# Finite Rotations

## 1 Introduction

Even though finite rotations can be represented by a magnitude (equal to the angle of rotation) and a direction (that of the axis of rotation), they do not act like vectors. In particular, finite rotations do not commute: The summation of a number of finite rotations, not about the same axis, is dependent on the order of addition.   
The anticommutivity property of finite rotations is made clear in introductory texts by showing that two successive finite rotations, when effected in different order, produce different final results .   
However, when rotations are small – indeed, infinitesimal –, the combination of two or more individual rotations is unique, regardless of the order they are brought about (This fact allows for the definition of angular velocity as the time-derivative of an angular coordinate \[2, p.675\]).   
Here we show how the order rotations are carried out becomes irrelevant – that is, rotations become commutative – as the angles of rotation diminish.   
In Fig. 1 we have represented two successive rotations of a rigid body. The first rotation is around the axis OZ through an angle $`\varphi `$, which takes OA into OB. For simplicity, we take the plane OAB to be the horizontal XY plane. The second rotation is around the axis OX through an angle $`\theta `$, which takes OB into OC.   
Since the angle between the axes OB and the axis of rotation OX is not $`90^{}`$, the plane OBC cuts the plane XY at an angle. Let this angle be $`\beta `$, represented in Fig. 1 as the angle formed by the sides PQ and QR of the triangle PQR.   
After these two rotations, the initial point A is brought to the final position C. This same final result can be accomplished by just one rotation through an angle $`(A,C)`$ around an axis perpendicular to both OB and OC.   
To obtain a relation between the angles $`\varphi ,\theta ,\beta `$ and (A,C), we have drawn in Fig. 2 four triangles, derived from Fig. 1, which are relevant to our analysis.   
From the two right triangles OQP and OQR, we have the relations

$$\mathrm{cos}\varphi =\frac{OQ}{OP},\mathrm{sin}\varphi =\frac{PQ}{OP}$$
(1.1)   
and

$$\mathrm{cos}\theta =\frac{OQ}{OR},\mathrm{sin}\theta =\frac{QR}{OR}.$$
(1.2)   
The law of cosines applied to the triangles OPR and PQR yields

$$PR^2=OP^2+OR^22(OP)(OQ)\mathrm{cos}(A,C)$$
(1.3)   
and

$$PR^2=PQ^2+QR^22(PQ)(QR)\mathrm{cos}\beta .$$
(1.4)   
Substituting for PQ and QR their values given in (1.1,1.2), Eq. (1.4) becomes

$$PR^2=OP^2\mathrm{sin}^2\varphi +OR^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta 2(OP)(OR)\mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\beta $$
(1.5)   
On equating expressions (1.3) and (1.5) for PR, using (1.1,1.2), we get

$$\mathrm{cos}(A,C)=\mathrm{cos}\varphi \mathrm{cos}\theta +\mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\beta $$
(1.6)   
Now we effect the rotations in the reverse order, taking the first rotation around the axis OX through an angle $`\theta `$, followed by a rotation around the axis OZ through an angle $`\varphi `$. In this case, the point A moves to the new final position E, instead of C, as indicated in the sketch accompanying Fig. 1. The same final result can again be accomplished by just one rotation, now through an angle $`(A,E)`$ around an axis perpendicular to both OD and OE.   
A moment’s reflection shows that the relation between the angles now is analogous to (1.6), with no need to repeat the above procedure. The cosine of the angle $`(A,E)`$ is given by $`\mathrm{cos}(A,E)=\mathrm{cos}\theta \mathrm{cos}\varphi +\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{cos}\beta ^{}`$, with the difference that $`\beta ^{}`$ is the angle the plane AOD makes with the horizontal plane DOE. Thus we have

$$\mathrm{cos}(A,C)\mathrm{cos}(A,E)=\mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{sin}\theta (\mathrm{cos}\beta \mathrm{cos}\beta ^{})$$
(1.7)   
If we set $`\beta ^{}=\beta +\mathrm{\Delta }\beta `$, and expand $`\mathrm{cos}\beta ^{}`$ in (1.7) we get

$$\mathrm{cos}(A,C)\mathrm{cos}(A,E)=\mathrm{sin}\varphi \mathrm{sin}\theta [\mathrm{cos}\beta (1\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{\Delta }\beta )+\mathrm{sin}\beta \mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Delta }\beta ]$$
(1.8)   
To see how commutivity is obtained when the angles involved are small, we use that, for $`x1`$, $`\mathrm{sin}xx`$, $`\mathrm{cos}x1`$. Eq. (1.8) becomes

$$\mathrm{cos}(A,C)\mathrm{cos}(A,E)\varphi \theta \mathrm{\Delta }\beta \mathrm{sin}\beta $$
(1.9)   
This means that the difference between the two final positions vanishes more rapidly than either of the single rotations.   
Remark: It is not necessary to assume that $`\mathrm{\Delta }\beta `$ is small. Our result holds whether it is small or not, since in (1.7) we could have simplified our analysis by using that $`\mathrm{cos}\beta \mathrm{cos}\beta ^{}2`$, and getting the same conclusion above.