# 1 In fig.1a and 1b we show the behaviour of Ω_𝑄 (solid line), 𝛾_𝑄 (dash-dot), 𝛼=𝜌+3⁢𝑝/(𝜌_𝑏+3⁢𝑝_𝑏) (short dashed line) and Ω_𝑄/Ω̃_𝑄 (long dashed line) for an exponential potential with 𝜆=3/4 and for two different initial conditions at 𝑁=0, 𝑥=0,𝑦=0.001 and 𝑥=0.5,𝑦=0.001 for graph 1a and 1b respectively. In fig.1c we show the behaviour of Ω_𝑄, 𝛾_𝑄 and the ratio Ω_𝑄/Ω̃_𝑄 for a potential 𝑉≃𝑒^{-1/𝑄} (thin solid line, short dashed and long dashed lines respectively) and for a potential 𝑉≃1/𝑄 (thick solid line, dashed-dot-dot and dashed-dot line respectively) with the same initial conditions 𝑥=0,𝑦=0.001 at 𝑁=0. Notice that in all cases the model independent solution agrees quite well with the exact solution, for a large number of e-folds and the discrepancy becomes significant when 𝛾_𝑄 starts to increase. Finally, in fig.1d we plot the Ω̃_𝑄 vs N.

astro-ph/9911079

IFUNAM-FT-9909

Model Independent Accelerating Universe and the Cosmological Coincidence Problem 

A. de la Macorra<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1e-mail: macorra@fenix.ifisicacu.unam.mx 

| Instituto de Física, UNAM |
| --- |
| Apdo. Postal 20-364 |
| 01000 México D.F., México |

ABSTRACT

We show that the evolution of the quintessence energy density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ is model independent in an accelerating universe. The accelerating behaviour has lasted at most 0.5 e-folds of expansion assuming a present day value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=2/3`$. The generic evolution differs from the exact solution by a percentage given by $`r=2\gamma _Q`$, with $`\gamma _Q=(\rho _Q+p_Q)/\rho _Q`$. For a small $`\gamma _Q`$ the evolution remains a good approximation for a long period. Nucleosynthesis bounds on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ suggest that the model independent solution is valid for at least 12 e-folds of expansion which includes then the scale of radiation and matter equality. We can, therefore, establish model independent conditions on the cosmological parameters at some factor scale $`a_ia_o`$. Finally, we discuss the relevance of this result to the cosmological coincidence problem.

Recent observations show that the universe has entered an accelerating expansion regime . If these observations are confirmed it would be the first experimental evidence for an energy density different from the radiation or matter and with negative pressure, i.e. for a ”cosmological constant”. The cosmological constant can be given by constant energy density with equation of state $`p_\mathrm{\Lambda }=\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, where $`p_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the pressure and $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ the energy density, or it could be parameterised in terms of a slow varying scalar field Q, quintessence, with a potential $`V(Q)`$ and a time varying equation of state $`p_Q=(\gamma _Q1)\rho _Q`$, with $`p_Q=\frac{1}{2}\dot{Q}^2V(Q)`$ and $`\rho _Q=\frac{1}{2}\dot{Q}^2+V(Q)`$. The equation of state has $`0\gamma _Q2`$, it is model dependent and it may vary with time. For an accelerating universe we have the condition $`(\gamma _Q1)\mathrm{\Omega }_Q<1/3`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ is the ratio between the energy density of $`Q`$ and the critical energy density.

An important question is why the energy density of the cosmological constant is of the same order of magnitude as matter even though the expansion rate of both energies is quite different today. This is the coincidence problem . A possible answer is by setting the initial conditions such that the Q field start to dominate only recently. However, this solution introduces a fine tuning problem on the initial conditions. To avoid such a fine tuning problem tracker solutions have been proposed . In this models the energy density of the scalar field Q redshifts mimics the dominant energy density (radiation) at the beginning with $`\gamma _Q>1`$ and when matter dominates the equation of state for $`Q`$ changes to $`\gamma _Q<1`$. With this kind of fields one avoids the initial fine tuning problem but they have difficulties to explain (without any fine tuning of the potential) the central values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=2/3\pm 0.05,\gamma _Q0.35\pm 0.07`$  since they have $`\gamma _Q>0.3`$ . However, they remain a very interesting possibility. Other models with more the one term in the potential $`V=V_1+V_2`$ where one term dominates during radiation and scales as radiation or matter while the other dominates at a recent time giving the acceleration of the universe have been studied . In particular if during the radiation dominated epoch on has a potential $`V_1=aQ^4`$, it will redshift as radiation and the ratio $`\rho _r/\rho _Q`$ remains constant. On the other for $`V_1=aQ^2`$ the ratio $`\rho _m/\rho _Q`$ is constant. In either case the initial value can be set to $`\rho _r/\rho _Q=O(1)`$ or $`\rho _r/\rho _Q=O(1)`$ avoiding an initial fine tuning problem but not the coincidence problem. Finally, we can invoke the anthropic principle to try to explain the coincidence problem where the likelihood of our present day cosmological parameters are determined .

