# Untitled Document

hep-ph/9810257 IC/98/163 WIS-98/25/Oct-DPP 

Naturally Light Sterile Neutrinos in Gauge Mediated Supersymmetry Breaking 

Gia Dvali<sup>a</sup><sup>1</sup> address after October 98: Physics Department, New York University, 4 Washington Place, New York, NY 10003, U.S.A. and Yosef Nir<sup>b</sup>

<sup>a</sup> ICTP, Trieste, 34100, Italy

<sup>b</sup> Department of Particle Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel

Moduli are generic in string (M) theory. In a large class of gauge-mediated Supersymmetry breaking models, the fermionic components of such fields have very light masses, around the $`eV`$ scale, and non-negligible mixing with active neutrinos, of order $`10^4`$. Consequently, these fermions could play the role of sterile neutrinos to which active neutrinos oscillate, thus affecting measurements of solar neutrinos or of atmospheric neutrinos. They could also provide warm dark matter, thus affecting structure formation.

10/98

1. Introduction

Light sterile neutrinos are occasionally invoked by theorists to explain various hints of neutrino masses which cannot be accommodated in a framework of only three light active neutrinos (see e.g. refs. \[1--28\]). There are, however, three puzzles related to the hypothesis that light sterile neutrinos may play a role in various observations:

(i) The Majorana mass term of a sterile neutrino is not protected by any Standard Model (SM) gauge symmetry and can, therefore, be arbitrarily large. The mass that is relevant to the various experiments is at or below the $`eV`$ scale.

(ii) The Dirac mass term that mixes a sterile neutrino with an active one is protected by the electroweak breaking scale and is expected to be in the range $`m_em_Z`$. To explain any of the experimental results we need this term to be at or below the $`eV`$ scale.

(iii) The two scales described above are in general independent of each other. Yet, the mixing between the sterile and the active neutrino, which is given by the ratio of the two scales, cannot be much smaller than $`𝒪(10^2)`$ and, for some purposes, needs to be of $`𝒪(1)`$. Then some mechanism that relates the two scales seems to be required.

Many models were proposed that give sterile neutrinos with the required features. Most existing models employ a rather ad-hoc symmetry structure (or just give an ansatz) to induce the relevant parameters. The case for light sterile neutrinos would become much stronger if some well-motivated extension of the SM predicted their existence. We argue that in models of Gauge Mediated Supersymmetry Breaking (GMSB), the fermionic components $`\psi _N`$ of any SM singlet superfield $`N`$ that it massless in the Supersymmetry limit and, in particular, the moduli fields, are generically expected to have masses and mixing that could be relevant to various experimental and observational results.

2. Light Singlet Fermions in Supersymmetric Models

We assume that the dominant source of supersymmetry breaking is an $`F`$ term of a chiral superfield $`S`$: $`F_S0`$. Mass terms involving $`\psi _N`$ arise then from the Kahler potential and involve supersymmetry breaking. The leading contribution to the mass term $`m_{NN}\psi _N\psi _N`$ is of the form

$$\frac{(S^{})_{\overline{\theta }\overline{\theta }}(NN)_{\theta \theta }}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}m_{NN}\frac{F_S}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}.$$

The singlet $`N`$ field can mix with a lepton doublet field $`L`$. The leading contribution to the mass term $`m_{LN}\psi _L\psi _N`$ is of the form

$$\frac{(\varphi _d^{})_{\overline{\theta }\overline{\theta }}(LN)_{\theta \theta }}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}m_{LN}\frac{\mu \varphi _u}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}.$$

Here, $`\varphi _{d,u}`$ are the two Higgs fields of the MSSM and we used the fact that the $`\mu \varphi _u\varphi _d`$ term in the superpotential leads to $`F_{\varphi _d}\mu \varphi _u`$. The mass terms $`m_{NN}`$ and $`m_{LN}`$ determine the two physically relevant quantities, that is the mass of $`\psi _N`$, $`m_Nm_{NN}`$, and its mixing with active neutrinos, $`s_{LN}m_{LN}/m_{NN}`$.<sup>2</sup> We implicitly assume here that the mass and mixing of $`\psi _N`$ are described effectively by a $`2\times 2`$ matrix, and that $`m_{LL}<m_{NN}`$.

