "once" 
  /gajabr-n/ "twice" 
  /tlejabr-n/ "ten times 11 
  /burujabr-n/ "many times" 
  /qurujab!-n/ "all times, always" (there is also another word for "always": 
  /hruvan/, a unique stem t /-n/) 
  /yal!J.jab!-n/ 
  "(at) no time" (cf. the words for "never" above) 
  20 
  
  Another stem which occurs only in adverbial compounds is / -mon/ 
  "way, fashion. " 
  This form is found with certain Quantifiers and also with modified forms of the demonstra-
  tives. Historically, it is derived from /mu'6nikh/ "way, means, method." ~· g. 
  /masmon/ "this way, in this fashion, thus" (ori$inallyr / mll.sunmu'6nin/?) 
  /6mon/ "that way, in that fashion, thus" (from /mll.sunbnulmu'6nin/?) 
  /jamon/ "that other way, in that (distant) fashion" (from /mll.sunjll.gamu'6nin/?) 
  /ssumon/ "which way, in which fashion?" (cf. /ssumim/ "how?" below) 
  /hl6nmon/ "any way, in any fashion" 
  /prumon/ "one way, in one fashion" 
  /qurumon/ "all ways, in all fashions, by all means" 
  A derivational prefix, /ne-/, is used to create adverbs from many noun and adjective 
  stems. This may be considered the equivalent of English "-ly. " E.g. 
  /nela/ "well" </-la/ "good, useful" is a General Attitude Suffix1 /lan/ "good, 
  useful" is an adjective, and / lakh/ "goodness, utility" is a noun) 
  /nebussa/ ''badly, evilly" (/bussa/ functions mainly as an adjective and noun 
  stem: / bussan/ 
  ''bad, evil," and / bussakh/ 
  ''badness, evil") 
  /nemor€1/ 
  "immediately, at once 11 (cf. /mor€likh/ "immediacy" and /mor€1in/ 
  "immediate") 
  /nesani/ "truly" (/c!. /sani-kh/ "truth" and /sani-n/ "true") 
  /neogru/ "falsely" (colloquial also /nogru/1 cf. /ogroikh/ "falsity, falsehood, 
  lie" and /ogrun/ "false") 
  /neshorun/ "generally, ordinarily" (cf. /shorunikh/ "ordinariness, common-
  ness" and /shorunin/ "general, common, ordinary") 
  Various adverbial constructions defy easy analysis and must be considered "irregu-
  lar." E.g. 
  /marashan/ "sadly, sorrowfully" (cf, /marash/ "to weep, cry, 11 /marashin/ 
  "sad, sorrowful, "and /marash6ngikh/ "tear (lachrymal)") 
  /yapral€/ 
  "anyhow, anyway" 
  /rrl "so" (an adjective modifier: e.g. / rr dhali-n/ "so beautiful") 
  3. 410. INTERROGATIVES. 
  The question-words are a mixed lot in Tsolyani. Some are true adverbials (i.e. 
  predicate modifiers), while others might better be considered a special subclass of nouns. 
  The Locative Prefixes (but no other noun affix classes) are found with various members of 
  this group, and the adjective formant suffix also occurs with several of them. 
  Only adverbial usage is found for /d€pu/ "why? " No affixes occur with this form. 
  E.g. 
  /tsam d€pu mule/ "why do you go?" 
  As an adverb, /ssumim/ denotes "how?" With the adjective formant suffix, this 
  element signifies "what kind of, what sort of?" E.g. 
  /tsam ssumim mule/ 
  "how do you go?" 
  / ss.imimin basrimkoi/ 
  "what kind of man?" 
  /mssuri ssumimin basrimyal gual/ "wha t sort of men are they?" 
  The stems / f€nul/ "where?" and /mara~l/ "when?" occur as adverbs but may also 
  be found with the Locative Prefixes. /ssumon/ "which way, in which fashion?" also be-
  longs to this group. E.g. 
  /tsam f€nul mule/ "where do you go? .. 
  /mikf€nul/ "from where, whence?" 
  /tsam marakal mule/ "when do you go?" 
  /kenmarakal/ "up until when?" 
  /thamssumon/ ''by which means, by which method?" 
  Certain other interrogative stems are noun- like: they are found as the subjects of 
  sentences, with the Locative Prefixes, with the adjective formant suffix, etc. -- but they 
  cannot be pluralised, nor do they occur with the Personal Attitude Prefixes or the General 
  Attitude Suffixes. These includer /harri/ "who?" /zhur/ "what?" /changil/ "which?" 
  and /d~ate/ "how much, how many? 11 E.g. 
  /harri mule/ 
  11whO goes? II 
  /molharri/ "to whom?" 
  Zl 
  
  /harrimra/ "whose ? 11 (less commonly: /hiharri/ "of whom?") 
  /harri-n basrimkoi/ "which man?" (/harri/ + the adjective formant suffix /-n/ 
  denotes "which (of persons)? "1 
  cf. /changil/ for "which (of ignoble or 
  inanimate objects)?" below) 
  /zhur dlara/ "what comes forth?" (/dlara/ 
  "to emerge, go out, come out") 
  /bruzhur / 
  "in what?" 
  /thamzhur / 
  ''by what, with what?" 
  /zhurin chenukh/ "what thing?" 
  /changil pal/ 
  "which (one) comes? " (inanimate or ignoble) 
  /hichangil/ "of which?" (alsor /changilmra/ lit. 
  "which' s ") 
  /changilin brukardene/ 
  "in which place?" C/kardenekh/ 
  "place, location") 
  /deste mule/ "how many go?" (no /-yal/ "plural" is needed) 
  /brudeste/ 
  "in how muc h, in how many?" 
  / desten bruhasu/ 
  "in how much money?" (="at what price?") 
  /desten mikbasrimyal/ 
  "from how many men?" 
  To digress somewhat, it may be noted that / deste/ 
  "how much, how many?" is re-
  lated to two non-interrogative stems: /heste/ 
  "this much, this many" and / meste/ 
  "as much 
  as, as many as." These also occur with the Locative Prefixes and the adjective formant: e.g. 
  /heste mal ul gual pal/ "this many will come" 
  /lum panjang mssuri, hesten tlabasrimyal/ "I want this many men" 
  /mesten basrimyal pal, lum panjang qurutlamssuri/ "as many men come, I 
  want all of them" 
  /heste/ and /meste/ are clearly related to the demonstratives. "That many," and 
  "as many as that" are expressed by /hestbnul/, /hestejll.~a/ , /mestbnul/, and /mestejll.ga/. 
  In the colloquial one finds /hesto/, /hes)a/ or /hes)e/, /mesto/, and /mesja/ or /mesje/. 
  / de ste/ , however, does not occur with /-bnul/ or /-jll.ga/. 
  The interrogative stems also occur reduplicated in compounds. These constructions 
  give a d istributive sense: e.g. / harri/ 
  ''who?" but / hll.rriharri/ 
  "who (distributive plural). 
  whic h (various persons)?" Further examples: 
  / mssuri marakalmarakal mal ul gual pal/ 
  "at which various times (lit. 
  when-
  when) will they (noble male) come?" 
  / tusmi pagal munr mssuri, tlahll.r.riharri/ 
  "which various persons (lit. whom-
  whom) did you see?" 
  /mssuran molfenulfenul mule munr/ "which various places (lit. to where-
  where) did they (ignoble or female) go?" 
  3. 500. 
  VERBS. 
  In its simplest form the Tsolyi!:ni verb consists of a single stem1 this denotes a pre-
  sent general indicative time: "comes," "goes," etc. There are no inflections for person or 
  number, and verb morphology comprises only (a) a series of prefixes expressing such con-
  cepts as "reflexive," "reciprocal, " etc. and also the way in which the action is done1 
  (b) the 
  imperative suffixes, and (c) various derivational suffixes. Tense-aspec t indicators are then 
  added as separate word units. 
  There are two basic classes of verbs: intransitive and transitive. The former com-
  prise those which cannot take a direct object: e.g. "to come, " "to sleep, " "to rise. " The 
  latter include those which may occur with a semantic direct object: e.g. "to hit (someone 
  or something)." "to see (someone or something). " "to cut (someone or something). 11 etc. 
  Intransitive verbs "may occur alone as complete predicates. E.g. 
  /1Um pal/ "I come" (NB. the social class status of pronouns and demonstra-
  tives will no longer be given for reasons of space and clarity) 
  /maiSur mule/ 
  11he goes II 
  /mssuran zurne/ "they sleep" 
  Transitive verbs, on the other hand, are usually considered incomplete predicates 
  without the expression of a direct object. Indeed, the Tsolyani grammarians state that a 
  transitive verb must ALWAYS be followed by a pronominal or demonstrative object, EVEN 
  WHEN A FURTHER NOUN OBJECT IS EXPRESSED. Thus, in order to say 111 see the man," 
  one must say literally "I see him, the man" (/him pagal maisur, tlabasr1m/ ). "I eat the 
  food" is similarly "I eat~. the food" (/him ssaing masun, tlamani/ ). 
  In fact, however, even a cursory examination of a Tsolyani text will show that this 
  "obligatory rule" is not always obeyed. Many instances will be found in which a transitive 
  22 
  
  verb is followed only by a noun object, and no demonstrative object occurs. There are also 
  cases (comparatively few) in which a transitive verb has no overt object at all. This does 
  not mean that such sentences are "incorrect," although traditional grammarians such as 
  Messniu Bad<trian or Chanyav<tssa Vimululy<inga would say so, it simply implies that these 
  scholars have not discovered the complex semantic-syntactic relationships operative here. 
  Although much more analysis remains to be done, the present writer feels that a roughly 
  adequate statement might be as follows: 
  strongly declarative utterances -- those the speaker 
  consid"rs important, crucial to his message, and complete and independent foci within his 
  discourse -- do require a pronominal or demonstrative object even when a noun object is 
  also expressed1 on the other hand, those utterances which are not emphatic, not strongly 
  declarative, and just minor parts of the narrative may or may not have a pronominal or 
  demonstrative object, particularly when a noun object is also provided. Colloquial Tsoly<ini, 
  especially the urban lower class dialects and also certain regional variants in the west under 
  the influence of Mu'ugalavy<ini, tend to omit more of these pronominal or demonstrative 
  objects than do other forms of the language. 
  If the object is a pronoun (i.e. "me," "'us, 11 or "you" in all their various forms), 
  the Locative Prefix /tla - / 
  "direct object indicator" usually occurs. If the object is a demon-
  strative (i.e. 
  "him," "her , " "it, " "them," "this, 11 "that, 11 "these," or 11those 11 in all their 
  variants), AND NO NOUN OBJECT FOLLOWS, then / tla-/ is also generally found, although 
  it may be omitted in a non- emphatic utterance. If both a demonstrative and a noun object 
  are provided, then / tla-/ NEVER occurs with the former but always with the latter. If 
  there are more than one noun object, or if noun objects are in apposition to one another (i. e. 
  refer to the same referent). then / tla-/ occurs with all of these nouns. 
  E . g. 
  /lum pag<il/ "l see" (unusual alone as a declarative utterance except in some 
  lower class or regional dialects, such an utterance can be found occasi-
  onally, however, as an unemphatic, minor part of a continuing narrative) 
  /lum pag<il tlam<isun/ 
  111 see her, it" </tla -/ is optional if the utterance is 
  non-emphatic) 
  / lum pag<il tlam<iisur/ 
  111 see him" (again, / tla -/ is optional, c!. above) 
  / !Um pag<il tlab<fsrim/ 
  "l see the man" (non-emphatic and not a major declara-
  tive utterance1 compare:) 
  / lum pag<fl m<lisur, tlab<isrim/ 
  "I see the man" (lit. 
  111 see him, the man"; 
  this is the "normal" declarative form, and this is wha t a Tsoly<lni infor-
  mant would reply to the question, "How do you say, 'l see the m an'?") 
  / lum pag<tl tlatusmi/ "I see you" (/tla-/ is normal with the first and second 
  person pronouns1 cf. also:) 
  / lum pag<fl tladlak<intl:lsmi/ "l see you (to persons of the upper classes)" 
  /m<iisur pag<il tlahim/ "he sees me" (/tla-/ is usual) 
  /lum pag<fl mssuran., tlabUm1yal/ "I see the children" (lit, "l see them, the 
  children"1 /mssuran/ must agree with the noun object referent in num-
  ber and nobility-ignobility) 
  /lum pag<il mssuri, tlab<fsrim l~l tlabUnu/ 
  "l see the man and the child" (the 
  "noble male" form /mssuri/ must occur if any one of the objects is a 
  member of the "noble male" class, even if all of the other objects are 
  ignoble or feminine) 
  / lum pag<il m<iisur. tlakagesh tlak<isi/ 
  111 see Kagesh the captain" (/kagesh/ 
  "Kag~sh (a man's name)" and / k<isi/ 
  "captain" are "in apposition" since 
  they both refer to the same person1 
  / tla-/ must occur with both nouns) 
  / !Um pag<fl m<fsun, d<ili-n tlasav<il/ 
  "I see the great city" (or: /tlasav<fl 
  dali-n/ 1 /tla -/ does not occur, of course, with adjective modifiers) 
  / tusmi tlah<irri pag<fl m<iisur/ "Whom do you see?" (or: / tusmi pag<il m<fisur, 
  tlah<irri/. The interrogatives often precede the verb, and in such cases 
  the demonstrative object (/maisur/) may be omittedr /tusmi tlah<irri 
  pag<il/1 colloquial Tsoly<ini also permits / tusmi pag<fl tlaMrri/ as a 
  normal independent question) 
  3. 510. VERBAL PREFIXES. 
  There are six classes of prefixes which may occur with verb stems. Theoretically, 
  it is possible for one member of each of these classes to occur with a given verb stem and 
  thus produce lengthy constructions with very involved meanings, but in fact most of these 
  prefixes are rather rarely employed, and then one finds only one or two of them with any 
  given verb stem in the modern language. Grammarians, who delight in such displays of 
  erudition, can produce such monstrosities as / hesvunokudonkh.:>tsok6/ 
  "to cause (some 
  persons) to seat one another forcefully for one's own benefit in a noble way. 11 The student 
  23 
  
  can safely ignore such pedantry1 to the best of the present writer's recollection, forms with 
  more than three of these prefixes are extremely rare even in such a difficult epic as the 
  "Lament to the Wheel of Black" or the "Windsong Canticle. " The prefix classes are: 
  3. 511. THE REFLEXIVE AND THE RECIPROCAL. 
  The first class contains only two members: /se-/ "action upon oneself" and /hes-/ 
  "action upon one another. " E.g. 
  /sed(mlal/ 
  "to hit oneself" 
  /sepag<H/ "to see oneself" 
  /sesrrsa/ "to cut oneself" 
  /hesdfmlal/ "to hit one another, each other" 
  /hespag<H/ "to see one another" 
  /hespurdal/ "to fight one another" 
  /hes fa 'ar / 
  "to meet one another" 
  Since the semantic object is· contained within the verbal prefix, these forms are 
  grammatically intransitive and do not require an object pronoun or demonstrative. For em-
  phasis, however, one may add /she/ "emphatic enclitic" to the subject of a reflexive verb, 
  and similarly /bubrasin/ "one another, each other" (/bubras/ + the adjective formant suffix 
  / -in/ used as a sort of adverb) may occur with the reciprocal verb. Thus, for example: 
  /lum she sedrmlal/ "I hit myself" (orr /lurn she/ with no stress on /she/, a 
  less emphatic forrn1 /lurn sedfrnlal/ is complete in itself, however) 
  /maisur she sepagal/ "he sees himself" (again, /maisur sepagal/ is a com-
  plete utterance) 
  /rnssuri bubrasin hesdrmlal/ "they hit one another" (/mssuri hesd(rnlal/ is 
  a complete sentence, and /bubrasin/ simply emphasises the reciprocal 
  action) 
  /lumi bubrasin tha hespurdal bapal. / 
  "we may not (might not, should not) 
  fight one another" 
  3. 512. THE CAUSATIVE. 
  The second order of prefixes contains only one memberr /vu-/ "causative. " This 
  prefix indicates that the actor causes the acti_on of the verb to be performed by some third 
  person. If the third person is expressed, he (she, etc.) is marked by /tham-/ "by, with." 
  E.g. 
  /vud!mlal/ "to cause to be beaten, to cause (someone) to beat (somebody)" 
  /vupagal/ "to cause to see" (hence: "to show") 
  /vufa '<fr'/ "to introduce" (lit. 
  "to cause to meet") 
  /lum tharnvrsum vudrmlal rnaisur, tlabasrim/ "l have the man beaten by the 
  servant" (/vrsumikh/ "servant") 
  /lum vupagal tlatusrni, tlakorun/ "I show you the book" (lit. 
  "I cause you to 
  see the book"1 in the case of such a "double direct object, " the demon-
  strative pronoun for the second object may be omitted1 one can also say 
  /lum vupagal tlatusmi m<isun, tlakorun/, however) 
  /lum vufa'ar tlatusmi masun, lummra tla'anu/ "l introduce you to my mother" 
  (lit. 
  "I cause you to meet her, my mother"1 when the second object is a 
  person there "is a greater chance of the demonstrative object occurring) 
  /lum thambalutsanyal vuhrichai mssdran, tlajemaruyal/ 
  "1 have the buildings 
  built by the workmen" </balutsanikh/ "workman," /hrichai/ "to build, " 
  /jemarukh/ "building, edifice") 
  3. 513. THE TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE FORMANTS. 
  The third prefix class contains only two membersr /no-/ and /ts111-/. The former 
  is used to transform a basically intransitive verb stern into a transitive one, and the latter 
  does exactly the reverse: it turns a transitive stem into an intransitive verb. While / no-/ 
  is fairly frequent, examples of /ts/11 -/ are less common. The occurrence of these prefixes 
  is rather unpredictable, and Tsolyani sometimes also exhibits pairs of quite different stems, 
  one transitive and a quite different one for the corresponding intransitive meaning. E.g. 
  /nochakul/ "to raise, lift, _pick up" (/chakul/ "to rise, get up") 
  /nohapal/ "to lay down" (/hapal/ To lie down") 
  /notsok6/ "to seat (someone)" !/tsok6/ "to sit down") 
  /nozhagu/ "to drop, knock down" (/zhagu/ "to fall") 
  24 
  
  /tslllvayun/ "to open (by itself). come open" (/vayun/ "to open (somethfng)") 
  /tsllldhalur / 
  "to close (by itself), go shut" (/dhalur / 
  "to close (something)") 
  /shagain/ "to climb (something)" (but cf. /nimu€1/ "to climb,. ascend, go 
  up"1 this is a case where the transitive and intransitive verbs are com-
  pletely different stems) 
  /lum notsok6 mssuri, tlachogunyal/ "I seat the guests" (/chogunkoi/ "guest") 
  /ts6nikh tsllldhalur / 
  "the door goes shut, shuts by itself" (/ts6nikh/ "door") 
  3. 514. THE INTENSIVE. 
  This class contains only one member: /ku-/ "intens ive." This prefix indicates 
  that the action of the verb is performed violently, intensively, or emphatically. 
  E . g. 
  /kudrmlal/ "to hit violently" (/drmlal/ "to hit, strike") 
  /kuchik6r/ "to break to pieces, smash" (/chik6r/ "to break") 
  /kumissum/ "to slay violently" (/missum/ "to kill") 
  /kudaunar/ "to twist off, wrench" (/daunar/ 
  "to twist, turn, screw") 
  /kusrrsa/ "to cut violently, slash, chop" (/srfsa/ 
  "to cut") 
  This prefix is becoming rather rare, and constructions with it tend to be "frozen" 
  formations. The student th-..s cannot prefix / ku-/ freely to any verb stem. 
  3. 515. THE BENEFACTIVES. 
  There are two members in this class: /Wn - / 
  "action done for someone else's bene-
  fit, action away from the speaker" and /don- / 
  "action done for one's own benefit." 7 hese 
  elements are almost obsolete in modern Tsolyani, and they are now restricted largely to 
  archaic literary texts. Occasionally a speaker may use them, however, for special empha-
  s is . 
  E . g. 
  /lllnmoyr/ "to do (for someone else's benefit)" 
  /donmoyr/ "to do (for one's own benefit)" 
  /vudonpagal/ "to show (for one's own benefit)" (/vu-/ 
  "causative") 
  /lllntlakatl/ "to give away, hand over (for someone else's benefit)" 
  /maisur selllnhurudai/ "he martyrs himself (for the benefit of another)" 
  /lum donvayun masun, tlats6n/ 
  111 open the door (for my own benefit)" 
  /lum lllnvayun masun, tlats6n/ "1 open the door (for someone else's benefit)" 
  3. 516. THE ATTITUDE PREFIXES. 
  This class contains some twenty to thirty members. 
  These elements indicate the 
  way the action is performed (in the opinion of the speaker), and various members are clearly 
  derived historically from the Personal Attitude Prefixes and the General Attitude Suffixes 
  seen with nouns (Secs. 3. 150 and 3. 160 above). In modern Tsolyani these prefixes- are quite 
  rare, although they are still employed in highly formal documents, hymns, epics, and other 
  literary texts. The following examples will illustrate some of the more common members 
  of this c lass, although the student will only occasionally encounter them. 
  /ramissum/ "to slay in a contemptible fashion" (/missum/ 
  "to kill"1 /ra-/ 
  to act in a despicable, slave - like, ignoble way"1 cf. /-ra/ as a General 
  Attitude Suffix in Sec. 3. 160) 
  /khopurdal/ "to fight nobly" (/purday "to fight " ; 
  / kho- / 
  "to act in a noble 
  fashion" -- perhaps from /-koi 
  the "noble" suffix?) 
  /paipagal/ "to look lovingly" (/pagal/ "to see"1 / pai-/ 
  "to act in a loving 
  or affectionate way" (with connotations of sexual affection)i perhaps 
  related to /pathai-n/ "lovin$? ") 
  /gep€tkal/ "to curse hatefully" (/p€tkal/ "to curse, swear"1 /ge -/ 
  "to act 
  in a hateful, bitter fashion"1 cf. /-ga/ "hated" in Sec. 3.160?) 
  /koldlara/ "to come forth royally, as a king does" (/dlara/ "to emei:ge, come 
  forth 111 /kol-/ "to act in a royal or kingly way" is almost certainly from 
  /k6lum/ "to rule") 
  /Wchyirau/ "to pilfer" (/yirau/ "to steal"i / l/J.ch-/ "to act in a petty, miser-
  ly, cowardly fashion"1 cf. /Wch€/ "to be a coward") 
  /kehangai/ "to attack bravely" (/hangai/ "to attack"1 / ke-/ 
  "to act bravely"1 
  cf. / - ke/ as a General Attitude Suffix in Sec. 3. 160) 
  /mik6lum/ "to rule divinely, as a god does" (/k6lum/ 
  "to rule"1 /mi-/ "to 
  act divinely, as a god does"1 cf. /mnlan/ 
  "$od") 
  /dhupal/ "to come gracefully, coquettishly" (/pal/ 
  "to come"1 /dhu-/ "to 
  act gracefully, coquettishly, as a maiden does") 
  25 
  
  /tlud!mlal/ 
  "to strike fanatically" </d!mlal/ 
  "to hit, strike "1 /tlu -/ 
  "to act 
  fana.tically, wildly, in a berserk fashion"1 /tlashumikoi/ 
  "fanatic (per -
  son/may be historically related) 
  /hlaumule/ "to go unexpectedly" (/mule/ 
  "to go"1 /hlau-/ "to act contrary 
  to the speaker' s expectations") 
  /chizusha'.hla/ "to jump clumsily" (/zusha'.hla/ 
  11to jump, leap 111 /chi-/ "to 
  act clumsily"1 cf. the Personal Attitude Prefix /chiq~k - / "comically 
  inept, clumsy") 
  /qUparsMl/ "to say haughtily" (/parsha'.l/ "to speak, say"1 /qU-/ "to a ct in 
  a hau~hty, arrogant, conceited way"1 cf. /qUmrazin/ 
  "haughty") 
  /tuptlaka'.tl/ "to give aflcctionately" (/tlakatl/ 
  "to give, bestow"1 /tup -/ 
  "to 
  act in a loving manner" (with no sexual connotations), cf. the Personal 
  Attitude Prefix / tl:lplan-/ "beloved") 
  /bashtask6tl/ "to advance loyally" (/task6tl/ 
  "to advance (as an army)"; 
  / bash- / 
  "to act in a loyal, faithful fashion") 
  /qarngur6so/ 
  "to shout angrily" (/ngur6so/ 
  "to shout"1 /qar-/ 
  "to act in an 
  angry fashion"1 cf. /q6.rra/ 
  "to be angry") 
  3. 520. VERBAL SUFFIXES. 
  The next order of e lements after the prefix classes is, of course, that of the verbal 
  stems themselves. These stems may in turn be followed by three types of suffixes: 
  the 
  imperatives , the nominal-adjectival derivational suflixes, and a small class of temporal 
  absolutive suflixes. The tense-aspec t indicators (Sec. 3. 530) cannot follow any verbal form 
  which has one of these suflixes attached to it. 
  3. 521. THE IMPERATIVES. 
  The imperative is used to give an order or command. It is always addressed to the 
  second person (i.e. 
  "you"), and it is thus the only verbal affix with person- reference in the 
  language. 
  There are three types of imperatives: 
  A verbal stem alone may serve as an imperative, provided that the emphatic intona-
  tional contour is employed. This contour consists of strong stress and high pitch on the 
  stressed vowel of the verb stem, followed by an i!"lmediate drop to a lower pitch. This type 
  of imperative is used only to the lowest orders of society: slaves, animals, village children, 
  etc, To use it to others is highly impolite. E.g. 
  /tsok6! / 
  "sit! " 
  /mule!/ "go! " 
  /ssa'.ing ma'.sun! / 
  "eat il!" 
  /th<!: mule! / 
  "don't go! " (/th6./ "no, not" negate s all imperatives1 cf. Sec. 
  3. 400) 
  Two special forms may be mentioned here1 /m!ri: / 
  "come here! "and /chur6! / "go 
  away! " These are not true verbs since they cannot be used with other persons or with the 
  tense-aspect indicators. They might better be termed interjections. 
  The imperative suffix for verbs addressed to persons of the lower and middle classes 
  (i.e. anyone to whom one uses /tsS.m/ or /tusmi/) is / -Ii/ . There are no plural imperative 
  form s (except in the northwest around Khirg6.r, where the "plural" suffix / -yal/ is added to 
  / -Ii/ ). It must be noted that after a verb stem ending in / hi/ , /-Ii/ becomes / - hli/ or just 
  / -i/, and similarly after one endin~ in /tl/, / -li/ occurs only as / -i/. Historically, / - li/ 
  may be derived from EngsvanyS.li /16.ivll./ "(you) may do! " although some scholars think that 
  it may be traced to the Bedna'.lljan Salarvy<l:ni imperative suffix / -no/ , with a change of / n/ to 
  / 1/ and a rather unusual vowel shift of /o/ to /i/. E . g. 
  /tsa'.m muleli! / 
  "you (singular, lowest class) go!" (/ts<l:m/ need not be pre-
  sent to produce a complete sentence, but it may be added for emphas is1 
  for even stronger emphasis, /tsS.m/ may be placed after its verb: 
  / muleli ts<l:m! I "YOU go: ") 
  /tlumi muleli! I "you (plural, lowest class) go: " (KhirgS.ri1 /muleliyal/ ) 
  /tusmi muleli: I "you (singular, middle c1assl go:" 
  / tlumiyel muleli! I "you (plural, middle class) go! " (Khirg<l:ri: /muleliyal/ ) 
  / nozramS.hlhli mssuran! /"spread them out! " (also: /nozram6.hli/: /no-/ 
  "transitive prefix"1 /zramS.hl/ 
  "to spread out (intransitive)") 
  /tlaks.tli m<l:sun!/ 
  "give it! " </tl/ + / -Ii/ = /tli/) 
  /thS. muleli/ "don't go: " 
  /thS. ssa'.ingli mS.sun, tlam<l:ni! / 
  "do not eat the food! " 
  26 
  
