TEXT: AFRICA
  Eyewitness
  
  Africa
  Eyewitness
  
  Masquerade 
  costume, 
  Chokwe, Angola
  Ancestor 
  figure, 
  Yoruba, 
  Nigeria
  Throwing knives, 
  Congo (left) and 
  Gabon (right)
  Carved 
  elephant 
  tusk, Zulu, 
  South Africa
  War shield, 
  Maasai, 
  Kenya
  Bronze bells, 
  Benin city, 
  Nigeria
  
  Africa
  Written by
  YVONNE AYO
  War spear, 
  Lango, Uganda
  Harvest 
  mask, Ogoni, 
  Nigeria
  Carved 
  housepost, 
  Yoruba, Nigeria
  Thrusting 
  spear, Zulu, 
  South Africa
  Carved gourds, 
  South Africa
  Photographed by
  RAY MOLLER & GEOFF DANN
  Eyewitness
  DK Publishing, Inc.
  
  Project editor Miranda Smith
  Art editor Vicky Wharton
  Managing editor Gillian Denton
  Managing art editor Julia Harris
  Researcher Céline Carez
  Production Catherine Semark
  Picture research Deborah Pownell
  Editorial consultants Dr John Mack and John Picton
  Additional special photography David Garner
  This Eyewitness ® Book has been conceived by
  Dorling Kindersley Limited and Editions Gallimard
  © 1995 Dorling Kindersley Limited
  This edition © 2000 Dorling Kindersley Limited
  First American edition, 1995
  Published in the United States by
  Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc.
  375 Hudson Street,
  New York, NY 10014
  10 9
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  Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
   
  Ayo, Yvonne.
   
  Africa / written by Yvonne Ayo;
   
  photography by Geoff Dann, David Garner, and Ray Moller.
   
  p. cm. — (Eyewitness Books)
   
  1. Africa — History — Juvenile Literature.
   
  2. Africa — Social life and customs — Juvenile literature.
   
  [1. Africa — History. 2. Africa — Social life and customs.] I. Title.
   
  DT22.A96 2000 
  95-2638
   
  960—dc20
   
  ISBN 978-0-7894-6610-5 (ALB)
   
  ISBN 978-0-7894-6030-1 (PLC)
  Color reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore 
  Printed in China by Toppan Printing Co. (Shenzhen) Ltd.
  Dance staff, 
  Nigeria
  Gold weights, 
  Asante, Ghana
  Flywhisk, 
  Nigeria
  Ceremonial 
  dagger, Asante, 
  Ghana
  Secret society 
  figures, Yassi, 
  Sierra Leone
  Ceremonial 
  sword, Asante, 
  Ghana
  Discover more at
  Beaded belt, Zulu, South Africa
  London, new York, 
  MeLbourne, Munich, and deLhi
  
  Contents
  6
  A land of contrasts
  8
  A place to live
  10
  Great civilizations
  12
  Building a house
  14
  Home life
  16
  Life in the compound
  18
  Finding food
  20
  Pattern and color
  22
  Sports and entertainment
  24
  Female dress
  26
  Male attire
  28
  Self-adornment
  30
  Rulers and leaders
  32
  Religion and beliefs
  36
  Myth and magic
  38
  Medicine and healing
  40
  A way of death
  42
  Nations at war
  44
  Into battle
  46
  Weapons and armor
  48
  Barter and exchange
  50
  A slave’s journey
  52
  Crafts and skills
  54
  The lost-wax process
  56
  Gold of the Asante
  58
  Masks and masquerade
  60
  Musical instruments
  62
  Masquerade performed
  64
  Index
  Gold trophy head, 
  Asante, Ghana
  
  
  A land of contrasts
  Africa is a vast continent, 5,000 miles (8,000 km) north 
  to south, and over 4,600 miles (7,600 km) across at its widest 
  point. It is a land of deserts, savanna, high mountain 
  ranges, and dense, equatorial forests. Its peoples have been 
  in contact with traders and slavers from Europe, India, and 
  the Far East, as well as with the world religions 
  of Islam and Christianity. More than 1,000 
  languages are spoken, and there are 
  many different social systems. Yet, for 
  thousands of years, the way of life of 
  many Africans has changed 
  very little. Traditionally, 
  African peoples have made 
  their living by herding, 
  hunting, or farming. African 
  religions, art, and culture 
  reflect these lifestyles, and 
  outside influences are 
  adapted and incorporated.
  EARLY JOURNEYS
  Europeans first heard of 
  Africa’s natural resources 
  from Arab geographers. In the 14th century, the 
  arrival of the king of Mali in Cairo carrying gold 
  made the Europeans even more curious. Looking 
  for a sea route to India, Portuguese explorers first 
  sailed around the southern tip of the continent in 
  1497 and arrived on the east African coast.
  LIFE ON THE EDGE OF A DESERT
  There are two great deserts on the African continent, the 
  Sahara in the north (above) and the Kalahari in the 
  south. In prehistoric times much of these desert areas 
  was fertile, but gradually they have become 
  dry, sandy regions. The lack of regular 
  rainfall makes the life of shepherds 
  and herdspeople of the desert 
  very precarious.
  HOW THE MAP LOOKS TODAY
  Over the centuries, the political and 
  geographical boundaries have 
  continually been altered. Wars of 
  conquest and colonization have 
  remade the map of Africa over and 
  over again. Even today, civil wars in 
  some African countries may change it 
  once again. Names of countries have 
  changed as well. In the 1970s, the new 
  president of the former French colony 
  of Dahomey renamed it the People’s 
  Republic of Benin. But the city of Benin 
  which flourished in the 1600s and is 
  famous for its bronzes (pp. 54–55), is 
  now part of modern Nigeria
  THE PROS AND CONS OF TOURISM
  The savannas of east Africa are still home to many of 
  the world’s most spectacular species of animals. This 
  is largely due to the development of game parks, 
  established nearly 100 years ago to protect the 
  animals from big game hunting. Unfortunately, the 
  Maasai, whose cattle have wandered across the 
  Maasai Mara plains of Kenya (left) for centuries, can 
  no longer follow this lifestyle or hunt wild game.
  Equatorial Guinea
  Benin
  Togo
  Liberia
  Swaziland
  Lesotho
  Chad
  Sudan
  Ethiopia
  Kenya
  Somalia
  Egypt
  Libya
  Nigeria
  Cameroon
  Central African 
  Republic
  Mozambique
  Madagascar
  Zimbabwe
  Zambia
  Algeria
  Niger
  Mali
  Burkina 
  Faso
  Mauritania
  Morocco
  Tunisia
  Uganda
  Tanzania
  Angola
  Namibia
  Botswana
  South 
  Africa
  Malawi
  Senegal
  Gambia
  Guinea Bissau
  Guinea
  Sierra Leone
  Ghana
  Ivory 
  Coast
  Gabon
  Congo
  Cabinda
  Zaire
  Burundi
  Rwanda
  Map drawn by 
  Ortelius in 1570, 
  from information 
  brought back by 
  early explorers
  Western 
  Sahara
  Eritrea
  Djibouti
  
  
  TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS
  There were once tropical rain 
  forests across much of central 
  Africa. Because of poor farming 
  methods and the cutting down 
  of trees for export, the hot, 
  humid rain forests are now 
  found only on the west coast and 
  as far inland as eastern Zaire.
  COLONIZATION
  When Europeans first arrived 
  on the west coast of Africa in 
  the late 1500s, they were 
  interested in trading for gold 
  and slaves. By the end of the 
  1800s, European nations 
  were not only exploiting the 
  peoples of Africa but also 
  competing with each other 
  for gold, diamonds, copper, 
  and land. They drew 
  boundaries on maps with no 
  regard for the local peoples, 
  such as the Tuareg of the 
  Sahara, the San of the 
  Kalahari Desert, and the 
  cattle herders of eastern 
  Africa. The boundaries 
  completely changed the 
  traditional ways of life of 
  these people, who depend 
  on their ability to travel with 
  herds in search of water.
  LIFE IN THE CITIES
  As empires grew, so did major cities as 
  centers for trade. In the 1500s, Timbuktu, in 
  the savanna region of northern Africa, was a 
  center of learning, and Gao, capital of the 
  Songhay empire, was home to 75,000 people. 
  Some cities were modernized during colonial 
  rule. For example, Cairo, founded in a.d. 641, 
  expanded rapidly in the 1830s under French 
  rule. As traditional ways of life have changed, 
  many people have migrated to 
  cities, such as Harare in 
  Zimbabwe (left), to find 
  work, but they often 
  retain strong links 
  with their 
  rural “homes.”
  MINERAL RESOURCES
  Africa is rich in mineral resources. Some of them – 
  for example, the copper belt of Zaire, the diamond 
  mines of Tanzania, and the gold deposits of South 
  Africa – are exploited on a large scale. Most mineral 
  extraction requires a large labor force and 
  sophisticated machinery and technology.
  THE UPLANDS OF AFRICA
  Some of the mountains of Africa are so high that the 
  tallest peaks, such as Mount Kilimanjaro on the 
  border of Kenya and Tanzania, are always covered in 
  snow. A layer of cloud causes mists, and water drips 
  onto the dense forests below. Crops are often grown 
  on the fertile high ground—for example, coffee on 
  the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro and tea in Uganda, 
  Malawi, and Kenya.
  Mining for gold, 
  Burkina Faso
  African carvings 
  of German 
  colonial officials 
  of the early 20th 
  century, Tanzania
  Figures are 
  carved in wood 
  and painted
  This figure is larger, 
  possibly to indicate 
  importance
  
  8
  W   around Africa, you see 
  an enormous variety of buildings made from a 
  wide range of materials. The type of dwellings 
  depend not only on what is available locally 
  but also on the lifestyle of the occupants. For 
  example, the San of the Kalahari desert live 
  by traveling through their territory, hunting 
  game and collecting fruits. They carry 
  few possessions and are without 
  means of transportation, so they set 
  up temporary shelters of sticks or 
  branches covered with grass or 
  leaves. Most other groups, such as 
  the millet farmers of Chad in West 
  Africa or the Nupe of Nigeria, need 
  to have permanent dwellings close 
  to their fields. They build their 
  houses, often circular in shape, with a 
  framework of wood, mud walls, and 
  a grass thatched roof. These houses 
  are erected near each other in a 
  compound that has a surrounding 
  wall for defense (see pages 16–17).
  A place to live
  A PLACE OF WORSHIP
  In the savanna regions of Africa, where the Islamic religion holds sway, 
  enormous mosques are built. They are made from mud bricks that have 
  been left in the sun to dry before being built into walls with mud 
  plaster. Mud is an excellent material in hot, dry climates, and 
  can withstand heavy rainfall if dried out by 
  the sun soon afterward.
  ON THE MOVE
  In drier parts of Africa, such as Somalia, where there are no 
  permanent rivers and little rainfall, the only reliable 
  means of staying alive is to keep herds of animals. 
  Because people have to be constantly on the 
  move in search of water and grazing land, 
  they live a nomadic life and need only 
  temporary shelter. Each married woman has 
  her own house, a collapsible structure of 
  mats over a framework of branches, which 
  she takes apart and packs onto a camel 
  when it is time to move on.
  HOUSE DECORATION
  In parts of southern Africa, women 
  decorate the outside walls of their 
  houses with vivid and bold designs. 
  At first sight, the Ndebele paintings 
  appear to be a series of geometric 
  shapes, but they are, in fact, a 
  representation of architecture. The 
  vertical and horizontal lines 
  represent house supports and 
  beams. The women make the 
  designs with their fingers, hands, or 
  brushes and fabric cloths.
  These pieces of wood 
  help support the 
  structure and serve 
  as scaffolding 
  during repairs
  Walls are built from 
  sun-baked mud
  A Somali nomadic 
  family outside their 
  collapsible house
  
  LIFE ON THE CLIFFS
  The Dogon peoples of Mali build their villages in high sandstone cliffs 
  for defense. The villages are divided into districts, each surrounded by a 
  stone wall. The only way into a village is through a narrow doorway, and 
  the only building outside the wall is the men’s house.
  LIVING ON WATER
  Building houses on stilts to raise 
  the floor above ground level has 
  many advantages. Houses can 
  be built on mountainous slopes 
  or over water. Air circulates 
  easily and the stilts are a 
  protection from dangerous 
  mammals and snakes. The 
  space beneath houses built 
  on land is often used for storage 
  or to keep domestic cattle. 
  Whole fishing villages, such as 
  this one (right) in Benin, are 
  built on water, and the only 
  access is by dugout canoe.
  ANCIENT AND MODERN
  The structure of many towns in 
  Morocco reflects the Muslim 
  or European communities that 
  live there. The traditional 
  Muslim town, or medina (left), 
  has an entrance gate. Inside, 
  there are covered markets, 
  ancient mosques, and houses 
  built around hidden 
  courtyards. Later, when the 
  Europeans arrived, they built 
  new towns with wide, 
  tree-lined streets.
  Wall surrounding 
  a district
  Weathering means 
  that mud walls have 
  to be frequently 
  replastered
  
  10
  Great civilizations
  From the earliest times, the African 
  peoples south of the Sahara Desert lived 
  in scattered family groups and used 
  tools of wood, bone, or stone to fish, 
  hunt wild game, and gather fruit. 
  During the first millenium b.c., there 
  were two great advances in technology 
  that carried these people out of the 
  Stone Age. The first was the organized 
  cultivation of food and the raising of 
  herds, which encouraged people to 
  settle in one place, farm lands, and 
  develop their arts and crafts. The second 
  advance was the production of metal 
  tools and weapons. By a.d. 400, many 
  communities had realized that they had 
  control over metals such as gold and 
  iron ore, and that this gave them power.
  THE KUSH CIVILIZATION
  The Nubian peoples of Kush lived in 
  what is now known as the Sudan. They 
  rose to power in 800 b.c., establishing an 
  independent kingdom that dominated 
  Egypt and controlled the southern trade 
  routes. They were strong in war, and 
  developed one of the world’s earliest 
  alphabetical scripts. The rock-cut temples 
  of Rameses II (1304–1237 b.c.) at Abu 
  Simbel (above) are typical of the 
  widespread monument building of his 
  reign. After 1,000 years, the Kushite 
  civilization declined and finally, in 
  about a.d. 550, was conquered by the 
  neighboring kingdom of Aksum, in 
  today’s Ethiopia.
  THE ASANTE EMPIRE AND ITS GOLD
  The Asante peoples of West Africa became 
  the major Gold Coast power of the 18th 
  century, because of their ability to mine, work, 
  and trade in metals. The realization that they 
  could trade profitably with other nations led 
  them to expand their empire along the west 
  coast of Africa, and they became major 
  exporters of slaves to America (pp. 50–51).
  Large wooden 
  seeds, covered in 
  gold, are symbols 
  of fertility or wealth 
  ANCIENT EGYPT
  From 3000 b.c., the fertile Nile valley was the home of one of the 
  greatest of all civilizations – Egypt, united under the pharaohs. The 
  land was easily irrigated and the Egyptians were able to produce all the 
  food they needed. The Nile River provided an excellent transportation 
  system and trade route for the export of gold and copper from the 
  eastern desert. And it was from Asia, via the Nile River, that Egypt was 
  exposed to concepts such as brick-making and writing.
  STONE AGE ART
  Life in Africa depends on an 
  understanding of animals, 
  plants, and the seasons. The 
  earliest peoples recognized 
  their importance and 
  reflected this in superb rock 
  paintings. Not only did they 
  represent themselves but also 
  the animals that they herded 
  or hunted. Most of the early 
  cave paintings show wild 
  animals – elephants, giraffes, 
  rhinoceroses, and ostriches.
  Statue of the sky 
  god, Horus
  The tomb owner’s 
  wife offers prayers 
  and thanks
  Ceremonial sword 
  from treasure of 
  King Kofi-Karikari 
  (1867–75), 
  Asante, Ghana
  Unsharpened 
  iron blade, 
  never intended 
  for war
  
  11
  The bird may 
  be a hawk, 
  vulture, or 
  fish-eagle
  Bird is 14 in (0.35 m) 
  tall, and tops 
  a column
  MEMORIALS IN STONE
  Soft soapstone rock, found 
  locally, was used to make 
  many objects for the 
  settlement of Great 
  Zimbabwe, including dishes 
  with animal decorations. This 
  soapstone bird is one of only 
  eight that have been found, 
  although there are many 
  plain columns of soapstone, 
  usually positioned on top of 
  outer walls or set in groups 
  on the ground. It is possible 
  that they may have been set 
  there to act as reminders of 
  people who died. Like the 
  conical tower, the possible 
  religious significance of the 
  birds is shrouded in mystery.
  THE PEOPLE OF IFE, NIGERIA
  In Yoruba legend, the city of Ife was 
  the place where the gods came down 
  to populate the earth. The children of 
  the first god, Odudua, are said to have 
  spread out from Ife, founding their 
  own forest kingdoms in west Africa. 
  The people of Ife certainly influenced 
  much of the art and culture of the 
  neighboring states – a metal-worker is 
  said to have taught the lost-wax 
  process (pp. 54–55) to the people of 
  Benin. Between a.d. 1050 and 1500, 
  the people of Ife produced superb 
  terra cotta and bronze statues of 
  humans and animals. Heads such as 
  this one were used in state funerals.
  GREAT ZIMBABWE
  Great Zimbabwe was one of the largest, 
  wealthiest, and most sophisticated of the 
  ancient sub-Saharan cultures. There is 
  evidence that there were people living on 
  the site in prehistoric times. By a.d. 1200, 
  Zimbabwean gold and copper were being 
  mined and exported to Syria and Jordan, 
  as well as to other parts of Asia, in 
  exchange for imported goods, including 
  glass, beads, and Chinese porcelain. The 
  rulers of Zimbabwe developed trading 
  contacts by way of the east 
  coast port of Kilwa, and by 
  1300, a powerful state had 
  come into being, with 
  Great Zimbabwe as its 
  commercial center. The 
  settlement reached the 
  height of its power in 
  the early 1400s.
  Outer wall 
  was 16 ft (5 m) 
  thick at base 
  and 30 ft 
  (9.7 m) high
  A unique and 
  mysterious conical 
  tower of solid 
  stone
  Bronze head, 
  possibly of an 
  Ife Oni, 
  although it 
  may represent 
  the sea 
  god Olokun
  The Great Enclosure, 
  Great Zimbabwe, 
  Zimbabwe
  Hunter (above) and 
  giraffe (left), from 
  prehistoric cave 
  paintings, Matopo 
  Hills, Zimbabwe
  Sculptures of the Ife 
  Oni (kings) were 
  always idealized 
  portraits
  Parallel lines 
  over whole face 
  are typical of 
  Ife heads
  
