TEXT: © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
  
  ODIN
  THE VIKING ALLFATHER
  STEVEN S. LONG 
  ILLUSTRATED BY aRU-MOR
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  Contents
  Introduction 
  4
  The Norse Gods  2  The Nine Worlds  2  Sources of Norse Myth 
  Odin’s Attributes 
  10
  Role and Purpose  2  Odin’s Family  2  Odin’s Weapons and Talismans 
  Odin’s Animals  2  Valhalla
  Odin: The Myths 
  23
  The Creation of the World  2  Odin Seeks Wisdom  2  Odin’s Bragging  
  Contest with Thor  2  The Story of Agnar and Geirrod  2  Odin Banishes  
  Loki’s Children  2  Baldur’s Dream  2  Ragnarok, The Doom of the Gods
  Odin: Beyond the Eddas 
  49
  The Volsungasaga  2  The Ynglinga Saga  2  The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki 
  The Saga of Olaf Tryggvason  2  The Gesta Danorum  2  Starkad 
  Hervarar Saga  2  Odin as Raudgrani
  Odin the God 
  68 
  Temples to Odin  2  Sacrifices to Odin  2  Modern Worship of Odin
  Odin in Modern Culture 
  72
  The Marvel Comics Odin  2  Odin in Fantasy Literature  2  Wagner’s  
  “Ring Cycle” Operas  2  Odin in Games
  Bibliography 
  77
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  4
  Introduction
  Odin, often referred to by his epithet “All-Father,” is the ruler and military 
  leader of the Aesir, the pantheon of the ancient Norsemen. A god of war, 
  wisdom, and wizardry, he can see everything happening in the Nine Worlds 
  from his throne, the Hlidskjalf. In his hall, Valhalla, he hosts the einherjar, 
  the fallen warriors and heroes of mankind who will fight with the gods in 
  Ragnarok, the final battle against the giants.
  Although he is not as well-known as his mighty son Thor, the god of 
  thunder, Odin appears frequently in Norse myths. While Thor enjoyed wide 
  popularity as a god of the common man, kings, warriors, and poets revered 
  Odin, thus ensuring him a prominent place in legend.
  A statue of Odin in all his 
  glory. (Ivy Close Images / 
  Alamy)
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  Although Odin hasn’t experienced as much ongoing interest as Thor in the 
  modern world, he nevertheless remains a powerful, archetypical figure – the 
  wise, one-eyed king with ravens on his shoulders and wolves at his feet, ready 
  to render judgment or go to war, fiercely protective of his people. In his guise 
  as a robed wanderer with a wide-brimmed hat and a staff he has influenced, 
  among other things, J.R.R. Tolkien’s character Gandalf.
  This book examines Odin in all his aspects, from the earliest tales of 
  Norse myth and legend to his modern day appearances in novels, comic 
  books, and games.
  The Norse Gods
  While Odin stands first and foremost among the Aesir (literally “The Gods”), 
  he’s by no means the only Norse deity. Some who appear prominently in the  
  main sources include:
  Baldur (also spelled Balder or Baldr): the god of peace, truth, and light. He’s 
  one of Odin’s sons by Frigg. Everyone throughout the Nine Worlds loves 
  Baldur. Loki’s vicious murder of him casts a pall over the Aesir and is the first 
  step on the road to Ragnarok.
  Frey: a god of sunlight and fertility. He, his sister Freya, and their father Njord 
  are members of the Vanir, a race of deities who live in Vanaheim. These three 
  came to live with the Aesir to seal the peace after the Aesir–Vanir war. Frey 
  rides the shining golden boar Gullinbursti, and owns the ship Skidbladnir 
  which is big enough to carry all of the Aesir but can fold down until it’s small 
  enough to fit in Frey’s pocket. He lives in Alfheim, where he rules the elves.
  Freya (or Freyja): goddess of beauty and love. She wears the fabulous necklace 
  Brisingamen which makes her even more beautiful, and also owns a cloak of falcon 
  feathers that the other gods occasionally borrow if they need to fly somewhere. 
  When she mourns for her lost husband Odur, she cries tears of pure gold.
  Frigg (or Frigga): Odin’s wife. She spins the clouds on her spinning wheel.
  Heimdall: the sentinel of the gods. He stands watch at the head of Bifrost, the 
  Rainbow Bridge. He can see things 100 miles away as clearly as if he were next 
  to them and can hear the grass growing down on Midgard. When he senses 
  danger approaching, he blows the Gjallarhorn to alert the Aesir.
  Spelling Old Norse Words
  Rendering names and terms from Norse mythology into 
  English sometimes poses a challenge. Old Norse uses 
  some letters, accent marks, and diacriticals that never (or 
  rarely) occur in English, and sources often differ as to 
  the proper spelling of many words. For example, some 
  writers spell “Odin” as Oðinn.
  In an effort to keep this book as easy and enjoyable 
  to read as possible, the author has chosen spellings that 
  English readers are most likely to be comfortable with 
  and omitted accent/diacritical marks. If you’re interested 
  in the “real” spellings, you can find them in some of the 
  books listed in the Bibliography.
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  6
  Loki: a mischievous trickster god who becomes more and more malicious 
  as the cycle of Norse myth progresses. Eventually he turns against the Aesir, 
  murders Baldur, and suffers painful imprisonment until Ragnarok, when 
  he breaks free and joins the giants to fight the gods. The goddess Hel, the 
  fearsome Midgard Serpent, and the monstrous wolf Fenris are Loki’s children.
  Loki was not originally a god. He is the son of the giant Farbauti and 
  the giantess or goddess Laufey. His handsome looks and cleverness attracted 
  Odin’s attention, and they became blood brothers, with Odin inviting him 
  to live with him in Asgard. In some respects you can think of Loki as the 
  “dark side” of Odin – the All-Father’s wisdom and magic turned to cunning, 
  treachery, and selfishness.
  Thor: the hot-tempered god of thunder and the Aesir’s mightiest warrior. The son 
  of Odin and the earth goddess Jord, he wields the red-hot thunderbolt hammer 
  Mjolnir which returns to his hand after he throws it and can slay a jotun (giant) 
  with a single blow. Many myths describe his battles against Asgard’s enemies.
  Tyr: the god of war and victory. He appears most prominently in the myth 
  of the chaining of Fenris, when he sacrifices his right hand to ensure that the 
  gigantic wolf remains captive until Ragnarok.
  The Nine Worlds
  The cosmology of Norse myth describes the Nine Worlds, nine realms 
  inhabited by various beings. The eddas don’t describe this setting consistently, 
  so there is some debate regarding whether certain names refer to places that 
  The Norns who decide the 
  fates of both humans and 
  gods. (Ivy Close Images / 
  Alamy)
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  7
  are separate worlds or part of an existing world, or are 
  simply alternate terms for an existing world.
  Uppermost among the Nine Worlds are the three 
  realms of Asgard, Vanaheim, and Alfheim.
  Asgard is the glittering, wondrous home of the Aesir. 
  There they have their halls and amuse themselves with 
  games, sports, feasting, and dalliance. Bifrost, the Rainbow 
  Bridge, connects it with Midgard. A strong wall surrounds 
  it.
  Vanaheim is the home of the Vanir, fertility gods who 
  receive little attention in Norse myth other than mentions 
  of their war with the Aesir and the subsequent exchange 
  of hostages that brought Frey, Freya, and Njord to Asgard.
  Alfheim, the beautiful world of the Ljosalfar, or “Light 
  Elves”. Frey lives there and rules them.
  In the “middle” of the Nine Worlds are the three 
  “terrestrial” realms of Midgard, Svartalfheim, and 
  Jotunheim.
  Midgard (“Middle-earth”) is the world where humanity lives; its creation is 
  described below.
  Svartalfheim, which lies below Midgard, is the realm of the Dvergar, or 
  dwarves (also known as the Svartalfar,“Dark Elves”). The gods journey there 
  when they need the dwarves to make something for them.
  Jotunheim, the land of the jotuns (giants), trolls, and other monsters. Gods 
  and heroes, particularly Thor, often travel there in search of adventure or to 
  battle jotuns. The jotuns in turn enjoy pelting Midgard with boulders and ice 
  whenever they can. 
  The “lowest” level of the Nine Worlds contains the most unpleasant places 
  in Norse myth: Hel; Niflheim; and Muspelheim.
  Hel, the land of the dead, is the domain of the goddess of the same name. 
  Anyone who dies of old age, illness, an accident, or the like goes there; 
  chosen warriors and heroes end up in Valhalla.
  Niflheim (“The Dark World”) is a land of ice, cold, and darkness. Nothing 
  kind or helpful lives there; indeed, very little lives there at all.
  Muspelheim is a world of fire and heat. Fire giants dwell there; the cruel and 
  mighty Surtur is their king.
  Connecting all of the Nine Worlds is Yggdrasil, the World Ash Tree. It 
  has three main roots. The first emerges next to Asgard, at Urd’s Well where 
  the three Norns, or Fates, weave the threads of the lives of men. The second 
  plunges deep into Niflheim to emerge at the spring Hvergelmir. The fierce 
  dragon Nidhogg gnaws at this root in an unending effort to destroy the World 
  Ash. The third root grows into Jotunheim and comes out at Mimir’s Well, 
  whose waters grant wisdom.
  Yggdrasil, the World Tree. 
  (Mary Evans Picture Library 
  / Alamy)
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  Sources Of Norse Myth
  Many medieval manuscripts and folk tales refer to the Norse myths in some 
  way, but the principal sources for Norse mythology are the Poetic Edda and 
  the Prose Edda. 
  The Poetic Edda
  The Poetic Edda, also known as the Elder Edda, is a collection of Old Norse poems 
  and lays from various sources. It derives primarily from the Codex Regius, or 
  Konungsbok (“The King’s Book”), a manuscript thought to have been written in 
  the 1200s even though there is no proof of its location or ownership until 1643.
  Rather than forming one unified narrative, the various poems in the 
  Poetic Edda touch on a wide variety of Norse myths and heroic legends. In 
  some places the verses recount a myth in detail, but in other places they only 
  mention a tale briefly. Of its approximately three dozen sections, six have a 
  close connection to Odin:
  The Voluspa, or “Prophecy of the Volva,” in which Odin uses his magic to 
  summon a volva, or seeress, from the dead to appear before the gods and reveal 
  certain wisdom to them.
  The Havamal, or “Sayings of Har,” a collection of wisdom, advice, and 
  proverbs conveyed by Odin to men. It also includes a section where Odin lists 
  some of the magic spells he knows.
  The Vafthrudnismal, or “Lay of Vafthrudnir,” in which Odin challenges the 
  eponymous giant to a contest of lore.
  The Grimnismal, or “Lay of Grimnir,” the story of how Odin punishes an 
  unworthy king.
  The Harbarzljod, or “Lay of Harbard,” in which a 
  disguised Odin refuses to ferry Thor across an inlet and 
  engages him in a bragging contest.
  Baldrs draumr, or “Baldur’s Dream,” when Odin 
  rides to the gates of Hel to raise a volva from her grave 
  to prophesy about the strange dreams his son Baldur has 
  recently had.
  Lastly, Odin appears in the Reginsmal (“Lay of Regin”) 
  and some of the other “heroic legends” sections of the 
  Poetic Edda when he interacts with the Volsungs and other 
  Viking heroes.
  The Prose Edda
  The Prose Edda, sometimes called the Younger Edda or 
  Snorra Edda, was written by Snorri Sturluson (1179–1241), 
  an Icelandic politician, historian, and scholar, around the 
  year 1220. Drawing heavily on earlier sources (including 
  the Poetic Edda), it consists of a prologue and three parts.
  One-eyed Odin with his 
  ravens, Hugin (“thought”) 
  and Munin (“memory”), from 
  an 18th-century Icelandic 
  manuscript. (PD)
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  In the prologue Snorri, a Christian, attempts to explain Norse mythology 
  through euhemerization (treating myths as historical accounts exaggerated and 
  distorted over time). He connects it to Greek myth by describing the Norse 
  gods as heroes who fled the sack of Troy and traveled to northern Europe. 
  There they became kings, and through time and tales transformed into gods.
  The first section, Gylfaginning (“The Deluding of Gylfi”), presents extensive 
  mythological information through an unusual story framework. After being 
  tricked by a Norse goddess, King Gylfi of Sweden journeys to Asgard to find out 
  if the gods accomplish everything through deception and magic. Unfortunately 
  the gods trick him along the way and he winds up at a mysterious palace. There 
  he meets three men seated on thrones who call themselves Har, Jafnhar, and 
  Thridji (High, Just As High, and Third) – all manifestations of Odin. As Gylfi 
  questions them he learns about the world, particularly how the gods created it 
  and how it will suffer destruction at Ragnarok.
  The second section, the Skaldskaparmal (“The Language of Poetry”), 
  concerns the style and nature of Norse poetry. The sea giant Aegir speaks with 
  Bragi, the god of poetry, on the subject. In particular the dialogue focuses on 
  kennings, poetic metaphors common to Norse literature. For example, the 
  “whale-road” is the ocean,” the “slayer of giants” is Thor, and the “hanged 
  god” is Odin. As he explains what the kennings mean Bragi tells many myths.
  The third section, the Hattatal (“List of Verse Forms”), isn’t included in 
  many modern translations. It demonstrates and systematizes the forms of 
  Norse poetry, but features no significant mythological information.
  Modern scholars have studied how Snorri’s Christianity affected the 
  value of his work, but have reached no definitive conclusions. For some, his 
  Christian perspective makes it difficult or impossible to derive meaningful, 
  accurate information about Old Norse religion, customs, and myths from 
  the Prose Edda. Others argue that the “Christianization” of Norse myth and 
  practice began long before Snorri’s time, so determining which aspects of 
  Christianization are his fault and which he was essentially the victim of isn’t 
  really possible. Regardless, most scholars give him credit for his work as a 
  recorder and mythographer. Fortunately for lovers of mythology, the issue is 
  largely moot; Snorri’s myths remain highly entertaining.
  Snorri also wrote the Heimskringla, a history of the kings of Norway. 
  One section, the Ynglinga Saga, chronicles the earliest periods of history and 
  features some mythological information. Odin makes occasional appearances 
  in other stories in the book as well.   
   
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  Odin’s Attributes
  Given the importance of his role in Norse mythology, Odin has inspired 
  depictions in paintings and sculpture for hundreds of years. Both historically 
  and in modern sources, artists usually portray Odin as a tall, regal-looking 
  man with a full head of shoulder-length hair and a thick beard. His hair and 
  beard are most often colored grey, but brown, brownish-blond, and reddish-
  brown aren’t unknown.
  When shown as a king, ruler of the Aesir, or god of war, Odin typically 
  wears burnished chainmail, a golden eagle-winged helmet, and a blue cloak. A 
  heavy gold arm-ring, Draupnir, adorns his upper right arm, and he holds his 
  spear Gungnir. When he’s seated on his throne his ravens Hugin and Munin 
  perch on his shoulders and his wolves Freki and Geri sit at his feet.
  After Odin visits Mimir and sacrifices his left eye for a drink from the 
  jotun’s well, he usually covers the empty socket with strands of his hair, but 
  some depictions simply show it as a dark orbit. Modern illustrators often 
  cover it with some sort of eyepatch or part of a helmet – such as Sir Anthony 
  Hopkins wears when portraying Odin in the movies Thor and Thor: The 
  Dark World. 
  In some Norse myths Odin travels to Midgard, Jotunheim, or other worlds 
  in search of information or wisdom. As a “simple wanderer,” Odin looks like 
  an elderly man wearing ordinary clothing and a dark blue cloak. His hair and 
  beard are grey, with strands over the missing left eye. He covers his head either 
  with the hood of his cloak or with a tall, wide-brimmed hat. In the place of 
  his spear Gungnir he carries a traveler’s staff.
  Role and Purpose
  Odin is a multifaceted god who has several roles in Norse mythology and 
  religion. As one scholar aptly put it, he is “complex and many-sided to an 
  extreme degree.” First and foremost he’s the leader of the Aesir in both peace 
  and war – their king or chief. This position comes to him not only because he 
  is the eldest of the Norse gods (and the father of many of them), but because 
  of his wisdom and power. Unlike Zeus in Greek mythology the Norse tales 
  never explicitly describe Odin as more powerful than the other Aesir (either 
  individually or collectively), but the implication exists. Between his magic, 
  weapons, wisdom, insight, and awe-inspiring presence, few if any of the other 
  gods would dare risk his wrath, much less stand against him.
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  Odin also serves the Aesir (and humanity) by acquiring valuable resources 
  from the giants – the forces of chaos and nature unrestrained – so the gods 
  can put them to better use. Through wit, deception, or power he takes what 
  he needs from the giants, such as the magic mead of poetry, to enrich and 
  empower the gods while weakening their foes. In the words of Margaret 
  Clunies Ross, Odin is the “deity par excellence who embodies the questing 
  spirit of the gods and the ruthless intelligence that allows them to exploit the 
  natural resources of worlds beyond their direct control.”
  God of War
  Odin is a god of war and warriors, particularly of the kings and lords who lead 
  men into battle. The Vikings were often a warlike and aggressive people, so it 
  comes as no surprise that the greatest of their deities was a war god. The skalds 
  described how Odin, accompanied by his Valkyries, rode his horse Sleipnir to 
  a battlefield where two armies contended. After looking over both sides, he 
  chose which side should win, then threw his spear Gungnir over the heads of 
  the warriors destined to lose. Odin used his wisdom and foresight to select the 
  most deserving fighters to win a battle, but the decision wasn’t always easy. 