  The imperative corresponding to the upper and noble classes is made with / -Ii/+ 
  / t'i:ls;ni/. Again, ther e are no plural !orms except in the Khirgari dialect. In colloquial 
  Tsolyani / -lit'i:lsmi/ becomes / -litu/ , and in Pen6m one hears / -lichu/ or /~ lich!l/. E.g. 
  /tusmid1ili m6lelit'i:lsmi! / 
  "you (singular or plural, upper class) go!" (the pro-
  noun /t6smidUi/ is not necessary for a complete sentence, cf. above) 
  /ml:sritusmid~li pallitusmi! / 
  "you (singular or plural, noble class) come! " 
  (or: "please come!" 
  The word for "please," /chegukh/ (lit. "kindness, 
  grace") may be added to expre ss even greater courtesy) 
  /tha tla~tlitil.smi ma sun!/ "do not give it! " 
  /m6lelitu! / 
  "go! " (colloquialr in Pen6m: /m6lelichu/ or /mulelich!l/) 
  The special pronouns for "you" given in Sec. 3. 313 correspond to these imperative 
  forms according to their appropriate social reference. There is no imperative possible for 
  the emperor or empress, however, since no command may ever be issued to the imperial 
  throne. 
  E.g. 
  /tsamunga mule!/ "you go!" (to a slave or person of the lowest social orders) 
  / lluntsam tsok61i! / 
  "you sit! " (to a courtesan or concubine) 
  /tsammeri pagh1m ssaingli m asun! / 
  "you eat with me!" (to a lover or beloved) 
  /t'i:lsmisrmu ssainglit'i:lsmi ma sun!/ "please eat! " (to a respectable foreigner) 
  /til.smitlakom6lu hly6thulitil.smi masun, tlang<Hu/ "please drink the wine! II 
  (to a person of high noble status) 
  3. 522. NOMINAL-ADJECTIVAL DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES. 
  The prominent members of this cla ss were discussed in Sec. 3. 190. They need only 
  be recapitulated here. 
  A verbal stem may be transformed into a noun denoting the abstract verbal action by 
  the addition of the "ignoble" suffix / - ikh/- / - kh/. Such a nominalised verbal stem may then 
  occur with all of the alfixes possible for other nouns. E.g. 
  / mdlekh hol6nin gual/ 
  "going is difficult" (this may also be t ranslated by an 
  English infinitive: "to go is difficult. " This may m islead the student, 
  however, since no prefix for "to " is ever needed: i.e. one cannot say 
  "'/molmule holenin gual/ ! ) 
  / brumule, desten hagiyal gual? / 
  "how m any days does it take to go ? " (lit. 
  "in going, how many days are?") 
  /chalumule, b'i:lruha sdkh gual lanmrala/ "in order to go, much money is 
  necessary" (lit. 
  "for going, much money has to be") 
  / changadeshamrakoi missdmikh maisur, tlakasi, gual lanmrala/ 
  "it is nece-
  ssary for the soldier to kill the captain" (lit. 
  "the soldier's killing him 
  the captain has to be") 
  /miktheku, lum c hawan taino/ "1 am tired from travelling" (lit. "from-
  travelling, I am in a state of being tired") 
  A noble male person who performs the verbal a ction is s ignified by adding the "noble" 
  suffix / -koi/ to the verbal stem. A noble female is denoted by the stem + /-rakoi/ and an 
  ignoble male, female, or inanimate actor by / -rakh/. Examples will be found in Sec. 3. 190. 
  The performer of the action is also denoted by the stem + / -mo/. This is useful 
  where the addition of a prefix would otherwise demand the dropping of / -koi/ or / - ikh/ - / - kh/ , 
  and thus create ambiguity between the abstract noun and the a ctor noun. E.g. 
  / hlyethukoi/ 
  "the drinker" (orr / hlyethumokoi/ ) 
  / hlyethukh/ "the drinking" 
  /mikhlyethu/ "from the drinking" (or: "from the drinker," but thi s may also 
  be expressed by /mikhlyethumo/, which is unambiguous) 
  /mikhlyethumora/ "from the (female or ignoble) drinker " (the difference be-
  tween a "noble" and an "ignoble" female drinker disappears after a Loca-
  tive suffi.x1 this would be clear from the context, however) 
  The object of the verbal action is expressed by / -mogu/. E.g. 
  / mssuri jutha munr mssuri, mssurimra tlamiss6mmogukeyal/ 
  "they gathered 
  up their brave dead" (/missummogukoi/ 
  "one who has been slain") 
  /masun kumenu masun, tlamani, m olzhabarmoguyal/ 
  "she distributes. food to 
  the wounded" (/zhabarmogukoi/ 
  "wounded man") 
  / 16m yajang masun, tlachik6rmogu/ 
  "I throw away the broken one" (/chik6r-
  mogukh/ "broke.> object") 
  2 7 
  
  Further nominal suffixes include, /-lu/ "the instrument with which the action is 
  performed"1 /-to/ "the person who regularly or professionally does the action", and /-kan/ 
  "the place where the action is performed. " Examples were given in Sec. 3. 190, but a few 
  more may be added here: 
  /dh3:igalukh/ "razor" (/dh3:iga/ "to shave") 
  /dh3:igatokh/ ''barber" 
  /dh3:igakanikh/ "barbershop, room in a clanhouse in which the male members 
  , of the clan are shaved" 
  /tolUnglukh/ "scales (in which to weigh something)" (/tc'Ung/ "to weigh") 
  /siun€ltorakh/ "(ignoble female) professional singer" (/siun€1/ "to sing") 
  / siruthukanikh/ "sculptor' s studio" (/ sfruthu/ "to sculpt") 
  /surimtokoi/ "scribe" (/surim/ "to write") 
  /surimkanikh/ "scriptorium, room in which manuscripts are copied" 
  /surimlukh/ "writing instrument" (the common word for "pen," however, is 
  /su'.Srikh/, which may also be derived from the same Engsvany3:li root) 
  The addition of the adjective formant suffix /-in/-/-n/-/-an/ to the stem produces an 
  adjective with active meaning. If the stem is transitive, the adjective will also have a tran-
  sitive sense. E, g. 
  /drm!alin ch~ngad€shakoi/ "the striking soldier" 
  /zurn€n tl6kku7 !'the sleeping dog" 
  /mulen hum6dhikh/ "the moving (lit. 
  going) woman" 
  A more "actor-focussed" adjective can be made by adding the adjective formant to a 
  stem + / -mo/ (c£. above). 
  It is difficult to differentiate this formation semantically from 
  those described in the preceding paragraph. E.g. 
  /di'mlalmon ch~ngad6shakoi/ "the striking soldier" (roughly = / di'mlalin/ but 
  more emphatically focussed upon the soldier's action of hitting) 
  /ss3:ingmon basrimyal/ "the eating men" (approximately= /ss3:ingin/) 
  A "passive" meaning is obtained by adding /-mogu/ (cf. above) to the stem, plus the 
  adjective formant suffix. E. g. 
  /drmlalmogun chhngad6shakoi/ "the beaten soldier" 
  /gad3:lmogun mnlan/ "the worshipped god" 
  /ssaingmogun mani-kh/ "the eaten food" 
  Adjectives formed from verbal stems can also be used as true predicate adjectives, 
  but this is not considered as elegant as using the indicative verb itself. E.g. 
  /him ssaingmon ma sun gu3:1/ "I am eating it" (lit. "l am the (one) eating it "1 
  better, /him ssa'.ing dopa'.! ma'.sun/ "I am eating it") 
  /ma'.isur drmlalmogun gua'.l/ "he is beaten" (lit, "he is the (one) beaten"1 
  the 
  passive verbal form is preferable: /ma'.isur dfmlal gua'.l/ "he is beaten") 
  Even the comparative and superlative forms may rarely be made into adjectives. E.g. 
  /drmlalmogunggalun basrimkoi/ "the most beaten man" 
  /zhaba'.ringgalin ssyukoi/ "the more wounding sword" (i.e. the sword which 
  wounds more (than others)") 
  3. 523. TEMPORAL ABSOLUTIVE DERIVATIONAL SUFFIXES. 
  Several suffixe11 also exist which turn the verb into a sort of adverbial phrase which 
  then stands outside of the subject-verb- object framework of the sentence. 
  The commonest of these suffixes is / -dai/-/-ai/ "while ... ing"1 this element des-
  cribes an action performed either by the subject or the object at the same time as the action 
  of the main verb. 
  1£ this form refers to the subject, it is placed either before or just after 
  the subject1 if it refers to the object, it is usually placed just after the object. /-dai/ is 
  found after stems ending in a vowel, and / -ai/ occurs after those ending in a consonant. E.g. 
  /seyudai, masun m.Sle dopa'.!/ 
  "laughing, she is walking along" (/seyu/ "to 
  laugh") 
  /m3:rashai, ma'.isur tsok6 munr/ "weeping, he sat down" (/ma'.rash/ "to cry") 
  /I.Sm paga'.l ma'.sun, sey.Sdai/ "l see her laughing" 
  /ma'.isur lylitha tlal'1m, d6mai/ "he hears me speakin11:" 
  /ma'.isur paga'.l tlatsa'.m, d(mlalai ma'.sun, tlahum6dh/ "he sees you hitting the 
  woman" 
  28 
  
  /him tsa'.ipa munr tlama'.iaur, :turn6dai/ "l found him sleeping" 
  /nu'a'.nai, lum miH ul gua'.l dla'.ra molqada'.rd~li/ "singing (my) death-song, 
  will go forth to the battle" (/nu'a'.n/ "to sing (one'•) death-song") 
  /ssa'.nudai, mnurtinai, otul6ngbadai, qurumssuri molkatak<ln mtile munr/ 
  "dancing, singing hymns, giving homage, they all went to the temple" 
  Another member of this class is /-ngU/- / -1:1./ 
  "having ... ed"1 an action performed 
  by the 6ubjec t of the sentence previous to that of the main verb. ln English this is idiomati-
  cally expressed by two verbs connected by "and": e.g. 
  "he goes home and sleeps" or "he 
  came and looked at it. " In the se examples the actions of "going" and "coming" are tempo-
  rally prior to those of "sleeping" or "looking." Tsolya'.ni considers two verbs connected by 
  /161/ "and" inelegant and prefers1 "having gone home, he sleeps" and "having come, he 
  looked at it." /-ngl:I./ occurs after vowels and / -1:1./ after consonants. E.g. 
  /molv6shu mulengl:I., m<iisur :turn6/ "having gone home, he sleeps" 
  /pa'.11:1., mliisur pag<il munr mlisun/ "having come, he looked at (lit. 
  saw) it" 
  / ssa'.ingl:I. mlisun, lum dl<ira munr/ "having eaten, I went out" 
  /har6ngl:I. mssuri, tlach~ngad6shayal, k6rdukoi shUvBn munr bruml:l.ni/ "having 
  given the command to the soldiers (lit. ordered the soldiers), the gene-
  ral entered into the palace" 
  /hly6thungl:I. m<isun, tlang<ilu, ma'.isur ports6 munr/ "having drunk the wine, he 
  became drunken" 
  "At the moment of ... ing" is expressed by/_-dUn~/-/-Un~/. 
  /-dO.n~/ occurs after 
  vowels and / -Un'I!/ after consonants. Like /-dai/-
  -ai/ above, this may refer either to the 
  subject or to the object. E. g. 
  /cha'.dUn'I!, ma:isur d6m mun( ma'.sun/ "at the moment of dying, he spoke" (or1 
  "just as he died ... ") 
  /mikv6shu dlliradUn~, ma'.isur pag<il mun( msstiri, tlabhrim 161 tlahum6dh/ 
  "at the moment of going out of the house, he saw the man and the woman" 
  /ma'.isurmra hly6thudUn'I! m<isun, tlanga'.lu, hl6rukh dnusha mun(ma'.isur, 
  tlak<lsi/ "at the moment of his drinking the wine, the poison affected the 
  captain" (/ma'.isurmra/ "his" is redundant) 
  /h1m paga'.l munr mssuri, :turn6d!J.n'I!/ "I saw them at the moment of sleeping" 
  (i.e. "l saw them as they were about to go to sleep") 
  "Continuously ... ing" is signified by / - do/- / -ud'l:J/. Again, the first variant occurs 
  after vowels and the second after consonants. This suffix has connotations of doing the 
  verbal action excessively. E.g. 
  /seyudo, ma'.sun sansha'.r mtile munr/ "continuously laughing, she went along 
  (lit. 
  upon) the road" (i.e. "laughing and laughing ... ," "laughing 
  hard . .. ") 
  /mtiledo, lum chaw<in munr/ "(from) continuously going, "I became tired" 
  /nimu6lud'/:J, ma'.isur sUnrU mun!/ "(from) climbing and climbing, he became 
  afraid" 
  /tsok6do, m<isun kn<igga mun!/ "(from) continuously sitting, she became bored" 
  /ssa'.ingud'/:J. ma'.sun, ma'.iaur chm6ru munr/ "(from) continuously eating, he be-
  came full" 
  "Without •.. ing" is expressed by /-yel~/. This is related to the Locative Prefix 
  / ye-/ "without" and also to the negative adverb /ya'./ "no, not (of present or past time)." 
  Examples a 
  /paga'.lyel~ m<!sun, mliiaur sh!J.vlln munr bruna'.ti/ 
  "without se<>ing it, he 
  entered the room" 
  /munch6tlyel~, m<!isur kaidUn tan6 mun( msstiran, qurutlakortinyal/ "without 
  stopping, he finished reading all the books" 
  /wadh6lyel~. ltim d6m munr ma'.sun/ "without thinking, 1 said it" 
  /ssa'.ingyel~ ma'.sun, tusmi ma'.l ul gua'.l cha'./ "without eating, you will die" 
  /ptirdalyel~ ma'.sun, tlumiyel ma'.l ul gua'.l th<! hitla'.sh mhun, tlaqad<!rd~li/ 
  "without fighting, you will not win the battle" 
  3. 530. TENSE-ASPECT INDICATORS. 
  The verbal stem (+ the optional prefixes) may function as a complete verb by itself. 
  Pre- verbal and post-verbal elements are added to the verb, however, to provide a range of 
  tenses and aspects (the times and the ways in which the action takes place). These items are 
  independent words (with their own primary stresses and junctural boundaries), and they are 
  29 
  
  thus not prefixes or suffixes but rather "auxiliaries" much like English "will," "may," etc. 
  There are three classes of tense-aspect auxiliaries: (a) the first class occurs BE-
  FORE the verb form and .contains only two members: the "future" and the "hortative" (see 
  below). 
  (b) The second class is placed directly AFTER the verb form (and before any occur-
  ring tense -indicator or object), and it contains about twenty members of which only sixteen 
  are common. 
  This class contains the true "aspectives": elements which describe the way 
  the action occurs: e .. g. 
  ''begin to . . . , " "finish .. . ing, 11 
  0 continue to ... , 11 etc. 
  (c) The 
  third c lass has only about ten members, and one of these may be placed after any occurring 
  "aspective" to indicate a tense other than present-general, future, or hortative. Only one 
  "aspective" and one "tense-indicator" can occur with any given verb form (but cf. /niyas/ in 
  Sec. 3. 532). The following constructions are found: 
  (1) The verb aloneL present general indicative 
  (2) A pre-verb + a verb: simple future or hortative 
  (3) A pre-verb + a verb+ an "aspective": future or hortat1ve time but with 
  some further aspectual idea added 
  (4) The verb + an "aspective": present general indicative time, but with some 
  further aspectual idea added 
  (5) The verb + a "tense-indicator": no particular aspectual idea, but the action 
  occurs at some time other than the present general, the future, or the 
  hortative 1 note that some "tense-indicators" also have aspectual conno-
  tations as well as time reference. 
  (6) The verb + an "aspective" +a "tense-indicator": the verb phrase now denote: 
  an action occurring at some time other than the present general, the fu-
  ture, or the hortative, and there is also aspectual colouring. 
  3. 531. THE FUTURE AND THE HORTATIVE. 
  The future tense is expressed by /mal ul gual/ placed before the verb form (and also 
  before the negative /tha/ "not" or /tha!Un/ "never"). The "hortative" (let me ... , "let 
  him ... ") is expressed by /mal ul/ + the verb. Both of these formations are derived from 
  ancient E,ngsvanyali: /mal ul gual/ from;m61 uul ghavanlU/ "it may be-future" and /mal ul/ 
  from / ml;Jl uul/ 
  "it may." Neither /mal nor /ul/ are used elsewhere in modern Tsolyani, 
  but / ghavan/ has become present-day /gua.1/ "to be. " Both of these formations are negated 
  by /tha/ "not" and /tha!Un/ "never"1 cf. Sec .. 3. 400. 
  E . g. 
  /lum mal ul pal/ "let me come! may I come! " 
  / lum mal ul tha pal/ "let me not come! may I not come! " 
  /!Um mal ul tha!Un pal/ 
  "may I never come! let me never come!" 
  / maisur mal ul shUvUn brumUni/ "let him enter the palace! II 
  /masun mal ul cha/ "let her die! may she die! " 
  /!Um mal ul gual pal/ "I will come, shall come" 
  /maisur ma1 ul gua1 pal brumUni/ "he will come into the palace" 
  /masun mal ul gual tha cha/ "she will not die" 
  /maisur xpa1 ul gua1 mnun gua.1/ "he will be poor" (or: /mal u1 gua.1 gua.1 
  fUnUn/1 the predicate complement can be placed before or after its verb1 
  the first / gual/ is part of the future 1 the second is the verb "to be") 
  /tusmi mal ul gual muleli!/ "you WILL go!" (the future can also occur toge-
  ther with an imperative verb1 the action is then ordered to take place in 
  the future) 
  In the colloquial, /mal ul/ occurs as /malu/ and /mal ul gual/ as /malgul/ or 
  even /malgu/. E. g. 
  /maiSUrO malU m7r masun/ "let him dO it! rnay he dO it ! II 
  / lum malgul mule 
  "I will go" (orr /malgu mule/) 
  The "plural" suffix /-ya!/ may be added to /mal/ in both of these constructions to 
  indicate plural occurrences of the verbal action. /malyal ul/ and /malyal ul gual/ are 
  found as /malyu/ and /malyagul/ in the colloquial. E.g. 
  /lum malyal ul gual mule/ "I will go (many times)" 
  /maisur malyal ul dfmlal tlamaisur/ "let him hit him (many times)!" 
  /!Umi malyagul pal/ "we will come (many times)" (colloquial) 
  /maiSUrO malyu mOy{ masun/ 
  11let him do it! II (COllOqUial) 
  /tusmi malyal ul gual dlarali! / 
  "you WILL go forth! " (another example of the 
  "future imperative") 
  /pachukoi malyal ul gual purdal mssuran, tlap6dhugarayal/ "the lord will fight 
  the hated, despised enemy (many times)" 
  30 
  
  3. 532. THE ASPECTIVES. 
  The following list of "aspectives" is not exhaustive, but it does contain most of the 
  currently frequent members of this class. 
  (I) /b:frU/ denotes an habitual action. The subject is usually a person or an animate 
  creature :>ince inanimate objects and abstract nouns can only metaphorically be said to have 
  "habits. " E. g. 
  /m<l:isur h<l:gi-n mule b<l:rU, molhaud<l:ru/ "he daily goes to the marketplace" 
  (going there is his regular habit) 
  /!um hly6thu b<l:rU masun, pr~tlapUn6 him<l:s/ "l (habitually) drink one cup of 
  (hm6lu) milk" 
  /molkatak<l:n mulengU, masun gadal b<l:rU mssliri, tlamnlandUiyal/ "having 
  gone to the temple, she (habitually) worships the great gods" 
  / lum m<l:l ul guSI thSlUn p<l:l bSrU/ 
  "I will never (habitually) come" {i.e. 
  will never make it my habit to come) 
  (2) / dopa!/ indicates an action which continues. 
  It is thus the equivalent of English 
  "is ... ing. " E. g. 
  (3) 
  Tsoly<foi1 
  /m<l:isur mule dop<l:l/ "he is going along" {i.e. he is now in the act of going. 
  This is not the future usage of this English formation: e. g. 
  "l am going 
  tomorrow", for this, Tsolyani employs the regular future) 
  /m<l:isur hly6thu dop;H m<!:sun, tlahu/ "he is drinking the water" 
  / lum m<l:l ul gu;{J seny<l:ra dop;{J m;{sun/ "I will be watching 1'\" (my action of 
  watching will be continuous in the future) 
  / m<l:sun shah<l:d gu<l:l dopa!/ 
  "he remains a slave" (lit. "is being": a condition 
  which exists uninterruptedly through the present into the future) 
  / hu'u/ 
  "to manage to do, be able to do by striving" is not common in spoken 
  it does occur in the literary language, however. E.g. 
  / him d!Sra hu'u munr/ 
  111 managed to get out" {cf. below for / muni/ 
  "past ") 
  / mSisur y<l: mule hu'u/ 
  "he cannot manage to go" {i.e. he is trying to go but 
  is prevented from doing so) 
  / maisur mSI lil gu<l:l pag<l:l hu'u mSsun/ 
  "he will manage to see it" {he will be 
  able to see it by dint of effort) 
  (4) /karis/ expresses "to be about to, be on the point of ... " E.g. 
  /lUm mule karis/ "I am about to go, on the point of going" 
  /maisur dfmlal karis munr tlalum7 "he was about to hit me" 
  / lumi pr~brukir6n m<l:l ul gual th6ku k;{ris/ 
  "we will be ready to travel in half 
  an hour" {lit. 
  "we will just travel ... "1 
  /kir6nikh/ 
  "a period of about 
  half an hour") 
  (5) /lanmrSla/ expresses compulsion: "to have to ... , must 
  " E.g. 
  / lum mule lanmr;{la/ 
  "I have to go, must go" 
  /m<l:isur m<l:l ul gual p;{l lanmr<l:la/ "he will have to come" 
  /b~ruhasukh chalumasun guSl lanmrala/ "much money is necessary for this" 
  {lit. 
  "much money for this has to be") 
  / tusmi tsfn m<l:l ul guSl pal lanmr<fla/ "you will have to come back again" 
  (/tsrn/ "again" may be placed after / lanmr<l:la/ also) 
  (6) /nisung/ signifies an action which is gradually diminishing in some way: e.g. 
  in intensity, speed, number, quantity, etc. Context will make c:lear what is meant. Cf. 
  /tikan/ below also. E.g. 
  /hukh bafai nisung/ "the water flows less" (this may denote that the water is 
  flowing more s lowly, or perhaps that the volume of water is gradually 
  decreasing) 
  /ken6ngkoi task6tl nisung/ 
  "the army advances less" {i.e. its speed is de-
  , 
  creasing, or il travels less distance) 
  / sUnikh yif<fi- n guSl nisung/ 
  "the night is becoming short( er)" (i.e. as 
  summer approaches) 
  (7) / niyas/ indicates an action which the speaker thinks is probable. Some western 
  dialects permit /niyas/ to be placed after another "aspective" element before a tense - indi-
  cator, thus in effect creating three order classes of ,Post-verbal auxiliaries. This is not 
  considered el~gant in other dialects, which permit / niyas/ only as an "aspective" and use 
  31 
  
  a word denoting "probably" (/nit6lin/J when another "aspective" occurs with the verb. 
  E . g. 
  /maisur mule niyas/ "he probably goes" 
  /lum moltusmidllli mal ul gual pal niyas/ "I will probably come to you" 
  /khinangikh mal ul gual gual niyas/ "there will probably be danger" 
  /maisur nit6lin mal ul gual senyara dopa! masun/ "he will probably be watch-
  ing it" (western dialects permit: /maisur mal ul g•1al senyara dopa! 
  niyas masun/J 
  (8) /nizal/ si$nifies an action which has recently ceased: "just ... ed. " Many 
  speakers treat /nizal/ as a combination of an aspect and a past tense and do not add a fur-
  ther past tense indicator after it. The traditional grammarians consider this inelegant, 
  however, and point to the fact that /nizal/ may be used with other tenses. E.g. 
  /maisur mule nizal munr/ "he just went, has just gone" </munr/ "past" is 
  usually omitted in ordinary speech) 
  /lum pagal nizal (mun!) masun/ "I just saw her" 
  /masun ya cha nizal (mun!) "she has not yet died" (lit. "she did not just die") 
  /maisur mal ul gual dimlal nizal masun, tlashahad/ "he will have just struck 
  the slave" 
  (9) /otun/ denotes an action which is beginning: 
  "to start to ... , ""to begin to ... " 
  Along the southern coast around Pen6m, one hears /och8n/ instead of / otun/. 
  E . g. 
  /lumi kaid8n otun masun, tlakorun/ "we begin to read the book" 
  / banur otun/ "(it) begins to rain" (no subject, "it," is needed with certain 
  impersonal verbs, such as "to rain, 11 "to hail," "to be sunny, 11 "to get 
  dark, 11 "to blow (wind)," etc.) 
  /masun mal ul gual marash otun/ "she will begin to cry" 
  /!um mera otun munr masun, tlahasu/ "I began to search for the money" 
  (10) /taino/ expresses a state resulting from an action. 
  To make this clear, one 
  may consider English "to sit, "which denotes either the act of sitting down or the state of 
  sitting which results after the action of sitting has been completed: 
  "down" is often added to 
  distinguish the action from the state: e.g. "he sat down at the table" versus "he sat at the 
  table." In Tsolyani, the act of sitting is denoted by /tsok6/ alone, but "to be sitting" re-
  quires /taino/. 
  E . g. 
  /lum tsok6/ "I sit down" (compare:) 
  /!Um tsok6 taino/ "I am seated" (i.e. in a state of sitting1 compare also:) 
  /lum tsok6 dopal/ 111 am sitting down" (i.e . 
  I am now in the process of 
  sitting down) 
  /lum mal ul gual zurne/ "I will sleep" (i.e. go to sleep; compare: ) 
  /!Um mal dl gual zurne taino/ "1 will be sleeping" (i.e. in the state of sleep-
  ing: asleep) 
  /sanleshyal mal ul gual opetl tlamasun/ "the city-guards will catch her" 
  (compare:) 
  · 
  /sanieshyal mal ul gual opetl taino tlamasun/ 
  "the city-guards will be holding 
  her" (i.e. will keep her in the state of being caught) 
  /lum hapal munr/ "I lay down" (compare:) 
  /lum hapal taino munf/ "I was lying down" (i.e. in a state of having lain) 
  ( l l) /tane/ signifies the ending or completion of an action: "to finish .. . ing, " "to 
  stop .. . ing. " T his may also be expressed by a compound verbal construction using 
  /munchetl/ "to stop"~ a verbal form 1 
  cf. Sec. 3. 540 below. E.g. 
  /masun mal ul gual tha marash tane/ "she will not stop crying" 
  /maisur mal dl pal tane/ "let him stop coming~ " 
  /ldm moyf tane munf ma sun, tlabalum/ "I stopped doing the work" 
  /mssuri ssaing tane munr masun/ 
  "they stopped eating" (cf. Sec. 3. 540) 
  ( 12.) /teten/ denotes an action which is repeated intermittently, frequently, or con-
  tinually with pauses between the repetitions. E.g. 
  /maisur dfmlal teten tlaldm/ "he keeps on hitting me" (the acts of hitting 
  occur on separate occasions, compare:) 
  /maisur dfmlal dopal tlaldm/ "he is hitting me" (i.e. he continues to hit me 
  on one occasion) 
  /ltimi mal dl gual mraban teten masun, mssuranmra tlafatlanra/ "we will keep 
  on invading their despicable country" 
  /masun zhagu teten munr, brumungsa/ "it kept on falling into the mud" 
  32. 
  
