# References

Single Spin State Detection

for the Kane Model of Silicon-Based Quantum Computer

S.N.Molotkov and S.S.Nazin

Institute of Solid State Physics of Russian Academy of Sciences

Chernogolovka, Moscow district, 142432, Russia

## Abstract

The scheme for measurement of the state of a single spin (or a few spin system) based on the single-electron turnstile and injection of spin polarized electrons from magnetic metal contacts is proposed. Applications to the recent proposal concerning the spin gates based on a silicon matrix (B.Kane, Nature, 393, 133 (1998)) are discussed.

After the discovery of efficient quantum algorithms  and a rigorous proof of the possibility of fault-tolerant quantum computing , various realizations of quantum logical gates were proposed based on cold ions , nuclear magnetic resonance , optical schemes , semiconductor heterostructures , and Josephson effect . Recently, the possibility of fabrication of quantum gates employing a silicon matrix with the dopant P<sup>31</sup> atoms was suggested . The role of quantum bits is played by the nucleus and electron spins of the P<sup>31</sup> atom. One of the problems in the scheme  is the measurement of a single nucleus or electron (or both) spin. The papers  consider the indirect spin measurement employing the single-electron transistor. However, the proposed schemes do not allow to measure the state of a single spin and only make it possible to measure the different charge states of a system of nucleus and/or electron spins.

The detection of a single spin in itself is not an exotic thing. The observation of Larmor precession of a single spin localized on the Si(111)7$`\times 7`$ surface in ultra-high vacuum with the scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) was first reported by the IBM group (Demuth et al , see also ) ten years ago. There were also reports on the detection of the electron paramagnetic resonance signal in the STM current from a single spin in an organic molecule . The STM with a magnetic tip was also demonstrated to be sensitive on the atomic level to the state of single spins on the surface of magnetic materials . The quantity which is directly measured in STM is the tunnel current which depends on the lateral tip position relative to the sample on the atomic scale, and in the case of a magnetic tip the tunnel current has a spin-dependent component 

$$I_t(𝐱)\rho _c(𝐱)\rho _t𝐦_c(𝐱)𝐦_t,$$

where $`\rho _{c,t}(𝐱)`$ are the local densities of states on the tip apex and the sample surface, respectively, while $`𝐦_c(𝐱)`$ and $`𝐦_t`$ are the local magnetizations at the sample surface at a point $`𝐱`$ and the tip apex, respectively. However, the steady state current measurements cannot be directly applied to the detection of the state of quantum gates.

Realization of quantum gates requires the possibility of measuring the state of the system at an arbitrary moment of time. According to the general theory of quantum-mechanical measurements \[15–17\], the most complete description of any particular measuring procedure which can be applied to a quantum system is given by the so-called instrument. The instrument $`T(d\lambda )`$ is actually a mapping of the set of all quantum states of the system (density matrices) $`\rho _s`$ before the measurement to the system states (up to the normalization) just after the measurement $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }_s=T(d\lambda )\rho _s`$ which gave the result in the interval $`d\lambda `$, the probability of obtaining a measurement result in the interval $`d\lambda `$ being $`\mathrm{Tr}\stackrel{~}{\rho }_s=\mathrm{Tr}\{T(d\lambda )\rho _s\}`$. Any instrument can be represented in the form

$$T(d\lambda )\rho _s=\text{Tr}_A\{(I_sM_A(d\lambda ))U(\rho _s\rho _A)U^1\},$$

i.e. any measurement can be realized by allowing the studied system to interact with a suitable auxiliary system (ancilla) prepared in a fixed initial state $`\rho _A`$ for some time (so that their joint evolution is described by certain unitary dynamics $`U`$) and a subsequent measurement generated by a suitable identity resolution $`M_A(d\lambda )`$ performed on the ancilla.

Proposed below is the method for detection of the state of a single spin (or a few spins, e.g. nucleus spin + electron spin) based on the “turnstile” concept . Explicitly present in the proposed scheme are the preparation of the ancilla ($`\rho _A`$) at an arbitrary moment of time, turning on the interaction between the ancilla and the studied system, their joint unitary evolution, turning off the interaction at an arbitrary moment of time, and detection of the state of the ancilla. Consider the following model system. Suppose that we have a system of spins in the subsurface region, e.g. an atom with the nucleus possessing non-zero spin and an electron localized on that atom (Fig. 1). Suppose also that a system of tunnel-coupled quantum dots is fabricated on the surface in such a way that the central dot is located just above the system of spins acting as the quantum bits (Figs. 1,2). Each dot has a single size-quantized level. The leftmost and the rightmost dots are tunnel-coupled to the magnetic metal electrodes (Figs. 1,2).

