# Untitled Document

Bianchi Orbifolds of Small Discriminant

A. Hatcher

Let $`𝒪_D`$ be the ring of integers in the imaginary quadratic field $`\text{}(\sqrt{D})`$ of discriminant $`D<0`$. Then $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$ is a discrete subgroup of the isometry group $`PSL_2(\text{})`$ ($`=PGL_2(\text{})`$) of hyperbolic $`3`$-space $`^3`$. The quotient space $`^3/PGL_2(𝒪_D)=X_D`$ is topologically a noncompact $`3`$-manifold whose cusps (ends) are of the form $`S^2\times [0,\mathrm{})`$. The number of cusps of $`X_D`$ is known to be $`h_D`$, the class number of $`𝒪_D`$. So $`X_D`$ is a closed manifold $`\widehat{X}_D`$ with $`h_D`$ points removed.

For small $`D`$, including the $`31`$ discriminants in the range $`D>100`$, R. Riley has done computer calculations of the Ford fundamental domain $`F_D`$ for the action of $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$ on $`^3`$. (See  for an account of the techniques; for about half of these $`D`$’s, Bianchi had calculated the fundamental domains — by hand, presumably — almost a century ago, in ,.) Riley’s computer output includes how the faces of $`F_D`$ are identified by elements of $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$. So it becomes a pleasant exercise in geometric visualization to try to recognize the manifold $`\widehat{X}_D`$. The results of carrying out this exercise for $`D>100`$ are listed in Table I. ($`P^3`$ denotes real projective $`3`$-space, $`\mathrm{}`$ is connected sum.)

| $`D`$ |  | $`3`$ | $`4`$ | $`7`$ | $`8`$ | $`11`$ | $`15`$ | $`19`$ | $`20`$ | $`23`$ | $`24`$ | $`31`$ | $`35`$ | $`39`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`\widehat{X}_D`$ |  | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ |

| $`40`$ | $`43`$ | $`47`$ | $`51`$ | $`52`$ | $`55`$ | $`56`$ | $`59`$ | $`67`$ | $`68`$ | $`71`$ | $`79`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`P^3`$ | $`P^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`P^3`$ | $`P^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`P^3\mathrm{}P^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`S^3`$ | $`P^3`$ |

| $`83`$ | $`84`$ | $`87`$ | $`88`$ | $`91`$ | $`95`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`P^3`$ | $`S^1\times S^2`$ | $`S^1\times S^2`$ | $`P^3\mathrm{}P^3\mathrm{}P^3`$ | $`P^3\mathrm{}P^3`$ | $`P^3`$ |

Table I

There are exactly $`19`$ $`D`$’s in this range for which $`\widehat{X}_D`$ is the $`3`$-sphere. Since $`\pi _1X_D`$ ($`=\pi _1\widehat{X}_D`$) is $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)/torsion`$, the question of when $`\widehat{X}_D`$ is $`S^3`$ is equivalent (assuming no $`\widehat{X}_D`$’s are counterexamples to the Poincaré Conjecture) to when $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$ is generated by torsion. In the $`19`$ cases when $`\widehat{X}_D=S^3`$, we have determined in addition the orbifold structure on $`X_D`$, namely, the embedded graph in $`X_D`$ consisting of images under the quotient map $`^3X_D`$ of axes of rotations of torsion elements of $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$, each edge of this graph being labelled by the order of the corresponding torsion element. These orbifold structures are shown in the figures on the next page. (Labels “2” on edges are omitted. The small circles denote the cusp spheres. The sphere $`S^3=\widehat{X}_D`$ is regarded as $`3`$-space compactified by a point at infinity.)

Table II below shows the orbifold structure on $`X_D`$ in a few cases when $`\widehat{X}_DS^3`$. In the top row are the first four cases when $`\widehat{X}_D=P^3`$. Here we view $`P^3`$ as a ball with antipodal points of its boundary sphere (indicated by the dashed-line circles) identified. The lower part of the Table represents the case $`D=84`$, when $`\widehat{X}_D=S^1\times S^2`$. The periodic extension of the graph shown, modulo its translation symmetries, gives the “singular” locus of the orbifold structure on $`X_{84}`$, a graph lying on the torus $`S^1\times S^1`$ which decomposes $`S^1\times S^2`$ into two $`S^1\times D^2`$’s. The vertical direction in the figure represents the meridian circles $`\{x\}\times D^2`$ on these $`S^1\times D^2`$’s.

