# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

During the past twenty years, there has been a growing appreciation of the strong biases against finding galaxies of low surface brightness (Disney, 1976). These biases arise because the night sky is not particularly dark: because of the brightness of the sky background, the ability to detect a galaxy depends not only upon the integrated luminosity of the galaxy, but also upon the contrast with which the galaxy stands out above the Poisson fluctuations in the background. Thus our knowledge about the real galaxies population is incomplete: outside the Galaxy, the vast majority of informations about stellar population, kinematics, dark matter content, star formation and large scale clustering, have up to now been mostly obtained from high surface brightness galaxies (HSBGs) studies. The discovery and search of LSBGs constitutes, therefore, a fundamental enterprise in order to reach a better and more complete understanding of all these cosmological arguments.   
LSBGs have indeed a number of remarkable properties which distinguish them from the more familiar Hubble sequence of spirals (Impey $`\&`$ Bothun, 1997); the main ones are (1) LSBGs seem to constitute at least 50$`\%`$ of the total galaxy population in number and this has strong implications on the faint end slope of the luminosity function, on the baryonic matter density and expecially on galaxy formation scenarios; (2) LSBGs discs are among the less evolved objects in the local universe since they have very slow SFR; (3) LSBGs are embedded in dark matter halos which are of lower density and more extended than the haloes around HSBGs and are strongly dominated by dark matter at all radii.

## 2 Method

To search for galaxies with surface density flux close to the sky noise level requires first an image manipulation. Detection of LSBGs using standard algorithms which select connected pixels above a threshold on the original images fails, due to the low signal to noise ratio of these objects. Preliminar plate processing is indeed needed to obtain a final image where S/N ratio is enhanced.

The algorithm we developed for detecion of LSBGs, consists of different steps which can be summarized as follows:   
(1) filtering of large scale background fluctuations   
(2) removal of stars and standard astronomical objects   
(3) convolution of the cleaned image with ad hoc filters   
(4) classification of the candidate objects detected in the previuos step.   
A very important consideration for LSBGs detection is to ensure that the sky is as smooth as possible across each region of study. In order to achieve the required flatness we use a procedure which is part of the package SExtractor: the technique consists in creating a map of the background sky in which each pixel takes the mean value (the mode for crowded fields) of the pixels in the original frame in an $`n\times n`$ box surrounding the pixel in question. This map is then subtracted from the original data, producing a sky-subtracted image. It should be noticed that any object whose size is equal to or grater than the filter box size will be lost, or at least severely degraded. We chose a mesh size of $`128\times 128`$ pixels on DPOSS so to preserve objects having dimensions up to 2 arcmins.

Removal of bright stars and standard astronomical objects is a very important step to be done before performing convolutions: the image must be cleaned from objects that could simulate LSBGs when convolved with the filters.   
Removal is performed by replacing these objects with the local mean sky value taken with its noise. We use SExtractor to detect all the standard objects in the plate and select the ones to reject using a criterion based on dimension (isophotal area) and peak flux (surface isophotal flux weighted by peak flux), that clearly discriminates a stellar locus, a region of saturation and a region occupied by diffuse objects like galaxies. We then clean the objects and performe several convolutions of the cleaned image with purposely designed filters. We apply a combination of filters over different scales (as LSBGs have a wide range of possible scale lenght) and obtain a final significance image where every different scale is emphasized at the same time. We use this image as a map of positions of candidate LSBGs. The filters we implemented have a compensated exponential profile

After this procedure, in the significance map LSBGs’ have very high signal-to-noise ratio. However the sample of candidates obtained in this way is still contaminated. Subsequent discrimination between good candidates and spurious objects and classification is done by studying radial luminosity profiles, since LSBGs discs have mainly exponential profiles.

Computer simulations were used to determine the efficiency of the method and were performed in two different ways: first by using already known LSBGs and submerging them in a progressively growing sky noise; second by adding on the original images artificial LSBGs characterized by defined central surface brightness ($`\mu _{}`$) and scale lenght ($`\alpha `$). At present time, the classification efficiency is lower than the detection one, as the classification is performed on the original more noisier images and work is in progress to improve this aspect.

## 3 First results and advantages of the method

Data used in this work consist of photographic fields (75 square degrees analyzed until now) from DPOSS plates in three filters (photographic J,F,N).

In fig. 1 we report the regions covered by previous surveys (the three most important existing catalogues of LSBGs) as a function of the two structural parameters ($`\alpha `$,$`\mu _{}`$) compared with our results.

It is important to notice that one field we studied has already been analyzed in the first catalogue made by Schombert $`\&`$ Bothun (1988) and our algorithm finds the three known objects at high significance ($`15÷20`$ $`\sigma `$) plus 6 other new ones (fig. 2). Our procedure can therefore detect even smaller and fainter objects than those until now catalogued on plates (see the solid line representing the detection limit of the procedure obtained by simulations, in fig 1, and the lined regions). Other advantages of the method are that (1) it is almost completely automatized and can easily manage wide field imaging data, as well as repeatable and objective detection; (2) the dataset (POSS II) covers the entire northern sky in 3 filters (J,F,N) and this allow independent search in different filters (avoiding biases in colours) and the possibility to build a large catalog of LSBGs of known selection function, obtaining a significant statistical sample.