  (13) /tiMn/ expresses an action which is gradually increasing in intensity, speed, 
  number, quantity, etc. Cf. /nisung/ (no. (6) above). E . g. 
  /kich€ngkukh chuvaga tikan/ "the sickness is gradually increasing" 
  /masun mfahi tik<'l'.n mun!/ "she gradually got weaker" 
  /hukh hi'uchang zramahl tikan/ "the water of the flood keeps on spreading" 
  /hlakh mal ul gual kt6l tikan/ "the fire will burn (more)" 
  (14) /tlay€sh/ denotes an action which can be performed, 
  "to be able to ... , 11 
  "can . . . 11 
  Note that "not to be able" may be expressed by negating a sentence with /tlay€sh/ 
  or by a separate verb, /zagu/1 cf. Sec. 3. 540. E.g. 
  /lum mule tlay€sh/ 
  111 can go" 
  /maisur mal ul gual thalUn moyf tlay€sh masun/ "he will never be able to do it" 
  /masun pagal tlay€sh masun/ "she can see it" 
  /him ya mule tlay€sh munr/ "I was not able to go" (or1 /lum z;f_gu mun! 
  mule/ "l was not able to go"1 cf. below) 
  /tusmi on6tl mal ul gual missum tlay€sh tlamaisur/ "you will be able to kill 
  him there" 
  ( 15) /wor€l/ indicates that the action is being attempted: "to try to ... " E.g. 
  /!Um zurne wor€l mun{/ "I tried to sleep" 
  /lum mal ul gual moyf worel masun, tlabalUm/ "I will try to do the work" 
  /maisur tsaipa wor€1 masun, tlakard€ne/ "he tries to find the place" 
  /mssuri yalUn te'6s wor€l tlalum/ "they never tried to help me" 
  (16) /zh€/ denotes a degree of compulsion somewhat less than that of /lanmrala/ 
  above1 "must ... , " "ought to ... ," "should •.. "are all possible translations of a construc -
  tion employ;ng /zh€/. E.g. 
  /lum mule zhe/ 
  "I ought to 20, must go, should go" 
  /maisur dali-nggal gual zh€/ 
  "it ought to be larger" 
  /lumi hun zh€ tlamssuri/ "we ought to visit them" 
  /tusmi palin mal ul gual tMku zh(/ "you ought to travel tomorrow" (lit. 'will 
  ought to travel" -- a tense-aspect combination difficult to translate into 
  English!) 
  /maisur moyr zh€ malkh!ra masun/ "he should have done it (but did not)" 
  (cf. Sec. 3. 533 for /malkhfra/) 
  3. 533. THE TENSE-INDICATORS. 
  The following "tense-indicator" elements are in common user 
  ( 1) /bapal/ is not technically a "tense" (i. e. an indicator of the time of th_e action) 
  but rather a "mood" (an expression of the mode or manner of the action), it must ne verthe -
  less be classed here. /bapal/ signifies an action which may occur: a conditional or possible 
  action. 
  In traditional terms it might thus be called a marker of the "subjunctive." It is fre-
  quently found in the protasis (the "if- clause") of a conditional sentence which may become 
  fact. 
  E . g. 
  /lum mule bapal/ "I may go, might go" 
  /lum miH ul gual fa'ar bapal tlamssuri/ "I may meet them" (here the time is 
  specifically the future, but the possibility of meeting them is doubtful) 
  /va maisur mule bapal, hasru lum tatlan mal ul gual mule/ "if he goes, then 
  I shall go too" 
  /va banur bapal, lumi ya dlara tlay€sh/ "if (it) rains, we cannot go out" 
  /va lum pagal bapal maisur, tlabusser' hasru lum mal ul gual kud{mlal tla-
  maisur / 
  "if I see the rascal, then I will thrash him" 
  (2.) /daimi/ expresses past general time1 "used to ... " In connected narratives it 
  is often substituted for /mun!/ "punctilear past" (see below) with no perceptible difference. 
  E.g. 
  /lum mtile daimi/ "I used to go" (i.e. 
  I generally went1 going was my regu-
  lar practice in the pa st) 
  /masun ssaing daimi masun, tlamfrish/ "she used to eat fish" 
  /shartokoi tsomun kaidlln ottin daimi masun/ "the priest used to begin reading 
  it at dawn" 
  /vusijaktokoi hruvan d!mlal daimi tlaltim/ "the teacher always used to beat 
  me" (compare1) 
  33 
  
  /vusijaktokoi hruvan drmlal barU daimi tlalUm/ "the teacher always used to 
  beat me (habitually)" (cf. Sec. 3. 532 for /barU/ "habitual") 
  (3) /grumir/ is another conditional marker. However, it occurs only in the protasis 
  (the "if-clause") of a conditional sentence which is contrary to fact: e. g. "if he had come, 
  I would have seen him." /grumir/ has no other function in modern Tsolyani, although it 
  denoted a remotely poss ible condition in the classical language. Cf. /malkhfra/ below. E.g. 
  /lum mule grumir, maisur pagal malkhfra tlalum/ "If I had gone, he would have 
  seen me" 
  /lum tsaipa grumir masun, lum d6m malkhfra masun/ 
  "If I had found it, I 
  would have spoken" 
  /maisur hlyethu grumir masun, maisur cha malkhfra/ "if he had drunk it, he 
  we>uld have died" 
  /tusmi dhrchu do_pal gr6mir ma sun, tusmimra tlasu •(sh, tusmi jarshU malkhfra 
  tlamaisur/ "if you had been firing your bow, you would have hit him" 
  (4) /malkhfra/ expresses an unrealiseable conditional action: "would have ... ed," 
  etc. Its commonest usage is in the apodosis (the "then-clause") of irrealis conditional sen-
  tences (cf. /gr6.mir/ above), and it also occurs alone to denote "would have ... ed." With 
  the proper intonational contour, /malkhira/ also expresses "would that .. . , had ... ed!" E . g. 
  / 16.m m6.le malkhfra/ "I would have gone (but did not)" (also, with an emphatic 
  intonational contour: "would that 1 had gone!") 
  /m<iisur taj<ii malkhfra m<isun/ "he would have bought it (but did not)" 
  /t6.smi pal zhe malkhfra/ "you should have come , ought to have come" 
  /maisur miss6.m gr6mir tlam<iisur, m<iisur nodishen malkhfra masun, tlachal/ 
  "if he had killed him, he would have hidden the corpse" 
  (5) /molUn/ expresses a past-prior time: an action which took place before some 
  subsequent action in the narrative. 
  It is thus roughly equivalent to the English "pluperfect!': 
  e . g. 
  "l had gone, " "he had seen it, " etc. Cf. under /munr/ below for another means of 
  expressing past-prior time. 
  / mol/J.n/ is not common in the colloquial language. 
  E . g. 
  /!Um m6le mollln/ "I had gone" 
  /!Um pagal molUn tlamaisur, chen lum dlara munr/ 
  "I had seen him before l 
  went out" 
  /maisur cha tane molUn, mun lum on6tl salas munr/ "he had already died 
  when I arrived there" (lit. 
  "had finished dying") 
  /lum pagal molUn m<isun, mil.suntlakashtlanmUdhil.li/ "I had already seen this 
  beauteous epic-drama" 
  (6) / munr/ signifies the "punctilear past": it expresses an event which took place 
  once in the past or on one occasion. Com_pare / daimi/ above, which denotes general past 
  time. Colloquial Tsolyani also employs / munr/ after itself and other members of this 
  "tense - indicator" class to denote prior action (either prior to some later past action or else 
  prior to a present context1 c!. /rn6.ra/ below·and /mollln/ just above). 
  This usage is not 
  considered elegant in the literary language, however. 
  E.g. 
  /lum mule munr/ "I went (once in the past)" 
  /maisur rn6.le dopa! munr/ 
  "he was going along" (on a single occasion) 
  /16.m pagal munJ'tlatusmi/ "!saw you" 
  /mun 16.rn shUvUn rnuri!, rnaisur sanqad6 tsok6 taino munr/ "when I entered, he 
  was (in a state of) sitting on the dais" 
  /16.m mule rnunr mun(/ "I had gone, have gone" (colloquial for either / m6.le 
  rnolUn/ 
  "had gone" or /m6.le m6.ra/ "have gone") 
  /maisur ssaing ot6.n munr rnasun, tlam<ini/ "he began to eat the food" 
  /16.m hlyethu barU mun( masun, tlah6/ 
  111 habitually drank the water" (a speci-
  fic occasion is being focussed upon1 a more general past habit would be 
  expressed by /hlyethu barU daimi/ "used to habitually drink") 
  (7) /mura/ expresses a near-past t ime with relevance to the present. 
  It is thus 
  approximately e9uivalent to the English "perfect": e.g. "have ... ed. " Cf. /rnolUn/ and 
  /mun!/ above. /m6.ra/ is somewhat literary but still frequent in speech. 
  E . g. 
  /!Urn pagal mura masun, tlajaka!ladil.lisa/ "! have seen great and mighty 
  Jakalla" 
  /tusmi rnoyr m6.ra ma sun, ne? / 
  "have you done it?" (/m6.ra/ indicates that 
  the utterance is relevant to some present context) 
  / 16.rn ya batsaga m6.ra, pagmss6.ri/ "!have not quarreled with them" 
  34 
  
  (8) /ni'yel/ is used in religious texts to denote an acr ... ~'ch took place in the legend-
  ary "Time of the Gods. " It may thus be called the "divine past tense!" E.g. 
  /m!Uandlllidlllisa vimuhla parsh<il ni1yel m<isun/ 
  "the great and' powerful god 
  Vimuhla related it" 
  /surim ni'y<H m<isun, tlakort1n, mrtlandlllidlllisa thumis, surimtodlllikoi 
  himrtlansayal/ "the great and powerful god Thumia, the great scribe of 
  the mighty gods, wrote the book" (the reversed sentence order, with the 
  verb and its object first, is a common feature of religious texts) 
  /hare ni'yel m<isun, tlamssuri, hn<illa, tik<isakoi hij6r, moyr gu<il m<isun/ 
  "Hn<illa, the mighty Lord of Light, commanded them to do it" 
  (9) /panf:i/ similarly denotes "epic-time": an act which took place in the time of 
  the great epics. This legendary period is said to have come after the "Time of the Gods" 
  and the creation or mankind, but it antedates even the oldest known human empires. E. g. 
  /pag<il pantl m<isun, tlasav<il, hrugga, ssiyursakoi, kursheshkoi, dhaipUntokoi 
  hiwi'suyal/ "Hrugga, the mighty swordsman, the hero, the wanderer of 
  the worlds, saw it" 
  /pepim panll, mSisur, bru!Stlanyal chusun, khin<ingin/ "he descended into the 
  dark, dangerous lands •.. " (a line from the epic, "The Seer of Pur-
  d<i:nim, 11 by Korutsllme hiSs<iivra, composed c. I 735 A. S.) 
  (10) /ss!ya/ expresses a realiseable wish: 
  "would that •.. : " er. /malkhfra/ 
  above. E.g. 
  /111m mule ssrya! I "would that I miiht go! " Cthe going is still possible; 
  pare the first example under /malkhfra/ (no. 4) above) 
  /m<iisur missum ss!ya tlam<isun! / 
  "would that he kill It!" 
  /ldm ldmmra she brutonulesh gu<il ss!ya! / 
  "would that I were in my own 
  garden! " 
  /m<i:sun molveshu pSl ssfya! / 
  "would that she would come home!" 
  com-
  As was seen in Sec. 3. 531 for the future and the hortative formations, the "plural" 
  suffix / -yal/ may be added to most of the above elements in order to express plural occur-
  rences in the designated tense. E.g. 
  / lum dfmlal munfyal tlam<iisur/ "l hit him (many times)" 
  /mSisur pSl bapSlyal/ "he may come (many times)" 
  /b<isrimkoi rniksav<il dl<ira molllnyal/ 
  "the man had gone out of the city (many 
  times)" 
  /hrugga purdal pantlyal pagsharetlgayal/ "Hrugga fought (many times) with 
  the hated demons" 
  / ldm rndle ss!'yayal: / 
  "would that I may go (many times): " 
  3. 540. COMPOUND VERBAL FORMATIONS. 
  Combinations of two or more verb forms are not uncommon in Tsoly;foi. 
  One of the 
  most frequent of these constructions is the "passive": e.g. "I am hit," "he is seen," etc. 
  This consists or a verb form followed by /gu<il/ (+ any tense -aspect elements). It may be 
  noted that the TsolySni passive is less commonly employed than is its counterpart in Eng-
  lish, and it is most often used when the speaker does not know or does not wish to reveal 
  the identity of the subject. Thus, for example, where the English speaker can easily trans-
  form "the man beat me" into "I was beaten by the man, 11 the Tsoly;foi would prefer the for-
  mer and would only use the passive ("I was beaten") if he did not wish to express the identity 
  of the one who had beaten him. It is possible, of course, to !ind passive sentences with the 
  actor expressed (marked by /tham-/ "by")., but these are much less common. Otherwise 
  the passive formation is constructed very much like a single verb: all of the same tenses, 
  aspects, etc. may occur. E.g. 
  / hlm dfmlal gu;{l/ "I am beaten" 
  /ldm thamb<isrim dfmlal gu<il/ "I am beaten by the man" (cf. the discussion 
  above, the expression of the actor of the passive sentence is not usual) 
  /ldm dfrnlal guSI munr/ "I was beaten" 
  /lum m<il ul gu<il dfmlal guSl/ "I will be beaten" 
  /mSisur opetl gu<il ss(ya! / 
  "would that he were caught! 11 
  /mSisur m;ssum guSI lanmrSla mun!/ "he had to be killed" 
  /mSni- kh ssSing guSI diSl/ "the food is being eaten" 
  /mSsun th<inge gu<il ~he 
  "this should be washed" 
  /m<isun m<il ul moyr guSI/ 
  "let this be done! " 
  35 
  
  Other compound verbal formations must be divided into two categories1 
  (a) Those in which the subjects of the verbs are really the same1 e.g. 
  "I want to 
  go" really : ''.!want th~t l ga. " In these ca11es the verb forms are simply joined together, 
  and the first verb rarely takes a demonstrative object, even when it is otherwise transitive. 
  E.g. 
  (l) / munch6tl/ 
  "to stop": e.g. 
  /masun munch6tl m.Sra dahlte pal/ 
  "she has stopped coming here" 
  /mss.Sri munch6tl mun! ssaing masun/ 
  "they stopped eating" (the action of 
  eating may have been broken off and left unfinished1 compare / mss.Sri 
  ssaing tan6 masun/ "they stopped eating" in Sec. 3. 532 (11), which 
  indicates that the action of eating was completed so far as the actors 
  were conce rned) 
  /munch6tli d!mlal tlam<l:isur!/ "stop hitting him!" 
  (2) /panj<l:ng/ "to want, desire": e.g. 
  /llim panj<l:ng mule/ 
  111 want to go" 
  /him panj<l:ng mun! mule/ "I wanted to go" 
  /him panj<l:ng on6tl gu<!:l/ "I want to be there" 
  / m<!:isur panjang mule dopal/ "he wants to be going" (i.e. he wants to be in 
  the act of going along) 
  / maisur panj<l:ng d<l:imi shagain masun, tlass6mu/ "he used to want to climb 
  the mountain" 
  (3) / pas6n/ "to intend to"1 e.g. 
  /lUm pas6n mule/ "l intend to go" 
  /lumi pas6n daimi d<l:hlte mah<l:im/ "we used to intend to live here " 
  /lum ya pas6n mun! pa gal tlatusmi/ "l did not intend to see you" 
  (4) /trash6m/ "to know how to": e.g. 
  /lum trash6m ssanu/ "I know how to dance" 
  /masun y<I: trash6m siun1H m<l:sun/ "she does not know how to sing it" 
  /maisur trash6m niyas el! masun tlafirya/ "he probably knows how to weave 
  Firy<l:-cloth" 
  (5) /z<l:gu/ "to fail to, to be unable to
  11 1 
  e.g. 
  /!um zagu mule/ "I am unable to go, fail to go" (apparently synonymous with 
  /lum ya mule tlay6sh/ "I cannot go" in Sec. 3. 532 (14)) 
  / maisur zagu mun! fazh<I: masun, tlakorun/ 
  "he failed to give the book, was 
  unable to give the book" 
  /!um zagu pagal tlamssuri/ "I fail to see them, am unable to see them" 
  (b) Those formations in which the subject of the first verb causes the object to act 
  -- and hence become the semantic subject of the second verb. In such cases, the first verb 
  may take its usual demonstrative object, although this is not obligatory. The second verb 
  of the formation may also have / gu<l:l/ added to it for reasons unknown. Some of the verbs 
  illustrated under (a) a.bove are also found here. Only a few examples need be given. E. g. 
  (l) /munch6tl/ "to stop": e. g. 
  /lum munch6tl munf m<!:sun tlamssuri, shUv6n gu<l:l brumUni/ "I stopped them 
  (from) enter in$ into the palace" (this is the most complete form: both 
  /masun/ and /gu<l:l/ may be omitted without any apparent loss of sense) 
  /munch6tli m<l:sun tlamaisur d!mlal gual tlamaisur! / 
  "stop him (from) hitting 
  him!" (again, /masun/ and /gual/ may be omitted) 
  (2) /panjang/ "to want, desire": e.g. 
  / 16.m panj<l:ng mun! masun tlamssuri mule gual/ "I wanted them to go" (both 
  / masun/ and/or /gual/ may be dropped) 
  /maisur panjang d<l:imi m<l:sun tlatusmi pal gual/ 
  "he used to want you to come" 
  (/masun/ and/or / gual/ are optional) 
  (3) /pas6n/ "to intend to": e.g. 
  /16.m pas6n mun! masun tlamssuri, tlab<l:srimyal, ssaing gu<l:l masun/ 
  "I 
  intended tl.e men to eat it" (once again either /masun/ or /gual/, or 
  both, may be dropped from this construction) 
  36 
  
  (4) /har€/ "to command, order"r e.g. 
  /kom<i'.isur har€ munr m<i'.sun tlalum nop<i'.l gu<i'.l m<i'.sun, tlatsurum/ "he (noble) 
  ordered me to bring the Cohort" C/tsurumkoi/ "Cohort.of 400 men") 
  (5) /jok<i'.la/ "to permit, let, allow": e.g. 
  /lum y<i'. jok<l'.la munr m<i'.sun, tlam<i'.isur mdle gu<il/ "l did not permit him to go" 
  /lummra p<i'.chukoi jok<l'.la munr m<i'.sun, tlatum moy( gu<i'.l m<i'.sun/ "my lord per-
  mitted me to do it" 
  /lum m<i'.l ul gu<i'.l jok<i'.la m<i'.sun moyr gu<i'.l gu<l'.l/ "!will permit it to be done" 
  (an example of the passive formation after /jok<i'.la/) 
  (b) /pdrlim/ "to ask for, request, invite": e.g. 
  /m<i'.isur purlim munr m<i'.sun, tlaldm p<i'.l gu<i'.l/ "he asked me to come" 
  /ldm purlim munr m;l:sun, tlam;l:isur kharid<i'.n gu<i'.l mofsun, tlasav<i'.l/ "I asked 
  him to surrender the city" 
  (7) /te'6s/ "to help, aid": e.g. 
  /lum te'6s munr m<i'.sun, tlam<i'.isur chakdl gu<i'.l/ "l helped him to rise" 
  /mssuri te 16s d<i'.imi m<i'.sun, tlam<i'.isur ch€nmesh gual mofsun/ "they used to 
  help him harvest it" 
  As an alternative to the above formations, it is possible lo transform the second verb 
  into a verbal noun (cf. Sec, 3. 522) and employ it as the object of the first verb. Further re-
  search is needed on Tsolyani syntax, and only a few examples need be given here. E.g. 
  / lum panjang m<i'.sun, tlamdle/ 111 want to go" (lit, "I want the going"1 = /lum 
  panjfog mule/) 
  /lum panj<i'.ng masun, m<i'.isurmra tlamule/ "I want him to go" (lit. 
  "I want 
  his going") 
  /munch€tli m<i'.sun, m<i'.isurmra tlad(mlal tlam<l'.isur! / 
  "stop him from hitting 
  him!" 
  {lit. "stop his hitting him! ") 
  / tum pas€n munr masun, b<i'.srimmrayal tlass<i'.ing m<i'.sun/ 
  "l intended the men 
  to eat it" (lit. "I intended the men's eating it") 
  /lum te'6s mun( m<l'.sun, m<l'.isurmra tlachakul/ 
  "I helped him to rise" (lit. 
  "I 
  helped his rising") 
  /tum m<i'.l di gu<i'.l jok<l'.la masun, m<i'.sunmra moyr gual/ 
  "I will permit it to be 
  done" (lit. 
  "1 will permit its being done") 
  3. bOO, 
  CONJUNCTIONS. 
  Word, phrase, and sentence connectives are not inflected. 
  This c lass incluC:es: 
  (1) /cham<i'.s/ "therefore," This is derived from /chalum<i'.sun/ "for thi.6"1 e.g. 
  /m<i'.isur purlim mun( ma'. sun, miklum. cham;l:s lum fazh;( mun! ma'.sun, mol-
  m<l'.isur/ "he asked it from me. 
  Therefore l gave it to him" 
  (2) / dev<l'.sh/ 
  "for, since": e.g. 
  /dev<i'.sh lum d<i'.hlte p<l'.l t<i'.ino, lum kich€ng dop<l'.l/ 
  "since I am here (lit. 
  in a 
  state of having come here), I am continuously ill" 
  (3) / f<l'.him/ 
  "then, thereupon, next": e.g. 
  /lum sh!ivUn munr brunati. 
  f<l'.hirn h1m pagal munr tlam<i'.isur/ 
  "I entered into 
  the room. Then I saw him" 
  (4) /h€kke/ "otherwise"r e.g. 
  /lum kich€ng mun(. 
  h6kke lum on6tl gu<l'.l malkhfra/ "l was ill, Otherwise I 
  would have been there" 
  (5) /1€1/ "and" connects words, phrases, and sentencesr e.g. 
  /lum 1€1 m<!:isur mal ul gual mule/ "I and he will go" (Tsolyani puts the first 
  person pronoun first in such sequences, unlike English which prefers 
  "he and I") 
  /lum mule, 1€1 maisur tatla'.n m1He/ 
  "I go, and he goes a lso" 
  (b) / malel/ ''but"1 in the east /ya'.lele/ or / yal€le/ is preferred. E.g. 
  / ldm dl<i'.ra mun!, malel ma'.isur ya'. dla'.ra mun(/ 
  "I went out, but he did not go 
  out" 
  37 
  