The Hamiltonian describing the interaction among the quantum dots and between the quantum dots and metallic electrodes can be written as

$$H=\underset{k,\sigma ,\alpha =L,R}{}\epsilon _{k\sigma \alpha }a_{k\sigma \alpha }^+a_{k\sigma \alpha }+\underset{\sigma }{}(\epsilon _cc_{c\sigma }^+c_{c\sigma }+\epsilon _Lc_{L\sigma }^+c_{L\sigma }+\epsilon _Rc_{R\sigma }^+c_{R\sigma })+$$
(1)   
$$\underset{k\sigma }{}(T_{kL}c_{L\sigma }^+a_{k\sigma L}+T_{cL}c_{c\sigma }^+c_{L\sigma }+T_{cR}c_{c\sigma }^+c_{R\sigma }+\text{h.c.})+\underset{\sigma }{}(U_Ln_{L\sigma }n_{L\sigma }+U_cn_{c\sigma }n_{c\sigma }U_rn_{R\sigma }n_{R\sigma }),$$

where the first two terms describe the electron states in isolated electrodes and the dots, the third one represents the tunnel coupling between the dots and the electrodes, and the last term accounts for the Coulomb intradot repulsion (if it is important). We assume that the electrons in the electrodes are spin-polarized with the magnetization vectors ($`𝐧_L`$ and $`𝐧_R`$ in the left and right electrodes, respectively) fixed by e.g. magnetic anisotropy. If the system is placed in an external magnetic field, the corresponding terms should be added to the Hamiltonian. The spin system (quantum gate) Hamiltonian, for example, for the case of nucleus spin + the electron spin localized on it can be written as

$$H_s=\underset{\sigma }{}\epsilon _sc_{s\sigma }^+c_{s\sigma }+g_s\mu _Bc_{s\sigma }^+c_{s\sigma ^{}}𝝈_{\sigma \sigma ^{}}𝐇+g_I\mu _B𝐈𝐇+g_{sI}𝐈𝝈_{\sigma \sigma ^{}}c_{s\sigma }^+c_{s\sigma ^{}}.$$
(2)   
In the external magnetic field the contribution from the metal electrodes should also be taken into account. The Hamiltonian describing the interaction of the spins in the quantum gate and the electron localized in the central dot (see below) depends on the specific geometry of the considered structure. For example, if the wave functions of the central dot electron and the electron localized on the subsurface center overlap, then the Hamiltonian can be written as

$$H_{int}=\underset{\sigma }{}(t_{sc}c_{s\sigma }^+c_{c\sigma }+\text{h.c.})+g_{cI}𝐈𝝈_{\sigma \sigma ^{}}c_{c\sigma }^+c_{c\sigma ^{}}+\underset{\sigma }{}U_{sc}n_{c\sigma }n_{s\sigma }.$$
(3)   
If the overlap is negligible, then only the dipole-dipole interaction should be retained.

The complete solution of the problem of finding the temporal evolution of the considered system is a difficult task. To go one step further, we shall assume that the characteristic times of different processes occurring in our systems form a certain hierarchy. Let $`\tau _{res}`$ be the typical time of electron tunneling from the central dot to the metal electrode when the energy levels in the adjacent quantum dots are tuned to the resonance (this time actually coincides with the time required for the electron to tunnel from the left (right) quantum dot to the metal electrode through a single barrier), $`\tau _{non}`$ be the characteristic tunneling time from the central dot to the metal electrodes when the levels in the dots are detuned from the resonance, and finally $`\tau _{dyn}`$ be the typical time of joint evolution caused by the interaction between the electron in the central dot and the spins in the gate. We shall assume that $`\tau _{res}\tau _{dyn}\tau _{non}`$. Below we wish to take advantage of the well known point that for the tunneling through the two barriers (from the central dot to the metal electrodes), tuning of the levels into the resonance lifts the smallness associated with the additional barrier. The characteristic time are inversely proportional to the level width and depends on the level position; an estimate is given by (e.g., see Ref.)

