# References

Mod. Phys. Lett. A 13(1998)33.

Quantum fluctuations of the angular momentum and energy of   
the ground state   
M.N. Sergeenko

The National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Institute of Physics,   
Minsk 220072, Belarus and   
Gomel State University, Gomel 246699, Belarus

## Abstract

Quasiclassical solution of the three-dimensional Schrödinger’s equation is given. The existence of nonzero minimal angular momentum $`M_0=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}`$ is shown, which corresponds to the quantum fluctuations of the angular momentum and contributes to the energy of the ground state.   
PACS number(s): 03.05.Ge, 03.65.Sq

One of the fundamental features of quantum mechanical systems is nonzero minimal energy which corresponds to zero oscillations. The corresponding wave function has no zeros in physical region. Typical example is the harmonic oscillator.

The eigenvalues of the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator are $`E_n=\mathrm{}\omega _0(n+\frac{1}{2})`$, i.e. the energy of zero oscillations $`E_0=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{}\omega _0`$. In three-dimensional case, in the Cartesian coordinates, the eigenvalues of the oscillator are $`E_n=\mathrm{}\omega _0(n_x+n_y+n_z+\frac{3}{2})`$ , i.e. each degree of freedom contributes to the energy of the ground state, $`E_0=E_{0,x}+E_{0,y}+E_{0,z}=`$ $`\frac{3}{2}\mathrm{}\omega _0`$.

Energy of the ground state should not depend on coordinate system. This means that, in the spherical coordinates, each degree of freedom (radial and angular) should contribute to the energy of zero oscillations. In many applications and physical models a nonzero minimal angular momentum $`M_0`$ is introduced (phenomenologically) in order to obtain physically meaningful result . However, the existence of $`M_0`$ follows from the quasiclassical solution of the three-dimensional Schrödinger’s equation.

Known exact methods to solve the Schrödinger’s equation are usually mathematical methods. However, together with quantum mechanics, the appropriate method to solve the Schrödinger equation has been developed; it is general for all types of problems in quantum mechanics, and its correct application results in the exact energy eigenvalues for all solvable potentials. This is the phase-space integral method which is also known as the WKB method .

The general form of the semiclassical description of quantum-mechanical systems has been considered in Ref. . It was shown that the semiclassical description resulting from Weyl’s association of operators to functions is identical with the quantum description and no information need to be lost in going from one to the another. What is more ”the semiclassical description is more general than quantum mechanical description…” . The semiclassical approach merely becomes a different representation of the same algebra as that of the quantum mechanical system, and then the expectation values, dispersions, and dynamics of both become identical.

The WKB method was originally proposed for obtaining approximate eigenvalues of one-dimensional and radial Schrödinger problems in the limiting case of large quantum numbers. Exactness of the method for the solvable potentials has been proved in many works . As for multi-dimensional problems, the quasiclassical method is even more efficient and predictive.

In the quasiclassical method, the classic quantities such as classic momentum, classic action, phase, etc. are used. The WKB quantization condition and WKB solution are writing via classic momentum. However, the generalized moments obtained from the separation of the three-dimensional Schrödinger equation are different from the corresponding classic moments.

The standard WKB method in leading order in $`\mathrm{}`$ always reproduces the exact spectrum for the solvable spherically symmetric potentials $`V(|\stackrel{}{r}|)`$ if the Langer correction $`l(l+1)(l+\frac{1}{2})^2`$  in the centrifugal term of the radial Schrödinger equation has fulfilled. The ground of this correction for the special case of the Coulomb potential was given by Langer ($`1937`$)  by means of reducing the Schrödinger equation to canonical form (without first derivatives).