  Sometimes he favored weaker warriors so the stronger ones would die and 
  come join him in Valhalla, or granted victory to a hero he favored despite the 
  odds against that warrior.
  Mortals could sometimes trick him, too. For example, Paul the Deacon’s 
  Historia Langobardorum recounts how two great peoples clashed. Odin 
  thought them both worthy to win and couldn’t make up his mind which 
  Odin riding with the 
  Valkyries. (Ivy Close Images 
  / Alamy)
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  should lose. At last he decided to favor whichever army took the field first 
  the next morning. The women of one of the tribes prayed fervently to Frigg, 
  who told them what to do. Following her advice the women arose early, put 
  on armor, and took up weapons and shields. Finally each of them combed her 
  hair to either side of her head and tied it under her chin so it looked like a 
  beard. Then they assembled on the battlefield.
  “Who are those long-beards?” Odin asked when he saw them.
  “The army first on the field, to whom you said you’d give victory,” Frigg 
  replied. Odin threw Gungnir over the other army and the husbands of the 
  disguised women won the battle – and earned the name Langobards, or 
  Lombards (“Longbeards”).
  God of Wisdom and Magic
  But Odin isn’t just a god of warfare and slaughter. He also presides over wisdom, 
  learning, and magic – a rare (if not unique) trait for the head of a pantheon in 
  world mythology. In fact, some accounts (such as the Ynglinga Saga) emphasize 
  his wisdom and skills over his military role. Many Norse myths focus on his 
  efforts to gain wisdom or acquire new knowledge. He’s especially interested in 
  learning about the future so he can best guide the Aesir and avoid Ragnarok, 
  the doom of the gods. But since abiding by one’s own profound wisdom 
  doesn’t usually make for entertaining stories, in the Norse myths he often acts 
  unwisely. Last but not least, Odin also dispenses wisdom to mortals, though 
  unraveling the true meaning of what he says isn’t always easy.
  Odin possesses profound magical powers and lore. In addition to 
  his knowledge of galdrar (magic incantations or “songs”), he discovered 
  the enchanted runes, and at times consorted with witches, wizards, and 
  necromancers. He also mastered seidr, a type of magic brought to the Aesir by 
  Freya. The Norse regarded seidr, which they typically associated with women, 
  as a compromising, humiliating, or “unmanly” practice. Working seidr magic 
  didn’t bother the All-Father, though. To him it was another tool with which 
  he could help the gods and defeat their enemies. Loki mocks Odin about this 
  in the Poetic Edda, stating:
  They say that with spells in Samsey once
  Like witches with charms didst thou work;
  And in witch’s guise among men didst thou go;
  Unmanly thy soul must seem.
  Shamanic God of the Dead
  As a god of battle, Odin is associated with death. His powers to travel to Hel 
  and to raise the dead from their graves reinforce this association, as does his 
  connection to hanged men and the gallows. In that his valkyries take the 
  spirits of dead warriors to Valhalla, he also functions as a sort of psychopomp. 
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  And as commander of the einherjar (see below) he leads a host of the dead 
  into battle.
  In this sense one can view Odin as having aspects of the shaman, and certainly 
  his self-sacrifice on Yggdrasil (see next chapter) has a strong shamanic feel to it. So 
  do his ability to inspire “ecstatic” states in some worshippers so they go berserk in 
  battle, his frequent attempts to foresee or learn about the future, his power to ride 
  his horse to the underworld, and his ability to change shape. Similarly, his leaving 
  Asgard to wander the Nine Worlds to help the gods presents a mirror image of 
  the typical shaman’s role of traveling from the Mortal World to the Spirit World 
  to help the mortal community. Sending Hugin and Munin, his ravens, out to 
  observe the world each day may also reflect shamanic visions or travel.
  On the other hand, archetypical shamanic tokens and powers such as 
  dancing and healing have little or no connection to Odin, calling his standing as 
  a shaman into doubt. (As one commentator puts it, “references to shamanistic 
  practices... do not make [Odin] a shaman.”) Some scholars argue that the 
  suffering he endures to gain wisdom has more in common with the general 
  ascetic practices found in many religions than with shamanism in particular.
  God of Poetry and Eloquence
  Odin is a god of poetry and eloquence. One reason he appears so often in 
  Odin and his wife, Frigg. (Ivy 
  Close Images / Alamy)
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  the sagas is that he’s the patron god of the poets who composed them. He 
  can speak with grace or in finely-composed verse whenever he likes and can 
  grant similar abilities to mortals; he’s the source of the skalds’ inspiration and 
  creativity. He also obtained the magic mead of poetry for gods and men. 
  Many kennings refer to this, describing verse as “the prize of Odin,” “the gift 
  of Grimnir,” or “the holy cup of the raven-god.”
  The Duplicitous God
  Because Odin’s eternal purpose is to prepare for, and ultimately fight, 
  Ragnarok, he sometimes does things that seem treacherous or deceptive. 
  E.O.G. Turville-Petrie goes so far as to refer to him as a “god of lawlessness.” 
  He wants to acquire the best warriors for his army of einherjar, and if that 
  means tricking or taking advantage of mortals, or inspiring them to states of 
  reckless bravery or berserk fury so that they soon fall in battle, so be it.
  Norse myth and saga often imply or state outright that many warriors 
  distrust Odin, and for good reason. For example, in the Havamal Odin 
  himself specifically points out that it’s unwise to rely on him, saying bluntly, 
  “How can his word be trusted?” Later in the Poetic Edda, Loki accuses him:
  Be silent, Odin! not justly thou settest
  Frigg spins the clouds. (Ivy 
  Close Images / Alamy)
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  The fate of the fight among men;
  Oft gavst thou to him who deserved not the gift,
  To the baser, the battle’s prize.
  And Odin admits it:
  Though I gave to him who deserved not the gift,
  To the baser, the battle’s prize.
  He says much the same in the Harbarzljod, when he brags of fomenting 
  wars and never making peace, and his conduct in Hrolfs saga kraka (see next 
  chapter) also displays his Machiavellian nature. The hero Dag, who calls on 
  Odin for help and receives it, nevertheless says, “Odin alone caused all the 
  misfortune for he cast hostile runes between the kinsmen.”
  Sonatorrek, the famed skald Egil Skallagrimsson’s lament about the death 
  of his two sons, movingly addresses this darker side of Odin. It describes Egil’s 
  personal relationship with, and thoughts about, Odin in a way that’s unique in 
  Old Norse literature. Portraying the All-Father as a grim shadow looming over 
  the lives of mortals, he says that he doesn’t worship Odin willingly, though he 
  admits Odin has granted him wonderful gifts – his abilities as a skald, and the 
  power to perceive enemies – in compensation. He considers the death of his 
  son Gunnarr too harsh a price for Odin to take from a mortal who has served 
  him loyally.
  Odin’s Many Names
  Scholars of Old Norse have proposed several different 
  translations for Odin’s name, such as “Spirit,” “The 
  Intoxicated One,” “Frenzy,” or “The Enraged One.” All 
  of these refer to his role as a source of inspiration (or 
  possession) for poetry/eloquence/wisdom/magic, going 
  berserk in battle, and similar ecstatic conditions.
  But just one name isn’t enough for such a powerful 
  god with so many important aspects. Odin has more 
  names and titles than any other Norse god – over 150 
  in the eddas and other skaldic sources. Some refer to 
  his appearance, others to specific events from mythology 
  or to his worship by mortals. Besides the well-known 
  Alfadir (“All-Father”), some of them include:
  Arhofdi (“Eagle Head”)
  Baleyg (“Flame-Eye”)
  Farmantyr (“God of Cargoes”)
  Fjolsvidr (“The Very Wise One”)
  Geirtyr (“Spear God”)
  Hangatyr (“The Hanging God”)
  Hrafnagud (“God of Ravens”)
  Runatyr (“God of Runes”)
  Sigfadir (“Father of Victory”)
  Ygg (“The Terrible One”)
  Additionally, Odin often uses false names when traveling 
  in disguise. These include:
  Vegtam (“Wanderer”)
  Gagnradr (“Giving Good Counsel”)
  Grímnir (“The Masked One”).
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  But while Odin’s conduct may seem malicious or treacherous to mortals, 
  he doesn’t act without purpose. In the Eiriksmal, a fragmentary tenth-century 
  skaldic poem, he provides an eloquent explanation for his conduct. When the 
  hero Sigmund asks, “Why, then, didst rob [Eirik] of victory, since valiant thou 
  thought’st him?” Odin responds, “Because a grey wolf glares at the dwellings 
  of the gods.” In other words, Odin needs the best warriors to fight Fenris, 
  regardless of how unfair or cruel it may seem when he arranges their deaths so 
  they can join him in Valhalla.
  Odin’s Family
  Besides being the leader of the Aesir, Odin is also the patriarch of the largest 
  family in the Norse pantheon.
  Odin’s brothers, Vili and Ve, helped him slay Ymir and create the world. 
  Beyond that Norse myth has nothing to say about them. Some sources list the 
  names of Odin’s brothers as Hoenir and Lodur, though it’s not clear if these 
  are two additional brothers, alternate names for Vili and Ve, or something 
  else. Hoenir, who’s described as tall and handsome, makes a minor appearance 
  in a few myths.
  Odin’s wife is the goddess Frigg. Their children include Baldur the god 
  of peace; Hermod, who rides to Hel to try to ransom the life of his brother 
  Baldur; Hodur the blind  god; and according to the Prose Edda, Tyr the god 
  of war.
  But Odin isn’t entirely faithful to Frigg; he’s had sons with several other 
  goddesses. By the earth goddess Jord he’s the father of Thor. Vidar, who 
  avenges his father’s death at Ragnarok by slaying Fenris, and Vali, who avenges 
  Baldur’s death, are his sons by the giantesses Grid and Rind, respectively.
  The sagas tell us that Odin fathered many mortal heroes. These include 
  Sigi, first of the Volsungs; Skjold, ancestor of the kings of Denmark; Saemingr, 
  ancestor of the Norwegian kings; and Yngvi, forefather of the kings of Sweden.
  Odin’s Weapons and Talismans
  Like many gods throughout world mythology, Odin has some unique 
  possessions that provide him with special powers and abilities.
  Gungnir
  The first and most important of these is Gungnir (“The Swaying One”), his 
  enchanted spear. It never misses its target, and it automatically returns to his 
  hand after he throws it.
  Odin obtained Gungnir thanks to Loki’s mischief. One day Loki came 
  upon Thor’s wife, Sif, while she slept. Seeing her long, golden hair, a wicked 
  thought came into his head. Taking out his knife he cut all her hair off.
  When Thor discovered what had happened to Sif, he knew instantly who 
  was to blame. He wanted to kill Loki, but Odin wouldn’t permit it. “None of 
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  the Aesir may slay another,” he said. He decreed that Loki must restore Sif’s hair.
  Loki journeyed to Svartalfheim and visited some dwarves known to him, 
  the sons of Ivaldi, who possessed wondrous skill with smithcraft. Using all his 
  powers of flattery and persuasion Loki convinced them to make new, living 
  hair for Sif out of purest gold. But he realized that alone wouldn’t allay the 
  wrath of the Aesir; he needed more gifts. So he talked the sons of Ivaldi into 
  giving him two other wonders they had made, the magic ship Skidbladnir and 
  the spear Gungnir. He presented the ship to Frey and the spear to Odin.
  Odin rides to war in this work 
  by Arthur Rackham. (PD)
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  Sometimes Odin lends Gungnir to mortal heroes. A tale in the Poetic Edda 
  tells how Dag, son of Hogni, sought vengeance for his father’s death at Helgi’s 
  hand. He sacrificed to Odin and beseeched the All-Father for help. Odin lent 
  him his spear, and with it Dag slew Helgi.
  Draupnir
  After regaining the Aesir’s favor, Loki bragged about the unmatched skill 
  of his “friends,” the sons of Ivaldi. A dwarf named Brokk heard him and 
  claimed that his brother Sindri was a better smith than the sons of Ivaldi. 
  Their argument became so heated that Loki bet his head that Brokk and his 
  brother could not produce greater gifts.
  Brokk hurried to Sindri’s forge, where despite Loki’s interference Sindri 
  made three things. The first was the shining, flying golden boar Gullinbursti. 
  The second was Draupnir (“The Dripper”), an arm-ring that drops from itself 
  eight rings of the same shape and weight every ninth night. The third was the 
  mighty thunderbolt hammer Mjolnir.
  Brokk returned to Asgard. He gave Gullinbursti to Frey. Odin received 
  Draupnir, and thus always had rich rewards to give to his followers – a 
  particularly appropriate gift for the All-Father, since generosity was one of 
  the qualities the Norse most valued in a leader. Mjolnir went to Thor, and the 
  Aesir judged it a greater gift than all the others combined. With his typical 
  cunning, Loki weaseled out of his bet by claiming he’d only wagered his head, 
  so Brokk had no right to touch his neck. Brokk settled for sewing Loki’s lips 
  together with a leather thong.
  Hlidskjalf
  Odin also possesses a magic throne called the Hlidskjalf, which he keeps in the 
  top room of the tallest tower in his hall Valaskjalf. Anyone who sits in it can see 
  throughout the Nine Worlds, and Odin often sits there so he can learn what 
  takes place in the realms beyond Asgard. Occasionally Frigg sits there too.
  The Poetic Edda tells how Frey dared to sit on the Hlidskjalf one day and 
  paid for his presumption. In Jotunheim he saw the beautiful giantess Gerd 
  and fell instantly in love. He gave his servant Skirnir his magic sword and his 
  horse to go win her for him, which Skirnir did. But without his sword, Frey 
  was easy prey for Surtur at Ragnarok.
  Odin’s Animals
  Odin has several animal companions.
  Sleipnir
  Sleipnir (“Sliding One”) is Odin’s eight-legged steed with magic runes carved on 
  his teeth. The swiftest of all horses, Sleipnir can run over the land or through the 
  sky with equal ease.
  OPPOSITE
  Odin and his brothers battle 
  the giant Ymir.
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  Sleipnir is another gift Odin received as a result of Loki’s trickery. After 
  the Aesir–Vanir war the Aesir wanted to have a strong wall built around their 
  realm. A smith (actually a giant in disguise) offered to do the job for a high 
  price – Freya, the Sun, and the Moon. Loki convinced the Aesir to accept the 
  offer under the condition that the smith had to complete the job in only three 
  seasons. The smith agreed and immediately went to work. When the gods 
  realized the smith would succeed, they forced Loki to take care of the problem. 
  Realizing the giant’s true advantage was his intelligent horse, Svadilfari, Loki 
  changed shape into a beautiful mare. He seductively lured Svadilfari away so 
  the giant couldn’t finish building the wall in time. Some months later Loki 
  returned to Asgard with an eight-legged foal at his side and made a present of 
  him to Odin.
  Some scholars believe Sleipnir’s eight legs represent four pallbearers, and 
  thus emphasize Odin’s role as god of the dead. Others have suggested that 
  depictions of eight-legged horses in art may simply represent a horse running 
  swiftly, and that the myth grew out of this.
  Hugin and Munin
  Odin has two ravens: Hugin (“Thought”) and Munin (“Memory”). Every 
  morning they leave Asgard and “fly over all the world” to observe what occurs. 
  In the evening they return, perch on Odin’s shoulders, and whisper what 
  they’ve learned to him.
  Freki and Geri
  Odin also has two fierce wolves, Freki and Geri (both meaning “The Greedy 
  One”). They lie at his feet when he sits on the Hlidskjalf and when he presides 
  over the feast table in Valhalla.
  Valhalla
  In addition to Valaskjalf, Odin possesses another hall lauded in song and 
  story – Valhalla, the “Hall of the Slain.” Located in a part of Asgard called 
  Gladsheim (“Shining Home”) next to the golden-leafed forest Glasir, it’s 
  enormous. It has 540 doors, each of them wide enough that 800 warriors can 
  march through shoulder to shoulder. The tables inside are so long they always 
  have room for more feasters. Spears hold up Valhalla’s roof, which is thatched 
  with shields. Coats of mail cover the benches; weapons and helmets hang on 
  the walls as decoration.
  Two animals wait to greet those who come to Valhalla – a wolf who sits 
  before the western doors, and an eagle who hovers above the hall. Two more 
  live on top of it. One is the goat Heidrun, who grazes on the leaves of a tree 
  named Laeradr (which is part of Yggdrasil). Mead drips from her udders in an 
  endless stream so that those who dwell in Odin’s hall always have enough to 
  drink. The other is a deer, Eikthyrnir, from whose antlers water drips down to 
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  Hvergelmir, the spring beneath Yggdrasil which is the source of all the rivers 
  in the world.
  But the warriors in Valhalla don’t subsist on mead alone. For food 
  Odin’s “guests” eat the pork of the great boar Saehrímnir. Each day the cook 
  Audhrímnir slaughters the boar and cooks his meat in a cauldron called 
  Eldhrímnir. Odin doesn’t eat the pork; he feeds his share to Freki and Geri 
  and subsists only on wine.
  The Einherjar
  Valhalla is the home of the einherjar (“Those Who Fight Alone”), human 
  heroes and warriors chosen to fight for the Aesir. Every day they form armies 
  and battle one another to the death to keep themselves in fighting trim. At 
  day’s end they come back to life, hale and whole, and return to Valhalla to 
  drink mead and eat pork.
