# Appendix A

## Appendix A

As a very simple example, we take, for the vector field $`V\beta (g)\frac{}{g}`$ in a one-dimensional action space (coordinate $`g`$), the first term of $`\beta (g)`$ in a $`g`$ expansion, say

$$\beta (g)=bg^2.$$

The exponential $`\mathrm{exp}\{t\underset{¯}{V}\}x`$ is defined by its Taylor expansion

$$\mathrm{exp}\{t\underset{¯}{V}\}=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(t\underset{¯}{V})^n\frac{1}{n!}$$

From

$$\underset{¯}{V}\underset{¯}{V}bg^2\frac{}{g}\left(bg^2\frac{}{g}\right)=2b^2g^3\frac{}{g}+b^2g^4\frac{^2}{g^2}$$

it is straightforward to deduce

$$\underset{n\text{factors}}{\underset{}{\underset{¯}{V}\underset{¯}{V}\mathrm{}\underset{¯}{V}}}=n!b^ng^{n+1}\frac{}{g}+O\left(\frac{^n}{g^n},n2\right).$$

Therefore

$$\overline{g}(t,g)=\mathrm{exp}\{t\underset{¯}{V}\}g=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}t^nb^ng^{n+1}=\frac{g}{1tbg},$$

a well-known result.

As an exercise, the reader can establish, according to the above, the approximate Bogoljubov-Shirkov relation in the next order for $`\overline{g}(t,g)`$ 

$$\overline{g}(t,g)=g[1b_1gt+\frac{b_2}{b_1}g\mathrm{log}(1b_1gt)]^1$$

by taking

$$\beta (g)=b_1g^2+b_2g^3.$$

A second exercise is to show that

$$\mathrm{exp}\{t\underset{¯}{V}\}g^n=\overline{g}^n(t,g)=\frac{g^n}{(1gbt)^n}$$

when the vector field $`\underset{¯}{V}=\beta (g)\frac{}{g}`$ is approximated by the first term in the $`g`$ expansion of $`\beta (g)`$ i.e. $`\beta (g)=bg^2`$, like in the first example.

Since $`S`$-matrix elements can be expanded in powers of $`g`$

$$S(p_i,g)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_n(p_i)g^n$$

it follows that

$$\mathrm{exp}\{t\underset{¯}{V}\}S(\mathrm{}g)=S(\mathrm{}\overline{g})$$

($`p_i`$ and the dots stand for arguments other than $`g`$ and independent of it. The case when other couplings, like $`g_i`$ and masses $`m_i`$ occur, goes outside the one-dimensional action space and $`\underset{¯}{V}`$ becomes $`V=V^\alpha \frac{}{x^\alpha }`$, the $`x^\alpha `$ being the coordinates in the enlarged action space, namely the $`g_i`$ and $`m_i`$ above.)

## Appendix B

The passage from a one-parameter case to the case with several parameters $`c_i`$ is far from trivial, although treated at length in the Textbook references, especially \[T.1\]–\[T.4\]. Sketching what happens, from an element $`g`$ depending on one parameter $`g(t)g(s)=g(s+t)`$ with $`g(t)=1+t\underset{¯}{V}`$ for $`t`$ infinitesimal one goes to

$$g(t_1,\mathrm{}t_i)=1+t_1\underset{¯}{V}_1+t_2\underset{¯}{V}_2+\mathrm{}t_i\underset{¯}{V}_i$$

with all $`t_i`$ infinitesimal. ($`i`$ generators $`\underset{¯}{V}_i`$)

The combination of two such elements $`g(t_1,\mathrm{}t_1)g(s_1,\mathrm{}s_i)`$ is given by the well-known Baker-Campbell-Hausdorf formula.

For the product to be also an element of the set, the condition $`[\underset{¯}{V}_i,\underset{¯}{V}_j]=c_{ij}^\kappa \underset{¯}{V}_\kappa `$ is necessary and sufficient. It was a condition explicitly formulated in  for a set of normalization conditions to form a group. For our concern, the $`g(t)`$ are connected with the flow $`\sigma _t()`$. Therefore the group property concerns the flows, as in the one-parameter case discussed in this paper.

The non-trivial aspect now is that we must distinguish between the left combination of $`g(t_i)`$ with $`g(s_i)`$ from the right combination. All this is treated in the mentioned textbooks and goes beyond the scope of the present modest account of vector fields.

Textbooks. Rigorous proofs lie beyond the scope of this paper. They can be found

* for mathematicians with a view on physics, for instance in Y. Choquet-Bruhet et al. \[T.1\], especially Chapter III, Sections A and B. Sections C and D offer a generalization to several-parameter Lie groups with vector fields $`V_i,i=1\mathrm{}n`$, as infinitesimal generators, n = dim Lie Algebra = dim G. For $`n=\mathrm{}`$, see Chapter VII, Section A.
* for mathematicians, in several treatises including this subject: for example K. Yano \[T.2\] Chapters I to VII included; S. Helgason \[T.3\], Chapters I and II (there our $`V`$ is denoted by $`X`$, and our $`\sigma _t`$ by $`\gamma (t)`$). Propositions 5.3 and theorem 6.1 of Chapter I are cornerstones to the rigorous proofs. Chapter II offers the generalization from one-parameter to several-parameter Lie group algebras (§1). See also S. Kobayashi and T. Nomizu \[T.4\].
* For physicists, in oversimplified compendiums of differential geometry, like, for instance some chapters of \[T.5\], with definitions of the concepts used here and some sketches of proofs. A valuable reading is also A. Visconti \[T.6\].

* Y. Choquet-Bruhat, C. De Witt-Morette and M. Dillard-Bleick, Analysis, Manifolds and Physics, (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1977 and subsequent editions, 1982 etc.).
* K. Yano, The theory of Lie derivatives and its applications, (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1957).
* S. Helgason, Differential geometry, Lie groups and Symmetric spaces, (Academic Press, New York, 1978).
* S. Kobayashi and K. Nomizu, Foundations of Differential Geometry, I, II (Wiley Interscience, New York, 1963).
* R. Bertlmann, Anomalies in Quantum Field Theory (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996).
* A. Visconti, Introductory differential geometry for physicists (World Scientific, Singapore, 1992).