Note that the contribution from $`F_{\varphi _d}`$ to $`m_{LN}`$ is crucial for $`\psi _N`$ to be relevant to neutrino physics. The reason is that $`m_{LN}`$ breaks both supersymmetry and the electroweak symmetry. Without $`F`$-terms of $`SU(2)_L`$ non-singlets, there would be a separate suppression factor for each of the two breakings, making $`m_{LN}`$ too small for our purposes. Explicitly, if the only $`F`$ term to play a role were $`F_S`$, then we would get $`m_{LN}\frac{F_S\varphi _u}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}^2}`$ and consequently $`s_{LN}\frac{\varphi _u}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}10^{16}`$, independent of the mechanism that mediates supersymmetry breaking. Such mixing is too small to affect any neutrino experiment. In contrast, the contribution to $`m_{LN}`$ from $`F_{\varphi _d}`$ leads to a value for $`s_{LN}`$ that is model dependent and that can be sizable. Assuming that $`\mu `$ is of the order of the electroweak breaking scale, we get

$$m_{LN}\frac{m_Z^2}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}10^5eV.$$

The scale of $`F_S`$ (and, consequently, the values of $`m_N`$ and $`s_{LN}`$) depends on the mechanism that communicates SUSY breaking to the observable sector. In supergravity models, where $`F_Sm_Zm_{\mathrm{Pl}}`$, we get

$$m_Nm_Z10^2GeV,s_{LN}\frac{m_Z}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}10^{16}.$$

Then $`\psi _N`$ is practically decoupled from the observable sector and does not have any observable signatures.

In GMSB models \[29--31\] we have a more interesting situation. There, $`F_SCm_Z^2/\alpha ^2`$, where $`C>1`$ depends on the details of the model (for a review, see ). We now get 

$$m_N\frac{Cm_Z^2}{\alpha ^2m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}0.1eVC,s_{LN}\frac{\alpha ^2}{C}\frac{10^4}{C}.$$

The mass scale for $`\psi _N`$ is not far from those relevant to galaxy formation ($`10eV`$), atmospheric neutrinos ($`0.1eV`$) and solar neutrinos ($`10^3eV`$). The mixing is small but non-negligible. We conclude then that in GMSB models, the fermionic fields in the moduli can, in principle, play the role of sterile neutrinos that are relevant to various observations.

We emphasize that eq. (2.1) gives only naive order of magnitude estimates. Each of its relations might be somewhat modified by unknown coefficients, expected to be of $`𝒪(1)`$. Furthermore, there might be other ingredients in the model that affect even the order of magnitude estimates. In the next section we show how simple variations within our basic framework might bring the mass and the mixing of $`\psi _N`$ closer to those required to explain the various experimental results.

Before concluding this section, we would like to mention some related previous works. A supergravity scenario where the fermionic fields in the moduli play the role of sterile neutrions was proposed in ref. . This was done, however, with a special ansatz for the supersymmetry breaking mass terms. Neutrino masses in the GMSB framework were recently discussed in ref. . Their model, however, has no sterile neutrinos and involves R parity violation. Ref.  has discussed the possibility that modulinos play the role of sterile neutrinos in GMSB models. In particular, the fact that the mass scale for $`m_{NN}`$ is naturally in the relevant range (eq. (2.1)) was realized in . However, the contribution to $`m_{LN}`$ from $`F_{\varphi _d}`$ (eq. (2.1)) was missed and bilinear $`R_p`$ violating terms were invoked instead.

3. Solar and Atmospheric Neutrinos

Simple variations on the naive estimates given above could make the sterile neutrino parameters consistent with solutions to the solar neutrino problem  or to the atmospheric neutrino problem .

