TEXT: Grammar of
  Livyani
  Tekumel Netbook #4
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  Revision:  1
  
  © M. A. R. Barker, 1994
  The Divine Speech:
  Livyáni
  by
  M. A. R. Barker
  [The research on which this treatise is based was completed under a grant from the High Chancery at
  Avanthár and the Scholarly Council of the Temple of Ksárul at Béy Sü. Special thanks are due to Lord
  Qurén hiKétkolel and Lady Kálusü hiViridáme, without whose support this project could never have
  been completed. On Tékumel, distribution of this research is restricted to members of the Omnipotent
  Azure Legion and the Inner Temple of Lord Ksárul. Readers are advised against showing this work to
  any person from Livyánu in view of the likelihood of hostile reaction. Such linguistic information is
  considered to be a "secret" of the Livyáni state and not something that can be passed on to foreigners.]
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 2
  LINGUISTIC HISTORY:
  Livyáni belongs to the Khíshan family. This
  includes the modern languages of the Five
  Empires: Livyáni, Tsolyáni, Mu'ugalavyáni,
  Salarvyáni, and Yán Koryáni, as well as
  Ghatóni, Pecháni, Hijajái, Tsoléi'i (or Tsoléini),
  Milumanyáni, and a number of "minor"
  tongues.  All of these languages can be traced
  back through Engsvanyáli (the language of
  Éngsvan hlá Gánga, the Empire of the
  Priestkings) and Bednálljan Salarvyáni (the
  language of the First Imperium) to Llyáni, the
  tongue of Llyán of Tsámra. At this great time-
  depth, it is difficult to see how Llyáni is related
  to its presumed descendants, although certain
  features do persist. It is also possible that the
  language(s?) of the Three States of the Triangle
  figure in as well, although records are too
  fragmentary to be certain. Within Livyánu
  itself, history begins -- for all practical
  purposes -- with Llyán and his empire. How
  this arose from the melange of cultures and
  tongues of the Latter Times is unknown, as is
  the connection of any of these with the
  civilisation(s) of the Great Ancients who dwelt
  on Tékumel before the Time of Darkness. It is
  not even clear how Engsvanyáli could have had
  such a strong influence on ancient Livyáni
  since the armies of the Priestkings never
  actually occupied Livyánu. There were cultural
  exchanges, of course, and enclaves of
  Engsvanyáli may have settled in Livyánu over
  the centuries, bringing with them the prestige
  of "high" culture.
  Linguistically, Livyáni occupies a position
  somewhat toward the periphery of the Khíshan
  family: Tsolyáni and Mu'ugalavyáni are the
  most closely related to one another and are also
  the closest to Engsvanyáli; Salarvyáni is farther
  away and contains many non-Khíshan
  elements; Livyáni (and Tsoléi'i) are next; while
  Yán Koryáni (and Ghatóni) are the most distant
  from the Engsvanyáli "mother tongue."
  Milumanayáni occupies a middle position
  between Yán Koryáni and Tsolyáni but has
  special features of its own. The exact
  relationship of Hijajái, the language of Háida
  Pakála, is as yet uninvestigated.
  All that is certain is that some thousands of
  years after the demise of Llyán and his nation,
  what is now Livyánu became the home of
  Dúru'ob (or Duruób in some Engsvanyáli
  texts), a language descended from Llyáni, but
  containing admixtures of Engsvanyáli elements
  and earlier, non-Khíshan features. Dúru'ob was
  adopted as a literary form sometime just before
  the Time of No Kings, at the end of the
  Engsvanyáli Empire. It was at this time that the
  Engsvanyáli calendar devised by the Priestking
  Kazhilo'ób was adopted (it being 10,047 A.K.
  as of this date of writing, whereas the Tsolyáni
  reckoning is 2,066 A.S.) The script devised for
  Dúru'ob consists of about 1,700 glyphs, some
  of which represent individual phonemes, others
  syllables, and still others ideographs for
  lexemes, grammatical elements, and entire
  words. Some of the Livyáni priesthoods still
  employ Dúru'ob as a liturgical language, and it
  is said to be spoken even now in the city of
  Dlásh by groups or institutions that cannot be
  reliably identified, due to the difficulty of
  doing fieldwork there. Livyánu continued to
  use one form or another of Dúru'ob for several
  thousand years, during which time the area
  remained divided into small, rival states. About
  two thousand years ago, the present Livyáni
  state emerged as a single, unitary, monumental
  theocracy. The First Thinker, Dumúz ("Brother
  in the Faith") Melunéz Chi'úna, commanded
  the abandonment of Dúru'ob and the
  introduction of the Engsvanyáli-like script that
  is employed for later Dúru'ob and for modern
  Livyáni. It is this that is presented below.
  Livyáni exhibits several distinct dialects. That
  of Tsámra, the present capital, is taken as the
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 3
  cultural standard, although the dialect of Sraón
  is also considered elegant. The speech of
  Nuférsh in the far northwest, on the other hand,
  is thought to be rustic, and the variant spoken
  in the Tláshte Heights and around the Tinalíya
  enclaves likewise has the reputation of being
  boorish and amusing. The most distant dialect,
  linguistically,  is that of Dlásh in the far south.
  This almost constitutes a separate language,
  and it is said that some of the villages of the
  region near Mmátugual actually speak
  completely unknown and unrelated tongues,
  perhaps descended from those of the Dragon
  Warriors or from families as yet unrecorded.
  Aside from regional differences, there are also
  class and clan variations, slang forms, argots,
  and special dialects (e.g. the speech of the
  glassblowers of Laigás, which has been made
  deliberately difficult); these cannot be gone
  into here.
  PHONEMICS:
  The consonantal phonemes of Livyáni are:
  Labials
  Labio-
  dentals
  Dentals 
  &
  Alveolars
  Alveo-
  palatals
  Velars &
  Post-
  Velars
  Glottals
  Stops
  p, b
  t, d
  k, g, q
   ' (? glottal
  stop)
  Nasals
  m
  n
   ny (ñ)
  ng (¢)
  Fricatives
  f, v
  th (÷) dh (Í)
  ss (è)
  kh (x), gh
  ( γ)
  h
  Grooved
  s, z
  sh (ç ) zh
  (z˚)
  Affricates
  ts (c), dz (¥)
  tl (¬), dl (–)
  ch (c˚) j ( Á)
  Liquids and
  Others
  w
  r, l, hl (¬), ll
  (ly)
  y
  All of the above are considered unit phonemes, even when transcribed with two English letters.
  Other consonant clusters are treated as sequences.
  Vowel phonemes are:
  Front
  Front
  Rounded
  Central
  Back
  Rounded
  High
  i
  ü
  u
  Mid
  e
  o
  Low
  a
  Three diphthongs (/ai/, /au/, and /oi/ are treated as single units in the writing system. All other
  sequences of vowels are clusters of two or more phonemes.
  Word-stress is phonemic and is marked by /´/.  Intonational contours exist as well, but these cannot
  be explored in a short summary such as this.
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 4
  MORPHOPHONEMICS:
  Many 
  affixes 
  and 
  enclitics 
  have 
  two
  forms: one that ends in a consonant and
  another 
  without 
  this 
  consonant 
  (e.g.
  /nen/-/ne/ 
  "continuative"). 
   
  The
  consonantal variant is used before stems
  and affixes that begin with a glottal stop +
  a vowel; the form without the consonant
  occurs 
  before 
  other 
  consonants: 
  e.g.
  /nen/ 
  "continuative" 
  + 
  /'avél/ "eat" =
  /nen-avél/ "continuously eat" (note that
  the glottal stop no longer occurs); /nen/
  + 
  /fansá/ 
  "send 
  forth" 
  = 
  /ne-fansá/
  "continuously 
  send 
  forth." 
  The 
  stem-
  initial glottal stop is used as a writing
  device: the Livyáni script has no initial
  vowels but writes all such occurrences as
  /'/ + vowel. See the next paragraph for a
  related phenomenon.
  A number of locative prepositions also
  display 
  two 
  forms: 
  consonant-final
  variants before a glottal stop + a vowel,
  and 
  forms 
  with 
  no 
  consonant 
  before
  other consonants. In the latter, however,
  the 
  consonant 
  of 
  the 
  preposition 
  is
  assimilated to the first consonant of the
  following stem and is thus "doubled": e.g.
  /mik/ "of" + /'avél/ = /mik-avél/ "of
  eating"; /mik/ + /fansá/ = /mif-fansá/ "of
  sending forth."
  Causative, reciprocal, reflexive, etc. stem
  affixes have a vowel-initial form after a
  stem ending in a consonant and a variant
  without 
  that 
  vowel 
  after 
  vowel-final
  stems: 
  e.g. 
  /fansa-d é / "cause to send
  forth" but /'avel-adé/ "cause to eat." Note
  the shift of the word-stress to the last
  syllable of the stem. This is common for
  many 
  (but 
  not 
  all) 
  similar 
  stem-affix
  occurrences.
  After /n/, /l/, n/, /m/ and /r/, initial
  vowels of most affixes are optionally
  omitted: 
  e.g. 
