# On Conformally Compactified Phase Space

## 1 Introduction

The discovery of Maxwell’s equations covariance with respect to the conformal group $`C=\{L,D,P_4,S_4\}`$ (where $`L`$,$`D`$,$`P_4`$,$`S_4`$ mean Lorentz-, Dilatation-,  Poincarè-, and special conformal transformations respectively building up $`C`$ have induced several authors  to conjecture that Minkowski space-time $`𝕄=^{3,1}`$ may be densely contained in conformally compactified<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1From which Robertson-Walker space-time $`𝕄_{RW}=S^3\times R^1`$ is obtained, familiar to cosmologists (being at the origin of the Cosmological Principle ), where $`R^1`$ is conceived as the infinite covering of $`S^1`$. space-time $`𝕄_c`$:

$$𝕄_c=\frac{S^3\times S^1}{_2}$$
(1)   
often conceived as the homogeneous space of the conformal group:

$$𝕄_c=\frac{C}{c_1}$$

where $`c_1=\{L,D,S_4\}`$ is the stability group of the origin $`x_\mu =0`$.

As well known $`C`$ may be linearly represented by $`SO(4,2)`$, acting in $`^{4,2}`$, containing the Lorentz group $`SO(3,1)`$ as a subgroup which, because of the relevance of space-time reflections for natural phenomena, should be extended to $`O(3,1)`$. But then $`SO(4,2)`$ should be also extended to $`O(4,2)`$ including conformal reflections $`I`$ ( with respect to hyperplanes orthogonal to the $`5^{th}`$ and $`6^{th}`$ axis ), whose relevance for physics should then be expected as well. To start with, in fact, in this case $`𝕄_c=C/c_1`$ seems not to be the only automorphism space of $`O(4,2)`$, since:

$$I𝕄_cI^1=I\frac{C}{c_1}I^1=\frac{C}{c_2}=_c=\frac{S^3\times S^1}{_2}$$
(2)   
where $`c_2=\{L,D,P_4\}`$ is the stability group of infinity. Therefore, being $`c_1`$ and $`c_2`$ conjugate, $`𝕄_c`$ and $`_c`$ are two copies of the same homogeneous space $``$ of the conformal group including reflections, and, as we will see, both are needed to represent the group linearly . Because of eq. (2) we will call $`𝕄_c`$ and $`_c`$ conformally dual.

There are good arguments  (see also footnote 4) in favor of the hypothesis that $`_c`$ may represent conformally compactified momentum space $`=^{3,1}`$. In this case $`𝕄_c`$ and $`_c`$ build up conformally compactified phase space, which then is a space of automorphism of the conformal group $`C`$ including reflections.

## 2 Conformally compactified phase space

For simultaneous compactification of $`𝕄`$ and $``$ in $`M_c`$ and $`_c`$ no exact Fourier transform is known. It can be only approximated by a finite lattice phase space .

An exact Fourier transform may be defined instead in the 2-dimensional space time when $`𝕄=^{1,1}=`$ and for which

$$𝕄_c=\frac{S^1\times S^1}{_2}=_c$$
(3)   
Then inscribing in each $`S_1`$, of radius $`R`$, of $`𝕄_c`$ and in each $`S_1`$ of radius $`K`$ of $`_c`$ a regular polygon with

$$2N=2\pi RK$$
(4)   
vertices any function $`f\left(x_{mn}\right)`$ defined in the resulting lattice $`M_L𝕄_c`$ is correlated to the Fourier-transformed $`F\left(k_{\rho \tau }\right)`$ on the $`P_L_c`$ lattice by the finite Fourier series:

$`f\left(x_{nm}\right)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi R^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\rho ,\tau =N}{\overset{N1}{}}}\epsilon ^{\left(n\rho m\tau \right)}F\left(k_{\rho \tau }\right)`$   
(5)   
$`F\left(k_{\rho \tau }\right)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi K^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{n,m=N}{\overset{N1}{}}}\epsilon ^{\left(n\rho m\tau \right)}f\left(x_{nm}\right)`$   
where $`\epsilon =e^{i\frac{\pi }{N}}`$ is the $`2N`$-root of unit. They may be called Fourier transforms since either for $`R\mathrm{}`$ or $`K\mathrm{}`$, (or both) they coincide with the standard ones. This further confirms the identification of $`_c`$ with momentum space which is here on purpose characterized geometrically rather then algebraically (Poisson bracket). On this model the action of the conformal group $`O(2,2)`$ may be easily operated and tested.

