# Diffuse Background Radiation

## 1 Introduction

We have recently reported (Murthy, Hall, Earl, Henry, and Holberg 1998) a new, and sharply lower, value for the upper limit to the background radiation from the universe at $``$110 $`nm`$. Here, I place our new measurement into the context of diffuse background measurements that have been made at all frequencies from radio to gamma ray, in this way bringing out the potential significance of the new measurement. I also gather other new diffuse background measurements that have been reported recently — in the microwave, in the far infrared, in the visible, and in the $`\gamma `$-ray spectral regions. The visible background, in particular, may be directly related in its origin to a mechanism that is strongly suggested by our new ultraviolet background upper limit.

Display of the broad spectrum of the cosmic background radiation apparently began with Longair and Sunyaev (1969), who unfortunately chose a display method (the plotting of log I<sub>ν</sub>, with $`I_\nu `$ expressed in $`ergs`$ $`s^1cm^2sr^1Hz^1`$) that exaggerates the importance, in terms of energy per decade of frequency, of the radio background (compared with the $`\gamma `$-ray background) by a factor of as much as $`10^{17}`$. This inferior method of plotting was also used by Henry (1991), and a similar plot appears as Figure 5.5 of Kolb and Turner (1990), which is taken from the comprehensive review by Ressell and Turner (1990).

If one is interested in energy content, the most meaningful units in which to display the spectrum of diffuse radiation are, remarkably enough, $`photons`$ $`s^1cm^2sr^1nm^1`$. If there is an equal amount of energy present in every logarithmic interval of frequency, then these units have the virtue of assuming constant value — as I now demonstrate:

For clarity, I omit “$`cm^2s^1sr^1`$” from the units. I use constants $`h=6.6261\times 10^{27}`$ $`erg`$ $`s`$ and $`c=2.9979\times 10^{10}`$ $`cm`$ $`s^1`$. If we have N $`photons`$ $`nm^1`$, then in a 1 $`nm`$ passband we have $`Nhc/\lambda _{nm}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^7`$ ergs. But

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _{Hz}=\frac{c}{\lambda _{nm}^210^7}\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda _{nm}$$

So N $`photons`$ $`nm^1`$ corresponds to

$$Nphotonsnm^1=Nh\lambda _{nm}ergsHz^1=\frac{Nhc}{\nu 10^7}ergsHz^1I_\nu ergsHz^1$$

$$=N\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1.9864}\times 10^9\frac{ergsHz^1}{\nu }\frac{N}{5\times 10^8}\frac{ergsHz^1}{\nu }$$

If N is independent of frequency (a flat spectrum) then

$$_\nu ^{}^{b\nu ^{}}Nphotonsnm^1𝑑\nu =_\nu ^{}^{b\nu ^{}}\frac{Nhc}{\nu \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^7}ergsHz^1𝑑\nu =\frac{Nhc}{10^7}ln(b)ergs$$

This demonstrates that, whatever the frequency from which we integrate, as long as we integrate over a specified factor $`b`$ in frequency we will obtain the same amount of energy. Note that it does not matter what you plot your value against — constant is constant. It would be most consistent to plot your values against the natural logarithm of the frequency; however, in Fig. 1 logarithms to base 10 are used. If you wish the area of paper on your graph to be proportional to energy, you must create a plot that is linear in the proposed units, against the logarithm of the frequency (or energy).

It was recognized during the 1960’s that some truer method than the plotting of $`I_\nu `$ is needed for the display of spectra. The method adopted, however, was not the use of the presently advocated units ; instead, it was in effect reasoned that, if the spectrum is N $`photons`$ $`nm^1`$, then $`I_\nu =Nhc/\nu 10^7`$ $`ergs`$ $`Hz^1`$, and if N is independent of $`\nu `$ (meaning, as we see above, constant energy per decade), then $`\nu I_\nu =Nhc/10^7`$ $`ergs`$ is independent of $`\nu `$: so, one should plot that , because it is flat! Gehrels (1997) points to many recent references that employ such plots, showing that use of plots of $`\nu I_\nu `$ may be on its way to becoming an unfortunate new standard. Clearly, instead, one should simply plot N $`photons`$ $`nm^1`$ (or, in full, N $`photonss^1cm^2sr^1nm^1`$) which I do, in Figure 1, for the background radiation spectrum of the universe.

