# References

UICHEP-TH/98-8, 

Coordinate Realizations of Deformed Lie Algebras with Three Generators

R. Dutt<sup>a,</sup><sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1rdutt@vbharat.ernet.in, A. Gangopadhyaya<sup>b,</sup><sup>2</sup><sup>2</sup>2agangop@luc.edu, asim@uic.edu, C. Rasinariu<sup>c,</sup><sup>3</sup><sup>3</sup>3costel@uic.edu and U. Sukhatme<sup>c,</sup><sup>4</sup><sup>4</sup>4sukhatme@uic.edu 

a) Department of Physics, Visva Bharati University, Santiniketan, India;   
b) Department of Physics, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, USA;   
c) Department of Physics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA.   

## Abstract

Differential realizations in coordinate space for deformed Lie algebras with three generators are obtained using bosonic creation and annihilation operators satisfying Heisenberg commutation relations. The unified treatment presented here contains as special cases all previously given coordinate realizations of $`so(2,1),so(3)`$ and their deformations. Applications to physical problems involving eigenvalue determination in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics are discussed.

1. Introduction:

Lie groups and their associated algebras are extensively used in the analysis of the symmetry properties of physical systems. For example, realizations of $`so(2,1)`$ have been used to obtain the eigenvalues of many quantum mechanical problems. Recent studies show that coordinate realizations of nonlinear Lie algebras may also be interesting in determining eigenspectra of certain physical problems in an algebraic approach . The main purpose of this paper is to set up a unified approach for obtaining differential realizations in one and two-dimensional coordinate space for nonlinear Lie algebras with three generators.

The deformed Lie algebras which we consider are described by

$$[J_3,J_+]=J_+,[J_3,J_{}]=J_{},[J_+,J_{}]=f(J_3).$$
(1)   
$`J_\pm J_1\pm iJ_2`$ are the well known raising and lowering operators. $`f(J_3)`$ is an arbitrary analytic function of the operator $`J_3`$. Note that the special choice $`f(J_3)=2J_3`$ corresponds to $`so(3)`$ and $`f(J_3)=2J_3`$ corresponds to $`so(2,1)`$. In terms of the Cartesian generators $`J_1,J_2,J_3`$, the commutation relations are

$$[J_1,J_2]=\frac{i}{2}f(J_3),[J_2,J_3]=iJ_1,[J_3,J_1]=iJ_2.$$
(2)   
The plan of this paper is as follows. In Sec. 2, we review some simple general properties of Lie algebras. In Sec. 3, we describe how to obtain realizations of eq. (1) in terms of bosonic creation and annihilation operators ($`a^{}`$ and $`a`$) satisfying Heisenberg commutation relations $`[a,a^{}]=1`$. Although we are using the conventional notation $`a`$ and $`a^{}`$ for these operators, they do not necessarily have to be Hermitian conjugates of each other. Appendix A contains a discussion of specific one-dimensional realizations of the Heisenberg algebra. In particular, it is shown that realizations involving derivatives higher than the first can all be reduced to first and zero order. Sec. 4 contains a description of one-dimensional coordinate realizations of the Lie algebra given in eq. (1). We show that our unified approach reproduces all previously known realizations in the literature . Two-dimensional coordinate realizations are described in Sec 5, along with some applications involving eigenvalue determination for some nonrelativistic quantum mechanical potentials.

2. Some Properties of the Lie Algebra:

For completeness and to establish notation, we describe some properties of Lie algebras. Some are well-known, but others are new.

(i) The function $`f(J_3)`$ characterizes the Lie algebra given in eq. (1). For subsequent work, it is convenient to define the function $`g(J_3)`$ as follows:

$$f(J_3)g(J_3)g(J_31).$$
(3)   
For example, for $`so(3)`$, $`f(J_3)=2J_3`$ and one gets $`g(J_3)=J_3(J_3+1)`$. It is easy to check that the function $`g(J_3)`$ is not unique - any periodic function of unit period can be added while maintaining eq. (3). Note that the Casimir operator for the Lie algebra of eq. (1)is given by

$$C=J_{}J_++g(J_3)=J_+J_{}+g(J_31).$$
(4)   
This observation is useful for many physical applications. For instance, we use it in Sec. 5 for eigenvalue determination.

(ii) The operators $`J_+`$ and $`J_{}`$ satisfy the important property

$$T(J_3)J_+=J_+T(J_3+1),T(J_3)J_{}=J_{}T(J_31)$$
(5)   
for any analytic function $`T(J_3)`$. This property is extensively used in obtaining realizations.