However, the Langer replacement $`l(l+1)(l+\frac{1}{2})^2`$ is universal for any spherically symmetric potential and requires modification of the squared angular momentum. The Schrödinger’s equation for a spherically symmetric potential $`V(r)`$, in the representation of the wave function $`\psi (\stackrel{}{r})`$, assumes separation of variables \[$`\psi (\stackrel{}{r})=R(r)\mathrm{\Theta }(\theta )\mathrm{\Phi }(\phi )`$\]. After excluding the first derivatives, this equation can be written in the form of the classic equation

$`\mathrm{}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{R}_{rr}^{\prime \prime }}{\stackrel{~}{R}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}}\left(\mathrm{}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}_{\theta \theta }^{\prime \prime }}{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{4}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }}\left(\mathrm{}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_{\phi \phi }^{\prime \prime }}{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{4}}\right)=`$ (1)   
$`2m[EV(r)],`$   
where $`\stackrel{~}{R}(r)=rR(r)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}(\theta )=\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}(\theta )}\mathrm{\Theta }(\theta )`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(\phi )=\mathrm{\Phi }(\phi )`$. Separation of equation (1) results in the three second-order differential equations in canonical form:

$$\left(i\mathrm{}\frac{d}{dr}\right)^2\stackrel{~}{R}=\left[2m(EV)\frac{\stackrel{}{M}^2}{r^2}\right]\stackrel{~}{R},$$
(2)   
$$\left[\left(i\mathrm{}\frac{d}{d\theta }\right)^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}\right)^2\right]\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}(\theta )=\left(\stackrel{}{M}^2\frac{M_z^2}{\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }\right)\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}(\theta ),$$
(3)   
$$\left[\left(i\mathrm{}\frac{d}{d\phi }\right)^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}\right)^2\right]\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(\phi )=M_z^2\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(\phi ),$$
(4)   
where $`\stackrel{}{M}^2`$ and $`\stackrel{}{M}_z^2`$ are the constants of separation and, at the same time, integrals of motion. Equations (2)-(4) have the quantum-mechanical form $`\widehat{f}\psi =f\psi `$, where $`f`$ is the physical quantity and $`\widehat{f}`$ is the corresponding operator. Generalized moments in right-hand sides of Eqs. (2)-(4) should be used in the WKB quantization condition and WKB solution and solve the known problem of application of the WKB method to the three-dimensional Schrödinger’s equation<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1Quantities $`\mathrm{}^2\stackrel{~}{R}_{rr}^{\prime \prime }/\stackrel{~}{R}`$, $`\mathrm{}^2\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}_{\theta \theta }^{\prime \prime }/\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}`$, $`\mathrm{}^2\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_{\phi \phi }^{\prime \prime }/\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}`$ obtained after separation of equation (1) are usually considered as the squared moments which are used in the WKB quantization condition, that results in the known difficulties of the WKB method..

We solve each of them obtained after separation equation by the same method, i.e. the WKB method. For the projection of the angular momentum, from the quantization condition $`p(\phi )𝑑\phi =2\pi m\mathrm{}`$ (here $`p(\phi )=M_z`$), we have $`M_z=m\mathrm{}`$, $`m=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$. The squared angular momentum eigenvalues, $`\stackrel{}{M}^2`$, are defined from the WKB quantization condition ($`\theta _1`$ and $`\theta _2`$ are the classical turning points)

$$_{\theta _1}^{\theta _2}\sqrt{\stackrel{}{M}^2\frac{M_z^2}{\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }}𝑑\theta =\pi \mathrm{}\left(n_\theta +\frac{1}{2}\right),n_\theta =0,1,2,\mathrm{}$$
(5)   
Integration of (5) gives for $`\stackrel{}{M}^2`$,

$$\stackrel{}{M}^2=\left(l+\frac{1}{2}\right)^2\mathrm{}^2,l=|m|+n_\theta .$$
(6)   
Energy eigenvalues are defined from the condition

$$_{r_1}^{r_2}\sqrt{2m[EV(r)]\frac{\stackrel{}{M}^2}{r^2}}𝑑r=\pi \mathrm{}\left(n_r+\frac{1}{2}\right),n_r=0,1,2,\mathrm{},$$
(7)   
where $`r_1`$, $`r_2`$ are the classical turning points.

