# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Recently, it has been demonstrated (Balbus & Hawley 1991; see also their review Balbus & Hawley 1998) that the origin of turbulence and angular momentum transport in accretion disks is very likely related to a linear, local, magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) instability-the magnetorotational instability (Velikhov 1959; Chandrasekhar 1960; Balbus & Hawley 1991). This instability has been shown to successfully reproduce the order of magnitude of the effective viscosity in ionized disks (with a viscosity parameter $`\alpha 0.0010.1`$; Hawley, Gammie & Balbus 1995, Brandenburg et al. 1995; Vishniac & Brandenburg 1997). The situation in dense and cool disks, like the ones found in Young Stellar Objects, is somewhat more ambiguous (e.g. Blaes & Balbus 1994; Regös 1997) and it has been suggested that the source of turbulence and angular momentum in these systems might be due to a hydrodynamical instability (e.g. Zahn 1990; Dubrulle 1993). However, no linear hydrodynamic instability has been identified (e.g. Stewart 1975), and efforts have focused on nonlinear instabilities (e.g. Zahn 1990; Dubrulle & Knobloch 1992; Dubrulle 1992, 1993). The latter authors have derived some interesting properties of the turbulence (and the viscosity in the solar nebula), however, they actually assumed the turbulence to exist ab initio, rather than rigorously demonstrating that it is the result of some instability (basing their assumption on the fact that Couette and Poisseuille flows do exhibit nonlinear instabilities in laboratory experiments; e.g. Coles 1965; Daviaud, Hegseth & Bergé 1992; see also Zahn 1990). In fact, until now, it has not been shown that a Keplerian disk is unstable to a local nonlinear hydrodynamic instability that leads to turbulence. Quite to the contrary, using a relatively low-resolution finite-difference code, Balbus, Hawley & Stone (1996) have shown that Keplerian flows are stable to finite amplitude perturbations on the small three-dimensional scale, using the shearing-box approximation. They explain their numerical findings by pointing out that the epicyclic term is always a sink in the energy equation, and consequently, the Reynolds stress is expected to decay, even if turbulence transports angular momentum outwards. However, no rigorous analytical proof is provided.   

In order to further test the hydrodynamic stability of Keplerian disks, we propose in this work to check the non-linear stability of the flow on the large compressible two-dimensional scale, since on the small three-dimensional scale the flow is expected to be stable (Balbus et al. 1996). The motivations behind this particular calculation are multiple: (i) two-dimensional compressible rotating flows (e.g. the shallow water approximation) do exhibit a transition to turbulence due to the propagation of waves (e.g. Pedlosky 1987; Cushman-Roisin 1994; see also Cho & Polvani 1996a,b, and see §2.5). (ii) The wavelength and the amplitude of the perturbation needed for a subcritical transition to turbulence are not known a priori. (iii) The present method of calculation allows us to study the entire disk, thus including the effects of the amplification of propagating waves, rotation, curvature and compressibility, which might have crucial effects on the flow (see e.g. Cho & Polvani 1996a for such a discussion).   

Since the transition to turbulence in shear flows is usually assumed to be a strictly three-dimensional effect (e.g. Balbus & Hawley 1998), we discuss in the next section the transition to turbulence in three- as well as two-dimensional rotating flows. The equations and the numerical method are presented in §3, the results are shown in §4, and a discussion follows.   

## 2 Transition to turbulence

Planar shear flows are unstable to finite-amplitude perturbations only in three dimensions (3D) (e.g. Bayly, Orszag & Herbert 1988), and numerical simulations have also shown that a subcritical transition to turbulence in the plane Couette flow occurs only in 3D (e.g. Orszag & Kells 1980; Dubrulle 1991). These results have led to the general assumption that a hydrodynamic (subcritical) transition to turbulence in accretion disks can take place only in 3D. However, this assumption is based entirely on experiments and simulations with incompressible 3D flows, and therefore great caution should be exercised in attempts to draw conclusions for 2D compressible flows in accretion disks. In particular, waves play a crucial role in the formation of turbulence in the shallow water approximation of planetary atmospheres (e.g. Cho & Polvani 1996a, 1996b). Therefore, there are good reasons to believe that turbulence can in principle at least develop in two-dimensional disks as well.   