  (i) /mun/ "when": e .g. 
  /mun maisur dhryal daimi masun, mllsuntlasaval, masun lllMn gual daimi/ 
  "when he used to administer this city, it used to be very good" 
  (8) / on6i/ "although": e.g. 
  /him mule mun>. on6i tusmi ya mule munr/ "l went, although you d id not go" 
  (9) /par/ "that" introduces direct or indirect speech, perceived or reported pheno-
  mena, etc. E.g. 
  / lum parshal munr ma sun, par mssuri mal ul gual pal/ "I said that they would 
  come" (their coming was in the future at the time l said it1 
  hence the 
  future, "will come" is used rather than any form for "would come") 
  /lum lyutha munr ma sun, par mllsunveshukh tsUlmr6qan gual/ "I heard that 
  this house was (lit. is) empty" (the house "is" empty at the time of my 
  hearing it1 
  the present tense , /gual/, is thus employed) 
  /lum pagal munr masun, par maisur kicheng dopal/ 
  111 saw that he was (lit. is ) 
  ill" (i.e. he "is" ill at the time l saw him) 
  /lum parshal munr masun molmaisur, par mllsunsavalikh dali-n gual/ "l told 
  him that this city was (lit. is) large" (if the c ity was large at some time 
  prior to my telling him, then / gual daimi/ "used to be" can be used) 
  /mssuri parsh<!:l daimi masun, par, lumi mal ul gual missum tlamaisur/ 
  "they used to say, that, 'we will kill him'" (the comma juncture after 
  / par/ 
  is optional) 
  (10) /rasnra/ "because": e.g. 
  / lum pal mura, rasnra tusmi dahlte gual dopa!/ 
  "l have come because you are 
  here" 
  (11) /tla/ "however" is homophonous with the "object" prefix /tla-/ and also with 
  an interjection, /tla: / "oh:" (cf. below). Intonation, juncture, and contour will serve to 
  prevent any ambiguity, however. E.g. 
  /lum ya mule munr molhaudaru. tla tusmi mule munr/ 
  "l did not go to the 
  marketplace. However, you went" 
  (12) /val/ ''but" contrasts two items : 
  "not X but Y 11: 
  e.g. 
  /masunonul 
  ya nfri-n gual, val mikarun/ 
  "that is not blue but black" 
  /maisur mal ul gual tha paz:!'.ng, v:!'.l m:!'.isur mal ul gu:!'.l mule/ "he will not 
  stay, but he will go (instead) 11 
  (13) /zetl/ "in order to, so that": e. g. 
  /him dahlte pal mura, zetl lum pagal bapal tlatusmi/ "I have come here in 
  order that l may see you" 
  Pairs of conjunctions are also foundr e.g. /va ... hasru ... / "if ... then ... , " 
  (cf. Sec. 3. 533), /ra ... ra ..• I "either ... or ..•• II /gurundas ... na'la ... / 
  "on the 
  one hand ... and on the other •.. , " /me ... tr ... / "as . . . so ... , " etc. 
  E . g. 
  /va tusmi moyr bap<H ma sun, hasru !Um mal ul gual hlerek tlatusmi/ "if you 
  do this, then I will scold you" 
  /ra !Um ra maisur m:!'.l ul gual mule/ 
  "either he or l will go" 
  /r:!'. lum ra maisur mal ul gual tha mule/ 
  "neither he nor l will go" (lit. 
  "either he or l will not go") 
  /ra lum mule, ra lum pazang, masun pruri-n r6sikh gual/ "whether (lit. 
  either) I go, or I stay, it is the same thing" 
  /gurundas maisur d6m munr ma sun, na' la maisur moyr munr tlamasunonul/ 
  "on the one hand he said this , and on the other he did that" 
  /me tusmi panjang masun, tr moyni masun: / "as you wish it, so do it! " 
  The subordinating conjunction / de/ requires special comment. Tsolyani has no 
  exact equivalent of a relative pronoun ("who," "whose," "whom," ''which"), and in colloquial 
  speech a relative clause is simply set off by commas from its main sentence: e. g. 
  "the 
  man whom I saw is here" is rendered literally as "the man, I saw him, is here. " Another 
  device, however, is to introduce the subordinate (relative) clause by /de/ . 
  This item indi-
  cates that its clause is not an independent utterance but is rather a sort of parenthetical 
  statement: e.g. "the man (I saw l>im) is here. " Some examples will c larify these usages: 
  38 
  
  /b<l:srimkoi, lum pag<!:l munr tlam<l:isur, d<lhlte gu<ll/ "the man whom I saw is 
  here" (colloquial1 literary Tsoly<l:ni prefers /d~/ before /ldm/) 
  /b<!:srimkoi, d~ m<isun m<!:isurmra v~shukh gu<l:l, d<l:hlte gu<l:l/ ''the man, whose 
  house this is, is here" (lit. 
  "the man, this is his house, is here") 
  /lum pag<l:l munr m<lisur, tlab<l:srim, d~ m<l:isur q<imi-n bruv~shu gu<l:l mun(/ "I 
  saw the man who was in the house today" (lit. 
  "I saw him, the man, he 
  wa s in the house today") 
  /dMikh, de lum ts<!:ipa munr m.i:sun, (ma sun) tusmimra gu.i:1, ne 1 / 
  "the coin 
  which I found, is il yours?" (/dlaikh/ "coin" is brought to the front of 
  the sentence, and an optional "returning pronoun" (/masun/) may be in-
  serted to make the second clause a complete sentence. This can be con-
  sidered a special sort of emphasis: "(as for) the coin which I found, is 
  (it) yours?" The order of the clauses may also be reversed: / dl<l:ikh 
  tusmimra gus.1, de 11sm tsS.ipa munr masun, ne 1 / 
  "the coin is yours, 
  which I found? 11) 
  /basrimkoi, de tusmi mis sum munr tlarnaisur, (rn<iisur) lummra MkhidlHikoi 
  gual dairni/ "(as for) the man whom you slew, (he) was my elder bro-
  ther" C/mais..ir/ "he" may be inserted as a "returning pronoun"1 alter-
  natively, /maisur lummra h<l:khid~likoi gu<il d<l:imi, de tusrni rnissum rnunr 
  m<l:isur, tlabilsrirn/ "he was my elder brother, ihe man whom you slew") 
  /tlab<isrim, de lurn d<l:hlte pagiH munr tlamaisur, ch~ngadeshakoi missum munr 
  tlarn<iisur/ "(as for) the man whom I saw here, the soldier slew h im" 
  (/tlabilsrim/ is the object of the verb of the main clause , and hence the 
  "object" prefix /tla-/ occurs. Alternatively: 
  /ch~ngadeshako i m issum 
  munr rnaisur, tlabasrim, de !urn d ilhlte pagal munr tlamofisur/) 
  3. 700. MINOR CLASSES. 
  3. 710. SENTENCE-INTRODUCING PARTICLES. 
  Various uninflected elements are placed at the beginnings of sentences to provide 
  special emphasis. These are difficult to translate without sounding archaic. This class in-
  cludesr /nagr<in/ ''behold," / r,irS.i/ "indeed," / rnuel/ 
  "truly, verily," / k<irntla/ "yet, 
  still, even so, " /chne/ "lo!" /yaqU/ "not so, " etc. E.g. 
  /girai, !um surirn tane rnura m<isun/ "indeed, I have finished writing it" 
  /karntla, tusmi ya moyr munr m<isun/ "even so, you did not do it" 
  /nagran, k6lumeldUidUisa hare m<isun/ "behold, the very might and powerful 
  emperor commands it" 
  /rnuel, rnofsun lurnrnra tlofktekh gual dopofl/ "truly, this is my opinion" 
  /chne,- lum fazhof mdra m<l:sun, moltusmi/ "lo, I have given it to you" 
  /yaqu, lum ya gual/ "not so, (it) is not I" 
  3. no. ENCLITICS. 
  Two items which usually occur with little or no stress and which are juncturally 
  "attached" to a preceding word are /she/ "emphatic" and / bai/ "even." / she/ places em-
  phasis upon the word it follows and in some cases may be translated "(my, etc.) self." E.g. 
  / !urn she pagal munr m<l:sun/ 
  111 rnyseli saw it" or "I saw it" 
  /masun !Ummra she veshukh gual/ "this is my own-house" or "~house" 
  / mssuri she pdrdal otdn munr, pag!Umi she/ 
  "they began to fight with us" 
  (rather than the other way around) 
  /!urn thu'fnin she gual/ "I am old" (rather than young!) 
  /!urn bai penga m<!:sun/ "even .I know it" 
  /maisur bai yalUn te'6s tlalurnT "even he never helps me" (i.e. he is the one 
  fro m whom I most expected assistance!) 
  /mani -kh ldmimra bai bruveshu ya gual dopa l/ "there is no food e ven in our 
  house" (i.e. and we are the ones expected to have food!) 
  --
  /ldm mera rnunr m<!:sun, dhuralel bai/ 
  "I searched for il, even under the table" 
  (although that was the last place I thought l might find it) 
  /lurnmra <l:kakoi bai rnolrnssatu mule rnura/ "even my grandfather has gone to 
  the feast" (and he was the last one I expected to go! ) 
  /16rn she bai yof penga ma sun/ "even I myself do not know it! " (both /she/ and 
  /bai/ may occur with the same substantive) 
  /him bai penga m<isun, plCr masun n(ri- n she gulf!/ "even I know that it is 
  blue!" 
  -
  39 
  
  3. 730, SENTENCE-ENDING PARTICLES. 
  A member of this small class can be placed at the end of an utterance to provide 
  further emphatic colouration. Sometime., these particles are set off from the sentence by 
  junctures, and they may be accompanied by special intonation contours. These emphatic 
  elements affect the tone of the entire sentence and not just that of one word or phrase within 
  it, Four of these particles are extremely common: 
  (1) /ne/ indicates a "yes-or-no" interrogative sentence. This particle is not used 
  with sentences which contain question words (e.g. "what?" "why?" "where?" etc. 1 cf. 
  Sec, 3. 410). Other than the addition of /ne/ (together with a rising intonation contour). 
  there is no change in word order for an interrogative sentence (compare English, "I saw 
  him" with "did you see him?"). Used as a minor sentence type by itself, /ne/ asks for 
  the listener's affirmation or denial: e.g. "is that so?" or "don' t you agree?" /ne/ may 
  also ask a question about a single word or phrase. E.g. 
  /!Um kaim ma'. sun. ne? I "I like this. Don't you agree? II 
  /tsam, ne? / 
  "how about you?" (context will indicate what is meant) 
  /tsam mal ul gua'.l mule, ne? I "will you go? II 
  /ma:isur moyr munr ma sun, ne? / 
  "did he do it?" 
  /tusmi she ya pagal munrma'.sun, ne?/ "did not you yourself see it?" 
  (2) /nga'./ denotes firm declaration, asserting the reality of a statement. 
  This par-
  ticle is frequently found at the end of sentences containing locative or temporal phrases, and 
  Tsolyani informants tend to translate /nga/ as "therein," "thereon," "thereunder," etc. , as 
  following examples will demonstrate. Used as an utterance by itself, / nga/ signifies some-
  thing like "it is so," and it is often used in reply to questions where an English speaker 
  would say, "that's right." 
  E.g. 
  /nagran, maisur brumUni gual, nga/ "behold, he is in the palace" (a Tsolya'.ni 
  informant might feel that this translation does not carry enough empha-
  sis and would prefer something like, "behold, he is in the palace, there -
  in11) 
  /muel, m~sunkasikoi lummra mikp;fohud~li pal mura, nga/ "verily , this cap-
  tain has come from my great lord, (therefrom)" 
  /Ium mis sum munr tlamaisur, thamssyusa, nga/ "I slew him, with the mighty 
  sword (therewith)" 
  /lum paga'.l daimi tlamaisur, pagt\l.planpachud~liyal , nga/ 
  "I used to see him 
  with the beloved, great lords (therewith)" 
  /girai, shartokoi gual munr, nga/ "indeed, there was a priest" (/nga/ empl>a-
  sises the reality of the assertionr "there was a priest, there was! ") 
  /maisur tsomun pal munr, nga/ "he came at dawn (he did)" 
  (3) /ssa/ expresses strong affirmation, Alone, /ssa/ is used for "yes." E.g. 
  /Ium mal 6.1 gual mule, ssa! I "I WILL go! " 
  /tusmi pagal munr ma sun, ssa'.! / 
  "you DID see it! " 
  /16.mi shraithu masun, ssa! I "we DO agree to it!" 
  /ma'.sun mal 6.1 gual tumelainu t latusmi, ssa! / 
  "she WILL marry you! " 
  /16.m te'6s munr tlatusmi, ssa! I "I DID help you!" 
  (4) /yere/ is the opposite of / ssa/: it denotes strong denial or negation. /yere/ is 
  not employed a lone, unlike the· other members of this class. The words for "no" are /ya/ 
  (for present or past t ime) and /tha/ (for conditional, imperative, or future time). E.g. 
  /16.m ma'..l 6.1 gual tha mule, yere! I "I will NOT go! " 
  /lumi yalUn moyr ma sun, yere! / 
  "we NEVER do it!. " 
  /masun 16.mmra tlaktekh ya'. gua'.l, yere! / 
  "this is NOT my idea! 11 
  /lum ya mazne munr, seltusmi, yere! / 
  "I did NOT plot against you! 11 
  /16.m mal ul gual thalUn te'6s tlatusmi, yere! I "I will NEVER help you! II 
  3, 740. 
  INTERJECTIONS. 
  Tsolyani is rich in special interjections. 
  The common (and least connotative) form 
  for "oh! " is /ohe/ (some dialects p r efer /ahe/). There are several other words for "oh! 11 
  however, and each of these has its own connotations. The following list is not exhaustive: 
  /aing/ "the 'oh!' of respect" (used to superiors) 
  / bana'.khf "the 'oh!• of awe and dread" (used to express amazement strongly 
  tinged with feari this is said to be derived from the name of King Ba-
  na'.kh the Undying, seventh ruler of the Bednalljan Dynasty) 
  40 
  
  /bas/ "the 'oh!' of pain" (also /dras/ in some dialects) 
  /la/ "the 'oh! 1 of insouciance" (the speaker does not think much of the idea 
  being discussed but does not care) 
  /mas/ "the 'oh!' of joy and affection" (used in addressing a loved one) 
  /nya/ "the 'oh! 1 of mortal terror" (expresses deadly danger) 
  /tla/ "the 'oh!' of disdain" (stronger than /la/: the speaker sees the topic of 
  discussion as foolish, ridiculous, repugnant, etc.) 
  /tra/ "the 'oh! 1 of astonishment" (the speaker is unexpectedly !aced with a 
  totally new situation or development) 
  /tulum/ "the 'oh! 1 of revulsion" (the speaker is confronted by somethin~ repug-
  nant, nauseating, or abhorrent1 probably derived from /tulumikh/ "noi-
  some pit," a reference to the terrible imperial P,risons, the T6lek Kana 
  Pits, which lie just across the river from Bey SU) 
  The student will encounter many regional and class-based variants of these interjec-
  t ions. The following may also prove useful: 
  /bau/ "congratulations!" (from /bauyan/ "to congratulate") 
  /chure/ "go away! get out!" (cf. Sec. 3. 521) 
  /jai/ "hurry!''. (from /jaimu/ "to hurry") 
  /mfri/ "come here1 " (cf. Sec. 3. 521) 
  /ngangmuru/ "greetings, hello! " (perhaps from Engsvanyali /m~l ngl! ~rte/ 
  "it (is) to-me honour," but some scholars do not agree) 
  /;>a/ "look!" (probably from /pagal/ "to see") 
  /ts6/ "here you are! please take this!" (derivation uncertain) 
  /zhUne/ "is that so?" (/ne/ is probably the interrogative particle, cf. Sec. 
  3. 730, and /zhU/ may be from /zhur/ "what?") 
  · 
  3. 800. SYNTAX. 
  It is not possible to provide many details concerning word order within sentences and 
  discourses in a sketch as necessarily brief (and hopefully nontechnical) as this. Only a f~w 
  generalisations will thus be made. 
  3. 810. THE NOUN PHRASE. 
  The order of elements within the noun "word-unit" were listed in Sec. 3. 100 !!. As 
  was stated, some of these prefixes and su!!ixes may alternatively occur as separate "words": 
  /masunprll.tll.planbasrimdalisa/ "this one, beloved, great and powerful man" 
  (all of the affixes -- the Quantifier, the Personal Attitude Prefix, and 
  the two General Attitude Suffixes may be made into independent adjec -
  tive words. Only the Demonstrative /masun-/ cannot be so treated) 
  /prun tuplanin san masunbasrimkoi/ "this one, beloved, powerful man" (infor-
  mants state that there is no real difference between this and the former 
  example1 in the former construction the va rious attributes seem to be all 
  "part of the perceptible reality of the noun, " however, whereas in the latter 
  each modifier is being thought of as a separate concept "attached" to the 
  noun -- ? ) 
  Independent adjective modifiers are usually placed before their noun1 the quantifier 
  comes first, followed by any qualitative adjectives (cf. the preceding example). A possessive 
  noun containing /-mra/ (cf. Sec. 3. l 70) is placed before the noun which it possesses, and any 
  adjectives modifying this noun are placed before it. l! a possessive noun is constructed with 
  /hi-/, however, this occurs after the modified noun, and any adjectives modifying it are 
  placed after it. E. g. 
  / basrimmrakoi tlongemudaliyai/ "the man's five large sons" (orr) 
  /tlongemudaliyal hibasrim/ "the five large sons of the man" (i! an adjective is 
  added to "the man," the following orders occur:) 
  /kadhmanin basrimmrakoi tlongemudUiyal/ "the famous man's five large sons" 
  /tlongemudaliyal hibasrim kadhmanin/ "the five large sons of the famous man" 
  (note that there is also a General Attitude Suffix, / kadh/ "famous'\ i.e. 
  /basrimkadhmrakoi/ or /hibasrimkadh/ may be employed) 
  /kadhmanin basrimmrakoi tl6n dali-n ngemuyal/ "the famous man's five large 
  sons" 
  (~he modifiers of "sons" may also occur as independent words1 
  with /hi- / 
  "of" the order is different:) 
  /tl6n dali-n ngemuyal hibasrim kadhmanin/ "the five large sons of the famous 
  man" 
  41 
  
  Adjectives usually follow a noun which is the object of a transitive verb. Even so, 
  possessive and interrogative (etc.) adjectives may precede such an object noun, An adjec-
  tive may also be placed after its noun to give a literary or poetic connotation, 
  E.g. 
  /tdsmi pag<H munr masun, changilin tlakordn k<!'.rin/ 
  "Which red book did you 
  see?" (the interrogative /changilin/ "which?" precedes, but the quali-
  tative adjective /k<!'.rin/ "red" follows the noun object) 
  /lummra vfsumikh l<!'.n/ 
  "my good servant" (literary for /l<!'.n vfsumikh/) 
  Adverbs precede the adjective (or verb) they modify. Such adjectives are almost al-
  ways independent words rather than the "attitude" affixes. 
  E.g. 
  /burr dhali -n thi<!'.lakh/ "very beautiful maiden" (not "'/burr thi<!'.ladhUi -kh/) 
  /ldm burun k<!'.im tlam<!'.sun/ "I like it a lot" (/burun/ "much" precedes its verb) 
  3. 820. 
  SENTENCES. 
  There are two types of sentence r "minor" and "major." The former are incomplete 
  "pieces"r i.e. single, words, phrases, clauses, and other partial utterances which do not 
  have both a subject and a predicate. Conversations -- in all languages -- are full of such 
  "minor" sentences. Major utterances , on the other hand, include both a subject and a predi-
  cate. Sometimes, as in the case of imperatives, the subject may be implied by the verbal 
  form. 
  There are also "subjectless" Impersonal sentences1 cf. below. 
  A few example s 
  of minor sentences will sufficer 
  /tsam, n~? / 
  "how· about you?" 
  /m<!'.sun/ "this (one)" (in answer to a question such as "which one do you want?") 
  /d~pu/ "why?" 
  /nga/ "that is so" 
  /lummra/ "my" (or "mine 111 in answer to a question ilke "whose is this?") 
  3. 821. 
  IMPERSONAL SENTENCES. 
  A special sublcass of the "major" sentence category is that of the "subject.less" imper-
  sonal sentences. Several verbs exist which require no overt subjectr e.g. "it" in "it is 
  raining. 11 E.g. 
  /banur/ "(it) rains" 
  /rssa/ 
  "(the wind) blows" 
  /lajar munr/ 
  "(it) hailed" 
  Temporal, locative, and adverbial words and phrases usually precede the verb, and 
  their order is quite free. Such elements can also be found after the verb, however, separa-
  ted from it by comma junctures. If more than one such element occurs, then the order is1 
  (a) any temporal word or phrase, (b) any locative element(s), and (c ) any adverb modifying 
  the verb itself. 
  E.g. 
  /,P<!'.lin banur munr/ "yesterday (it) rained" 
  /pa'.lin brusav<!'.l banur munr/ "yesterday (it) rained in the c ity" (alsor /palin 
  banur munr, brusav<!'.l/ or less commonlyr /banur mun!, palin, bru-
  saval/1 /brusava'.l palin banur munr/ is somewhat unidiomatic, however) 
  /,Pa'.lin brusaval netuatl banur munr/ "yesterday (it) rained hard in the city" 
  /q<!'.mi-n tuMngme munr/ 
  "today (it) was sunny" 
  /nechim<!'.k chusu otun munr/ "suddenly (it) started to get dark" (orr /chusu 
  otun munr(,) neehim<!'.k/) 
  /gllchekir~nyal brusava'.l nechim<!'.k chizt!q munr/ 
  "two r Kir~n' ago, suddenly 
  there ¥fas lightning in the city" (lit. 
  ''before-two-Kir~n in-the - city 
  suddenly (it) lightninged") 
  3. 822. 
  IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 
  Another overtly "subjectless" sentence type is that of the imperatives (cf. Sec. 3. 521 ). 
  One of the second person pronouns is understood, however, and a pronoun may indeed be 
  inserted for reasons of emphasis or clarity. E.g. 
  /muleli! I "go! II (Orr /tusmi (etc. l muleli! /) 
  /zhulin mollum palli! / 
  "come to me tomorrow! " (orr /zhulin p<!'.lli(,) mol-
  lum! /i 7<!'.lli(,) zh.Slin(,) mollum!/ is possible but not preferred) 
  /dl.iralitusmi! 
  "go forth! " (to an honoured person) 
  /th.i muleli/ "do not go! " (the negative adverb always precedes the verb) 
  /moyOi masun! / 
  "do it!" (the object of a transitive verb osually occurs) 
  42 
  
  3. 823. 
  INTRANSITIVE SENTENCES. 
  The basic elements of the "major" sentence are the subject and the v~rb . 
  Again, the 
  order of temporal, locative, and adverbial elements is relatively free. A statistically 
  common word-order isi (temporal) + subject + (locative) + (adverb) + verb. Various other 
  orders are found, of course, depending upon factors of style too complex to be gone into 
  here. A completely reversed sentence-order, with the verb coming first, is found in reli-
  gious texts, hymns , and t racts1 cf. Sec. 3. 533 (8) ff. E.g. 
  /lum pal/ "I come" 
  /hagi- n lum pal/ "I come daily" (orr /lum hagi -n pal/ and even /lUm p![l(, J 
  hagi- n/) 
  /hagi-n lum nechq61 pal/ "l come early daily" 
  /h<'l'.gi-n ~um molmlini nechq61 pal/ "1 come early to the palace daily" 
  /pal panll nechq61, hrugga, molqadardali/ "Hrugga came early unto the battle" 
  (part of a line from "The Epic of Hrugga " 1 cf. Sec. 3. 533 (9)) 
  It should perhaps be mentioned again that one major restriction is the mandatory 
  placement of any negative word ("not," "never") directly before the verb stem. E.g. 
  /hagi-n lum molmlini nechq61 ya pal/ "1 do not come early to the palace daily" 
  3. 824. 
  "COPULA" SENTENCES. 
  Sentences containing /gual/ "to be, become" or /nrr/ "to change to, become " re-
  quire comment. These "copula" verbs may have a noun (or noun phrase), an adjecti,.e, o r 
  a locative expression as their predicates, e. g. 
  "he i s a man, " "he is large," and "he is in 
  the house. " Such predicate complements usually occur before the ve r b, but , again, may be 
  placed after it (sometimes separated by a comma-juncture). Other temporal, locative, or 
  adverbial elements in the sentence occur much as was described a bove for other intransitive 
  sentence types. E.g. 
  /maisur basrimkoi gual/ "he is a (Ori the) man" (also: /maisur gual(.) 
  basrimkoi/ 
  /maisur dali-n gual/ "he is large" (or: / maisur gual(,) dali-n/) 
  /maisur 'f?ruv€shu gual/ "he is in the house" (ori / maisur gual(.) bruv€shu/ J 
  /palin maisur lummra bruv€shu kich€ngin gual munr/ "yesterday he was ill in 
  my house" (several alternate orders are poss ible) 
  /palin maisur lummra bruv€shu kich€ngin nrr munr/ 
  "yesterday he became 
  ill in my house" (/nrr/ denotes "to change from one state to another"; 
  it is empl'Oyed where / gual/ mij'lht be ambiguous) 
  /lum changad~shakoi mal 61 gual nrr/ "l will become a soldier" (i.e. change 
  from my present state to that of being a soldier) 
  /ldm qarran ya gual munr/ "I was not angry" (again, the negative word must 
  directly precede the verb1 or: /!Um ya gual(.) qarran/) 
  /lum qarran ya nrr munr/ "I did not become angry" 
  /ldm nela gual/ "I am well" (or: /lum gual(, J nela/J 
  3. 825. 
  TRANSITIVE SENTENCES. 
  The basic building blocks of the transitive sentence a i·e the subject, the verb, and 
  the object of the verb. As was stated in Sec. 3. 500, it is usual -- if not obligat ory -- for a 
  transit ive verb to be accompanied by a pronominal or demonstrative object. If the object of 
  the verb is a noun, the demonstrative object is still very frequently expressed: e.g. 
  "I 
  saw him, the man. " A fuller discussion of this will be found in the Section just mentioned. 
  A pronominal or demonstrative object must immediately follow the verbal unit. Ad-
  verbs, locatives, temporals, etc. occur much as was described above for other sentence 
  types. E.g. 
  /maisur pagal munr tlalum/ "he saw me" (for reasons of strong emphasis 
  one may say, /tlalum(.) maisur pagal munr/ or / maisur tlalum pagal 
  munr/, b ut these stylistic variants are hardly "normal" utterances: both 
  seem to stress "me": i.e. he saw ME, rather than someone else) 
  /kasikoi d(mlal munr tlamaisur / 
  "the captain hit him" (a comma is possible 
  afte r / munr/1 other orders are possible but emphatic) 
  /tusmi mal ul gual tsaipa masun/ "you will find it" (no other order seems to 
  be possible when the object is not a person -- ? ) 
  /maisur ya ssaing munr m<'l'.sun/ "he did not eat it " (/y<'I'./ must precede the 
  verb) 
  43 
  