Different models have been proposed to give an accelerating universe and a general analysis can be found in , . We have the exponential potential, $`Ve^{\lambda Q}`$ with $`\lambda <3`$ ,, the inverse power potentials $`V1/Q^n,n>0`$ ,, $`Ve^{1/Q}`$  or $`V(c+(QQ_0)^n)^ae^{\lambda Q}`$  and mixtures of any of these potentials. All these potentials have a finite $`\lambda =V_Q/V<O(1)`$, with $`V_QV/Q`$, when $`V`$ approaches its minimum and this is indeed required for any model to give an accelerating universe since in this limit the potential energy dominates the energy density of Q. Some of these potentials may arise from non-perturbative effect or form string theory , .

In this work we address the reverse coincidence problem. This is, we start by imposing present days values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q,\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`\gamma _Q`$ and we go backwards in time. We will show that the evolution of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ while the universe accelerates is model independent. We can therefore establish generic initial conditions for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ at the beginning of the accelerating epoch. Furthermore, as long as $`\gamma _Q`$ is small (say $`\gamma _Q<0.4`$) the evolution of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ remains model independent (within an error of $`r=2\gamma _Q=20\%`$) and this allows to set the initial conditions at a much smaller scale factor $`a_i`$ compared to today’s value $`a_o`$, e.g. at radiation and matter equality $`a_i/a_o10^3`$ or at nucleosynthesis $`a_i/a_o10^{10}`$. The range of validity is model and initial conditions dependent, however, in most models the universe have a scaling regime with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q1,\gamma _Q1`$ before the acceleration epoch leading to a large number of e-folds of model independent expansion. This regime seems to be necessary due to the condition $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q<0.1`$ at nucleosynthesis . Here, we do not solve the coincidence problem but we contribute to establish model independent behaviour of the universe at the accelerating era and some e-folds before that, say $`a_{m.i.}`$. The last step would be to mach those initial conditions at $`a_{m.i.}`$ with a particular model coming from earlier times.

In a spatially flat Friedmann–Robertson–Walker (FRW) Universe, the Hubble parameter is given by $`H^2=\frac{1}{3}\rho =\frac{1}{3}(\rho _b+\rho _Q)`$ where the barotropic fluid is described by an energy density $`\rho _b`$ and a pression $`p_b`$ with a standard equation of state $`p_b=(\gamma _b1)\rho _b`$, with $`\gamma _b=1`$ for matter and $`\gamma _b=4/3`$ for radiation. Since we will study the evolution starting from today, we will take $`\gamma _b=0`$, however we will leave the $`\gamma _b`$ dependence in the equations. The interaction between the barotropic fluid and Q is gravitational only (we take $`8\pi G=1`$). In terms of the of the variables $`x\dot{Q}/\sqrt{6}H`$, $`y\sqrt{V/3}H`$  the cosmological evolution of the universe is given by

$`x_N`$ $`=`$ $`3x+\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}}\lambda y^2+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}x[2x^2+\gamma _b(1x^2y^2)]`$   
$`y_N`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}}\lambda xy+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}y[2x^2+\gamma _b(1x^2y^2)]`$ (1)   
$`H_N`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}H[\gamma _b(1x^2y^2)+2x^2]`$   
where $`N`$ is the logarithm of the scale factor $`a`$, $`Nln(a)`$, $`f_Ndf/dN`$ for $`f=x,y,H`$ and $`\lambda (N)V_Q/V`$. Notice that all model dependence in eqs.(1) is through the quantities $`\lambda (N)`$ and the constant parameter $`\gamma _b`$ and generic solutions can be obtained ,. The flatness condition gives $`1=\mathrm{\Omega }_Q+\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$ and from eqs.(1) the evolution of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=x^2+y^2`$ and $`\gamma _Q=2x^2/(x^2+y^2)`$ is