  The Valkyries
  Serving Odin and his warriors in Valhalla are the Valkyries, the “Choosers of 
  the Slain.” These bold, beautiful, lethally-skilled warrior-women follow Odin 
  into battle and select the heroes who will serve the All-Father in the afterlife 
  and fight for the gods at Ragnarok. They also wait upon those warriors in 
  Valhalla, bringing them food and drink.
  Some sources list 13 valkyries: Geirahod; Goll; Herfjotur; Hildr; 
  Hlokk; Hrist; Mist; Radgríd; Randgríd; Reginleif; Skeggjold; Skogul;  
  Woden
  Anglo-Saxon and Germanic myth features the god 
  Woden (sometimes written Wodan, Wotan, Godan), 
  from whom the day-name “Wednesday” (Woden’s 
  Day”) and numerous English and European place-
  names derive. Historians know relatively little about 
  him or his worship; what evidence exists mainly takes 
  the form of brief mentions in medieval texts. Most 
  modern scholars conflate him with Odin to a greater 
  or lesser degree, though some argue that the two are 
  distinct deities.
  The Anglo-Saxons regarded Woden as a forefather 
  of their kings. They also seem to have considered him a 
  psychopomp, though it’s unclear whether their Woden 
  had an equivalent of Valhalla or the valkyries. His name 
  may derive from root words relating to fury, madness, 
  inspiration, or possession, indicating a shamanic link 
  or connection to warfare. Some researchers suspect 
  he may have once been a less important god who 
  gradually took over the functions of Tiwaz (Tyr), thus 
  becoming chief of the gods. Later Christian writers, 
  such as Bede, euhemerized him as a powerful king 
  and royal ancestor. The Nine Herbs Charm, a spell to 
  counteract poison written down in the tenth century, 
  describes Woden “[taking] nine glory-twigs” and 
  smiting a serpent into nine parts. This is reminiscent 
  of Odin glimpsing the mystic runes as he hangs on 
  Yggdrasil.
  Medieval folklore described Woden as the leader of 
  the Wild Hunt (sometimes known as Woden’s Hunt). 
  Some authorities also see Woden as the root figure 
  behind Father Christmas/Santa Claus. 
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  and Thrudr (Thor’s daughter). But other tales mention additional Valkyries by 
  name, calling the exact number into question. These include Brynhildr (the 
  fallen valkyrie who plays a prominent role in the story of Sigurd), Geirskogul, 
  Gondul, Gunnr, and Skuld.
  A Valkyrie, by aRU-MOR.
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  Odin: The Myths
  Other than his son Thor, and perhaps the mischievous Loki, Odin appears 
  in more Norse myths than any other god. In some, such as the story of the 
  contest between Loki and Brokk, he plays only a minor role at best – typically 
  that of a ruler rendering judgment. But in many he takes center stage.
  The Creation of the World
  In the beginning only three places existed. In the south was Muspelheim, 
  a world of fire and searing heat; in the north Niflheim, a world of frost 
  and deadly cold; and between them Ginnungagap, the Yawning Chasm, a 
  grassless void. From the spring Hvergelmir in Niflheim the Elivagar rivers 
  poured forth into Ginnungagap, where they froze. The fire and heat from 
  Muspelheim, meeting this poisonous ice, melted it into a thick mist.
  Time passed. Then within the mists two beings formed. One was Ymir, 
  an enormous, fierce frost giant; the other Audhumla, a gigantic, hornless 
  cow. The milk from Audhumla’s udders provided Ymir with the 
  nourishment he needed to grow even larger and more 
  terrifying.
  For a long time Ymir and Audhumla were the only 
  two beings in Ginnungagap. One day Ymir fell into a 
  deep sleep, and while he slept the heat of his body 
  brought forth new life. From his left armpit 
  a male and female jotun emerged, and from 
  the sweat between his legs came a six-headed 
  troll. Soon these horrid beings reproduced, 
  populating the Yawning Chasm with their wild, 
  raucous offspring.
  But Ymir wasn’t the only one who could 
  create life. Audhumla fed herself by licking 
  the salty frost that formed on the rim of 
  Ginnungagap. From the touch of her tongue 
  and breath a face and body began to take shape 
  in the ice, but her “child” wasn’t the same as 
  the ugly spawn of Ymir. Handsome and noble-
  looking, he was Buri, the first god, and after three 
  days he stepped from the ice fully formed.
  The young Odin before 
  sacrificing his youth and 
  vitality in his quest for 
  wisdom. By aRU-MOR.
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  Ymir the Giant, by aRU-MOR.
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  Buri had a son, Bor. When Bor came of age he married 
  Bestla, daughter of the giant Bolthorn, and they had 
  three sons: Odin, Vili, and Ve.
  The young gods and Ymir did not get along. 
  Eventually Odin, Vili, and Ve fought Ymir, and after a 
  long, fierce battle they slew him. So much blood poured 
  forth from the frost giant’s wounds that it drowned all of 
  Ymir’s monstrous “children” except the giant Bergelmir 
  and his wife. They climbed on a wooden box and 
  floated away. All the jotuns and trolls of Jotunheim 
  descend from them.
  Odin, Vili, and Ve took Ymir’s gargantuan body 
  and flung it into Ginnungagap, thus filling the 
  Yawning Chasm and creating Midgard. From his 
  bones and teeth they made the mountains and stones, 
  from his hair the forests, and from the remainder of his 
  blood the rivers and seas. With his eyebrows they built a 
  fence around the wonderful new land to shield it from the 
  attacks of jotuns and other monsters. Lastly they took his 
  skull and set it above Midgard to form the dome of the sky, and 
  Ymir’s brains became the clouds.
  As beautiful as it was, the gods’ new world had no light. So they took some 
  Muspelheim sparks and placed them in the sky as the stars. Then they got 
  more flame from Muspelheim and used it to create Sol, the sun, and Mani, the 
  moon. They placed each of them in a cart. To the sun’s cart Odin hitched the 
  horse Skinfaxe (“Shining Mane”), with bellows at his shoulders to blow cool 
  air over his rear legs so Sol wouldn’t burn them. Then he hitched Hrimfaxe 
  (“Frosty Mane”) to Mani’s cart. In Jotunheim he found the good giantess Nat 
  (“Night”) and her son Dag (“Day”) to drive Mani and Sol around the sky.
  But the rest of the giants preferred darkness and gloom; the bright lights 
  in the sky hurt their eyes. So a jotun named Skoll changed shape into an 
  enormous wolf and began chasing Sol around the sky to eat her, and his 
  brother Hati followed suit and pursued Mani.
  The Creation of Man  
  Odin, Vili, and Ve looked out upon their creation and marveled at it, but also 
  realized how empty it seemed, so they decided to people it. First they created 
  beasts to fill the forests, fish to swim in the waters, and birds to fly through 
  the sky.
  Then they took the maggots from Ymir’s corpse and fashioned them into 
  the Dvergar, or dwarves, short, ugly little beings to live deep underground in 
  the realm of Svartalfheim. They soon learned just how irascible, distrustful, 
  greedy, and temperamental the dwarves could be, but also that they possessed 
  Odin’s brother, Ve, by  
  aRU-MOR.
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  their own sort of wisdom and a matchless skill at 
  creating things. Thanks to the dwarves, the Aesir 
  never lacked for gold, silver, or fine weapons and 
  possessions.
  Next Odin and his brothers considered what form 
  humans, their worshippers and the main inhabitants 
  of Midgard, should take. While walking along the 
  shore they came upon an ash tree and an alder that 
  they thought would make good material for creating 
  the first humans. Odin gave the two trees souls, 
  Vili granted them intelligence and willpower, 
  and finally Ve breathed warmth, senses, and 
  emotions into them. The trees twisted, turned, 
  transformed, and at last came to life in human 
  shape as the first man and woman, Ask (“Ash”) 
  and Embla (“Alder”). Their descendants 
  became all the men and women who peopled the 
  wide world.
  Odin Seeks Wisdom
  Several Norse myths address Odin’s quest for wisdom and knowledge, 
  particularly pertaining to Ragnarok and to mystic subjects. In fact, some 
  experts view the desire for knowledge and supernatural lore as the personality 
  trait that best defines Odin.
  In many cases Odin obtains wisdom through deception. Disguised as a 
  wanderer, and using names whose meanings often hint at his true nature 
  and purpose, he speaks with giants and men to learn what he needs to know. 
  Those he interacts with don’t realize who he is until it’s too late.
  Odin Hangs From Yggdrasil
  The earliest wisdom story in the Norse myth-cycle tells how Odin sacrificed 
  himself to himself in search of greater insight. At the end of nine days and 
  nights of hanging from one of Yggdrasil’s branches, starving and in pain, he 
  gazed down and perceived the runes, which gods and men could use both for 
  writing and to perform magic. In the words of the Poetic Edda:
  I ween that I hung on the windy tree,
  Hung there for nights full nine;
  With the spear I was wounded, and offered I was
  To Odin, myself to myself,
  On the tree that none may ever know
  What root beneath it runs.
  None made me happy with loaf or horn,
  Odin’s brother, Vili, by  
  aRU-MOR.
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  And there below I looked;
  I took up the runes, shrieking I took them,
  And forthwith back I fell.
  That is how Yggdrasil got its name – “Ygg’s (Odin’s) 
  Horse,” meaning both a gallows and the means 
  by which Odin travels to other realms and gains 
  knowledge. It’s also how Odin earned many of his 
  names (such as Hangagud, “God of the Hanged”). 
  But some aspects of Odin’s ordeal remain unclear. 
  Hanging by the neck is the image that most readily 
  comes to mind, and in some respects makes the 
  most sense. But Norse art features some depictions 
  of Christ hung with his arms amid tangled 
  branches, suggesting that the Odin self-sacrifice 
  story may already have planted such an image in 
  the Norse mind. Jere Fleck has argued in favor of 
  an interpretation that Odin hung upside down, 
  by his feet, and thus could literally “take up” the 
  runes from the ground and then be “reborn” like 
  a baby emerging from the womb. Others suggest 
  Odin hung from the part of Yggdrasil that’s in the underworld, a place that’s 
  frequently a source of knowledge for the All-Father.
  The nature of Odin’s self-sacrifice – hanging from a tree, wounded with a 
  spear – invites comparison to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ in the Bible, which 
  figuratively refers to the cross as a “tree.” Some scholars have seized upon this 
  to argue that the myth indicates an adoption of Christian stories and motifs 
  into the Norse mythos. But as others have pointed out, this form of sacrifice is 
  known from Norse and other early cultures, and is even referenced elsewhere 
  in Norse literature (such as Starkad’s sacrifice of King Vikar). Therefore it 
  seems more likely that Odin’s self-sacrifice attempts to explain the origin of 
  this practice and/or to provide a mythical representation of a sort of shamanic 
  initiation into sacred lore.
  Odin Drinks From Mimir’s Well
  Odin also gained wisdom from the jotun Mimir. Unlike many giants, Mimir 
  wasn’t crude and brutal, but wise and learned. He owned Mimir’s Well, 
  which sprang from the ground where one of Yggdrasil’s roots emerged in 
  Jotunheim. Anyone who drank from the Well earned wisdom, but first they 
  had to pay whatever price Mimir asked.
  Undaunted by the stories he had heard, Odin rode to Mimir’s steading.
  “I seek a draught from your Well,” he told the wise jotun. “What price will 
  you take for it?”
  Odin sacrifices himself to 
  himself in this early 20th-
  century illustration by W.G. 
  Collingwood. (PD)
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  “Your left eye, o’ All-Father, is the price I must 
  have for a drink from my Well. No one else has ever 
  dared to pay my price. Will you?”
  Odin shuddered and began to turn away, but 
  then he thought of all he had seen from his high 
  seat the Hlidskjalf – the giants of Jotunheim, eager 
  to destroy gods and men; the terrors lurking in 
  Niflheim; Surtur and his fearsome horde of fire 
  giants and Ragnarok that was to come. His need 
  for knowledge and insight bolstered his courage, 
  and he replied, “I will.”
  “Drink, then,” Mimir said, drawing a 
  horn-full of water from the Well. Odin 
  drained the horn, marveling at the new 
  wisdom that came to him as he did so. 
  Then without complaint or groan of pain 
  he raised his hand to his face, plucked out 
  his left eye, and gave it to Mimir. Mimir 
  dropped it into the Well, and ever after he 
  could see through it whatever Odin saw.
  Odin’s relationship with Mimir continued in 
  an unusual way. After the Aesir made peace with the 
  Vanir, Odin sent Hoenir to them as hostage. Knowing his 
  brother wasn’t very bright or decisive, the All-Father asked Mimir to 
  accompany him. Impressed by Hoenir’s appearance, lineage, and charm, the 
  Vanir made him a chieftain. But they soon learned that he always followed 
  Mimir’s advice. If the wise jotun wasn’t in the council hall Hoenir responded 
  to every dispute by saying, “Let others decide.” Realizing the Aesir had given 
  them a poor hostage, but not daring to take revenge by harming mighty 
  Odin’s brother, the Vanir chopped off Mimir’s head and sent it to the All-
  Father. Using his magic Odin brought Mimir’s head back to life, and ever 
  after he sought counsel from Mimir in times of need.
  2•2•2•2•2•2
  The Prose Edda relates a different tale. It says that when Ragnarok begins, 
  Odin rides to Mimir’s Well to seek the wise jotun’s counsel. Regardless of 
  which story is “correct,” the essential fact – that Odin seeks Mimir’s advice in 
  difficult situations – remains true.
  Some mythologists speculate that Mimir may be the unnamed brother 
  of Bestla (Odin’s mother) referred to in the Poetic Edda. That would make 
  Odin Mimir’s nephew, though their interaction in the myths shows no sign 
  of familial affection.
  Odin, after offering his eye 
  for wisdom, by aRU-MOR.
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  The Wisdom Contest With Vafthrudnir
  Mimir isn’t the only jotun from whom Odin sought lore. The Vafthrudnismal, 
  the third section of the Poetic Edda, tells the story of Odin’s wisdom contest 
  with Vafthrudnir.
  Despite the wisdom he had already gained, Odin remained eager for 
  greater perspicacity, especially regarding Ragnarok. One day he said to Frigg, 
  “I intend to go to Jotunheim to match wits with Vafthrudnir to see what I 
  can learn.”
  “It would be better if you stayed home,” Frigg said. “Vafthrudnir is the 
  wisest of the giants, and cruel to contend with.” But her warning did not 
  dissuade him, and, putting on a disguise, to the land of the jotuns he went.
  He entered Vafthrudnir’s hall, where the giant and his companions 
  caroused, and presented himself as one who sought hospitality.
  “Who is it that enters my hall?” Vafthrudnir asked. “You have to be full of 
  wisdom if you’re to walk away from here!”
  “I am Gagnradr,” Odin said, concealing his identity with a false name, 
  “and I have come to see which one of us is the wisest, o’ Giant.”
  Vafthrudnir laughed long and loud. “Good! I like a bold challenge. Take 
  a seat in my hall.”
  Odin remained standing. “A poor man who visits a rich man should be 
  sparing of speech, or be silent.”
  “As you wish. Tell me, then, the names of the horses who pull the Sun and 
  the Moon across the sky.”
  “They are Skinfaxe and Hrímfaxe, Shining-Mane and Frost-Mane.”
  That surprised Vafthrudnir, for most men and giants lacked that lore. So 
  he asked a harder question. “What is the name of the river that divides Asgard 
  from Jotunheim?”
  “Ifing is that river, which flows deep and swift, yet never freezes no matter 
  how cold it becomes.”
  “What is the name of the plain where Surtur, king of the fire giants, will 
  meet the gods in battle at Ragnarok?”
  “Vigrid, the plain that spreads a hundred leagues in all directions,” Odin 
  answered to the giant’s astonishment.
  “You’ve proven your wisdom, Gagnradr. Come, have a seat at my bench! 
  Let us speak together and match our lore. But we play for hard stakes here. 
  We’ll wager our heads on whose wisdom is the greater.”
  “So be it,” said Odin. “Tell me first, from where did the earth and sky 
  come?”
  Vafthrudnir answered right away. “The gods made the earth from Ymir’s flesh, 
  the rocks from his bones, the sea from his blood, and the sky from his skull.”
  “And where did the Moon and Sun come from?”
  “Mundilfari is the name of the father of both Sol and Mani,” Vafthrudnir 
  replied.
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  “And what about Day and Night?”
  “Delling is father of Day, and Nor of Night.”
  Odin continued. “From where do Winter and Summer come?”
  “Vindsval fathered cruel Winter, and Svasuth bountiful Summer.”
  Next Odin asked, “Who was the oldest of the Aesir or of Ymir’s kin in days 
  long past?”
  “Aurgelmir, father of Thrudgelmir father of Bergelmir.”
  “And from where did Aurgelmir come, wisest of giants?”
  “Venom-drops spurted from Elivagar, and in Ginnungagap they grew to 
  create him.”
  “And how did Aurgelmir have children, since he had no she-giant?”
  “As he slept a male and female jotun grew under his armpits, and a six-
  headed son from between his shanks.”
  “And what of you, Vafthrudnir – what’s the first thing you remember?”
  “So old am I that my earliest memory is of Bergelmir in his cradle.”
  “From where comes the wind, that men never see?” asked Odin“
  At the edge of the world sits Hraesvelgr, a giant in eagle’s shape, and with 
  the beating of his wings he creates the wind,” Vafthrudnir replied.
  “Since you’re so wise, now tell me from whence Njord, a god who rules 
  temples by the hundreds, came among the Aesir?”