  12
  Building a house
  People build houses for protection from cold, wind, rain, or 
  sun, and use a variety of materials, usually from the local 
  environment. In Africa, there are many people who, having 
  migrated to the cities to find work, live in apartments and 
  townhouses. But there are also many living in rural areas who 
  build traditional houses like this one in Botswana. In 
  that country there are large villages, with the main 
  kgotla, or meetinghouse, in the center in the shade 
  of a tree. Most villages have a standpipe for 
  water, a post office, and shops. Building a 
  house like this one is usually done by 
  men and women during the winter 
  months, when the plowing and the 
  harvesting are over. Near the house are 
  smaller shelters for cooking, for brewing 
  beer, and for keeping domestic animals.
  STRENGTHENING THE ROOF
  The task of collecting the timber and building the 
  roof is undertaken by the men of the village. The 
  first rafters are fixed to the supporting posts outside 
  the wall of the house, and fixed to each other at a 
  central point. Thinner poles or beams are now 
  added and lashed to the first rafters. Sometimes 
  extra support is given by a central vertical pole in 
  the middle of the house.
  Rafters are tied 
  in position with 
  wire or tree-
  bark string
  INTERIOR OF A TUAREG TENT
  The lifestyle of the nomadic Tuareg means that they must 
  live in structures that can be taken down and set up 
  easily. The roofs of their tents are made from, on average, 
  30 or 40 sheep– and goatskins that are tanned and sewn 
  together. The skins are supported on wooden tent poles, 
  and the side walls are made from grass matting.
  Thatch hangs 
  over house 
  posts
  BUILDING THE FRAMEWORK
  Having marked out the area the house is to occupy, the 
  first stage is for the women to build a circular mud-brick 
  wall. Two types of brick can be used. Wet bricks are 
  shaped by hand, set in place, and covered with 
  plaster. Dried bricks are made in wooden 
  molds, dried in the Sun, and fixed 
  in place with mortar before 
  they too are covered 
  in plaster.
  Thatch is trimmed 
  at edges with a 
  sharp knife when 
  roof is complete
  Roof truss to 
  strengthen roof
  Posts support 
  roof structure
  Veranda wall built 
  up to protect the 
  house from rains
  Walls are plastered 
  both inside and 
  outside in two or 
  three layers
  Rafters
  
  13
  Cross-section of 
  wall showing 
  mud bricks
  TYING ON THE THATCH
  To thatch a roof, grass or reeds are collected 
  and tied in bundles. The bundles are 
  spread in layers on top of the 16 
  rafters that form the roof, and fixed 
  in position with tree-bark string 
  or wire. Wooden pegs are placed 
  at the bottom of each rafter to 
  keep the grass bundles 
  from sliding off.
  DIFFERENT MATERIALS
  Many houses are built with materials that are 
  found locally. These Dinka women in the 
  Sudan are building a house with 
  reeds. The Dinka spend part of 
  the year in permanent 
  villages, and the rest of it 
  in temporary camps.
  Hunter carrying 
  curved knife
  TAKING A LOOK INSIDE
  The floor of the interior is built up after the roof of the 
  house has been completed. A layer of plaster is put on 
  and smoothed with a piece of slate. A 
  mixture of cow dung and water is then 
  made, and a layer put on in which 
  patterns are drawn. In some 
  houses, polished cement 
  plaster covers the floor.
  THE FINISHED HOUSE
  Women often plaster 
  the walls of houses in 
  Botswana with different-
  colored clays to give a 
  two-tone effect, darker 
  at the bottom and lighter 
  at the top. The surface of 
  the walls is worn away 
  gradually by rain, and the 
  houses need replastering 
  once or twice a year.
  VERANDA POST
  Among the Yoruba 
  peoples of Nigeria, 
  the veranda post may 
  not only be a structural 
  support. It can also be an 
  elaborate, decorative 
  carving. This example 
  shows a hunter. Such 
  carvings are found in 
  palaces, shrines, and 
  the houses of chiefs.
  Floors are 
  often decorated 
  with intricate 
  patterns
  Reed structure 
  used when Dinkas 
  travel in search of water
  
  14
  Home life
  The preparation and cooking of food, 
  and crafts such as pottery and weaving, are 
  outdoor activities in much of rural Africa. 
  Tents and houses are used for shelter from 
  the rain, to keep warm during cold 
  weather, and for sleeping. The staple 
  diet consists mainly of grains, usually 
  sorghum (a type of wheat), corn, or 
  cassava, with vegetables, such as 
  beans or peas. They are pounded 
  into a soft, sticky pudding to 
  which boiled water or, 
  sometimes, milk is added. A 
  tasty meat or fish stew is cooked 
  separately and eaten with the 
  cooked cereal.
  STIRRING IT UP
  Wooden food stirrers are 
  often used when cooking 
  grains or stews. These 
  Somali stirrers are typical 
  of the inventive uses to 
  which wood is put. They 
  are rolled between the 
  hands so that the end 
  rotates quickly, much like 
  an electric mixer.
  EATING A MEAL
  Eating and drinking is a 
  communal activity. Whole 
  families eat together, usually 
  outside. These Tuareg men are 
  heating water to make tea. The 
  Tuareg live in large nomadic 
  groups in the Sahara desert in 
  the south of Algeria. They are 
  Muslims, and the men cover 
  their faces with a veil. They 
  keep goats and sheep as well 
  as camels, and camel milk is 
  their main food.
  OSTRICH EGGSHELL CARRIER
  Empty ostrich eggshells, if pierced at one 
  end, make excellent milk or water 
  carriers. The San of the Kalahari Desert 
  use these shells exclusively as water 
  containers, which they store 
  within their territory and 
  use during a drought.
  TRAVELING COFFEE MACHINE
  The Bene-Amer peoples live in Sudan near the border 
  with Eritrea. They are nomadic and travel over a wide 
  area in search of water and pasture for their camels, 
  sheep, and goats. Coffee is an important part of their 
  diet, and they carry coffee-making equipment with 
  them. In other parts of Africa, tea is a favorite beverage, 
  and beer and palm wine are often made by women and 
  sold in markets and beer halls.
  SERVING FOOD
  Wooden vessels are used 
  throughout the African 
  continent. They range from a 
  simple, plain style to highly 
  decorated containers that 
  can be used in a king’s palace 
  or for ritual purposes. Bowls 
  like this one from Lesotho are 
  traditionally carved from a single 
  block of wood. Wooden containers 
  and calabashes are important among 
  herding communities, because they 
  believe using anything else will cause 
  their cattle to become ill.
  Stone pestle and 
  wooden mortar 
  for pounding 
  coffee beans
  Skin-covered 
  raffia container 
  for carrying 
  coffeepot
  Earthenware 
  coffeepot
  Beaded 
  pot rest
  Hanging 
  milk pot, 
  Somalia
  Stopper
  
  15
  FOOD IN THE WILD
  Among the hunter-gatherers such as the San 
  of southern Africa, the men are mainly 
  responsible for hunting, and the women 
  for collecting berries. If, during their 
  search, the women find a tree full of 
  berries, and there is a watering hole 
  nearby, the group will stay in the area 
  for some time. They build temporary 
  shelters, one for each family, from 
  branches and grass, set against 
  supporting trees.
  SHAPING AND CARVING
  The calabash is a gourd that 
  has been grown naturally. 
  When it is ripe, it is soaked 
  in water until the contents 
  have rotted. It is then 
  opened, and the inside 
  cleaned, before it is dried. 
  During the drying process, 
  it becomes hard and can be 
  carved. Although the 
  women often make their 
  own gourds, there are 
  specialists who decorate 
  the surfaces.
  SMOKING FOR PLEASURE
  Pipe-smoking is a popular relaxation enjoyed 
  by both men and women in Africa. Hemp 
  was traditionally smoked in water pipes of 
  animal horn or calabashes by people all over 
  Africa. It was inhaled through a mouthful of 
  water to control its powerful effect on the 
  smoker. The introduction of tobacco led to 
  the making of wooden and clay pipes. Many 
  were decorated with elaborate and intricate 
  designs, like these Xhosa pipes from the 
  Transkei region of South Africa.
  STORING PLACE
  A variety of containers are 
  found inside a house, on shelves or 
  suspended on ropes for protection against rats, 
  mice, and snakes. Precious possessions are often 
  hidden in the roof. A porous clay pot like this one 
  will keep water cool, and acts as a short-term 
  refrigerator. Pots are usually made by the women, 
  although, in some parts of Africa, pottery is 
  exclusively produced by the men of a village.
  BAKING DAY
  Grains such as cassava, corn, and 
  sorghum can be ground into flour. 
  Water is added, and the flour 
  paste flattened into circular shapes 
  and baked. Here, a family in 
  Timbuktu, Mali, waits to eat the 
  freshly cooked bread.
  Incised metal 
  decoration
  Village 
  bread oven 
  made of clay
  Calabash 
  ladle
  Pot is hung 
  from the 
  roof by a 
  rope net
  Scorched 
  pattern is 
  etched with 
  hot metal point
  
  1
  In many parts of africa, family groups live in 
  compounds that are often circular in shape. They are 
  made up of several clay houses with thatched roofs, 
  connected by passageways. There is a meeting place in 
  the center of the compound, an enclosure for the 
  householder, and an area for each of his wives. Each 
  enclosure has a sleeping house, containing personal 
  belongings, a kitchen, a granary, and a storage house, 
  which is used for agricultural tools, domestic utensils, 
  dried food, and milk. This homestead of the Kuanyama 
  people in Angola was home to a farming family in the 
  1930s, and was probably occupied for about ten years. 
  The family would then build a new homestead nearby, 
  reusing materials where possible.
  DAILY LIFE IN THE COMPOUND
  The agricultural life of the Kuanyama is based on the seasons. 
  The compound is built, following a traditional plan, near a 
  permanent waterhole. The grainfields where the Kuanyama grow 
  their staple foods – millet and sorghum – surround the 
  compound, and there are rainy season and dry 
  pens for the cattle. The wealth of a 
  particular householder is measured by 
  the number of wives he has 
  and by the quality of his 
  compound and herds.
  CATTLE HERDING
  In the drier regions of Africa, cattle are kept 
  as the main source of food and the men look after 
  them. The cattle are used for the meat, milk, and 
  clothing – the skins are tanned and made into 
  leather clothes and shoes. Because some 
  communities rely on natural grazing land, they 
  have to move from area to area to exploit seasonal 
  weather changes and to find water. They build 
  temporary camps at each place. These cattle 
  belong to one such community in the Sudan.
  A WOMAN’S WORK
  Within a family group, 
  men and women usually 
  have separate tasks. The 
  women look after their 
  children, work in the 
  fields, fish, and prepare 
  food. This woman, in a 
  Habila settlement in the 
  Sudan, is grinding beans 
  before cooking them. 
  Women also fetch and 
  carry water and firewood, 
  as well as looking after 
  their own area of the 
  compound. In many family 
  groups, such as the 
  Kuanyama, the women 
  make pottery for 
  use in the home.
  The householder’s 
  granaries were always 
  bigger than those of his wives
  Fence of 
  hewn stakes 
  10 ft (3m) high
  Householder’s 
  enclosure
  Guest 
  house
  Rainy season 
  cattle pens
  This householder 
  has two granaries
  Enclosure for 
  pounding harvested 
  millet and sorghum
  Cattle moved 
  here because they 
  do not need to be 
  close to waterhole
  Sleeping hut
  Life in the compound
  
  1
  MAKING MEALIE MEAL
  A young girl rhythmically pounds mealie 
  meal (finely ground corn) in a compound 
  in Zimbabwe. Like the shelters in the 
  Kuanyama compound, the houses here are 
  circular, made of clay, and have thatched 
  roofs. The girl is using a wooden mortar 
  and stone pestle, and she grinds the meal 
  into fine grains. She will then add boiled 
  water to make the porridge that is her 
  family’s staple food. In the dry season, 
  preparation of food will take place in the 
  open air. However, in many compounds, 
  there is an indoor kitchen that is used by 
  everyone during the rainy season.
  STORING GRAIN
  For thousands of years, storage houses and 
  granaries in Africa have been associated with 
  a householder’s status. The more granaries 
  he has, the richer and more influential he 
  is. Large storage containers are raised off 
  the ground to protect against 
  infestation by rats and mice.
  Model of a Kuanyama people’s 
  homestead, Angola, West Africa, 
  made in the 1930s by the people 
  who lived there
  Cattle pen close to 
  the waterhole in 
  the dry season
  Smaller 
  granary of 
  second wife
  Pen for calves
  Dairy
  First wife’s 
  enclosure
  Central 
  enclosure or 
  meeting place
  House used 
  by children of 
  the compound 
  during the day
  Goat pen
  Sleeping 
  hut with 
  bed
  Indoor kitchen 
  with open fire
  Storage hut with 
  wooden shelves
  Chicken 
  roost
  Network of 
  passageways 
  running all the 
  way around outer 
  fence of compound
   Second wife’s 
  enclosure, with 
  roofs of buildings 
  removed
  
  Finding food
  MARKET DAYS
  Most of the food that 
  the farmers grow, as 
  well as many of the 
  animals that are 
  herded, are taken to 
  be sold at a local 
  market. Women are 
  often the traders in 
  markets, such as this 
  colorful one near 
  Nairobi, in Kenya.
  FOR THE BIRDS
  This bird trap was used by a 
  Dinka herdsboy in the Sudan to 
  catch birds. It was hung between 
  the branches of a tree. Birds, 
  unable to see its fine lines – made 
  from giraffe hair and weighted 
  with clay – would become 
  ensnared in it.
  FARMING THE FIELDS
  In many areas of Africa, most 
  of the work of raising crops is 
  still done with the hoe and 
  by hand. This laborious 
  work is often carried out by 
  women, while the men look 
  after the livestock. In some 
  communities, the men farm 
  for their prospective in-laws as 
  part of the marriage agreement. 
  Many of the women, like this 
  one in Sierra Leone, work in 
  the fields all day with their 
  babies on their backs.
  SPINNING A TRAP
  These spindles carry fishing lines of 
  cotton thread that the Bagiun peoples of 
  Ciula Island in Somalia use to catch fish 
  for their daily diet. The baited lines are 
  trailed in the water from fishing boats. 
  Traditionally, Africans catch fish to eat, or to 
  dry and sell. Fishing purely for sport is unknown.
  Most of africa’s rural population farms the 
  land or keeps livestock such as cattle or sheep, 
  despite problems caused by drought or soil 
  erosion. However, there are also small 
  populations who live almost entirely by finding 
  wild foods. Of these, there are three main groups: 
  the San of Namibia and Botswana, the Hadza of 
  Tanzania, and the pygmies of Zaire. These groups 
  are called hunter-gatherers – in other words, they 
  traditionally hunt game animals and birds, and 
  gather insects, roots, fruits, and wild honey. They 
  do not live in permanent villages, but in small 
  nomadic groups that may camp together for part 
  of the year. Hunting is done by the men, 
  and gathering by the women. 
  Surprisingly, their way of life 
  is often easier than 
  that of the farmers.
  CATCHING ANTELOPE
  The Turkana people of Kenya 
  use this wooden trap to catch 
  antelope. They leave it 
  lying on the ground 
  and simply wait 
  until the animal 
  puts its foot 
  in the hole.
  Once in the 
  snare, the 
  antelope cannot 
  withdraw its foot
  The hide noose is 
  tied around a tree 
  so the animal 
  cannot escape
  FISHING FOR A LIVING
  Fishermen use nets, baskets, hooks, lines, traps, and 
  dams in shallow waters to catch fish for a living. They 
  sell the fish to women, who then cure them and, in turn, sell 
  them at the markets. This dugout canoe is particularly narrow 
  because it is used to weave in and out of the roots of mangroves 
  in the coastal waters of West Africa. When not in use, the canoe 
  is turned bottom-up and raised several feet off the ground 
  on a light trestle table. This helps it to dry out and 
  keeps the wood from rotting.
  Dugout 
  canoe, West 
  Africa
  Stone 
  spindle
  Wooden 
  spindle
  
  19
  HUNTER IN THE BUSH
  The San of the Kalahari Desert in 
  southwest Africa hunt springbok, 
  wildebeest, and eland for food and clothing. 
  They coat their arrows with a mixture of 
  animal and vegetable poisons. When the 
  hunter hits an animal, he then tracks it and 
  finally kills it with a spear.
  A DEADLY WEAPON
  A pygmy hunter would use this 
  spear for killing elephants, by 
  running beneath the animal 
  and thrusting the spear upward. 
  The wound did not usually kill 
  the elephant immediately, but 
  would do so within 24 hours, 
  during which time the hunter 
  would track the animal.
  NETTING A FEAST
  The Turkana peoples of Kenya 
  move their herds every few weeks, 
  building temporary shelters at each 
  new grazing site. The Turkana depend 
  mainly on their livestock for food and 
  clothing, but they also fish on the 
  shores of Lake Turkana to supplement 
  their diet and to trade.
  Fishing basket for 
  carrying the catch
  Pygmy wrist guard, 
  worn to protect 
  hunter from being 
  grazed by his own 
  poisonous arrows 
  Monkey skin tail 
  shrunk onto 
  the bow
  Metal-tipped 
  arrow
  Arrow with 
  tip that has 
  been dipped 
  in poison
  Pygmy 
  quiver 
  and 
  arrows
  Pygmy 
  wrist 
  guard
  Pygmy spear 
  for killing 
  elephants
  Pygmy bow 
  and arrows
  HUNTING WITH THE PYGMIES
  Traditional pygmy hunting bows, 
  such as this one used by the Mbuti 
  pygmies of the Ituri Forest in Zaire 
  (formerly the Belgian Congo), are 
  made of wood. Their tips are 
  hardened by fire and dipped in the 
  poison strophanth. Poisoned arrow 
  tips are more effective than metal-
  tipped arrows, as they need only 
  graze an animal to kill it, whereas a 
  metal-tipped arrow has to be 
  aimed accurately. However, the 
  Mbuti use both types.
  