  /'avél-t/ 
  "you 
  (sg.) 
  eat"
  instead of /'avél-it/. This is found both in
  speech and in writing.
  VERBS:
  Paradigm of Class I Verbs:
  Verb stems consist of a root (e.g. /fansá/ "send
  forth," /'avél/ "eat") ± stem affixes (e.g. /adé/-
  /dé/). A stem + the subject affixes produces a
  generalised present tense. Present forms + /u/-
  /'u/  give a past paradigm. Present forms + /un/-
  /'un/ produce a future or conditional paradigm.
  Paradigms for Class I verbs are:
  After a consonant-final stem, the subject
  affixes have vowel initial variants which begin
  with /i/: e.g. /'avél-il/ "I eat," /'avél-iti/ "you
  (pl.) eat," /'avél-inun/ "they will eat." The latter
  two examples may occur as /'avél-ti/ and /'avél-
  nun/, but the two "l's" of /'avél-il/ cannot
  merege as *'/avéll/.
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 5
  Present
  English
  Past
  English
  Future
  English
  fansál
  I send forth
  fansálu
  I sent forth
  fansálun
  I will send forth
  fansát
  you (sg.)
  fansátu
  you (sg.)
  fansátun
  you (sg.)
  fansáme
  he
  fansámu
  he
  fansámun
  he
  fansá*
  he/she/ it
  fansár*
  she/it
  fansárun
  she/it
  fansáli
  we
  fansáli'u**
  we
  fansáli'un**
  we
  fansáti
  you (pl.)
  fansáti'u**
  you (pl.)
  fansáti'un**
  you (pl.)
  fansátesh***
  you (honorific)
  fansáteshu
  you (honorific)
  fansáteshun
  you (honorific)
  fansán
  they
  fansánu
  they
  fansánun
  they
  fansóm****
  unknown
  fansómu
  unknown
  fansómun
  unknown
  *These forms are irregular. Most verb classes have /ø/ as the 3rd sg. suffix for the present tense and /r/ in the other
  two tenses. Some classes have /mo/ and /mu/ in these places, while still others are quite irregular. Note that
  verbs distinguish masculine and feminine only in the 3rd person singular in older, Classical Livyáni. In the
  modern language the "she/it" forms are also used for "he," and /me/-/m/ does not occur.
  **In rapid speech /li'u/ and /li'un/ become /lyu/ and /lyun/. Similarly, /ti'u/ and /ti'un/ are heard as /tyu/ and /tyun/.
  Many Livyáni also write these affixes this way, even in literary documents.
  ***The honorific form is used to social superiors. It can be either singular or plural. Still higher grades of
  honorific verb forms are found in classical and "court" Livyáni.
  ****This form is used when the subject is unknown (e.g. "(someone) sends forth"), when the subject is
  impersonal (e.g. ""(it) rains"), or when the subject is not clearly limited (e.g. "(people) eat," "(crops) grow").
  It is the same for singular or plural subjects.
  Verb Classes:
  The above paradigm holds for all verbs of Class I. There are seventeen verb classes, only a few of
  which contain more than a small number of roots. Verb classes differ according to their stems, their
  subject pronoun sets, and the past and future affixes with which they occur. Classes are:
  Class
  Characteristics
  Examples
  I
  The majority of verbs are members of this class;
  "he/she/it" forms end in /ø/  in the present and /r/ in the
  past and the future-conditional
  /fansá/ "he/she/it sends forth";
  see the table above
  II
  37 verbs: the "he/she/it" forms end in /mo/ in the present
  and /mur/ in the past and the future-conditional
  /chásimo/ "he/she/it dances";
  /chásimur/ "he/she/it danced";
  /chásimurun/ "he/she/it will
  dance"; /chás/ "dance"
  III
  29 verbs which denote repeated sounds or actions and
  consist of a reduplicated monosyllabic stem + the
  "unknown" subject affix. Other persons are possible for
  this class but are not often used. Past and future-
  conditional suffixes are as for Class I
  /palpálom/ "(it) trembles";
  /bekbekómu/ "(it) whirred";
  /disdisómun/ "(it) will hum,
  drone"; /trutrúm/ "(it) beats
  (heart)"
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 6
  IV
  15 verbs: "he/she/it" forms end in /mu/ in the present and
  /mur/ in the past; the future affix is always /an/ instead of
  /un/; verbal suffixes have no initial /-i/ vowel
  /hélmu/ "he/she/it scratches";
  /hélmur/ "he/she/it scratched";
  /héllan/ "I will scratch"; /héltan/
  "you (sg.) will scratch," etc.
  V
  9 verbs: each has three different stem forms: one for the
  present, one for the past, and one for the future-
  conditional; affixes are as for Class I. The stem variants
  for each of these verbs are unique.
  /shanzá/ "he/she/it breaks";
  /shédar/ "he/she/it broke";
  /shúnarun/ "he/she/it will
  break." The three stems are thus
  /shánz/, /shéd/, and /shún/
  VI
  6 verbs: each has three different stem forms but uses the
  /mo/-/mur/ 3rd sg. suffix forms employed in Class II;
  members are: /medán/-/méd/-/modán/ "slide," /ványel/-
  /ván/-/ve'én/ "be secret," /náran/-/níran/-/'inrán/ "mourn,"
  /púraj/-/pórj/-/péraj/ "spy on," /sséman/-/ssém/-/sse'ém/
  "strike at with a sword," and /léthen/-/léth/-/lé'eth/ "drink"
  /medánimo/ "he/she/it slides";
  /médimur/ "he/she/it slid";
  /modánimurun/ "he/she/it will
  slide"; /léthil/ "I drink";
  /léthimur/ "he/she/it drank";
  /le'éthilun/  "I will drink"
  VII
  6 verbs: these have only one stem form but use a
  different set of subject pronouns, which are direct
  borrowings from Dúru'ob, the earlier form of the
  language: /etl/-/tl/ "I"; /esh/-/sh/ "you (sg.)"; /em/-/m/
  "he"; /er/-/r/ "he/she/it/"; /elo/-/lo/ "we"; /es/-/s/ "you
  (pl.)"; /etesh/-/tesh/ "you (honorific)"; /en/-n/ "they";
  /ong/-ng/ "unknown."  Members are: /dék/ "buy," /kórd/
  "leave abandon," /'ér/ "leap, jump," /yól/ "try," /'áts/
  "bring," /ngép/ "defecate"
  /déketl/ "I buy"; /déketlu/ "I
  bought"; /déketlun/ "I will
  buy"; /dékesh/ "you (sg.) buy";
  /dékem/ "he buys"; /déker/
  "he/she/it buys"; dékelo/ "we
  buy"; /dékes/ "you (pl.) buy";
  /déketesh/ "you (honorific)
  buy"; /déken/ "they buy";
  /dékong/ "(one) buys"
  VIII
  5 verbs: each has two stems: one for the present-past, and
  a second for the future-conditional. The pronoun set
  described for Class VII is employed; these are: /fá/-/fézh/
  "find," /mül/-/mól/ "go," /'úk/-/'uvék/ "tell a lie," /kréd/-
  /krít/ "put, set down," and /hép/-/húp/ "forgive"
  /fátl/ "I find/; /fátlu/ "I found";
  /fézhetlun/ ""I will find";
  /mületl/ "I go"; /'úketl/ "I tell a
  lie"; /'uvéketlun/ "I will tell a
  lie";  /krédesu/ "you (pl.) set
  down"; /húpenun/ "they will
  forgive"
  IX
  4 verbs: each has three stems, one for the present, one for
  the past, and one for the future-conditional; the pronoun
  set of Class VII verbs is employed. All of the verbs of this
  class appear to be borrowings from Engsvanyáli;
  members are: /mér/-/mo'ór/-/mrén/ "love," /pársh/-
  /pe'érsh/-/prásh/ "say," /fádh/-/fe'édh/-/fódh/ "heat, cook,"
  /nóp/-/no'óp/-/náp/ "admit, confess"
  /méretl/ "I love"; mo'óretlu/ "I
  loved"; /mrénetlun/ "I will
  love"; /pársher/ "he/she/it says";
  /fe'édhelo'u/ "we heated,
  cooked"
  X
  4 verbs: each has a reduplicated (or partially
  reduplicated) stem; these occur with the Class VII
  pronoun set; the future-conditional affix is /o'on/-/'on/:
  members are: /tekták/ "hold back, hesitate," /milmál/
  "whine, complain," /veregvárg/ "shift from one foot to the
  other," and /meshmásh/ "dodge, run to and fro"
  /tektáketl/ "I hold back,
  hesitate"; /milmáletl/  "I whine,
  complain"; /veregvárgetlo'on/
  "I will shift from one foot to the
  other"; /meshmásher/ "he/sh/it
  dodges, runs to and fro"
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 7
  XI
  3 verbs: these occur only with a unique 3rd person pl.