This plotting method has the great advantage that what is plotted is the detected “quantity”, “per passband,” that is, it is a spectrum; whereas $`\nu I_\nu `$ is simply energy. Note that the first and last parts of the last equation can be written

$$_\nu ^{}^{b\nu ^{}}Nphotonsnm^1𝑑\nu =\nu I_\nu \times ln(b)ergs$$

and note the presence, on the right hand side, of the factor $`ln(b)`$. It has been emphasized by Gehrels (1997) that none of those who use the increasingly ubiquitous plots of $`\nu I_\nu `$ (versus, “whatever”) include that factor, which is therefore unity by implication, and so the “constant quantity” that is plotted is energy per natural logarithmic frequency, again by implication. Gehrels points out that frequently authors incorrectly state in such papers that what is plotted is energy per decade, or energy per octave. Gehrels also points out that integration of $`\nu I_\nu `$ is tricky, which is hardly surprising, considering that it is an already-integrated quantity itself. Now, none of these considerations is present, if instead what is plotted, is what I have advocated be plotted, namely, the integrand in the first part of the last equation. In view of its many defects, the use of $`\nu I_\nu `$ should be permanently abandoned.

None of what I say should be taken to suggest that it is not sometimes appropriate to plot diffuse background (or other) spectra in other units. Mather et al. (1990) display the 2.7 K background spectrum in units that, entirely appropriately, exaggerate the highest energy part of the spectrum, which is where they made their brilliant measurements. Figure 6.2 of Peebles (1993) offers a complementary example of constructive display.

## 2 The Background Spectrum

I have assembled the background radiation spectrum of the universe in Figure 1. The various contributions are discussed below.

### 2.1 Radio Background

The radio background spectra shown are from the Galactic Pole and the Galactic Plane, from Allen (1973). The curvature of the spectra is due (Yates and Wielebinski 1967) to free-free absorption of the synchrotron radiation by the partially-ionized Galactic disk.

### 2.2 Microwave Background

The microwave background is shown for a temperature of 2.714K (Fixen et al. 1994).

### 2.3 FIRAS Excess

The spectrum (Fixsen et al. 1998), with $`\pm 1\sigma `$ error range, of the extragalactic microwave background in excess of the 2.714K black body background is shown. This represents a major discovery, comprising as it does about 20% of the total intensity expected from the energy release from nucleosynthesis throughout the history of the universe.

### 2.4 Infrared (DIRBE)

I present the infrared background (detections at $`140\mu `$ and $`240\mu `$ are shown with error bars; the other points are all upper limits) of Hauser et al. (1998). The two highest upper limits are at $`25\mu `$ and $`60\mu `$, where the interplanetary dust is brightest. As just mentioned, these positive detections represent a major discovery for cosmology. The fact that these DIRBE detections, and the FIRAS detections previously mentioned, are in agreement, is of course very satisfactory.

### 2.5 Optical Background

The optical background as evaluated by Bernstein (1998) is shown as solid circles with error bars. Bernstein points out the the level she finds is “at least a factor 2 or 3” above the Hubble Deep Field integrated brightness of galaxies, which is shown in Figure 1 as the line below Bernstein’s points. She suggests undetected outer envelopes of galaxies as a possible explanation for the excess radiation, but this is ruled out by the important finding of Vogeley (1997) that the background of the Hubble Deep Field is smooth and cannot be made up of the integrated light of fainter galaxies.

The thin solid line through Bernstein’s observational points is the extrapolation of the ultraviolet background radiation to longer wavelengths, as we discuss next.

### 2.6 Ultraviolet Background

The ultraviolet background radiation has been reviewed by Henry (1991), and a figure giving the detailed spectral observations appears in Henry and Murthy (1994). The new Voyager upper limit of Murthy et al., of $`300photons`$ $`s^1cm^2sr^1nm^1`$, is shown in our Figure 1 as a solid triangle, joined to the ultraviolet observations longward of Lyman $`\alpha `$ by a vertical line at 121.6 nm. The ultraviolet observations longward of Lyman $`\alpha `$ (Henry and Murthy 1994) are summarized here simply by a solid line. That line is the model of Henry and Murthy (1994), which is the spectrum of redshifted Lyman $`\alpha `$ recombination radiation from ionized intergalactic clouds. These clouds must be substantially clumped, and their ionization must be maintained by unknown means (although the suggestion by Sciama (1997) that neutrinos decay with the emission of an ionizing photon would do the job.) The horizontal “error bar” at $`10^{14}Hz`$ is identified by Gnedin and Ostriker (1997) as the redshifted Lyman $`\alpha `$ frequency interval ($`z`$ = 10 to 20) where maxiumum Lyman $`\alpha `$ emission is expected due to the re-heating (leading to the re-ionization) of the universe.