  20
  Pattern and color
  In africa, pattern and color are important 
  ingredients of everyday life. Materials, pots, and 
  baskets are often covered in geometric, animal, 
  human, or floral shapes. Certain objects, such as 
  pots and calabashes, are made by people for their 
  own use; others, such as textiles, are made by 
  specialists who make a living from their skills. 
  Local resources offer an excellent source of 
  materials from which to make and decorate the 
  objects. The forests provide wood from which 
  stools and figures are carved, and bark that 
  is beaten into a versatile cloth, while 
  seeds and vegetable dyes are used for 
  decoration. Many objects are made for 
  religious purposes or for kings or rulers. 
  These are usually highly decorated.
  DYE PITS
  Many materials 
  can be colored with 
  natural dyes, often made by 
  pounding plants and mixing them 
  with water or another substance. For 
  example, the crushed leaves of the plant Lonchocarpus 
  cyanescens produce the blue dye indigo when mixed with the ash 
  of green wood. Often fabrics or leather are dyed in vats set into 
  the ground, as they are here in Marrakesh in Morocco.
  CARVING AND DECORATING GOURDS
  Gourds grow in most parts of Africa. When cut 
  and dried they are used as food bowls, serving 
  dishes, and sound boxes for musical instruments 
  (pp. 60-61). The natural color of a gourd is 
  yellow, but it can be dyed with plant dyes. 
  Carvers often cut a series of geometric shapes 
  into the gourd (left) before it is dyed.
  CLOTH MADE FROM TREES
  Trees are a ready source of materials, for both objects and dyes. In 
  Uganda, a special fabric is produced from them. The bark is stripped 
  off the trees, which are then covered with banana leaves for 
  protection. The bark is softened by soaking in water, or by steaming in 
  a bundle over a fire. It is then placed on a wooden log, a piece at a 
  time, and beaten with a heavy mallet. The frequent beating of the bark 
  causes its fibers to knit together to become cloth.
  Beater made 
  from ivory 
  and wood
  Warthog-tusk 
  beater with 
  wooden handle
  Barkcloth can 
  be used for 
  clothing or for 
  sleeping mats
  Bark
  Gourd is burnished 
  with a hot knife
  
  21
  CUT-PILE CLOTHS, ZAIRE
  The Kuba peoples of Zaire 
  produce a highly distinctive 
  embroidered cloth (above) 
  using a technique known 
  as “cut-pile.” The base cloth 
  is a piece of woven raffia. 
  The raffia embroidery 
  thread is threaded on a 
  needle, which is used to 
  pick up a few threads of the 
  base cloth, before pulling 
  the embroidery thread 
  underneath. The 
  embroidery thread is cut, 
  leaving its two ends visible 
  as a pattern on the surface 
  of the base cloth. Pieces of 
  embroidered cloth are 
  sewn together to form one 
  large piece of fabric. The 
  pattern is created from 
  memory, and the same 
  patterns are found on 
  carved objects and houses.
  MULTI-COLORED CLOTHS, MADAGASCAR
  In 19th-century Madagascar, cotton, silk, and raffia were woven into colorful 
  shawls that were worn by both men and women over European clothing. Local 
  vegetable dyes were traditionally used to produce the colors of the textiles, but 
  the introduction of manufactured dyes increased the range still further. The 
  designs are so complicated that the weaver often uses bits of numbered paper to 
  figure out at which point the pattern is to be formed.
  The colors and patterns in 
  cloths from Madagascar 
  combine vividly
  MAKING A MAT, SOMALIA
  Many mats and baskets are woven 
  from vegetable fibers, usually by 
  women in the home. Little 
  equipment is needed – just a knife to 
  split the strands of fiber. It is an 
  activity that is popular with many 
  cattle herders and hunter-gatherers 
  who are constantly on the move, as 
  well as settled farming groups.
  WEAVING ON A LOOM
  Both men and women weave 
  cloth on looms. Two sets of 
  fibers or threads are used to 
  make the cloth: the first set, 
  warp threads, are arranged 
  horizontally or vertically. Above, 
  the warp threads are wound 
  around the poles in the ground. 
  The second set, weft threads, are 
  passed in and out between the 
  warp threads to form the fabric. 
  The cloth varies in width 
  according to the loom.
  RAFFIA CLOTHS
  In many parts of Africa, 
  raffia, the grasslike fiber of 
  the raffia palm, is used to 
  make a wide variety of 
  everyday things such as 
  ropes, fishing tackle, and 
  snares for catching wild 
  animals. Young leaves are 
  stripped and peeled, 
  carefully dried in the sun, 
  and mounted on a loom to 
  be woven into cloth. 
  Usually a loom is kept 
  inside a weaver’s house, but 
  some are outside in the 
  village, under a shelter for 
  shade in the hot sun.
  The edge is 
  typically frayed 
  to form a fringe
  
  Toy gun 
  copied from 
  a European firearm, 
  Azande, Sudan
  22
  When the daily work is over, African peoples relax 
  in various ways. Storytelling is a favorite occupation, and 
  lives of important ancestors are often reenacted around 
  the communal fire in the compound. Music can be 
  performed either by an individual playing a lute or harp 
  or by a group. Music is also played as part of village 
  competitions, which include other activities, such as 
  wrestling, racing, and dance. Among the Mursi peoples 
  of Ethiopia, fierce dueling contests with long poles are 
  organized by young unmarried men. The Acholi of 
  Uganda play a game called undile that is similar to 
  hockey. The board game, mancala, has often been called 
  the national game of Africa, and is played everywhere.
  NUBA WRESTLING GAMES
  In many places, young men enjoy wrestling. Huge 
  crowds gather for village competitions among the 
  Nuba of the Sudan. The men are judged for their 
  strength and skill by a referee. The wrestlers are 
  fiercely competitive, and the wrestling champion 
  earns himself a special position in the community.
  Sports and entertainment
  FULANI DANCE TROUPE
  The Fulani of West Africa have a 
  strong tradition of singing, 
  storytelling, and dancing. These 
  talents are highly regarded. Groups of 
  “street” musicians called griots 
  perform in the open air.
  GAMES OF WAR
  In some societies, where strength and skill in 
  fighting is important, young boys are encouraged 
  to play games to prepare for their later lives as 
  warriors. Zulu boys, for example, use fighting 
  sticks in a game similar to fencing, 
  becoming expert at striking 
  and avoiding blows.
  Painted pebbles used 
  as playing pieces
  Players lift the pebbles 
  and redistribute them 
  counterclockwise
  Musicians carved on wooden 
  door lintel, Ibibio, Nigeria
  
  23
  HOMEMADE TOYS
  African children are ingenious 
  at making their own toys from 
  scrap materials. Toys made from 
  wire – cars, helicopters, and 
  trucks – are quite common. 
  This boy has made a car from 
  heavy wire, using shoe-polish 
  cans for the wheels.
  THE GAME OF MANCALA
  Mancala is a board game for two or more players that is 
  played all over Africa. The wooden mancala board consists 
  of two rows of holes, and the playing pieces are usually 
  pebbles, although seeds, beans, cowrie shells, peas, and 
  even buttons can be used. The object is to win all your 
  opponent’s playing pieces, but the rules of the game and 
  the number of players varies according to region.
  MUSIC AND MUSICIANS
  Music is a part of everyday life, and Africans produce 
  a variety of instruments from available materials 
  (pp. 60–61). Music is played as a background to 
  events such as sports or wrestling. It is also an 
  integral part of social occasions such as 
  ceremonies, masquerades (pp. 62–63), 
  or religious rites. Kings and chiefs 
  often have musicians at their 
  courts to sing praises in 
  their honor.
  OSTRICH RACING, SOUTH AFRICA
  Camel, horse, and ostrich racing are popular spectator 
  sports in parts of Africa. Berber horsemen ride to 
  display their skills on special occasions, and the Tuareg 
  peoples of the Sahara often race camels.
  DOLLS WITH A PURPOSE
  Although many dolls are made 
  simply for the amusement of 
  children, some play a crucial 
  role in the life of young girls. 
  The akua’ba dolls of the Asante, 
  for example, are made because it 
  is believed they guarantee the 
  owner will have children in the 
  future. Some dolls are made for 
  ceremonies, such as the 
  initiation of young girls into 
  womanhood. A variety of 
  different materials, such as 
  wood, beads, wax, and nails, are 
  used to emphasize different 
  features of some of these dolls.
  PLAYING THE GAME
  Mancala is found everywhere, 
  and, as well as being played on 
  carved boards, is often simply 
  scratched on rock or in the sand.
  Wooden 
  mancala board, 
  Maasai, Kenya
  Leather 
  pouch to hold 
  mancala pieces
  Statues carved 
  on a lintel, 
  probably from a 
  shrine or secret 
  society house
  Ostriches can 
  run at 30 mph 
  (48 kph)
  Doll in bed, part of a 
  complete doll’s house, 
  from Cameroon
  Somali doll made 
  from corn husk 
  and cloth
  Cameroon 
  doll made 
  from wood 
  and feathers
  Cameroon 
  portrait of a 
  European 
  woman
  When pieces are moved  
  from one cup to another, 
  it is called “sowing”
  
  24
  Female dress
  People wear clothes for a variety of 
  reasons other than to keep warm, or 
  as a protection from the sun or rain. 
  Clothes are worn for modesty, or to 
  advertise age, position in society, 
  wealth, or occupation. Often, people 
  have different or more showy clothes for 
  important ceremonies or rituals 
  ceremonies. Among the Maasai, the 
  women wear skirts of animal hide and 
  numerous beaded ornaments for different 
  occasions. However, only the married 
  women wear brass earrings, which 
  indicates their status in society.
  WEARING A BABY
  African mothers often 
  carry their babies on 
  their backs, tied on with a 
  shawl or a piece of fabric. 
  This method of carrying 
  babies has influenced the 
  design of baby slings used 
  by European and American 
  women, as it is an efficient 
  way of caring for a child 
  while doing other tasks.
  THE CHANGING FACE OF FASHION
  The traditional dress of the women of the Herero 
  cattle herders of Namibia was leather aprons, 
  headdress, and elaborate beaded ornamentation. 
  This was abandoned during the 19th century 
  when those Herero who became Christian 
  adopted the dress of the German missionaries. 
  The distinctive, colorful Victorian costume 
  (left) consists of a long dress with a wide 
  stiff skirt, a fitted bodice worn with a shawl, 
  and a “duk” – a cloth wrapped around the 
  head (above).
  Second wig of braided 
  hair is made and worn 
  at end of ceremonies
  Victorian-style 
  Herero dress, 
  Namibia
  Beard
  Veil
  Dresses are 
  made with a 
  patchwork 
  of colors
  MARRIAGE WEAR
  For the Kuanyama peoples of 
  Angola, the initiation and 
  engagement ceremonies for young 
  girls were combined into one event 
  lasting several days. Each girl was 
  given a special wig with shell 
  decorations, and wore a hide skirt, 
  apron, and beads. During the event, 
  this first wig was ceremoniously 
  burned, and a second wig, topknot, 
  and beard were given to her. The 
  girls wore the beards in imitation of 
  men. They were then ready for the 
  transition into womanhood.
  Topknot
  Second wig
  Dress is made of 
  printed cotton
  Wide-elbowed 
  sleeves
  
  25
  DRESSING TO SHOW STATUS
  In most societies, those who possess power and 
  wealth reveal it in their clothing. Especially rare 
  materials are favored by royalty and often costly 
  fabrics are reserved for those of high rank. This 
  queen of Dahomey (above) is wearing elaborate 
  and richly decorated clothes.
  TRADITIONAL APRONS
  These traditional front and back 
  aprons are made of tanned leather. 
  Leather is used for a wide variety 
  of items, including clothing, 
  footwear, and shields. Once taken 
  from the carcass of an animal, the 
  hide is quickly cleaned and pegged 
  to the ground to dry in the sun. 
  After a few days, animal fat is 
  rubbed in to soften the leather.
  MARRIED STATUS
  Among many of the cattle-
  herding communities of eastern Africa, the clothing a woman 
  wears indicates whether or not she is married. An unmarried 
  girl of the Karamojong, for example, wears a hip skirt and head 
  ornaments. Once married, she may wear a leather cloak and a 
  skirt that is tied at the front. Elaborate skirts are 
  worn on special occasions.
  WRAPPED UP
  In many parts of western Africa, 
  a married woman wears a large 
  and elaborate head-tie, usually of 
  the same material as her dress. The 
  head-tie is a single piece of fabric 
  that she folds and wraps according 
  to her social group, status, and 
  fashion. Usually, the greater the 
  height and size of the headdress, 
  the more important she is.
  Cloth is printed 
  with geometric and 
  floral patterns
  Leather cloak and 
  skirt, Karamojong, 
  Uganda
  Leather 
  decorated 
  with strings 
  of glass 
  beads
  Front apron
  Back apron
  Cowrie shells 
  sewn on 
  as decoration
  The way the cloth 
  is tied varies from 
  group to group
  
  2
  Male attire
  Different clothes can indicate the many cultural 
  groups to which people belong. They can also give clues 
  about the kind of work a person does, or his or her 
  position in society. In Africa what people wear can 
  show if they live in a desert or forest region, if they 
  are farmers or kings, if it is a hot or cold time of 
  year. Today, many Africans wear western dress, but 
  some types of traditional clothing are making a 
  comeback. Asante kente cloth, which was 
  formerly worn exclusively by royalty and 
  chiefs, is now worn by others. People 
  even wear a combination of western 
  and traditional dress.
  INFLUENCES FROM THE EAST
  During the 19th century, cloth that imitated 
  Javanese dyed material was printed in 
  Amsterdam, in the Netherlands, and in 
  Manchester, England, using a technique in 
  which designs were put on the cloth in stages. 
  The cloth was exported in large quantities to 
  West Africa. This trade still continues, though 
  factories in several West African countries, 
  including Ghana (above), produce the cloth.
  HEADGEAR
  Hats are worn by many people 
  in Africa, and the style varies 
  considerably. Sometimes, to 
  protect themselves against the 
  elements, men wear veils – pieces of 
  cloth that can be wrapped 
  around the head and over 
  the face. In western Africa, 
  many men have short hair 
  and frequently wear small 
  caps to match their clothes.
  CEREMONIAL HEADDRESS
  The men of the Karamojong of Uganda 
  wear distinctive and elaborate headdresses 
  of human hair. This headdress was made 
  with hair that had been cut off. Nowadays, 
  a hairdresser gathers the hair on a person’s 
  head into a tight bun. It is then covered in 
  clay and painted it with pigments. The 
  whole process can take three days.
  SIMPLE DRESS
  Appearance is very 
  important to the Maasai. 
  The men frequently cover 
  their bodies in red ocher 
  and braid their hair in 
  ocher-colored braids. 
  Because of the emphasis 
  on this aspect of physical 
  appearance, they wear 
  only simple cotton cloth 
  tied at the shoulder.
  CHANGING CLOTHES AND CUSTOMS
  This is a traditional Zulu goatskin front apron that is 
  tied with a beaded belt. The back piece was usually 
  made from oxhide. The aprons form part of the 
  costume that is worn at ceremonies and on special 
  occasions. Traditionally, the Zulu peoples of southern 
  Africa are cattle herders who have retained many of 
  their traditional customs in spite of upheavals caused 
  by western culture. A young man courting a girl will 
  wear western clothes bought in the city as well as the 
  traditional red-and-white courting cloth.
  The headdress is in 
  the shape of a cow, 
  an important 
  Karamojong symbol
  Desert veil, 
  Sudan
  Man wearing 
  beaded 
  hat, Nigeria
  Zulu belt
  Number of feathers increase 
  with seniority of wearer
  Ostrich feathers 
  stuck into headress 
  on special occasions
  The style and color of the 
  beadwork often indicates from 
  what region the man comes
  