## 3 Conformal duality

The non linear, local action of $`I`$ on $`𝕄`$ is well known; for $`x_\mu 𝕄`$ we have:

$$I:x_\mu I\left(x_\mu \right)=\pm \frac{x_\mu }{x^2}$$
(6)   
For $`x^20`$ and $`x_\mu `$ space-like, if $`x`$ indicates the distance of a point from the origin, we have <sup>2</sup><sup>2</sup>2$`I`$ maps every point, at a distance $`x`$ from the center, in the sphere $`S^2`$, to a point outside of it at a distance $`x^1`$. For $`𝕄=^{2,1}`$ the sphere $`S^2`$ reduces to a circle $`S^1`$ and then (7) reminds Target Space duality in string theory , which then might be the consequence of conformal inversion. For $`𝕄=^{1,1}`$, that is for the two dimensional model $`I`$ may be locally represented through quotient rational transformation by means of $`I=i\sigma _2`$ and the result is (7), which in turn represents the action of $`I`$ for the conformal group $`G=\{D,P_1,T_1\}`$ on a straight line $`^1`$. :

$$I:xI\left(x\right)=\frac{1}{x}.$$
(7)   
Since $`𝕄`$ is densely contained in $`𝕄_c`$, $`x_\mu `$ defines a point of the homogeneous space $``$, of automorphisms for $`C`$; as such $`x_\mu `$ must then be conceived as dimensionless in (6), as usually done in mathematics. Therefore for physical applications, to represent space-time we must substitute $`x_\mu `$ with $`x_\mu /l`$, where $`l`$ represents an (arbitrary) unit of lengths, then from (6) and (7) we obtain:

Proposition $`P_1`$: Conformal reflections determine a map in space of the microworld to the macroworld ( with respect to $`l`$) and vice-versa.

The conformal group may be well represented in momentum space $`=^{3,1}`$, densely contained in $`_c`$, where the action of $`I`$ induces non linear transformation like (6) and (7), where $`x_\mu `$ and $`x`$ are substituted by $`k_\mu `$ and $`k`$. If we then take (7) and the corresponding for $``$ we obtain (see also footnote 2):

$$I:xkI\left(xk\right)=\frac{1}{xk}$$
(8)   
Now physical momentum $`p`$ is obtained after multiplying the wave-number $`k`$ by an (arbitrary) unit of action $`H`$ by which (8) becomes:

$$I:\frac{xp}{H}I\left(\frac{xp}{H}\right)=\frac{H}{xp}$$
(9)   
from which we obtain:

Proposition $`P_2`$: Conformal reflections determine a map, in phase space of the world of micro actions to the one of macro actions (with respect to $`H`$), and vice-versa.

Now if we choose for the arbitrary unit $`H`$ the Planck’s constant $`\mathrm{}`$ then from propositions $`P_1`$ and $`P_2`$ we have:

Corollary $`C_2`$: Conformal reflections determine a map between classical and quantum mechanics.

Let us now remind the identifications $`𝕄_cC/c_1`$ and $`_cC/c_2`$ to be conceived as two copies of the homogeneous space $``$, representing conformally compactified space-time and momentum space respectively, and that $`I𝕄_cI^1=_c`$ and then $`I`$ represents a map<sup>3</sup><sup>3</sup>3 The action of $`I`$ may be rigorously tested in the two dimensional model where $`I(x_{nm})=k_{nm}`$ and the action of $`I`$ is linear in the compactified phase space at difference with its local non linear action in $`𝕄`$ and $``$, as will be further discussed elsewhere. of every point $`x_\mu `$ of $`𝕄`$ to a point $`k_\mu `$ of $``$ : $`II(x_\mu )=p_\mu `$ and we have:

Proposition $`P_3`$: Conformal reflections determine a map between space-time and momentum space.