$$\frac{1}{\tau (\omega )}=\gamma (\omega )=\frac{|T_{Lc}|^2\gamma _0^2}{[\stackrel{~}{\epsilon }_c(\omega )\stackrel{~}{\epsilon }_L(\omega )]^2+\gamma _0^2},\gamma _0=\underset{k}{}|T_{kL}|^2\delta (\omega \epsilon _{kL})=|T_L|^2.$$

Here $`\gamma _0=|T_L|^2|T_{cL}|^2=|T|^2`$ is the bare tunnel transparency of the barrier between the dots and between the dots and the electrodes which can be assumed to be the same without any loss of generality. Under the resonance conditions ($`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon }_c(\omega _r)=\stackrel{~}{\epsilon }_L(\omega _r)`$) $`1/\tau _{res}|T|^2=\gamma _0`$. When the levels are detuned by the energy larger than the level width ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\gamma _0`$), the characteristic time becomes $`1/\tau _{non}\gamma _0(\gamma _0^2/\mathrm{\Delta }^2)1/\tau _{res}`$. Accounting for the Coulomb repulsion does not change the situation qualitatively.

Let us now discuss the different stages of the measurement procedure (Fig. 2.)

a) The size-quantized levels in the dots are initially empty (lie above the chemical potentials in the electrodes). The dashed line shows the levels in the dots split off by the Coulomb repulsion.

b,c) The central and the left dots are subjected to the voltage pulses with the duration $`\tau `$ such that $`\tau _{res}\tau \tau _{dyn}`$ and the central and left dots levels are tuned into the resonance and pulled down below the chemical potential $`\mu _L`$ in the left electrode. During the time of the order of $`\tau _{res}`$ the levels in the left and the central dots are filled by the electrons from the left electrode.

d) Then the voltage pulse with the duration $`\tau _{res}\tau \tau _{dyn}`$ is applied to the left dot pushing its level above the chemical potential $`\mu _L`$. During the time of the order of $`\tau _{res}`$ the level in the left dot becomes empty since the electron escapes back into the left electrode. AT the same time the level in the central dot remains filled. On the time scale $`<\tau _{non}`$ one can assume that the electron does not remember about the electrodes and is effectively isolated, its spin state being determined by the left electrode state. The above described procedure results in the preparation at the initial moment of time (on the time scale $`\tau \tau _{dyn}`$ — instantly) of the ancilla in the state $`\rho _A(t=0)`$. Since the density matrix for the spin-1/2 system can always be written in the form $`\rho =\frac{1}{2}(I+𝝈𝐮)`$, the state of the electron in the central dot which tunnelled from the left electrode is described by the density matrix $`\rho _A(t=0)=(1/2)(I+𝝈𝐮_L)`$, where $`𝐮_L`$ is the vector describing both the direction and the magnitude of the electron spin polarization vector of the electrons in the left electrode.

Then on the time scale $`\tau _{res}t\tau _{non}`$ one can assume that the electron in the central dot and the spins in the gate evolve according the joint unitary dynamics

$$\stackrel{~}{\rho }(t)=U(t)(\rho _A(t=0)\rho _s(t=0))U^1(t),U(t)=\mathrm{exp}(i_0^tH_{int}(t^{})𝑑t^{}).$$

Here $`\rho _s(t=0)`$ is the density matrix of the quantum gate the time moment $`t=0`$. The Hamiltonian $`H_{int}`$ can be easily diagonalized since it describes a finite-dimensional system (e.g., the joint dynamics of the electron localized in the dot together with the nucleus spin and the electron spin localized on it is described by the $`8\times 8`$ matrix).

The density matrix of the electron in the central dot by the times moment $`t`$ after the joint evolution is

$$\rho _A(t)=\text{Tr}_s\{U(t)(\rho _A(t=0)\rho _s(t=0))U(t)^1\}=\frac{1}{2}(I+𝝈𝐮_𝐀(t)),$$

where the vector $`𝐮_A(t)`$ specifies the spin of electron localized in the central dot by the time moment $`t`$ resulting from the interaction with the spins in the quantum gate.