  /p<1lin m<1isur pag<11 mun( tlalum/ "he saw me yesterday" (or: /m<1isur p<1lin 
  pag<11 mun( tlalilm/, or even /m<1isur pag<il mun( tlalum(, ) p<ilin/) 
  /p<1lin m<1isur bruhaud<iru pag<11 mun( tlalum/ "he saw me yesterday in the 
  marketplace" (other po .. litions are again possible for both / p<ilin/ "yes-
  terday" and /bruhaud<iru/ "in the marketplace") 
  /p<1lin m<1isur sansumre netu<l:tl d(mlal mun( tlalum/ "yesterday he struck me 
  violently on the face" (the adverbial modifier / netu<l:tl/ "violently" tends 
  to remain where it is, just before the verb1 /p<l:lin/ "yesterday" and 
  /sanso5.mre/ "on the face" can be placed elsewhere in the sentence, how-
  everr e.g. /m<l:isur p<l:lin netu<l:tl dfmlal mun( tlalum(,) sansoimre/ ) 
  When a noun object occurs, it is most frequently p laced directly after the demonstra-
  tive object with which it is "in apposition. " A comma juncture may be inserted between the 
  demonstrative and the noun object. Other orders are also permitted, of course: to bring 
  a noun object to the front of the sentence seems to emphasise it, and to place the noun object 
  between the subject and the verb gives the sentence a certain literary connotation. The 
  demonstrative object, however, remains where it is, directly after the verbal unit. E.g. 
  /loim pag<l:l munr m<l:isur(,) tlab<isrim/ "I saw the man" (the common order) 
  /tlab<l:srim(,) lum pag<(l mun( m<l:isur/ "(it was) the man (whom) I saw" (this 
  order focusses upon and emphasises "the man") 
  /loim tlab<isrim pag<l:l mun( m<iisur/ 
  "I saw the man" (somewhat literary) 
  /p<1lin loim brukram~n pag<11 mun( mssuran(,) tladUt6yal/ "yesterday I saw the 
  gems in the shop" (/tladUt6yal/ "the gems" may be placed before / p<11in/ 
  "yesterday" or just after it, set off by commas1 less commonly /tla-
  dUt6yal/ may be placed after / lum/ "I" or even after /brukram~n/ "in 
  the shop") 
  /Uhim m<l:isur m<1isurmra thamch6peyal nesh6i vayun munr m<l:sun(,) tlashan-
  tsur/ "then he carefully opened the box with his fingers" (/f<l:him/ "then" 
  cannot be placed elsewhere, /m<1isurmra thamch6peyal/ "with his fin-
  gers" would seem strange before the subject, / m<1isur/ "he," but it 
  migh: be put at the very end of the sentence set off by a comma 1 /nesh6i/ 
  "carefully" could be placed after its verb, but any other position would 
  not be idiomatic for it1 /tlashantsoir/ "the box" could be put after 
  /f<l:him/ "then" or after /m<l:isur/ 
  11he"1 the present order, however, 
  has the most natural "feel" to it for all of the informants consulted) 
  An "indirect object" (e, g. 
  "to him" in "he gave the book to him") is treated much as 
  any other locative word or phrase. Such elements are usually placed after the subject and 
  before any locative or adverbial modifiers. They may, however, also be found after the 
  direct object of the verb, set off from it by a comma. E.g. 
  /m<1isur mollum fazh<( mun( m<l:sun(,) tladUt6/ "he gave the gem to me" (or: 
  /m<l:isur !azh<( munr m<l:sun(,) tladUt6(,) mollum/ J 
  /!um molmssuri nesh6i vupag<l:l mun( mssuran(, J tladUt6yal/ 
  "I carefully show-
  ed them the gems" (/molmssliri/ 
  "to them" may also be placed after 
  the direct object, /tladUt6yal/ "the gems") 
  /p<l:lin lum y<I: nop<l:l mun( m<l:isur(,) tlachogun(, J molts6ro/ "yesterday I did not 
  bring the guest to the village-headman" (/molts6ro/ "to the village-
  headman" may also be placed after /loim/ "I") 
  A few verbs may take "double objects" in colloquial and less-formal written Tsoly<l:ni. 
  It is preferable to avoid such constructions by using the appropriate Locative Prefix. E. g. 
  /m<1isur s lpurmu mun( tlam<1isur(,) tlajaithul~n/ "he appointed him governor" 
  (the double object is clearly indicated by the repetition of /tla-/1 formal 
  Tsoly<l:ni would prefer:) 
  /m<1isur qaril.mjaithul~n sipoirmu mun( tlam<1isur/ "he appointed him as gover-
  nor" (/qaril.m-/ "as, by way of" removes the double object problem) 
  /lum chalum<1isur moyr munr m<l:sun(, ) tlany<1ilu/ "l made him (lit. for him) a 
  tunic" 
  The syntax of the "relative" clause was discussed in Sec. 3. 600. Subordinate clauses 
  introduced by a conjunction (e.g. /vS./ "if") were seen in Sec. 3. 600, and temporal absolu-
  tive constructions were listed in Sec. 3. 522. Modifiers referring to an object usually follow 
  it. 
  E . g. 
  /llim ts<1ipa munr m:!.isur(, J tlab<l:srim ports6n/ "I found the man drunk" (or: 
  /lum tdipa mun( m<l:isur(,) tlabS.srim ports6dai/1 cf. Sec. 3, 522) 
  44 
  
  4. 000. A GUIDE FOR TRAVELLERS. 
  It is likely that the present work will be the only one available in English dealing 
  with Tsolyani for some time to come. A major objective, therefore, is to acqu,aint students, 
  businesspersons, and travellers with enough of the language to enable them to £unction in 
  everyday situations in T solyanu. The following sets of sentences are meant to provide im-
  mediate assistance and should not be considered the equivalent of a ''basic course. " The 
  interested student should be able to use these mater ials as a foundation upon which to build 
  greater competence in the language. 
  One should study the grammatical materials given previously in order to make the 
  best use of these Sections. It has been necessary to curtail the examples for reasons of 
  space, e.g. only the "middle-class" pronouns and demonstratives have been employed 
  below, and the student must thus consult Secs. 3. 300 ff. in order to select the most appro-
  priate form. 
  The use of an incorrect status-pronoun may lead to unhappy social consequen-
  ces, and only a reading of the relevant Section s will provide the necessary data. 
  Another means of saving space has bee n the selection of only one member of a class 
  to represent the enti re class. E . g. when one finds / lum panjang dopal masun, t lakorun/ 
  "l want (lit. am wanting) the book" given below , one may consult the grammar and the Eng-
  lish !fs:>lyani glossary given hereafter in order to substitute any other desired noun object 
  for /korun/ "book." Similarly, other nouns or pronouns may be substituted for / lum/ "l," 
  and any semantically appropriate verb may be inserted in place of / panjang/ "to want. " 
  Recognition of common a!!ixes and the basics of the verb system will enable the student to 
  construct a variety of sentences as need arises. 
  4. 100. USEFUL EXPRESSIONS. 
  Sir! Madame! Miss! 
  ain~! 
  [lit. "oh! II 
  What do you want? 
  tusmi panjang dopal 
  to a respected person] 
  ma sun, tlazhur? 
  Excuse me. 
  lummra jutl€kh. 
  [lit. "my 
  l want the book. 
  !Um panjang dopal masun, 
  humility"] 
  tlakorun. 
  Please! Thank you! 
  chegukh. [lit. "kind- I know it. 
  lum pe11ga masun. 
  ness"] 
  l do not understand it. 
  lum ya wad h€1 dopal 
  Yes. 
  No. 
  ssa. 
  ma sun. 
  ya. (present or past time 1 Eastern: Please speak slowly. 
  /yala/]i 
  tha. [future, imperative, 
  d6mli masun. 
  or conditional time) 
  Please explain it. 
  chegukh, mrrsteli masun. 
  chegukh, neyapa 
  All right. Good. 
  lan. 
  Plea se write it for me. 
  chegukh, chalulum 
  That is right. That is so. 
  nga. 
  surimli masun. 
  Not so. 
  yaqtl. 
  Pleas e tell me the address. 
  chegukh, mol-
  ls that so? Do you agree? 
  n~? 
  lum parshalli masun, tlawatrm. 
  Look! 
  pa! 
  Do you speak Tsolyani? 
  tusmi d6m ma sun, 
  Here you are! 
  ts6! 
  tlatsolyani, n€? 
  As you wish. 
  tusmimra har€kh. [lit. 
  Can anyone here speak Livyani? 
  hl6nkoi 
  "your command") 
  dahlte d6m tlay€sh masun, tlalivyani, n€? 
  Certainly. 
  netl€ka. 
  What is the matter? 
  zhur gual. 
  Perhaps. 
  sran. 
  What is this? 
  ma sun zhur gual. 
  Possibly. 
  nemunggll. 
  What is that? 
  masunl>nul zhur gual. 
  Always. 
  hruvan. 
  What is that (over there)? 
  masunj llga zhur 
  Often. 
  anzan. 
  gual. 
  Never. 
  yalUn. (pre sent or past time ]1 
  You are mistaken. 
  tusmi dnu taino. 
  thalUn. [future , imperative, or con -
  Do not become angry! 
  tha garrali! 
  ditional time Ji 
  yathaHln. (past, pre-Do not be afraid! 
  tha slinr(lli! 
  sent, and future time J 
  Be quiet! 
  hrathuli! 
  At once. 
  nemor€l. 
  This is good. 
  m;!;sun Ian gual. [moral, ethi-
  ln a moment. 
  brusiv€1. 
  cal, or religious goodness ] 
  Now. 
  fru. 
  This is nice. 
  m;!;sun dh;!;li-n gu;!;l. [beau-
  Soon. 
  neban. 
  ti!ul, handsome, elegant, etc. J 
  In half an hour. 
  prubrukir€n. 
  This is bad. 
  m.i:sun bussan gual. [moral, 
  In an hour. 
  gll.brukir€nyal. [lit. 
  "in two 
  ethical, or religious evil) 
  'kir€ns') 
  This is bad. 
  m;!;sun j€hun gu;!;l. [defective, 
  Today. 
  qami-n. 
  spoiled, ugly, incorrect, inoperative) 
  Tomorrow. 
  zhulin. 
  Where is it? 
  masun f€nul gu;!;l dopal? 
  Yesterday. 
  palin. 
  Who i s he? 
  m<!:isur hfrri gual. 
  Again. echu. 
  [i.e. another time] 
  How is he? 
  m;!;isur ssumim gual dopa!. 
  In the morning. 
  brusham€1. 
  Why is that? 
  masunl>nul d€pu gual. 
  45 
  
  In the evening. 
  bruhiusUn. 
  At night. 
  bruslln. 
  During the day. 
  bruhagi. 
  Daily. 
  hagi- n. 
  It is early yet. 
  masun keneru nechq61 gual. 
  ll is late. 
  masun adflin gual. 
  When will it be? 
  masun marakal mal ul 
  gual gual. 
  How do I go there? 
  lum on6tl ssumim mule. 
  How do you say this in Tsolyani? 
  tusmi 
  brutsolyAni ssumim d6m ma'.sun. 
  What does this mean? 
  masunmra patlekh 
  zhur gua'.l. [lit. "its meaning is what?"] 
  I'm sorry. 
  lum $6tha taino. 
  [or: 
  / 1Um-
  m ra g6thakh/ "my regret") 
  Please forgive me! 
  chegukh, ha 'farli tlalum! 
  4. 200. 
  GETTING ACQUAINTED. 
  Hello! 
  ngangmuru. [to a social equal]1 
  How many children do you have? 
  tusmimra 
  ngangmuru brujutle. [to a social su-
  desten btlnuyal gual. 
  perior1 lit. "greetings in humility")i I have a son and two daughters. 
  lummra 
  ngangmuru bruhaya lel brumazrk. [to 
  prungemukh ltH gll.ngesayal gual. 
  a noble person, lit, 
  "greetings in 
  How is your family? 
  tusmimra hessikoi 
  glory and in peace "Ji ohe. [to a 
  ssumim gual dopal. 
  social inferior, lit. "oh! , hey!") 
  Where are you staying? 
  tusmi brufenul 
  How a re you? 
  tusmi ssumim gual dopal. 
  pazang dop;U. 
  I am well. 
  lum nela gual dopal. 
  1 will come to meet you. 
  lum mal ul gual 
  What is your name? 
  tusmimra khatun-
  pal fa 'ar tlatusmi. 
  dll.lisakoi harri gual. 
  [lit.. "your 
  Are you busy tomorrow? 
  tusmi palin 
  great and powerful name is who?"] 
  hehedhan mal ul gual gual, ne? 
  My name is Kagesh. 
  lummra khatunikh 
  I am free. 
  lum sadhbain gual. 
  kagesh gual. [a social superior may We will go together to the marketplace. 
  ·~se / khatunkoi/] 
  lumi molhaudaru pagin mal ul gual mule. 
  I am honoured. 
  lum tishel gual taino. 
  Have you seen the .A.rena? 
  tusmi pagal mura 
  What is your clan and your profession? 
  . 
  masun, tl{lh1ri!akte, ne? 
  , 
  u 
  · 
  dla 
  Uk · 1 1 h 
  kekh 
  1 will go to see it next week. 
  !um gatl(-n 
  t hs,mim~~ 
  nm 
  Oi e 
  S au 
  tlohagi- n ma! Ui gua l mule pagal masun. 
  z ur gu · 
  l will take you to meet Lord Kagesh. 
  lum 
  lam of the Sea -Blu_e Clan. 
  lum hidlanmU 
  mal ul gual gatham tlatusmi, fa'ar 
  h1.chll.nyunfri gual. 
  . 
  maisur, tlahoru llakagesh. 
  My rank is that of Count. 
  lummra kavrrikh I 
  t t 
  · t 
  d 
  t 
  L 
  d K 
  e h 
  l' 
  hehellukoi gual. 
  wan 
  o in ro uce
  0 you o 
  or. 
  ag s . 
  um 
  M 
  C . 
  l 
  · 
  h 
  f H. hp · 
  l"' 
  panJang vufa ar tlatusm1 paghoru pag-
  y 
  ire e is t at 0 
  ig 
  riest. 
  ummra 
  k 
  e h 
  kartu'6nikh qusunc hukoi gual. [the 
  ag s · 
  ,,. . 
  k 
  f 
  · 
  t . 
  11 d ., . 
  1 ., 
  P lease meet my brother. 
  chegukh, fa .. rh 
  r~n. o a P~·~s is ca e. circ e ' 
  rnaisur lummra tlahakhi. 
  civil and m1htary ranks are termed 
  • 
  . 
  ,, 
  ,, 
  / k v1 ' kh/ ] 
  May your c lan pro.sr-er! 
  tusm1mra dl .. nmu-
  a 
  ri 
  koi laktln ssrya! 
  Where have you come from? 
  t6smi mik-
  ·' 
  . 
  . 
  f" 
  l al a· 
  I am happy to meet you. 
  tusm1mra m1k-
  o::nu P 
  t •no. 
  fa'ar, I.Sm razhr taino. 
  I come f~?m Thraya. 
  h1m mikthraya pal 
  Do you like our food 1 
  tusmi kaim dopa! 
  t m?· 
  , 
  . 
  [ 
  masun, 16mamamra tlamani, ne? 
  I am a foreigner.. 
  !um fatlerikh guaL 
  a 
  1 will invite you to my home soon. 
  !um 
  . noble fore1gn~r uses /fatl~rko1/] 
  neban m-11 61 gu-11 purlim tlatusmi, 
  What is your profession? 
  tusm1mra 
  l6 
  1 e h 
  shaukekh zhur gual. 
  mmra mo v s u. 
  . , 
  l wish to ~ec.~~~ ak s.cholar. 
  lum panjang 
  ~ ~~:t t
  1i::: ~~:·agai~':'o!~~ mi~~~ z;;~idhu 
  1 
  ~r . siJ 
  0 oi. 
  1
  .< 
  dh f 
  .< k . 
  ,,1 
  dopal, p'1r lumi ech6 neban m-11 ul gual 
  am a 
  usinessman. 
  um 
  u anur oi gu" • 
  h 
  f 'a 
  How long have you been here? 
  t6smi dahlte I h 
  es. a 
  ~ · 
  1£ 
  l 
  l' 
  b 
  r 
  h( 
  mikmarak-11 pal t<1i-no. 
  ave enJoye 
  ';'YS~
  1 a ot. 
  um ur raz 
  11 
  I have been in Tsoly'1nu three weeks. 
  lum 
  mura. .[ht. 
  l have become very happy. J 
  brutsolyanudll.lidll.lisa blmiktloh'1giyal My ser vant ":"ill escort you home. 
  1Umn;ra 
  " I t,.. 
  [l' 
  "I 
  · 
  t 
  f 
  vrsumikh mal ul gua'.l pagele tlatusmi, 
  p.. 
  ..mo. 
  it. 
  am in a sta e 0 
  1 e h 
  having come into great and powerful 
  mo, v 5 u. 
  T 
  1 a 
  f 
  th 
  k "] 
  That won t be necessary. 
  masun~nul m-11 ul 
  so Y nu rom 
  ree we.e 8 
  gual tha gu-11 lanmrala. 
  Where were you born? 
  tusmi brufenul 
  M 
  th 
  od k 
  p 
  , 
  rt! 
  dll.l'dll.l" 
  l 
  tsUlajun munr. 
  ay 
  e g 
  s 
  ee 
  you. 
  . , m 
  an 
  1 
  1saya 
  I was born in Soka'.tis. 
  him brusokAtis 
  waran ssrya t latusmi. 
  . 
  . 
  Ul ., 
  r 
  Goodbye! 
  brumadk. [to a social equal1 ht. 
  ts aJu.n mun · 
  . 
  . 
  "in peace"]1 brujutle. [to a social supe-
  Are you married? 
  tusm1 tumelAmu gual 
  . 
  l 't 
  .,. 
  h 
  'l't "] 
  t·' 
  ·d~1 · 
  a · 
  e? 
  rlOrJ 
  i . 
  m 
  umi l y 
  I 
  usmi "'imra 
  t mo, n 
  . 
  , 
  bruhaya. [to a nobleman1 lit. 
  "in your 
  Yes, I have one wife. 
  ss-1, .iimmra pru-
  1 
  "] 
  ,. 
  1., 
  [t 
  · 1 · f 
  · 
  Mtl kh 
  al d p'1l 
  g ory 1 
  paz .. ng i. 
  o a socia m erior1 
  a 
  gu 
  0 
  • 
  lit 
  "stay' ") 
  No, I'm not. 
  yd., liim ya gual. 
  · 
  · 
  46 
  
  4. 300. TRAVEL, THE WEATHER, INNS. 
  I want to go to JaMlla. 
  16m panja'.ng m.Sle 
  Show him your documents! 
  vupaga'.lli mssu-
  moljaka'.lla. 
  ran, t.Samimra tlajoka'.layal, molma'.isur. 
  How far is it? 
  ma'. sun desten tusnin gua'.1. 
  Will he accept a bribe? 
  ma'.isur ma'.l ul gua'.l 
  It is about 400 Tsa'.n distant. 
  ma'.sun hl6in 
  ngacha'.s ma'.sun, tlawargha'.i, ne? 
  mrlmrikta'.n tsa'.nyal tusnin guSl. 
  Yes, give him fifty Ka'.itars. 
  ssa:, molma'.i-
  ln how many days will we r each it? 
  l.Smi 
  sur fazha'.li mssuran, halbtlaMitaryal. 
  desten bruha'.giyal molml!:sun ml!:l .Sl 
  He will let us pass. 
  mSisur ma'.l ul gua'.l 
  gua'.l sall!:s. 
  joMla ma'.sun tlalumi vark.Sng ma'.sun. 
  In twenty-two days. 
  gas~mrubruha'.giyal. 
  We will start off early tomorrow. 
  lumi 
  Where will we stay on the Sa'.kbe road? 
  zhulin nechq6lin ma'.l .SI gull:! tMku ot.Sn. 
  lumi sansa'.kbe brufenul ma'.l .Sl gua'.l 
  May we travel on the second level of the Sa'.kbe 
  paza'.ng. 
  road? 
  l.Smi gSn sanssemUnU hisa'.kbe 
  The SSkbe road-guards will let us stay in the 
  mSl .SI tMku, ne? 
  caravanserai. 
  sakUnleshyal mSl .SI It is permitted. 
  joka'.la gua'.l tl!:ino. 
  gull:! joka'.la ma'. sun tlaMmi pazSng 
  Where will you stay in Jaka'.lla? 
  tusmi brn-
  gua'.l brupazangMn. 
  jaMlla bruffoul mSI ul gul!:l paza'.ng. 
  Are there arrangements for food there? 
  Tell me a good inn! 
  moll.Sm parshl!:lli mll'.-
  fl!:dhanyal himSni on6tl gull:!, ne? 
  sun, tlatsoroMn !Sn. 
  Yes, there are peddlars at the caravanse-
  I want to go to the Inn of the Red Dome. 
  16m 
  rai. 
  ssl!:, kuidliryal brupazangk<in 
  panjll'.ng m.Sle moltsorokl!:n higubr<in 
  guSl bll'.rU. 
  Mrin. 
  Let us depart now! 
  l.Smi eru ml!:l ul mis(n! Take my baggage there! 
  molon6tl srrshteli 
  This is my litter. 
  mSsun !.smmra tokta'.n-
  ml!:sun, 16mmra tlasl!:sthe. 
  ikh gul!:l. 
  I need a cart. 
  ldm hiyen dopa'.! m<isun, 
  I will go on foot. 
  Mm sapa'.win mll'.l ul guSI 
  prutlah6ggu. 
  m.Sle. 
  I am in a hurry. 
  !urn jl!:imu lanmrSla. 
  Where are the litter-bearers? 
  toktaneryal How much is the fare? 
  Mfakh deste gua'.l. 
  fenul gull:! dopSI. 
  (either for the porter or for t!1e cart] 
  Can I get baggage-bearers? 
  !Um nurn 
  This is all I have. 
  ma'. sun qurukh gull'.!, de 
  tlayesh mssuran, tlasrrshtetoyal, ne? 
  ldm men dopl!:l m<isun. 
  We will travel in the party of that merchant. 
  Wait for me! 
  kalekteli tlalum! 
  16mi brujuthatsa'.n masunbnulhidhufa-
  Here it is. 
  da'.hlte gua'.l. 
  ner mSI .Sl gua'.l theku. 
  Where are we? 
  16mi fenul gull:! dopll'.l. 
  May I travel with you? 
  !um pagtiismi ml!'.! 
  Are you the inn-keeper? 
  t.Ssmi tsor6koi 
  iii theku, ne? 
  gua'.l, ne? 
  Pick up your loads! 
  nochak.Slli mssuran, 
  I want a room. 
  16m panja'.ng dopa'.! ma'.sun, 
  tloimimra tlat6psUyal! 
  prutlana'.ti. 
  Hurry! 
  jll'.imuli! 
  Come this way, please! 
  chegoikh, masunmol-
  Go ahead! 
  jaidlJn muleli! 
  ba'.r pl!:lli! 
  Turn left! 
  molfay<ir qadla'.nli! 
  This is too small. 
  m<isun Mun nr-n gull'.!. 
  Stop here! 
  da'.hlte IUmeli! 
  It is too large and expensive. 
  mll'.sun ka'.un 
  Make way! 
  fazha'.li ma'.sun, tlash<ir! 
  (lit. 
  dSli-n lei kSun zbalda'.in gua'.l. 
  "give the road! "] 
  Do you have another? 
  tusmi men ma'. sun, 
  Which way is north! 
  chSngilin ba'.rikh 
  tlabra'.s, ne? 
  gh<idri-kh gua'.l. 
  Let me see it! 
  ldm ma'.l oil pa'.ga'.1 tlama'.sun. 
  The caravanserai is nearby. 
  pazangkSnikh Does it have everything? 
  quruchenuyal 
  hatsnin gua'.l. 
  bruml!:sun gua'.l dopa'.!, ne? 
  Where may I sleep? 
  liim fenul mSl 61 
  Put my baggage in it! 
  kardenli mSsun, 
  zurne? 
  16mmra tlasSsthe, bruma'.sun! 
  Put your sleeping-mat here! 
  da'.hlte kar-
  Does food go with the room? 
  pagna'.ti, 
  denli ma'.sun, tusmimra tlachrSi! 
  ma'.ni-kh tatla'.n gua'.1, ne? 
  Put up'the tent! 
  nojll!:kpeli ml!:sun, tla-
  You will be comfortable here. 
  tusmi dl!:hlte 
  gachmdl! 
  mSI 61 gua'.l asume. 
  Where can I get fresh water? 
  I.Sm mik-
  Light the lamp! 
  fa'.thmeli ma'.sun, tlarrs! 
  fenul nufo tlayesh mll'.sun, tlah.S 
  I want to wash, 
  !um panja'.ng setha'.ngge. 
  nazha'.tlin. 
  Where is the latrine? 
  hurshelkl!:nikh fenul 
  Bring some firewood! 
  nopa'.lli ma'.sun, 
  gua'.l. 
  zhatlakheti! 
  It is at the end of the corridor. 
  ml!:sun bru -
  My fire is out. 
  lummra hllikh lujri ta'.ino. 
  pasq<ii hivastla'.n gu<il. 
  Do you have flint and steel? 
  toismi men 
  I war.t to bathe. 
  16m panja'.ng sekutha'.ngge. 
  dopa'.! ma'.sun, tlachiqll'.yan, ne? 
  l will bring hot water. 
  h1m m<il ul gua'.l 
  The captain of the road-guards wants to see 
  nopa'.l ma'. sun, tlahu fadnin. 
  US, 
  ka'.sikoi hisakUnleshyal panja'.ng When is dinner? 
  sUnta'.likh maraMl mll'.l ul 
  doplil paga'.l tlalumi. 
  gua'.l gu<il. 
  47 
  