In this section we review the subcritical transition to turbulence in three-dimensional incompressible and two-dimensional compressible flows.   

### 2.1 Three-dimensional incompressible flows

The transition to turbulence in three-dimensional incompressible flows has often been considered to be due to an inflectional instability. However, more recently it has been realized (e.g. Yang 1987; Hamilton & Abernathy 1994; Dauchot & Daviaud 1995; Hegseth 1996) that the destabilization process that leads to turbulence is associated with the presence of streamwise vortices rather than with inflection points: non-transitional flows were found to exhibit inflectional profiles as well. A streamwise vortex always induces inflections in the streamwise velocity profiles, but the transition to turbulence occurs only when the strength (circulation) of the vortex is above some critical value (Hamilton & Abernathy 1994). The turbulence is fed by the streamwise vortex which transfers energy from the bulk motion of the flow to the turbulent region (usually a ’spot’). Streamwise vortices in the flow are purely three dimensional, and cannot be reproduced by two dimensional simulations.

### 2.2 Two-dimensional compressible flows

Two-dimensional flows with inflectional velocity profiles satisfy the necessary (but not sufficient) condition for instability (e.g. Fjørtoft 1950). Therefore, one of the features we might expect to observe if the flow is unstable, is the presence of inflection points, since this is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for instability in two-dimensional flows.

However, very little is known about the dynamics of rotating flows when compressibility is important, since only a few studies have been carried out for supersonic rotating flows in two dimensions (e.g. Farge & Sadourny 1989; Tomasini, Dolez & Léorat 1996; Godon 1998). In their work on two-dimensional transonic shear flows, Tomasini et al. (1996) did not rule out turbulence, although it was not obtained numerically. The turbulence found in Godon (1998) was the non-linear consequence of the Papaloizou-Pringle (1984) instability, which itself was due to an inner reflecting boundary condition (Gat & Livio 1992).

In the shallow water approximation of two-dimensional planetary atmospheres, the shear flow is unstable to wavelengths that are longer than a critical value. These waves have a phase speed that matches the mean current velocity within the flow, which permits a transfer of energy from the current to the wave. This process is known in geophysical fluid dynamics as the barotropic instability (e.g. Pedlosky 1987; Cushman-Roisin 1994). This instability is linear, and it is responsible for the formation of turbulence in the atmosphere on the large two-dimensional scales which transport angular momentum. An important point to mention here is that two-dimensional compressible polytropic flows (with a polytropic index n=1) can be represented by the shallow water equations, when the depth $`h`$ of the shallow water flow is replaced by the surface density $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$, and the surface gravity waves speed $`\sqrt{gh}`$ corresponds to the sound speed (see e.g. Tomasini et al. 1996; Ingersoll & Cho 1997, private communication; Bracco et al. 1998, 1999). Moreover, in the thin disk approximation, like in the atmosphere of a planet, the long wavelength modes are two-dimensional because of the finite vertical extent of the flow and because of the rotation. On the smaller scales (say $`\lambda <H`$ in disks and $`\lambda <h`$ in the atmosphere) the subsonic flow is not affected by the rotation or the curvature (see also Dubrulle & Valdettaro 1992). However, while there are many similarities between the Shallow Water Equations and the two-dimensional compressible equations for a disk, there are also some important differences (see §5).   

## 3 Numerical modeling

### 3.1 The Equations

The equations (e.g. Tassoul 1978) are written in a cylindrical coordinates system $`(r,\varphi ,z)`$, and are further integrated in the ($`z`$) vertical direction (e.g. Pringle 1981). We define a mean density $`\overline{\rho }`$ using the definition of the surface density $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=_H^{+H}\rho 𝑑z=_{H_{max}}^{+H_{max}}\overline{\rho }𝑑z`$, where $`H_{max}`$ has a constant value $`H_{max}>max(H)`$. This relation always holds since by definition the integral vanishes for $`H>H_{max}`$. The surface density $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is then substituted in the equations by $`2H_{max}\overline{\rho }`$ and the equations are further divided by $`2H_{max}`$. The equations are written for the density $`\rho `$ (where for simplicity we have dropped the bar), the radial momentum $`U=\rho v_r`$ and the angular momentum $`W=\rho v_\varphi `$.   
The equations are: the conservation of mass,