  “The sea-god was born in Vanaheim among the Vanir, and came to Asgard 
  as hostage for his people. After the fall of the gods he will return home to 
  Vanaheim.”
  “In what enclosure do ever-living warriors slay one another with swords, 
  then fare forth from the battlefield to drain goblets together in good fellowship?”
  “The einherjar in Odin’s garth ride in from the fray to sit settled once 
  more.”
  “Of all the secrets of the gods and giants you speak the whole truth, 
  Vafthrudnir! So tell me, who among men will survive the Fimbulwinter?”
  “Lif and Lifthrasir they are called, who will hide in Hoddmimir’s Wood 
  and live on the morning dew. From them shall spring a new race of men.”
  “And how will there be light for this new race of men after Fenris swallows 
  the Sun?”
  “Before the wolf swallows her the Sun shall give birth to a daughter, her 
  equal in glory, who shall take her place in the sky.”
  “Who are those maidens who fare swiftly over the sea, traveling with the 
  wisdom of the mind?”
  “They are three throngs of maidens, the daughters of giants, who journey 
  to homes in Midgard to assist with the birth of children.”
  “After Ragnarok, when Surtur’s fires have died away, what gods will remain 
  to govern the effects of the Aesir?”
  “Vidar and Vali the sons of Odin will live in the gods’ temples, and Modi 
  and Magni the sons of Thor shall have Mjolnir.”
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  The Runes
  The runes referred to in the myth of Odin’s self-sacrifice 
  are a form of writing that evolved for the Germanic 
  languages early in the first millennium AD. Historians 
  believe they may have derived from the Old Italic 
  alphabets that Germanic mercenaries 
  fighting for the Romans would have 
  been exposed to. The Scandinavian 
  forms of the runes are often known as 
  Futhark based on the first six letters of 
  the runic alphabet.
  The runes, which were used both to 
  write with ink and to carve in stone and 
  wood, developed into various forms over 
  time. The earliest, Elder Futhark (second 
  to eighth centuries), featured 24 letters. 
  Each probably had a name based on 
  the sound it represented, but if so these 
  names aren’t recorded; scholars have 
  attempted to reconstruct them from 
  Proto-Germanic. 
  The 
  Anglo-Saxon 
  or Anglo-Frisian forms of the runes, 
  used in the fifth to 11th centuries and 
  featuring 29–33 characters, have known 
  names listed in the Old English Rune 
  Poem from the eighth or ninth century. 
  As Proto-Norse transformed into Old 
  Norse, the Elder Futhark became the 
  Younger Futhark, a simpler 16-character 
  alphabet used from the ninth to 11th 
  centuries. It came in two forms, a long-
  branch version used in Denmark, and a 
  short-branch version found in Sweden 
  and Norway.
  From the 12th to the 15th centuries, a medieval form 
  of the runes developed that expanded Younger Futhark 
  to 27 characters. The medieval runes tend to display a 
  large number of variants across sources.
  But the Vikings didn’t use the runes just for written 
  communication. They also formed an important part of 
  the Norse mystical tradition. Each rune’s name meant 
  it could represent that thing for occult purposes. For 
  example, a wizard could use the tiwaz rune, named 
  for the god Tyr, to call upon the war god for victory in 
  battle. Carving a rune, particularly three times, was a 
  part of many spells. In the Poetic Edda, 
  Odin describes his magical power to 
  bring a hanged man back to life:
   A twelfth I know, if high on a tree
   I see a hanged man swing;
   So do I write and color the runes
   That forth he fares,
   And to me talks.”
  Another well-known example occurs in 
  Egil’s Saga when Bard offers Egil a horn 
  filled with poisoned drink. Suspecting 
  treachery, Egil cuts the palm of his 
  hand, then carves runes on the horn 
  and smears them with his blood, 
  chanting:
   I carve runes on this horn,
   redden the spell with my blood,
   Wise words I choose for the cup
   wrought from the wild beast’s  
   ear-roots;
   drink as we wish this mead
   brought by merry servants,
   let us find out how we fare
   from the ale that Bard blessed.
  When he has finished, the horn shatters and the  
  poisoned mead spills into the straw on the floor, saving 
  his life.
  In the Poetic Edda, Sigrdrifa (Brynhildr) describes 
  several forms of rune magic she knows – including 
  “victory runes” to carve on swords, a favorite motif of 
  Fantasy authors and artists ever since.
  A Viking rune stone from 
  around AD 1000 in Sweden. 
  (Mary Evans Picture Library)
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  “And Odin himself – what fate will befall the All-Father in the last battle?”
  “The Fenris wolf will swallow him. His son Vidar shall avenge him by 
  tearing the monster’s cold jaws asunder.”
  Having learned what he came to learn, Odin next asked a question he 
  knew Vafthrudnir could not answer. “What were the last words that Odin, 
  the All-Father, whispered into the ear of his son, Baldur, as he lay upon the 
  funeral pyre?”
  At that Vafthrudnir stood up from his chair and pointed an accusatory 
  finger at his guest. “Only the All-Father himself could know that, and only 
  he would ask it. You are Odin, and I cannot answer your riddle. My head is 
  forfeit to you, for you are the wisest of beings.”
  2•2•2•2•2•2
  In its rhythm of question-and-response Odin’s wisdom contest with 
  Vafthrudnir encapsulates the cycle of Norse myth. The giants prove their 
  legitimacy and power by establishing that they came first, possess great lore, 
  and will slay the gods at Ragnarok. But by winning the wisdom contest Odin 
  establishes that ultimately the course of events will sweep the giants aside 
  so that the surviving gods and men may live in peace. The lay also follows a 
  pattern common to many Norse myths, in which the gods take things from 
  the giants but lose nothing in return. Some mythologists even see the contest 
  as having paternal overtones, with Odin triumphing over his ancestors and 
  claiming their power in much the same way that Zeus defeated Kronos and 
  drove him out of heaven.
  The Magic Mead
  A beautiful goddess named Gullveig, one of the Vanir, came to Asgard. A 
  sorceress who was “in magic wise,” she disturbed the Aesir. They pierced her 
  with spears, and in Odin’s hall they burned her. She arose, alive and unharmed, 
  from the flames. Three times they cast her into the fire, and three times she 
  lived. After that her name became Heidr, and she bewitched minds and aided 
  the schemes of evil women.
  Odin and the gods met in council to decide whether they should pay 
  “tribute” to the Vanir to buy peace, and whether all gods (both Aesir and 
  Vanir) or only the Aesir should partake in the “feast” of sacrifices offered up by 
  men. Odin decided in favor of the Aesir. He hurled his spear over the host of 
  the Vanir, and thus the Aesir–Vanir war, the first war in all the world, began. 
  Both sides fought long and fiercely; the Vanir broke the wall that protected 
  Asgard and trampled the plain. But strive as they might the Vanir could not 
  overcome the mighty Aesir, and so the two sides agreed to make peace.
  To seal their truce the gods did two things. First, they exchanged hostages. 
  Njord, Frey, and Freya came to Asgard, while Hoenir and Mimir went to live 
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  in Vanaheim. Secondly, all the gods gathered around 
  a huge cauldron. They chewed up special herbs, roots, 
  and berries and spat them into the cauldron, filling it 
  with a thick liquid. They agreed to keep this liquid as 
  a symbol of their truce. From it arose Kvasir, a spirit 
  of great wisdom who would provide sage counsel to 
  both groups of gods.
  Unfortunately the gods didn’t have the advantage 
  of Kvasir’s knowledge for very long. Two dwarves, 
  Galarr and Fjalarr, murdered him and took his blood 
  to Svartalfheim. There they mixed it with honey and 
  magic herbs and brewed Odroerir, the magic mead. 
  Anyone who drank the mead would become a poet, 
  charmingly eloquent and able to recite beautiful verse 
  at will.
  The two evil dwarves traveled to Jotunheim. There 
  they found a simple-minded giant named Gilling, 
  whom they persuaded to row them out to sea. 
  Knowing Gilling couldn’t swim, Galarr and Fjalarr 
  steered the boat onto the rocks. They floated on the 
  pieces of the boat and laughed as Gilling drowned. When they returned to 
  shore they went to Gilling’s house and asked his wife if she wanted to see 
  where he drowned. When she came outside they killed her, too, by dropping 
  a millstone on her.
  Fjalarr and Galarr continued their cruel mischief wherever and whenever 
  they could, and with their powers of verse they composed songs praising 
  themselves for their evil deeds. But then Gilling’s son Suttung tracked them 
  down. Strong and cunning, he caught the two dwarves and put them on a 
  rock that the tide would cover so he could watch them suffer and die.
  As the water rose higher and higher, Galarr and Fjalarr begged Suttung to 
  take them back to land. They offered him gold, and he laughed at them. They 
  offered him gems and jewelry as beautiful as Freya’s necklace Brisingamen, 
  and still he laughed. At last in desperation they offered him Odroerir.
  That caught Suttung’s interest. He let Galarr and Fjalarr keep their lives 
  in exchange for the mead of poetry. He poured Odroerir into three cauldrons 
  that he hid inside the mountain Hnitbjorg. He put his beautiful daughter 
  Gunnlod inside the mountain to watch over the mead.
  Word reached Odin of the death of Kvasir, and he grieved. To punish the 
  dwarves who murdered Kvasir he sealed them in their caves in Svartalfheim, 
  forbidding them to ever come to Midgard, Jotunheim, or Asgard again. From 
  them he learned of Odroerir, and he determined to win it for the gods.
  Suttung had a brother, Baugi, who farmed a large amount of land  
  with the help of nine thralls. Odin, in disguise and using the name Bolverk 
  Odin, in the form of an 
  eagle, stealing the Mead of 
  Poetry, from an 18th-century 
  Icelandic manuscript. (PD)
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  34
  (“Evil Work”), came among the thralls while 
  they mowed hay with their scythes. He asked if 
  they wanted their scythes sharpened, and they 
  said yes. He took a whetstone from his belt 
  pouch and sharpened the scythes so well that 
  they cut hay better than ever. All of the thralls 
  clamored to buy the whetstone, but rather 
  than sell it Odin threw it among them. As they 
  struggled for it they cut each other’s throats 
  with their scythes.
  Odin obtained hospitality that night from 
  Baugi. The giant complained of the loss of his 
  thralls, saying, “Without men to work my fields 
  I shall have no hay to feed my livestock during 
  the winter.”
  “I can work your fields for you,” Odin said.
  “The work of one man is not enough. I need 
  nine men, so wide are my fields.”
  “I can do the work of nine men,” Odin said, 
  “if you can pay me with a drink of Odroerir, the 
  magic mead.”
  “The mead belongs to my brother Suttung; I 
  have no control over it. But if you work for me 
  I’ll go with you to ask him for a drink.”
  Odin agreed to this. He worked for Baugi 
  the rest of the season, easily doing the work of 
  nine men. At the end of that time the two of 
  them went to Suttung to beg a drink of the magic mead for Bolverk, but 
  Suttung refused.
  When they returned to Baugi’s home Odin said, “You must keep your 
  side of our bargain and help me get my reward. Come with me.” He led 
  Baugi to Hnitbjorg. He produced an auger, and said, “Use this to drill a 
  hole into the mountain.”
  Baugi drilled and drilled, then claimed to have finished. Odin blew 
  into the hole and stone dust flew back in his face. From this he knew 
  Baugi had tried to trick him, so he told the giant to keep working. At last 
  Baugi bored through to the interior of the mountain. Odin changed into 
  a serpent. Baugi tried to stab him with the auger but Odin moved too 
  quickly for him and slipped into the mountain unharmed.
  Inside Odin found Gunnlod guarding the three mead-filled cauldrons.
  “Come no closer!” she warned. “If you do I will spill the magic mead.”
  Odin resumed his true form – a tall, handsome god – and spoke in 
  soothing tones. “Gunnlod, Gunnlod!” he said. “Do you wish to remain 
  An early 20th-century 
  depiction of Odin stealing 
  the Mead of Poetry. (PD)
  OPPOSITE
  Odin sacrifices himself to 
  himself by hanging from the 
  branches of Yggdrasil.
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  here forever?” Three nights he stayed with Gunnlod, and she told him he 
  could have one drink of mead for each night. With three great gulps he 
  drank all the mead. Then he changed into the form of an eagle and flew 
  toward Asgard, abandoning the giantess who had helped him.
  Suttung saw the eagle leave Hnitbjorg and realized what had happened. 
  He took the form of an eagle himself and pursued Odin. The All-Father 
  was so full of mead that he couldn’t fly swiftly, so Suttung gained on him.
  Heimdall saw the two birds approaching the ramparts of Asgard and 
  deduced who they were. He alerted the Aesir and told them to place all 
  their cauldrons, kettles, and pots near the wall. Odin had just enough 
  time to spit out the mead and make it safely inside Asgard before Suttung 
  caught up to him. The hapless giant had to return to Jotunheim empty-
  handed.
  After that adventure Odin spoke even more eloquently than before and 
  often in verse. At times he would reward gods and men he favored with a 
  sip of the wondrous mead, and they, too, became great bards.
  Odin Gives Wisdom To Men
  Odin didn’t keep his wisdom to himself as if it were a dragon’s hoard. He 
  shared it not only with the other gods but with his human worshippers 
  in Midgard. One of the most intriguing parts of the Poetic Edda is the 
  Havamal, “the Sayings of Har” (Har, “High,” being one of Odin’s names). 
  The longest part of the Edda, it consists mostly of advice and aphorisms 
  spoken by Odin. Much of Odin’s wisdom is genuine and noble, and even 
  told with a touch of humor at times. On the other hand, the second section 
  of the Sayings takes a different tone – it provides cynical, bitter advice 
  about women.
  Here are some examples of Odin’s counsel to mortals:
  The Unknown Adventures Of Odin
  The Poetic Edda mentions several adventures of Odin’s 
  which have unfortunately been lost to modern readers. 
  They include:
  • taking on the identity of Jalk in Asmund’s hall for 
  some reason
  • taking on the identity of Kjalar in an incident that 
  involved drawing a hand sled
  • using the names Svithur and Svithrir in the hall or 
  domain of one Sokkmimir, when he tricked the “old 
  giant” and singlehandedly slew the son of the mighty 
  giant Midvitnir
  • spending five winters with Fjolvar on Algroen Island, 
  where together they fought fierce wars, performed great 
  deeds, and had their choice of women
  • confronting a hardy giant named Hlebard (who gave 
  him a magic staff or wand) and “[stealing] his wits away.”
  • failing to seduce “Billing’s daughter,” a clever woman 
  who told him to come back later and then put a female 
  dog in her bed
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  37
  Within the gates ere a man shall go,
  Full warily let him watch,
  Full long let him look about him;
  For little he knows where a foe may lurk,
  And sit in the seats within.
  Fire he needs who with frozen knees
  Has come from the cold without;
  Food and clothes must the farer have,
  The man from the mountains come.
  The foolish man for friends all those
  Who laugh at him will hold;
  When among the wise he marks it not
  Though hatred of him they speak.
  Better a house, though a hut it be,
  A man is master at home;
  A pair of goats and a patched-up roof
  Are better far than begging.
  Away from his arms in the open field
  A man should fare not a foot;
  For never he knows when the need for a spear
  Shall arise on the distant road.
  To his friend a man a friend shall prove,
  To him and the friend of his friend;
  But never a man shall friendship make
  With one of his foeman’s friends.
  Cattle die, and kinsmen die,
  And so one dies one’s self;
  But a noble name will never die,
  If good renown one gets.
  A man shall trust not the oath of a maid,
  Nor the word a woman speaks;
  For their hearts on a whirling wheel were fashioned,
  And fickle their breasts were formed.
  Odin’s Bragging Contest With Thor
  One of the most unusual myths featuring Odin is the Harbarzljod, or “Lay of 
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  38
  Harbard,” in the Poetic Edda. This distinctive poem primarily takes the form 
  of a flyting or senna, a contest of insults, and a mannjafnadr, a boasting contest, 
  in which the participants compare deeds and accomplishments, each striving 
  to outdo the other). It features Harbard, a ferryman who most scholars believe 
  is Odin in disguise, debating with Thor, who wants Harbard to ferry him 
  across an inlet as he returns from fighting giants in Jotunheim. Their insults 
  and boasts refer to many other Norse myths. Here are a few examples.
  Thor said:
  Thjazi I felled, the giant fierce,
  And I hurled the eyes of Alvaldi’s son
  To the heavens hot above;
  Of my deeds the mightiest marks are these,
  That all men since can see.
  What, Harbard, didst thou the while?
  Harbard said:
  Much love-craft I wrought with them who ride by night,
  When I stole them by stealth from their husbands;
  A giant hard was Hlebard, methinks:
  His wand he gave me as gift,
  And I stole his wits away.
  Thor said:
  Thou didst repay good gifts with evil mind.
  Harbard said:
  The oak must have what it shaves from another;
  In such things each for himself.
  What, Thor, didst thou the while?
  Thor said:
  Eastward I fared, of the giants I felled
  Their ill-working women who went to the mountain;
  And large were the giants’ throng if all were alive;
  No men would there be in Midgard more.
  What, Harbar, didst thou the while?
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  39
  Harbard said:
  In Valland I was, and wars I raised,
  Princes I angered, and peace brought never;
  The noble who fall in the fight hath Odin,
  And Thor hath the race of the thralls.