(iii) If operators $`J_+,J_{},J_3`$ satisfy the standard $`so(3)`$ Lie algebra, so do operators $`\stackrel{~}{J}_+,\stackrel{~}{J}_{},\stackrel{~}{J}_3`$ defined by $`\stackrel{~}{J}_m=_nM_{mn}J_n`$ provided the matrix M satisfies $`M^TM=1`$ and $`detM=+1`$. Note that the elements of the matrix M do not have to be real, but if they are, the matrix is orthogonal. This property is very useful in relating all the $`so(3)`$ realizations currently available in the literature.

(iv) Given operators $`J_1,J_2,J_3`$ which satisfy the $`so(3)`$ Lie algebra, one can find operators $`K_1,K_2,K_3`$ which satisfy a more general algebra

$$[K_1,K_2]=iq_3K_3,[K_2,K_3]=iq_1K_1,[K_3,K_1]=iq_2K_2,$$
(6)   
by choosing $`K_1=\sqrt{q_2q_3}J_1,K_2=\sqrt{q_3q_1}J_2,K_3=\sqrt{q_1q_2}J_3.`$ In particular $`K_1=iJ_1,K_2=iJ_2,K_3=J_3`$ is a realization of $`so(2,1)`$.

(v) Given operators $`J_+,J_{},J_3`$ which satisfy the standard $`so(3)`$ Lie algebra, one can find operators $`\stackrel{~}{J}_+,\stackrel{~}{J}_{},\stackrel{~}{J}_3`$ which satisfy the deformed algebra of eq. (1). These operators are given by

$$\stackrel{~}{J}_+=J_+A(J_3,C),\stackrel{~}{J}_{}=B(J_3,C)J_{},\stackrel{~}{J}_3=J_3,$$
(7)   
where $`C=J_{}J_++J_3(J_3+1)`$ is the Casimir operator of $`so(3)`$. The form of the operators in eq. (7) was chosen so that the two conditions $`[\stackrel{~}{J}_3,\stackrel{~}{J}_\pm ]=\pm \stackrel{~}{J}_\pm `$ are trivially satisfied. In order to satisfy the third condition $`[\stackrel{~}{J}_+,\stackrel{~}{J}_{}]=f(\stackrel{~}{J}_3)`$, one needs functions $`A(J_3,C),B(J_3,C)`$ which satisfy the following condition:

$$A(J_31,C)B(J_31,C)[CJ_3(J_31)]B(J_3,C)A(J_3,C)[C(J_3+1)J_3]=f(J_3).$$
(8)   
If $`A(J_3,C)`$ and $`B(J_3,C)`$ commute, this condition reduces to

$$H(J_3,C)[CJ_3(J_3+1)]=g(J_3)+p(J_3);H(J_3,C)A(J_3,C)B(J_3,C),$$
(9)   
where $`p(J_3)`$ is an arbitrary periodic function of period unity. It is important to realize that only the product $`H(J_3,C)`$ is fixed by the above constraint equation, but not the individual functions $`A(J_3,C)`$ and $`B(J_3,C)`$. Given eq. (7), it is sufficient to restrict our attention to realizations of $`so(3)`$ in order to obtain realizations of any deformed Lie algebra with three generators.

Note that for the special case of $`so(3)`$ itself, the choice $`p(J_3)=C`$ gives $`H(J_3,C)=1`$. The simplest choice of factors $`A(J_3,C)=B(J_3,C)=1`$ reproduces the initial $`so(3)`$ realization, whereas a more general choice $`B(J_3,C)=A^1(J_3,C)`$ yields a new realization. Furthermore, other choices of $`p(J_3)`$ give additional new realizations of $`so(3)`$. In particular, the choice $`p(J_3)=0`$ gives the realization

$$\stackrel{~}{J}_+=J_+\frac{J_3(J_3+1)}{CJ_3(J_3+1)},\stackrel{~}{J}_{}=J_{},\stackrel{~}{J}_3=J_3,$$

which differs from the original one only in one generator $`J_+`$. This freedom in choosing the periodic function $`p(J_3)`$ is analogous to gauge fixing in field theories.