$$\frac{\rho }{t}+\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}rU+\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{\varphi }W=0,$$
(1)   
the conservation of momentum in the radial dimension,

$$\frac{U}{t}+\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}r\left(\frac{U^2}{\rho }+PR_{rr}\right)+\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{\varphi }\left(\frac{UW}{\rho }R_{r\varphi }\right)$$

$$=\frac{1}{r}\left(\frac{W^2}{\rho }\rho \frac{GM}{r}+PR_{\varphi \varphi }\right),$$
(2)   
the conservation of momentum in the angular direction,

$$\frac{W}{t}+\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}r\left(\frac{UW}{\rho }R_{\varphi r}\right)+\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{\varphi }\left(\frac{W^2}{\rho }+PR_{\varphi \varphi }\right)$$

$$=\frac{1}{r}\left(\frac{UW}{\rho }+R_{r\varphi }\right),$$
(3)   
where $`R_{ij}`$ ($`i=r,\varphi ;j=r,\varphi `$) is the Reynolds stress tensor.

$$R_{rr}=2\nu \rho \frac{}{r}\left(\frac{U}{\rho }\right),$$

$$R_{r\varphi }=R_{\varphi r}=\nu \rho \left[r\frac{}{r}\left(\frac{U}{r\rho }\right)+\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{\varphi }\left(\frac{U}{\rho }\right)\right],$$

$$R_{\varphi \varphi }=2\nu \rho \left[\frac{U}{\rho r}+\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{\varphi }\left(\frac{W}{\rho }\right)\right].$$

The pressure is given assuming a polytropic relation

$$P=K\rho ^{1+1/n}.$$
(4)   
We chose $`n=3`$ for the polytropic index, while the polytropic constant $`K`$ was fixed by choosing $`H/r`$ at the outer radial boundary.   

We use an alpha prescription (Shakura & Sunyaev 1973) for the viscosity law $`(\nu =\alpha c_sH=\alpha c_s^2/\mathrm{\Omega }_K)`$, where $`c_s`$ is the sound speed and $`H=c_s/\mathrm{\Omega }_K`$ is the vertical height of the disk.

The Reynolds number in the flow is given by

$$R=\frac{Lv}{\nu },$$

where $`L`$ is a characteristic dimension of the computational domain, $`v`$ is the velocity of the flow (or more precisely the velocity change in the flow over a distance $`L`$) and $`\nu `$ is the viscosity. Since we are solving for the entire disk, $`Lr`$ and $`vv_K`$, and the Reynolds number becomes

$$R_{disk}=\alpha ^1(H/r)^2.$$

### 3.2 Numerical method

We use a Fourier-Chebyshev spectral method of collocation (described in Godon 1997) to study waves in accretion disks. Spectral Methods are global and of order $`N/2`$ in space (where $`N`$ is the number of grid points; see also Gottlieb & Orszag 1977; Voigt, Gottlieb & Hussaini 1984; Canuto et al. 1988) and they make use of fast Fourier transforms. These methods are relatively fast and accurate and consequently they are frequently used to solve for turbulent flows (e.g. She, Jackson & Orszag 1991; Cho & Polvani 1996a). All the details on the numerical method can be found in Godon (1997), here we only give a brief outline of the numerical modeling. We would like however to remark that because spectral methods are high-order-accuracy methods, the number of points needed to achieve a given accuracy is much less than in usual finite difference methods. For example, a modest number of 17 points in a spectral code has the accuracy of a low order finite difference solver with a 100 points (Gottlieb & Orszag 1977; Voigt, Gottlieb & Hussaini 1984; Canuto et al. 1988). It is quite remarkable that Orszag & Kells (1980) were able to study the subcritical transition to turbulence in the Plane Couette Flow with a spectral method with a resolution as low as $`16^3`$ points. Spectral methods reach a high accuracy for smooth solutions, and the series do not converge for discontinuous solutions (e.g. very strong shocks in the flow can be responsible for numerical oscillations, the Gibbs phenomenon). However, in the present work the shocks that may form are due to the amplification of waves propagating inwards in the disk. These shocks are (relatively) weak and they do not affect the accuracy of the results presented here. For example, similar shocks were obtained due to the amplification of tidally induced spiral waves propagating inwards in the disk (with a Mach number of 1.3, Godon 1997). These waves were found to reach the inner boundary, even assuming an alpha viscosity parameter $`\alpha =0.01`$ and a resolution of 128x32 (Godon 1997), while in inviscid models using finite difference schemes (e.g. Savonije, Papaloizou & Lin 1994) the tidal waves were damped before reaching the inner boundary even though the resolution was higher (200x64). These results show that in the circumstances that apply to the present calculations (perturbations of a disk) our spectral code has a higher accuracy than usual finite difference codes with the same number of grid points.   