  Many things about Harbard’s Lay remain enigmatic, including Harbard’s 
  identity. Some early scholars equated him with Loki, since it would certainly 
  be in character for the mischievous trickster god to harass and insult Thor for 
  fun. But more recent scholarship rejects this idea and fixes firmly on Odin as 
  Harbard’s true identity. Not only is “Harbard” one of Odin’s alternate names, 
  but the exploits he boasts of – consorting with witches, seducing maidens and 
  giantesses, stirring up warfare among mortals – are just the sorts of things 
  other eddic lays and sagas describe him, and not Loki, doing.
  From a narrative perspective, Odin’s reasons for delaying and ridiculing 
  Thor are obscure, but the poem’s purpose becomes clearer when one considers 
  the social circumstances in which it was created. The composer, a poet and 
  probably either a nobleman or the servant of a nobleman, favors Odin, the god 
  of rulers, warfare, and poetry. Even though Thor’s adventures, such as slaying 
  giants and protecting Midgard, have greater worth than Odin’s exploits of 
  seducing women and fomenting war, the lay’s sympathies rest entirely with 
  the All-Father. In every exchange he gets the better of Thor, who comes across 
  as a fairly dull fellow leading a drab existence.
  Some studies view the Harbarzljod as reflecting competition between 
  the two gods for worshippers, and in fact several other sources refer  
  to the rivalry between the two cults. For example, in the Eyrbyggja Saga, Odin-
  worshipper Harald Fairhair drives Thor-worshipper Hrolfr Mostrarskegg out 
  of Norway. In the Flateyjarbok, 
  King Eric of Sweden prays to 
  Odin for help in battle against 
  Thor-worshipper Styrbiorn the 
  Strong, and Odin provides him 
  with the means to disable and 
  destroy Styrbiorn’s army.
  The Story of Agnar 
  and Geirrod
  The fourth section of the Poetic 
  Edda, the Grimnismal or “Lay 
  of Grimnir,” also shows Odin 
  in (to modern eyes) a somewhat 
  questionable light. Containing 
  “Odin in Torment,” by W.G. 
  Collingwood. (PD)
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  both prose and verse sections, it has long caused debate among scholars as 
  to which parts of it are original and which are later additions. The fact that 
  much of the lay is simply Odin reciting cosmological information (facts which 
  later writers could easily insert) only complicates the analysis, but makes 
  Grimnismal a valuable source of Norse lore.
  Some scholars believe Grimnismal parallels the myth of Odin’s self-sacrifice 
  – just like when he hung from Yggdrasil, here Odin withstands torment to 
  acquire/demonstrate shamanic knowledge and power. In some respects it also 
  provides an object lesson regarding human conduct toward the Aesir. Geirrod’s 
  failure to feed his guest, as mandated by the sacred laws of hospitality, is 
  tantamount to a failure to offer sacrifices and honor to the gods.
  2•2•2•2•2•2
  A king, Hraudung, had two sons, Agnar, age ten, and Geirrod, age eight. 
  One day while they were fishing the wind blew them far out to sea. During 
  the night they crashed onto a small island where lived a fisherman and his 
  wife, Odin and Frigg in disguise. They agreed to care for the boys during the 
  winter, and in the spring Odin would build them a new boat so they could 
  return home.
  During the winter Odin showed the most favor to the strong, fierce 
  Geirrod. He taught him to hunt and fish, and the arts of war. Agnar also 
  learned these things, but he preferred the company of Frigg, who taught 
  him many things and instilled wisdom in him.
  In the spring the boys set out in their new boat. As it approached the 
  shore, Geirrod leaped onto land and shoved the boat with Agnar still in it 
  back out to sea, shouting, “Now go where all trolls may take you!” Agnar 
  drifted helplessly until he reached another land, where he began living with 
  an ogress in a cave. Geirrod returned home, and since Hraudung had died 
  during the winter he became king.
  Some years later Odin and Frigg had returned to Asgard and were sitting 
  on Hlidskjalf. Odin said, “Look there, see how your foster son Agnar has to 
  live in a cave, while my foster son Geirrod is a king.”
  “A poor sort of king he is. He lets his guests starve if too many of them 
  arrive.”
  “That is untrue!” Odin said. “And to prove it, I will go visit Geirrod.”
  “Best keep your wits about you, then,” Frigg said.
  After Odin left she sent her chambermaid Fulla to Geirrod to warn him 
  that a sorcerer intended to bewitch him. Fulla told Geirrod that he could 
  recognize the sorcerer because no dog would run at him.
  When a wanderer arrived at Geirrod’s castle and the king’s vicious dogs 
  ignored him, Geirrod seized him and chained him between two fires. But despite 
  the pain the man told the king only his name, Grimnir (“The Masked One”).
  OPPOSITE
  Odin trades his eye for a 
  drink from Mimir’s Well.
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  Eight nights passed, with cruel Geirrod and his equally cruel men mocking 
  and tormenting Grimnir each night. They fed him nothing, but on the ninth 
  night Geirrod’s young son, named Agnar after his uncle, brought Grimnir a 
  horn full of beer. He whispered that the king was wrong to so mistreat one 
  who had committed no crime.
  As the fire blazed ever closer around him, Grimnir began to sing. First he 
  praised Agnar for his mercy and charity. Then he described the world of the 
  Aesir, their homes in Asgard, and how they made Midgard to protect men. At 
  the very end of the song he revealed his identity:
  Drunk art thou, Geirrod, too much didst thou drink,
  Much hast thou lost, for help no more
  From me or my heroes thou hast.
  Small heed didst thou take to all that I told,
  And false were the words of thy friends;
  For now the sword of my friend I see,
  That waits all wet with blood.
  Thy sword-pierced body shall Ygg have soon,
  For thy life is ended at last;
  The maids are hostile; now Odin behold!
  Now come to me if thou canst!
  Geirrod had listened to Grimnir’s recitation seated on his throne, with his 
  sword half-drawn from its scabbard lying across his knees. When Odin revealed 
  his true identity, Geirrod stood up from his seat to take the All-Father away 
  from the flames. The sword tumbled from his lap and fell out of the scabbard, 
  striking the floor pommel-first. Just then Geirrod tripped and fell, impaling 
  himself on his own blade and so dying an ignominious death. Odin vanished, 
  and thereafter young Agnar became a wise and just king of that land.
  Odin Banishes Loki’s Children
  Odin learned that Loki had a wife, Angrboda, in Jotunheim, and that together 
  they had three monstrous children. He sent the gods to seize these children 
  and bring them before him.
  Loki’s first child was the prodigious serpent Jormungandr. Odin took 
  hold of Jormungandr and flung him into the ocean. There he dwelt, growing 
  and growing, until he became so enormous that his body circled the world 
  and he bit into his own tail. Gods and men called him Midgardsormr, the 
  Midgard Serpent.
  Loki’s second child, Hel, took the form of a woman, but one side of her 
  body was black-skinned living flesh, while the other half was the pallid flesh of 
  a corpse. Odin sent her far away, to the world that came to bear her name, and 
  gave her dominion over all those who died of starvation, disease, or old age.
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  Loki’s third child, most fearsome of all, was the dark-furred wolf Fenris. 
  He remained in Asgard for a time, but Odin realized that the gods had 
  to restrain him. Twice they forged mighty chains and dared Fenris to test 
  himself against them. Both times Fenris easily broke the chains.
  In desperation Odin sent Frey’s servant Skirnir to Svartalfheim to seek 
  the aid of the dwarves. The dwarves took five things – the sound made by 
  the footfall of a cat, the spittle of a bird, the breath of a fish, hairs from a 
  woman’s beard, and the roots of stones – and wrapped them around the 
  sinews of a bear to create Gleipnir. It resembled a silken ribbon, but not 
  even Thor had the strength to break it.
  The Aesir dared Fenris to try to break Gleipnir, but the dread wolf suspected 
  treachery.
  “I think this ribbon is a thing of sorcery, and so I will not be able to break 
  it,” he said. But he knew that if he succeeded the fame of his strength would 
  spread throughout the Nine Worlds, so he asked, “If I let you put it on me, 
  will you take it off if I cannot break it?”
  “We will,” said Odin.
  “One of you must place his hand within my jaws as surety that you will 
  keep your promise, and I will let you bind me.”
  A 1906 illustration of Odin 
  casting Loki’s children out of 
  Asgard. (PD)
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  Of all the Aesir only Tyr was brave and selfless enough to put his sword-
  hand between the wolf’s jaws. After he did, the Aesir bound Fenris, and when 
  Gleipnir held firm against his vast strength Odin forswore himself and refused 
  to take it off. In his rage Fenris bit off Tyr’s hand at the wrist.
  Baldur’s Dream
  The events leading up to the most tragic tale in Norse mythology, the death 
  of Baldur, began with Odin’s efforts to protect his son as described in Baldrs 
  draumr (“Baldur’s Dream”), a short lay in the Poetic Edda. It contains no 
  significant new mythological information, but its details provide a grim flavor 
  to the events described in the Voluspa.
  2•2•2•2•2•2
  Baldur, the most beloved of the gods, was having dark, disturbing dreams. 
  The Aesir met in council to decide what this might mean. Odin declared that 
  he would travel to the grave of a volva and seek answers from her. He saddled 
  Sleipnir and rode toward Hel. As he neared that dreadful place he passed a 
  fearsome dog with blood spattered on its chest, Garm, the hound of Hel.
  The burial mound of the volva stood just outside the eastern gate of Hel. 
  Using his necromantic arts Odin summoned her from the dead, and her spirit 
  rose, groaning, from its grave.
  What is the man, to me unknown,
  That has made me travel the troublous road?
  Odin consults a volva. (Ivy 
  Close Images / Alamy)
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  I was snowed on with snow, and smitten with rain,
  And drenched with dew; long was I dead.
  Odin replied.
  Vegtam my name, I am Valtam’s son;
  Speak thou of Hel, for of heaven I know:
  For whom are the benches bright with rings,
  And the platforms gay bedecked with gold?
  The shade of the wise woman said,
  Here for Baldr the mead is brewed,
  The shining drink, and a shield lies o’er it;
  But their hope is gone from the mighty gods.
  Unwilling I spake, and now would be still.
  Under further questioning the volva revealed more, including that Hodur 
  would slay Baldur and Vali would avenge one brother by slaying the other. 
  But at last she realized to whom she spoke.
  Vegtam thou art not, as erstwhile I thought;
  Odin thou art, the enchanter old.
  Odin replied.
  No wise-woman art thou, nor wisdom hast;
  Of giants three the mother art thou.
  Finally, the woman said,
  Home ride, Odin, be ever proud;
  For no one of men shall seek me more
  Till Loki wanders loose from his bonds,
  And to the last strife the destroyers come.
  The Death of Baldur
  Frigg sought to protect Baldur by getting everything in 
  the Nine Worlds, living and unliving, to swear never to harm 
  him. Assured of Baldur’s safety, the Aesir gathered around 
  him and amused themselves by hurling weapons and other 
  dangerous things at him, only to watch them cause no injury 
  and drop to the ground. But Loki learned from Frigg that 
  she had elicited no promise from the mistletoe. He carved 
  a dart from mistletoe wood and gave it to the blind god 
  Hodur, who threw it at his brother. Pierced through the 
  heart, Baldur fell dead.
  A statue of Loki tricking 
  Hodur into killing Baldur. (Ivy 
  Close Images / Alamy)
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  Baldur’s brother Hermod rode Sleipnir to 
  the underworld. There Hel promised him that 
  if everything in the world, living and unliving, 
  would weep for Baldur, she would release him. 
  The Aesir sent messengers throughout the world, 
  and all things wept for love of Baldur – all but 
  one. In a cave one of the messengers found a 
  giantess named Thokk, who was Loki in disguise. 
  She refused to weep, saying “Let Hel keep what 
  she has.”
  And so Baldur remained dead.
  The Binding of Loki
  Some time after Baldur’s death, the sea giant 
  Aegir threw a feast for the Aesir. After Loki killed 
  Aegir’s servant Fimafeng in a fit of jealousy, the 
  other gods drove him away. But he soon returned 
  and began exchanging bitter insults with each of 
  the gods, sparing none of them the lash of his 
  tongue. At last he made them so angry they called 
  on Thor, who instantly appeared. Loki insulted 
  him too and then fled in fear of his life.
  The malicious god hid from the Aesir, but they 
  found him and caught him. At Odin’s command 
  they used the entrails of his son Narfi to tie him to 
  three flat stones. Vengeful Skadi put a venomous 
  serpent above him to drip poison on his face. After that Loki’s wife Sigyn 
  always stood next to him with a bowl to catch the poison. Whenever she had 
  to empty it and the serpent’s venom dripped onto Loki his agonized struggles 
  caused earthquakes in Midgard.
  Ragnarok, the Doom of the Gods
  All things must come to an end, even the gods. But unlike most mythologies, 
  Norse myth describes in detail how this apocalyptic event – Ragnarok (“The 
  Final Destiny Of The Gods”) – occurs.
  2•2•2•2•2•2
  Things grew worse and worse in the Nine Worlds, and in Midgard men 
  warred ceaselessly among themselves. Then came the Fimbulwinter, three years 
  without anything but icy winds, driving snow, and widespread starvation. So 
  great were the numbers of the dead that both Valhalla and Hel’s hall nearly 
  ran out of room.
  Hermod rides to hell to try 
  and free Baldur. (Ivy Close 
  Images / Alamy)
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  Finally the roosters of Jotunheim, Asgard, and Hel crowed, signaling that 
  the end approached. The Norns ceased spinning the threads of fate; Yggdrasil 
  shuddered from root to crown and dropped all its leaves. Garm, the hound 
  of Hel, bayed, and the sound echoed throughout the Nine Worlds. All bonds 
  loosened; both Fenris and his father Loki went free at last.
  Heimdall, the watchman of the gods, looked out and saw all the foes of 
  the Aesir marching toward Asgard. From the east came the vast host of giants 
  from Jotunheim. Dread spirits from Hel accompanied them in the Naglfar, 
  an enormous ship captained by Loki that was made from the nails of dead 
  men. From the south came Surtur and the fire giants of Muspelheim. Most 
  terrifying of all were Fenris, whose gaping jaws scraped the ground below and 
  sky above, and his brother Jormungandr, who flooded the world as he heaved 
  his vast bulk out of the ocean.
  Heimdall blew the Gjallarhorn to alert the Aesir, who prepared for battle. 
  Using his magic Odin brought Mimir’s head to life and sought counsel from 
  it. Mimir advised the gods to fight on the Plain of Vigrid, a hundred leagues 
  long and a hundred leagues wide, and to give their own lives if necessary to 
  ensure that their enemies met utter destruction.
  Surtur led his forces up Bifrost, intending to set Asgard itself afire, but the 
  Rainbow Bridge broke beneath their weight, so they joined the giants and 
  other monsters on Vigrid. The gods and einherjar came forth to meet them, 
  and the clash of the two armies shook the Nine Worlds.
  Wolves Pursuing Sol (“Sun”) 
  and Mani (“Moon”) by J.C. 
  Dollman. (Ivy Close Images 
  / Alamy)
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  Odin made straight for Fenris. But prophecy held true, and before he could 
  hurl Gungnir the monstrous wolf lunged forward and swallowed him whole. 
  Thus the All-Father, wisest of gods, perished. But his son Vidar immediately 
  avenged him. With his enormous boot he pinned the wolf’s lower jaw to the 
  ground, then used his great strength to take hold of Fenris’s upper jaw and 
  tore his gullet in two.
  The other gods fared little better. Thor slew Jormungandr, but the Midgard 
  Serpent’s last venomous breath caught him in the face; he staggered back nine 
  steps and died. Loki and Heimdall, bitter enemies for years untold, killed one 
  another; Garm and Tyr likewise took one another’s lives. Surtur killed Frey, 
  who had only a weapon made of a stag’s antler to fight with since he gave away 
  his magic sword to win Gerd as his bride.
  Soon the battle was all but over. Surtur, joyous in victory, cast his fire over 
  all the world, and soon the conflagration burned so fiercely it slaughtered him, 
  the jotuns, and everyone left alive on Midgard. Skoll and Hati caught up to 
  the Sun and Moon and swallowed them, plunging the world into darkness 
  just as the floodwaters closed over it for good.
  But at the last moment, both the Sun and the Moon gave birth to daughters 
  who could take their place in the sky. And a green, beautiful new world rose 
  from the waves. Deep in Hoddmimir’s Wood, two people, the woman Lif and 
  man Lifthrasir, had survived by hiding under the bark of trees. From them 
  descended all the people who soon inhabited the new world.
  The only gods to survive Ragnarok were Odin’s sons Vidar and Vali, Thor’s 
  sons Modi and Magni, Hoenir (who returned from Vanaheim to join his kin), 
  Njord, and Baldur and Hodur (who returned from Hel). But nothing was left 
  for them to do, and in time they, too, passed away, becoming nothing but the 
  stuff of myth and legend. 
   
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  Odin: Beyond The 
  Eddas
  While Odin is best known to us through the mythological and cosmological 
  tales of the eddas, he also appears in many Norse sagas and legends. Most of 
  his appearances occur in konungasogur (kings’ sagas) and fornaldarsogur (tales 
  of pre-Christian Iceland often featuring the supernatural). He is less likely 
  to appear in riddarsogur (Norse romances that often take place in southern 
  Europe) or Islendingasogur (Icelandic family sagas), except in brief references 
  or mentions in verse.