Let us consider first the possibility that the relevant superfields $`N`$ transform under some approximate symmetry. This could be a horizontal symmetry invoked to explain the smallness and hierarchy in the flavor parameters. Take, for example, a $`U(1)`$ symmetry broken by a small parameter $`\lambda `$, to which we attribute charge $`1`$. Take $`N`$ and $`L`$ to carry charges $`p`$ and $`q`$, respectively, under the symmetry. Then, (2.1) is modified:

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill m_{NN}\frac{\lambda ^{2p}Cm_Z^2}{\alpha ^2m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}\lambda ^{2p}C\times 0.1eV,& m_{LN}\frac{\lambda ^{p+q}m_Z^2}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}\lambda ^{p+q}\times 10^5eV,\hfill \\ \hfill s_{LN}& \frac{\alpha ^2}{\lambda ^{pq}C}\frac{10^4}{\lambda ^{pq}C}.\hfill \end{array}$$

To get $`s_{LN}=𝒪(1)`$, we would need $`m_{NN}<10^5eV`$, so that $`\psi _N`$ is unlikely (in this simple scenario) to play a role in the atmospheric neutrino anomaly or in the large angle MSW solution to the solar neutrino problem. On the other hand, two relevant sets of parameters can be easily produced by the approximate symmetry:

(I) Take $`C1`$, $`\lambda ^p0.1`$, and $`q=0`$:

$$m_{NN}10^3eV,m_{LN}10^6eV,s_{LN}10^3.$$

This is not far from the small angle MSW solution to the solar neutrino problem. (The mixing angle is somewhat small but, as mentioned above, could be modified by the unknown coefficients of $`𝒪(1)`$.)

(II) Take $`C1`$, $`\lambda ^p10^2`$, and $`q=p`$:

$$m_{NN}10^5eV,m_{LN}10^5eV,s_{LN}1.$$

This set of parameters is appropriate for the vacuum oscillation solution to the solar neutrino problem.

Another variation on the naive estimates arises if the relevant heavy scale (call it $`m_{\mathrm{NP}}`$ for New Physics) in the nonrenormalizable terms is lower than $`m_{\mathrm{Pl}}`$. Then both $`m_{NN}`$ and $`m_{LN}`$ will be enhnaced compared to (2.1) and (2.1). A particularly intriguing option is that the string scale identifies with the scale of gauge unification , that is $`m_{\mathrm{NP}}10^{16}GeV`$. This leads to our third example:

(III) Take $`m_{\mathrm{NP}}10^{16}GeV`$, $`C1`$, $`\lambda ^p10^2`$, and $`q=p`$:

$$m_{NN}10^3eV,m_{LN}10^3eV,s_{LN}1.$$

These parameters give the large angle MSW solution to the solar neutrino problem.

Either a surprisingly small $`m_{\mathrm{NP}}`$ or a surprisingly large $`\mu \varphi _d`$ may make $`\psi _N`$ relevant to the atmospheric neutrino problem. First, an even lower cut-off scale, $`m_{\mathrm{NP}}10^{14}GeV`$, would give $`m_{LN}=𝒪(0.1eV)`$. However, there is no particularly attractive scenario that requires such a scale for $`m_{\mathrm{NP}}`$. Second, a large $`\mu `$  could also lead to a large $`m_{LN}`$. Note, however, that in order to prevent a negative mass-squared for the stop, one needs $`m_{\stackrel{~}{t}}^2\mu \varphi _d`$. In this scenario we have then an interesting relation between the stop sector and the neutrino sector: the mixing between the sterile and the active neutrinos is bounded by $`m_{\stackrel{~}{t}}^2/m_{\mathrm{Pl}}`$.

(IV) Take $`m_{\mathrm{NP}}10^{14}GeV`$, $`C1`$, $`\lambda ^p10^2`$, and $`q=p`$, or $`\mu \sqrt{F_S}`$, $`C10^4`$, $`\lambda ^p10^2`$, and $`q=p`$. Then

$$m_{NN}10^1eV,m_{LN}10^1eV,s_{LN}1,$$

which can solve the atmospheric neutrino problem.

4. Nucleosynthesis and Galaxy Formation

The number of light neutrinos ($`m_\nu <1MeV`$) that were in equilibrium at the neutrino decoupling temperature ($`T_{\mathrm{dec}}`$ a few $`MeV`$), $`N_\nu ^{\mathrm{eff}}`$, cannot be much larger than three. Otherwise, the consistency between the predictions of the standard model of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) and the observed abundance of primordial light elements will be lost. A sterile neutrino that mixes with the active ones contributes to $`N_\nu ^{\mathrm{eff}}`$ because neutrino oscillations can bring it into equilibrium above $`T_{\mathrm{dec}}`$. Consequently, one can use the BBN constraints to exclude regions in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{4i}^2\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{4i}`$ plane \[38--43\]. (Here $`\nu _4`$ is the light mass eigenstate with a dominant $`\nu _s`$ component.) In our framework, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{4i}^2=𝒪(m_N^2)`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{4i}=𝒪(4s_{LN}^2)`$. The calculation of the bounds is quite complicated. An approximate analytical constraint is given in , $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{4i}^2\mathrm{sin}^42\theta _{4i}<5\times 10^6eV^2`$, corresponding to $`N_\nu ^{\mathrm{eff}}3.4`$. This leads to