A Spectral filter was used to cut-off high frequencies. This implementation was used for numerical convenience. It eliminates the high frequencies (e.g. due to shocks and aliasing errors of the non-linear terms) which can cause numerical instability, while keeping a high enough number of terms in the spectral expansion to resolve the fine structure of the flow (Godon 1997, 1998; see also Don & Gottlieb 1990).   

In all the numerical simulations, the alpha viscosity prescription was introduced in order to dissipate the energy in the small scales (say, for wavenumbers $`k>k_\nu `$), and the spectral filter was used to cut-off the highest frequencies (for wavenumbers $`k>k_0>k_\nu `$) which can grow due to aliasing errors and the Gibbs phenomenon (Gottlieb & Orszag 1977; Voigt et al. 1984; Canuto et al. 1988). To make sure that the flow is numerically stable we check the energy spectra ($`E_k`$) of the flow and make sure that the energy decreases (say, like $`E_kk^\beta `$ with $`3\beta 4`$) for wavenumbers $`k>3M/4`$, where $`M`$ is the total number of modes (i.e. $`k=M`$ corresponds to the highest frequency). For low amplitude perturbations, a spectral filter is sufficient to damp the high frequencies (by choosing $`k_0=3M/4`$). However, when the perturbations are strong (like in the present work), a small viscosity is needed in addition to the spectral filters (the exponential cut-off filter used here is a weak filter).

## 4 Results

We have run several classes of models. In models of the first class, we simply perturbed the disk with a finite-amplitude perturbation, and free boundary conditions were applied at the inner and outer edges. In the second class of models, in addition to perturbing the disk, we also included (throughout the run) the tidal effects from a companion star. In the third class we introduced in the equations an artificial change in the epicyclic term (see §4.3), and finally, in the fourth class, we applied a reflective boundary condition at the inner edge of the disk. In all the models the initial rotation law is Keplerian and the radial velocity is set to zero. The initial density profile was chosen to fit the standard thin disk model (Shakura & Sunyaev, 1973; i.e. $`\rho (r)r^{15/8}`$), but models with a flat density profile were also run with similar results.

### 4.1 Finite perturbations, free boundaries

In this class of models, we have run more than 10 models, changing the resolution ($`N\times Q`$, where $`N`$ is the number of collocation points in the Chebyshev expansion for the radial dimension, and $`Q`$ is the number of points in the Fourier expansion for the azimuthal dimension), the ratio of the outer to the inner radius ($`R_{out}/R_{in}`$), the viscosity parameter ($`\alpha `$) and the Mach number in the flow ($`=(H/r)^1`$). The viscosity parameter was varied from $`\alpha =0.1`$ down to $`\alpha =5\times 10^5`$ (more than three orders of magnitude change in the Reynolds number) and we tried mainly two values of the Mach number, corresponding to $`H/r=0.05`$ and $`H/r=0.15`$. Not all the computed models are presented here.   

The optimal results (in terms of accuracy and speed) were obtained for $`R_{out}/R_{in}=2`$ and $`N\times Q=128\times 128`$. Given the fact that we are working with a high-order accuracy spectral method, the resolution achieved with $`128\times 128`$ points is equivalent to that obtained by a usual second order accuracy finite-difference method with more than $`500^2`$ grid points (Canuto et al. 1988). This improved resolution is achieved because the spatial resolution is not only a direct function of the number of grid points, but it is also an inverse function of the numerical dissipation, which is responsible for the flattening and spreading of fine structures in the flow. High order accuracy spectral methods have very little numerical dissipation in comparison to standard low order accuracy finite-difference methods with the same number of grid points.   