Table II

For the index two subgroup $`PSL_2(𝒪_D)`$ of $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$, the quotient space $`Y_D=^3/PSL_2(𝒪_D)`$ is a $`2`$-sheeted branched cover of $`X_D`$, branched in such a way that the cusp spheres of $`X_D`$ become cusp tori of $`Y_D`$ (except for $`D=3,4`$, when they remain spheres). It turns out that in the $`19`$ cases when $`\widehat{X}_D=S^3`$, this branching condition at cusps uniquely determines the branched covering $`Y_DX_D`$, and one can very easily by inspection determine the topological type of $`Y_D`$. This is given in Table III, in which $`Y_D`$ is strictly speaking the interior of the compact manifold listed. (Notations: $`B^3=`$ 3-ball, $`D^2=`$ 2-disk, $`T^2=`$ torus, $`I=[0,1]`$.)

$`D`$  $`Y_D`$  $`3`$   $`B^3`$  $`4`$  $`B^3`$  $`7`$  $`S^1\times D^2`$  $`8`$  $`S^1\times D^2`$  $`11`$  $`S^1\times D^2`$  $`15`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times D^2`$  $`19`$  $`S^1\times D^2`$  $`20`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times D^2`$  $`23`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}T^2\times I`$  $`24`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times D^2`$     $`D`$  $`Y_D`$  $`31`$   $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}T^2\times I`$  $`35`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times S^2`$  $`39`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}T^2\times I`$  $`47`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}T^2\times I\mathrm{}T^2\times I`$  $`51`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times S^2`$  $`56`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}T^2\times I\mathrm{}S^1\times S^2`$  $`59`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}T^2\times I\mathrm{}S^1\times S^2`$  $`68`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}T^2\times I\mathrm{}S^1\times S^2`$  $`71`$  $`S^1\times D^2\mathrm{}T^2\times I\mathrm{}T^2\times I\mathrm{}T^2\times I`$ 

Table III

In the $`14`$ cases that $`Y_D`$ does not contain a connected summand $`S^1\times S^2`$, the restriction map $`H^1(Y_D;\text{})H^1(Y_D;\text{})`$ is injective; in other words, “$`Y_D`$ has no cuspidal cohomology.” It is known (see ,,,,) that these are the only cases when this happens, for arbitrary $`D<0`$.

Perhaps the first thing one notices about the pictures of the orbifolds $`X_D`$ is the symmetries. In each case there is a reflectional symmetry through a plane parallel to the plane of the page. This reflection presumably corresponds to the $`\text{}_2`$ extension of $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$ obtained by adjoining complex conjugation, the Galois automorphism of $`𝒪_D`$. When $`D`$ has more than one distinct prime divisor, there is also a $`180^{}`$ rotational symmetry evident in the pictures. (This symmetry does not appear in the Ford domains, however.) Such a symmetry is predicted by general theory: Bianchi  already described a group $`G_DPGL_2(\text{})`$ containing $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$ as a normal subgroup of finite index, with quotient $`G_D/PGL_2(𝒪_D)_D/2_D`$, the mod $`2`$ ideal class group (or genera group) of $`𝒪_D`$. According to Gauss, this quotient has $`\text{}_2`$-rank equal to one less than the number of distinct prime divisors of $`D`$.

Even when $`\widehat{X}_D`$ is not $`S^3`$, $`\widehat{X}_D`$ may have $`S^3`$ as the quotient space corresponding to a finite extension of $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$, such as the group $`G_D`$ above. This happens in the cases $`D=40,52,55`$ in Table II, when $`\widehat{X}_D=P^3`$. It also happens for $`D=84`$, when $`\widehat{X}_D=S^1\times S^2`$ has a $`\text{}_2\times \text{}_2`$ ($`_{84}/2_{84}`$) quotient which is $`S^3`$, the $`\text{}_2\times \text{}_2`$ action on $`X_{84}`$ restricting to the full symmetry group of the singular locus on the torus shown in Table II.