Let us now assume, as the history of celestial mechanics suggests, that space-time $`𝕄`$ is the most appropriate for the description of classical mechanics then, as a consequence of propositions $`P_1`$, $`P_3`$ and of corollary $`C_2`$, momentum space should be the most appropriate for the description of quantum mechanics. The legitimacy of this conjecture seems in fact to be supported by spinor geometry as we will see.

## 4 Quantum mechanics in momentum space

Notoriously the most elementary constituents of matter are fermions, represented by spinors, whose geometry, as formulated by its discoverer E. Cartan  has already the form of equations of motions for fermions in momentum space.

In fact given a pseudo euclidean, $`2n`$-dimensional vector space $`V`$ with signature $`(k,l)`$; $`k+l=2n`$ and the associated Clifford algebra $`\mathrm{}(k,l)`$ with generators $`\gamma _a`$ a Dirac spinor $`\psi `$ is an element of the endomorphism space of $`\mathrm{}(k,l)`$ and is defined by Cartan’s equation

$$\gamma _ap^a\psi =0$$
(10)   
where $`p_a`$ are the components of a vector $`pV`$.

Now it may be shown that for the signatures $`(k,l)=(3,1),(4,1)`$, the Weyl, (Maxwell), Majorana, Dirac equations, respectively may be naturally obtained , from (10), precisely in momentum space. For the signature $`(4,2)`$ eq. (10) contains twistors equations and, for $`\psi 0`$, the vector $`p`$ is null: $`p_ap^a=0`$ and the directions of $`p`$ form the projective quadric<sup>4</sup><sup>4</sup>4Since Weyl equation in $`=^{3,1}`$, out of which Maxwell’s equation for the electromagnetic tensor $`F_{\mu \nu }`$ (expressed bilinearly in term of Weyl spinors) may be obtained, is contained in twistor equation in $`=^{4,2}`$, defining the projective quadric: $`_c=\left(S^3\times S^1\right)/_2`$. This is a further argument why momentum space $``$ should be densely contained in $`_c`$.  $`(S^3\times S^1)/_2`$ identical to conformally compactified momentum space $`_c`$ given in (2).

For the signature $`(5,3)`$ instead one may easily obtain  from (10) the equation

$$\left(\gamma _\mu p^\mu +\stackrel{}{\pi }\stackrel{}{\sigma }\gamma _5+M\right)N=0$$
(11)   
where $`\stackrel{}{\pi }=\stackrel{~}{N},\stackrel{}{\sigma }\gamma _5N`$ and $`N=\left[\begin{array}{c}\psi _1\\ \psi _2\end{array}\right]`$ ; $`M=\left[\begin{array}{cc}m& 0\\ 0& m\end{array}\right]`$ ; $`\stackrel{~}{N}=[\stackrel{~}{\psi }_1,\stackrel{~}{\psi }_2]`$ ; $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }_j=\psi _j^{}\gamma _0`$, with $`\psi _1`$,$`\psi _2`$ \- space-time Dirac spinors, and $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }=(\sigma _1,\sigma _2,\sigma _3)`$ Pauli matrices.

Eq. (11) represents the equation, in momentum space, of the proton-neutron doublet interacting with the pseudoscalar pion triplet$`\stackrel{}{\pi }`$.

Also the equation for the electroweak model may be easily obtained  in the frame of $`\mathrm{}(5,3)`$.

All this may further justify the conjecture that spinor geometry in conformally compactified momentum space is the appropriate arena for the description of quantum mechanics of fermions.

It is remarkable that for signatures $`(3,1)`$, $`(4,1)`$ and $`(5,3)`$, $`(7,1)`$ ( while not for $`(4,2)`$ ) the real components $`p_a`$ of $`p`$ may be bilinearly expressed in terms of spinors .