$$m_Ns_{LN}^2<5\times 10^4eV.$$

The naive estimates of eq. (2.1) yield $`m_Ns_{LN}^210^9eV/C`$, which is well below the bound (4.1). Note, however, that (4.1) is very sensitive to $`s_{LN}`$. Taking into account the various variations discussed in the previous section, we find that (4.1) leads to

$$\frac{\lambda ^{2q}}{C}\frac{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}}{m_{\mathrm{NP}}}<5\times 10^5.$$

This bound is fulfilled for the small angle MSW (3.1) and the vacuum oscillation (3.1) solutions of the solar neutrino problem but (as is well known) violated if $`\psi _N`$ plays a role in the large angle MSW solution of the solar neutrino problem (3.1) or, in particular, in the atmospheric neutrino anomaly (3.1).<sup>3</sup> The constraint (4.1) could be evaded if there had been a large lepton asymmetry in the early Universe \[44--46\]. The constraint could also be relaxed if the bound on $`N_\nu ^{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is weaker than the one we quoted.

A sterile neutrino could also provide a significant warm dark matter component (see e.g. ). To have $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\psi _N}=𝒪(1)`$ requires

$$m_Ns_{LN}0.1eV,10eV<m_N<1keV.$$

A particulary plausible framework where (4.1) is realized is that of GMSB models with $`C10^4`$, which gives:

$$F_S10^{12}GeV^2m_{LN}0.1eV,m_N1keV.$$

5. Intermediate Scale Gauge Mediated Supersymmetry Breaking

All the examples that we discussed above require that the scale of supersymmetry breaking is low, $`\sqrt{F_S}10^410^6GeV`$. We now discuss another class of GMSB models, where $`\psi _N`$ can play the role of a sterile neutrino if the supersymmetry breaking scale is much higher, $`\sqrt{F_S}10^610^9GeV`$.

Consider the case where $`S`$, which is responsible for Supersymmetry breaking, transforms under some $`U(1)`$ symmetry . Assume that $`N`$ is neutral under this symmetry. Then the contribution (2.1) to $`m_{NN}`$ is forbidden. Instead, the leading contribution is of the form

$$\frac{(S^{})_{\overline{\theta }\overline{\theta }}(S)_1(NN)_{\theta \theta }}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}^2}m_{NN}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }S^2}{m_{\mathrm{Pl}}^2}.$$

Here $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the dimensionful parameter that sets the scale for the masses of the MSSM particles in GMSB models ($`m_{\lambda _i}\frac{\alpha _i}{4\pi }\mathrm{\Lambda }`$):

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }\frac{F_S}{S}10^410^6GeV.$$

Assuming that $`\varphi _d`$, $`\varphi _u`$ and $`L`$ are also neutral under the $`U(1)`$ symmetry (or that they carry appropriate charges), the estimate of $`m_{LN}`$ in eq. (2.1) remains valid.

Unlike our discussion above, where $`F_S\mu \varphi _u`$ led us to expect that $`m_{NN}>m_{LN}`$, we now have to distinguish between two cases, depending on the value of

$$C^{}=\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{10^6GeV}\right)\left(\frac{S}{10^8GeV}\right)^2.$$

The point is that $`m_{NN}/m_{LN}C^{}`$. For $`m_{NN}>m_{LN}`$, we get,

$$m_NC^{}10^5eV,s_{LN}1/C^{},(C^{}>1).$$

But for $`m_{NN}m_{LN}`$ (and assuming, as before, that $`m_{LL}<m_{NN}`$) the situation is drastically different: the active and the sterile neutrino form a pseudo-Dirac neutrino of mass $`m_{LN}`$ and small splitting $`m_{NN}`$:

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill m_N& m_L10^5eV,\frac{m_Nm_L}{m_N+m_L}C^{},\hfill \\ \hfill s_{LN}& \sqrt{2}/2,(C^{}1).\hfill \end{array}$$

Again, $`\psi _N`$ could play a role in the various neutrino experiments. Here are a few examples:

(I) $`C^{}10^2`$ corresponds to the small angle MSW solution to the solar neutrino problem.