  2
  FEET AND FOOTWEAR
  A variety of materials are used to 
  make sandals and shoes. Wood 
  sandals and clogs protect feet from 
  hot sand and spiky plants, while 
  leather shoes provide protection 
  from all weather. Berber women in 
  Morocco weave not only clothing, 
  carpets, and tent hangings but also 
  boots that are worn by both men 
  and women. The sole is leather, 
  but the calf-length upper boot is 
  woven in thick, colorful wool.
  Wooden 
  sandals, Somalia
  Tooled leather 
  sandals, Uganda
  Embroidered 
  boots, Morocco
  Leather sandals, 
  Somalia
  Cross decoration is the dagi 
  knot, an Islamic motif found 
  in many parts of West Africa
  EXCLUSIVE WEAR
  Only kings are allowed to wear beaded 
  crowns in Yoruba society in Nigeria. This 
  is because they are believed to be 
  descendants of Odudua, the mythical 
  founder and first king of the Yoruba 
  peoples. The king wears the crown that is 
  appropriate to a particular ceremony.
  NIGERIAN TUNIC
  Yoruba men wear two 
  types of costumes. One 
  has a long, loose gown, 
  and the other a shorter, 
  knee-length top (right). 
  Both are worn over 
  trousers. The outfits are 
  usually made of local 
  cloth that has been 
  woven in narrow strips, 
  which are then sewn 
  together. The neck, the 
  front of the top, and 
  the bottom edge of 
  the trousers are 
  usually embroidered. 
  A cap of the same fabric 
  is often worn as well.
  DRESSED FOR THE DESERT
  People who live in the desert regions of Africa, 
  such as this man from Algeria, wear loose clothes 
  to keep cool. The men wear baggy trousers and 
  long cotton tops. A piece of cloth, or veil, wrapped 
  around the head, with a narrow gap for the eyes, is 
  an effective protection against the sun, heat, and 
  windblown sand of the desert.
  This beaded crown 
  portrays a royal ancestor 
  Embroidery is 
  done by men
  Leather is shaped 
  by being heated
  
  2
  Self-adornment
  The ways that African men and 
  women make themselves attractive is 
  colorful and varied. In some cultures, the size and 
  shape of the body is emphasized – young girls in 
  southeastern Nigeria spend part of their initiation in 
  a “fattening house.” In other cultures, particular 
  features are given attention – in Kenya, Kikuyu 
  women wear earlobe plugs because distended 
  earlobes are admired by their men. Colorful dyes are 
  painted directly onto the body of both men and 
  women, or small cuts are made with a knife to form 
  patterns on the skin. These designs 
  often indicate the identity, wealth, and 
  status of a person.
  …AND BEADS
  Today, South African women wear ornate 
  beaded necklaces, cloaks, and headgear and 
  produce beaded items to sell to tourists. The 
  traditional thread used for stringing beads 
  imported from Europe was a fine gut that 
  was strong and durable. By twisting this 
  between the fingers, a point was made to 
  put through the beads. Nowadays, a 
  needle and thread are used.
  Dinka 
  finger ring 
  made from a 
  pangolin scale
  BAUBLES, BANGLES…
  Copper wire jewelry is 
  found in many parts of 
  eastern and southern 
  Africa. The items vary from 
  lightweight coiled bangles 
  to heavy copper armlets 
  that can weigh up to 30 lbs 
  (13.5 kg). Copper bracelets, 
  armlets, and anklets are 
  usually worn by women. 
  They often indicate wealth.
  HENNA HANDS 
  In many parts of northern and 
  western Africa, henna dye is used to 
  paint intricate patterns on the 
  hands, feet, and face. Although it is 
  used by men and children, it is more 
  commonly applied by women, not 
  only to make themselves beautiful 
  but also to protect them against evil.
  HAIR AND HAIRPINS
  Both men and women spend 
  a lot of time decorating their 
  hair, sometimes into elaborate 
  styles. Hairpins are often used, 
  both for practical reasons and, 
  in the case of the carved pins, 
  as decoration. Oil is often used 
  on the hair, since its shine 
  indicates health.
  Pink usually indicates “bride 
  price”, givin by the groom 
  to the bride’s family
  Ropes of beads 
  are worn as 
  girdles 
  and belts
  Pegs for 
  stiffening 
  braided hair
  Wooden 
  hairpins
  Carved 
  hairpins
  White beads 
  indicate love
  
  Today, plastic 
  beads are often 
  used instead 
  of glass
  GETTING THE MESSAGE
  Among the Samburu and the Maasai 
  of Kenya, young, single men are very 
  colorful and eager to attract 
  attention. They gather to boast and 
  dance in front of young girls. The 
  young Samburu male (above) 
  pays a great deal of attention to 
  his personal appearance, 
  painting his body with red 
  ocher and wearing an array 
  of beads. The number of 
  beaded necklaces worn by a 
  Maasai woman (right) 
  indicates whether she is 
  married, if she has children, 
  and how wealthy she is.
  COMBING IT OUT
  Wooden combs of all 
  shapes and sizes are used to 
  shape and style the hair. Some, 
  such as the one above right, can 
  also be worn as decoration.
  A FORM OF COMMUNICATION
  Beads are worn by men and women 
  around the head, neck, waist, and 
  arms. They are worn as decoration 
  and as a form of communication. 
  Young Zulu girls in South Africa 
  make beaded necklets (center left) for 
  their boyfriends, called “love letters.” 
  The pattern and color of the Zulu 
  beads carry different meanings. 
  For example, white is associated 
  with purity and truth, red can 
  mean anger and pain, and 
  blue can refer to 
  being faithful.
  After marriage, Maasai 
  women wear more 
  beaded collars to signal 
  a different status
  Hair is dressed with 
  earth, butter, and fibers 
  to show vitality
  Red is associated with 
  blood, sexuality, and fire
  Zulu beaded 
  necklet, 
  South Africa
  Dinka belt, 
  Sudan
  Comb is held in the 
  middle to tease out hair 
  from the scalp 
  in styling
  Belt worn 
  by a man
  
  30
  Rulers and leaders
  There were three main methods of 
  government in traditional Africa. The first, 
  found in the ancient empires such as Mali and 
  Songhay, consisted of loosely connected states 
  where individual emirs held sway locally. By 
  contrast, the then forest kingdoms of 
  western and central Africa – Ghana, 
  Benin, and Dahomey – were ruled by 
  all-powerful kings who had a complex 
  hierarchy of officials under them. The 
  third type was mainly found in eastern 
  Africa, where groups such as the 
  Maasai democratically elected 
  councils of elders.
  IN MEMORIAM
  Kings had absolute power, and combined 
  religious and state authority. The accession to 
  kingship was generally celebrated by the king 
  performing certain rites that set him apart 
  from ordinary people. In recognition of 
  this, the peoples of the Benin cast brass 
  memorial heads of their Obas, or 
  kings, and placed them in a 
  special shrine at which 
  sacrifices were made.
  DECORATIVE STATUS SYMBOLS
  The Asantehene, king of the Asante peoples of 
  Ghana, always appears under an enormous 
  multicolored umbrella with a hanging border, a 
  symbol of a chief’s presence. A guild of specialists 
  make elaborate umbrellas for the king and his 
  senior chiefs. When the king walks along, his 
  umbrella bearer twirls the umbrella around in 
  time to music and sings the king’s praises.
  Umbrellas often topped 
  with gold images of 
  crescents, birds, 
  and weapons
  Wooden 
  handle
  Flywhisk made 
  of cow’s hair
  EMPIRES OF THE SAVANNA
  By the 15th century, Africa 
  had a number of states, 
  kingdoms, and empires, such 
  as Mali and Songhay, that 
  were based on trade and 
  warfare. Their rulers (above 
  and above right) were 
  depicted by 16th-century 
  Portuguese mapmakers.
  KEEPING COOL
  Flywhisks were always a practical solution 
  to keeping cool and swatting the flies that 
  irritated. However, they have also 
  become symbols of authority for 
  appearances in public by 
  people in authority. 
  Whisks with 
  highly decorated 
  handles were 
  usually owned 
  by chiefs.
  Neck rings in 
  imitation of 
  coral bead 
  collar only 
  worn by 
  an Oba
  Carved 
  elephant tusk, 
  Benin city
  These tusks were 
  slotted into the top 
  of memorial heads 
  (below right)
  Tusks were 
  carved with 
  stories of myth 
  and legend
  
  Probably the 
  representation 
  of a king
  Knife as 
  first symbol 
  of status
  Rifle as 
  second symbol 
  of status
  A ROYAL AUDIENCE
  The female relatives of the king – his wives, 
  “mothers”, and sisters – often represented him. 
  Above, Queen Nzinga of Natamba, Angola, meets 
  Portuguese traders. It was important that a royal 
  person should be seated, or offered a seat, during 
  any discussion. The king of the Kuba peoples of 
  Zaire also, on occasion, used a courtier as a stool.
  SWAGGER STICKS
  One of these swagger sticks (right), probably 
  based on the European walking stick, was 
  carried at all times by a chief of the Ovimbundu 
  of Angola. The Ovimbundu were great traders of 
  southern Africa in the 19th century. They had a 
  king but were, in effect, governed by his relatives 
  or ministers through a system of chiefdoms.
  Yoruba crowns were 
  believed to contain 
  all the knowledge of 
  generations of kings
  Queen Nzinga used 
  her servant as a 
  stool because she 
  was not offered 
  a chair by a 
  Portuguese official
  COUNCIL OF ELDERS
  In some smaller communities, a group of 
  democratically elected elders are responsible for 
  making decisions. They meet informally to discuss 
  problems and to seek everyone’s agreement on the 
  solutions. Here (above), a council of elders of the 
  Barbera of Somalia are discussing how to deal with 
  the problem of famine.
  BEADED CROWNS
  The Yoruba kings of Nigeria are 
  believed to be descendants of 
  Odudua, the first king of the 
  Yoruba peoples, and are permitted 
  to wear beaded crowns. Other 
  important figures such as priests 
  and medicine men, who 
  communicate with the spirit 
  world, are also able to wear them, 
  but only the king is able to wear 
  and use beaded accessories such as 
  flywhisks, staffs, and footrests. 
  Some crowns have a long beaded 
  fringe that hides the wearer’s face. 
  This helps emphasize his ritual 
  existence as king.
  The face is 
  probably that 
  of a royal 
  ancestral 
  deity
  Swagger sticks, 
  Umbundu, 
  Angola
  
  32
  Religion and beliefs
  The most widespread systems of belief in 
  Africa are the world religions of Christianity 
  and Islam. However, there are many different 
  traditional religions as well, including the 
  belief in many gods and the worship of 
  ancestors. Ancestors are the providers of rules 
  of conduct for a community. If angered, their 
  spirits can inflict harm and must be appeased 
  with offerings. The belief that kings are gods is 
  another important part of traditional religion. 
  The kings of Benin and Ghana, 
  for example, are too holy to 
  speak directly to their subjects 
  and must use a spokesman.
  THE ROLE OF THE PRIEST
  The priest is a religious specialist whose job is to 
  maintain, celebrate, and, if necessary, restore the 
  right relationship between the community and 
  the gods. He is an important person, and is 
  concerned with both the physical and the 
  spiritual well-being of his community. People 
  often seek his medical advice, as well as 
  consulting him about social and moral problems.
  A LIFETIME OF TRAINING
  Sometimes children are identified as future 
  priests and undergo a long training with 
  established masters who teach a wide range of 
  knowledge in great secrecy. The priest is the 
  only person in the community to perform 
  rituals, and he wears a distinctive costume. 
  Each priest owns his mask, which both hides 
  and reveals violent and benevolent powers.
  MASKS AND ANCESTORS
  Families honor ancestors during 
  annual festivals, and through 
  song, dance, and music, tell of 
  the family’s history. A number of 
  masks, such as this Epa mask 
  (right), are paraded in sequence 
  as the story is dramatized.
  Priest’s costume, 
  Nkimba Society, 
  Congo
  Carved and 
  painted wooden 
  mask
  Feathers 
  attached to 
  woven grass net
  
  CHARM GOWNS
  Islam is a religion that has 
  only one god, Allah, and it is based 
  on the teaching of the Prophet Mohammed, 
  who was born 1,400 years ago in Arabia. Islam is 
  widespread in many parts of Africa, and has affected some 
  traditional religions. This Asante gown (above) is covered 
  in leather pouches that contain sayings from the Islamic 
  holy book, the Koran. These Koranic scripts were believed 
  by the Asante to protect senior warriors during battles.
  A BLACK CHRIST
  Where people were converted 
  to Christianity, European crucifixes and carvings were 
  copied and gradually took on an African appearance. 
  Figures of St. Anthony, the patron saint of Portugal, were 
  made in large numbers, and often used as healing 
  charms. More recently, some wall paintings, like this one 
  in Mozambique, depict a black Christ.
  A MISSIONARY ZEAL
  Europeans began to establish Christian missions in 
  West Africa from the early 19th century. African 
  traditional values such as the belief in many gods and 
  ancestor figures, were greatly affected. The European 
  missionaries, traders, and officials were frequently 
  represented by African carvers, usually on horseback or 
  wearing a hat to distinguish them from Africans. This 
  one was carved by a Yoruba craftsman in Nigeria.
  CHRISTIAN COUNTRIES
  Christianity has become 
  the major religion in 
  some African countries. 
  Ethiopia has been 
  Christian since the 
  4th century a.d., and the 
  priest is highly regarded 
  there. Only the emperor 
  holds a higher position 
  in society, because he is 
  closer to God. Every 
  church in Ethiopia has a 
  completely enclosed 
  inner room, which is 
  entered only by the 
  priest. People gather to 
  worship patron saints 
  and take mass in church 
  on religious and 
  national holidays.
  Leather pouch 
  containing 
  Koranic script
  These smocks are 
  also worn by chiefs 
  at their investment 
  and at funerals
  Battle gowns 
  were usually 
  made of heavy 
  cotton fabric
  Continued on next page
  
  34
  DIVINING CEREMONIES
  Divination is carried out in many 
  African countries, and one of the 
  most important pieces of 
  equipment is the divination 
  vessel, in which kola nuts are 
  stored. For the Yoruba, the priest 
  performs the rite to solve 
  problems and to establish dates 
  for festivals to honor ancestors 
  and gods. As well as the vessel, 
  he uses a tray which he dusts 
  with flour or powdered wood and 
  on which he marks a pattern. 
  Finally, he has a small tapper, 
  with which he calls upon the god 
  of moral order, Orunmila.
  To preserve good health and 
  prosperity, many Africans perform 
  rituals, including ancestor worship. 
  Ancestors are called upon to solve 
  problems, combat evil spirits, cure 
  sickness, and help people through 
  important events in their lives. The 
  priest, who is also the community’s 
  healer, contacts the ancestors in 
  various ways. He may go into a trance 
  or use magical objects such as oracle 
  boards or carved figures. The Yoruba of 
  Nigeria and the Dogon of Mali, for 
  example, use an oracle bowl and 
  board. In this way, the priest “divines,” 
  or finds out, what the individual 
  consulting him must do.
  DOGON DIVINATION
  The Dogon priest, like the Yoruba 
  priest, uses 16 kola nuts and a tray. 
  He makes a pattern of marks in 
  the dust on the tray to record the 
  number of nuts left behind after 
  he has passed them quickly from 
  one hand to the other several 
  times. The final pattern is the key 
  to a sacred poem recited to the 
  client, who then interprets it 
  for his own purposes.
  POWER FIGURES
  The belief that invisible forces can 
  be destructive is widespread in 
  Africa. Carved human or animal 
  figures are sometimes made that 
  contain “healing” and 
  “protective” substances, which 
  are placed inside the sculpture 
  or rubbed into it. They are 
  often placed in a container 
  that is at the center of the 
  figure. This process is 
  accompanied by 
  chanting and prayers. 
  These figures can be 
  owned by an entire 
  community or by 
  an individual.
  DIVINING STAFFS AND THEIR USE
  In Africa, there is a belief in the close link between events and 
  the behavior of individuals. Sometimes, the priest uses a 
  divination staff to seek out harmful people. The entire community 
  gathers together as the priest moves the staff around until it 
  points at the person believed to be responsible for the evil.
  People drive in 
  nails and then 
  pull them out 
  again to release 
  the spirit’s power
  Divination 
  vessel, 
  Cameroon
  Divination 
  bowls are 
  often 
  elaborately 
  carved
  Divination staff, 
  Mozambique
  Power 
  figure, Zaire
  Magical 
  container 
  at centre 
  of figure
  Continued from previous page
  Rites and rituals
  
  CURING ILLNESSES
  People believe that illnesses such as headaches, 
  nightmares, and chest pains can be cured by a 
  priest. His medicine pack is frequently placed in 
  the stomach of a smaller carved figure, like this 
  one (above) from Zaire. Sometimes the medicine 
  is covered by a mirror that is believed to warn 
  the owner from which direction 
  harmful threats 
  may come.
  WARDING OFF EVIL SPIRITS
  In certain parts of western Africa, carved heads and 
  masks that represent female and male spirits are 
  used in rituals and ceremonies. The female masks 
  are usually of beautiful, serene spirits and have 
  distinctive faces and elaborate hairstyles that are 
  painted black. Other masks are depicted as fierce, 
  terrifying characters, and are usually male. Some 
  of the masks and heads are used in masquerade 
  (pp. 62–63) by the secret societies. For example, 
  the Ekpo secret society of the Ibibio uses carved 
  heads in masquerade. This Bambuku head (right) 
  would have been left in a small shelter at the 
  entrance to a village to scare off evil spirits.
  Typically elaborate 
  hornlike carving
  Black dye obtained 
  from plants or tree 
  bark and believed 
  to be powerful
  These figures 
  were often worn 
  around the neck
  Carved wooden head of 
  the Bambuku people of 
  the Cross River area of 
  Nigeria and Cameroon
  Teeth individually cut 
  and inserted one by one
  Distinctive 
  curled hairstyle
  Matching 
  elaborate 
  hairdo at 
  back of head
  Fierce expression 
  on this carved 
  head to scare 
  away evil spirits
  