We chose in the present work to perturb the disk velocities with a high order mode. The initial perturbation was randomly chosen to have a maximum amplitude of about $`0.10.2`$ of the sound speed. However, even larger amplitude perturbations were obtained naturally, due to the amplification of the waves as they propagated inward into the disk, resulting in some cases in shocks in the inner region of the computational domain. The perturbations were placed on a grid as shown in figure 1. The kinetic energy of the initial perturbations ranged from $`10^5`$ to $`10^3`$ of the background kinetic energy of the Keplerian flow.   

Figure 1: A grayscale of the density shows the location of the perturbations induced in the density of the disk.    

In the first model (model 1) we chose $`\alpha =0.1`$ with $`R_{out}/R_{in}=5`$, $`H/r=0.05`$ and a resolution of 64x64. On a very short time scale the initial perturbation was damped and, as expected for such a large viscosity, the disk reached a stable configuration even before a significant propagation of the waves has been noticed.   

In a second model (model 2) we reduced the viscosity parameter to $`\alpha =0.01`$ and changed the numerical resolution to $`N\times Q=128\times 128`$ with $`R_{out}/R_{in}=2`$, keeping $`H/r=0.05`$. In this case the perturbation had time to propagate and form spiral waves sheared by the flow. However, the short wavelength waves were rapidly damped (see figure 2). After about 5 Keplerian orbits all the waves were smoothed out. We found that in the models the waves dissipated on a time scale $`\tau _{dis}(\tau _\nu P_K)^{1/2}`$, where $`\tau _\nu =r^2/\nu `$ is the viscous time scale and $`P_K=2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }_K`$ is the Keplerian Period.   

Figure 2: The initial perturbation of the disk induces waves that form spirals due to the shear in the flow. In this model $`H/r=1/20`$ and the viscosity parameter is $`\alpha =0.01`$. The waves are smoothed out and decay on a time scale $`\tau _{dis}(\tau _\nu P_K)^{1/2}`$, where $`P_K=2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }_K`$ is the Keplerian period and $`\tau _\nu =r^2/\nu `$ is the viscous time scale.    

In model 3 we have further reduced the viscosity to $`\alpha =10^3`$, while keeping all the other parameters constant. In this case the waves decayed on a much longer time scale, and the shear had sufficient time to act strongly on the waves. This resulted in the formation of tightly wound spirals in the disk (figure 3, the radial wavelengths are very short and are barely visible in the inner disk). Here again the waves dissipated after a characteristic time $`\tau _{dis}`$.   

Figure 3: The same as Fig.2, with $`\alpha =10^3`$ (see text).    

As we have further reduced the viscosity in the disk, the wavelengths of the waves in the radial direction decreased to a point where a higher resolution was needed. At this stage we decided to increase the ratio $`H/r`$ while keeping the same resolution. In model 4 we therefore took $`H/r=0.15`$ and $`\alpha =5\times 10^5`$. Here the largest waves dissipated on a time scale of the order of dozens of orbits, and the effect of the viscosity was to damp the shortest wavelengths first. As the longer wavelength modes propagated inward, they amplified and formed shocks similar to tidally induced spiral waves. The spiral waves were not tightly wound and the wavelength in the radial direction was not very short due to the lower Mach number in the disk (Figs. 4 and 5).   

Figure 4: The grayscale of the density is shown (at $`t2`$ orbits) for model 4 with a very low viscosity ($`\alpha =5\times 10^5`$) and a lower Mach number ($`H/r1/7`$).    

Figure 5: A grayscale of the density for model 4 around $`t10`$ orbits. The dissipation time of the perturbations is long, of the order of dozens of orbits, however the shortest wavelength disturbances disappear within about $`10`$ orbits (see text).    