  subject suffix /üyün/-/yün/. They denote actions
  performed only by plural subjects and cannot occur in
  other persons; the Class I past and future-conditional
  affixes follow this subject suffix; these verbs are /chúsh/
  "advance (as an army)," /kadlá/ "worship in
  congregation," and /prézh/ "flee (as a defeated army, a
  mob)"
  /chushüyün/ "they advance";
  /kadláyün/ "they worship in
  congregation"; /prézhüyün/
  "they flee"
  XII
  3 verbs: these occur with the singular subject suffixes of
  class I but the plural subjects of Class VII. These are very
  common verbs: /plén/ "come," /tlék/ "give," and /kúl/ "be,
  become"
  /plénil/ "I come"; /plénit/ "you
  (sg.) come"; /plénelo/ "we
  come"; /plénenun/ "they will
  come"; /tlékesu/ "you (pl.)
  gave"
  XIII
  2 verbs: each has a stem for the present and past and a
  second for the future-conditional; subject suffixes are as
  for Class XII. These are /mné/-/mnón/ "keep, retain" and
  /'óp/-/óptu/ "hold, seize"
  mnél/ "I have," /mnénu/ "they
  had"; /mnónelon/  "they will
  have"
  XIV
  2 verbs: each has one stem form, but the subject suffixes
  are irregular: /del/ "I," /set/ "you (sg.,)" /rem/ "he," /re/
  "he/she/it," /dele/ "we," /seti/ "you (pl.)," /setesh/ "you
  (honorific)," /ren/ "they," /ron/ "unknown"; past and
  future-conditional affixes are as for Class I; verbs of this
  class are /'arái/ "meet in secret"  and /dhemáu/
  "assassinate for religious reasons"
  /'aráidel/ "I meet in secret";
  /'aráidele'un/ "we will meet";
  / d h e m á u r e m u /  
  " h e
  assassinated"; /dhemáure'u/
  "she assassinated"
  XV
  2 verbs: each has three stem forms (present, past, and
  future-conditional); the pronoun suffixes are as for Class
  XIV. Members are: /'ekké/-/'akké/-/'ekkú/ "ask (a
  question)" and /tsá/-/tsú/-/tsái/ "die, perish"
  /'ekkésetesh/  "you (honorific)
  ask"; /'ekkúseti'un/ "you pl. will
  ask"; /tsúre'u/ "he/she/it died";
  /tsáisetun/ "you sg. will die"
  XVI
  1 verb: /tém/ "to speak" is quite irregular; it has three
  stem forms (/tém/ present, /túl/ past, and /tók/  "future-
  conditional); its subject pronouns are also unique (see the
  next column), but it occurs with the Class I past and
  future-conditional affixes
  /tém/ "I speak" (the subject
  affix is /ø/; /témt/ "you (sg.)
  speak,"; /témek/ "he speaks";
  /tém/ "he/she/it speaks" (the
  subject is /ø/); /témol/ "we
  speak," /témsi/ "you (pl.)
  speak"; 
  /témesh/ 
  "you
  (honorific) speak"; /témor/
  "they 
  speak"; 
  /témom/
  "unknown speaks"; /túlu/ "I
  spoke"; /túlsi/ "you (pl.)
  spoke;" /tókun/ "I will speak";
  /tókorun/ "they will speak"
  XVII
  2 "verbs": these take no affixes whatsoever; subjects and
  tenses must be inferred from other elements in the
  sentence or from context; these are /mái/ "make, do"  and
  /'áil/ "climb, ascend"
  lé mái mú/ "I make, made, will
  make it"; a time adverb is
  needed to clarify
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 8
  Proclitics:
  Proclitics occur with the above paradigms to
  produce aspects: e.g. /nen/-/ne/ "continuous";
  /dhus/-/dhu/ "completing, finishing"; /'ok/-/'o/
  "wants to ..."; /pref/-/pre/ "is able to, can." See
  above for the relevant morphophonemic rule.
  E.g. /'o-fansá/ "to want to send forth"; /ok-avél/
  "to want to eat"; /nen-avél/ "to continuously
  eat"; /dhu-fansá/ "to finish sending forth,"
  /pref-avél/ "to be able to eat."
  The proclitic /in/ "intensive" occurs before any
  other proclitic: e.g. /in-ne-fansá-l/ "I
  (intensively, emphatically) continuously send
  forth."
  Verbs are negated by the proclitic /yén/-/yé/:
  /yé fansár/ "he did not send forth"; /yén-in-ne-
  fansa-dé-l-u ngá?/ "did I not intensively
  continuously send forth?" The proclitic used to
  negate an imperative verb is /méng/-/mé/: e.g.
  /me-fansát-o!/ "Do not send forth!"; see below.
  Enclitics:
  The "imperative" consists of the second person
  present tense verb forms + the enclitic /o/ after
  consonants and /ro/ after a vowel: /fansát-o/
  "you (sg.) send forth!"  /fansáti-ro/ "you (pl.)
  send forth!" With a 3rd person verb, this gives
  a "hortative" sense: e.g. /fansá-ro/ "let him (her,
  it) send forth!"; /fansán-o/ "let them send forth"
  The imperative is used mainly with present
  tense verbs but may also occur with future
  forms, denoting a future command: e.g.
  /fansátun-o/ "you (sg.) will send forth!"
  The "interrogative" is expressed with /ngá/: e.g.
  /fansárun ngá/ "will he send forth?" In speech
  /ngá/ has a rising "question" contour: /?/.
  Interrogative sentences containing a question
  word (e.g. /komé/ "what?") do not employ
  /ngá/.
  Further post-verbal enclitics indicate various
  other aspects or modals: e.g. /gar/ "action far
  away in time or space"; /ke/ "action nearby,
  recent, or soon"; /dza/ "expanding or increasing
  action"; /hel/ "decreasing or diminishing
  action": e.g. /fansálu gar/ "I sent (it) away long
  ago."
  Conditional sentences require the enclitic /pe/
  "if."  Conditional clauses employ a present
  tense verb + /pe/ if the condition is seen as
  likely, a future verb if the condition is doubtful,
  and a past verb if the condition is not possible:
  e.g. /'avélil-pe/ "if I eat (and it is likely I will)";
  /'avélilun-pe/ "if I eat (possible)"; and /'avélilu-
  pe/ "if I had eaten (but I did not)."
  Other Verbal Formations:
  A "temporal gerund" (e.g. English "while
  going") is constructed with a verb stem +
  /vené/-/ené/: e.g. /fansa-vené/ "while sending
  forth"; /'avel-ené/ "while eating. Notice the
  change in word stress.
  Verbal nouns are treated as regular feminine
  nouns (see below), occurring with the stem
  formant vowel + the feminine singular affix
  /b/: e.g. /fansá-b/ "the sending forth"; /'avél-e-
  b/ "eating" (as in "eating is difficult"). All
  verbal nouns in modern Livyáni are feminine.
  They cannot be pluralised. Verbal nouns also
  occur as the objects of inflected verbs like /yól/
  "try": e.g. /yóletl 'avél-e-b/ "I try to eat."
  Participles:
  The active participle consists of a stem + /mú/-
  /imú/ + the noun gender endings: e.g. /fansa-
  mú-z/ "one  (masculine) who sends forth";
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 9
  /fansa-mú-b/ "one (feminine) who sends forth";
  /fansa-mu-tó-z/ "ones (masculine) who send
  forth;"  /fansa-mu-tó-b/ "ones (feminine) who
  send forth."
  The passive participle consists of the stem +
  /gé/-/igé/ + the same noun endings: /fansa-gé-z/
  "one (masculine) who has been sent forth";
  /fansa-gé-b/ "one (feminine) who has been sent
  forth"; /fansa-ge-tó-z/  "ones (masculine) who
  have been sent forth"; /fansa-ge-tó-b/ "ones
  (feminine) who have been sent forth." Note the
  stress shifts. The gender endings /z/ and /b/ are
  not used if the participle occurs with a
  preposition; see below. For participles as
  adjectives, see under "Adjectives."
  Derived Stems:
  Causative stems consist of a verbal root +
  /adé/-/dé/: e.g. /fansa-dé/ "to cause to send
  forth"; /'avel-adé/ "to cause to eat." The
  reflexive ("to act upon oneself") consists of a
  stem + /atlá/-/tlá/. The reciprocal ("to do to
  each other") employs /esü/-/sü/. These stem
  formants precede person-tense affixes: e.g.
  /fansa-dé-l-u/ "I caused to send forth."  More
  than one stem formant can occur in the same
  verbal form: .e.g. /fansa-de-sü/ "cause to send
  forth to each other"; /ses-ade-tlá/ "cause to cut
  oneself" (/sés/ "to cut"), /beldo-de-sü/ "cause to
  fight each other." Note the shift of stress to the
  syllable just preceding the pronominal affixes.
  Equational Sentences:
  Equational (also termed "copulative")
  sentences (e.g. "I am a man," "it is red," "The
  man is here") contain no verbal form
  expressing "am," "is," or "are" in the present
  tense: e.g. /lé vesh-ó-z/ "I (am) a man"; /mú
  chí/ "it (is) great"; /mé srabchi'í-z/ "he (is) a
  servant."  Past equational sentences contain an
  indeclinable element /kú/, and future equational
  sentences employ /chún/: e.g. /mú kú chí/ "it
  was large"; /mú chún chí/ "it will be large."  A
  variant of /chún/,  /kún/ or /kúng/, is found in
  the west around Sraón and Nuférsh.