  3
  Myth and magic
  Stories about the way the world began and 
  how people came into being are often told in 
  Africa. Important or royal ancestors play a 
  central role in these “creation myths,” which 
  tell how the ancestors traveled far and 
  wide, fought monsters, invented 
  incredible devices, and established the 
  community. Some of these mythical heroes 
  are also gods who demand regular worship 
  and sacrifice. The stories form part of the 
  initiation into adulthood of young boys and girls, 
  who may also become members of secret 
  societies. The societies play a very important 
  role in decision-making in a community and 
  affect how the community is organized. 
  Each secret society has knowledge that 
  is only available to its members.
  GOOD LUCK CHARMS
  Magical charms were often 
  worn for good luck and 
  protection. Soldiers, for 
  example, carried and wore 
  various talismans as a 
  protection against weapons 
  or poison. When going on a 
  journey, a charm made by 
  the local priest may be given 
  to the traveler to protect him 
  or her against any dangers. 
  This traveler’s charm is a 
  bundle of torn rags hanging 
  from a carved antelope horn, 
  and would have been carried 
  at all times on the journey.
  SOCIETY FIGURES
  These figures are 
  used by women 
  diviners of the Yassi 
  society of the Mende 
  people of Sierra Leone. 
  This was a secret society 
  involved in healing 
  practices, and their medicine 
  was kept in a house marked 
  by painted spots on the 
  outside walls. The figures 
  were placed beside the 
  medicine and consulted 
  when necessary by the 
  Yassi official.
  KISSI FIGURE
  Carved soapstone 
  figures are thought to 
  be part of the earlier 
  cultures of the Kissi 
  and Mende peoples 
  of Sierra Leone. They 
  are worshipped in 
  shrines as protectors  
  of the harvest.
  Mende figure 
  is carved 
  from wood
  LUCKY CHARMS
  Certain cultures have been 
  greatly affected by Christianity 
  and Islam, yet still retain some of 
  their traditional religious values. 
  The Galla people of Ethiopia 
  often use cattle charms (above) 
  to ensure successful breeding.
  Neck rings 
  show status 
  of individual
  Small packages 
  and other things such 
  as shells were added to 
  scare away harmful spirits
  Figures are 
  associated 
  with healing
  
  3
  AT AN OSHUN SHRINE
  The Yoruba peoples of Nigeria worship many 
  gods, one of which is the river god Oshun, 
  the most important of the female gods. The 
  myth of Oshun tells how the work of the 
  male deities on Earth was unsuccessful until 
  they included her in their ranks. Oshun is 
  prayed to at her shrines (above) for female 
  fertility and protection against disease.
  THE PRESENCE OF ANCESTORS
  Ancestor figures, such as those of 
  the Yoruba, are regarded with great 
  respect and are represented by both 
  carvings (left) and masks, which 
  are kept in houses and in shrines. 
  Images of their followers (left) are 
  part of everyday life, and their 
  presence in homes illustrates 
  the importance of life in the 
  community. Such figures 
  are carved by craftsmen 
  according to established 
  rules of design.
  Sande masquerade 
  costume, Mende 
  peoples, 
  Sierra Leone
  SANDE IN MASQUERADE
  A Sande masquerader must 
  conceal her identity, so she 
  is completely covered by a 
  wooden mask and long 
  black raffia fringes (right). 
  The characteristic black 
  masks, although worn 
  by the women, are 
  always carved 
  by men.
  SANDE WOMEN
  The Sande society of the Mende of 
  Sierra Leone is the only masking 
  tradition performed by women in Africa. 
  Each Sande society or lodge is controlled 
  by senior officials led by a sowei, who is 
  often the village midwife. Young girls are 
  instructed in sexual, domestic, and craft skills 
  in preparation for marriage and motherhood.
  Traveler’s 
  charm, Zaire
  Typical 
  elaborate 
  hairstyle
  Folds of flesh 
  around neck 
  indicate wealth
  Body is 
  covered by 
  raffia fringes
  
  3
  Medicine and healing
  When seeking a cure for sickness, many 
  Africans consult Western-style doctors and take 
  advantage of modern technological treatments. 
  However, the same people will also seek the 
  advice of a traditional healer, a doctor of traditional 
  medicine who is also a religious specialist. To identify the 
  source of the illness, the healer often contacts good and 
  evil spirits by going into a trance. Treatment may 
  include an animal sacrifice, or, if another 
  human being is considered responsible, the 
  use of herbs or magical substances to 
  combat the enemy spirit. The healer may 
  also involve other people. Among the 
  Ndembu of Zambia, friends of the patient are 
  called together so that the healer can find out 
  who among them is holding a 
  grudge against the patient.
  SURGICAL TOOLS FROM SOMALIA
  These instruments reflect the curious mixture of outside influences 
  (in this case, the Middle East) and traditional beliefs that occurs in 
  African societies. As well as surgical tools to remove tonsils, 
  spatulas, and a splint, there is also a counter-irritant that relies on 
  the patient yelling when the heated nail is applied to the wound, 
  letting the pain “escape by the mouth.”
  MAGICAL POWERS
  This traditional healer in 
  northern Cameroon is 
  performing a healing 
  ceremony. He involves 
  the other villagers in 
  making music by 
  rhythmically passing a 
  charm over the sick 
  person. Healers often 
  chant, sing, and dance in 
  order to attract the 
  goodwill of the spirits. 
  They believe that this 
  makes the medicines 
  more effective, and 
  encourages the patient 
  to recover quickly.
  IRON STAFFS
  In Yoruba society, medicine men 
  belong to the cult of Osanyin, the 
  god of herbal medicines. Osanyin’s 
  powers are secret, but are often 
  represented by bird-headed staffs. 
  The staffs are symbols of healing 
  and herbalism. The central bird 
  represents the power of the elders, 
  who, after death, were believed to 
  take the form of birds.
  Nail heated 
  to apply 
  to wound
  Birds symbolize 
  the power of 
  the elders
  Counter-
  irritant
  Spatulas
  Surgical 
  knives
  Bird-headed 
  iron staffs, 
  Yoruba, 
  Nigeria
  Hook for 
  extracting 
  tonsils
  Wood splint 
  to set 
  fracture
  
  39
  ESSENTIAL INGREDIENTS
  The healer keeps his medicine bag with him at all 
  times. Various items, such as wooden sticks and 
  shells, are used in ceremonies that call upon the 
  spirits in order to treat the patient. The medicine 
  man understands the importance of a patient’s 
  mental or emotional condition, and how this may 
  affect the ability to recover from an illness. The 
  patient is therefore always treated in the 
  community in which he or she lives, and is 
  assured by the traditional healer of the 
  community’s concern and involvement, 
  so that recovery can be encouraged.
  TOOLS OF THE TRADE
  As well as an ability to communicate with 
  spirits, the healer has knowledge of local 
  herbs and plants and the way they can be 
  used in medicine. He also knows a great 
  deal about his patients because he is a 
  member of their community; as is the 
  case with doctors all over the world, this 
  often aids him in his work.
  Hippopotamus 
  tooth
  Bundle 
  of shells 
  and wood
  Wooden 
  sticks
  Cowrie 
  shell
  Animal 
  bone
  Animal bone
  Bundle of 
  sticks bound 
  with string
  Twisted pieces 
  of tree root
  Animal 
  hooves
  Brass bell
  Traditional 
  healer’s 
  bag, Congo
  Bag is made of 
  woven raffia
  
  40
  A way of death
  When a person dies in Africa, 
  the family sometimes performs a 
  number of rituals to ensure that the 
  spirit of the dead person moves easily 
  into the world of his or her ancestors. 
  Carvings of the ancestors, which are 
  kept in shrines, help to retain the link 
  between this world and the next, so the 
  family does not lose contact. A period of 
  mourning forges links between the living 
  and the dead, and sometimes sets the family 
  apart from the rest of society for a short time. In 
  Madagascar, for example, women in mourning 
  stop combing their hair and wear white.
  FUNERARY FIGURES
  Some funerary figures were carved to 
  represent ancestors, whose remains were 
  kept in containers in a special hut under the 
  care of one of the male elders of the village. 
  The carved figure was placed on top of the 
  container. This Kota funerary figure from 
  Gabon (above) would have been placed in 
  a dark corner of the hut. The metal acts like 
  a mirror and is believed to reflect back any 
  evil that threatens.
  ROYAL BURIAL
  Kings and chiefs are 
  considered sacred and 
  have elaborate funerals. 
  Traditionally, they are buried 
  with their servants, who will 
  help them in the afterlife. It 
  was important that the kings 
  were impressive in death, 
  so they were often buried in 
  full regalia. This man (left) 
  was buried in a chamber in 
  the ground, fully dressed and 
  seated upright on a stool. 
  He wore a copper crown 
  and beaded armlets, and 
  there were elephant tusks 
  at his feet. His tomb was in 
  the village of Igbo-Ukwu in 
  Nigeria, and he was probably 
  a ruler of the Ibo peoples.
  VOICE DISGUISER
  According to a legend, 
  bones of one of the founding 
  ancestors of the Tiv people 
  of Nigeria were placed in 
  a basket, and people were 
  warned that if it was 
  opened, crops would fail 
  and the Tiv would perish. 
  These ancestral bones have 
  been replaced today by a 
  priest using a voice disguiser 
  as a warning to his people. 
  Voice disguisers are used 
  by many groups in Nigeria. 
  They distort the priest’s 
  voice, making it boom.
  MEMORIALS IN MADAGASCAR
  In Madagascar, dead people are placed in family tombs. Because many of the families are 
  scattered, members often die far away from their family tombs. In such cases, the dead are 
  temporarily buried somewhere else until there is enough money gathered for the ritual 
  and all the relatives have been assembled. The body is then dug up, wrapped in a burial 
  cloth, and reburied in the ancestral tomb. Tombs vary from region to region, and this circle 
  of graveposts marks the tomb of someone of noble descent.
  Figure is made 
  of wood covered 
  in brass
  Graveposts are topped with 
  carvings of animals, human 
  figures, and nowadays even 
  bicycles and airplanes
  Abinsi voice 
  disguiser, 
  Nigeria
  Colored seeds 
  decorate base
  
  41
  FANTASY COFFINS
  Highly individual coffins are built on request in Ghana. 
  A coffin with a large cocoa pod can be made for a cocoa 
  farmer who wishes to take his wealth with him. The tradition 
  began when a fisherman asked his nephew to make him a 
  special coffin, as he hoped to go on fishing in the next world.
  FINDING THE GUILTY CULPRIT
  The Kuyu people of Gabon believe 
  that the death of an individual is the 
  result of an evil spell. The priest is 
  called upon to detect the real cause 
  of death by magical means. Wearing 
  a long robe and a carved head 
  (right), the priest dances among 
  the male villagers. He stops 
  dancing in front of the person 
  believed responsible. That 
  person simply accepts this 
  and pays an appropriate fine.
  LUCKY FOR SOME
  Some west African peoples regard the birth of 
  twins as unfortunate, but the Yoruba of Nigeria 
  welcome them and even consider them lucky 
  after certain ritual duties have been completed. 
  If one or both of the twins dies, a carving of 
  them is made to ward off harmful spirits.
  Women and children 
  are not allowed to 
  see the head
  Funerary 
  carvings of 
  twins are 
  called Ibeji
  This coffin was 
  probably made 
  for a fisherman
  Carved head, 
  Kuyu people, 
  Gabon
  Ritual 
  scars on 
  cheeks
  Sharpened teeth 
  are typical of 
  these carvings
  
  42
  Nations at war
  There were three different types of traditional warfare in Africa 
  – state wars, raids by one group on another, and the jihads, or holy 
  wars. The state wars were led by kings or emperors who were able to 
  call their troops into battle on short notice. The king of Benin could 
  raise 20,000 warriors in one day, and Ethiopian armies could number 
  as many as 200,000. The raids were carried out by neighboring groups 
  with different interests. The cattle-herding Maasai of Kenya, for 
  example, were frequently at war with the farming Kikuyu in 
  order to gain access to watering holes and land rights. 
  Armies also went to war for religious purposes. 
  The spread of Islam in the region south of the 
  Sahara occurred partly because of trade but 
  also as a result of the 
  holy wars.
  MAASAI RAIDS
  The Maasai of Kenya 
  and their neighbors, the 
  Kikuyu made frequent raids on 
  each another. They planned their attacks carefully 
  and used scouts to find out the whereabouts of 
  cattle or other property belonging to the enemy. If 
  two groups confronted one another, they often held 
  a duel between their two best warriors before 
  beginning the main combat.
  FABRIC WAR TALES
  Many stories of military campaigns 
  were handed down through the 
  generations. Dahomean chiefs or 
  nobles would often commission 
  clothmakers to make 
  banners showing their 
  successful battles.
  PREPARING FOR WAR
  Getting ready to go to 
  war not only included 
  planning strategies 
  and tactics but also ritual 
  preparations to strengthen the 
  warrior and all his weapons. 
  Many men, such as the Zulu 
  soldiers, chewed magical 
  substances and spat them in the 
  direction of the enemy before 
  attacking. Protective charms 
  were also worn by either 
  soldiers or their horses.
  THE MAHDI
  The Muslim leader Muhammed Ahmed 
  was known as the Mahdi, or “the rightly 
  guided one.” He united many Sudanese 
  peoples in a religious crusade in the 
  second half of the 19th century.
  WOMEN AT WAR
  Although women 
  sometimes accompanied 
  their husbands to war, the 
  king of Dahomey was 
  exceptional in having an 
  all-female guard. Called 
  ahosi, they were greatly 
  respected for their skill and 
  bravery. They were not 
  allowed to form any 
  personal relationships, 
  as they had to remain 
  loyal to their king.
  A victorious member 
  of the ahosi carries 
  the head of 
  an enemy
  Maasai 
  shield
  Sudanese 
  shield
  Painted design and 
  shape of shield tells 
  us about the 
  warrior
  
  43
  THE ZULUS AND CATTLE
  The South African Zulu army was divided 
  into regiments, each living in a self-
  sufficient village with its own herd of cattle. 
  Each cow was chosen because its hide 
  was the right regimental pattern and 
  color. The hides were later 
  made into shields. Zulu 
  military strategy was even 
  based on the shape of 
  a cow. The young 
  soldiers were 
  the horns 
  that encircled 
  the enemy.
  THE ASANTE
  The kingdom of the Asante in 
  Ghana rose to its height in the 
  18th century because of the 
  power of its armies. These 
  supported and protected its 
  trade in gold and other 
  products. The Asante’s use 
  of European firearms 
  reduced their need 
  for shields.
  ZULU WARRIOR
  Zulu regiments were 
  distinguished by their elaborate 
  headgear and shields. The more 
  experienced soldiers had white shields 
  with black markings; middle-rank 
  soldiers held red shields; younger ones 
  had black shields. The shields were 
  made by specialists. King Shaka of the 
  Zulus believed that, once dipped in 
  water, the shields could protect his 
  soldiers from heavy musket balls.
  THE ZULU WARS
  From the 17th century, Dutch farmers and their 
  descendants, the Boers, had pushed gradually 
  northward from the Cape of Good Hope in 
  search of land and cattle. This led to 
  battles with many groups that stood in 
  their way. By the mid-1800s, they found 
  themselves in conflict with the mighty 
  army of the Zulu empire. It was not 
  until the end of the century, when 
  the British fought the Zulus 
  with machine guns, that defeat 
  signaled the end of an 
  independent Zulu nation.
  Zulu warriors wore 
  elaborate headdresses 
  of ostrich 
  feathers
  Horse wearing cloth 
  with Islamic text 
  sewn on as 
  protective 
  charms
  Zulu 
  warshield
  A detail from carved horn (right) 
  showing British soldiers and Zulus
  Supple pieces of 
  hide are woven 
  through slits to 
  create pattern
  Hide was dried in 
  the sun, buried under 
  manure for two days, 
  then pounded with stones
  
  44
  Into battle
  ARMED AND READY
  The cavalryman carried several 
  weapons into battle. The straight- 
  bladed double-edged sword that he 
  carried in its scabbard across his back was 
  an essential weapon. However, his main 
  weapons were his spears, because they were strong enough to 
  pierce the chain mail of the enemy. Sometimes he carried an 
  ax as well, which would have been hung from the saddle.
  HEAVY PROTECTION
  A cuirass, or body armor, was worn by the Fulani heavy 
  cavalryman as an alternative to chain mail. It was certainly 
  better protection against arrows and spears than other 
  methods of protection, such as the cloth that the Mossi 
  cavalrymen of Burkina Faso wrapped around themselves. 
  The Fulani horseman, weighted down by all this heavy 
  armor, needed assistance to get onto his horse. If he fell off 
  during a battle, he could not remount.
  Heavy metal 
  covering of 
  body armor 
  made of iron
  Iron blade of 
  battle ax forged
  THE QUILTED HORSEMAN
  This is a lancer in the heavy cavalry of the 
  Sultan of Bagirmi, drawn from life by an 
  English major in the 1820s. Both rider and 
  horse wore cloth as quilted armor to protect 
  them from flying arrows. A double-headed 
  lance was sometimes used in close combat 
  with the enemy because it was capable of 
  piercing metal armor.
  The horsemen of Sudanic Africa – the savanna region south 
  of the Sahara Desert – played a vital role in the rise to power 
  of many West African empires from the 9th century onwards. 
  They controlled the trans-Saharan trade routes, and 
  in this way acquired large North African horses to 
  replace the smaller native breeds. The cavalry were 
  divided into light and heavy squadrons. The light 
  cavalry were usually mounted on small horses, 
  armed with light javelins and one large spear, and 
  rode bareback. In warfare, their speed and ability 
  to maneuver meant that they could be used for 
  surprise attacks on the enemy. A heavy cavalryman, 
  whose uniform is shown on these pages, was 
  usually mounted on a large horse, and armed with 
  a sword, a heavy lance, a large shield, spears, and 
  more protective armor. 
  He formed part of the 
  ruler’s bodyguard.
  Hand loop 
  provides 
  better grip
  Cuirass padded 
  with leather for 
  extra protection 
  and comfort
  Single-
  headed 
  lance
  Fulani body armour
  The ruler’s 
  bodyguards 
  carried two 
  spears
  Ceremonial 
  swords were worn 
  across the body
  