An interesting nonlinear example using the above formalism comes from the choice $`g(J_3)=J_3^2(J_3+1)^2`$ and $`p(J_3)=C^2`$. This choice gives the realization

$$\stackrel{~}{J}_+=J_+[C+J_3(J_3+1)],\stackrel{~}{J}_{}=J_{},\stackrel{~}{J}_3=J_3,$$
(10)   
for the deformed Lie algebra corresponding to $`f(J_3)=4J_3^3`$.

3. Realizations of the Deformed Lie Algebra in Terms of Bosonic Operators:

In this section, we develop a procedure for obtaining realizations of the Lie algebra defined by eq. (1) in terms of bosonic creation and annihilation operators $`a^{}`$ and $`a`$ which obey the Heisenberg algebra commutator $`[a,a^{}]=1`$. The number operator is defined by $`Na^{}a`$. It follows that $`[N,a^{}]=a^{},[N,a]=a`$. More generally,

$$[N,a^m]=ma^m,[N,a^m]=ma^m,(m=0,\pm 1,\pm 2,\mathrm{}).$$
(11)   
To generate realizations of a deformed Lie algebra using the operators $`a^{},a,N`$, we choose the following ansatz:

$$J_+=PF(N),J_{}=G(N)Q,J_3=N+c,$$
(12)   
where $`c`$ is a constant. $`P`$ and $`Q`$ are functions of $`a`$ and $`a^{}`$ chosen to satisfy the property

$$[N,P]=P,[N,Q]=Q.$$
(13)   
Clearly, from eq. (11) and eq. (13), it follows that two possible choices for $`P(a,a^{})`$ are $`a^{}`$ and $`1/a`$ and two possible choices for $`Q(a,a^{})`$ are $`a`$ and $`1/a^{}`$. In fact, one can choose the linear combination

$$P=\alpha _1(N)a^{}+\alpha _2(N)\frac{1}{a},Q=\beta _1(N)a+\beta _2(N)\frac{1}{a^{}}.$$
(14)   
Using eq. (13), it is easy to show that $`PN^m=(N1)^mP,N^mQ=Q(N1)^m`$, so that one has the property $`PT(N)=T(N1)P,T(N)Q=QT(N1)`$ for any analytic function $`T(N)`$. Also, the dependence on $`a`$ and $`a^{}`$ of the products $`PQ`$ and $`QP`$ clearly comes only through the combination $`a^{}a=N`$.

Our ansatz of eq. (12) will satisfy the conditions of eq. (1) provided

$$F(N1)G(N1)PQG(N)F(N)QP=f(N+c).$$
(15)   
If $`F(N)`$ and $`G(N)`$ commute, and the above condition becomes

$$H(N1)PQH(N)QP=f(N+c),H(N)F(N)G(N).$$
(16)   
It only remains to determine $`H(N)`$ from eq. (16). As in Sec. 2, note again that the functions $`F(N)`$ and $`G(N)`$ do not appear separately but only appear as their product $`H(N)`$. Also, note that in Sec. 5, we will discuss a situation where $`F(N)`$ and $`G(N)`$ do not commute.

4. One-Dimensional Coordinate Realizations:

Here we consider one-dimensional coordinate realizations for $`a,a^{}`$ such that $`[a,a^{}]=1`$. Eqs. (12), (14) and (16) now immediately give a realization for the nonlinear algebra of eq. (1). As an example we consider the same deformed Lie algebra with $`f(J_3)=4J_3^3`$ as in Section 2. We make the simple choice $`P=a^{}=x,Q=a=d/dx,c=0`$ which gives $`PQ=N,QP=N+1,N=xd/dx`$. Eq. (16) now reads: $`H(N1)NH(N)(N+1)=4N^3`$ whose solution is $`H(N)=N^2(N+1)`$. Taking $`G(N)=1`$ our coordinate realization is:

$$J_+=x\left(x\frac{d}{dx}\right)^2\left(x\frac{d}{dx}+1\right),J_{}=\frac{d}{dx},J_3=x\frac{d}{dx}.$$
(17)   
General coordinate realizations of $`a,a^{}`$ are discussed in Appendix A. Any of these can be used to generate different one-dimensional realizations of deformed Lie algebras. Our formalism is very flexible since there is freedom in choosing $`a,a^{}`$ (Appendix A) and the operators $`P,Q`$ in eq. (14). Furthermore, once $`H(N)`$ has been determined from eq. (16), one has various choices for factorization into the functions $`F(N),G(N)`$ which appear in the final realization given in eq. (12). Our formalism contains as special cases all the coordinate realizations published in the literature. We shall now illustrate this statement for specific realizations discussed in  and .