It appears that except for $`D=3,4`$, the remaining $`17`$ orbifolds $`X_D`$ with $`\widehat{X}_D=S^3`$ are Haken orbifolds . That is, by repeatedly splitting open along incompressible $`2`$-dimenional suborbifolds, $`X_D`$ can be reduced to a disjoint union of finitely many orbifolds of the form $`\text{}^3/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ a finite subgroup of $`SO(3)`$ (acting on $`\text{}^3`$ as isometries). These splitting surfaces are all separating, so such a hierarchy for $`X_D`$ yields a way of building up $`PGL_2(𝒪_D)`$ from finite subgroups of $`SO(3)`$ by iterated free product with amalgamation constructions. These hierarchies are in general far from unique. As a very simple example, the orbifold $`X_8`$ as drawn can be split successively along horizontal and vertical planes through the cusp, in either order, yielding the two structures

$$\left(O(24)_{C(4)}D(8)\right)_{C(3)C(2)}\left(D(6)_{C(2)}D(4)\right)$$

and

$$\left(O(24)_{C(3)}D(6)\right)_{C(4)C(2)}\left(D(8)_{C(2)}D(4)\right)$$

where $`O(24)`$ is the octahedral group, $`D(2n)`$ is the dihedral group of order $`2n`$, and $`C(n)`$ is the cyclic group of order $`n`$. In more subtle examples, not even the collection of finite subgroups of $`SO(3)`$ which start the iterated amalgamated free product construction is unique, though of course the noncyclic subgroups among these are unique, corresponding to the vertices in the singular locus of the orbifold structure.

In all cases except $`D=3,4`$, there is a splitting

$$PGL_2(𝒪_D)PGL_2(\text{})_A(\mathrm{?})$$

amalgamated over $`A=PSL_2(\text{})`$, arising as follows. In the upper half-space model of $`^3`$, bounded below by the plane , there lies $`^2`$, the half-plane above . The orbifold $`^2/PGL_2(\text{})`$ is a triangle with one vertex at the cusp at $`\mathrm{}`$. This triangle is embedded in $`X_D`$, and the boundary of a small regular neighborhood of this triangle is the surface corresponding to $`PSL_2(\text{})`$ in the splitting above. This surface can be take to be totally geodesic in $`X_D`$. It should be of interest to find other totally geodesic incompressible surfaces in $`X_D`$, since these are more likely to be defined arithmetically. For example, as Riley has pointed out, the cuspidal classes in $`H^1(Y_D;\text{})H^2(Y_D,Y_D;\text{})`$ found in ,, are represented by totally geodesic surfaces formed by the intersections of the Ford domain with certain planes parallel to $`^2^3`$. These non-separating surfaces in $`Y_D`$ pass down to non-separating (totally geodesic) surfaces in $`X_D`$, which are often non-orientable. Since non-separating surfaces do not exist in $`S^3`$, it follows from ,, that the only values of $`D<100`$ for which $`\widehat{X}_D`$ could be $`S^3`$ are $`119,164,191,311,356,404,479`$, and $`776`$. Riley’s computer calculations eliminate $`164`$ from this list.

References

 M.Baker, Ramified primes and the homology of the Bianchi groups, I.H.E.S. preprint (1982).

 L. Bianchi, Sui gruppi di sostitutioni lineari con coefficienti a corpi quadratici imaginarii, Math. Annalen 40 (1892), 332-412. \[This article and the following one are reprinted in Bianchi’s collected workes, Opere, vol.1, Editioni Cremonese, Rome, 1952.\]

 L. Bianchi, Sui gruppi di sostitutioni lineari, Math. Annalen 42 (1892), 30-57.

 F. Grunewald and J. Schwermer, Arithmetic quotients of hyperbolic 3-space, cusp forms and link complements, Duke Math. J. 48 (1981), 351-358.

 R. Riley, Application of a computer implementation of Poincaré’s theorem on fundamental polyhedra, Math. of Computation 40 (1983), 607-632.

 J. Rohlfs, On the cuspidal cohomology of the Bianchi modular groups, Math. Z. 188 (1985), 253-269.

 W. Thurston, Geometry and topology of 3-manifolds, xeroxed notes.

 K. Vogtmann, Rational homology of Bianchi groups, Math. Annalen 272 (1985), 399-419.

 R. Zimmert, Zur $`SL_2`$ der ganzen Zahlen eines imaginär quadratischen Zahlkörpers, Invent. math. 19 (1973), 73-82.

December 1983

Cornell University