  45
  Patchwork 
  decoration was 
  sometimes added 
  on coat
  RECYCLED PROTECTION
  As well as protecting the 
  warrior in battle, this helmet 
  was probably used for 
  ceremonies, when the 
  cavalryman appeared as 
  part of his ruler’s 
  bodyguard. The 
  helmet was padded 
  with kapok (raw 
  cotton) to protect 
  the head from 
  the metal 
  headpiece.
  Birds’ feathers 
  were often used to 
  decorate helmets
  Today, metal parts are made 
  from recycled containers 
  when locally smelted iron 
  is not available
  Brightly colored 
  cloaks were worn 
  over the armor
  DISTINCTIVE UNIFORM
  Until the end of the 19th century, the Fulani 
  heavy cavalryman wore metal body armour 
  or chainmail under a quilted coat. After this, 
  quilted coats, like the metal armor, were 
  worn as part of the uniform only for 
  ceremonies. The quilted armor consisted 
  of separate pieces to cover different parts 
  of the body. This particular horseman 
  also wore a bright red cloak, its lining 
  distinctively embroidered. The cloak 
  was probably worn for warmth or 
  in ceremonies, because in 
  battle it would have been 
  too cumbersome.
  Cloaks were sometimes 
  embroidered or the lining 
  was decorated to make 
  them individual
  Padded coat 
  of raw cotton 
  woven on a 
  local loom
  Cotton fringe 
  hangs down 
  back of neck
  Heavy quilted 
  coat was stuffed 
  with kapok
  
  4
  Weapons and armor
  Over thousands of years, a huge variety of fighting 
  implements has gradually evolved in Africa. Many of 
  these weapons were used not only in battles and wars – 
  different kinds of swords, spears, throwing knives, shields, 
  and body armor were designed for display and ceremonial uses. 
  For example, the afena, or state sword, is symbolic of the authority 
  of the king of the Asante peoples of Ghana; the royal sword and 
  lance are carried by the king of the Kuba people of Zaire 
  on state occasions. Protection was provided not only by 
  weapons and shields – Fulani and other Muslim warriors 
  often wore sayings from the Koran, the holy book of 
  Islam, for luck, encased in leather pouches hanging from 
  the neck or sewn into clothes.
  STATUS SYMBOL
  An Ethiopian warrior had every reason to be 
  proud of his shield, as it announced his status 
  as well as his military skills. Wrapped in a red 
  cotton cloth, the shield, along with the 
  warrior’s other arms, was carried on his mule. 
  A servant boy stood behind his master 
  during discussions and held the shield. 
  Shields were often decorated with a lion’s 
  mane, tail, or paw, mounted in clasps of 
  decorative silverwork.
  ALL SORTS OF SPEARS
  Spears were frequently employed in both 
  battle and hunting. The larger spear (left) 
  was used by the Lango of Uganda, who 
  frequently raided their neighbors to 
  capture cattle. The smaller spear (far 
  left) is a Zulu iklwa or thrusting 
  spear, often used in close combat.
  Knobkerrie is 
  also used as 
  a swagger 
  stick or snuff 
  container
  ESSENTIAL ACCESSORY
  The fighting stick was used by many peoples, including 
  the Dinka of Sudan, as a throwing weapon, a 
  fashionable accessory, a symbol of office, or simply as a 
  tool for everyday tasks. Some sticks were spiked with 
  metal studs and nails. Others had a socketed iron spike 
  fixed to the end of the shaft. This spike was useful not 
  only as an additional weapon in battle, but it could also 
  be pushed into the ground to turn the stick into a stool.
  Hide is covered 
  with velvet 
  and silverwork
  CLOSE COMBAT
  Some of the deadliest and 
  most effective weapons used 
  during close combat were 
  battle-axes. This ax from 
  Botswana is decorated with 
  incisions on the blade. Both 
  the ax and the Sudanese knife 
  were used as symbols 
  of power.
  Iron knife, 
  Mangbetu, 
  Sudan
  Battle-ax, 
  Botswana
  
  4
  QUILTED COAT
  Traditionally worn by the horsemen of 
  Sudanic Africa, the savanna region south 
  of the Sahara, fabulous horse costumes 
  are still used in ceremonial displays 
  today. This Fulani horse armor is made 
  from quilted cotton cloth stuffed with 
  kapok – the silky hairs that surround the 
  seeds of the silk cotton tree. In full battle 
  armor, the horse would also have been 
  protected from a rain of arrows or spears 
  by chain mail or leather pieces across the 
  flanks. A helmet, made of bound rags and 
  often covered in chain mail, completed 
  the outfit.
  Copper bells 
  on neck charm 
  to keep horse and 
  rider safe in battle
  Tassels on 
  headpiece protect 
  horse’s face from flies
  Cotton fabric is 
  quilted with strong 
  cotton thread
  Girth strap ties 
  around horse’s 
  stomach
  Metal stirrup attaches to 
  saddle with leather strap
  DAGGERS AND KNIVES
  African knives come in all 
  shapes and sizes. This 
  dagger from Nigeria was 
  widely used by the armies 
  south of the Sahara. It was 
  attached to a soldier’s arm 
  by the leather strap. The 
  copper knife, as with 
  other copper weapons, 
  was used mainly in 
  ceremonial exchanges.
  HUNGA-MUNGAS
  Central African weapons are famous for their 
  peculiar shapes, including this bird-headed 
  throwing knife, called a hunga-munga until the 
  19th century. Both knives are shaped like bird’s 
  heads. The back of the “head” has a sharp spur, so 
  that when the knife is thrown and fails to strike 
  with the “beak,” it impales with the edge of 
  the spur instead. A soldier waited until 
  he was close to the enemy, then took 
  the knife from its sheath, throwing 
  and spinning it like a boomerang.
  Copper 
  knife, Zaire
  Dagger, 
  Nigeria
  Throwing 
  knife, Congo
  Bird-headed 
  throwing knife, 
  Gabon
  
  4
  For centuries, africans have traded in the rich 
  resources of their continent. The trading routes that 
  developed across the Sahara Desert during the first 
  millenium a.d. helped to establish the great empires of 
  the Songhay, Mali, and ancient Ghana. In the 15th and 
  16th centuries, Portuguese sailors opened up the sea 
  routes to eastern Africa, and Muslim merchants began 
  to carry goods by camel to and from 
  West Africa across the Sahara. Gold 
  and copper, mined in southern and 
  western Africa, were transported 
  to the East African coast, the 
  Middle East, and Asia. Salt, 
  ivory, ebony, kola nuts, 
  and later slaves, were 
  exchanged for ceramics, 
  beads, silk, and cowrie 
  shells from Europe and 
  eastern Asia.
  TRADING SHIPS
  The Indian Ocean was 
  fairly easy to navigate 
  because of the monsoon 
  winds that blow steadily 
  toward the African coast 
  during the winter months, 
  and away from it, toward 
  India, during the summer. 
  This allowed regular trading 
  of goods by sailing ships to 
  and from East Africa. All 
  along the East African 
  coast, towns such as 
  Zanzibar, Kilwa, and 
  Mombasa grew and 
  developed as they 
  became major 
  trading centers.
  Barter and exchange
  TRAVELLING IN A CARAVAN
  Traders were only able to travel such 
  distances across the Sahara because of 
  the remarkable staying power of the 
  camel. This extraordinary animal can 
  travel for days without food or water 
  because of its body’s ability to 
  conserve water and store fat. 
  Caravans with as many as 12,000 
  camels would journey for up to three 
  months across the desert.
  TRADING EAST
  Gifts such as this zebra were brought to the court 
  of the Indian Moghul emperor Jehangir in the 
  17th century. Traders from the East African coast 
  crossed the Indian Ocean, linking the markets of 
  East Africa with the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, 
  India, and the Far East.
  TRADE ROUTES 
  ACROSS THE SAHARA
  Caravan routes used by 
  Muslim merchants linked 
  the towns at the southern edge of the Sahara 
  desert with parts of North Africa by way of 
  oasis towns such as Walata, the market town 
  on the northern border of the Mali empire. 
  Timbuktu became a prosperous trading city 
  and a center of learning.
  Arab traders 
  could cross 200 
  miles (320 km) 
  of desert in 
  a week
  Tripoli
  Cairo
  Tunis
  Mogador
  Bilma
  Niger River
  Awdaghost
  Walata
  Timbuktu
  Gao
  Takedda
  Taghaza
  Insalan
  Zebra illustrated in 
  watercolor and gold on 
  paper by the Indian 
  artist Mansur
  Trading ship, called a 
  dhow, used by Muslim 
  traders in the 
  Persian Gulf
  Triangular lateen 
  sails would be 
  unfurled to catch 
  monsoon winds
  
  49
  Currency
  Before the introduction of 
  western coinage, many other 
  means of payment were used – 
  animals, textiles, beads, as well as 
  other objects considered precious. In traditional Africa, 
  currencies varied widely from region to region. Among 
  the cattle-herding communities, the number of cattle 
  owned by a person indicated his wealth, and the cattle 
  were used for trading. In other areas, locally woven cloths 
  were used, as well as spears, beads, bars of salt, cowrie 
  shells, and metal bars known as manillas.
  DINKA WEDDING NEGOTIATIONS, SUDAN
  In the cattle-herding areas of Africa, the family of the 
  prospective husband are expected to make a payment 
  to the family of the future bride. This bride price is 
  traditionally in the form of cattle. Here, the families are 
  negotiating the bride price. The sticks on the ground 
  represent the number of cattle.
  CURRENCY AND EXCHANGE RATES
  Before the introduction of scrap 
  metal and western coinage, locally 
  produced metal was an extremely 
  important item of exchange in Africa. 
  Iron money took the form of objects 
  such as arrowheads, hoes, or spears, 
  and in north Zaire and some parts of 
  Sudan, throwing knives (pp. 46–47). 
  Among the Nkutshu of Zaire two 
  currency blades could usually buy a 
  bride. Each was worth 1,250 of the 
  smaller hoe heads.
  Manillas, the most 
  valuable money 
  unit in ancient 
  Benin
  Hoe head 
  currency, 
  central Africa
  Austrian Maria Theresa 
  dollar, late 1700s
  English gold 
  guinea, 1660s
  Almoravid gold 
  dinar, 1100s
  Salt bars were exported 
  to Arabia and the 
  Far East
  Metal spear paid as bride price, 
  Azande, Sudan
  Copper ring 
  weighing nearly 
  6.5 lbs (3 kg) “bought” 
  one wife, central Africa
  Brass manillas were 
  melted and used to 
  make Benin 
  bronzes
  Widely used 
  in north 
  Africa
  African 
  elephant on 
  base of coin
  Used as 
  gold standard 
  for trading
  
  50
  A slave’s journey
  As the tobacco, sugar, and cotton plantations 
  became established in the Caribbean and the 
  Americas, the plantation owners needed more 
  workers. European traders were interested in 
  capturing or buying slaves from Africa, and 
  African rulers were willing to sell the slaves 
  they had captured in wars. Men, women, 
  and children were forcibly taken, tied, or 
  shackled together, and marched to the 
  coast to await a ship. Those who 
  survived the long journey were sold to 
  plantation owners.
  DETERENTS TO SLAVERY
  These lip disks (for both top 
  and bottom lips) were worn 
  by the Sara women of central 
  Africa. Although considered 
  attractive by the Sara peoples, 
  the lip disks were not 
  considered an asset by the 
  Europeans. This made it less 
  likely that the women would 
  be captured and marched 
  across Africa to be 
  transported and sold.
  SHACKLED
  Gangs of armed raiders 
  traveled into the forests of 
  western Africa to capture as 
  many men, women, and children as 
  possible. The villagers were shackled 
  together and marched to the coast. During 
  the journey they were treated with great 
  brutality, and at the coast the hardship 
  continued. Although children were often 
  captured with their parents, the traders 
  were not concerned if families or 
  villagers were kept together. They 
  separated the slaves according to age, 
  size, sex, and physical fitness.
  NO WAY OUT
  On a slaveship, limited space and the poor 
  ventilation and sanitation led to many deaths, both 
  from sickness and suicide. Sometimes the slaves 
  mutinied, but this usually led to the ringleaders 
  being killed, or the slaves wandering the ocean, 
  unable to steer the captured ship.
  ECONOMIC DISASTER
  From 1500 to 1850, about 
  25 million people either died during wars fought 
  between African rulers or were captured and sold 
  into slavery, like this netted man awaiting 
  transport. This had a disastrous effect on 
  traditional ways of life, and deprived the 
  continent of a vital part of the population.
  TRAVELING ON A SLAVESHIP
  Slaveships were usually overloaded, with as many 
  as 600 slaves crammed into a space built for 400. 
  Many slaves died on the way, and some 
  committed suicide by refusing food or throwing 
  themselves overboard to drown.
  The boy’s room – men 
  and boys were kept at 
  the front of the boat
  Lack of space 
  meant that slaves 
  could not lie down
  
  51
  SLAVE AUCTIONS
  When the slaves had been safely landed 
  on the shores of Virginia in the United 
  States, or in the Caribbean, they were 
  sold at auction. Plantation owners 
  and managers inspected every 
  individual to see if he or she 
  was healthy before they 
  would bid – they examined 
  the teeth in particular as a 
  guide to age. Slaves were 
  not regarded as people 
  but as something to be 
  replaced if they got old 
  or ill, or showed signs 
  of rebellion.
  BRANDS AND BRANDING
  The slave traders cared little for their 
  slaves, merely wanting them to survive to 
  be sold in reasonable condition. They 
  branded the slaves as if they were cattle 
  before they were put on board. After 
  auction, the slaves were branded again by 
  the plantation owner to show that they 
  were his property.
  THE RISE AND FALL OF SLAVERY
  Arabic traders began the widespread 
  selling of Africans as slaves over 1,000 years 
  ago, contact with Europeans increased the 
  trade, and it was at its height by 1800. The 
  slaves’ endurance of frequent whippings and 
  beatings prompted anti-slavery 
  movements in the U.S. and England 
  as early as 1690. In England the anti-
  slavery movement gained influence 
  and momentum throughout the 18th 
  century. In 1833, British Parliament 
  passed a law that freed all slaves the 
  following year. In the United States, 
  slavery was abolished in the 
  North by the 13th 
  Amendment after 
  the Civil War.
  Whips were 
  usually made 
  of hemp
  HUMAN CARGO
  Slaves were regarded as 
  cargo along with other 
  products, and were 
  identified on the ship’s list 
  by a special symbol (left).
  Model of the slave ship Brookes, 
  used by William Wilberforce to 
  campaign against slavery in the 
  British Houses of Parliament
  Women’s room – 
  women were set free to 
  exercise and eat, but 
  manacled otherwise
  The officers’ 
  cabin was over 
  the women’s 
  quarters
  In the men’s room, 
  the strongest men 
  were permanently 
  chained in twos
  Symbol for 
  a slave
  Slave-driver’s whip, 
  west coast, Africa
  The auctioneer 
  sells a family 
  into slavery
  The girls, branded 
  like the rest, were 
  kept at the back of 
  the boat
  The slaves were 
  fed rice, corn, 
  yams, cassava, 
  and beans
  Most slaves were 
  aged between 
  16 and 45
  
  52
  Crafts and skills
  In many african societies, some activities are carried 
  out solely by women, and others are performed only by 
  men. This is particularly the case with two highly skilled 
  occupations – pottery and metalworking. Pottery is made 
  by women for everyday use, but it is also used in many 
  initiation ceremonies for young girls. The Yoruba of Nigeria 
  and the Shona of Zimbabwe use pottery items as part of a 
  new bride’s belongings. Metalworking is an exclusively 
  male activity. Because of his technical skill, 
  handed down from family to family, the 
  blacksmith is respected, feared, or even 
  despised by other villagers.
  POTTERY TOOLS
  Clay is a very versatile material. 
  It is easy to manipulate and 
  can be used to make a wide 
  variety of shapes. Only 
  simple tools are needed, 
  like these, which belonged 
  to a potter in Sudan. They 
  are used to make coil 
  pots from rolls of clay 
  placed on top of 
  each other and 
  then smoothed.
  MAKING A POT
  In most African societies, it is the women who 
  produce pottery, and they make it by hand. In 
  North Africa, however, male potters use a potter’s 
  wheel. A kiln for firing is also used only in North 
  Africa. Elsewhere, the pottery may be fired by 
  covering with brushwood or grass and setting it 
  alight. A wide variety of items are produced, such 
  as pipes, toys, furniture, and jewelry, as well as 
  containers. For the most part, the women make 
  everyday items for use or sale. However, there are 
  some established artisans, such as the potters of 
  Bida in Nigeria.
  IN HUMAN FORM
  In the early 20th century, potters of the Mangbetu people of 
  northeastern Zaire and the Azande people of Sudan began to 
  produce pots in the form of human heads, and 
  sometimes the entire body. This form was probably 
  made largely for sale to Europeans.
  Bark of allogia tree, 
  when soaked, 
  produces red dye to 
  color finished pot
  Stone to polish 
  molded pot after it 
  has dried in the sun
  Shell for smoothing 
  and removing surplus 
  clay before drying
  Wooden 
  mallet to 
  pound clay
  New pot is begun 
  on flat piece of 
  old pot
  Fibrous root to 
  apply dye 
  while pot is 
  still hot
  Earthenware 
  nozzle to direct 
  air onto fire
  Human-headed 
  pot, Azande, 
  Sudan
  