  At sundown. 
  brutuppe. 
  There will be a rainstorm. 
  mal ul gual 
  I will stay for three days. 
  lum blkenhagi-
  zhuUn. 
  yal mal ul gual pazang. 
  Last night there was a duststorm. 
  palin 
  Send a pretty maiden to my room! 
  lummra 
  brusUn hliunggar munr. 
  molnati, kheshduli masun, prutla-
  There has been a light rain-shower. 
  ba'ne 
  thialadhUidhUi. 
  mura. 
  I will obey. 
  lum mal ul gual timan masun. It has hailed. 
  lajar mura. 
  How is the weather? 
  s rikatlikh ssumim 
  It is too dusty. 
  masun kaun shrfan gual. 
  gual dopal. 
  The road is muddy. 
  sharikh mungsan gual 
  lt is nice today. 
  masun qami-n dhali-n 
  dopa!. 
  gual dopa!. 
  There has been a flood ahead. 
  uchangikh 
  It is sunny today. 
  qami-n tulengme dopal, 
  jaidUn gual mura, 
  The hot sunshine is in (the month of) Fira-
  There is too much fog. 
  kauhazhurikh gual 
  sul. 
  tulengtapikh bru!irasul gual. 
  dopa!. 
  It is raining. 
  banur dopal. 
  The sky is cloudy. 
  saminelikh vortumin 
  In this month it rains a lot. 
  masunbrugat-
  gual dopa!. 
  leru burun banur barU, 
  The wind is blowing. 
  rssa dopa!. 
  It will be cold at night. 
  sUnin thanUdUn mal The road to Jakalla will be closed. 
  sharikh 
  ul gual gual. 
  moljakalla mal ul gual dhalur gual taino. 
  We cannot travel during the day, 
  llimi bru- One of the moons will rise soon. 
  prukh 
  hagi ya tMku tlayesh. 
  hilUIUngyal neban mal ul gual tupts6. 
  4, 400. 
  SIGHTSEEING, 
  I need a guide. 
  !Um hiyen dopa I maisur, 
  The pala,ce of the governor is open today. 
  prMlasarsqaito. 
  mUnikoi hijaithulendalisa qami-n 
  What do you want to see today? 
  tusmi 
  vaylinin gual dopal. 
  qami - n panjang dopal pagal masun, 
  The gardens of the palace are large and beau-
  tlazhur. 
  tiful. 
  tonuleshyal himllni dalidMli-n 
  I am interested in the temples. 
  lum bru-
  gual. 
  katakanyal hyachun dopal. 
  Do you want to stroll here for awhile? 
  Please show me everything! 
  chegukh, 
  tusmi dahlte panjang walzai kenq61, ne? 
  moll.Sm vupagalli mssuran, qurutla-
  The library of the pala_s:e is very famous. 
  chenuyal. 
  korunkanikh himUni burr kadhmanin gual. 
  The Palace of the Realm is on the right. 
  Entrance is permitted. 
  shUvUnikh jokala 
  mUnikoi hikolumebabh brudicher 
  gual taino. 
  gual. 
  It is forbidden. 
  masun tabarin gual. 
  The Palace of Ever-glorious War is on the 
  In the palace t here are also the picture-gallery, 
  left. 
  mllnikoi hiqadardUikohaya 
  the sculpture-gallery, ,the museum, and 
  brufayar gual, 
  the archives. 
  brumUni, rinmUkanikh, 
  Ahead is the Palace of the Priesthood of the 
  siruthukanikh, yagaikanikh, tel pilkanikh 
  Gods. 
  jaidUn, mUnikoi hishartotsan 
  tatlan gual, 
  himrtlandalidaliyal gual. 
  Can we see all of them in one day? 
  lumi 
  The Palace of Foreign Lands is in front of 
  prubruhagi pagal tlayesh mssuran, 
  you. 
  mbnikoi hifatlanyal gur~ng-
  tlaquruyal, ne? 
  tusmi gual, 
  We can come again tomorrow. 
  16.mi zhulin 
  The Foreigners' Quarter is very old. 
  tsrn pal tlayesh. 
  luyanikh hifatleryal burr ngupan gual. The tombs of the ancient kings are on the other 
  The prison is in the Avenue of Sighs. 
  ten-
  side of the river. 
  dhumineyal himi-
  gaskanikh brugaimatsu hitha!asyal 
  zhanyal yagain pas-hnaru gual. 
  gual. 
  The City of the Dead is very interesting. 
  The port is about three Tsan from here. 
  savalikh hichalyal burr hyachunin gual. 
  ma'ilokanikh mikdahlte hl6in 
  We can get a boat here. 
  16.mi dahlte nurn 
  bhsanyal tusnin gual. 
  tlayesh masun, tladeka. 
  The great marketplace is in the Square of 
  The fare is two Hllish. 
  kafakh gahlashyal 
  Remembering. 
  haudarudUi-kh bru-
  gual, 
  d6lbe hihrais gual. 
  Ssirandlir the Third built this pyramid. 
  The slavemarket is beyond it. 
  nragga-
  ssirandar bfn hrichlii munr masun, 
  shenikh jezu mikmasun gulil. 
  masuntlaharkolel. 
  We will go to the Hirilakte Arena tomorrow. People say it is dangerous. 
  ts6luyal parshal 
  lumi zhulin mal ul gulil mule mol-
  par masun khimfogin gual. 
  hirilakte, 
  There are many treasures buried under it. 
  lt is the biggest in the empire. 
  masun bru-
  burukumesuyal dhumasun muknal gual 
  kolumebabar dali-nggalu gual. 
  taino. 
  It is very pretty. masun dhUidhali-n gual. 
  I am tired. 
  lum chawan taino, 
  48 
  
  Let's stop and eat something now. 
  1Um6ngU 
  lumi er6 mal ul 88aing masun tla-
  hl6n. 
  Let me rest here! 
  !Um dahlte mal ul asu. 
  l'm thirsty. 
  lum aij6m taino, 
  4. 500. 
  SHOPPING. 
  I'm hungry. 
  him gua6n taino, 
  Let's sit beneath this tree. 
  lumi mal ul 
  tsok6, m~sundhu'aut6shri, 
  Please, take me to my inn! 
  chegdkh, ldm-
  mra moltsorokan noaalasli tlaldm! 
  First we will go to a cloth-shop. 
  parsh61- Please send it to my inn, 
  lUmmra moltsoro-
  in, ldmi moldhelgash6n mal ul gual 
  Kan kh6shduli masun! 
  mdle. 
  It will be ready on Monday. 
  masun bru-
  Then I will take you to other shops. 
  fahim 
  suroinra mal oil gual khaw6n, 
  ldm molkram6nyal brasin mal dl gual Can 1 have it by this Tuesday? 
  mhunken-
  gatham tlatdami. 
  mug.Sn, loim nufo tlay6sh masun, n6? 
  Do you have good cloth? 
  tusmi m6n dop'1 Here is the fruit-shop. 
  purdigash6nikh 
  ma sun, tladh61 lan, "' 1 
  dahlte gu.tl. 
  What kind do you want 1 
  tusmi panj<fog do-
  Which fruits do you have 1 
  tusmi m6n dop.tl 
  pill masun, changilin tlathaur. 
  mssuran, ch11ngilchangilin tlapdrdiyal. 
  Show me GUdru- cloth, 
  moll.Sm vupagalli 
  1 have 0161-fruit, Mash-fruit, and Dzrya-
  masun, tlaglldru. 
  melon, 
  lum m6n dopal mssuran, tla-
  Which colour 1 
  changilin randukh. 
  dl61, tlamash, 161 tladz(ya. 
  Red, or orange-red. 
  l<arin, ra hlats6nin. 
  Are the 0161-fruit ripe 1 
  dl6lyal avazin 
  Here you are1 this is very nice. 
  ts6, 
  gual, n6? 
  masun dhlllidhali-n gua·l. 
  They are very sweet. 
  m ssdran burr 
  How much is it per H6i 1 
  ma sun bruh6i 
  maungin gual. 
  d6sten bruhasli gual. 
  How much are they per Ps6? 
  mssdran bru-
  it is two l<aitars per H6i. 
  masun bruh6i 
  ps6 d6sten bruhasd guaL 
  g~l<aitaryal gual. 
  Six of them are four Hl;(ah. 
  gablmssliran 
  Please lower your price! 
  cheglil<h, moyni 
  mrlbruhlashyal gual, 
  masun hilinggaE 
  Give me ten of them. 
  mollum fazhali 
  It is cheap. 
  masun zaiman gual. 
  tl~tlamssdran. 
  I will accept one and a half l<aitars per H6i. 
  Where is a bookstore 1 
  korunggash6nikh 
  ldm mal ul gual ngachas mesuran, 
  f6nul gu;(l, 
  pr.Sn eshan tlaMitaryal bruh6i, 
  1 need paper and ink. 
  ldm hiy6n mssdran, 
  Please cut off twenty-one H6i f9r me. 
  tlahruchan 161 tlamik;l;r. 
  chegukh, chaluldm tkupUli mssdran, 
  We have books on many subjects. 
  lumi m6n 
  prus~mrutlah6iyal. 
  dopal mssdri, tlakordnyal buruhifay6za-
  Do you know an experienced tailor? 
  tdsmi 
  yal. 
  penga maisur, prutlahm6jato f6hlin, 
  1 want to buy a book on history. 
  ldm panj<l'.ng 
  n6? 
  dopal taj;( i m<l'.sun, prutlakordn hi -
  Yes, Sir, there is a tailorshop to the left of 
  balamtslin, 
  my shop. 
  <Ung, ssli, hmejaMnikh 
  Please give me a receipt for them. 
  chegdkh, 
  brufay<l'.r ldmmra hikram6n gual. 
  moll.Sm fazh<l'.li m<l'.aun, m ssdranmra 
  Can you make me a tunic from this cloth 1 
  tlanu!me. 
  tdsmi chaluldm m~sunmikdh61 moyr 
  Where is the slavemarket in this city? 
  tlay6sh mlisun, pril.tlanyliilu, n6? 
  m~sunbrusavltl, nraggash6nikh £6nul 
  What is your size? 
  tdsmimra daltl<l'.nikh 
  gu<l'.l. 
  d6ste gu<l'.l. 
  There are many dealers. 
  buruchanriguyal 
  I will measure you. 
  !Um mal 111 gual ch6ju 
  gulil. 
  tlatdsmi, 
  l want to buy a slave. 
  ldm panj<l'.ng taj<l'.i 
  What style do you want 1 
  tdsmi panjang do-
  ma sun, pril.tlanraga. 
  pal ma sun, ch<fogilin tlahautle. 
  This man seems strong. 
  m11sunbasrimkoi 
  I want the style of Tumrssa. 
  ldm panjang 
  murdgan choqUshe dopa!. 
  dopal masun, tlah<l'.utle hitum!ssa. 
  'He is too tall and too old. 
  m<l'.isur Mun 
  This will £it you, 
  masun ma'.l oil gua'.l 
  ks!bi-n 161 kaun thu'(nin gu;U,' 
  nfrigu tlatdsmi. 
  She is too small and too young. 
  maaun ka'.un 
  lt is too long. 
  maaun ka'.un ks!bi-n gua'.l. 
  nr-n 161 ka'.un l<l'.isan gua'.l. 
  Make it shorter! 
  n(-nggal moyni masun! 
  Which skill does he know? 
  mai sur penga 
  My friend needs the robes of a priest of 
  masun, changilin llabaldm. 
  Sarku. 
  lummra gaprukoi hiy6n do-
  He is a mason. 
  maisur milsh6tokh gual. 
  plil masun, tlavraithdru hisharto 
  Is he healthy? 
  maisur wivarin gual, n6? 
  hisarkudUidUisa. 
  How old is he 1 
  m<l'.isurmra hutarikh d6ste 
  This brown cloth is suitable. 
  zhura'.un 
  gua'.l. 
  m11sundh6likh dog6ng. 
  He is thirty-three years old. 
  ma'.isurmra 
  Try it! 
  korotaili mlisun! 
  hut<l'.rikh blbnun nall!n~al gual. 
  l will buy it. 
  Mm mal dl gual tajai ma'.sun. ls he docile? 
  maisur alm6dhun gual, n6? 
  49 
  
  Yes, Si r, he gives no trouble. 
  S.ing, ssS., 
  This breastplate doee not !it me. 
  m~sun-
  mS.isur ya'. moyr ml.sun, tlabaje. 
  ang6kh yS. nfrigu tlahim. 
  Does he have a family? 
  mS.iaurmra hhsi- One link is lost. 
  prutsUrbS.nikh tsUleqS.i 
  koi gual, ne? 
  tS.ino. 
  Hie wife and children have been sold sepa-
  The strap is too tight. 
  vaglakh kS.un 
  rately. 
  maisurmra hetlakh lei 
  hidhfoin gulf.I. 
  bUnliyal ibashan dhufS.n gua'.l mlira. 
  Its hilt is broken. 
  mS.sunmra traupa'.ikh 
  What is his price? 
  mS.isurmra shadS.kikh 
  chik6r guS.l tS.ino. 
  deste gua'.l. 
  I will !ix it. 
  him mS.l 111 gulf.I mak!e ma'.sun. 
  lt is three hundred and !i!ty KS.itars. 
  mS. -
  This sword is too heavy !or me. 
  m~sun-
  sun bimrikta'.n hal6n kS.itaryal gua'.l. 
  ssyukoi chalul.Sm kl.un thS.idzan gua'.l. 
  Do you have dancing girls? 
  tuemi m6n do- I (habitually) fight with a two-handed sword. 
  pal mssuran, tlassa'.nutorayal, ne? 
  tum thamtlarkesh p'1rdal bS.rU. 
  1 will show you a very pretty one. 
  I.Sm 
  Have you a smaller dagger? 
  tolsmi men 
  molt'1smi mat ul guS.l vupagal ml.sun, 
  masun, tlahUza n!-nggalin, ne? 
  tladhUidhS.lira. 
  Can you make a sword o! this shape for me? 
  l cannot buy her. 
  lum ya'. tajai tlayesh 
  t'1smi chaluhim moyr tlayesh masun, 
  tlamS.sun. 
  [i.e. 1 cannot afford her) 
  prutlassyoi m~sunhidaq6r, ne? 
  Her price is only seven thousand KS.itars. 
  lt will take three weeks to make it. 
  bru-
  masunmra shadS.kikh prushen hru-
  moyr i;na'.sun, bltlohS.giyal mS.l ul guS.l 
  tauknelin ka'.itaryal gual. 
  kbatsUm. 
  [lit. "in making it, three 
  The gods will give it to you: 
  mnlanyal 
  weeks will pas s "] 
  molt'1smi ma'.! ul gu-11 !azhS. ma'.sun! 
  When it is ready, I will send it by my servant. 
  [an expression o! amazement at an 
  mun ml.sun khawen mura, tum lummra 
  impossible request} 
  tha mv(sum ml.I ul gua'.l kheshdu masun. 
  1 will take the man with me. 
  lolm pl.gin 
  That will be fine. 
  ma'.t unbnul nela mal ul 
  mS.l oll gulf.I gathS.m m<l'.isur, tla-
  gu<l'.l gua'.l. 
  ba'.srim. 
  Sell me a shield upon which is the insignia o! 
  Do you want the fetters too? 
  t.Stmi tatlS.n 
  the Legion 0£ the Lord of Red Devasta-
  panjang dopa'.l mss.Sran, tladhamurek-
  tion. 
  mollum dhu!a'.nli masun, prlltla-
  yal, ne? 
  gaidn, de teocha'.rikh hitika hitume 
  No , Si r. 
  Free him. 
  aing, thS.. sa'ni 
  kS.rin sanmS.sun guS.l bapal. 
  tlamS.isur. 
  Thank you very much! 
  tauknelin miuj<l'.nyal, 
  Tell me i! you get any Pe Ch6i. 
  moll.Sm 
  [lit. 
  "a thoueand obeisances"; said by 
  parshS.lli, vS. tlismi nu!n bapS.l 
  merchants and cra!tsmen to customers) 
  ma'.isur, hll>ntlape-ch6i. 
  Do you know a skilled jeweller? 
  tusmi peng<I'. 
  I will send a message to you. 
  lum mol-
  ma'.isur, prutladUt6r !ehlin, ne? 
  tlismi mat ul gua'.l kheshdu ml.sun, 
  1 want a necklace 0£ gold. 
  l.Sm panja'.ng dopS.l 
  tlafashdri. 
  masun, prutlahlenglime hidhu'6n. 
  I will advertise for you. 
  111m chalutolsmi 
  Set it with rubies and emeralds. 
  tham-
  mS.l 111 gual fer.ii mS.sun. 
  hayaluyal lel thamjangS.ivuyal wezhdali 
  Another dealer, whom I know, has an Ahog-
  ma'.sun. 
  gyS.. 
  brS.sin chanra'.gukoi, de llim 
  For this size, how much gold is necessary? 
  pengS. tlama'.isur, men dopa'.l mS.isur, 
  m~sunchaludaltlS.n, desten dhu'6nikh 
  prutla 'ahoggyS.. 
  guS.l lanmrS.la. 
  Where is an armourer's shop? 
  jayul~ngga-Perhaps l will make it of five Ml6 of gold. 
  shenikh !enul gua'.l. 
  lum srS.n mS.l ul guS.l moyr ma sun, 
  I want to buy (a suit of) armour. 
  llim pan-
  tlbhiml6 hidhu'6n. 
  jS.ng dopS.l tajS.i mS.sun, tlajayulen. 
  The engraving is beautiful. 
  z!sbekh dhUi-
  0! plate-armour, or of chainmail? 
  hit.ii-
  dhS.li-n guS.1. 
  tho, ra hidadatsn? 
  The stones are worth 10, 000 Kaitars. 
  I need complete armour o{ plate. 
  llim 
  dUt6yal tl~taukn6lln kS.itaryal shadS.k. 
  hiyen dopal ma'.sun, tlajayul6n 
  l also want an image 0£ Karakan. 
  16m tatlS.n 
  kula'arin hitS.itho. 
  panjS.ng dopS.l masun, tlavrun hikarakS.n-
  1 only have Chien-hide. 
  16m prushen m6n 
  d~lidUisake. 
  dopal mS.sun, t lachlenshe, 
  We have a sculptor in our shop. 
  lumama 
  Do you have steel weapons? 
  tusmi men do-
  16mamamra brukramen m6n dopS.l 
  pal mssilran, tlapolrdalluyal !ulS.tin, 
  ma'.isur, prutlasiruthS.ne. 
  ne? 
  I want it as a gift for a priestess. 
  111rn 
  l haven't any now. 
  lum eru yS. men dopS.l 
  qar~mmashm!r chalushS.rtora panjS.ng 
  mS.sun, tlahl6n. 
  dopS.l mS.sun. 
  lam looking for a new helmet of steel. 
  She will like it very much. 
  masun burun 
  lum mfra dopS.l masun, prutla-
  mS.1111 guS.l kl.im tlamS.sun. 
  dhlinim laisan !ula'.tin. 
  She already has anklets of gold. 
  masun mik 
  Look at this one! 
  pagS.lli tlamS.sun. 
  ch6n men dopS.l mssliran, tlatimfogyal 
  A rivet is loose. 
  prutkohS.kh Ul!s tS.ino. 
  hidhu'6n. 
  50 
  
  No, the necklace is enough. 
  mekh vram8n gual. 
  tha, hlengu-
  Do you want a bracelet too? 
  tusmi tatlan 
  panjang ma sun, prl:ltlapabnhu, ne? 
  Can you cut this diamond for me? 
  tusmi 
  chalulUm srrsa tlayesh masun, 
  m~suntlakhir6, ne? 
  4. 600. 
  EMPLOYMENT. 
  l also have jwellery of silver and of other 
  metals. 
  lum tatlan men dopal mssu-
  ran, tladUtelyal hissrm J.el hitkaseyal 
  bras in. 
  The ring is nice. 
  dashailikh dhali - n gual. 
  How much are all the things? 
  quruchenuyal 
  desten bruhasu gual. 
  l want to employ a,barber. 
  lum panjang 
  l will come at once. 
  lum nemorel mal ul 
  dopal moirUn masun, prutladhaigato. 
  gual pal. 
  From where can 1 get a cook? 
  lum mik-
  l need five warr iors. 
  lum hiyen dopal 
  fenul nurn tlayesh masun, prutla-
  mssuri, 
  tl~tlapurdalmoyal. 
  kutlto. 
  Are you experienced in battle? 
  tusmi bru-
  The hiring-hall is in the Pa)ace of the Realm. 
  qadar fehlin gual, ne? 
  moirUnkanikh brumffni hikolumebabar Will you join my bodyguard? 
  tusmi lummra 
  gual. 
  brunleshtle mal ul gual shUvlin, ne? 
  The scribes will direct you. 
  surimtoyal 
  Do you have weapons and armour? 
  tusmi 
  mal ul gual sarsqai tlatusmi. 
  men mssuran, tlapurdalluyal lel tla-
  Do you want employment? 
  tusmi panjang 
  jayulen, ne? 
  dopal masun, tlamoir8n, ne? 
  Yes, Sir, l have a sword, but I need a breast-
  What do you know how (to do)? 
  tusmi 
  plate. 
  aing, ssa, lum men maisur, 
  trash6m masun, tlazhur. 
  tlassyu, m~lel !um hiyen dop<H masun, 
  I know how to do carpentry. 
  !um trash6m 
  tla'ang6. 
  veshshe. 
  Of what (substance) is your sword? 
  tusmi-
  How much salary do you want? 
  tusmi pan-
  mra ssyukoi hizhur gual. 
  jang dopal ma sun, desten tlatlur. 
  It is of bronze. maisur hikambe gual. 
  I am very experienced. 
  !Um bur! fehlin 
  I will buy a sword of iron for you. 
  him 
  gual. 
  chalutusmi mal ul gual tajai maisur. 
  Give me thirty Kaitars per month. 
  mol-
  tlassyu ahanin. 
  lum fazhali mssuran, bUutlakaitaryal Will you serve me? 
  tusmi mal ul gual 
  brugatleru. 
  v!sum tlalum, ne? 
  ' 
  I will only give you twenty. 
  !um moltusmi Where does your family live? 
  toismimra 
  prushen mal ul gual fazha mssuran, 
  hessiko i fenul mahaim dopal. 
  tlasemruyal. 
  They live on a farm near Jakalla. 
  mssuri 
  As well as a salary, will you give me food 
  bru'autsulkan hatsjakalla mahaim dopal. 
  and clothing? 
  bektlur, tusmi mo!-
  They are of exalted c lan. 
  mssuri hidlanmU-
  lum mal ul gual fazM mssoiran, tla-
  jarai gual. 
  mani lel tladheluyal, ne? 
  Of which clan? 
  changilin hidlanmll? 
  I will supply you two tunics per year. 
  lum 
  I will come alone without my family., 
  !Um 
  moltoismi mal oil gual thats,er mssu-
  lummra yehessi prushen mal ul gual pal. 
  ran, gatlanyailuyal bruna!Un. 
  Do you have any friends who would like to 
  I will give you food for your family. 
  lum 
  come with me? 
  tusmi men ms suri, 
  tusmimra chaluhessi mal ul gual 
  zhatlagapruyal, de mssuri mal ul gual 
  fazM ma sun, tlamani, moltusmi. 
  panjang pal pag!Um, ne? 
  If you are slain, I will give bloodmoney to 
  I know two or three experienced men, 
  lum 
  your clan. 
  va tusmi missum gual 
  penga mssuri, gan ra b(n tlabasrimyal 
  bapal, hasru !um tusmimra moldlan-
  fehlin. 
  mU mal oil gual fazha masun, tla-
  I will advertise for men. 
  !Um ma! ul gual 
  s hamtla. 
  ferai mssuri, tlabasrimyal. 
  l will work for you for [lit. 
  up to] one year. Each advertisement will cost sixty-five Kai-
  lum prukennallln chalutusmi mal ul 
  tars. 
  hl~nuferaikh tl~tatsan kaitaryal 
  gual balum. 
  mal ul gual gual. 
  Once a year I will take [lit. make) a holi9ay I need a priest for my household. 
  lum hiyen 
  of two weeks. 
  prujabf-n bruna!Un 
  dopal maisur, prutlasharto, lummra 
  loim mal oil gual moyr m<isun, tlala-
  chaluveshu. 
  hagi gahitlohagi. 
  Which (lit. who) god do you worship? 
  tus -
  When you leave me, tell me one month be-
  mi gadal maisur, harr i-n tlamrtlan. 
  fore. 
  mun toismi mal oil gual kar-
  I am a priest of Belkhanu, Lord of the Exce -
  detha tla!Um, mollum pruchegatleru 
  !lent Dead. 
  !Um shartokoi hibelkhanu, 
  parshalli masun. 
  tikakoi hichallayal, gual. 
  You will come with me now. 
  tusmi eru 
  Of which Circle? 
  changilin hikartu'un? 
  paglUm mal ul gual palli. 
  Of the Third Cir cle. 
  hikartu'un b!n. 
  Go to my house and wait for me. 
  lummra 
  I know many rituals. 
  lum t rash6m mssuri, 
  molveshu mulengU, tlalum kalekteli. 
  bl:lru~larashangyal. 
  51 
  