e) Detection of the electron state in the central dot is performed by measuring the current flowing into the right electrode. For that purpose the central and the right quantum dots are subjected to the voltage pulses of duration $`\tau _1`$ (Fig. 2e) similar to those used to inject an electron from the left electrode to the central dot. If the time $`\tau _1`$ is short compared with $`\tau _{res}`$, the probability of electron escape to the right electrode is proportional to $`\tau _1`$. Since $`\tau _{dyn}\tau _{res}`$, at the time moment $`t`$ the interaction between the ancilla and the quantum gate is almost instantly (on the time scale characteristic of their joint dynamics) turned off. The probability of electron escape to the right electrode per unit time is (to within the numerical factors)

$$\text{Pr}|T|^2\text{Tr}_{sA}\{\rho _R\rho _a(t)\}=|T|^2\text{Tr}_{sA}\{(I_s\rho _R)(U(t)(\rho _s(t=0)\rho _A(t=0))U^1(t))\},$$

where $`\rho _R`$ is the electron density matrix in the right electrode, $`\rho _R=\frac{1}{2}(I+𝝈𝐮_R)`$. Therefore, the probability of appearance of a current pulse in the right electrode depends on the spin state of the electron in the central quantum dot and is

$$\mathrm{Pr}=C\tau _1|T|^2\{1+𝐮_R𝐮_A(t)\},$$
(4)   
where $`C`$ is a constant (the scalar product actually arises from the reduction to a single spin quantization axis of the two spinors describing the electron states in the central dot and the right electrode ).

f) Finally, the voltage pulses are applied to the left and the central quantum dots whose magnitude and duration chosen in such a way that the electron escapes from the central dot (if after the previous stage there is still an electron in the central quantum dot) to the left electrode with unit probability.

Let the duration of the complete cycle consisting of the stages a)–f) be $`\tau _0`$. Then at fixed $`\tau _1`$ the current flowing through the system of quantum dots will be equal to $`\mathrm{Pr}\frac{e}{\tau _0}`$. The constant $`C`$ in Eq.(4) can be found from the current measurements for the case of parallel magnetizations in the left and right electrodes when the interaction with the gate is turned off ($`t=0`$), so that $`𝐮_R𝐮_A(t)=|𝐮_R||𝐮_L|`$ (we assume that the magnetizations in the electrodes, $`|𝐮_R|`$ and $`|𝐮_L|`$), are known).

Thus, the current measurements in the outlined scheme allow one to determine the ancilla polarization vector $`𝐮_A(t)`$ which depends on the initial state of the gate $`\rho _s`$ before the measurement. Strictly speaking, finding the gate state from the measured current requires the determination of all three components of the vector $`u_s`$ appearing in the density matrix of the gate. It is obvious that this can only be done if the current measurements are preformed for at least three different combinations of the system parameters. For example, one can vary the magnetization direction in both electrodes and the duration of ancilla interaction with the gate. However, the problem of whether or not the tunnel current behavior as a function of the indicted parameters provides sufficient information for the complete recovery of the vector $`u_s`$ should be solved separately for each particular interaction between the quantum gate and the ancilla.

The characteristic time of the non-resonant tunneling can be made arbitrarily large by increasing the width of the double barrier so that it imposes no restrictions. The typical time of the joint quantum dynamics of the gate and the electron in the central dot can be estimated as the typical time of the dynamics of an isolated gate which is the inverse Larmor spin precession in the external field . In the field $`B100`$ Gs (0.01 T) this time is $`1/\tau _{dyn}10^6`$ Hz. The resonant tunneling time can well be increased up to $`\tau _{res}10^9`$ s allowing to measure the current pulses on the times $`\tau \tau _{res}`$. To avoid the smearing of the Zeeman splitting, the temperature should not exceed 1 mK. Growth of the operational temperature shortens $`\tau _{dyn}`$ and, consequently, $`\tau _{res}`$, resulting in the reduction of the time during which the current pulses are measured. Note also that both the quantum dots and silicon matrix  should not contain the isotopes with non-zero nuclear spin which prevents employment of the advanced technology of GaAs/GaAlAs materials and requires usage of the Si/SiGe-based systems.

The authors are grateful to Prof. K.A.Valiev for discussion of obtained results. The work was supported by the Russian Fond for Basic Research (project No 98-02-16640) and by the Program “Advanced technologies and devices of nano- and microelectronics” (project No 02.04.5.2.40.T.50), and by the Program “Surface Atomic Structures” (project N 1.1.99).