  Iron was produced at a number of sites 
  south of the Sahara Desert from as early as 
  300 b.c. The iron ore was heated to a high 
  temperature in an earthenware furnace. The 
  smelting produced a “bloom,” a lump of 
  raw iron that was fashioned into ingots, or 
  bars. This was then forged by local smiths, or 
  traded to other smiths in distant communities. 
  Smelting iron was a difficult process. 
  Often before it began, there was 
  a ritual ceremony followed 
  by music and dancing to 
  ensure its success.
  53
  SHAPING A HOE BLADE
  Some smiths specialize in making one type 
  of metal object – for example, knives, 
  swords, spears, or hoes. Raw iron or 
  imported scrap metal is heated until it 
  can be pounded into the rough shape 
  of the object – in this case, a hoe 
  blade. Until the 19th century, hoe 
  blades were a form of currency as 
  well as an agricultural tool.
  TOOLS OF THE TRADE
  The smith’s equipment consists of hammers, chisels, an anvil, 
  and bellows. Air is pumped through the bellows by the smith’s 
  apprentice or a young male member of the family. This air 
  controls the fire, and therefore the temperature at which the 
  metal is heated. The hot metal is beaten into shape on the anvil 
  with a hammer. The smith frequently returns the metal to the 
  fire until the task is completed. Although the tools used are 
  simple, some metal objects produced are very sophisticated, 
  particularly weaponry such as the extraordinary bird-headed 
  throwing knives of Gabon (pp.46-47).
  Wooden stick 
  worked by 
  apprentice’s 
  left hand
  FORGING IRON
  Smiths are considered mysterious and 
  powerful figures, set apart from the rest of 
  the community. To maintain secrecy, 
  Tuareg smiths even speak a different 
  language, Tenet, to fellow smiths.
  Bloom, or 
  raw iron
  Bloom 
  beaten flat
  Iron hoe blade 
  emerging
  Finished 
  hoe blade
  Blade is fastened 
  to long pole for 
  use in the fields
  Wooden stick worked by 
  apprentice’s right hand to 
  pump air into hide pouches
  Ironworking
  Hide 
  pouch that 
  fills with air
  
  54
  The lost-wax process
  In the 1660s, the first Dutch explorers 
  of the west coast of Africa described the 
  extraordinary kingdom of Benin. They 
  were particularly impressed by the 
  plaques and bronze works created by 
  Benin craftsmen to decorate the 
  Oba’s palace. The Benin portraits, 
  usually of royal figures, were cast 
  by the lost-wax process, which is 
  described here. The head of 
  the Queen Mother of 
  Benin is re-created by the 
  traditional method. This 
  technique is also found 
  along the coast in Ghana, 
  where the Asante used it to 
  make gold weights (pp. 56–57).
  4
  READY TO FIRE 
  When the head has been 
  completely sealed with the 
  three layers of loamy soil, it 
  is ready to fire. Sticks are put 
  in all over the head to 
  hold the mold in position 
  once the wax has melted. 
  The mold is either 
  surrounded by wood 
  and fired above 
  ground, or put in a 
  pit and wood 
  arranged around 
  the head is set 
  on fire.
  1
   MAKING THE CORE 
   The core, a mixture 
  of loamy soil (clay, silt, 
  and sand) and water, is 
  built up from the base 
  gradually. Each stage is 
  allowed to dry so it will 
  be strong enough to 
  support the weight 
  above. The core is then 
  covered with a 0.1 in 
  layer of beeswax, 
  which is the 
  eventual width 
  of the bronze.
  3
   SEALING THE CORE 
   The head is now covered in the same 
  loamy mixture that formed the core. This is 
  done in three layers. The first, the layer 
  nearest the head, has to be very well 
  worked and smooth, and is left to dry 
  thoroughly. The other two layers are 
  put on to give support and strength to 
  the mold. String is put between the 
  last two layers to hold the mold in 
  position in case it breaks while 
  being fired.
  Etched wax
  Wax is built up inside 
  the base to form a channel, 
  so that when the wax 
  melts, it can flow out
  Completed 
  first layer of 
  loamy soil
  2
   MOLDING THE WAX 
   Having completely 
  covered the core with a 
  smooth layer of beeswax, 
  the craftsman begins to 
  etch the pattern and 
  decoration with a 
  molding bone. The 
  color of the wax 
  varies according to 
  the diet of the 
  bees that 
  produce it.
  Detail put 
  on with 
  molding 
  bone
  Very smooth, 
  loamy first 
  layer
  The layers 
  follow the shape 
  of the mold
  Sharp knife 
  to trim
  Bone modeling 
  tool
  Metal modeling 
  tool
  
  55
  Shield to protect 
  from heat
  The bronze has to be 
  heated until it is 
  orange-hot, which is 
  hotter than red-hot
  6
  POURING THE BRONZE 
  The bronze is now heated until it runs freely. The 
  next stage is a crucial – and dangerous – part of the 
  process. The orange-hot bronze is carefully poured 
  into the upside-down mold, where it fills the gap 
  left by the wax. The mold is left in the sand to cool 
  until it can be handled. It is then dug out and the 
  outer layers broken off with a hammer to reveal 
  the newly cast bronze head beneath.
  BENIN “BRONZES”
  Strictly speaking, the 
  mixture of copper, zinc, 
  lead, and tin used to make 
  Benin “bronzes,” like this 
  17th-century staff mount, 
  resulted in not bronze but 
  brass. However, they are 
  usually referred to as Benin 
  bronzes. Because the 
  metals were rare, some 
  early bronzes are only 
  0.03 in thick. Later on, the 
  people of Benin traded 
  with the Europeans to 
  obtain brass manillas 
  (pp. 48-49), which they 
  melted down.
  7
  FINAL TOUCHES 
  The head is now left 
  to cool. Then the base is 
  cut off with a sharp 
  blade. Next the artist 
  digs out the core, using a 
  hammer and chisel. The 
  loamy soil will come out 
  easily from the now-
  blackened core. This 
  difficult method of 
  casting made possible 
  the creation of very 
  delicate bronze 
  works of art.
  5
   FIRING THE MOLD
   The wood burning around the mold 
  causes the wax to melt, and it runs out 
  through a channel in the bottom of the 
  mold. This creates a vacuum where the 
  wax has been. When all the wax has 
  run out, the hot mold is buried 
  upside-down in sand.
  This stage is not complete 
  until all the wax has flowed out
  Crucible containing 
  molten bronze
  The finished replica 
  head of the Queen 
  Mother of Benin
  Wood held in place 
  by wire, which is 
  gradually tightened 
  to keep wood hot
  
  5
  Gold of the Asante
  Although the origins of gold-working 
  in Africa are uncertain, western Africa 
  supplied Europe with large quantities of 
  gold before the discovery of the Americas. 
  European nations gained so much wealth 
  from trade with that region, then called 
  Guinea, that the gold coins the British minted 
  were named guineas. Gold was obtained by 
  washing soil on riverbeds and banks, or by digging it 
  from pits. The gold ranged in size from fine, granular 
  gold dust to sizeable pieces, or nuggets. In Asante, 
  Ghana, larger gold nuggets were given to the king, 
  the Asantehene. The goldsmiths were a privileged 
  class in Asante society, and used the lost-wax 
  process (pp. 54–55) to produce 
  delicately designed gold and 
  brass pieces.
  GOLD DUST
  Gold dust was, until the 20th century, 
  the main form of currency among the 
  Asante. Weights made of brass, but 
  often called gold weights and cast in 
  many different shapes, were made to 
  measure out units of gold dust. The 
  dust was weighed in a set of scales, 
  using a spoon. Weights were also used 
  as jewelry and as charms 
  by storytellers.
  WEIGHING OUT THE GOLD
  To carry out a transaction, the 
  gold weight of a buyer had to 
  be weighed against that of a 
  seller. If both weights were 
  equal, the buyer measured out 
  the agreed amount of gold dust 
  onto his scales, and this was 
  then transferred to the seller’s 
  scales for confirmation. If both 
  agreed on the weighing, the 
  seller took the gold dust and 
  the buyer the goods.
  Spoon to measure 
  gold dust
  Gold dust box
  Decorative 
  gilt handle
  Ornate dagger, 
  Asante
  Dagger with 
  curved blade, 
  Asante
  Incised blade 
  only intended 
  for ceremonial 
  purposes
  Set of 
  scales
  Gold weights
  Asante gold 
  weight
  The scales 
  were handheld
  CEREMONIAL GOLD
  The ceremonial daggers, 
  trophy head, finger rings, 
  and bird ornament (right) 
  are part of the treasure of 
  King Kofi-Karikari, who was 
  Asantehene from 1867 to 
  1875. They are decorated 
  with, or cast in, virgin gold – 
  gold in its natural state. They 
  were never intended for use 
  in war, but would have been 
  carried when the king 
  appeared in public on 
  ceremonial occasions.
  
  5
  ON PARADE
  Asante ceremonies have changed very 
  little for hundreds of years. They are 
  very colorful. The chiefs dress in their 
  finest clothes, wear gold crowns and 
  jewelry, and carry ceremonial staffs. 
  The Asantehene is carried on a 
  stool of state, and protected, like 
  the chiefs, by a sunshade.
  HEADS OF GOLD
  Sometimes the goldsmiths would cast a head 
  in gold. This delicately cast head, together with 
  the other gold objects on these pages, was part 
  of the Asante treasure taken as booty by the 
  British from Kumasi in 1874, after they had 
  defeated the Asante. The head represents a 
  chief killed in battle, and may be either King 
  Worosa of Banda or King Adinkra of Gyaman. 
  Gold heads often appeared on the royal throne, 
  or were attached to the ceremonial swords that 
  often played an important part in rituals.
  ASANTE FINGER RINGS
  The Asante impressed the first European visitors to their 
  country by the colorful nature of their ceremonies and the 
  large number of gold ornaments that they wore. The chiefs 
  wore many gold crowns, bracelets, and pendants. The hands 
  of the Asantehene were always adorned with large rings 
  when he appeared at official festivals.
  THE NATURAL WORLD TAKING SHAPE
  Asante gold ornaments are often shaped 
  like animals, birds, fish, insects, and fruit. 
  The goldsmiths used the lost-wax 
  process because it enabled them to 
  achieve complicated shapes. When 
  the mold had been cracked open, 
  they scrubbed the ornament 
  in water mixed with 
  lime juice to clean it 
  and make the 
  gold shine.
  Ornament is one of 
  a pair that would 
  have been attached 
  to the arms of the 
  stool of state
  Wood carving 
  covered with 
  gold leaf
  Head weighs 
  over 3 lbs 
  (1.5 kg)
  Trophy head, 
  Asante
  Delicate decorative 
  gold work
  Rings were 
  often decorated 
  with flowers
  Bird ornament 
  from stool of 
  state, Asante
  
  5
  Masks and masquerade
  In sub-saharan africa, masks are used for many 
  different social events and rituals. They are worn with 
  a costume that often hides the real identity of the 
  wearer. The role of most masks is to discipline, 
  or educate, or inform, or lend authority. The 
  role is communicated through movement 
  and dance. One mask may perform 
  several functions at the same 
  time, or several masks may 
  play the same role in a 
  ceremony. Sometimes, 
  masks can be 
  worn purely 
  to entertain.
  CHOKWE MASK, ANGOLA
  The Chokwe people have a rich masking tradition. Their 
  masks are divided into three groups called Mukishi, based 
  on the spirits that they represent. This mask is worn by the 
  man directing the male initiation ceremonies, when boy 
  children pass from childhood into adulthood. Boys spend 
  several months at a school in the bush, learning to be 
  adults and undergoing tests of endurance. Sometimes, the 
  masks are burned at the end of the ritual.
  OGONI MASK, NIGERIA
  Once a masquerader puts on a mask, he or 
  she is transformed, or assumes the spirit of 
  the character of the mask. The masker then 
  becomes a communication link between the 
  real and the supernatural world. Many masks 
  are designed to look like animals. This Ogoni 
  mask is one of those worn by young men, 
  who perform athletic displays in imitation of 
  the animals they represent.
  KUBA MASK, ZAIRE
  The Mashamboy masks of the Kuba 
  peoples of Zaire were ordered to be 
  made by the king because a 
  spirit called the Mwaash a 
  Mbooy was terrorizing his 
  people. The mask was 
  meant to look like the 
  spirit and was worn 
  only by the chiefs to 
  enforce discipline.
  Colors are made 
  from vegetable dyes
  The mask is made 
  from branches 
  and beaten bark
  Fringe made 
  from raffia
  Cowrie shells sewn 
  onto textile made 
  of vegetable fibers
  Dyed raffia fringe 
  covered the shoulders of 
  the Kuba masquerader
  Band to hold mask 
  on head made from 
  woven raffia
  
  59
  BAMILEKE MASK, CAMEROON
  The Bamileke are a large group 
  of farming people who live on 
  volcanic plateaus in the southern 
  Cameroon grasslands of West 
  Africa. This group is divided 
  into secret societies or 
  brotherhoods, each of which has 
  its own masks and musical 
  instruments. Although the mask 
  is based on the human face and 
  head, it has exaggerated features. 
  The elongated shape, the full cheeks, 
  and the distorted mouth emphasize 
  the large size of the face; they represent 
  the supernatural and set the mask, and 
  its wearer, apart from the human world.
  WEARING A MASK
  Many masks are worn over the face. 
  A large number, however, such as the 
  Gelede masks above, are designed to 
  be worn on top of the head. The bird-
  headed mask that completes this 
  masquerade costume from 
  Cameroon is worn like this. It 
  adds greatly to the height and 
  deliberately imposing presence 
  of the masquerader.
  GELEDE MASKS, NIGERIA
  In traditional Yoruba society, 
  women are considered to have two 
  distinct sides to their natures – they have the 
  ability to create new life, and they have the 
  potential for great destruction. The Gelede 
  masquerade, danced in male pairs or female pairs, 
  is supposed to ensure that women’s power is 
  channeled for the benefit of the community. 
  There are many different designs of Gelede mask.
  Parallel lines represent 
  the weave of the cloth 
  of a cap or hat
  Birds’ feathers are 
  often used to make 
  masks more 
  elaborate
  Wooden mask is first 
  covered with red ocher, 
  then the stripes made 
  with chalk and soot
  Even the ears of this 
  Bamileke mask 
  are exaggerated 
  in size
  The masks 
  were worn on 
  the top of the head
  At an annual 
  festival, mask is 
  worn with cloth 
  to cover body and 
  ankle rattles
  
  0
  Musical instruments
  Music is everywhere in Africa. Musical instruments and 
  song are a basic part of the African way of life, from a mother 
  singing a lullaby to her newborn baby to elaborate village 
  festivals full of color and costumes. People may use music to 
  break up the monotony of the working day. A farmer, for 
  example, might sing a song to encourage his crops during 
  hoeing and sowing. In rural areas, herders and hunters 
  scattered over vast distances signal each other by blowing 
  coded musical messages into a flute. Some music, such as that 
  of warrior groups, or beer-drinking and hunting songs, can be 
  performed only by men. Other music is sacred to women only, 
  and might be played during rites of passage into adulthood, or 
  during childbirth. The enormous variety of musical 
  instruments across Africa ranges from elaborately carved 
  ceremonial drums to the most basic of rattles, made only 
  from pieces of scrap metal or bits of bark.
  DOUBLE BELLS
  Musicians play these double bells by holding them 
  up and striking the two metal cones with sticks, rods, 
  or horns. Bells such as these are used mainly as 
  percussion instruments at festivals and masquerades. 
  This bell set comes from Cameroon in West Africa.
  EARLY AMPLIFIERS
  Hanging under the keys of this xylophone are 
  gourds – the dried, hollow shells of fruit from 
  the gourd or squash plant. These amplify the 
  sound of the player hitting the keys, producing 
  a rich, resonant tone. Xylophones are played 
  with other instruments on their own – and in 
  northwest Ghana, for example, for making 
  special announcements to the village.
  HAND-HELD PIANO
  A sansa is an instrument 
  that works like a tiny hand-
  held piano. Narrow metal or 
  wooden strips are arranged 
  over a sounding board and 
  attached to a resonator gourd. 
  The musician plucks the metal 
  strips, each of which corresponds 
  to a note, with his thumbs. These 
  thumb-pianos are often called 
  the “traveler’s friend,” because 
  people can play them while 
  wandering from place to place. 
  This one is used by the 
  Umbundu peoples 
  of Angola.
  STRING ALONG
  This musical bow from Cameroon is 
  simply a wooden stick across which 
  strings have been tightly stretched. The 
  strings are bowed, plucked, struck, or hit 
  with a bow, which is usually a flexible 
  piece of wood with a string attached at 
  both ends. Gourds, made from hollowed-
  out, dried squashes amplify the very soft 
  sounds made by the strings. A musician 
  can coax a whole range of sounds from the 
  bow by holding it at different angles to his 
  body – for example, against his chest.
  Dried, hollowed-out 
  gourds act as resonators
  Bells held 
  in the air 
  by handle
  Strips of hide are wrapped 
  around carved wood
  Decorative 
  cowrie shells 
  around 
  mouthpiece
  