### 2.7 Extreme Ultraviolet: Optical Depth

In the extreme ultraviolet the interstellar medium is very opaque, and instead of showing the observed background, which is entirely local, I choose to show (right hand scale in Figure 1) the logarithm of the photoionization optical depth (for hydrogen columns of $`10^{19}cm^2`$, $`10^{18}cm^2`$, and $`10^{17}cm^2`$), obtained using the cross-sections of Morrison and McCammon (1983).

### 2.8 Soft X-Ray Background

The soft X-ray background has been reviewed by McCammon and Sanders (1990); their reports of the measurements are shown as the seven small boxes that are at lowest intensities. The width of each box has no meaning, while the height of each box is the range of observed values, from low to high Galactic latitudes (excluding special regions).

Above these seven boxes are plotted the earliest observations of the soft X-ray background. The highest box is that of Bowyer, Field, and Mack (1968) which shows their extrapolation to extragalactic intensity, which, they stated, may reasonably be interpreted as a continuation of the background spectrum already observed above 1 keV. Below their box is the observed intensity of Henry et al. (1968), which they correctly identified as a new component of X-ray emission, but which they incorrectly attributed to emission from intergalactic gas. At slightly higher energy is the observation (very small filled box) of Henry et al. (1971): the emission was again attributed to emission from intergalactic gas, this time, perhaps, correctly (Wang and McCray 1993). The box contiguous below is the confirming observation of Davidsen et al. (1972), which is in reasonable agreement with that reported by McCammon and Sanders.

### 2.9 High Energy Background

From log $`\nu `$ = 18, I plot the X-ray background spectrum of Boldt (1987), in addition extrapolating his spectrum to longer wavelengths (dashed line) to make clear how extraordinary is the excess, that was first recognized by Henry et al. (1968), that occurs in the soft X-ray region. Superimposed on Boldt’s spectrum, and extending to higher energy, is the fit to the data of Gruber that is quoted by Fabian and Barcons (1992). Finally, above log $`\nu =19.6`$ I have plotted the high-energy background data and upper limits that are presented by Sreekumar et al. (1998); the famous “MeV bump” (Fichtel et al. 1978) has now vanished.

## 3 Discussion

A virtue of having the entire background radiation spectrum of the universe presented in a single diagram, in units that allow comparison of relative energy content, is that the parts may be seen in relation to the whole, and possible connections may be examined. The X-ray background that was discovered by Giacconi et al. (1962), has, very slowly, been revealed as largely due to the integrated radiation of faint point sources (Ueda et al. 1998). The background below $`10^{18}Hz`$ is clearly of independent origin. Henry et al. (1968) failed to focus on the most important aspect of their observation, the detection of strong soft X-ray emission at low Galactic latitudes. That no such radiation existed was sufficiently strongly believed, at that time, that Bowyer, Field, and Mack (1968) subtracted out all of their low-latitude signal as particle contamination.

The main focus of the present paper is the relation of the soft X-ray background to the ultraviolet and visible backgrounds. Note the very large jump in background intensity from $`10^{17}Hz`$ to $`10^{15}Hz`$. Where exactly this jump occurs is unclear, but the fact that our observed intensity between 91.2 nm and 121.6 nm is only an upper limit may be revealing. The sharp jump precisely at 121.6 nm is clearly extremely important if real, as we believe it to be.

## 4 Conclusion

I conclude that a new possible origin for the diffuse visible background has been identified, the extention of the observed ultraviolet background. A new upper limit to the background shortward of 121.6 nm reveals the ultraviolet (and visible) backgrounds to perhaps be redshifted Lyman $`\alpha `$ recombination radiation from an ionized intergalactic medium. If this is so, additional support is provided for the idea of Sciama (1997) that much of the non-baryonic dark matter is massive neutrinos that decay with the emission of an ionizing photon. While intriguing, none of these ideas can be accepted, yet, as facts; definitive measurement of the diffuse ultraviolet background radiation spectrum is called for, before any secure conclusions can be adopted.

This work was supported by NASA grant NAG53251 to the Johns Hopkins University.