  The Volsungasaga
  One of the most popular Norse sagas is 
  the Volsungasaga, the tragic tale of the hero 
  Sigmund and his son Sigurd. Found in 
  sections in many places (including the Poetic 
  Edda), it forms the basis for the medieval 
  German poem The Nibelunglied, which in 
  turn inspired Richard Wagner’s “Ring Cycle” 
  operas. A full recounting of this enthralling 
  epic is beyond the scope of this book, but 
  several episodes within the greater story 
  feature Odin.
  Odin and Brynhildr
  Brynhildr, daughter of King Budli, became 
  a valkyrie and grew high in Odin’s favor. He 
  taught her more of the runes of power than 
  the other valkyries, and gave her a cloak of 
  swan’s feathers so she could transform herself 
  into a swan and fly down to Midgard. But 
  despite this she defied him. Old King 
  Helmgunnar went to war against King 
  Agnar, whom Brynhildr loved. Odin told 
  her to give the victory to Helmgunnar, but 
  she instead helped Agnar triumph.
  Brynhildr pleads with Odin. 
  (Mary Evans Picture Library 
  / Alamy)
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  Odin’s wrath when he learned of this was great, but 
  Brynhildr came before him with unflinching courage to 
  receive her punishment.
  “You have gone against the Aesir, and so you may no 
  longer live among us,” the All-Father said. “I banish you to 
  Midgard, where you shall sleep until one comes to claim 
  you for his own.”
  “I ask only this, Ruler of the Gods,” Brynhildr said. 
  “Let it be that none save the most courageous of men, the 
  greatest hero in all the world, shall win me for his wife.” 
  And out of his love for her, Odin granted her wish.
  Odin placed in Brynhildr’s flesh a thorn from the Tree 
  of Sleep. He carried her sleeping form to Hindarfjall, a 
  castle built of black stone by ten dwarves, and laid her on 
  a couch. Then he caused a wall of flame to burn eternally 
  around the castle, so that only the bravest of the brave 
  would dare to approach the place. And so Brynhildr slept, 
  awaiting her rescuer.
  Odin and Hreidmar
  One day, Odin, Loki, and Hoenir decided to take the form 
  of men and walk among the mortals of Midgard. As they 
  rested beside a river Loki saw an otter and maliciously killed 
  it with a thrown stone. He made a bag of the beast’s skin.
  Soon the gods came to a house with two smithies and obtained hospitality 
  there. When Loki boasted of slaying an otter, the head of the house, Hreidmar, 
  snatched the bag from Loki’s belt and examined it carefully. Then he told his 
  sons, Regin and Fafnir, to seize the strangers, for Loki had slain Otr, their brother, 
  whom Hreidmar had enchanted into animal form to provide food for the family.
  “Hold, Hreidmar,” Odin said. “It’s true we killed your son, but we did so 
  unwittingly, without knowing he was a man. Let us recompense you for his 
  death.”
  “What recompense do you offer?” asked Hreidmar.
  Now Odin’s great wisdom failed him. He could have offered Hreidmar 
  many things: a visit to Asgard, a drink of the magic mead, some wonder 
  forged by the dwarves, a valkyrie wife. Instead he said, “Gold.”
  “If you bring me enough gold to fill this bag and to cover every single hair 
  on the outside of it, I will accept it as ransom for your lives.”
  That worried Odin, for to meet Hreidmar’s terms required a great amount 
  of gold. Only one treasure in the Nine Worlds would suffice. He took Loki 
  aside and whispered to him. “Know you of Andvari’s hoard?”
  Loki did. Andvari was a dwarf who had obtained a vast treasure from the 
  river-maidens. He hid it in an underwater cave and protected it by taking the 
  Odin kisses Brynhildr, his 
  favourite Valkyrie, before 
  imprisoning her on earth. (PD)
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  form of a pike. A shadow of grim evil seemed to lay upon the hoard, so no one 
  had ever tried to steal it before, but Loki gladly did so. He caught Andvari and 
  forced him to resume dwarven form.
  “I will never give you my gold!” Andvari said. “I will go before Odin and 
  demand justice!”
  “Ah, but Odin sent me here to take it from you,” Loki said.
  Andvari, recognizing the truth of Loki’s words, despaired, and gave in. 
  Andvari tried through guile to keep back one item, a magic ring that had the 
  power to create more gold. When Loki took it from him and put it on his 
  own finger, Andvari cursed the ring, saying that evil would come to Loki and 
  anyone else who possessed it.
  Loki took the gold back to Hreidmar’s house. After filling the bag he 
  heaped gold over the skin. At last he used up all of Andvari’s hoard, but still 
  one hair remained uncovered.
  “The ring on your finger, Loki, put that on the hair,” Odin said. With 
  ill grace Loki did so, and thus the gods ransomed themselves for Loki’s 
  wicked deed. But Andvari’s curse held true. Soon Fafnir murdered his father 
  for the hoard and transformed himself into a great dragon to protect it. 
  Regin began dreaming and scheming about how to kill Fafnir and claim the 
  treasure for himself.
  The Volsungs
  Odin had a mortal son, Sigi. Although he was a hero, Sigi 
  committed an evil deed; he killed his thrall Bredi, who had 
  done better than him while hunting. Branded an outlaw, 
  Sigi fled south with Odin’s help, and, in time, he became 
  the king of Hunaland. When he grew old and weak his 
  wife’s brother murdered him and seized his throne, but his 
  son Rerir avenged him and took the throne back.
  Rerir and his wife had no sons, so they prayed to 
  Odin and Freya for offspring. The gods sent Hljod, 
  daughter of the giant Hrimnir, to bring a magic apple to 
  the queen. After eating it, she became pregnant. During 
  her term Rerir, while away at war, took ill and died. 
  The queen remained pregnant for six years, at last giving 
  birth to Volsung. He became king of Hunaland, despite 
  his youthfulness, and in time a great warrior and hero.
  In the north Volsung had a hall, the Branstock, built 
  around an enormous oak tree of the same name. He 
  married Hljod and had 11 sons, the eldest of whom was 
  Sigmund, and one daughter named Signy.
  Siggeir, king of the Gauts (Goths), sought Signy’s 
  hand in marriage. But when he visited, she thought him 
  Odin in disguise plunges 
  a sword into a tree at the 
  wedding of Siggeir and 
  Signy. (Ivy Close Images / 
  Alamy)
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  deceitful and evil, and did not wish to become 
  his wife. Ten of Volsung’s sons said she should 
  marry him, but Sigmund agreed with her. 
  Volsung decided that since they knew nothing 
  evil of Siggeir, the marriage must take place.
  During the wedding feast, a stranger 
  entered the Hall of the Branstock, a man tall 
  and broad-shouldered, barefoot, with but one 
  eye. He wore a spotted cloak, tight-knit linen 
  breeches, and a slouched hat. He had an air of 
  age and wisdom, and no one dared approach 
  him. From beneath his cloak he brought out 
  a wondrous sword whose brightness lit the 
  Hall. He thrust the blade into the Branstock 
  up to the guard and said, “He who draws this 
  sword from this tree shall have the blade from 
  me as a gift, and he shall prove that he never 
  carried a better sword in his hand than this.” 
  Then he left as mysteriously as he had come.
  Volsung hospitably gave Siggeir the first chance to draw the sword, but 
  the king of the Gauts failed. So in turn did Volsung and his ten youngest 
  sons. But when Sigmund placed his hand upon the hilt, the sword, Gram, 
  came forth almost effortlessly. Siggeir offered to buy it from him for three 
  times its weight in gold, but Sigmund scornfully refused, earning himself even 
  more of Siggeir’s hatred.
  Some time later, Siggeir lured the Volsungs to his land. He treacherously 
  slew all of them save Sigmund, who escaped with the help of his sister Signy. 
  Sigmund and Signy had a son, Sinfjotli, who helped his father kill Siggeir and 
  avenge the Volsungs.
  Sigmund encountered Odin twice more. The first was when Sinfjotli died. 
  In the guise of a ferryman the All-Father met the grief-stricken Sigmund as 
  he carried his son’s body, took the corpse aboard his boat, and sailed away. 
  The second encounter resulted in Sigmund’s own death. Late in life Sigmund 
  married Hjordis. Not long thereafter he went to war with King Lyngvi. The two 
  sides seemed evenly matched, but then a stranger strode onto the battlefield, a 
  tall and broad-shouldered man, wearing a blue cloak, the left side of his face 
  obscured by his hat and hair. With his spear, he struck Gram, breaking the blade 
  in two. Deprived of his wonder-weapon, Sigmund soon fell victim to King 
  Lyngvi. But Hjordis, who was pregnant, saved the pieces of the sword.
  Years later Sigmund’s son Sigurd reforged Gram and used it to slay the 
  dragon Fafnir and claim his hoard, thus bringing upon himself Andvari’s 
  curse. After that he found and rescued Brynhildr, setting in motion a further 
  chain of events that would result in his death and many others, but Odin 
  A 19th-century wood 
  engraving by Karl Ehrenberg 
  depicting the war between 
  the Aesir and Vanir. 
  (INTERFOTO / Alamy)
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  played only a slight part in those events. First, he appeared to Sigurd as “an old 
  man with a long beard” to help him choose his horse Grani, of the blood of 
  Sleipnir. Secondly, in the guise of an old man named Hnikar he joined Sigurd’s 
  expedition against King Lyngvi and offered Sigurd good counsel. Third, as 
  Sigurd prepared to slay Fafnir, “an old man with a long beard” appeared and 
  advised him to dig several pits to hide in so that Fafnir’s blood would not 
  scorch or drown him.
  The Ynglinga Saga  
  In addition to writing the Prose Edda, Snorri Sturluson also wrote a much 
  longer book called the Heimskringla. Dating to approximately AD 1230, it 
  chronicles the history of the kings of Norway. Its first section, known as the 
  Ynglinga Saga, describes the legendary Ynglings, whom Snorri believed later 
  generations euhemerized into the Norse gods.
  According to this account, many peoples lived in the cold lands of the 
  north, and giants and dwarves as well. Flowing out of the mountains to the 
  far north was the River Tanais (the Don River), once known as Vana Fork, 
  which divided Asia from Europe. The land west of Vana Fork became known 
  as Vanaheim, or Vana Home, because a people called the Vanir lived there.
  The land east of Vana Fork was the home of a people who called themselves 
  the Aesir. From their great city, Asgard, ruled a mighty chieftain named Odin. 
  Handsome, strong, and eloquent, he taught his people many skills and ruled 
  them well. Powerful in magic, prophecy, and shapechanging, he possessed 
  many of the abilities and objects attributed to him in the eddas, such as two 
  intelligent ravens who flew around the world gathering information for him.
  King Odin was as mighty a warrior as he was a magician; he emerged 
  victorious from every battle he fought. He laid hands on the heads of his men 
  (many of whom were berserkers) and blessed them before each battle so that 
  they had full faith they would win. If they ever found themselves in great 
  difficulties they called on him by name.
  Odin traveled extensively and owned vast lands in the south. Whenever 
  he was gone his brothers, Vili and Ve, ruled in his stead, and his wife Frigg 
  patiently awaited his return.
  Odin attacked the Vanir, but for once could not claim victory. The tide of 
  war shifted again and again, with no clear winner, and the battles devastated 
  the land. At last the two sides chose to make peace and exchanged hostages. 
  The Vanir sent Njord the Wealthy, his son Frey, and his daughter Freya (a 
  priestess who first taught the Aesir the magic of the Vanir), and clever Kvasir 
  to Asgard. The Aesir sent Hoenir, with wise Mimir to help him. The Vanir 
  made Hoenir a chieftain, but when they discovered he wasn’t very smart, they 
  felt cheated in the exchange. So they cut off Mimir’s head and sent it back to 
  Odin. He preserved it with magic so he could bring it back to life and seek 
  Mimir’s counsel when necessary.
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  Knowing from his prophetic powers that his descendants would live in the 
  northern lands, Odin left Vili and Ve in charge of Asgard and led the Aesir to 
  Saxland (northwest Germany). There he took over much land, built a large 
  temple, and gifted great estates to his sons and chief lords. These included Thor, 
  Heimdall, Njord, Frey, and Baldur; the names of their estates correspond to 
  the names of their respective halls in the standard Norse cosmology. He sired 
  many other sons, and from them descend all the great kings and heroes who 
  came after him.
  For all his powers, Odin was still a mortal man, and at long last he felt 
  death approaching. So he had his warriors stab him with a spear, saying he 
  would go to join the gods and ever after all who died in battle would come 
  to him. They burned his body on a great pyre, in accordance with the funeral 
  rites he himself had established.
  Odin and King Aun
  Chapter 25 of the Ynglinga Saga describes a dark relationship between Aun, 
  a wise and peaceful king of Sweden who is “a great believer in sacrifices,” 
  and Odin. At age 60 Aun sacrificed one of his sons to Odin, asking to have 
  a long life. Odin told him that he would live another 60 years. When that 
  period ended, Aun sacrificed another of his sons, and Odin said Aun’s life 
  would continue as long as Aun sacrificed another son to him every ten years. 
  By the time he’d sacrificed his ninth son, Aun couldn’t leave his bed and 
  could only drink from a horn as if he were a baby. He wanted to sacrifice 
  his tenth and last son, but the Swedes forbade it and so King Aun at long 
  last died.
  OPPOSITE
  Odin uses his spear to break 
  Gram, the sword of Sigmund.
  Odin of Troy
  The Ynglinga Saga isn’t the only manuscript where 
  Snorri Sturluson describes Odin as a man who came 
  from the south. In the Prose Edda, Snorri writes that 
  Thor was a son of Priam of Troy, and that one of Thor 
  and Sif’s descendants was Voden or Odin, “an excellent 
  man because of his wisdom and because he had every 
  kind of accomplishment.” Through his gift of prophecy 
  Odin knew he would become famous in the northern 
  lands, so he led his people north from Turkey and they 
  settled in Saxland. In time Odin continued northward, 
  leaving his three sons – Veggdegg, Beldegg (Baldur), and 
  Sigi (ancestor of the Volsungs) – to rule over different 
  parts of Saxland.
  Odin settled in Denmark, of which he made his son 
  Skjold the king. From him the Skjoldungs, the royal 
  family of Denmark, takes its name. Odin continued 
  northward to Sweden, where King Gylfi heard about 
  “these Asians, who were called the Aesir.” Because peace 
  and prosperity followed the Aesir wherever they went 
  due to their intelligence and beauty, Gylfi offered Odin 
  power in his kingdom. Odin built the town Sigtun and, 
  in the Trojan tradition, established a council of 12 men to 
  “administer the law.” Then he headed onward to Norway, 
  where he made his son Saeming a king; he is the ancestor 
  of all the Norwegian kings. Odin’s son Yngvi became a 
  king in Sweden; the Ynglings descend from him.
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  The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki
  Hrolfs saga kraka, usually translated as The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki, chronicles 
  the life and adventures of the eponymous warrior and his family, the Skjoldungs 
  of Denmark. Composed sometime around AD 1400, it relates events that 
  occurred about a thousand years prior. Odin appears in the tale to test Hrolf 
  and his men to determine whether they can overcome the challenges awaiting 
  them at the court of King Adils of Sweden.
  King Hrolf went on a journey with his 12 champions, 12 berserkers, and 
  100 warriors. They came to the farm of a one-eyed man named Hrani. He 
  invited them to spend the night, promising plenty to eat and drink despite 
  their numbers. When they awoke the next morning it was bitterly cold in 
  Hrani’s hall. All the men got dressed quickly except for the king’s champions, 
  who felt comfortable in what they already wore. Hrani said, “If you think this 
  cold is difficult to bear, you won’t survive the hardships King Adils will inflict 
  upon you.” He advised Hrolf that a large force wasn’t what he needed to defeat 
  Adils, so he should send home half his men. Hrolf did so.
  Hrolf and the remaining men rode on, and soon came to another farm 
  where Hrani greeted them and offered hospitality. When they woke up the 
  next morning an intense thirst afflicted them. Most of them rushed to the 
  wine-vat and drank their fill. Again Hrani told King Hrolf that this was a sign 
  of weakness, and that Adils would confront them with far greater challenges.
  A storm sprang up, so Hrolf and his men stayed with Hrani another 
  night. The farmer built a fire so intense that everyone but the king and his 12 
  champions backed away from its heat. Hrani advised Hrolf to send home all 
  his men except the champions, or else he’d never defeat Adils. Hrolf, impressed 
  with Hrani’s wisdom, did so.
  Hrolf and his 12 champions went on to avoid the traps King Adils set for 
  them and defeat him. As they returned home they again came to a farm where 
  Hrani greeted them. He offered Hrolf war-gear – a sword, shield, and mail – 
  but Hrolf refused them due to their ugliness. Angered by this dishonor, Hrani 
  told Hrolf he wasn’t as wise as he thought. Hrolf and his men continued 
  traveling without staying the night. They soon realized that one-eyed Hrani 
  must be Odin and rode back, but the farm had vanished. They continued on 
  to Denmark, not wanting to go to war again for fear that, by offending Odin, 
  they had ruined their chance to ever win another battle.
  The Saga of Olaf Tryggvason  
  Olafs saga Tryggvasonar, a part of the Heimskringla that Snorri derived from 
  some earlier sagas of the same name, tells the story of King Olaf of Norway 
  (ruled 995–1000), who helped to convert the Norwegians to Christianity. 