  4. 700. 
  A DINNER PARTY. 
  (Noter 
  Because of class and clan restrictions, the Tsolyani do not often eat or drink 
  together in public. There are indeed "public rooms" at inns catering to foreigners and mer-
  chants, but these are frequented by persons whom the beginning student would be advised to 
  avoid. The usual custom is to invite guests of appropriate social status to one's own home, 
  or to hire a suite of rooms at an inn or at the clanhouse of one of the wine-making or food -
  preparing clans, 
  The best course for a foreigner is to ask one's innkeeper to arrange for 
  food and a cook, and to send out for beverages. The inn will usually be able to provide 
  entertainers as well. If one is planning to remain in Tsolyanu for some time, it is advisa-
  ble to rent or purchase a house of one's own where one may entertain more properly. 
  Are you the cook? 
  tusmi kutltokh gual, ne ?My guests will come at sundown. 
  lummra 
  Who recommended you? 
  harri tlomqar 
  chogunyal tuppen mal ul gual salas. 
  mura, tlatusmi. 
  Do you sweep the floor too? 
  tusmi tatlan 
  You must cook well. 
  tusmi nela kutl zhe 
  baze ma sun, tlataqun, ne? 
  masun. 
  No, Sir, the maidservant sweeps it. 
  arng, 
  My guests are of high clans. 
  lummra cho-
  tha, vrsumrakh baze masun. 
  gunyal hidlanmUjar~iyal gual. 
  Oh, maidservant , lay out my good clothes! 
  What will you serve? 
  tusmi mal ul gual 
  ohe, v(sumrakh, kardenli mssuran, 
  h6te mssuran, tlazhurzhur . 
  lummra tladheluyal dhali-n! 
  1 will cook five dishes of Ja~lla. 
  lum mal Where is my c lean kilt? 
  !Ummra laumurin 
  ul gual kutl mssuran, tlotlamaniyal 
  mlekUkh fenul gual dopal. 
  hijakalla. 
  Please come, please come in, please s it 
  A stew of Hmelu, a roast of Tsi'n, a soup of 
  down! 
  tsamoyellitusmi, maray6nlitus-
  eggs and vegetables, meat-patties 
  mi, aimunelitusmi! (special "honorific" 
  and bread. 
  nor6kh hihmelu, bfrikh 
  verbs used on formal occasions) 
  hitsi'n, pajakh hiMiyal lei hihyappa-
  May the gods see us! 
  mrtland~lidUisayal 
  yal, gegresayal, lel shranokh. 
  mal ul pagal tlalUmi! 
  {said when be-
  While eating, my guests will drink salted 
  ginning to eat J 
  buttermilk. 
  ssaingai masun, lum-
  Please give me the bread! 
  chegukh, mollum 
  mra chogunyal mal ul gual hlyethu 
  fazhali masun, tlashrano! 
  masun, tlachumetl. 
  ls there more stew? 
  nor6kh burunggal 
  Afterward, which wine will you serve? 
  gual, ne? 
  adelin, tusmi mal ul gual h6te 
  Yes, let me give it to you. 
  afng, chegukh, 
  masun, changilin tJanglHu. 
  jokalali masun, tlalum moltusmi fazha 
  The famous wine of Mrelu. 
  ngaluk~dhikh 
  gual masun. 
  himrelu. 
  Do you like this? 
  tusmi kaim dopal ma sun, ne? 
  What else? 
  brasikh? 
  Yes, it is very tasty. 
  arng, ssa, masun burr 
  I have brandy of Mash-fruit. 
  lum men 
  thusun gual dopal. 
  dopa! masun, tladatsu himash. 
  This [is) too salty, and that is too bitter. 
  I also have some black wine of Salarvya. 
  ma sun ~un ta 'aben, lei masunonul kaun 
  lum tatlan men dopa! masun, tla-
  hadharshen gual dopal. 
  ngalu mikarun hisalarvya. 
  This is very hot (spicy). 
  masun burr hl{ngtlen 
  Bring some beer too! 
  nopalli masun, 
  gual dopa!. 
  zh~tlahengka, tatlan! 
  Do you eat fish? 
  tusmi ssaing mssuran, 
  Beer is never for high clans. 
  hengkakh 
  tlamfrishyal, ne? 
  chaludlanmUjarUyal yathalUn gual. 
  Eating them is against my religion. 
  ssaingikh 
  Boil the water! 
  nowelli masun, tlahu! 
  tlamssuran lummra selgadaleshan gual. 
  Roast this meat! 
  bfrili masun; m~suntla-
  Please taste this! 
  chegukh, thusuli tlamasun! 
  lametl! 
  Now give thanks to the gods! 
  eru ngarshU 
  Fry these eggs! 
  tnabali mssuran, mssu-
  mssuri, tlamrtland~lid~lisayal! 
  (said 
  rantlahaiyal! 
  upon the completion of any activity J 
  ls the meat fresh? 
  lametlikh nazhatlin 
  Call the innkeeper! 
  rifasli maisur, tlatsor6! 
  gual, ne? 
  The bill, please! 
  chegukh, hashbakh! 
  Spread the tablecloth here! 
  dahlte nozra-
  I did not order this! 
  lum ya tlashjek munr 
  mahli masun, tlatauzttn! 
  t1amasun! 
  Put spoons, knives, dishes, and goblets upon Take it away! 
  tulaganli tlamasun! 
  it! 
  sanmasun kardenli mssuran, 
  The bill comes to (lit. makes] five Kaitars, 
  tlabavakyal, tlatsutleyal, tlambena-
  hashbakh moyr mssuran, tlotla~itaryal. 
  yal, lei tlakelyal! 
  You are mistaken in the bill. 
  tusmi bru-
  These utensils are dirty. 
  mssurantk6myal 
  hashba dnu taino. 
  waskhen gual 
  It doesn't matter. 
  ma sun moyr masun, tla-
  Clean them at once! 
  nemorel laumurli 
  yalashan. 
  tlamssu·ran! 
  Please keep the change! 
  chegukh, menli 
  Start to cook now! 
  eru kutli otun masun! 
  masun, tlaqangme! 
  52 
  
  Clean the room and take away the dishes! 
  laumurli masun, tlanati, lt!l tulaginli 
  msauran, tlambt!nayal! 
  We have finished eating. 
  lumi aaaing tant! 
  m<isun. 
  Now let's go out for a stroll. 
  lumi eru 
  chaluwaldi mal ul dlara. 
  My servants will take you home. 
  lummra 
  vrsumyal mil ul gual nosalas tla-
  tusmi molvt!shu. 
  4, 800. 
  ENTERTAINMENTS, 
  That will not be necessary. 
  masunbnul mal 
  ul gual tha gual lanmrala. 
  Please come to dinner tomorrow night at my 
  house! 
  chegukh, zhulin brusl:ln mol-
  siintal lummra bruvt!shu pallitl:lsmi! 
  1 accept with pleasure. 
  m!Hanyal pagal mura 
  tlaldm, thamchegu, 
  (lit, 
  "the gods 
  have seen me with favour") 
  Goodnight! 
  sdnikh brumazl'k! 
  (lit, "the 
  night in peace! ") 
  What [various things) do you like? 
  tusmi 
  Food and trays of pleasant powders are being 
  kiim mssuran, tlazhl:lrzhur. 
  served in the next room. 
  mani-kh 
  I want to go to a concert, 
  lUm molhisengal 
  lt!l thashl<inyal hibiyurpeyal gt!min 
  panj.ang dopal mule. 
  brun<iti h6te gua'.l dop<il. 
  Who will be [lit. come) there? 
  h~rriharri Will there alsg be puppets tonight? 
  ketkt!ta-
  molon6tl m<il ul gu<il pa'.l. 
  yal masiinin ma'.l ul gual gual, ne? 
  Many nobles of great and powerful clans will No, Sir, Lord Kagesh will probably present 
  come. 
  bl:lruhoruyal hidlanmUjar~i-
  dancers. 
  aing, tha, horukoi kagesh 
  dUisayal m<il ul gu<tl p<i:l. 
  mal ul gual mashum niy<l:s mssuran, 
  May 1 invite some of my friends? 
  lum m<i:l 
  tlass<inutoyal. 
  ul purlim mssuri, lUmmra tlaga'.pru-
  There will also be wrestlers and acrobats. 
  yal, nt!? 
  chara'.getoyal lel erungtoyal tatl<l:" m<l:l 
  Certainly. Lord Kagt!sh 1 palace is open to 
  ul gua'.l gu<tl, 
  all noble persons. 
  netlt!ka. veshu- How much js the ticket to the Hiril<l:kte Arena? 
  dUi-kh hihoru hikagesh ql:lruchalu-
  shiiviinlukh hihiril<ikte dt!ste gual. 
  horuyal vayunin gu<tl. 
  There is no ticket for noble persons. 
  shli-
  What instrument is that? 
  m<l:sunbnul hise-
  ~nlukh chaluhoruyal ya gual. 
  lukh zhur gual. 
  Where may we sit? 
  lumi bruUnul mal ul 
  He is playing the "sra1ur. II 
  maisur hist! 
  tsok6. 
  dopal m<tsun, tlasra'ur. 
  1 cannot see from here. 
  lum mikd<l:hlte ya 
  He is playing beautifully. 
  maisur nedhali 
  pag<l:l hu'u masun. 
  hise dopal m<isun. 
  Can we buy something to drink? 
  llimi tajai 
  Do you like music? 
  tusmi kaim ma sun, 
  Hayt!sh ma sun, tlahlyethu, ne? 
  tlahist! , nt!? 
  Peddlar, give us two [bottles of] wine! 
  Yes, but 1 also enjoy epic-poetry very much. 
  kuid~rikh, mollumama fazha mssuran, 
  liing, m<ilel !Um tatl<fo burun mr6kem 
  g~tlangaluyal! 
  mssliran, tlakashkfruyal. 
  lt is my opinion that that fighter will win the 
  Which one do you like best? 
  tlismi kaung-
  fight. 
  masun lummra tlaktekh gual 
  galu kaim masun, tlachangil. 
  par m~sunbnulpurdalmokoi m<il ul gual 
  I like the Epic of Mighty Hrugga. 
  lum 
  timr m<isun, tlapurdal. 
  kaim ma sun, tlakashkeru hihrugga-
  How much will you bet? 
  tlismi mal ul gual 
  dUisa. 
  burdang masun, tladeste. 
  It is very ancient. 
  ma sun burr yagain gual. 1 will bet a hundred Kaitars on [lit. in] him. 
  The poet was a famous courtier at the court 
  lum mal ul gual burdang mssuran, 
  of the hated Queen Nayari. 
  teruto-
  mriktatlakiitaryal, brumaisur. 
  koi miujankadhkoi hi'ayaneldUi hi-
  The Master of Ceremonies is signalling the 
  mizhanra hinay;friga gu<il daimi, 
  beginning of the fight. 
  charukt!lkoi 
  Who is the singer? 
  siuneltokoi harri gual. 
  sharda dopal ma sun, tla 'ot11ntle hip\irdal. 
  He is of the clan of singers, the "Exultant 
  My fighter is fallen. 
  lummra purdalmokoi 
  Ones of Joy. " 
  maisur mikdl<1:nmU 
  zhagu ta1no. 
  hisiuneltoyal gual, hikurazhryal hi... 
  He is getting up again. 
  maisur tsrn chaklil 
  path<ii. 
  dopal. 
  Why is he wearing a mask:.> 
  maisur dt!pu 
  He is slain. 
  maisur missum gu<il nizal munr. 
  ngt!me dop<il masun, tlafarzhailu. 
  He is only wounded. 
  m<l:isur prusht!n 
  He is showing the mood of the song, 
  m<ii-
  zhabarmogun gu<il. 
  sur vupagal dopal masun, tlad6ntigai I have lost the bet, and you have won it. 
  hisiunt!l. 
  lum taunrr mlira m~sun, tlaburdang, lt!l 
  It is very sad. 
  ma sun burr m<irashin gu<il, 
  t\ismi timf m\ira tlamasun. 
  It speaks of heroism and the skein of destiny. When will the fights end? 
  purdalyal marakal 
  masun d6m dop<i:l masun, tlakurshesh 
  mal ul gual pogurde. 
  lt!l tla'eUUa hitlu'lim. 
  We can come again tomorrow. 
  llimi zhlilin 
  May I applaud now? 
  llim erli mal ul tkeshu 
  mal ul gual pal t layesh. 
  masun, ne? 
  Let's go home. 
  lumi molveshu mil ul mule. 
  53 
  
  Is this the House of the Pleasant Hour? 
  In Livy;foi we call this "Aomllz." 
  lumama 
  masun veshukh hikiren pathain gual, 
  brulivyani d6m tlamasun tla'aomllz. 
  ne? 
  . It is a sign of high rank. 
  ma sun sMrdakh 
  Yes, Sir. Your command? 
  aing, ssa. 
  hikavfrjarll.i gual. 
  tusmimra harekh? 
  Are you ready? 
  tusmi khawen taino, ne? 
  Our girls are the most beautiful and the most Lie down here! 
  dahlte hapalli! 
  skillful. 
  lumamamra thialayal 
  Now I shall please you. 
  lum eru mal ul gual 
  dMli-nggalu Ml fehlinggalu gual. 
  nok.i:im k.i:ris tlatusmi. 
  Do you have any Livyani girl? 
  tusmi men Do you like this? 
  tusmi Mim dopal ma sun, ne? 
  dop;H ma sun, hlbntlathiala livyanin, 
  May I do it again? 
  !Um ts!n mal 61 moy! 
  ne? 
  ma sun, ne? 
  I will call one of them. 
  lum mal ul gual 
  I shall obey all of your commands. 
  lum mal 
  rifas masun, prutlamssuran. 
  ul gual timan mssuran, tusmimra qll.ru-
  She is not beautiful enough. 
  masun vram6n 
  tlahareyal. 
  dhali- n ya gual. 
  What else do you know? 
  tusmi trash6m 
  I will bring you another. 
  lum moltusmi 
  masun, tlazhoir brasin. 
  mal ul gual nopal m'asun, tlabras. 
  We are trained to perform many erotic acts. 
  What is her rate? 
  masunmra kafakh deste 
  lumama turbe gu<il moy! mssuran, 
  gual. 
  burutlapaimoy!yal. 
  It is four K<iitars per Kiren. 
  masun mrl-
  If you are tired now, we may play a game. 
  Mitaryal brukiren gu<il. 
  va tusmi eru chawan taino bapal, hasru 
  Come with me! 
  paglum mfri! 
  lumi charse bapal masun, prutlacharse. 
  Close the door! 
  dhalurli ma sun, tlats6n! 
  Do you know "Daqo1" or "Denden ?" 
  tusmi tra-
  May I send for food and wine? 
  lum mal ul 
  sh6m mssuran, tladaqu ra tladenden, ne? 
  tlashjek mssuran, tlamani lel tla-
  In the west they play "Tsahlten. " 
  mssuri 
  ngalu, ne? 
  brumrebun charse ma sun, t latsahlten. 
  Nothing now, thank you, 
  chegukh, eru 
  How is that played? 
  masunbnul ssumim 
  yalashanikh. 
  charse gual. 
  What do you know (how to do)? 
  tusmi tra-
  Having thrown ten sticks, the player makes 
  sh6m mssuran, tlazhurzhur. 
  various patterns. 
  babailU mssuran, 
  I know singing and <.lancing. 
  lum trash6m 
  tl~tlam6iyal, charsemokoi moy( mssoiran, 
  mssuran, tlasiunel lel tlass<inu. 
  tlateocharyal lesha 1an. 
  I know the Ritual of the Raising of the Soul. 
  If he makes the pattern which he had said, then 
  lum trash6m masun, tlarashang hi-
  he wins the throw. 
  va maisur moy! 
  nochakul hiba. 
  bap<il masun, tlateochar, de maisur d6m 
  I also know thirteen of the Erotic Acts of the 
  molUn masun, h<!sru maisur tim! masun, 
  Dancing Maiden of Temptation. [i.e. 
  tlabab<iil. 
  the goddess Hrihayal] 
  lum tatlan 
  The other players bet upon his success or fai-
  trash6m mssuran, bltl~tlapaimoy!yal 
  lure. 
  brasin charsemoyal burdang ma-
  hissanutora hishafer. 
  sun, maisurmra sankamchan r<i sanzagu. 
  Do you know how to sing lovesongs? 
  tus-
  People in Tsolyanu gamble a lot. 
  ts6luyal 
  mi trash6m siunel mssuran, tlasiu -
  brutsoly<inu burun njumu barU. 
  nelyal himer, ne? 
  I have heard that a nobleman recently lost 
  I know many of them. 
  lum trash6m buru-
  14, 000 Kaitars in one night. 
  lum lyu-
  tlamssuran. 
  tha mura masun, par pruhorukoi nechon-
  Shall I call the musicians? 
  lum mal oil 
  t61 taun!r mssuran, mritlMauknelin 
  rifas mssuran, tlahisemoyal, ne? 
  tlakaitaryal prubruslin. 
  Yes, a drummer and a "Sra'ur"-player. 
  l want to play "Denden." 
  lum panjang charse 
  ssa, hisemoyal himor6ng l~l hi-
  masun, tladenden. 
  sra 'ur. 
  I will take out the board and pieces. 
  lum 
  Send the musicians away now! 
  eroi nomi-
  mal '11 gual guzash karis mssuran, tla-
  s(nli mssuran, tlahisemoyal! 
  zalbu lel tlachfuyal. 
  Unloose [lit. open] your tresses! 
  vayunli Show me how to play it! 
  notrash6mli masun 
  mssuran, tusmimra tlashaoleyal! 
  tlalum charse gu<!l tlamasun! 
  Shall I undress? 
  lum mal ul shalUli 
  It is very difficult. 
  ma sun burr holenin gual. 
  mssuran, tladheluyal, ne? 
  Teach me the moves·[lit. acts]! 
  vusijakli 
  Why are the girls of Livyanu tattooed all 
  mssuran, tlamoy!yal, moll.Sm! 
  over their bodies? 
  thialayal hi-
  Your pieces will start to move [lit. go] from 
  livyanu mssuranmra shlrsanbakteyal 
  here. 
  tusmimra ch!uyal mikdahlte 
  depu dijeo gual taino. 
  mal '11 gual m.Sle ot.Sn. 
  I understand that it fascinates men. 
  l.Sm 
  Throw the dice! 
  kewli mssuran, tlakevuka-
  timan par masun mr6ya mssuri tla-
  yal! 
  basrimyal. 
  I have made an eight. 
  l.Sm moy!m.Sra mssur 
  Livyani men are tattooed too. 
  livy<!:nin 
  ran, tlagami. 
  basrimyal tatlan dijeo gual taino. 
  How interesting! 
  desten hyach.Snin! 
  54 
  
  Put your piece there! 
  on6tl kard6nli m<!-
  sun, tusmimra tlach!y, 
  Now 1 must go. 
  loim eru mule lanmra'.la. 
  Would you like t,o become my concubine? 
  tusmi m<!l ill gu<!l panj<!ng nr! lum-
  mra kherunikh, n6? 
  1 have only one wife now. 
  lum eru pru-
  sh6n m6n m<l:sun, pr ll.tlah6tla. 
  4. 900. 
  BUSINESS. 
  ls this the clanhouse of the Clan of the Gra-
  nite Precipice? 
  m<!sun fa'ark<!nikh 
  hidla'.nmU hikr<!zhme nakhm6lin gu<!l, 
  n6? 
  It is so. How may we serve you? 
  ng<!. 
  lumama sslimim v!sum tlay6sh 
  tlatusmi. 
  Do you trade with Mu'ugalavya:? 
  tusmi 
  pagmu'ugalavy<! mok<!l, n6? 
  I want to organise (lit. make] a company to 
  transport glass goblets from Kh6iris 
  to Pen6m. 
  lum panj<l:ng dop<l:l 
  moy! m<!sun, tlaparsh6ng, z6tl m<! -
  sun mikkh6iris molpen6m hla'.kpU 
  bap<!l mssuran, tlaki!lyal su•r-n. 
  Then 1 will import [lit. bring) pottery, 
  cloth, and furs. 
  !;(him lum ma'.l ul 
  gu<!l nop<!l mssuran, tlamubayal, tla-
  dMlyal, 161 tlat.Srveyal. 
  We can arrange this for you. 
  lumama 
  chalutUsmi f1dhan tlay6sh m<l:sun. 
  Will you transport your goods by caravan, 
  or will you send them by ship? 
  tusmi thamstlm6tl m<{l .Sl gu<l:l hl<l:kptt 
  mssl1ran, t.Ssmimra tla'ef<l:ryal, ra: 
  toismi thamchl<!me m<l:l .Sl gua'.l khi!sh-
  du mssuran? 
  What is your advice? 
  tusmimra nuchi!likh 
  zhur gua:l. 
  There may be bandits in 06 CMka. 
  ka'd<!iyal brud6- cha'.ka gu<!l bapa'.l. 
  Send them by ship! 
  thamchl<!me kMshdul'i 
  mssuran! 
  We will arrange carts and porters from 
  here to Pen6m. 
  lumama mikd<!hl-
  te kenpen6m m<!l ill gu<!l !<{dhan 
  mssoiran, tlah6gguyal 161 tlas r{shte-
  toyal. 
  Your goods will be safe [lit. well). 
  tus-
  mimra e!<!ryal n6la m<!l ul gu<l:l gu<!l. 
  How long will it take? 
  d6sten tlaq6likh 
  ma:! .Sl .gu<l:l khatslfm. 
  About three months. 
  hl6in blgatli!ruyal. 
  We will arrange for the customs duty [lit. 
  taxes). 
  loim ama m<l:l ill gu<l:l f<l:-
  dhan mssuran, tlarak<!shyal. 
  Our otanch (lit. house} in Kh6iris will sell 
  your goods for you. 
  loimamamra 
  v6shukh brukh6iris chalutdsmi m<l:l 
  ul gu<{l dhuf<in mssuran, tusmimra 
  tla' ef<iryal. 
  They will send us a letter of payment here. 
  mas.Sri mollurnama d<{hlte m<!l ul 
  gu<!l kh6shdu m<!s':lll, tlahatan6lu. 
  It is easy. 
  ma:sun zha'.in gua'.l. 
  My mistress will sell my contract for [lit. in) 
  10, 000 l<a'.itars. 
  lummra tik<!rakoi 
  ma'.l ul gu.<!l dhu!<!n ma'.aun, lummra tla-
  paratll1 tl~taukn61in bruMitaryal. 
  I will think about it. 
  lum ma'.l 111 gu<!l wadh61 
  tlama'.sun. 
  P lease come again soon! 
  neb<!n ts!n tsamo-
  y6lliti:l.smi! 
  [honorific) 
  Then we will give you the money. 
  !a'.bim 
  lumama molt.Sarni m<l:l ill gu<!l fazha'. 
  m<!sun, tlahas.S. 
  How much interest do you want? 
  t.Ssmi pan-
  ja'.ng dop<!l m<!sun, d6sten tlapoich6. 
  We ask ten percent, 
  lumama purlim ma'.sun, 
  tlatl6 brumrikt<!. 
  I will pay you five percent. 
  ll1m m<!l ul gu<!l 
  thfr ma'.sun, tlatl6 brumrikta'., molt.Ssmi. 
  We accept it. 
  lumama ngach<!s niz<!l m<!sun. 
  You will profit much. 
  tusmi burun ma'.l ul 
  gua'.l mi'6ssa. 
  When will the goods be delivered to ou;· ware-
  house? 
  e!<!ryal 111mamamra mol-
  qaprashMn marak<!l m<l:l ul gua'.l nosal<{s 
  gua'.l. 
  My servants will deliver them on Thursday. 
  lummra v!sumyal brurU'Usa'. ma'.l ill gua'.l 
  nosala'.s tlamssuran. 
  We will give them a receipt. 
  llimama mol-
  mssuran m<!l ul gu<!l fazh<! ma'.sun, tla-
  nu!me. 
  The contract and documents of travel will be 
  ready tomorrow. 
  paratldkh 161 surtli!-
  yal hith6ku zhlilin ma'.l ul gu<l:l khawi!n. 
  We will obtain all the permits. 
  ldmama m<!l 
  111 gua'.l nu!n mssoiran, qll.rutlajoka:layal. 
  There will be no di!!iculty, 
  holi!nikh ma'.l ul 
  gua'.l tM gu<l:l. 
  How many Ka'.itars are there now in 'he "Al6-
  tish11 [a Mu'ugalavy<l:ni coin)? 
  di!sten 
  ka'.itaryal erl1 bru'al6tish gua'.l dopa'.l. 
  There are one and a half K<l:itars in each "Al6-
  tish. " 
  pr.Sn e sha'.n k<!itaryal hlbnubru-
  'al6tish gua'.l dop<l:l. 
  May 1 exchange money here? 
  llim da'.hlte 
  ngistli!n bap<!l m<l:aun, tlahasu, n6? 
  No, Sir. A moneylender will exchange it for 
  you. 
  ting, tha'.. w<!ihatokoi chalu-
  tusmi m<!l .Sl gu<l:l ngistli!n masun. 
  Where can l store my money and valuables in 
  this city? 
  lum mll.sunbrusava'.l bru-
  fi!nul qaprash tlay6sh mssuran, lummra 
  tlahasl1 161 tlakumi!suyal. 
  The pri ests of your temple will keep them for 
  you. 
  shartoyal tl1smimra hikataka:n 
  cha lutl1smi mal 111 gual m~n mssuran, 
  You will have to pay them a fee for this. 
  tl1smi chalum<!sun molrnssuri m<!l ul 
  gual tlur lanmrala ma:sun, tlaMfa. 
  1 need a partner in my business. 
  lum lum-
  mra bruparsh6ng hiy6n dop<{l maisur, 
  pri:l.tlagatl<!n. 
  1 will tell some of my friends . 
  loim l.Smmra 
  molgapruyal mal ul gu<!l parsMl ma:sun. 
  55 
  