As an additional check of the stability of the disk, we have also looked at the absolute vorticity of the flow. It is well known from the theory of 2D turbulent flows that an inflection point in the vorticity is a necessary condition for the appearance of an instability. The absolute vorticity of the flow is shown in figure 6, a few orbits after the initial perturbation of the disk. The striking feature in figure 6 is a multitude of Z-like shapes criss-crossing the whole disk. The Z-shape in the absolute vorticity is a characteristic signature of the instability of sheared disturbances (e.g. Haynes 1987). However, while this instability is usually driving turbulence in shear flows, in the present Keplerian case it eventually stabilizes, as shown in figure 7. This strongly suggests that the instability is deriving its energy from the initial perturbation rather than from the Keplerian motion of the flow itself.   

Figure 6: A grayscale of the absolute vorticity for model 4 after a few orbits. The initial perturbations have evolved into Z-shapes, characteristic of the instability of sheared disturbances.    

Figure 7: A grayscale of the absolute vorticity for model 4 after about 10 orbits. The flow has stabilized completely.    

In all the preceding models, the size and amplitude of the perturbation induced in the density were significant (Figure 5), especially due to the amplification of waves propagating inward (forming shocks). However, the size and amplitude of the perturbation induced in the vorticity profile were indeed very small (Figure 6), and the dissipation of the vorticy perturbation might be due to the shear and the viscosity (Figure 11 shows that modes higher than $`m20`$ are quickly damped for $`\alpha =5\times 10^5`$). It is important to note that the amplitude of the perturbation needed for the development of turbulence depends on the Reynolds number (e.g. Dauchot & Daviaud 1994). In fact, the critical amplitude for the non-linear growth of disturbances in shear flows follows a scaling law which depends on the shape of the initial disturbance, as a result of the competition between the non-linear growth of the perturbation and the viscous dissipation mechanism (e.g. Dubrulle & Nazarenko 1994). Therefore, for a given resolution, a given configuration may need a large amplitude perturbation to give rise to an instability. Consequently, in order to check the effects of a large perturbation in the vorticity field, we decided to run an additional model in which the initial vorticity perturbation is large in both size and amplitude. The reasons behind this vorticity perturbation are multiple. First, two-dimensional flows are unstable to local extrema of the vorticity (inflexion points) that can lead to turbulence. Second, two-dimensional planetary atmospheric turbulent flows are usually perturbed and studied in the vorticy field rather than in the velocity field. Lastly, recent numerical simulations using the shallow water equations (Bracco et al. 1998, 1999) have shown that vortices can survive in a Keplerian shear flow for many orbits.   

In this model (model 5) we chose $`H/r=0.15`$, $`\alpha =1\times 10^4`$ and a polytropic index $`n=2.5`$. The initial vorticity perturbation profile is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: A grayscale of the initial vorticity perturbation. For clarity, the Keplerian velocity background has been subtracted from the angular velocity. The maximum amplitude of the velocity field is $`\delta u0.2c_s`$, where $`c_s`$ is the sound velocity. Dark features represent anticyclonic vorticity perturbations and white features represent cyclonic vorticity perturbations.    

During the first few orbits all the cyclonic vorticity perturbations were sheared by the flow and dissipated, while the anticyclonic vorticity perturbations became organized into vortices which later merged together to form larger vortices. After 15 orbits, only a few large elongated anticyclonic vortices were left in the flow (Figure 9).

Figure 9: A grayscale of the vorticity at $`t15`$ orbits. Anticyclonic vortices have developed and merged together to form large elliptical vortices, while the cyclonic vorticity perturbations have dissipated.    

However, all the vortices were eventually sheared and dissipated due to the viscosity and the shear in the flow. The perturbations did not develop into self-sustained turbulence. In this model, the vortices had typical exponential decay timescales of the order of 50 orbits and they can therefore survive in the flow for a few hundreds of orbits. Detailed calculations of the stability and lifetime of vortices in Keplerian disks (Godon & Livio, 1999a), indicate that the exponential decay time of the amplitude $`A`$ of the vortices is inversely proportional to the alpha viscosity parameter. Namely, $`Ae^{t/\tau }`$, where $`\tau \alpha ^1`$. Therefore, we find that in the range $`\alpha =10^410^3`$, the decay time of the vortices is determined by the viscous dissipation that is introduced explicitly into the equations (i.e. the Reynolds stress tensor).   