  Part of the saga describes how Odin came to visit Olaf one night. He appeared 
  as a wise, knowledgeable old man with one eye and a deep hood pulled low 
  over his face. King Olaf “found much pleasure in the guest’s speech” and 
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  stayed up late conversing with him. Every time the guest finished one tale, 
  Olaf wanted to hear another. A bishop had to point out how late it was twice 
  before Olaf went to sleep.
  The king awakened in the middle of the night and told his servants to 
  bring the guest to him, but they couldn’t find him anywhere. In the morning, 
  Olaf called his cook and cellar-master before him and asked if they’d seen the 
  guest. The cook replied that when he began to prepare that day’s meal a man 
  he didn’t know came to him, insulted the food, and offered two thick sides 
  of beef, which the cook had prepared with the rest of the meat. King Olaf 
  instructed him to destroy all that food, for clearly the guest was the heathen 
  god Odin, “but Odin shall not deceive us.”
  In another version of the story, The Separate Saga of St. Olaf, Odin appears 
  to King Olaf and gives the name Gestr (“Guest”). They speak of earlier kings, 
  and Gestr pressures Olaf to say which of them he’d like to be, if he could. 
  Olaf insists he’d never want to be any heathen man, but eventually names 
  Hrolf Kraki. Gestr asks why Olaf wouldn’t prefer to be other kings of great 
  power, the implication being that Gestr could make him just such a king. 
  Olaf, realizing that Gestr is “the evil Odin,” thinks about hitting him in the 
  head with his book of hours.
  Sorla Thattr, from an expanded version of Olafs saga Tryggvasonar, also 
  features Olaf and Odin. It describes Odin as the king of the Aesir and ruler 
  of the land of Asiaheim. Odin curses two heroes, Hogni and Hedinn, to fight 
  A fanciful depiction of Olaf 
  Tryggvason raiding along the 
  coast of the English Channel. 
  (North Wind Picture Archive 
  / Alamy)
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  eternally, even returning from death to continue fighting, until a Christian 
  man enters the battle and kills them. King Olaf accomplishes this in the first 
  year of his reign.
  The Gesta Danorum  
  Odin also appears in euhemerized form in the Gesta Danorum (“Deeds of 
  the Danes” or “The Danish History”), a 12th-century chronicle written by 
  Saxo Grammaticus. The first nine of the Gesta’s 16 books cover the earliest 
  “history” of Denmark, and thus sometimes touch on fantastic or legendary 
  subjects related to Norse mythology.
  In Book Six Saxo states his argument that the Norse “gods” were simply 
  men in even starker terms than Snorri does:
  At one time certain individuals, initiated into the magic arts, namely Thor, 
  Odin and a number of others who were skilled at conjuring up marvellous 
  illusions, clouded the minds of simple men and began to appropriate the 
  exalted rank of godhood. Norway, Sweden and Denmark were ensnared in a 
  groundless conviction, urged to a devoted worship of these frauds and infected 
  by their gross imposture. The results of their 
  deception spread, so that all other realms came 
  to revere some kind of divine power in them, 
  believing they were gods or the confederates of 
  gods. They rendered solemn prayers to these 
  wizards and paid the respect to an impious 
  heresy which should have gone to true religion.
  Hading’s Adventures
  In Book One of the Gesta, Hading (Hadding, 
  Hadingus), son of King Gram, found himself 
  alone in the wilderness after a monstrous 
  giant killed his lover Harthgrepa. Odin 
  appeared to Hading as an old, one-eyed 
  man. He sponsored a friendship between 
  the Danish prince and the pirate Liser (or 
  Lysir). The two made war against Loker, 
  king of Kurland, but he defeated them. Odin 
  rescued Hading, took him to his home, 
  “refreshed him with the aid of a soothing 
  potion”, and offered prophetic advice about 
  how he could escape from Loker. Odin then 
  returned Hading to where he found him. 
  As they rode back, Hading peeked out from 
  beneath Odin’s cloak and was amazed to see 
  BELOW / OPPOSITE
  Hading spies Odin on the 
  shore. (Ivy Close Images / 
  Alamy)
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  that the horse (Sleipnir) was 
  running over the sea. Later, 
  Hading  slew King Svipdag of 
  Sweden and became king of 
  that country.
  The warlord Uffi, eager for 
  vengeance on the man who’d 
  slain his grandfather Svipdag, 
  proclaimed that he would 
  give his famously beautiful 
  daughter as wife to whoever 
  killed Hading. A warrior 
  named Thuning decided to 
  try for the prize. As Thuning’s 
  fleet headed toward him, 
  Hading noticed an old man 
  on the shore – obviously 
  Odin, even though Saxo 
  doesn’t mention the usual 
  distinguishing features – signaling that he wished to come aboard. Against 
  the advice of his crew Hading landed and let the old man board. Not only 
  did the old man teach him a superior way to form his troops for battle, he 
  used magic to counter Thuning’s own attempt to gain an advantage through 
  sorcery. After giving Hading some sound advice, the old man departed as 
  mysteriously as he’d appeared.
  Odin of Byzantium
  Saxo then relates that there lived at that time a man named Odin, widely 
  believed throughout Europe to be a god, who often dwelt at Uppsala. To 
  honor him and show their piety the “kings of the north” made a statue of him 
  out of gold and sent it to Odin’s chief city, Byzantium. Odin was delighted, 
  but his wife Frigg wanted to take the gold from the statue to make jewelry 
  for herself. Odin prevented this by hanging the smiths who worked for her, 
  and then “by a marvelous feat of workmanship” made the statue able to speak 
  when touched.
  Frigg began an affair with one of her servants, who cunningly arranged for 
  the destruction of the statue so she could get the gold. Humiliated by both 
  his wife’s conduct and the ruin of his idol, Odin went into exile. In time, 
  when he felt he had regained his fame and divine reputation, he returned 
  to Byzantium. He discovered that Frigg had died and an evil magician, 
  Mithothyn (possibly “False Odin”), had deceived the people with false gods 
  and cults. Mithothyn fled before Odin, who dispersed the cults and re-
  established his own rule/divinity.
  OVERLEAF
  Odin rides with the Valkyries.
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  Other Mentions Of Odin
  The text of the Gesta Danorum mentions Odin in several other places.
  Book Three names Odin as the father of Balder, a “demi-god” said to suffer 
  no harm from weapons, who lusted for a beautiful woman named Nanna. 
  His enemy Hother, who wanted to marry Nanna, went on a quest to obtain 
  a magic sword that could wound Balder. The two rivals met in battle, with 
  “Odin, Thor, and battalions of deities” fighting alongside Balder. When 
  Hother cut the handle of Thor’s club in two, the gods lost the battle and fled. 
  Hother married Nanna, but the conflict between him and Balder continued, 
  eventually encompassing a struggle for the kingdom of Denmark. After two 
  defeats Hother escaped into the wilderness, where a group of mysterious 
  maidens told him how to defeat Balder. Following their advice, Hother snuck 
  into Balder’s camp and inflicted a lethal wound on him.
  Odin learned of a prophecy that Rind (or Rinda) would bear him a son to 
  avenge Balder. Using his seidr magic and trickery, Odin raped her. The other 
  gods, perceiving that Odin’s conduct had brought dishonor upon them, exiled 
  him for ten years and made Oller (Ullr) their leader. Upon his return Odin 
  became more powerful and glorious than ever. His son by Rind, Bo or Bous, 
  killed Hother in battle but died of his own wounds.
  In Book Seven, Odin favors a warrior named Harald Wartooth because of 
  his height, strength, and handsomeness, so he granted him the power “that 
  no sword could impair his safety[.]” In return Harald promised Odin the 
  soul of everyone he killed in battle. After Harald became king of Denmark, 
  the Swedes declared war against him, and he sought to learn more from the 
  oracles. He met a tall, one-eyed, old man dressed in a shaggy grey cloak. 
  Identifying himself as Odin, the old man taught Harald a special wedge 
  formation that allowed him to defeat the Swedes.
  Later Harald’s trusted messenger Bruni drowned while on a journey. Odin 
  took Bruni’s form and “carried out a deceitful embassy” so that war resulted. 
  Still disguised as Bruni, Odin served the aged, blind Harald as his charioteer. 
  When the king realized who Bruni was, he begged Odin to grant victory to 
  the Danes. Unmoved by this plea Odin threw Harald out of the chariot and 
  then killed him with his own sword.
  Some time thereafter the Hellespontines attempted to take a castle of the 
  Danes. The witch Gudrun helped them by blinding the Danes, thus making 
  it a simple matter for the enemy to get inside their castle and begin hacking 
  them down. But Odin, who favored the Danes this time, appeared and lifted 
  the spell so they could fight back. When the Hellespontines used magic to 
  protect their bodies from weapons, Odin taught the Danes how to crush them 
  with stones. In the end the two armies destroyed one another.
  Starkad
  Odin also interacts with the (in)famous hero Starkad. Gautrek’s Saga, the 
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  Hervarar Saga, and Book Six of the Gesta 
  Danorum chronicle Starkad’s life. Odin’s 
  involvement is best described in Gautrek’s 
  Saga, from which the story told here is 
  primarily derived.
  Starkad, who was unusually tall 
  and strong because he had giants as 
  his ancestors, was raised by Harald 
  the Agder-King as his foster son 
  alongside his own son Vikar. 
  When King Herthjof of Hordaland 
  killed Harald and took Vikar 
  hostage, one of Harald’s men, 
  Grani Horse-hair, took Starkad 
  in as his foster son. Starkad 
  stayed with Grani until he was 
  12 years old, at which point 
  he was as large as an adult and 
  already growing a beard.
  Vikar recruited Starkad and 
  several other skilled warriors to 
  avenge Harald’s death. Thanks to 
  their might and skill they soon did 
  so, and after Herthjof’s death Vikar 
  became ruler of Agder and Jaederen. 
  Vikar and Starkad went on to conquer 
  many lands until Vikar was a rich, powerful king.
  One day Vikar sailed north from Hordaland with a large army, 
  but the fleet soon found itself trapped by storms in a small archipelago. 
  Divination told the fleet’s leaders that the storms would persist until they 
  honored Odin with a human sacrifice chosen by lot. They cast lots several 
  times, and Vikar’s name always came up. The leaders of the army chose to 
  sleep on the matter and make a final decision the next day.
  That night Grani Horse-hair woke Starkad up and took him to another 
  island where 11 men seated on thrones awaited them. There Grani revealed 
  himself to be Odin, and the other men the Aesir. They declared that they 
  would determine Starkad’s fate.
  Thor, who disliked Starkad because of his giantish blood, spoke first. 
  “Starkad shall have no children, no line of descendants to follow him.”
  Odin, who favored Starkad, began granting him gifts. “Starkad shall live 
  three times as long as a normal man.”
  Thor responded, “But he shall commit an evil deed in each of his three 
  lifetimes.”
  Thor, son of Odin and god 
  of thunder and storms, by 
  aRU-MOR.
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  “Starkad shall possess great wealth, and the best of weapons and clothing,” 
  Odin said.
  “But never shall he own land, or receive any satisfaction from his 
  possessions,” countered Thor.
  “Starkad shall have victory in every battle he fights, and great renown shall 
  be his,” said Odin.
  “But his opponents will grievously wound him in each battle,” Thor said.
  “Great eloquence I confer on Starkad, and the ability to compose fine verse 
  as fast as he can speak,” Odin said.
  “He shall never remember any of the poetry he creates,” said Thor.
  For Starkad’s last gift, Odin said, “All the highest and most noble men of 
  the land shall hold a fine opinion of Starkad.”
  “But all the common people will despise him,” said Thor.
  With that the meeting ended and 
  Odin took Starkad back to Vikar’s 
  camp. He said that Starkad should repay 
  him (Odin) for the lavish gifts he had 
  received, and Starkad promised to do so. 
  Odin told Starkad to find a way to send 
  King Vikar to him. He gave Starkad a 
  spear that would appear to other men to 
  be nothing but a reed.
  When morning arrived, the leaders 
  of the army decided to hold a mock 
  sacrifice of King Vikar, hoping that 
  would satisfy the demands of prophecy 
  but spare Vikar’s life. While Vikar stood 
  on an old stump, Starkad placed a noose 
  made of a calf’s entrails around his 
  neck and attached it to a branch he had 
  bent down. When Starkad released the 
  branch it sprang up swiftly, the noose 
  became strong and tight around Vikar’s 
  neck, and the old stump fell away from 
  his feet. Starkad stabbed Vikar with 
  the “reed,” saying, “Now I give you to 
  Odin.” Thus Vikar died, and forever 
  after the common people hated Starkad 
  for murdering their king.
  Half’s Saga
  Halfs saga ok Halfsrekka (“The Saga 
  of Half and His Heroes”) provides a 
  The famous illustrator Arthur 
  Rackham depicts Odin in his 
  traditional wandering garb. 
  (PD)
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  different account of Odin’s interest in Vikar. King 
  Alrek had two wives who didn’t get along, so he 
  decided to keep the one who brewed the best ale. 
  Odin, disguised as “Hood,” helped Geirhild win 
  the contest. He spat on her yeast, saying he would 
  take as payment what was between her and the 
  ale-cauldron. Since she was pregnant, that meant 
  her son, Vikar. Alrek chose Geirhild, but drinking 
  the Odin-enhanced ale gave him a prophetic 
  vision that Vikar would be sacrificed to Odin.
  Hervarar Saga: Odin’s Riddle-
  Game with King Heidrik
  Hervarar Saga tells the story of the magic sword 
  Tyrfing and how it affects the lives of many heroes, 
  particularly the shieldmaiden Hervor and her son 
  Heidrik. It includes an appearance by Odin.
  After Heidrik became king, he sent word to 
  one of his chief enemies, Gestumblindi, to appear 
  before him and be reconciled, or lose his life. 
  Gestumblindi knew this meant either submitting 
  to the judgment of Heidrik’s wise men, or 
  defeating Heidrik in a riddle contest. He didn’t like his chances, for he’d 
  committed many crimes and knew he wasn’t as wise as the king. He sought 
  Odin’s help. Odin told him to conceal himself, took Gestumblindi’s form, 
  and went to King Heidrik.
  When Heidrik offered him the choice of judgment or riddles, 
  “Gestumblindi” opted for riddles. He then asked the king 29 riddles, each of 
  which Heidrik answered without hesitation. For the 30th riddle Odin asked 
  the same one that foiled Vafthrudnir, “What said Odin in the ear of Baldur 
  before he was borne to the fire?”
  This confirmed Heidrik’s suspicions about “Gestumblindi’s” true identity. 
  Enraged, he drew Tyrfing and attacked Odin. The All-Father changed 
  shape into a hawk and flew away. But before he left, Odin made a dire 
  pronouncement. “Because you have attacked me, Heidrik, you shall die at the 
  hands of the lowest of thralls.” And so it soon came to pass when nine slaves 
  murdered Heidrik in his sleep and stole Tyrfing.
  Odin as Raudgrani
  Orvar-Odds Saga (“The Saga of Arrow-Odd”), written in Iceland in the 13th 
  century, tells the story of Oddr, a hero who’s the subject of a dire prophecy. 
  During his adventures he has an unusual encounter with Odin despite his 
  persistent refusal to offer sacrifices to the gods or even believe in them. (At one 
  A depiction of the three 
  gods Loki, Odin and Hoenir, 
  from an 18th-century 
  Icelandic manuscript. (PD)
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  point in the saga, Oddr says of himself and his men, “we believe in our own 
  power and strength, and we don’t believe in Odin.”)
  During his adventures Oddr met an unusual man who called himself 
  Raudgrani (“Red-Beard”). They swore blood brothership, and Oddr did 
  likewise with Raudgrani’s foster brothers Gardar and Sirnir. Oddr desired 
  revenge against Ogmund for slaying his blood-brother Thord. Raudgrani 
  repeatedly tried to dissuade him by describing Ogmund’s monstrous heritage 
  and magical powers, but Oddr remained determined to avenge Thord.
  After an inconclusive encounter with Ogmund, Oddr learned from 
  Raudgrani that Ogmund had married Geirrid daughter of Geirrod. Oddr 
  sailed to Geirrod’s stronghold and attacked. Gardar died in the fierce battle, 
  but Ogmund escaped by plunging into the earth after Sirnir and Oddr 
  badly wounded him. When they returned to their ship they discovered that 
  Raudgrani had vanished for good, and Oddr concluded he was none other 
  than Odin.
  Odin made another appearance as Raudgrani in Bardar saga Snæfellsass 
  (“The Saga of Bard the Snow-God”), written in the 1300s. Specifically 
  described in this story as one-eyed, he joined several other characters aboard 
  a ship, where he expounded upon pagan worship and sacrifice at great length. 
  This so angered a Christian priest that he hit Raudgrani in the head with a 
  crucifix. Raudgrani fell overboard and was never seen again, and the men on 
  the ship realized their companion must have been Odin.   
  OPPOSITE
  Fenris swallows Odin during 
  Ragnarok, the Doom of the 
  Gods.
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  Odin the God
  To the Norsemen Odin wasn’t a figure of myth and legend, he was their god, 
  with the power to reward or punish as he saw fit. Capable of bestowing great 
  favor on his worshippers, he could also capriciously withdraw his protection 
  from someone if it suited his purposes, regardless of that follower’s piety or the 
  richness of his sacrifices.
  Unfortunately information about the actual worship of Odin is relatively 
  slim. Furthermore, it’s difficult to say how and to what extent Norse religious 
  practices differed from region to region, and over the centuries. The worship of 
  Odin (and other Norse deities) seems to have been far less uniform than the term 
  “religion” tends to imply to the modern mind.