  NOUNS:
  Nouns are either masculine or feminine. Many
  consonant-final noun stems are followed by a
  "stem formant vowel," which can be /o/, /a/, or
  /e/.  Stem formant vowels are unpredictable,
  although a tendency towards /e/ is seen with
  nouns containing front vowels (/i, e/). In many
  cases, the vowel of the affix syllable is stressed
  (e.g. /li'-ó-b/ "book"), but this is not always the
  case; many nouns have the word stress on other
  vowels: e.g. /llün-e-b/ (stressed on the /ü/,
  which cannot be shown with a /´/ mark in this
  type font) "army legion." The stem vowel (if
  any) is followed by the "masculine" suffix /z/
  or the "feminine" suffix /b/. Examples: /'assá-b/
  "city"; /li'-ó-b/ "book"; /vesh-ó-z/ "man"; /ssen-
  é-b/ "woman"; /chaman-á-z/ "temple."
  Some nouns do not require the /z/ or /b/
  suffixes; these include many proper names,
  names of deities, names of cities, clans and
  lineages (these are treated grammatically as
  plurals), and a scattering of other items: e.g.
  /qame'él/ "Qame'él (deity)."
  Plurals:
  The plural of many masculine nouns is formed
  with /etó/-/tó/ + /z/ or /b/: e.g. /vesh-etó-z/
  "men" (/vesh-ó-z/ "man").  Feminine nouns
  tend to employ /eté/-eté/, although there are
  exceptions that use /etó/-/tó/: /ssen-eté-b/
  "women" (ssen-é-b/ "woman." Other nouns
  have special "plural stems"; these are used ±
  the stem formant vowel + /z/ or /b/ (i.e. without
  /etó/-/tó/ or /eté/-/té/: e.g. /dumú-z/ "brother (in
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 10
  the faith)" and /duru-'ó-b/ brothers"; /li'-ó-b/
  "book," /li'un-ó-b/ "books."
  In literary Livyáni an alternate plural formation
  for many nouns is the addition of /'úba/-/uba/ to
  a singular stem (or to the special plural stem of
  a noun that has one). This is the same for both
  masculine and  feminine singular nouns. It is
  noteworthy that many semi-compounds are
  formed with this affix: X + /-úba/ followed by
  Y, denotes "the Xs of Y." No preposition "of"
  is needed. E.g. /duru-'úba shirudan-á-z/ "the
  Brothers of the Shadow." The suffix /'úba/-
  /uba/ is limited to formal and literary speech,
  although it is fairly frequent in writing.
  Prepositions:
  Prepositions are noun prefixes. Most of these
  have two forms: one ending in a consonant that
  occurs before an initial glottal stop + vowel
  (and this occasions the loss of the glottal stop),
  and a second variant that occurs before other
  consonants. The final consonant of the
  preposition assimilates to the following
  consonant and causes "doubling": e.g. /mik-
  assá/ "of the city"; /mil-li'-ó/ "of the book";
  /miv-vesh-ó/ "of the man"; /pess-ssen-é/  "with
  the woman."
  As noted above, a single phoneme transcribed
  with two letters is considered one consonant:
  these are /tl/ /dl/, /sh/, /zh/, /ss/, /ts/, /dz/, /ch/,
  /kh/, /gh/, /ll/, /ng/, /ny/, /th/, /dh/, /hl/. Other
  consonant clusters are treated as two
  consonants, and the final consonant of a
  preposition assimilates only to the first of
  them: e.g. /mip-prí/ "from one."
  If a noun is preceded by a preposition, or if it
  occurs with a suffixed possessive pronoun, the
  masculine-feminine affixes (/z/ or /b/) do not
  occur: e.g. /mil-li'-ó/ "of the book"; miv-vün-
  etó/ "of the boys" (/vün-ó-z/ "boy"); /li'-ó-l/
  "my  book"; /mil-li'-ó-t/ "of your (sg.) book";
  /li'un-ó-b/ "books" (or /li'un-úba/); /mil-li'un-ó/
  "of the books"; /mil-li'un-ó-t/ "of your (sg.)
  books."
  A noun functioning as an object of a verb is
  marked with /'el/-/'e/: e.g. /'e-vün-ó/ "the boy
  (object)." An indirect object is similarly
  marked with /'atl/-/'a/: e.g. /'a-vün-ó/ "to the
  boy." These two items are prepositions, but
  they do not exhibit the "doubling" of their final
  consonants before stems beginning with a
  glottal stop + a vowel.
  Nouns that denote inanimate objects, mass
  objects, or unknown numbers are often
  employed as objects without /'el/-/'e/: e.g. /'e-
  khá/ "(the) water (object)" or /khá-b/.
  Further prepositions include:
  /'ueth/-/'ueC/ "down to, down upon"
  /dem/-/deC/ "with (an instrument)"
  /hodh/-/hoC/ "under, below"
  /jen/-/jeC/ "through"
  /khin/-/khiC/ "until, up to"
  /kreng/-/kreC/ "in front of"
  /metlek/-/metleC/  "toward"
  /paj/-/paC/ "before"
  /pek/-/peC/ "with, accompanying"
  /sech/-/seC/ "like, resembling"
  /shom/-/shoC/ "above, over"
  /sum/-/suC/ ("C" = the assimilating
  consonant) "on, at"
  /tef/-/teC/ "after"
  /vur/-/vuC/ "in, into"
  /wesh/-/weC/ "for"
  /zhap/-/zhaC/ "from"
  E.g. /sum-assá/ "at the city," /suk-kodr-ó/  "at
  the market" (/kodr-ó-z/  "market"), /hov-váyu/
  "under the house" (/váyu-z/ "house"); /sem-mú/
  "like this"; /sech-o-mú/ "like that." (See under
  Demonstratives, below).
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
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  PRONOUNS:
  Subject Pronouns:
  Subjects of verbs are included in verbal
  constructions (see above) and are not usually
  expressed as independent pronouns. . Livyáni
  does use independent pronouns in verbal
  sentences to emphasise the subject: e.g. /lé
  'avélil/ "I eat" (i.e. I alone, not others).
  Independent subject pronouns are used in
  "equational" sentences in which no verb for "to
  be" occurs: e.g. "lé vesh-ó--z/ "I (am) a (or
  'the') man." To emphasise the "I" in this type of
  formation, the enclitic /be/ is employed: e.g. /lé
  be vesh-ó-z/ "I am a man." /be/ occurs after any
  emphasised element in a sentence: e.g. /lé
  vesh-ó-z be/ "I am a man" (i.e. not anything
  else); /'avélil be/ "I eat" (i.e. I do nothing else).
  Possessive Pronouns:
  Possessive pronouns are the same as the verbal
  subject pronoun set. These occur after the noun
  formant vowels, if present: e.g. ; /li'-ó-l/ "my
  book";  /'assá-t/ "your (sg.) city"; /'assá-li/ "our
  city"; /so'él-e-t/ "your (sg.) face," (/so'él-e-b/
  "face"), /vün-ó-me/ "his boy, son" (/vün-ó/
  "his, her boy" is also found, using the /ø/
  variant of the 3rd sg. suffix). The "indefinite"
  possessive pronoun is /om/ after consonants
  and /tom/ after vowels: e.g. /'assá-tom/
  "someone's city," or "one's city."
  The possessive pronouns also occur with
  prepositions. The vowel-initial form of the
  pronoun is employed, and the preposition thus
  occurs in its "full" form, and the pronoun takes
  the word-stress: e.g.  /pek-íl/  "with me";
  /wésh-it/ for you (sg.)"; hodh-imó/  "behind it";
  /zhap-itésh/ "from you (honorific)."
  Object Pronouns:
  A pronominal object of a verb can be expressed
  as an independent element with /'el/-/'e/ + the
  object pronoun set. An indirect object (e.g. "I
  gave it to him") similarly consists of the
  preposition /'atl/-/'a/ + the same set: e.g. /'e-mú/
  "him"; /'a-mú/ "to him." In speech, the final
  vowel of a pronominal construction is often
  omitted: e.g. /'é-l/ "me" (instead of /'e-lé/;
  /'á-m/ "to him" instead of /'a-mú/. The vowel of
  the preposition then takes word-stress. Note
  that the alternate suffix pronoun sets of the
  minor verb classes (e.g. VII and XIV) do not
  occur as objects or as possessive pronouns.
  A pronominal object can also be expressed by a
  verb + an object suffix. The latter begins with a
  consonant after a verb form ending in a vowel
  and with a "helper vowel" /e/ after a verb
  ending in a consonant. Object suffixes follow
  the tense affixes /u/-/'u/ and /un/-/'un/. E.g.
  /'avélil-em/ "I eat it"; /'avélilu-m/ "I ate it";
  /'avélilun-em/ "I will eat it"; /wakál-et/  "I see
  you (sg.)"; /wakál-u-t/ "I saw you (sg.)";
  /wakál-un-et/ "I will see you (sg.)"
  There are no reciprocal or reflexive pronouns;
  these are covered by the verbal stem suffixes
  noted above.