The decreasing kinetic energy of the fluctuations is another indication for the stability of the flow, and it was observed in all the models. In figure 10 we show the decrease of the kinetic energy as a function of time for one of the models (model 4).   

It is also interesting to examine the kinetic energy spectrum of the fluctuations. The energy spectrum is the same in all the models and it is shown in Figure 11 for model 4. The slope of the spectrum in the short wavelengths (large $`k`$) is very close to -3, due to the viscous dissipation of the modes. The rest of the spectrum (for the long wavelengths, i.e. small $`k`$) is fairly flat, in agreement with simulations of two-dimensional compressible turbulence (e.g. Farge & Sadourny 1989) and with the turbulence obtained in the inner region of the disk (see §4.4). The fluctuations are characterized by an inverse cascade of energy typical of two-dimensional flows, and as a consequence, the energy accumulates in the lowest (m=1) mode. The spectrum shows clearly the dominance of the m=1 (wavenumber $`k=1`$, i.e. $`Log(k)=0`$) mode. Similar energy spectra were obtained for all the other models in this class.

Figure 10: The kinetic energy of the fluctuations is shown as a function of time. The energy is given on a logarithmic scale in units of the background Keplerian energy of the flow. The energy decreases steadily with time, with small fluctuations appearing towards the end of the run. The same decrease of energy was observed for all the models. The model shown here is model 4.    

Figure 11: The spectrum of the kinetic energy of the fluctuations has been integrated in space and averaged over the last orbits. The high frequencies are damped by the viscosity with a slope approaching -3. The rest of the spectrum is fairly flat in agreement with previous results for compressible 2D turbulent rotating flows. The low order mode m=1 has become dominant due to the inverse cascade of energy, characteristic of two-dimensional turbulence. The same spectrum of energy was observed for all the models. The model shown here is model 4.    

### 4.2 Finite perturbations and tidal effects

As we explained in the Introduction, it is expected that the epicyclic term will always act as a sink in the energy equation (see §4.3), thus causing the stresses to decay. It is important however to explore whether other effects could serve as sources of energy for the fluctuations. In principle at least, such sources could offset the effect of the epicyclic term, with a resultant growth instead of decay. One such potential source could be tidally induced spiral density waves (e.g. Frank, King & Raine 1999). We have therefore run a model in which a finite perturbation was applied to a disk containing a tidally induced wave. We found that the shock waves did not act as a source, rather, they removed energy from the fluctuations, causing a yet faster stabilization.

### 4.3 Artificial change of the epicyclic term

In order to further test the stabilizing effect of the epicyclic term (Balbus et al. 1996, eq.2.6b), we introduced the following artificial change of the epicyclic term in the angular momentum equations. In the angular momentum equation (eq.3), the second term on the left hand side can be written as:

$$\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}r\left(\frac{UW}{\rho }\right)=\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}r(\rho v_rv_\varphi ).$$
(5)   
We introduce a departure from the circular flow using the relation $`u_\varphi =v_\varphi r\mathrm{\Omega }`$ , and obtain

$$\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}r\left(\frac{UW}{\rho }\right)=\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}r(\rho v_ru_\varphi )+r\mathrm{\Omega }\frac{}{r}(\rho v_r)+\frac{}{r}(r^2\mathrm{\Omega })\frac{\rho v_r}{r}.$$
(6)   
The last term on the right hand side is the epicyclic ’sink’ term described in Balbus et al. (1996). Since in our simulations the disk is very nearly Keplerian, we can substitute $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{\Omega }_K`$ in the epicyclic term and obtain for the epicyclic term $`\frac{1}{2}\rho v_r\mathrm{\Omega }`$. In order to modify this term in the angular momentum equation (eq.3) we added on the right hand side a term of the form $`a\rho v_rr`$, where $`a`$ is a positive constant. The value $`a=0.5`$ corresponds to a precise cancellation of the (sink) epicyclic term. We found that while models with $`a0.5`$ were stable, even a slight increase in $`a`$ above $`0.5`$ (e.g. $`a=0.501`$) resulted in a violent instability already in one-dimensional models (used to construct the two-dimensional models). The result was similar to the one we obtained for Rayleigh unstable rotation laws (specific angular momentum not increasing outwards).   