  I know one merchant, but he is not honest. 
  ldm peng<i m<iisur, prutladhu£an~r, 
  m<ilel m<iisur k.h6tlangin y<i gu<il. 
  4, 1000. 
  RELIGION. 
  Do not trust him! 
  He will cheat you. 
  tlatusmi. 
  th<{ dara~nli tlam<iisur! 
  m<iisur ma'.l 61 gua'.l zral~ 
  [Note1 
  for reasons of space, most of the honorific prefixes and su!!ixes attached to 
  the names of deities, etc. in this Section have been left untranslated.) 
  I worship Thumis, who is one of the Lords 
  of Stability. 
  ldm gada'.l ma'.iaur, 
  tlathumisdl!.lidl!.lisa, d~ m<iiaur 
  prukoi hitlomnlanyal gua'.l. 
  My friend worships Ket6ngku, who is the 
  Cohort of Tb>imis. 
  lummra g<ipru-
  koi gad<il m<iisur, tlaket~ngkudll.li, 
  M m<iisur hlim~klu hithumiedUidll.li 
  gu<il. 
  However, others worship the Lords of 
  Change. 
  t1', br<isyal gad<{! mu.S-
  ri, tlatloklriq<iluyal. 
  Where is the temple of Thumis in this city? 
  kataka'.nkoi hithumisdl!.lisa mll.sunbru-
  savin !6nul gu<il. 
  Its pyramid is visible there across the 
  square. 
  ma'.isurmra h~rkolelikh 
  on6tl pasd6lbe k.hariy61 t<iino. 
  Its tiled roof is very high. 
  m<iisurmra 
  k6lk.han kapr<iik.h burr ksfbi-n gu<il, 
  Oh, gateguard, when is the service? 
  oh6, 
  vay>intok.h, gada'.likh maraka'.l gu<il, 
  lt is at noon. 
  m<isun tupeha'.gi-n gu<il. 
  A!ter this, there will be a service at mid-
  ni_ght, 
  tuma'.sun, gad<ilik.h ~sha-
  sllnin m<il ul gu<il gull!, 
  On which day is the festival of the god? 
  mfl:landll.lidll.lisamra godh6imukh 
  cha'.ngilin bruha'.gi gu<il. 
  It will be on the thirteenth o! Doha'.la. 
  ma'.sun brubltll! hidoha'.la ma'.l ul gu<ll 
  gu<il. 
  There will be a great and beauteous proce-
  ssion, 
  mntintikdll.lidhll.lisakh ma'.l 
  ul gu<ll gua'.l. 
  I want to buy some sacr!ices . 
  I.Sm pan-
  jii1ng dop;H taj<ii mssdran, zhll.tla-
  ka'.tayal, 
  Which kind of sacrifice do you want? 
  tdsmi panj<ing dopa'.! m<isun, chii1ngi-
  lin tlatha'.ur hika'.ta, 
  Some fruit and flowers, please. 
  chegdkh, 
  zhll.purdiyal 11!1 zhll.zu'a'.rayal. 
  That will be seven Hla'.sh, 
  ma'.sunbnul 
  hruhla'.shyal m<ll ul gua'.l gua'.l. 
  Take them inside! 
  brun gatha'.mli tlamssu-
  ran! 
  The priests will direct you, 
  sha'.rtoyal 
  ma'.l ul gua'.l sarsqa'.i tlatusmi, 
  Where is the inner sanctuary o! the god? 
  br6nggalun rashangka'.nik.h himnlan-
  dll.lidll.lisanikH f6nul gua'.l, 
  It i s beyond the great hall, 
  ma'.eun j~zu 
  miktiritk6lmu gua'.l. 
  The priest there will help you. 
  sh<irtokoi 
  on6tl m<il Ul gua'.1 te'6s tlatusmi. 
  Homage to the god! 
  molmntan otuMngba! 
  Place the !lowers upon the altar. 
  sankasra'.r 
  kard6nli msauran, tlazu'<irayal! 
  Cut open one o! the fruits! 
  zhitl!nli ma'.sun, 
  prutlapurdiyal! 
  The priest is rec iting the ritual o! the Opening 
  of the Eye of Illumination !or you, 
  sha'.rtokoi chalutdsmi teru dop<il m<isun, 
  tlarasha'.ng hivayun hika'.yi hij~r. 
  Now pray unto the god! 
  er6 molmnlandll.li-
  dl!.lisa gal<iili! 
  You will be pleasing to him. 
  tusmi mol-
  ma'.isur kaim<!n ma'.1 di gu<il gu<il. 
  l want to request help from the god. 
  lum 
  mikmJ:tlandll.lidll.lieanikH panja'.ng dopa'.l 
  purlim ma'.sun, tlate'6s. 
  Then present him a gilt of one thousand Ka'.i-
  tars! · !a'.hiin molma'.isur mashumli 
  ma'.sun, tlamashmrr taukn~lin tlaka'.itaryal. 
  He will grant your wishes. 
  m<iisur m<il ul 
  gua'.l langa'.l m s edran, tusmimra tla-
  ss!yalyal, 
  Where is the image of Thtimis? 
  vr>inkoi 
  bithumisdll.lidll.lisa !6nul gua'.l. 
  l have heard it is very ancient, 
  !Um lyutha 
  mura ma'.sun, p<!:r ma'.is ur burr yaga'.in 
  gu<il, 
  Yes, Sir. 
  The sculptor Mura'.i made it in the 
  time of the Bedn;l:lljan kings. 
  a'.ing, 
  ssa'., sirutha'.nekoi mur<ii bruhlats<inu 
  himizha'.nyal hibcdna'.llja s!ruthu mollln 
  tlama'.isur. 
  It is very sacred. 
  ma'.isur bur! shumin gua'.l. 
  I want to meet the high priest. 
  him panja'.ng 
  dopa'.! {a';l:r ma'.isur, tlaqusunchu. 
  He will receive [lit. meet) you in his cham-
  ber. 
  ma'.isur me{iaurmra brun<iti ma'.! 
  Ul:gu;l:l !a'a'.r tlatdsmi, 
  l myself am a priest o! the god. 
  ldm she 
  sMrtokoi himntandll.lidll.lisa gu<il, 
  Can I stay in the temple? 
  him brukataka'.n 
  mah<iim tlay6eh, n6? 
  Yes, there are s leeping-rooms. 
  ss<i, 
  zurneklinyal gu<il. 
  I want to join the temple school. 
  lum pan-
  j<l:ng dopa:! bav<!sh m<isun, tlasijakka'.n 
  hikataka'.n, 
  I will study alchemy, astrology, theology, 
  and languages. 
  lum ma'.l ul gu<il kaidllr 
  mssdran, tlabiy~rmong6, tlavaritsa'.n, 
  tlamltlemong4!, l~l tladaritsa'.nyal, 
  Speak to the duty-priest! 
  pagsMrto 
  dhiy<Hin d6mli ma'.sun! 
  I also want to learn magic. 
  !Um tatMn pan-
  j<ing dopa'.! sij<ik m<isun, tlash<itun, 
  Do you possess the power? 
  tusmi m~n 
  m<isun, tlaqurnung, n4!? 
  Yes, l sense it, 
  ssl(, ldm r!ib~s rrui'.sun. 
  56 
  
  The priests will examine you. 
  shilrtoyal 
  From the top o! the pyramid many temples will 
  mil 111 gu;il tsa 'k61 tlattSsmi. 
  be visible. 
  bl>.rukata,!Qnyal mikdn 
  I! you have the power, you will be trained. 
  hih4rkolel mtll 111 guill khariy6l, 
  vi( tlismi m6n baptll mi sun, tlaqur-
  Which temple is that? 
  m4su.nbnul ch4ngilin 
  nling, htlsru tlismi mill 111 gutll turb4! 
  kata!Qnkoi guill. 
  gutll. 
  That is the temple o! Viml1hla, Lord o! Flame. 
  Yo~ may also wish to learn the rituals and 
  milsunbnul kata!Qnkoi hivimtShla, hiti!Q 
  the administration. 
  tliami tatltln 
  hihlatstllga gutll. 
  panjtlng bapill sijilk maal1ran, tla-
  He is the god o! !earsome destruction. 
  mili-
  rashtlngyal 161 tladh!yalyal. 
  sur m!tlandUidUiea hitum6gasUnli guill. 
  The temple has broad lands in many parts of Every day many men are sacrificed there to 
  the realm. 
  kata!Qnkoi bl>.rubrun6tl-
  the glory of the god, 
  bl>.rubilsrimyal on6tl 
  yal hikolum6bablrdUisa m6n doptll 
  ha'.gi-n molhtlyadUigasa him!tlan !Qta gutll. 
  mssliran, tlashilithuyal qad!min. 
  Slaves and captives of war are sacri!iced (lit. 
  No, I am more interested in the sciences . 
  introduced) to the !lame. 
  shaha'.dyal 161 
  th4, 111m brumong6yal bl>.runggal 
  vilrcheyal hiqadtlrdUi molhlatsillgasa 
  hyachtSn doptll. 
  vufa' a'.r guill. 
  Does this temple have a library? 
  mlsun-
  Every god has his own colour. 
  hlbnumnlan 
  kata!Qnkoi m6n mtlsun, tlakorun!Qn, 
  m6n mtlsun, ma'.isurmra she tlartlndu. 
  n6? 
  The colour o! Vimuhla is orange-red. 
  ra'.ndukh 
  Yes, there are many thousands of books and 
  hivimuhladUigasa hlats4!nikh guill. 
  scrolls. 
  sstl, bl>.rutauknOyal 
  The temple of Silrku, Lord of Worms, is over 
  hikorlinyal Ml hi'urutl6nyal guill. 
  there beside the river. 
  katalr.i(nkoi 
  May l see a [certain) book? 
  llim mill ul 
  histlrkudUigasa, tiktlkoi hiriyulyal, 
  pagill mtlsun, prl>.tlakorun, n6? 
  jag6tl gemhnilru gua'.l. 
  Certainly, who is the author? 
  netl4!ka, 
  At night they perform many horrid, ':lnspeakable 
  grantlitokoi hilrri gua'.l. 
  rituals beneath it. 
  mssuri sUnin dhu-
  The librarian will find it for you. 
  korun-
  m'1sun rashtlng m s stSran, tlakorl>.ss -
  kanfrkoi chalutlismi ma'.l 111 guill 
  rasha'.nggagayal Uj6ten. 
  tsilipa m'1sun. 
  He is the lord o! the undead and the creatures 
  Give him a few Hlilsh! 
  molm:Usur ia%htl 
  of the catacombs. 
  mtlisur tiMkoi 
  mssliran, tlitlahl'1shyal! 
  himrlirsUnligayal 161 hitsuru'lllnyal gutll. 
  Librarians are always poor. 
  korunkan4!r-
  Prince Dhich'un4!, the emperor's youngest 
  yal hruvtln fUnttn gu-11. 
  (lit. little ] son, worships him. 
  The observatory is in the tower. 
  hlrtla-
  kolumsstlnkoi dhich'un4!dUisa, tl>.plan-
  pagalka:nikh bruburuji gu-11. 
  k6lumeldUidllisakohtlyanikHmra ng4!mu-
  At night the astronomers observe (lit. see) 
  nikoi, gadtll tlama'.isur. 
  the planets. 
  hlrtlamong4!ryal sltnin Which temple is that over there? 
  ma'.sunjlga 
  pagill mssuran, tlah!rtlayal. 
  chilngilin katak4nkoi gu41. 
  Thumis loves all knowledge. 
  thumisdUi-
  That is the temple of Avinthe, Mais:len of Beauty, 
  dUisanikH m4!r mssliran, ql>.rutla-
  mtlsunjlga kataka:nkoi hi'avinthedUidhlli, 
  pengatstlnyal. 
  thia'.lakh hidhalishin guill. 
  The other gods love other things. 
  brisin 
  Her opponent [i.e. counterpart among the Lords 
  m!tlandUiyal m4!r mssuran, tlac:h4!nu-
  of Change) is Dlam4!lish, the Lady of Sins. 
  yal brtlsin. 
  misunmra gashch6koi dlam4!lishdhlliga, 
  Why ia the temple gong striking? 
  tunklil-
  tika'.rakoi hithro%4!gayal, guill. 
  koi hikata!Qn d4!pu chi16m doptll. 
  Her worship comprises only erotic acts. 
  The service is about to begin (lit. be). 
  mtlsunmra gadilikh prush4!n kalk4! mssli-
  gadtllikh guill Mris. 
  ran, tlapaimoyryal. 
  Afterward, lunch will be served in the refec- Are there temples of every god in every city? 
  tory. 
  ad6lin, tuptilikh brussaing-
  kataMnyal hlbnuhim!tlan hlbnubrusavill 
  k4n m41 111 gua'.l h6te gutll. 
  gua'.l, n4!? 
  How many priests and priestesses are there It is so. 
  But some gods are worshipped more 
  'in this temple? 
  sh<irtoyal 161 shilr-
  in some regions, some gods [more) in 
  torayal mlsunbrukataka:n d4!ste guill 
  others, 
  ngil. 
  millel zhlm!tlanyal zhl-
  dop;U, 
  brufiltlanyal burunggal gadtll gu4l, zhl-
  There are three hundred priests and one hun-
  mrtlanyal brubr4syal. 
  dred and fifty priesteues. 
  bl-
  Vimlihla is very powerful :n the west. 
  vimli-
  mrikttln shflrtoyal 14!1 mriktiln hal6n 
  hladUisaga brumreblin sls4n guil. 
  shilrtorayal guill dop41. 
  So!rku is worshipped a lot in the mountains o! 
  There are sixty temple-guards also. 
  the north. 
  stlrkudUisaga bruss6muyal 
  latsiln katanl6shyal tatltln gutll dopill. 
  higha'.dri blirun gadill gutll. 
  1 cannot count the servants and the slaves, 
  The gods protect us! 
  shar~! 
  [interjection: 
  111m ytl hilshba hu'li msa.Sran, tla-
  the speaker prays to be protected from 
  vraurnyal 161 tlanra'.gayal. 
  hostile forces or physical harm) 
  57 
  
  4. 1100, 
  EMERGENCIES AND HEALTH. 
  khinang! 
  Danger! 
  Stop! 
  Stop! 
  l«meli! (i.e. "stop moving!") 
  munchetli ma'.sun! 
  [i.e. "stop 
  doing something! "] 
  Listen! 
  ly6thali masun! 
  Fire! 
  hlakh! 
  Help me! 
  te 16sli tlalum! 
  Come quickly! 
  neban mfri! 
  Go away! 
  chure! 
  Run! 
  tlatsfrli! 
  Run away! 
  farazhli! 
  Jump! 
  zusha'.hlali! 
  Hold this! 
  opetli tlamasun! 
  Throw it! 
  babailli tlamasun! 
  Throw it away! 
  yajangli tlama'.sun! 
  Drop it! 
  nozhaguli tlama'.sun! 
  Give it to me! 
  tlaka'.tli ma'.sun, tlahim! 
  [ orr 
  /tlahim fazhali tlamasun! /1 
  this connotes less urgency J 
  Call the city-guards! 
  rifa'.sli mssuri, tla-
  sanleshyal! 
  Where are the Sa'.kbe road-guards? 
  le shy al fenul gual dopal. 
  sakUn-
  Bring a member of the Omnipotent Azure 
  Legion (the imperial secret police]! 
  nopalli maisur, pril.tlavism6r 
  hitupll.nniq6mi nfrin! 
  Thief! 
  yira'.utokh! 
  Barricade the entrance! 
  sh«~ntle! 
  ts6noge ma'.sun, tla-
  I am ill. 
  l6m kicheng taino, [orr 
  /lum 
  kichfogin gual dop;U, /] 
  Please call my friends! 
  chegukh, rifasli 
  mssuri, l6mmra tlaga'.pruyal! 
  Please take me to a physician! 
  chegukh, 
  molkichengur gatha'.mli tlalum! 
  ls there a hospital nearby? 
  kichengka'.nikh 
  hatsnin gual, ne? 
  There has been an accident. 
  nizal mun!, 
  jishfrikh gua'.l 
  My wound is bleeding. 
  sha'.mu dopal, 
  himmra zhabarikh 
  It hurts, 
  masun khashtlu dopal, 
  My foot is swelling up. 
  lummra pawanikh 
  lojung tika'.n, 
  An "Epeng" (a dangerous insect] has stung me. 
  epengikh zhiyang mura tlalum. 
  1 have been poisoned. 
  l6m hl6ru gua'.l taino. 
  1 cannot move my arm. 
  l6m ya'. chr6m tlayesh 
  masun, lummra tlapaum. 
  He has fainted. 
  maisur zaftla taino. 
  He is unconscious. 
  ma'.isur itlang taino. 
  Bring cold water! 
  nopalli ma'.sun, tlahu 
  thanadlln! 
  Can you revive him? 
  tlama'.isur. ne? 
  t6smi nokhosse tlayesh 
  Bandits! 
  ka'daiyal! 
  Assassin! 
  hlUnfrtokoi! 
  My money has been stolen. 
  Lay him down here! 
  ma'.isur! 
  lummra has6kh My leg is broken. 
  dahlte nohapalli tla-
  16mmra rainikh chik6r 
  yir<!;u gua'.l mura. 
  My purse is missing. 
  ts«leqai taino. 
  lummra rafa'.kh 
  I cannot find my jewels. 
  lum ya tsaipa 
  tlayesh mssuran, lummra tlad«t6yal. 
  1 am lost. 
  lum eka'.ldUn ta'.ino, 
  I do not remember, 
  lum ya hra'.i dopal 
  ma sun. 
  What should 1 do? 
  t lazhur. 
  lum moyr zhe ma'. sun, 
  l committed no c rime. 
  munr. 
  lum ya'. dhang6 
  I did not do anything wrong. 
  him ya'. moyf 
  mun! ma sun, hlbntlazhurtla. 
  Let me [go)! 
  joka'.Iali tlal6m! 
  Why are you arresting me? 
  t6smi depu 
  gual taino. 
  I am dizzy. 
  lum z«nze dopal. 
  lam nauseated. 
  l6m go'6n dopal. 
  I have a cold (lit, cold has affected me]. 
  kllntakh dnusha taino tlallim, 
  1 have a fever [lit, fever has climbed), 
  ub6kh nimuel ta'.ino. 
  Are you becoming better [lit. well] now? 
  tusmi eru nela nrr dopal, ne? 
  l keep coughing. 
  lum hayake teten. 
  l have diarrhea and pain in my stomach. 
  lum 
  men mssuran, tlahizpava lel tlakhash 
  lummra bruqun. 
  Your pulse is bad. 
  tusmimra shirgenikh 
  jehun gua'.l dopa!. 
  Open your mouth! 
  vayunli masun, t6smimra 
  tlasum! 
  kupetl dopa! tlalum. 
  Where are you taking me? 
  gatham dopa'.l tlal6m. 
  tusmi molfenul Take [lit. eat) this medicine three times a day! 
  l need a lawyer. 
  him hiyen dopal maisur, 
  tlabarato. 
  Open the door! 
  vayunli ma'.sun, tlats6n! 
  Lock the gate! 
  se'ekli ma'.Sul), tlakhot6! 
  Co up these stairs! 
  shaga'.inli ma'.sun, 
  mll.suntlashetsa'.l! 
  Go down the ramp! 
  pepimli ma'.sun, 
  tladlomketl! 
  Look around the corner! 
  bimssUngehl 
  pagalli ma'.sun! 
  Rescue me! 
  nofasheli tlaldm! 
  1 am innocent! 
  l6m preshan gua'.l. 
  Wait here! 
  dahlte paza'.ngli! 
  I'm coming, 
  16m pal ka'.ris. 
  bljab!-n bruha'.gi ssaingli ma'.sun, mll.sun-
  tlahngamo! 
  Drink a spoon of it! 
  bavak hima'.sun! 
  hlyethuli masun, pril.tla-
  Order this from an apothecary~ 
  gashu tlashjekli masun! 
  I must operate [lit. cut it open]. 
  lanmrala masun. 
  mikbiyur-
  16m zhitlfn 
  I will give you "Aira" [an anaesthetic plant). 
  16m m6ltusmi mal 61 gua'.l fazha'. masun, 
  tla'aira. 
  I will bandage it. 
  tlamasun. 
  him mal 61 gua'.l patja'.n 
  Remain in bed and rest! 
  asuli! 
  58 
  sanchrai paza'.ngU, 
  
  4. 12.00. 
  MlLITARY. 
  This army comprises seven legions. 
  mll-
  Open ranks! 
  tusflin moyfli mss!iran, tla-
  sunkenengkoi kalke mssuran, hrtltla-
  matlana'.iyal! 
  niq6miyal. 
  Open out the !iles! 
  vaydnli mssuran, tla-
  Take me to your command-post! 
  tusmi -
  qetpeyal! 
  Mra molharqa'.do gatha'.mli tlah1m! 
  Stand in line! 
  brumatlana'.i jla'.kpeli! 
  I am looking for General Serqu. 
  lum mera The magical contingent [i.e. priests and magic 
  dopa:l koma'.isur, tlakerdudUi tla· 
  users attached to the army] will stand on 
  serqu. 
  that hill. 
  shatsurkoi mllsunbnulsan-
  He is inspecting the barracks, 
  m<!isur 
  ss6muni m<!l ul gua'.l jl<!kpe. 
  tsa'kel dopa'.l m<!sun, tlakujaika:n. 
  The skirmishers will go to the le!t, 
  haladza'.n· 
  Who commands here? 
  ha'.rri da'.hlte hare 
  yal mol!aya'.r ma'.l ul gua'.l mule. 
  dopa'.l, 
  The Ahoggya'. will be our "sword-unit" [i.e. 
  Sir, I am captain 0£ the third cohort. 
  a'.ing, 
  special offensive striking force]. 
  ldm ka:sikoi b!n hit.surum gua'.l. 
  ahoggya'.yal ldmimra ssytlhuitsa'.nkoi ma'.l 
  How many cohorts 0£ this legion are ready? 
  ul gua'.l nrr. 
  desten tsurumyal m1\sunhinici6mi 
  The heavy and medium infantry will comprise 
  khawen ta'.ino, 
  the "shield-units" [i.e. holding forces]. 
  Sir, nineteen cohorts can march tomorrow, 
  kuruthdniyal lel dhuktemuyal ma'.l dl gu<!l 
  a'.ing, prtltletlen tsurumyal zhulin 
  kalke mssuran, tlagaihuitsa'.nyal. 
  changa'.r tlayesh. 
  Who will fight the individual-champion-duels? 
  Gather all of the commanders of the army! 
  hllrriha'.rri ma'.l di gu<!l tsamurel? 
  juthali mssuri, qtlrutlaharetoyal 
  The gods will decide it. 
  mrtland1\lidlllis1yal 
  hikeneng! 
  m<!l dl gua'.l favreng m<!sun. 
  We will hold a council in my tent. 
  lumi 
  Raise the standards! 
  nochakulli mssuri, 
  111mmra brugachmul ma'.l ul gua'.l 
  tlaka:ingyal! 
  hesnuchel. 
  Blow [lit. play] the trumpet! 
  hiseli ma'. sun, 
  Spread out the maps! 
  nozrama'.hli mssuran, 
  tlazamsher! 
  tlacha'.nyal! 
  Attack them! 
  hanga'.ili mssdran! 
  You will take your troops by this road. 
  Charge! 
  kha'.irali! 
  tusmi mllsunthamsha'.r ma'.1111 gua'.l 
  Give the battle-cry! 
  auts61i! 
  gatha'.m mssuri, tdsmimra chllnga-
  Order the archers to fire! 
  hareli ma'.sun, tla-
  deshayal, 
  dhrchutoyal, dhrchu gua'.1 mssdran! 
  You will seize this town and defend it. 
  Fire [missiles]! 
  dhrchuli mssuran! 
  tl1smi opetltl ma'.sun, ml\suntlamra-
  Seize that hill! 
  opetli ma'.sun, ml\sunbnultla-
  dun, ma'.l di gua'.1 tel!rli tlama'.sun. 
  ss6muni! 
  You will advance to the east. 
  tusmi mol-
  Strike them in the flank [lit. side)! 
  brupa'.sle 
  mash!q ma'.l 111 gua'.l task6tli. 
  dimlalli tlamssuran! 
  Your men will go around the city to the south. While the advance-guard is fighting in front, 
  tusmimra ba'.srimyal bimsava'.l bru-
  the reserves will attack in the rear. 
  dubH ma'.l ul gua'.1 muleli, 
  chehuitsa'.nkoi gurengin purdalai, dhihui-
  We ourselves will take the artillery and the 
  tsa'.nkoi brudhi m<11 di gu<!l hanga'.i, 
  baggage-train to the fortress of 
  Send a messenger to the captain. 
  molka:si 
  Khirga'.r. 
  ldmama she molta'.nkolun 
  kheshduli m<!isur, prtltlasr!shto! 
  hikhirga'.r ma'.1 111 gua'.l gatha'.m mssd-
  Retreat! 
  bahinelli! 
  ran, tlamaratla'.ng lei tlasasthana'.r. 
  Besiege the city! 
  ssa'.idhali ma'.sun, tlasava'.l! 
  We can travel only twenty Tsa'.n per day in 
  Bring picks and shovels! 
  nopa'.lli mssl1ran, 
  this terrain, 
  ldmi mhunbrushazir 
  tladlengluyal tel tlath<!rkhuluyal! 
  notheku tlayesh mssuran, prushen 
  Dig a ditch here! 
  d<ihlte tsishurli ma'.sun, 
  s~mrutlatsa'.nyal bruh<igi. 
  pr\ltlagatsushe! 
  Set up camp in the forest! 
  brudricha'.n 
  Build earthworks there! 
  on6tl hricha'.ili 
  shay;\'.rli ma'.sun! 
  mssuran, tlamitsuss<iryal! 
  Post guards! 
  vunleshli mssuri! 
  :>et up the onagers behind that wall! 
  ml\sun-
  You will be on guard during the first watch. 
  bnuldhitimung nojla'.kpeli mssdran, tla-
  tl1smi brutenmre parsh6lin m-'1 111 
  milbab-'ilyal! 
  gu-'l nleshli m-'sun! 
  Bring the battering-ram onto that gate! 
  ml\-
  Cross the river here! 
  d<ihlte r-'ili ma'.sun, 
  sunbnulsankhot6 nopa'.lli m<isun, tlahkung! 
  tlang6sa! 
  Defend the battlements! 
  telfrli m<isun, tla-
  Send out scouts! 
  nodla'.rali mssdri, tla-
  hussa'.r! 
  tsokal6nyal! 
  Surrender! 
  kh<iridanli ma'.sun! 
  March in column! 
  brusrafesh changa'.rli! 
  Interrogate the prisoners and sacrifice them to 
  Make a phalanx! 
  moyfli ma'.sun, tlatung-
  the gods! 
  sawa'.rUngtl mssuran, tlav-'r-
  ta'.nu! 
  cheyal, molmnlanyal ka:tali mssuran! 
  Close ranks! 
  hatsnin moylli mssuran, 
  Gather up our wounded! 
  juthali mssdri, 
  tlamatlana'.iyal! 
  lumimra tlazhab-'rmoguyal! 
  59 
  
  FROM THE EMPIRE OF THE PETAL THRONE ... 
  THE BOOK OF EBON BINDINGS 
  by M.A.R. Barker 
  A playing aid for EMPIRE OF THE PETAL THRONE, thl• book coruol•u of an Intro-
  duction to the religion of Ttolyanu and a dlscuulon of ltt maglca.I artt and demonology. 
  S5.9S retail 
  THE NORTHWEST FRONTIER 
  Large-scale Maps for Campaigns 
  in the World ofTekumel 
  Thi• •et of •Ix maps was fl"t drawn for the UH of the playe" In Profe•eor M.A.R. 
  Barker'• own EMPIRE OF THE PETAL THRONE campaign. The artl•t, Craig Smith, 
  produced them after extensive research and consultation with Profee•or Barker. 
  Since their Inception, they haoe proved to be most useful In the adoentures of playen 
  In several campaigns. 
  S3. 95 retail 
  TSOLYANI 
  by M.A.R. Barker 
  The language of Teolyanu of THE EMPIRE OF THE PETAL THRONE written for 
  student•, traveller• and bu•lneHmen complete with pronunciation, gtammar. utt· 
  ful expres•lons. Engll•h·Tsolyanl vocabulary and 1crlpt In two volumee. 
  S12. 95 the set 
  YAN KORYANI ALLIANCE 
  This Is the eecond volume In the Armies of Tekumel ttrlee, designed for use with 
  the MISSUM tactical wargame rules. With the first volume, TSOLYANU. and the 
  maps of THE NORTHWEST FRONTIER, background for a campaign on the wtttem 
  front Is complete. 
  S4. 95 
  EMPIRE OF THE PETAL THRONE © 1979 Gamesclence 
  
  811295012 
  
SOURCE: textdata/thevault/Empire of the Petal Throne/Tékumel Supplemental/Tékumel The Tsolyáni Language Part 1 [1981 2nd Print].pdf