  Relative Pronouns:
  The "relative" pronoun set is used when the
  pronoun is the head of a relative clause: e.g. /lé
  já-l vur-assá makhí-l/ "I am the one who dwells
  in the city."  A relative clause may also be the
  object or indirect object of the verb of the main
  clause; the verb then usually takes a
  pronominal object in apposition: e.g. /wakálu-
  me, jé-m vur-assá/ "I saw him, he-who (is) in
  the city."
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 12
  The pronouns are:
  English
  Verbal Suffixes*
  and Possessive
  Pronouns
  Independent
  Subjects
  Independent
  Objects with /'el/-
  /'e/, etc.
  Suffixed
  Objects
  Relative
  Pronouns
  I
  -l - -il
  l é
  - l é
  -l - -el
  já-l
  you 
  sg.
  -t - -it
  t é m
  - t é
  -t - -et
  já-t
  h e
  -ø - -me - -ime
  m é
  - m é
  -me - -eme
  j é - m
  s h e / i t
  -ø - -mo - -imo
  m ú
  - m ú
  -m - -em
  j á - m
  w e
  -li - -ili
  l í m
  -l í m
  -li - -eli
  já-li
  you pl.
  -ti - -iti
  t í m
  -t í m
  -ti - eti
  je-tím
  y o u
  h o n o r i f i c
  -tesh - -itesh
  k a t é m
  - t é s h
  -tesh -
  -etesh
  je-tésh
  t h e y
  -n - -in
  m é n
  - m é n
  -ne - -ene
  j e - m é n
  u n k n o w n
  -om - -m
  tóm
  -tóm
  -tom -
  -etom
  je-tóm
  *The pronoun sets of the smaller verb classes need not be listed here; cf. Verb Classes," above.
  DEMONSTRATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES:
  The demonstratives are: /mú-z/ "this
  (masculine)"; /má-b/ "this (feminine and
  neuter)"; and /mú-n/ "these (both masculine
  and feminine)." "That" and "those" are
  expressed by /'o/  prefixed to the "near" forms:
  e.g. /'o-mú-z/  "that (masculine)," /'o-má-b/
  "that (feminine)," and /'o-mú-n/ "those." Like
  adjectives, the /z/ and /b/ do not occur if the
  noun they modify occurs with a preposition:
  e.g. /má mik-assá/ "of this city"; /mú miv-vün-
  ó/ "of this boy."
  When the demonstratives are employed as head
  nouns themselves and occur with a preposition,
  the /z/ and /b/ do not occur, but /mú-n/ remains
  unchanged: 
  e.g. 
  /mim-mú/ 
  "of 
  this
  (masculine)," /mim-má/ "of this (feminine),"
  /mim-mú-n/ "of these," /mik-o-mú/ "of that
  (masculine)," etc.
  Various sets are found which include a "near"
  form, a "far" form, and an "interrogative" form:
  /méta/ "here"; /'o-méta/ "there"; /k-éta/
  "where?"; /mú-z/ (etc.) "this"; /'o-mú-z/ "that";
  /k-omé/  "what?" (in reference to inanimate
  objects), and /ke-mú-z/ "who?" If the referent
  is clearly feminine or plural, /ke-má-b/ and /ke-
  mú-n/  may occur as well. Another set denotes
  "way": /péth/ "thus, this way"; /'o-péth/ "thus,
  that way"; and /ke-péth/ "which way, how?"
  Still another set is /nyék/ "this much, this
  many"; /'o-nyék/ "that much, that many"; and
  /ke-nyék/ "how much, how many?" Still
  another set is: /'ítro/ "now"; /'ó-tro/ "then"; and
  /k-ítro/ "when?" /k-él/ "why?" seems to have
  no other members of its set.
  Many of these forms occur with prepositions,
  but only /mú-z/, /má-b/ and /ke-mú-z/ occur
  without the /z/ and /b/ endings. E.g. /mik-
  kenyék/ "of how many?" /'a-ke-mú/ "to whom
  (masculine singular)?"
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 13
  ADJECTIVES:
  Three classes of adjectives are found: those
  that occur with the suffix /es/-/s/; those that are
  appended to nouns as enclitics; and numeral-
  quantifier adjectives that require no suffix.
  Stems that occur with /es/-/s/ express qualities:
  e.g. /kré-s/ "red"; /mékri-s/ "black"; /tóli-s/
  "big"; /chúm-es/ "greedy." These adjectives do
  not change for number or gender, and they
  occur before the noun they modify, except in
  poetry: e.g. /tóli-s 'assá-b/ "big city" (or "the
  big city" -- there is no definite article); /qér-es
  'assa-tó-b/ "all (the) cities"; /tóli-s 'assa-tó-b/
  "big cities"; /tóli-s 'assa-tó-li/ "our big cities."
  As modifiers, these forms require no further
  affixes, even if their head nouns occur with
  prepositions: e.g. /tóli-s vur-assá/ "in the big
  city." A demonstrative precedes a qualitative
  adjective: e.g. /má tóli-s vur-assá/  "of this big
  city."
  Participles function both as nouns (see above)
  and as adjectives. In the latter case they occur
  with /es/-/s/ and are otherwise indeclinable: e.g.
  /ket-imú-s jatt-ó-z/ " "burning bread" and /ket-
  igé-s jatt-ó-z/ "burnt bread" (/két/ "burn," Class
  I).
  "Suffixed adjectives" include about twenty
  items that occur in loose compounds after noun
  stems. The stem vowels/ /o/ and /e/, the plural
  stem formants /etó/-/tó/ and /eté/-/té/, and the
  masculine and feminine endings /z/ and /b/
  come after such compounds, just like
  monomorphemic noun stems. A noun + a
  suffixed adjective is thus treated as a single
  stem. Suffixed adjectives include such
  elements as /chi/ "great, big"; /she/ "powerful";
  /mer/ "beloved"; /khe/ "hated"; /tre/ "despised";
  /leth/ "beautiful, handsome"; /vo/ "endless,
  eternal"; /hoi/ "glorious." More than one of
  these can occur with a noun. E.g. /vün-mer-ó-z/
  "beloved boy," /vesh-khé-z/ "hated man,"
  /vesh-chi-khé-z/ "great hated man"; /ssen-leth-
  eté-b/ "beautiful women." After a stem ending
  in two consonants, a "helping vowel," /i/,
  occurs before the suffixed adjective: e.g.
  /cherd-i-chí--z/ "great deed"; /cherd-i-chi-hói-z/
  "great (and) glorious deed" (/chérd-ó-z/
  "heroic deed." Note that the word-tress tends to
  shift to the last syllable in such long
  formations.
  The third class of adjectives contains
  quantifiers: numerals (e.g. /prí/ "one"; /hé/
  "two"; /pü/ "three"; /mí/ "four"; /tlí/ "five";
  etc.) and words like /téth/ "both"; /dzé/ "some";
  /yáish/ "few, a few"; /hú/ "too few"; /púr/
  "many"; /lóch/ "too many"; etc. As adjectives,
  these require no gender or number affixes: e.g.
  /prí vesh-ó-z/ "one man"; /prí miv-vesh-ó/ "of
  one man"; /yáish ssen-eté-b/ "a few women."
  When numerals are used as nouns, they occur
  with the usual noun affixes: e.g. /prí-z 'o-méta/
  "one (is) there"; /wakálu 'e-prí/ "I saw one."
  The decades of the numerals consist of a digit
  + /dol/-/dlo/:  e.g.  /mí-dlo/ "forty"; /tlí-dlo/
  "fifty"; /sésh-dol/  "sixty"  (/sésh/  "six"); /jái-
  dlo/  "seventy" (/jái/ "seven"); /kól-dol/
  "eighty" (/kól/  eight");  /pór-dol/ "ninety"
  (/pór/ "nine"). A decade plus a digit requires no
  word for "and":  e.g. /kól-dol hé/  "eighty two."
  Larger numerals are: /mrésh/ "hundred"; /tukál/
  "thousand"; /ngúmal/ "hundred thousand";
  /'ürdún/ "million":  e.g. /tlí 'ürdun, sésh ngúmal,
  pü tukál, mí mrésh, jái-dlo, kól/ "five million,
  six hundred thousand, three thousand, four
  hundred, seventy-eight."  ""Zero" is /zúth/.
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 14
  ADVERBS:
  Adverbs consist of a noun or noun-like stem +
  the adverbial suffix /év/-/v/: e.g. /wal-év/
  "yesterday";  /shul-é-v/ "tomorrow"; /ván-ev/
  "quickly" (/ván-e-z/ "speed" NM, /ván-es/
  "quick" Adj). Many unique items also function
  as adverbs; these may or may not occur with
  the noun affixes: e.g. /tétl/ "also"; /póm/
  "very"; /lyótl/ "back, again"; /dhún/
  "afterwards, later"; /njénje/ "sometimes";
  /pócho/ "often."
  Some of the sets described above under
  Demonstratives and Interrogatives are
  employed adverbially: e.g. /péth/ "this way,
  thus"; /méta/ "here."