The modification of the epicyclic term has no astrophysical meaning and it was introduced only to test the hypothesis that this term is in fact the sink term that stabilizes the flow.

### 4.4 Reflective inner boundary

We also performed additional tests of a phenomenon already found by Godon (1998). In the latter study, a transition to turbulence was obtained in the inner region of the disk, due to the development of a high-order mode of the Papaloizou-Pringle instability (Papaloizou & Pringle 1984) in the non-linear regime. The Papaloizou-Pringle instability develops in the inner region of the disk when the inner boundary is reflective (see also Gat & Livio 1992). In our current simulations, a transition to turbulence was observed when the viscosity in the disk was taken to be very low ($`\alpha 0.001`$), and the order of the unstable mode was very high ($`m20`$). The turbulent inner disk is shown in Figure 12. In this particular model the resolution is $`256\times 64`$.   

In realistic astrophysical configurations, a reflective inner boundary could be obtained (i) either at the inner edge of the disk where a sharp drop in the density in the boundary layer can reflect waves (e.g. Papaloizou & Stanley 1986), or (ii) at the outer layers of a white dwarf rotating near break up in Cataclysmic Variable systems (e.g. Narayan & Popham 1989), where evidence of a boundary layer is missing.

Figure 12: A grayscale of the density shows the development of turbulence in the inner region of a thin Keplerian disk. This non-linear instability is global, due to the inner reflective boundary.    

## 5 Discussion

Using a high-resolution, high-accuracy spectral method we have performed two-dimensional simulations of an entire accretion disk. The Keplerian (compressible) flow was subjected to a variety of finite-amplitude perturbations. Our simulations show that such purely hydrodynamic disturbances do not evolve into a self-sustained turbulence. We have shown that, for small perturbations, sheared disturbances develop, but they are unable to tap energy from the flow and they subsequently decay. Furthermore, we have shown that the presence of a tidal field does not enhance the turbulence but rather suppresses it. For large size and amplitude vorticity perturbations, coherent anticyclonic vortices form and merge together. However, here too the disturbance does not tap energy from the flow: the vorticity eventually decays and stretches due to the viscosity and shear (respectively). Similar results were obtained (Bracco et al. 1998, 1999) using the incompressible shallow water equations for the disk. In their models, Bracco et al. were limited to a polytropic index $`n=1`$, a constant density profile $`\rho `$, and most importantly the value of $`H/r`$ was not specified (Provenzale 1998, private communications). In the present work we provide a more realistic approach and confirm the results of Bracco et al. (1998, 1999). The relatively long-lived vortices may have some important consequences for the formation of giant planets in protoplanetary disks (Adams & Watkins 1995; Tanga et al. 1996; Godon & Livio 1999a) by allowing dust particles to rapidly concentrate in their core. However, they do not lead to turbulence and angular momentum transport. More details on the stability and lifetime of vortices can be found in Godon & Livio (1999a).   

We have also confirmed the fact that the epicyclic term in the energy equation, which acts as a sink, is the main cause for the stability of Keplerian disks. Our calculations have shown that the transfer of energy to the largest scale results in a (transient) dominance of the m=1 mode. This could have important consequences for short period oscillations of disks (Godon & Livio 1999b). Finally, we have shown that when an inner reflective boundary is assumed, the inner disk is globally non-linearly unstable to non-axisymmetric modes which can evolve towards turbulence (see also Godon 1998; and arguments by Brandenburg et al. 1995). While this is an interesting theoretical result, we do not think that this instability plays a role in global angular momentum transport in disks, since the turbulence is confined to the very inner disk. In addition, the relevance of an inner reflective boundary condition has been only partially justified in some systems.   
To conclude, while a definitive answer will have to await for full-scale three-dimensional calculations, our results strengthen the impression that purely hydrodynamical instabilities are probably not the source of angular momentum transport in accretion disks. MHD turbulence on the other hand not only transports angular momentum adequately, but also readily lends itself to the $`\alpha `$-disk formalism (Balbus & Papaloizou 1999).

## Acknowledgments

ML acknowledges support from NASA Grant NAG5-6857. This work was supported in part by the Director’s Discretionary Research Fund at Space Telescope Science Institute.

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