  1
  Strings are often 
  made of horse hair
  BLOWN FROM THE SIDE
  This extraordinary side-blown trumpet 
  is played by the Madi people of Uganda. 
  Usually made from wood or animal 
  horn, trumpets such as these have many 
  uses. As well as being played simply for 
  the fun of listening to music, they are 
  used to convey messages and signals 
  from village to village.
  ALL SORTS OF DRUMS
  African drums range from the simplest 
  skin aprons stretched over cooking pots to 
  elaborate instruments used for masquerades. Some 
  drums are small enough to be tucked under one arm 
  (above); others (right) are almost as tall as the 
  drummer. The drum is usually carved out of a 
  solid piece of wood, or strips of wood bound 
  together by iron hoops. Children often 
  make toy drums from old cans and oil 
  drums, or from the hard shells of fruit.
  Mouthpiece is made 
  out of a piece of gourd
  Pressure drum 
  and beater, 
  Cameroon
  HIGH LIFE MUSIC
  High life is popular all over Africa, as well as 
  in Europe. It is based on the traditional music 
  of Ghana and Sierra Leone, but has been 
  influenced by regimental band music, sea 
  shanties, church hymns, Latin American music, 
  and calypso. Today, the main instruments used 
  are acoustic guitar and vocals.
  Single-
  membrane 
  drum, Congo
  Membrane is stretched 
  across top of drum and 
  secured with wooden pegs
  “Hourglass” 
  drum is shaped 
  so it can be 
  tucked under 
  player’s arm
  LUTE
  The harp lute, or 
  kora, is one of 
  the most beautiful 
  of all African 
  instruments, and is 
  typical of the Mali 
  region. A gourd, cut 
  in half and covered 
  with cow skin, is 
  used as a resonator. 
  The musician rests 
  the gourd against his 
  body and plucks the 
  strings with his thumbs 
  and forefingers.
  Long neck is 
  pointed away from 
  body during play
  Leather thongs 
  secure strings to 
  wooden neck
  Although very long, 
  wooden trumpet is not heavy
  Animal hide 
  is often used 
  to decorate
  
  2
  Masquerade performed
  Masked dance, or masquerade, is performed in 
  many communities in western and central Africa, 
  and plays an important part in rituals and social 
  events. Once inside the costume, the identity of the 
  masquerader is hidden from other people, and he 
  or she takes on the character represented by the mask. 
  Often parts of the body are exaggerated with padding or 
  pieces of wood. Combined with dance steps, gestures, 
  songs, and sounds, the complete costume becomes a 
  powerful and energetic force that represents the spirit 
  world as well as the world of humans. Masquerade is 
  mainly performed by men who are 
  members of secret societies.
  AN ANNUAL EVENT
  The masquerade happens at specific 
  times and to celebrate certain events, 
  such as harvest, or the initiation of 
  children to adulthood. The costume 
  may only be used for a short time – 
  maybe only a week or a month. 
  Afterward it is stored away until it is 
  needed the following year. This 
  masquerade costume is worn by Ibo 
  men, who imitate young girls as part of 
  the annual harvest celebration.
  Headdress 
  of carved 
  and painted 
  wood
  Colorful, hand-
  embroidered cloth 
  is a feature of this 
  costume
  BODY DECORATION
  Young girls of the Mbuti people 
  of Zaire are painted with white as 
  part of a ceremony to announce 
  their status as young women. 
  Colored paints are often put on 
  the body, usually of a young 
  person, in many different 
  ceremonies. Paints, like the 
  costumes, disguise the wearer 
  and add to the power and 
  mystery of the ceremony.
  DANCE SHIELD, KENYA
  In the ceremonial performances of 
  the Kikuyu people, dance shields, 
  called ndome, are worn on the upper 
  left arm by young men. The serrated 
  design on the inside of the shield is 
  always the same. The outer design varies 
  according to the age of the men and the 
  region in which they live.
  Serrated 
  design
  Ibo 
  masquerade 
  costume, 
  Nigeria
  DANCE STAFF, NIGERIA
  This iron staff (left) is used by the 
  Yoruba people in a masquerade 
  to celebrate Ogun, god of iron 
  and blacksmiths, carvers, and all 
  those who use metal instruments.
  
  3
  MASKED DANCERS, MALI
  Among the Dogon of Mali, the 
  men’s secret society, Awa, controls 
  and organizes all funeral events. 
  The masks (left) are worn at rituals 
  in which the prestige of a deceased 
  person and his descendants is 
  enhanced by masked performance 
  and generous hospitality.
  INITIATION CEREMONY, ANGOLA
  A boy of the Chokwe peoples goes through a set 
  process to mark his transition to manhood. This 
  involves living with other initiates in a secluded 
  camp some way from the village, for a month 
  being circumcized, and being educated in the 
  social and moral values of the community. 
  This feared costume (right) represents the 
  spirit of deceased chiefs and heroes, and 
  is worn by the supervisor. 
  Afterward the boy 
  returns to the village 
  as a “new man.”
  MUSIC AND SOUND
  Masquerades are 
  exciting and noisy 
  occasions accompanied 
  by constant drumming. 
  Flywhisks, amulets, and 
  sometimes weapons are 
  brandished by the dancing masquerader. 
  Leg rattles tied around his ankles shake furiously 
  as the masquerader moves energetically. Drums, 
  rattles, and the sounds made by the masquerader 
  help to create atmosphere and drama.
  Carved 
  wooden 
  headdress 
  covered 
  with fiber
  Face and identity of 
  wearer completely 
  hidden by mask
  Skirt made 
  from grass 
  fibers
  Drum is carved 
  from a whole log
  Slit drum and 
  beaters, Sudan
  Leg rattles, 
  Cameroon
  Metal rattles 
  attached to tie 
  made from 
  grass fibers
  Dancers appear 
  in procession 
  at funerals
  Metal-
  tipped 
  spear
  Ceremonial 
  ax of wood 
  and metal
  
  A
  Abu Simbel, 10
  Acholi peoples, 22
  ahosi, 42
  Aksum, 10
  Algeria, 27
  ancestors, 32, 34, 36, 37, 
  40
  Angola, 16–17, 24, 31, 58, 
  60, 63
  animals, 6, 8, 10, 16, 18
  armor, 44–45, 46–47
  arrows, 19
  art, 10, 11
  Asante, 10, 23, 26, 30, 33, 
  43, 46, 54, 56–57
  axes, 44, 46
  Azande peoples, 46, 49,
   52
  B
  babies, 24
  Bagirmi, 44
  Bagiun peoples, 18
  Bambuku peoples, 35
  Bamileke peoples, 59
  Barbera peoples, 31
  baskets, 21
  beads, 28, 29, 31
  Bene-Amer peoples, 14
  Benin, 6, 9, 30, 32, 42, 49, 
  54–55
  Berbers, 23, 27
  Bida, 52
  body decoration, 28–29, 
  62
  Botswana, 12–13, 18, 46
  bows and arrows, 19
  bronze, 54–55
  Burkina Faso, 44
  C
  Cairo, 7
  calabashes, 14, 15, 20
  camels, 23, 48
  Cameroon, 35, 38, 46, 59, 
  60, 63
  canoes, 18
  caravan routes, 48
  cattle, 16, 18, 36, 43, 49
  cavalrymen, 44–45
  cereal crops, 15, 16, 17, 18
  Chad, 8
  charms, 36, 37, 42, 43, 47
  Chokwe peoples, 58, 63
  Christianity, 32, 33, 36
  Ciula Island, 18
  clothes, 24–25, 26–27, 45
  coffin, 41
  coins, 49
  colonization, 7
  colour and pattern, 20–21
  combs, 29
  compound, 8, 16–17
  Congo, 32, 35, 39, 47, 61
  council of elders, 31
  crafts, 52–53
  currency, 49
  D
  daggers, 47, 56
  Dahomey, 6, 25, 30, 42
  dance, 22, 62–63
  death, 40–41
  deserts, 6, 27, 48
  Dinka peoples, 13, 18, 28, 
  29, 46, 49
  divination, 34
  Dogon peoples, 9, 34, 63
  dolls, 23
  drums, 61, 63
  dyes, 20, 28
  E
  Egypt, 10
  Ekpo secret society, 35
  elephants, 19, 30
  entertainment, 22–23
  Ethiopia, 10, 22, 33, 36, 42
  explorers, 6
  F
  farming, 16, 18, 60
  fighting sticks, 46
  fishing, 18
  flywhisks, 30
  food, 14–15, 18–19
  footwear, 27
  Fulani peoples, 22, 44–45, 
  46, 47
  funerals, 40
  G
  Gabon, 40, 41, 47, 53
  Galla peoples, 36
  game parks, 6
  games, 22–23
  Gao, 7
  Ghana, 26, 30, 32, 41, 43, 
  46, 48, 54, 56, 60, 61
  gold, 7, 56–57
  Gold Coast, 10
  gourds, 20, 60, 61
  government, 30–31
  granaries, 17
  Great Zimbabwe, 11
  H
  Habila peoples, 16
  Hadza peoples, 18
  hair, 26, 28–29
  Harare, 7
  headgear, 26
  Herero peoples, 24
  hoe blades, 53
  horses, 44, 47
  houses, 8–9, 12–13, 14, 16
  hunga-mungas, 47
  hunter-gatherers, 15, 18, 
  19, 21
  IJ
  Ibibio peoples, 35
  Ibo peoples, 40, 62
  Ife, 11
  Indian Ocean, 48
  ironworking, 53
  Islam, 8, 9, 32, 33, 36, 42, 
  46
  Jehangir, Emperor, 48
  jewelery, 28, 57
  K
  Kalahari Desert, 6, 8, 14, 
  19
  Karamojong peoples, 25, 
  26
  Kenya, 7, 18, 19, 28, 29, 42
  Kikuyu peoples, 28, 42,
   62
  Kilimanjaro, Mount, 7
  Kilwa, 11, 48
  kings, 30–31, 32, 40, 42,
   46
  Kissi peoples, 36
  knives, 47, 49
  Kofi-Karikari, King, 10,
   56
  Kota peoples, 40
  Kuanyama peoples
   16–17, 24
  Kuba peoples, 21, 31, 46, 
  58
  Kush, 10
  Kuyu peoples, 41
  L
  Lango peoples, 46
  leather, 25, 27
  Lesotho, 14
  lost-wax process, 54–55, 
  56, 57
  M
  Maasai Mara, 6
  Maasai peoples, 6, 23, 24, 
  26, 29, 30, 42
  Madagascar, 21, 40
  Madi peoples, 61
  Mahdi, 42
  Malawi, 7
  Mali, 9, 15, 34, 61, 63
  Mali empire, 6, 30, 48
  mancala, 22, 23
  Mangbetu peoples, 52
  Mansur, 48
  markets, 18, 48
  marriage, 24, 25
  masks, 32, 35, 37, 58–59, 
  62–63
  masquerade, 35, 58,
   62–63
  Mbuti peoples, 19, 62
  mealie meal, 17
  medicine, 35, 38–39
  Mende peoples, 28, 36, 37
  metalworking, 52, 53,
   54–55
  mineral resources, 7
  missionaries, 33
  Mombasa, 48
  Morocco, 27
  mosques, 8
  Mossi cavalrymen, 44
  mountains, 7
  Mozambique, 33, 34
  Mursi peoples, 22
  music, 22, 23, 38, 60–61
  myths, 36–37
  N
  Namibia, 18, 24
  Ndebele peoples, 8
  Ndembu peoples, 38
  Nigeria, 13, 22, 27, 31, 34, 
  35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 47, 52, 
  58, 59, 62
  Index
  Dorling Kindersley would like 
  to thank:
  Gavin Durrant; Jason Slater for 
  photographic assistance; Exeter City 
  Museums and Art Gallery, Royal Albert 
  Memorial Museum, Exeter, Devon (Jane 
  Burkinshaw, Graham Searle, John 
  Allen); the Powell-Cotton Museum, 
  Birchington, Kent (Derek and Sonia 
  Howlett, Malcolm Harman); the Royal 
  Pavilion, Art Gallery and Museum, 
  Brighton, Sussex (Anthony Shelton); 
  Robert Mucci 27tr; Central St Martins 
  College of Art and Design (David Reed, 
  Aron Macartney); the Commonwealth 
  Institute (Yvette Fields), the Trustees of 
  the Wallace Collection, London (David 
  Edge), C. J. Spring; Ubersee-Museum 
  Bremen, Germany 34br.
  Acknowledgments
  Nile, River, 10
  Nkimba society, 32
  nomads, 8, 12, 14, 18
  Nuba peoples, 22
  Nubian peoples, 10
  Nupe peoples, 8
  Nzinga, Queen of 
  Natamba, 31
  O
  Ogboni society, 38
  Ogoni peoples, 58
  Ortelius, 6
  ostrich racing, 23
  Ovimbundu peoples, 31
  P
  pattern and color, 20–21
  pipe-smoking, 15
  Portugal, 6, 31, 33, 48
  pottery, 15, 52
  priests, 32, 34–35, 41
  pygmies, 18, 19
  R
  raffia, 21
  rain forests, 7
  Rameses II, 10
  religion, 32–33, 34–35, 42
  rites and rituals, 34–35, 
  40–41
  S
  Sahara Desert, 6, 23, 44,
   48
  Samburu peoples, 29
  San peoples, 7, 8, 18, 19
  Sande society, 37
  Sara peoples, 50
  savannahs, 6
  secret societies, 35, 36, 59, 
  62, 63
  Shaka, King of the Zulus, 
  43
  shields, 42, 43, 46, 62
  ships, 48, 50–51
  Shona peoples, 52
  Sierra Leone, 18, 28, 36, 
  37, 61
  slaves, 50–51
  soapstone carvings, 11, 36
  Somalia, 8, 14, 18, 31
  Songhay empire, 7, 30, 48
  South Africa, 7, 15, 29, 43
  spears, 46
  sport, 22–23
  Stone Age, 10
  Sudan, 10, 14, 16, 18, 22, 
  42, 46, 49, 52, 63
  Sudanic Africa, 44, 47
  swagger sticks, 31, 46
  T
  Tanzania, 7, 18
  tents, 12
  textiles, 20–21, 26
  Timbuktu, 7, 15, 48
  Tir peoples, 40
  tombs, 40
  tourism, 6
  toys, 23
  trade, 48–49, 51
  Transkei, 15
  trees, 20
  Tuareg peoples, 7, 12,
   14, 23, 53
  Turkana peoples, 18,
   19
  twins, 41
  U
  Uganda, 7, 20, 22, 26, 46, 
  61
  Umbundu peoples, 60
  VW
  villages, 12
  voice disguisers, 40
  Walata, 48
  warfare, 22, 42–43, 44–45, 
  46–47, 50
  weapons, 44, 46–47
  weaving, 21
  Wilberforce, William, 51
  XYZ
  Xhosa peoples, 15
  Yassi society, 36
  Yoruba peoples, 11, 13,
   27, 31, 33, 34, 37, 38, 41, 
  52, 59, 62
  Zaire, 7, 18, 19, 21, 30, 31, 
  34, 46, 47, 49, 52, 58, 62
  Zambia, 38
  Zanzibar, 48
  Zimbabwe, 17, 52
  Zulu peoples, 22, 26, 29, 
  43, 46
  Design and editorial assistance Mark 
  Haygarth, Joseph Hoyle, Ivan Finnegan, 
  Susan St. Louis, Helena Spiteri and 
  Gin von Noorden.
  Models: Wisdom Omoda Omodamwe – 
  Lost wax process pp.54-55; Len Snell 
  (Thorp Modelmakers, London) – 
  Botswana house pp.12-13.
  Additional special photography: 
  Andy Crawford (pp.12-13).
  Artwork: Jason Lewis, John Woodcock, 
  Luigi Gallante.
  Picture credits
  (t=top b=bottom c=centre l=left 
  r=right a=above)
  Musée Nationale des Arts 
  Africains/Réunion des Musées 
  Nationaux 42br; British Library 31tr; 
  Trustees of the British Museum 12bl; 
  Jean-Loup Charmet 31tr, 32tl, 50c, 50bl; 
  James Davis Travel Photography 22tr, 
  28c, 29cl, 29br; Robert Estall/Carol 
  Beckwith and Angela Fisher 41bl; Mary 
  Evans Picture Library 25tl, 43tc, 43tr, 
  44tl, 51c; Werner Foreman Archive 11br, 
  12br, 53tr; Robert Harding Picture 
  Library 6bl, 6tr, 7bl, 8bl, 9tr, 9b, 16bc, 
  17bc, 18tl, 26cr, 27br, 32c, 59br, 60tl; 
  Michael Holford 6cl, 40tr; Collection 
  Photothèque du Musée de L’Homme 
  50tr; Hutchinson Library 7tl, 8c, 9tl, 10tr, 
  11tl, 13tr, 14tr, 16tr, 17tr, 18cl, 21tl, 21tc, 
  22cl, 23tl, 23br, 26cl, 28cr, 33br, 37tc, 37c, 
  40br, 46bc, 49cl, 49bl, 52bc, 57tl, 63tl; Jak 
  Kilby 61tl; Magnum Photos/S. Perkins 
  7c, /Abbas 15br, Thomas Hoepker 25br, 
  /Abbas 26tl, /Ian Berry 26bl, /Fred 
  Mayer 30br, /C. Steele Perkins 31c; 
  Mansell Collection 42tr; National 
  Maritime Museum 48br; Panos Pictures 
  8tr, 33bl; Pitt Rivers Museum 40l; the 
  Trustees of the Powell-Cotton Museum 
  Trust 24tr; Rex Features 7cr; Telegraph 
  Colour Library/Colorific/Jim Pickerill 
  10c, /Mirella Riccardi 19cl, /Cosmos 
  19tr, /Richard Wilkie 20bl, /Lawrence 
  Manning 20c, /Terry Fincher 24cr, 34c, 
  41tl, /Contact Press 62cl; Victoria and 
  Albert Museum 48cl; Wilberforce 
  House, Hull City Museums and Art 
  Galleries 50-51, 51tl, 51tr; Zefa Pictures 
  15tl, 23cr, 38br, 39tr. 
  Every effort has been made to trace 
  the copyright holders of photographs. 
  The publishers apologize for any 
  unavoidable omissions.
  
SOURCE: textdata/thevault/Kid Friendly/2. Kid Inspiration & Fun RPG-related Crafts & Activities/Kid Inspiration & Art Books/DK - Eyewitness Guides Africa.pdf