Filho and Vaidya  have discussed physical applications based on the following representation of $`so(2,1)`$:

$$J_+=2\frac{d^2}{dy^2}\frac{2\alpha }{y^2},J_{}=\frac{y^2}{8},J_3=\frac{y}{2}\frac{d}{dy}\frac{1}{4},$$
(18)   
where $`\alpha `$ is an arbitrary constant. In order to obtain this realization as a special case of our formalism, we choose $`a,a^{}`$ by taking $`\theta =0,h(y)=1/y^2,r(y)=y^2/4`$ in eq. (25) in Appendix A. This gives

$$a=\frac{y^3}{2}\frac{d}{dy}\frac{y^2}{4},a^{}=\frac{1}{y^2},N=\frac{y}{2}\frac{d}{dy}\frac{1}{4}.$$

Furthermore, choosing $`P=a^{},Q=1/a^{}`$ in eq. (14), implies that the constraint (16) on $`H(N)`$ reads

$$H(N1)H(N)=2N.$$

The solution is $`H(N)=N(N+1)+\beta ,`$ where $`\beta `$ is an arbitrary constant. Choosing the factorization $`G(N)=1/8`$ and $`F(N)=8H(N)`$, eq. (12) with $`c=0`$ and $`\beta =(34\alpha )/16`$ after simplification gives the Filho-Vaidya realization of eq. (18).

Another example of a differential realization of the $`so(2,1)`$ algebra was given by Barut and Bornzin . Their expressions for the generators are:

$$T_1=\frac{1}{2}(\frac{y^{2n}}{n^2}p_y^2+\frac{\xi }{y^n}y^n),T_2=\frac{1}{n}(yp_yi\frac{n1}{2}),T_3=\frac{1}{2}(\frac{y^{2n}}{n^2}p_y^2+\frac{\xi }{y^n}+y^n).$$
(19)   
Here $`p_y=iy^1\frac{d}{dy}y`$, $`n`$ is an arbitrary positive integer and $`\xi `$ is an arbitrary constant. To make contact with our formalism, using (iii) from Section 2, we first rotate $`T_1,T_2,T_3`$ to the new operators $`J_1=iT_3,J_2=T_1,J_3=iT_2`$. This gives

$$J_+=iy^n,J_{}=i\left(\frac{y^{2n}}{n^2}\frac{d^2}{dy^2}+2\frac{y^{1n}}{n^2}\frac{\xi }{y^n}\right),J_3=\frac{y}{n}\frac{d}{dy}+\frac{n+1}{2n}.$$

Next, let us take $`\theta =0,h(y)=y^n`$ and $`r(y)=[n(2c1)1]/(ny^n)`$in eq. (25) of Appendix A. This implies

$$a=\frac{y^{1n}}{n}\frac{d}{dy}\frac{n(2c1)1}{2ny^n},a^{}=y^n,N=\frac{y}{n}\frac{d}{dy}+\frac{n+1}{2n}c.$$

Further, choosing $`\alpha _1=i,\beta _2=1`$ and $`\alpha _2=\beta _1=0`$ in eq. (14), we find a solution of eq. (16) of the form $`H(N)=b_2N^2+b_1N+b_0`$ with $`b_2=\frac{i}{\beta _2}`$, $`b_1=i\frac{2c+1}{\beta _2}`$ and $`b_0=\frac{i}{\beta _2}\left[(2c+1)^2/4\xi 1/(4n^2)\right]`$. Finally, the factorization $`H=FG`$ with $`F=1`$, concludes the proof that eqs. (19) are a particular case of our formalism. Note that the initial rotation of generators seems to be essential in getting the realizations of .

Similarly, our formalism also gives the one dimensional realizations described in refs.  and .

5. Two-Dimensional Coordinate Realizations:

In this section we will introduce realizations of $`so(2,1)`$ using two coordinates. In contrast to the one coordinate realizations, we now allow the functions $`F`$ and $`G`$ appearing in eq. (12) to be functions of $`N`$ as well as an internal coordinate $`x`$ and its derivative $`\frac{d}{dx}`$. It is important to observe that due to this generalization, the functions $`F`$ and $`G`$ no longer commute with each other, and as a result, equation (15) must be used.