If spinor geometry in momentum space is at the origin of quantum mechanics of fermions, then their multiplicity, observed in natural phenomena, could be a natural consequence of the fact that a Dirac spinor associated with $`\mathrm{}(2n)`$ has $`2^n`$ components, which naturally splits in multiplets of space-time spinors (as it already appears in eq. (11)). Since in this approach vectors appear as bilinearly composed by spinors, some of the problematic aspects of dimensional reduction could be avoided dealing merely with spinors .

Also rotations naturally arise, in spinor spaces as products of reflections operated by the generators $`\gamma _a`$ of the Clifford algebras. These could then be at the origin of the so called internal symmetry. This appears in eq. (11) where the isospin symmetry of nuclear forces arises from conformal reflections which appear there as the units of the quaternion field of numbers of which, proton-neutron equivalence, for strong interactions, could be a realization in nature. For $`\mathrm{}(8)`$ and higher Clifford algebras, and the associated spinors, octonions could be expected to play a role as recently advocated .

## 5 Some further consequences of conformal duality

Compact phase space implies, for field theories, the absence of the concept of infinity in both space-time and momentum and, provided we may rigorously define Fourier dual manifolds, where fields may be defined, it would imply also the absence of both infrared and ultraviolet divergences in perturbation expansions. This is, for the moment, possible only in the four-dimensional phase space-model, where such manifold restricts to the lattice $`M_L`$ and $`P_L`$ on a double torus, where Fourier transforms (5) hold. One could call $`M_L`$ and $`P_L`$ the physical spaces which are compact and discrete, to distinguish them from the mathematical spaces $`M_c`$ and $`P_c`$ which are compact and continuous, the latter are only conformally dual while the former are both conformally and Fourier dual.

In the realistic eight dimensional phase space one would also expect to find physical spaces represented by lattices  as non commutative geometry seems also to suggest .

Let us now consider as a canonical example of a quantum system: the hydrogen atom in stationary states. According to our hypothesis it should be appropriated to deal with it in momentum space (as a non relativistic limit of the Dirac equation for an electron subject to an external e.m. field). This is possible as shown by v. Fock  through the integral equation:

$$\varphi \left(p\right)=\frac{\lambda }{2\pi ^2}_{S^3}\frac{\varphi \left(q\right)}{\left(pq\right)^2}d^3q$$
(12)   
where $`S^3`$ is the one point compactification of momentum space $`=^3`$, and $`\lambda =\frac{e^2}{\mathrm{}c}\sqrt{\frac{p_0^2}{2mE}}`$, where $`p_0`$ is a unit of momentum and $`E`$ the (negative) energy of the H-atom.

For $`\lambda =n+1`$, $`\varphi (p)=Y_{nlm}\left(\alpha \beta \gamma \right)`$ which are the harmonics on $`S^3`$, and for $`p_0=mc`$, we obtain:

$$E_n=\frac{me^4}{2\mathrm{}^2\left(n+1\right)^2}$$

which are the energy eigenvalues of the H-atom.

It is interesting to observe that eq. (12) is a purely geometrical equation, where the only quantum parameter<sup>5</sup><sup>5</sup>5The geometrical determination of this parameter in eq. (12) (through harmonic analysis, say) could furnish a clue to understanding the geometrical origin of quantum mechanics. This was a persistent hope of the late Wolfgang Pauli. is the dimensionless fine structure constant

$$\frac{e^2}{\mathrm{}c}=\frac{1}{137,\mathrm{}}$$

According to this equation the stationary states of the H-atom may be represented as eigenvibrations of the $`S^3`$ sphere (of radius $`p_0`$ ) in conformally compactified momentum space and out of which the quanum numbers $`n`$,$`l`$,$`m`$ result. If conformal duality is realized in nature then there should exist a classical system represented by eigenvibration of $`S^3`$ in $`𝕄_c`$ or $`𝕄_{RW}`$.