  A suffix /cho/ is used with numerals to denote
  "-times": e.g. /prí-cho/ "once," /hé-cho/
  "twice," /pü-cho/ "thrice, three times." This
  probably also occurs in /pócho "often" (< /póm
  "very" + /cho/)/ A numeral + /se/ + the same
  numeral signifies "X by X" e.g. /prí se prí/ "one
  by one"; /hé se hé/ "two by two." A rather
  uncommon suffix /otk/-/tk/ occurs with
  numeral stems to denote "-fold":  e.g.  /hé-tk/
  "double, two-fold"; /dól-otk/  "ten-fold."
  CONJUNCTIONS:
  Members of this small class are indeclinable:
  e.g. /bé/ "and";  /mél/ "but";  /wázh/ "that"
  (introduces a subordinate clause); /tuén/
  "indeed" (introduces sentences); /sáitl/ "lo,
  verily!" /kekél/ "then, thereafter"; /'ódh/ "in
  order to, in order that";  /niké/ "because";
  /'unél/ "although";  /sejún/ "however." /cháth/
  "then" introduces the "then" clause of a
  conditional sentence; cf. above under verbal
  enclitics for /pe/ "if."
  INTERJECTIONS:
  There is also a small class of uninflected
  interjections:  e.g.  /ré/  "O!"  /'alá/  "woe!"
  /vatlé/  "wonderful!" /ché/-/'eché/  "?" (in a yes-
  or-no question); /yén/ "no!" /sá/  "yes."
  SYNTAX:
  Noun Phrases:
  A noun phrase consists of a demonstrative ± a
  numeral ± an adjective (± an adverbial
  modifier such as /póm/ "very") + the noun (± a
  suffixed adjective ± a pronominal possessor).
  A further noun phrase may possess the first,
  employing /mik/-/miC/ "of": e.g. /má prí póm
  tóli-s 'assa-chí-z mid-dengen-etó-li/ "this one
  very big city-splendid of our ancestors."
  Sentences:
  As in other languages, there is no need for
  "complete" sentences: "In the house" is a
  complete sentence in reply to "Where is he?"
  Single exclamations, interjections, and the like
  often function as sentences: e.g. /sá/ "yes,"
  /yén/ "no." More complex sentence patterns
  include:
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 15
  Noun subject + Noun, adjective, or adverb:
  this is the "equational" sentence
  described above
  Verb + suffixed subject pronoun
  Verb + suffixed subject pronoun ± suffixed
  object pronoun
  Noun subject + verb (as just above; a 3rd
  person sg. or pl. suffixed subject
  pronoun must occur whenever a noun is
  the grammatical subject of that verb)
  Noun subject ± noun object + verb
  Noun subject ± locative word or phrase
  (e.g. "here," "in the city") ± noun object
  + verb
  Time adverb (usually first)  + the above
  patterns
  Clause- 
  or 
  sentence-introducing
  conjunction + the above
  Imperative sentence patterns are identical with
  the foregoing, except that a strongly emphatic
  pattern requires the verb to be the first element.
  Interrogative yes-or-no sentences have the
  same syntactic patterns as statements; the
  interrogative particle /ché/ or /'eché/ often
  occurs either at the beginning or at the end of
  the sentence: e.g. /ché, múz vesh-ó-z ngá?/
  "(Is) he a man?"
  The interrogative particle is not employed in
  questions that contain a "question word" (e.g.
  "who?" what?" "why?"
  The Livyáni Script
  The following is a font map of the Livyáni
  script, created for use with a Macintosh
  computer. The phonemic values of the
  characters are indicated in small type in rows 2
  and 4 of each section of the table. Livyáni is
  usually read down in vertical columns from
  right to left.
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 16
  Livyáni Script and Font Map
  q
  w
  e
  r
  t
  y
  u
  i
  o
  p
  [
  ]
  \
  q
  w
  e
  r
  t
  y
  u
  i
  o
  p
  oi
  ng
  ai
  q w
  e r t y
  u
  i
  o p
  []
  \
  e
  th
  hl
  u
  i
  o
  oi
  ai
  E
  T IY
  U
  I
  O
  {
  |
  a
  s
  d
  f
  g
  h
  j
  k
  l
  ;
  '
  a
  s
  d
  f
  g
  h
  j
  k
  l
  ü
  Doubler
  as d f g h jk l
  ;
  '
  a
  sh
  dh
  gh
  kh
  ll
  ü
  "
  a S D
  G
  K L
  :"
  z
  x
  c
  v
  b
  n
  m
  ,
  .
  /
  z
  ts
  ch
  v
  b
  n
  m
  ,
  .
  glottal
  zx c v
  b n m , . /
  zh
  dz
  tl
  dl
  ss
  ny
  aw
  aw
  ?
  Z X C V B N
  <
  > ?
  Top line: English lower case key name on keyboard
  Second line: Livyáni phonetic values on lower case keys: e.g. th, dh
  Third line: lower case Livyáni letters
  Fourth line: Livyáni phonetic values on shift keys
  Fifth line: upper case Livyáni letters
  Repeated vowel diacritics are those which can be placed to the right or left to avoid tall letters.
  The "doubler" doubles the consonant over which it appears: e.g. -GG-, -PP-
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 17
  In addition to the foregoing, Livyáni scribes
  often insert /kenemú-z/: large, complex glyphs
  which seem to have no phonological content or
  relationship with the text being written! Writers
  worshipping different Shadow Gods (the
  pantheon unique to Livyánu) use different
  complexes of glyphic elements and symbols.
  Scribes also frequently employ ciphers and
  symbols which are said to have "divine" or
  "mystic" meanings, and the situation is
  complicated by the intense and almost
  pathological secrecy with which almost
  everything in Livyánu is viewed. The Tsolyáni
  have a jest that those who would reveal even
  the contents of a laundry list to an outsider will
  likely be found strangled with his own wet
  wash!  A few examples of /kenemú-z/ are
  adduced below. The first is taken from a
  magical text titled "The Scroll of Bloodstained
  Reeds," and tthe second is from a government
  document.
  1   2
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 18
  18
  GLOSSARY:
  English-Livyáni and Livyáni glossaries are
  presented below. Abbreviations include: "N" =
  noun; "V" = verb (followed by a numeral
  denoting the verb's class); "M" = masculine;
  "F" = feminine; "pl" = plural; "Pron" =
  pronoun; "Adj" = adjective; "Adv" = adverb;
  "Num" = numeral adjective; "Prep" =
  Preposition;  "Dem" = demonstrative; "Conj" =
  conjunction."  "Suffix," "enclitic," and
  "proclitic" are spelled out.
  English - Livyáni
  -fold  otk  Num suffix
  -ing, gerund  vené  V suffix
  -times  cho  Num suffix
  abandon  kórd  V7
  above, over  shom  Prep
  action far away in time or space  gar
       Enclitic
  action nearby, recent, or soon  ké  Enclitic
  active participle suffix  mú  V suffix
  admit  nóp  V9
  advance (as an army)  chúsh  V11
  adverial formant  e-v - v  N Suffix
  after  tef  Prep
  afterwards, later  dhún  Adv
  again, back  lyótl  Adv
  all  qér-es  Adj
  allow  kénd  V1
  alone  prídh-e-v  Adv
  also  tétl  Adv
  although  'unél  Conj
  and  bé  Conj
  ascend  'áil  V17
  ask (a question) 'ekké  V15
  assassinate  dhemáu  V14
  at  sum  Prep
  back, again  lyótl  Adv
  be able  pref  Proclitic
  be, become  kúl  V12
  beat (heart)  trutr  V3
  beautiful  leth  Suffix adj
  because  niké  Conj
  before paj Prep
  beloved  mer  Suffix adj
  below, under  hodh  Prep
  big  tóli-s  Adj
  big, great  chi  Suffix adj
  black  mékri-s  Adj
  book  li'-ó-b  NF
  books  li'un-ó-b  NFpl
  both  téth  Adj
  boy  vün-ó-z  NM
  bread  játt-o-z  NM
  break  shánz  V5
  bring  'ats  V7
  brother in the faith  dumú-z  NM
  brothers in the faith  duru'ó-b or duru'úba
       NMpl
  burn  két  V1
  but  mél  Conj
  buy  dék  V7
  by (as in "two by two")  se  Enclitic?