$`(\mathrm{\Omega }_Q)_N`$ $`=`$ $`3(\gamma _b\gamma _Q)\mathrm{\Omega }_Q(1\mathrm{\Omega }_Q)`$   
$`(\gamma _Q)_N`$ $`=`$ $`\gamma _Q(2\gamma _Q)(3+\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{x}}\mathrm{\Omega }_Q)`$ (2)   
An accelerating expansion universe requires $`\rho +3p=\rho _b(3\gamma _b2)+\rho _Q(3\gamma _Q2)<0`$ which gives the constraint

$$(\gamma _Q1)\mathrm{\Omega }_Q<1/3$$
(3)   
where we have taken the barotropic fluid as matter, i.e. $`\gamma _b=1`$. Equivalently, we can write condition (3) in terms of $`x`$ as $`x^2<(\mathrm{\Omega }_Q1/3)/2`$ and at present day this sets an upper value of $`x^21/6`$ and $`\gamma _Q<1/2`$ for today’s central value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}=2/3`$ (from now on the subscript $`o`$ refers to present day quantities). If we take the preferred value $`\gamma _{oQ}0.35`$ the condition on $`x`$ is $`x_o^2=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}\gamma _{oQ}0.11`$, which is slightly smaller then the previously obtained one, and $`y_o^2=\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}(1\gamma _{oQ}/2)0.55`$, i.e. we have $`y_o^25x_o^2`$. The solution to eq.(2) is only model dependent through the quantity $`\lambda (N)`$. Solving eq.(2) for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ we obtain

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_Q(N)=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}e^{3\gamma _b(N_oN)+3{\scriptscriptstyle \gamma _Q𝑑N}}}{1\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}+\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}e^{3\gamma _b(N_oN)+3{\scriptscriptstyle \gamma _Q𝑑N}}}$$
(4)   
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q(N_o)=\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}`$ and we have $`N<N_0`$ for a time $`t<t_0`$. In the limit of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}1`$ and $`\gamma _Qcte`$ eq.(4) reduces to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Qe^{3N(\gamma _b\gamma _Q)}`$. However we are not interested in this region since the initial condition has $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}2/3`$. During the accelerating period we have $`x^2<y^2`$ and $`\gamma _Q<\gamma _b`$ and we can expand eq.(4) as a function of $`R3\gamma _Q𝑑N`$. Eq.(4) becomes

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q\left(1+\frac{1\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}}{1\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}+\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}e^{3\gamma _b(N_oN)}}R+O(R^2)\right)$$
(5)   
with

$$\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}e^{3\gamma _b(N_oN)}}{1\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}+\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}e^{3\gamma _b(N_oN)}}.$$
(6)   
Notice that as long as $`R`$ is constant or $`R1`$, eq.(5) is model independent and it is certainly valid during the acceleration period of the universe. We see, therefore, that the accelerating expansion of the universe is model independent and the energy density of quintessence evolves as $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$. Furthermore, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$ remains a good approximation to eq.(4) as long as $`\gamma _Q`$ is small. We can establish a relationship between the amount of discrepancy that we wish to accept between $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$. For a $`r`$ percentage of difference, i.e. $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q/\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q=1+r`$ we have $`r=\frac{1\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}}{1\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}+\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}e^{3\gamma _b(N_oN)}}RR`$ (at large $`N_0N`$). Since $`(\gamma _Q)_N`$ is proportional to $`\gamma _Q`$ it varies rapidly when $`\gamma _Q`$ is not small as can be seen from eq.(2). $`R`$ becomes large when $`\gamma _{QN}6\gamma _Q`$ (as a first approximation) and we find $`R=3\gamma _Q𝑑N=(\mathrm{\Delta }\gamma _Q)/2`$. If we allow an $`r=20\%`$ discrepancy between the exact and the model independent $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$, this will happen at $`\mathrm{\Delta }\gamma _Q=2r=0.4`$. Since before the accelerating epoch one has $`xy`$ and $`\gamma _Q1`$, the model independent energy density stops being a good approximation only until $`\gamma _Q2r`$. When will this happen is model and initial condition depended, however, for a large number of cases $`N_0N_i`$ can be quite large ($`N_i`$ is the beginning of the model independent evolution of Q). In fact, if ,for example, we set initial conditions such that $`x<2y`$, i.e. $`\gamma _Q<0.4`$, at $`N_i`$ (regardless of its value) the evolution of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ is model independent (within a maximum of 20% discrepancy).