(II) $`C^{}<1`$ corresponds to the vacuum oscillation solution to the solar neutrino problem.

(III) $`m_{\mathrm{NP}}10^{16}GeV`$ and $`C^{}<10^2`$ correspond to the large angle MSW solution to the solar neutrino problem.

(IV) $`m_{\mathrm{NP}}10^{14}GeV`$ and $`C^{}<10^4`$ can explain the atmospheric neutrino results.

Note that, in order that $`\psi _N`$ will be relevant to our purposes, we need $`C^{}`$ that is not much larger than 1. This is important since a too large $`C^{}`$ leads to phenomenological problems:

a. For $`S>10^{15}GeV`$, the non-universal supergravity contributions to sfermion masses become comparable to the universal gauge-mediated contributions. Consequently, the supersymmetric flavor problem is no longer solved .

b. For $`S>10^{10}GeV`$, the $`S`$-scalar decays late and its hadronic decay products over-produce light nuclei. Consequently, the successful predictions of the standard BBN no longer hold .

We would like to emphasize two attractive points about sterile neutrinos in the framework of intermediate-scale GMSB models discussed in this section (compared to the GMSB models of section 2). First, for models with $`m_{NN}F_S/m_{\mathrm{Pl}}`$ to give $`\psi _N`$’s that are relevant to neutrino physics, a rather low $`F_S`$ is required ($`F_S<10^{12}GeV^2`$). Direct experimental searches for diphoton events with large missing transverse energy \[50--52\] exclude large regions in the parameter space where the scale of $`F_S`$ is low. Second, in many GMSB models of direct gauge mediation  the scale of $`F_S`$ cannot be low.

6. Conclusions

If low-energy supersymmetry is a result of a high-energy string theory, then we expect quite generically that there exist singlet fields $`N`$ that are massless in the supersymmetric limit (moduli). Our main point is very simple: for two large classes of gauge mediated supersymmetry breaking models, the supersymmtry-breaking masses of the fermionic fields $`\psi _N`$ is around the $`eV`$ scale and their mixing with active neutrinos is non-negligible. (In the first class, supersymmetry is broken at a scale $`F_S10^810^{12}GeV^2`$ and a term $`S^{}NN`$ in the Kahler potential is allowed. In the second class, $`F_S10^{13}10^{17}GeV^2`$ and $`S^{}NN`$ is forbidden.) Consequently, such fields could play the role of sterile neutrinos to which $`\nu _e`$ ($`\nu _\mu `$) oscillate, thus solving the solar (atmospheric) neutrino problem. They could also provide a warm component to the dark matter, thus affecting galaxy formation.

Acknowledgements We thank Yael Shadmi, Alexei Smirnov and Eli Waxman for helpful discussions. Y.N. is supported in part by the United States - Israel Binational Science Foundation (BSF), by the Israel Science Foundation and by the Minerva Foundation (Munich).