  can  pref  Proclitic
  causative  adé  V suffix
  city  'assá-b  NF
  climb  'áil  V17
  clouds (on the horizion at dawn or sunset)
       tsenyá-b  NF
  come  plén  V12
  complain  milmál  V10
  completing  dhus  Proc
  confess  nóp  V9
  continuously  nén  Proclitic
  cook (vb.) fádh  V9
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 19
  cut  sés  V1
  daily  hékh-e-v  Adv
  dance  chás  V2
  dance  ssáng  V1
  day  hékh-e-b  NF
  decreasing or diminishing action  hel
       Enclitic
  deed (heroic deed)  cherd-ó-z  NM
  defecate  ngép  V7
  despised  tre  Suffix adj
  die  tsá  V15
  do  mái  V17
  down to, down upon  'ueth  Prep
  drink  léthen  V6
  drone  disdís  V3
  dwell, live  makhí  V1
  eat  'avél  V1
  eight  kól  Num
  eighty  kól-dol  Num
  emphatic  be  Enclitic
  endless  vo  Suffix adj
  eternal  vo  Suffix adj
  expanding or increasing action  dza
       Enclitic
  face  so'él-e-b  NF
  feminine ending  b  N suffix
  few, a few  yáish  Adj
  fifty  tlí-dlo  Num
  fight  beldó  V1
  find  fá  V8
  finishing  dhus  Proclitic
  five  tlí  Num
  flee (as a defeated army)  prézh  V11
  for  wesh  Prep
  forgive  húp  V8
  forty  mí-dlo  Num
  four  mí  Num
  from  zhap  Prep
  future  kúng / chún  Equational particle
  girl  thél-e-b  NF
  give  tlék  V12
  glorious  hoi  Suffix adj
  go  mül  V8
  great, big  chi  Suffix adj
  greedy  chúm-es  Adj
  handsome  leth  Suffix adj
  hated  khe  Suffix adj
  he, his, him  mé  Pron
  heart  hór-o-z  NM
  heat (vb.) fádh  V9
  here    méta  Adv
  hesitate  tekták  V10
  hold  'óp  V13
  hold back  tekták  V10
  house  váyu-z  NM
  how much, how many?  ke-nyék  Adv
  Adj
  however  sejún  Conj
  hum  disdís  V3
  hundred  mrésh  Num
  hundred thousand  Ngúmal  Num
  I, me, my  lé  Pron
  if  pe  Enclitic
  imperative  o / ro  Enclitic
  in front of  kreng  Prep
  in order to, in order that  'ódh  Conj
  in, into  vur  Prep
  indeed  tuén  Conj
  indirect object marker, to 'atl Prep
  intensive  in  Proclitic
  interrogative (in a yes or no question)  ché
       Interjection
  it  mu  Dem
  jump  'ér  V7
  keep  mné  V13
  later, afterwards  dhún  Adv
  leap  'ér  V7
  leave  kórd  V7
  legion  llün-e-b  NF
  lie, to tell  'úk  V8
  like (resembling)  sech  Prep
  live, dwell  makhí  V1
  lo, verily  sáitl  Conj
  love  mér  V9
  maiden  thél-e-b  NF
  make  mái  V17
  man  vesh-ó-z  NM
  many  púr  Adj
  market  kodr-ó-z  NM
  masculine ending  z  N suffix
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 20
  mé  not (neg. of the imperative)  Proclitic
  meet in secret  'arái  V14
  milliion  ürdún  Num
  mourn  náran  V6
  nine  pór  Num
  ninety  pór-dol  Num
  no  yén  Interjection
  not  yén  Proclitic
  not, do not!  méng-mé  Proclitic
  now, at this time  'ítro  Adv
  O!  ré  Interjection
  object marker  'el  Prep
  often  pócho  Adv
  on  Sum Prep
  once  prí-cho  Adv
  one  prí  Num
  over, above  shom  Prep
  passive participle suffix  gé  V suffix
  past  kú  Equational particle
  perish  tsá  V15
  permit  kénd  V1
  plural ending  'uba  N suffix
  plural formant  etó-tó / eté-té  N suffix
  powerful  she  Suffix adj
  Qame'él (deity)  qame'él  NM
  quick  ván-es  Adj
  quickly  ván-ev  Adv
  reciprocal  esü  V suffix
  red  kré-s  Adj
  reflexive  atlá  V suffix
  relative pronoun formant: he who ... etc.
       ja-je  Pron prefix
  retain  mné  V13
  rise (sun)  tsotsú  V1
  run to and fro  meshmásh  V10
  say  pársh  V9
  scratch  hél  V4
  secret, be  ványel  V6
  see  waká  V1
  seize  'óp  V13
  send forth  fansá  V1
  servant  srabchi'í-z  NM
  seven  jái  Num
  seventy  jái-dlo  Num
  shadow  shirudan-á-z  NM
  she, it, her, its  mú  Pron
  shift from one foot to the other  veregvárg
       V10
  sing  shenéhl  V1
  sit  'áim  V1
  six  sésh  Num
  sixty  sésh-dol  Num
  slide  medán  V6
  solitude  prídh-e-b  NF
  some  dzé  Adj
  sometimes  njénje  Adv
  song  shenéhl-e-b  NF
  speak  tém  V16
  speed  ván-e-z  NM
  spy on  púraj
  stem formant vowel  o / a/ e  N suffix
  strike at with a sword  sséman  V6
  sun  chól-a-z  NM
  temple  chaman-á-z  NM
  that  'o-mú-z, 'o-má-b  Dem
  that much, that many  'o-nyék  Adv Adj
  that  wázh  (introduces a clause)  Conj
  then (introduces the "then" clause of a
       conditional sentence)  cháth  Conj
  then, at that time  'ó-tro  Adv
  then, thereafter  kekél  Conj
  there  'o-méta  Adv
  these  mú-n  Dem
  they, them, their  mén  Pron
  thirty  pü-dlo  Num
  this mú-z, má-b  Dem
  this much, this many  nyék  Adv Adj
  thonlésh-e-b  garden  (flowers)  NF
  those  'o-mú-n  Dem
  thousand  tukál  Num
  three  pü  Num
  thrice  pü-cho  Adv
  through  jen  Prep
  thus, that way  'o-peth  Adv
  thus, this way  péth  Adv
  tomorrow  shul-év  Adv
  too few  hú  Adj
  too many  lóch  Adj
  toward  metlek  Prep
  tremble  palpál  V3
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 21
  try  yól  V7
  twenty  hé-dlo  Num
  twice  hé-cho  Adv
  two  hé  Num
  under, below  hodh  Prep
  unknown prononoun:  one  tóm  Pron
  until, up to  khin  Prep
  up to, until  khin  Prep
  verily, lo!  sáitl  Conj
  very  póm  Adv
  want to  'ok  Proclitic
  want to  'ok  Proclitic
  water  khá-b  NF
  we, us, our  lím  Pron
  what?  k-omé Dem
  when, at which time?  k-ítro  Adv
  where?  k-éta  Adv
  which way, how?  ke-péth  Adv
  whine  milmál  V10
  whir  bekbék  V3
  who?  ke-mú-z, ke-má-b, ke-mú-n  Dem
  why?  k-él
  window  lá-z  NM
  with (accompanying)  pek  Prep
  with (an instrument)  dem  Prep
  woe!  'alá  Interjection
  woman  ssen-é-b  NF
  wonderful!  vatlé  Interjection
  worship in congregation  kadlá  V11
  yearn  róy  V1
  yes  sá  Interjection
  yesterday  wal-év  Adv
  you (honorific)  katém  Pron
  you (pl.), your  tím  Pron
  you (sg.), your  tém  Pron
  zero  zút  Num
  Livyáni - English
  'áil  climb, ascend V17
  'áim  sit  V1
  'alá  woe!  Interjection
  'arái  meet in secret V14
  'assá-b  city  NF
  'atl-'a  to: indirect object marker  N prep
  'áts  bring V7
  'avél   eat V1
  'ekké-'akké-'ekkú  ask (a question) V15
  'el-'e  object marker  N prep
  'ér  leap, jump V7
  'ítro  now  Adv
  'o-má-b that (fem.) Dem
  'o-méta  there  Adv
  'o-mú-n  those (pl.)  Dem
  'o-mú-z  that (masc.)  Dem
  'o-nyék  that much, that many  Adv Adj
  'o-péth  thus, that way  Adv
  'ó-tro  then, at that time  Adv
  'ódh  in order to, in order that  Conj
  'ok-'o  want to  Proclitic
  'omé  Dem  what?