In fig.1a and 1b we show the behaviour of the exact $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ by solving the dynamically eqs.(1) numerically compared to $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$ for the same exponential potential $`V=V_0e^{3Q/4}`$ but with different initial conditions $`x=0,y=0.001`$ and $`x=0.5,y=0.001`$ respectively at $`N=0N_o`$. To appreciate more the difference between these two quantities we plot $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q/\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$ and we include in the graph the acceleration parameter $`\alpha =\rho +3p/(\rho _b+3p_b)`$  and $`\gamma _Q`$. We observe from the graphs that the concordance between $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ is remarkable as long as the universe expands in an accelerating way ($`\alpha <0`$) and $`\gamma _Q`$ remains small. We would like to mention that running the models down from present day the solution is very sensitive to the initial conditions at $`N_o`$. This is because we have a late time attractor and models with small variations at a late time may have come from quite different values at $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ large. We also show in fig.1c two different models ($`V1/Q`$ and $`Ve^{1/Q}`$) with initial conditions $`x=0,y=0.001`$ at $`N=0`$.

Form fig.1 we see that as long as $`x,\gamma _Q`$ are small the agreement between $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$ is very good. In order to avoid a rapid increase in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ (going backwards in time), which would contradict the nucleosynthesis bound ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q<0.1`$), we require precisely this kind of behaviour. So, we expect our $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$ to be a good approximation for a long period of expansion that could go as far as matter and radiation equality or nucleosynthesis. Furthermore, if we run the models backwards the ”early” time attractor has $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=1`$ (with $`x=1,y=0`$) and the scale at which the transition between $`\gamma _Q>1`$ and $`\gamma _Q<1`$ takes place is a symmetric point in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ as a function of $`N`$. Therefore if $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q1`$ for $`\mathrm{\Delta }N=2M`$ then our generic solution will be valid for at least $`M`$ e-folds of expansion. If we assume that the quintessence energy density has been increasing since nucleosynthesis (i.e. no extra complications) then $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$ is valid for at least 12 e-folds, i.e. it includes matter and radiation equality scale.

We can invert eq.(4) to get the number e-folds of expansion $`\mathrm{\Delta }N=N_oN_i`$ (see fig.2b) as a function of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{iQ}(N_i)/\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}(N_o)`$,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }N=\frac{1}{3}Log\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_{oQ}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_{iQ}}\left(\frac{1\mathrm{\Omega }_{iQ}}{1\mathrm{\Omega }_Q}\right)Log[1+R]\right]$$
(7)   
We can therefore determine the amount of quintessence $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ at different earlier times. For example, the number of e-folds of accelerating expansion is at most $`\mathrm{\Delta }N=0.46`$ since $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ must be greater or equal than $`1/3`$ (cf. eq.(3)). During structure formation with $`a_i/a_o1/2.2`$ we have $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=0.15`$, at matter and radiation equality (useful for tracker models) $`a_i/a_o10^3`$ we get $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=2\times 10^9`$ and at nucleosynthesis with $`a_i/a_o10^{10}`$ we have $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=2\times 10^{23}`$. With these results we can establish the initial conditions from which the model independent expansion is valid and we only need to concentrate on the behaviour at earlier times.

To conclude, we have seen that the expansion of the accelerating universe is model independent and it is given by $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$. As long as $`\gamma _Q`$ is small the evolution of $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_Q`$ remains a good approximation to the exact solution and the percentage difference is given by $`r=2\gamma _Q`$. Due to the nucleosynthesis bound ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q<0.1`$), we do not expect (going backwards in time from today’s value) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ to have a decrease and then a rapid increase and therefore our solution should be valid for at least 12 e-folds of expansion. We can then impose model independent condition at much smaller scales then our present day one, like at radiation and matter equality. This result contributes to solve the reverse coincidence problem since we can trace back the problem of initial conditions to a scale in which the universe expanded in a non-accelerating way and possibly as matter or radiation.

A.M. research was supported in part by CONACYT project 32415-E and by DGAPA, UNAM, project IN-103997.