  Roman commentators, such as Tacitus in his Germania, typically equate 
  Odin (or Woden) with Mercury, and increasingly with Mars as time passes 
  (which may imply that Tyr/Tiwaz once enjoyed greater prominence, but Odin 
  gradually supplanted him as a battle god). The identification with Mercury seems 
  to derive from Odin’s role as a wandering god, a god of magic/learning, and a 
  god of the dead/psychopomp – all attributes associated with Mercury. Other 
  sources, including AEthelwerd’s Chronicle, refer to men in continental Germany 
  or England offering sacrifices to Woden in the hope of achieving victory in battle.
  While the worship of Thor or Tyr may have a lengthier pedigree, the 
  worship of Odin seems to have achieved a certain prominence over time, 
  perhaps in part because it appealed to the ruling/warrior classes. Based on place 
  names and other evidence, some scholars believe Odin worship was prevalent 
  in most of Scandinavia (particularly in Denmark and eastern Sweden) and the 
  continent. The Icelanders favored Thor, but worship of Odin wasn’t entirely 
  unknown there. In fact, according to some sources Odin is mentioned more 
  in early Icelandic literature than any other god.
  Temples to Odin
  Tacitus writes that the Germans of his time had no temples or idols; they 
  worshipped their gods in sacred groves. Many other sources also refer to the 
  use of sacred groves by the men of the North. However, Tacitus does mention 
  an actual temple for the fertility goddess Nerthus and another famous temple 
  the Romans destroyed.
  As building skills improved, the number of actual temples in Germanic 
  lands increased. For example, Bede describes the destruction of heathen 
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  temples in England, and mentions others that Christians converted into 
  churches. Early Norwegian laws and some literary passages refer to complete, 
  roofed buildings. Based on place names, some of these may have been 
  dedicated to Odin or other specific gods, while some served more general 
  purposes of worship.
  According to Adam of Bremen’s Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum 
  (Deeds of the Bishops of Hamburg), written in the 11th century, Uppsala in 
  Sweden was the site of one of the grandest and most important Norse temples. 
  “[E]ntirely decked out in gold” and encircled by a “golden chain,” the temple 
  contained wooden statues of three gods seated on a triple throne: Thor (“the 
  mightiest”) in the center; an armed and armor-wearing Odin (Woden) to 
  one side; and Frey (Fricco) to the other. Here priests appointed to each god 
  made sacrifices to them. Next to the temple was a sacred grove that featured 
  a well and one particularly large evergreen tree of unknown species. But 
  while Uppsala was undoubtedly of great importance as a sacred site, modern 
  scholars do not take Adam’s information entirely at face value. They think 
  his report has at least some factual basis, but are uncertain to what extent it’s 
  based on unreliable sources or outright fabrication.
  Other famous temples mentioned by Snorri Sturluson or in other sources 
  include ones at Hladir and Maerin in Thrandheim, and one at Gudbrandsdal 
  in central Norway. But the Uppsala temple was “the most glorious” and “the 
  last bastion of northern heathendom,” in the words of E.O.G. Turville-Petrie.
  The Landnamabok describes temples in Iceland. The law specified a certain 
  number of public temples per quarter, each supported with dues 
  paid by local landowners. (Private temples also existed.) 
  Every temple had an altar, on which it was required to 
  keep an arm-ring weighing no less than two ounces. 
  Legal and business oaths were sworn on the arm-ring, 
  and the godi (a priest who was also a local secular 
  lord) wore it on his arm at local assemblies.
  Sacrifices to Odin
  Mortals often sacrificed to Odin to seek his 
  favor. While animals (particularly horses, bulls, 
  and boars) were the most common sacrifices, in 
  the sagas the sacrifice was often a man. The most 
  valuable human sacrifice was a fighter captured in 
  war (particularly, according to the sixth century 
  chronicler Procopius, the very first captive from a 
  battle).
  The primary methods of sacrifice to Odin described 
  in Norse literature are hanging, burning, and piercing 
  or marking the body with a spear at the time of death. 
  A stone from Sweden 
  depicting Odin on Sleipnir. 
  (Photograph by Berig)
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  Sometimes a rite included two or more of these methods. Adam of Bremen 
  describes both men and animals hanging from the trees in the sacred grove at 
  Uppsala. The custom of hurling a spear over an enemy army and dedicating 
  their deaths to Odin, or even just slaying a specific enemy in battle – “giving 
  him” or “sending him” to Odin – may also have constituted a form of “human 
  sacrifice.” Men slain in battle were sometimes said to “become Odin’s guests” 
  or “enjoy Odin’s hospitality.”
  The Norse offered sacrifices at specific times or places according to 
  tradition. The most important of these were at the start of winter (for plenty), 
  at mid-winter (to increase the crops), and at the start of summer (for victory 
  in war). The summer victory sacrifice was probably the one most directly 
  connected with Odin (the other two were more associated with Frey and 
  Thor, respectively).
  According to Adam of Bremen, the priests at Uppsala sacrificed to Thor 
  to stop plague or famine, to Odin in the event of war, and to Frey when 
  a marriage took place. Furthermore, great sacrifices took place there every 
  nine years at around the time of the vernal equinox. For nine days the priests 
  sacrificed one man and two animals (such as dogs, horses, hawks, or roosters) 
  A mid-19th-century 
  depiction of Odin enthroned 
  with his ravens and his 
  wolves. (PD)
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  each day, then hung their bodies in the nearby sacred grove. Other chronicles 
  describe similar every-nine-years sacrifices at Leire in January.
  But not all sacrifices were necessarily planned or scheduled. Some of the 
  ones portrayed in Norse literature were more spontaneous. For example, the 
  Ynglinga Saga describes how the inhabitants of Vermaland blamed a famine 
  on their king, Olaf, because he rarely sacrificed to Odin. So they surrounded 
  his house and set it afire with him in it, declaring the king a sacrifice to the 
  All-Father for a good harvest.
  Archeological discoveries have revealed another form of sacrifice. The 
  ancient Scandinavians would cast valuable objects into bogs, which at least 
  in some instances they seem to have done to honor Odin (and possibly other 
  deities) as the god of battle. They carefully placed weapons, armor, shields, 
  and other goods in bogs, typically after breaking them or otherwise rendering 
  them useless.
  Drinking to Odin
  Many sources refer to the tradition of dedicating a cup of the best drink to 
  Odin at feasts, festivals, and rites. If this were not done, bad luck would result 
  and crops might fail. For example, in Hakonar saga Goda (“The Saga of Hakon 
  the Good”) in the Heimskringla, the “ardent heathen worshipper” Earl Sigurd 
  held a great sacrifice of animals followed by a feast. At the feast men carried a 
  “sacrificial beaker” (or goblet) around the fire. After that, “Odin’s toast was to 
  be drunk first – that was for victory and power to the king – then Njord’s and 
  Frey’s, for good harvests and for peace.”
  Later, when King Hakon tried to convert the people to Christianity the 
  farmers became upset. Earl Sigurd negotiated an agreement between king and 
  people, and invited Hakon to his beginning of winter sacrificial feast. At the 
  feast Sigurd toasted to Odin, but Hakon made the sign of the cross over 
  the horn before drinking from it himself. To keep the peace Sigurd told the 
  farmers this was the “sign of the hammer” and that Hakon had dedicated the 
  drink to Thor.
  Modern Worship of Odin
  While the worship of Odin and other Norse gods is thought to have faded 
  away in the centuries following the introduction of Christianity into northern 
  Europe, some efforts have been made since the early 1800s to revive his 
  faith. Known in general terms as Germanic Neopaganism or Asatru, and 
  when more specifically directed at Odin as Odinism, this religion enjoys 
  official recognition in several European nations. It has taken various forms in 
  different times and places, including the Odinic Rite, the Odinist Fellowship, 
  the Odin Brotherhood, and others. These organizations sometimes work 
  more or less together, but at other times argue over terminology, practice, 
  and authenticity.
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  72
  Odin in Modern 
  Culture
  Although not as popular or well-known in the modern day as his hammer-
  wielding son Thor, Odin nevertheless has survived into present times in 
  various aspects of popular culture.
  The Marvel Comics Odin
  When Stan Lee and Jack Kirby transformed the god Thor into a comic book 
  superhero in Journey Into Mystery #83 (August, 1962), it was inevitable that 
  other elements of Norse mythology would also make their way into what 
  would eventually be known as the Marvel Universe. One of the earliest was 
  Odin. Some aspects of his personality and background track eddic myth 
  closely; comic book writers remove or 
  change others, and add many new ones, to 
  suit the demands of the Thor storyline. For 
  example, in the comics Odin stops Ragnarok 
  from occurring.
  As portrayed in the comics, Odin is one 
  of the most powerful entities in the Marvel 
  Universe. In various stories he stops time, 
  transports all of humanity to another plane 
  of existence, battles cosmically powerful 
  beings such as the planet-eating entity 
  Galactus, and blasts enemies on Earth with 
  lightning while in Asgard. His power derives 
  from the Odin Force, which has sometimes 
  been taken from him by his enemies, or has 
  passed into other beings, including Thor. He 
  must periodically recharge it by entering the 
  Odinsleep, a state in which he’s as vulnerable 
  as a mortal. In some eras of the Thor 
  storyline Odin possesses the Odinsword, a 
  gargantuan blade. Drawing the Odinsword 
  from its scabbard signifies that the end of the 
  universe approaches.
  Sir Anthony Hopkins as Odin 
  from the 2011 Marvel film 
  Thor. (AF Archive / Alamy)
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  73
  Disturbed by Thor’s fascination with Midgard and her people, Odin has 
  on several occasions stripped Thor of some or all of his powers (and sometimes 
  full knowledge of his identity) and exiled him to Earth to learn humility. 
  Fortunately Thor’s heroism, honor, and nobility always help him win his way 
  back into Odin’s good graces. Odin frequently mediates disputes between his 
  true son, Thor, and his foster son, Loki, who is Thor’s greatest nemesis.
  In the 2011 film Thor and its 2013 sequel Thor: The Dark World, Sir 
  Anthony Hopkins plays the part of Odin. Much as in the comics he’s a 
  secondary character compared to his thunder god son, but his banishment of 
  Thor to Earth is crucial to the development of Thor’s character.
  Odin in Fantasy Literature
  Unsurprisingly, Norse mythology in general, and Odin in particular, have 
  inspired many modern fantasy authors. For example, Jim Butcher’s long-
  running Dresden Files series of novels features Odin as the one-eyed Donar 
  Vadderung, a business executive who’s powerful enough to easily defeat the 
  protagonist, wizard Harry Dresden. He has assistants named Hugin and 
  Munin. The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul, the second of the “Dirk Gently” 
  novels by Douglas Adams, posits that gods no longer worshipped by humans 
  J.R.R. Tolkien based much of 
  the look of his famous wizard 
  Gandalf on the old stories of 
  Odin when he travelled on 
  earth. (Photos 12 / Alamy)
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  74
  become impoverished, possibly even insane. Odin is a man living in an asylum 
  who trades away his divine power for clean bed linens.
  The Works of J.R.R. Tolkien
  Scholars have known for years that J.R.R. Tolkien drew on various northern 
  European mythologies and tales as inspiration for his fantasy epics. For 
  example, the One Ring that Bilbo finds in The Hobbit and whose destruction 
  motivates the characters in The Lord of the Rings was inspired in part by the 
  story of Andvari’s magic ring in the Volsungasaga. 
  The image of Odin influenced Tolkien when he created Gandalf the Grey, 
  the wizard who leads the characters in both the books mentioned above. In a 
  letter dated December 7, 1946 (nine years after publication of The Hobbit but 
  eight years before publication of The Lord of the Rings) he mentions having 
  received some character illustrations that he didn’t care for. Specifically he 
  says, “Gandalf [is shown as] a figure of vulgar fun rather than the Odinic 
  wanderer that I think of...” (emphasis added). In the grey-garbed, bearded, 
  hat-wearing, staff-carrying Gandalf it’s not hard to see Vegtam the Wanderer 
  come to life once more.
  Neil Gaiman’s American Gods  
  Neil Gaiman’s award-winning novel American Gods features several ancient 
  deities in the modern world. The most prominent of these is Odin, referred to 
  as “Mr. Wednesday.” His powers (and those of other gods, spirits, and legendary 
  beings) have diminished as worship of them faded. New gods inspired by 
  American obsession with mass media, movie stars, high technology, and the 
  like have arisen. Mister Wednesday urges the other Old Gods to join him and 
  fight the New Gods, but has little success at first. Only after the New Gods 
  murder Mr. Wednesday do the other Old Gods realize the true extent of the 
  threat and unite to battle their enemies. Unfortunately it turns out that Loki 
  is manipulating events behind the scenes so he can gain power from the chaos 
  of the conflict, while the battle will serve as a sacrifice to restore Odin’s power. 
  It’s up to Odin’s son, Shadow, to defuse the situation and save the world.
  Wagner’s “Ring Cycle” Operas
  Generations of opera lovers have gotten to know Odin as Wotan, one of the 
  main characters in Der Ring des Nibelungen (“The Ring of the Nibelungs”), a 
  cycle of four operas composed by Richard Wagner in the mid-19th century. 
  Wagner derived the elements of his story from various Norse sagas, particularly 
  the Volsungasaga and its Germanic parallel, the Nibelunglied. 
  Taking place over the course of approximately 15 hours, the Ring Cycle 
  operas tell the story of a magic ring forged by the dwarf Alberich with gold 
  he stole from the Rhine Maidens. Wotan, with the help of Loge (Loki), steals 
  the ring, but Alberich places a death-curse on it. Wotan has to give the ring 
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  75
  to the giants Fafnir and Fasolt to pay them 
  for building Valhalla, but then desperately 
  tries to regain the ring in various ways. 
  His grandson Siegfried eventually obtains 
  it by slaying Fafnir (who himself killed 
  Fasolt to have sole possession of it), but 
  dies as a result of the schemes of Alberich’s 
  son Hagen. His lover, the fallen valkyrie 
  Brunnhilde (Wotan’s daughter, whom he 
  stripped of her immortality for trying to 
  save Siegfried’s father Sigmund) returns it 
  to the Rhine Maidens and then rides into 
  Siegfried’s fire. Hagen tries to get the ring 
  but the Rhine Maidens drown him. The 
  epic concludes with fire consuming Valhalla 
  and the gods.
  Odin in Games
  Given the popularity of Norse mythology 
  in general, it’s not surprising that it – and 
  Odin – are featured in many modern games.
  Odin appears in several tabletop 
  roleplaying games (“RPGs”). Many RPG 
  supplements, such as GURPS Vikings 
  (Graeme Davis; Steve Jackson Games, 
  2002), look at Norse culture in general 
  for gaming purposes. As part of that they 
  describe Odin and the rest of the Aesir in 
  sufficient detail for gamers to represent 
  them accurately in game sessions. The role of Odin becomes even more 
  important in RPGs specifically focused on playing in the style and setting of 
  Norse mythology, such as Fate of the Norns: Ragnarok (Andrew Valkauskas; 
  Pendelhaven, Inc., 2013).
  The most detailed treatment of Odin in RPGs to date is for Dungeons 
  & Dragons. It includes in its library of game materials the book Deities & 
  Demigods, which describes numerous gods and heroes from world mythology 
  for use in D&D. The 1st Edition rules’ version of the “DDG” (1980) ranks 
  Odin as a 30th level cleric, 14th level druid, 18th level ranger, 30th level 
  magic-user (wizard), and 15th level bard with 400 hit points; Gungnir is 
  a +5 spear that inspires fear in all nearby enemies. By the time of the 3rd 
  Edition of the game and its more detailed rules for divine figures (2002), the 
  rules describe Odin as a divine rank 19 (out of 20) god with 980 hit points 
  who qualifies as a 20th level fighter and 20th level wizard with numerous 
  Singer Wilhelm Rode as 
  Wotan in Die Walkure, the 
  second part of Wagner’s 
  famous opera. (INTERFOTO 
  / Alamy)
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  76
  special powers, abilities, and immunities. In either case he’s not someone to 
  be trifled with.
  Appearances by Odin in board and card games are less common, but not 
  unknown. For example, in the cooperative board game Yggdrasil (Ludonaute, 
  2011), the players take on the roles of Odin, Thor, Freya, and other Norse 
  gods as they work together to stop the encroachment of Loki, Fenris, and 
  other monsters. Odin’s insight and wisdom grant him the power to draw two 
  Enemy cards instead of one, choose one of them, and put the one he likes 
  less on the bottom of the deck. Similarly, the collectible card game Yu-Gi-Oh! 
  features a “Storm of Ragnarok” expansion set with an “Odin, Father of the 
  Aesir” card that has significant powers.
  Numerous video and computer games incorporate elements of Norse 
  culture. For example, a game might feature settings that visually draw on the 
  Vikings for inspiration, or allow players to play character archetypes such as a 
  Berserker, Valkyrie, or Skald. But only a few games feature Odin or other gods 
  in any meaningful way. In the real time strategy game Age Of Mythology, Odin 
  is one of the “major gods” who can grant a player special technologies, units, 
  and powers. In the action roleplaying game Too Human, the gods are actually 
  a technologically advanced society of cybernetically enhanced beings. ODIN 
  (Organically Distributed Intelligence Network) is the artificial intelligence 
  who created them and infused them with runic power; Hugin and Munin use 
  their bionic eyes to observe things for it.
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  77
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  © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
  
  78
   
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  80
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  © Osprey Publishing • www.ospreypublishing.com
  
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