  'uba-uba  special plural ending  N suffix
  'ueth-'ueC  down to, down upon  Prep
  'úk-'uvék  tell a lie V8
  'unél  although  Conj
  adé-dé  causative  V suffix
  atlá-tlá  reflexive  V suffix
  b  feminine noun ending  N suffix
  be  emphatic  Enclitic
  bé  and  Conj
  bekbék  whir V3
  beldó  fight  V1
  chaman-á-z  temple  NM
  chás  dance V2
  cháth  then (introduces the "then" clause of
         a conditional sentence)  Conj
  ché-'eché  interrogative: "?" (in a yes-or-no
       question)  Interjection
  cherd-ó-z  heroic deed NM
  chi  great, big   Suffix adj
  cho  -times  Num suffix
  chól-a-z  sun  NM
  chúm-es  greedy  Adj
  chún - kúng    future  Equational particle
  chúsh  advance (as an army) V11
  dék  buy V7
  dem-deC  with (an instrument)  Prep
  dhemáu  assassinate for religious reasons
       V14
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 22
  dhún  afterwards, later  Adv
  dhus-dhu  completing, finishing  Proc
  disdís  hum, drone V3
  dol-dlo  decade formant  Num suffix
  dumú-z  brother in the faith  NM
  duru-'ó-b  brothers in the faith NMpl
  dza  expanding or increasing action
  Enclitic
  dzé  some  Adj
  e-v--v  Adverbial formant  N suffix
  esü-sü  reciprocal  V suffix
  etó-tó / eté-té  plural stem formant  N
  suffix
  fá-fézh  find V8
  fádh-fe'édh-fódh  heat, cook V9
  fansá   send forth V1
  gar  action far away in time or space
  Enclitic
  gé-igé  passive participle V suffix
  hé  two  Num
  hékh-e-b  day  NF  hékh-e-v  daily  Adv
  hel  decreasing or diminishing action  hel
        Enclitic
  hél  scratch V4
  hép-húp  forgive V8
  hodh-hoC  under, below  Prep
  hoi  glorious  Suffix adj
  hór-o-z  heart  NM
  hú  too few  Adj
  in  intensive Proclitic
  já-jé  relative pronoun formant
  jái  seven  Num
  játt-o-z  bread  NM
  jen-jeC  through  Prep
  k-él  why?  Adv
  k-éta  where?  Adv
  k-ítro  when?  Adv
  k-omé  what?  Dem
  kadlá  worship in congregation V11
  katém-tesh-tésh  you (honorific)  Pron
  ké  action nearby, recent, or soon  Enclitic
  ke-má-b  who (fem.)?  Dem
  ke-mú-n  who (pl.)?  Dem
  ke-mú-z  who (masc.)?  Dem
  ke-nyék  how much, how many?  Adv
  ke-péth  which way, how?  Adv
  kekél  then, thereafter  Conj
  kénd  let, permit  V1
  két  burn  V1
  khá-b  water  NF
  khe  hated  Suffix adj
  khin-khiC until, up to  Prep
  kodr-ó-z  market  NM
  kól  eight  Num
  kórd  leave, abndon V7
  kré-s  red  Adj
  kréd-krít  put, set down V8
  kreng-kreC  in front of  Prep
  kú  past  Equational particle
  kúl  be, become V12
  lá-z  window  NM
  lé-l  I, me, my  Pron
  leth  beautiful, handsome  Suffix adj
  léthen-léth-le'éth  drink  V6
  li'-ó-b  book  NF
  li'un-ó-b  books  NFpl
  lím-li  we, us, our  Pron
  llün-e-b  army legion  NF
  lóch  too many  Adj
  má-b  this (fem.)  Dem
  mái  make, do V17
  makhí  live, dwell  V1
  mé  he, him, his  Pron
  medán-méd-modán  slide V6
  mékri-s  black  Adj
  mél  but  Conj
  mén-n-ne  they, them, their  Pron
  méng-mé  not (neg. of the imperative)
       Proclitic
  mer  beloved  Suffix adj
  mér-mo'ór-mrén  love V9
  meshmásh  run to and fro V10
  méta  here  Adv
  metlek-metleC  toward  Prep
  mí  four  Num
  milmál  whine, complain V10
  mné-mnón  keep, retain V13
  mrésh  hundred  Num
  mú  it  Dem
  mú-imú  active participle  V suffix
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 23
  mú-mo-m  (he), she, her,  it  Pron
  mú-n  these (pl.)  Dem
  mú-z  this (masc.) Dem
  mül-mól  go V8
  náran-níran-'inrán  mourn V6
  nen-ne  continuously  Proclitic
  ngá  interrogatibe, ?  Enclitic
  ngép  defecate V7
  ngúmal  hundred thousand  Num
  niké  because  Conj
  njénje  sometimes  Adv
  nóp-no'óp-náp  admit, confess V9
  nyék  this much, this many  Adv, Adj
  o-a-e  stem formant vowel  N suffix
  o-ro  imperative  Enclitic
  óp-'óptu/  hold, seize V13
  otk-tk  -fold  Num suffix
  paj-paC  before  Prep
  palpál  tremble  V3
  pársh-pe'érsh-prásh  say  V9
  pe  if  Enclitic
  pek-peC  with, accompanying  Prep
  péth  thus, this way  Adv
  plén  come V12
  pócho  often  Adv
  póm  very  Adv
  pór  nine  Num
  pref-pre  be able to, can  Proclitic
  prézh  flee (as a defeated army, mob) V11
  prí  one  Num
  prídh-e-b  solitude  NF, prídh-e-v  alone
  Adv
  pü  three  Num
  púr  many  Adj
  púraj-pórj-péraj  spy on V6
  qame'él  Qame'él  NM (deity)
  qér-es  all  Adj
  ré  O!  Interjection
  sá  yes  Interjection
  sáitl  lo, verily  Conj
  se  by:  as in "two by two"  Enclitic?
  sech-seC  like, resembling  Prep
  sejún  however  Conj
  sés  cut  V1
  sésh  six  Num
  shánz-shéd-shún  break V5
  she  powerful  Suffix adj
  shenéhl  sing  V1, shenéhl-e-b  song  NF
  shirudan-á-z  shadow  NM
  shom-shoC  above, over  Prep
  shul-é-v  tomorrow  Adv  (shul-é-z if used
       as a noun, NM)
  so'él-e-b  face  NF
  srabchi'í-z  servant  NM
  ssáng  dance  V1
  sséman-ssém-sse'ém  strike at with a sword
       V6
  ssen-é-b  woman  NF
  sum-suC  on, at  Prep
  tef-teC  after  Prep
  tekták  hold back, hesitate V10
  tém-túl-tók  speak V16
  téth  both  Adj
  tétl  also  Adv
  thél-e-b  girl, maiden  NF
  thonlésh-e-b  garden (flowers)  NF
  tím-ti  you (pl.), your  Pron
  tlék  give V12
  tlí  five  Num
  tóli-s  big  Adj
  tóm-om  unknown subject:  one  Pron
  tre  despised  Suffix adj
  trutr  beat (heart) V3
  tsá-tsú-tsái  die, perish V15
  tsenyá-b  clouds (on the horizon at dawn or
       sunset)  NF
  tsotsú  rise (sun)  V1
  tuén  indeed  Conj
  tukál  thousand  Num
  ürdún  million  Num
  ván-e-v  quickly  Adv  (ván-e-z  speed
  NM,
       ván-es  quick  Adj)
  ványel-ván-ve'én  be secret V6
  vatlé  wonderful!  Interjection
  váyu-z  house, home  NM
  vené-ené  while  ... ing, V suffix
  veregvárg  shift from one foot to the other
       V10
  vesh-ó-z  man  NM
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 24
  vo  endless, eternal  Suffix adj
  vün-ó-z  boy  NM
  vur-vuC  in, into  Prep
  waká  see  V1
  wal-é-v  yesterday  Adv  (wal-é-z if used
       as a noun, NM)
  wázh  that  (introduces a clause)  Conj
  wesh-weC  for  Prep
  yáish  few, a few  Adj
  yearn  róy  V1
  yén  no  Interjection
  yén-yé  not  Proclitic
  yól  try V7
  you (sg.), your  tém-t-té  Pron
  z  masculine ending  N suffix
  zhap-zhaC  from  Prep
  zúth  zero  Num
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 25
  THE SONG OF THE MAIDEN:
  The following is a portion of a poem by Márya of Tsámra, inscribed on the walls of the Obsidian
  Palace in  the chamber where his famous sculpture, "Woman of Tsámra," is housed. In the
  transcription, morpheme boundaries continue to be marked with "-"; these symols correspond to
  nothing either in speech or in Livyáni script but are inserted to aid the reader in morphemic analysis.
  SHENÉHL-E-B MITH-THÉL-E
  The Song of the Maiden
  ré, wal-é-v ne-wakál-u-t ssang-ené prídh-e-v, prídh-e-v
  O, yesterday I saw thee dancing, alone, alone!
  ré, wakál-et 'aim-ené vuth-thonlésh-leth-it, hékh-e-v
  O, I see thee sitting in thy lovely garden, daily
  sáitl, hór-o-l róyíl wázh lé kúng pek-ít 'o-méta
  Indeed, my heart yearns that I be with thee there
  Ré, shul-é-v kéndit-o wázh wakálun-et sul-lá-t
  O, tomorrow allow that I will see thee at thy window!
  so'él-it sech-chól-chi tsotsu-vené zhats-tsenyá
  Thy face (is) like the sun, rising from the dawn-clouds
  
  A Sketch of Livyáni Grammar
  Page 26
  LIVYÁNI SCRIPT:
  do
  re
  s\
  re
  re
  /e
  Su
  C
  wa
  wa
  li
  le
  ho
  ka
  le
  t
  v
  ro
  le
  v
  Se
  se
  ke
  l
  t
  ne
  ne
  c'o
  n
  ro
  /\
  wa
  Ye
  l
  di
  yi
  me
  ka
  b
  ci
  to
  l
  ne
  lu
  mi
  xo
  wa
  wa
  vu
  t
  Te'
  xu
  Z
  Z
  TO'
  Ba
  le
  ve
  wa
  le
  n
  ]e
  ne
  ka
  ku
  le
  ne
  Za
  lu
  ]
  S
  p
  x'e
  ne
  pe
  le
  ri
  Na
  t
  ki
  Ti
  De
  .
  su
  t
  t
  v
  la
  /o
  he
  p
  t
  me
  Ke
  ri
  .
  ta
  v
  De
  .
  .
  v
  .
  
SOURCE: textdata/thevault/Dungeons & Dragons [multi]/1st Edition (ODD, D&D Basic, AD&D)/D&D Original Edition/3rd Party/Empire of the Petal Throne/Tekumel Netbook #4 - Grammar of Livyáni.pdf