To construct explicit realizations of $`so(2,1)`$, we choose $`P=a^{}=\mathrm{exp}(i\varphi )`$ and $`Q=\frac{1}{a^{}}=\mathrm{exp}(i\varphi )`$, i.e. $`\alpha _2=\beta _1=0`$ in eq. (14). The simplest choice of the operator $`a`$ which satisfies $`[a,a^{}]`$ is $`a=i\mathrm{exp}(i\varphi )\frac{}{\varphi }`$. This gives $`N=a^{}a=i\frac{}{\varphi }`$. As a simple example, we consider

$$F(N)=\left[\frac{}{x}+W(x,i\frac{}{\varphi })\right],G(N)=\left[\frac{}{x}+W(x,i\frac{}{\varphi })\right],$$
(20)   
where $`W`$ is a function to be determined. Substitution in eq. (15) yields

$$\left[W^2(x,i\frac{}{\varphi }1)\frac{dW(x,i\frac{}{\varphi }1)}{dx}\right]\left[W^2(x,i\frac{}{\varphi })+\frac{dW(x,i\frac{}{\varphi })}{dx}\right]=f\left(i\frac{}{\varphi }+c\right).$$
(21)   
The left hand side of this equation depends on $`x`$ while the right hand side does not. In order to get a two dimensional realization one needs a solution of eq. (21). In supersymmetric quantum mechanics, this equation is well known to be the shape invariance condition. Its solutions are shape invariant superpotentials . One solution is

$$W=i\frac{}{\varphi }\mathrm{tanh}x+B\mathrm{sech}x.$$
(22)   
In this case, an explicit calculation yields $`f(i\frac{}{\varphi }+c)=2(i\frac{}{\varphi })+1.`$ This implies that we are dealing with a deformed Lie algebra with $`f(J_3)=2J_3+2c+1.`$ For the choice $`c=1/2`$ this is the $`so(2,1)`$ algebra and its realization is:

$$J_+=e^{i\varphi }\left[\frac{}{x}i\frac{}{\varphi }\mathrm{tanh}x+B\mathrm{sech}x\right],J_{}=\left[\frac{}{x}i\frac{}{\varphi }\mathrm{tanh}x+B\mathrm{sech}x\right]e^{i\varphi },J_3=i\frac{}{\varphi }+\frac{1}{2}.$$

There are several other solutions possible  and they can be derived analytically using a point canonical transformation described in Ref. .

The above realizations have interesting applications. The operator $`J_+J_{}`$, is given by :

$$J_+J_{}=\left[\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+W^2(x,i\frac{}{\varphi }1)\frac{dW(x,i\frac{}{\varphi }1)}{dx}\right].$$

When acting on factorized basis functions $`e^{im\varphi }\psi (x)`$, one gets

$$J_+J_{}=\left[\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+W^2(x,m1)\frac{dW(x,m1)}{dx}\right],$$

which is recognized to be the standard Hamiltonian of supersymmetric quatum mechanics. For the choice of eq. (22) the result is

$$J_+J_{}=\left[\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+(m1)^2\left(B^2(m1)^2(m1)\right)\mathrm{sech}^2x+B(2(m1)+1)\mathrm{sech}x\mathrm{tanh}x\right],$$

which is just the Hamiltonian for the Scarf potential<sup>5</sup><sup>5</sup>5The Scarf Hamiltonian is described by a potential    
$$V_{}(x,a_0,B)=\left[B^2a_0(a_0+1)\right]\mathrm{sech}^2x+B(2a_0+1)\mathrm{sech}x\mathrm{tanh}x+a_0^2.$$
The eigenvalues of this system are given by     
$$E_n=a_0^2\left(a_0n\right)^2.$$
with $`m1`$ being one of the parameters. The Scarf potential is well known to be shape invariant, hence exactly solvable . We can also determine these eigenvalues using familiar algebraic methods of $`so(2,1)`$. The Casimir is $`CJ^2`$ and eq. (4) gives $`J_+J_{}=J_3^2J_3J^2`$. Since the eigenvalues of $`J^2,J_3`$ are $`j(j+1),m1/2`$ respectively, we find

$$E=\left(m\frac{1}{2}\right)^2\left(m\frac{1}{2}\right)j(j+1).$$

Now substituting $`j=nm+\frac{1}{2}`$  , one gets

$$E_n=(m1)^2(mn1)^2,n=0,1,2,\mathrm{}$$
(23)   
(Note that $`E_0=0`$ as expected from unbroken supersymmetric quantum mechanics.)