In fact this system could be the universe since recent observations on distant galaxies (in the direction of N-S galactic poles) have revealed that their distribution may be represented  by the $`S^3`$ eigenfunction

$$Y_{n,0,0}=k_n\frac{\mathrm{sin}\left(\mathrm{n}+1\right)\chi }{\mathrm{sin}\chi }$$
(13)   
with $`k_n`$ a constant, $`\chi `$ the geodetic distance from the center of the corresponding eigenvibration on the $`S^3`$ sphere of the $`𝕄_{RW}`$ universe. Now $`Y_{n,0,0}`$ is exactly equal to the eigenfunction of the H-atom however in momentum space. If the astronomical observations will confirm eq. (13) then the universe and the H-atom would represent a realization in nature of conformal duality. Here we have in fact that $`Y_{n,0,0}`$ on $`_c`$ represents the (most symmetric) eigenfunction of the (quantum) H-atom and the same $`Y_{n,0,0}`$ on $`𝕄_c`$ may represent the (visible) mass distribution of the (classical) universe. They could then be an example<sup>6</sup><sup>6</sup>6There could be other examples of conformal duality represented by our planetary system. In fact observe that in order to compare with the density of matter the square of the $`S^3`$ harmonic $`Y_{nlm}`$ has to be taken. Now $`Y_{n00}^2`$ presents maxima for $`r_n=\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)r_0`$, and it has been shown by Y.K. Gulak  that the values of the large semi axes of the 10 major solar planets satisfy this rule, which could then suggest that they arise from a planetary cloud presenting the structure of a $`S^3`$ eigenvibrations, as will be discussed elsewhere. of conformally dual systems: one classical and one quantum mechanical.

There could be another important consequence of conformal duality. in fact suppose that $`𝕄_c`$ and $`_c`$ are also Fourier dual<sup>7</sup><sup>7</sup>7 Even if, for defining rigorously Fourier duality for $`𝕄_c`$ and $`_c`$ one may have to abandon standard differential calculus, locally it may be assumed to be approximately true, with reasonable confidence since the spacing of the possible lattice will be extremely small. In fact taking for $`K`$ the Planck’s radius one could have of the order of $`10^{30}`$ points of the lattice per centimeter. . Then to the eigenfunctions: $`Y_{nlm}\left(\alpha \beta \gamma \right)`$ on $`_c`$ of the H-atom there will correspond on $`𝕄=^{3,1}`$ (densely contained in $`𝕄_c`$) their Fourier transforms; that is the known eigenfunctions $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{nlm}(x_1,x_2,x_3)`$ in $`𝕄=^{3,1}`$ of the H-atom stationary states.

Now according to propositions $`P_1`$, $`P_3`$ and corollary $`C_2`$ for high values of the action of the system; that is for high values of $`n`$ in $`Y_{nlm}`$, the system should be identified with the corresponding classical one, and in space-time $`𝕄`$ where it is represented by $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{nlm}(x_1,x_2,x_3)`$.

In fact this is what postulated by the correspondence principle: for high values of the quantum numbers the wavefunction $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{nlm}(x_1,x_2,x_3)`$ identifies with the Kepler orbits; that is the same system (with potential proportional to $`1/r`$) dealt in the frame of classical mechanics. In this way, at least in this particular example, the correspondence principle appears as a consequence of conformal duality<sup>8</sup><sup>8</sup>8Also the property of Fourier transforms play a role. Consider in fact a classical system with fixed orbits: a massive point particle on $`S^1`$, say. Its quantization appears in the Fourier dual momentum space $`Z`$ : ($`m=0,\pm 1,\pm 2,\mathrm{}`$) and for the large $`m`$ the eigenfunctions identifies with $`S^1`$. and precisely of propositions $`P_1`$, $`P_3`$ and corollary $`C_2`$. Obviously at difference with the previous case of duality, in this case it is the same system (the two body problem) dealt once quantum mechanically in $`_c`$ and once classically in $`𝕄_c`$. What they keep in common is the $`SO(4)`$ group of symmetry, named accidental symmetry when discovered by W. Pauli for the Kepler orbits, while here it derives from the properties of conformal reflections, which preserve $`S^3`$, as seen from (2).