References

relax A.Yu. Smirnov and J.W.F. Valle, Nucl. Phys. B375 (1992) 649. relax E.Kh. Akhmedov, Z.G. Berezhiani and G. Senjanovic, Phys. Rev. Lett. 69 (1992) 3013. relax E.Kh. Akhmedov, Z.G. Berezhiani, G. Senjanovic and Z. Tao, Phys. Rev. D47 (1993) 3245. relax J.T. Peltoniemi and J.W.F. Valle, Nucl. Phys. B406 (1993) 409. relax D.O. Caldwell and R.N. Mohapatra, Phys. Rev. D48 (1993) 3259. relax E. Ma and P. Roy, Phys. Rev. D52 (1995) R4780. relax J.T. Peltoniemi, hep-ph/9506228. relax R. Foot and R.R. Volkas, Phys. Rev. D52 (1995) 6595. relax Z.G. Berezhiani and R.N. Mohapatra, Phys. Rev. D52 (1995) 6607. relax E.J. Chun, A.S. Joshipura and A.Yu. Smirnov, Phys. Lett. B357 (1995) 608; Phys. Rev. D54 (1996) 4654. relax E. Ma, Mod. Phys. Lett. A11 (1996) 1893; Phys. Lett. B380 (1996) 286. relax Z.G. Berezhiani, Act. Phys. Pol. B27 (1996) 1503. relax K. Benakli and A.Yu. Smirnov, Phys. Rev. Lett. 79 (1997) 4314. relax A.Yu. Smirnov and M. Tanimoto, Phys. Rev. D55 (1997) 1665. relax S. Goswami, Phys. Rev. D55 (1997) 2931. relax N. Okada and O. Yasuda, Int. J. Mod. Phys. A12 (1997) 3669. relax Q.Y. Liu and A.Yu. Smirnov, Nucl. Phys. B524 (1998) 505. relax K. Benakli, hep-ph/9801303. relax V. Barger, T.J. Weiler and K. Whisnant, Phys. Lett. B427 (1998) 97. relax S.C. Gibbons, R.N. Mohapatra, S. Nandi and A. Raychaudhuri, Phys. Lett. B430 (1998) 296. relax S.M. Bilenki, C. Giunti and W. Grimus, Eur. Phys. J. C1 (1998) 247; hep-ph/9805368. relax P. Langacker, hep-ph/9805281. relax E.J. Chun, C.W. Kim and U.W. Lee, Phys. Rev. D58 (1998) 093003. relax B. Brahmachari and R.N. Mohapatra, hep-ph/9805429. relax N. Arkani-Hamed and Y. Grossman, hep-ph/9806223. relax V. Barger, S. Pakvasa, T.J. Weiler and K. Whisnant, hep-ph/9806328. relax N. Gaur, A. Ghosal, E. Ma and P. Roy, Phys. Rev. D58 (1998) 071301. relax S. Mohanty, D.P. Roy and U. Sarkar, hep-ph/9808451. relax M. Dine and A. Nelson, Phys. Rev. D48 (1993) 1277. relax M. Dine, A. Nelson and Y. Shirman, Phys. Rev. D51 (1994) 1362. relax M. Dine, A. Nelson, Y. Nir and Y. Shirman, Phys. Rev. D53 (1996) 2658. relax G.F. Giudice and R. Rattazzi, hep-ph/9801271. relax A.S. Joshipura and S.K. Vempati, hep-ph/9808232. relax J.N. Bahcall, P.I. Krastev and A. Yu. Smirnov, Phys. Rev. D58 (1998) 096016. relax Y. Fukuda et al., the Super-Kamiokande Collaboration, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 1562. relax E. Witten, Nucl. Phys. B471 (1996) 135. relax G. Dvali and M. Shifman, Phys.Lett. B399 (1997) 60. relax R. Barbieri and A. Dolgov, Phys. Lett. B237 (1990) 440; Nucl. Phys. B349 (1991) 743. relax K. Enqvist, K. Kainulainen and J. Maalampi, Phys. Lett. B249 (1990) 531; Nucl. Phys. B349 (1991) 754. relax K. Enqvist, K. Kainulainen and M. Thomson, Nucl. Phys. B373 (1992) 498. relax J.M. Cline, Phys. Rev. Lett. 68 (1992) 3137. relax X. Shi, D.N. Schramm and B.D. Fields, Phys. Rev. D48 (1993) 2563. relax S.M. Bilenki, C. Giunti, W. Grimus and T. Schwetz, hep-ph/9809466. relax R. Foot, M.J. Thomson and R.R. Volkas, Phys. Rev. D53 (1996) 5339. relax X. Shi, Phys. Rev. D54 (1996) 2753. relax R. Foot and R.R. Volkas, Phys. Rev. D55 (1997) 5147. relax S. Dodelson and L.M. Widrow, Phys. Rev. Lett. 72 (1994) 17. relax S. Dimopoulos, G. Dvali, R. Rattazzi and G. Giudice, Nucl. Phys. B510 (1998) 12. relax N. Arkani-Hamed, J. March-Russel and H. Murayama, Nucl. Phys. B509 (1998) 3. relax B. Abbott et al., the D0 Collaboration, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80 (1998) 442. relax F. Abe et al., the CDF Collaboration, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 1791. relax R. Barate et al., the ALEPH Collaboration, Phys. Lett. B429 (1998) 201.