With a change of variable and appropriate similarity transformations of $`F(N)`$ and $`G(N)`$, we can relate all solvable potentials of Ref.  to $`J_+J_{}`$ of this algebra and hence derive information about their spectrum algebraically.

In this paper, differential realizations in coordinate space for nonlinearly deformed Lie algebras with three generators were obtained using bosonic creation and annihilation operators. We have presented a unified formalism that contains as special cases all previously given coordinate realizations of $`so(2,1),so(3)`$ and their deformations. Although we have focused on deformations of the type specified by equation (1), coordinate realizations for other types of deformations have also been recently studied .

A.G. and R.D. would also like to thank the Physics Department of the University of Illinois at Chicago for warm hospitality. Partial financial support from the U.S. Department of Energy and the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India (Grant No. SP/S2/K-27/94) is gratefully acknowledged.

Appendix A. Differential Realizations of $`a`$ and $`a^{}`$

In this Appendix, we discuss differential coordinate realizations of operators $`a`$ and $`a^{}`$ which satisfy the Heisenberg commutation relation $`[a,a^{}]=1`$. The simplest choice is

$$a=\frac{d}{dx},a^{}=x.$$
(24)   
As we shall see shortly, these operators are the basic building blocks for all other realizations, including those with higher order derivatives. Note that although the notation $`a`$ and $`a^{}`$ is being used, we are not requiring the two operators to be Hermitian conjugates of each other.

Given any two operators $`a(x,\frac{d}{dx})`$ and $`a^{}(x,\frac{d}{dx})`$ such that $`[a,a^{}]=1`$, several simple transformations can be used to generate new operators $`\stackrel{~}{a}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{a}^{}`$ which satisfy $`[\stackrel{~}{a},\stackrel{~}{a}^{}]=1`$. These transformations are:   
(i) Rotations in the $`(a,a^{})`$ plane:

$$\stackrel{~}{a}=a\mathrm{cos}\theta +a^{}\mathrm{sin}\theta ,\stackrel{~}{a}^{}=a\mathrm{sin}\theta +a^{}\mathrm{cos}\theta ;$$

(ii) Change of variables $`x=h(y)`$:

$$\stackrel{~}{a}(y,\frac{d}{dy})=a(h(y),\frac{1}{h^{}(y)}\frac{d}{dy}),\stackrel{~}{a}^{}(y,\frac{d}{dy})=a^{}(h(y),\frac{1}{h^{}(y)}\frac{d}{dy}),$$

where prime denotes the derivative with respect to $`y`$ ;   
(iii) Similarity transformations:

$$\stackrel{~}{a}=\varphi ^1(x)a\varphi (x),\stackrel{~}{a}^{}=\varphi ^1(x)a^{}\varphi (x);$$

(iv) Additions of arbitrary functions of the other operator:

$$\stackrel{~}{a}=a+\lambda (a^{}),\stackrel{~}{a}^{}=a^{};\stackrel{~}{a}=a,\stackrel{~}{a}^{}=a^{}+\mu (a).$$

Successive use of the first three transformations applied to eq. (24) yield

$$a=\frac{\mathrm{cos}\theta }{h^{}(y)}\frac{d}{dy}+\left(h(y)\mathrm{sin}\theta +r(y)\mathrm{cos}\theta \right),a^{}=\frac{\mathrm{sin}\theta }{h^{}(y)}\frac{d}{dy}+\left(h(y)\mathrm{cos}\theta r(y)\mathrm{sin}\theta \right),$$
(25)   
where $`h(y)`$ and $`r(y)`$ are arbitrary analytic functions of coordinate $`y`$. It is easy to check that these are the most general operators linear in $`\frac{d}{dy}`$ which satisfy $`[a,a^{}]=1`$.

A natural question to ask is whether one can construct differential coordinate realizations with second and higher order derivatives. This is in fact possible by starting with any first order realization \[say eq. (24) or eq. (25)\] and using transformation (iv) to generate higher order derivatives. For example, using eq. (24) and taking $`\mu (a)=a^2`$ in transformation (iv) gives the realization

$$\stackrel{~}{a}=\frac{d}{dx},\stackrel{~}{a}^{}=x+\frac{d^2}{dx^2}.$$

Although this procedure can be readily extended to get realizations of the Heisenberg algebra involving derivatives of any desired order, it must be kept in mind that only the realizations involving first order derivatives are fundamental.