The WKB solution corresponding to the eigenvalues (6) has the correct asymptotic behavior at $`\theta 0`$ and $`\pi `$ for all values of $`l`$. In the representation of the wave function $`\psi (\stackrel{}{r})`$, $`\mathrm{\Theta }_l^m(\theta )=\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}^{WKB}(\theta )/\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}\theta }\theta ^{|m|}`$ which corresponds to the behavior of the exact wave function $`Y_{lm}(\theta ,\phi )`$ at $`\theta 0`$. The normalized quasiclassical solution \[far from the turning points, where $`p(\theta )(l+\frac{1}{2})\mathrm{}`$\] in the representation of the wave function $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }(\stackrel{}{r})=\stackrel{~}{R}(r)\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Theta }}(\theta )\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(\phi )`$ is written in elementary functions in the form of a standing wave,

$$\stackrel{~}{Y}_{lm}(\theta ,\phi )=\frac{1}{\pi }\sqrt{\frac{2l+1}{l|m|+\frac{1}{2}}}\mathrm{cos}\left[\left(l+\frac{1}{2}\right)\theta +\frac{\pi }{2}\left(l|m|\right)\right]e^{im\phi },$$
(8)   
where we have took into account that the phase-space integral in the classical turning point $`\theta _1`$, $`\chi (\theta _1)=\frac{\pi }{2}(n_\theta +\frac{1}{2})`$.

Consider now important consequences of the above solution. First of all note that Eq. (8) shows the existence of a nontrivial solution at $`l=0`$. Setting in (8) $`m=0`$, $`l=0`$ we obtain

$$\stackrel{~}{Y}_{00}(\theta ,\phi )=\frac{\sqrt{2}}{\pi }\mathrm{cos}\frac{\theta }{2}.$$
(9)   
Note, that the angular eigenfunction $`\stackrel{~}{Y}_{00}(\theta ,\phi )`$ of the ground state is symmetric and has the form of standing half-wave. The corresponding eigenvalue is

$$M_0=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}.$$
(10)   
The eigenvalue (10) contributes to the energy of zero oscillations. This means that (9) and (10) can be considered as solution which describes the quantum fluctuations of the angular momentum.

Quantization condition (7) results in the exact energy eigenvalues for all solvable spherically symmetric potentials in quantum mechanics. In particular, for the isotropic oscillator, we have $`E_n=\omega _0[2\mathrm{}(n^{}+\frac{1}{2})+M]`$. So far, as $`M=(l+\frac{1}{2})\mathrm{}`$, this results in the exact energy eigenvalues for the harmonic oscillator. For the energy of zero oscillations, $`E_0`$, we have $`E_0=\omega _0(\mathrm{}+M_0)`$ that apparently shows contribution of the quantum fluctuations of the angular momentum into the energy of the ground state $`E_0`$.

The Coulomb problem is another classic example. Quantization condition (7) again reproduces the exact result, $`E_n=\frac{1}{2}\alpha ^2m[(n_r+\frac{1}{2})\mathrm{}+M]^2`$. As in previous example, the quantum fluctuations of the angular momentum, $`M_0`$, contribute to the energy of the ground state, $`E_0=\frac{1}{2}\alpha ^2m(\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}+M_0)^2`$.

Third example, the Hulthén’s potential, is of a special interest in atomic and molecular physics. The radial problem for this potential is usually considered at $`l=0`$. However, the quasiclassical approach results in the nonzero centrifugal term at $`l=0`$ and allows to obtain the analytic result for this potential at any $`l`$.

The leading-order WKB quantization condition (7) for the Hulthén potential is

$$I=_{r_1}^{r_2}\sqrt{2m\left(E+V_0\frac{e^{r/r_0}}{1e^{r/r_0}}\right)\frac{\stackrel{}{M}^2}{r^2}}𝑑r=\pi \mathrm{}\left(n^{}+\frac{1}{2}\right).$$
(11)   
Calculation of this integral results in the energy spectrum 

$$E_n=\frac{1}{8mr_0^2}\left(\frac{2mV_0r_0^2}{N}N\right)^2,$$
(12)   
where $`N=(n_r+\frac{1}{2})\mathrm{}+M`$ denotes the principal quantum number. As in previous examples, this formula apparently shows the contribution of the quantum fluctuations of the angular momentum to the energy of the ground state $`E_0`$. Setting in (12) $`M=0`$, we arrive at the energy eigenvalues obtained from known exact solution of the Schrödinger equation at $`l=0`$. However, in our case $`M_{min}=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}`$ at $`l=0`$ and the principal quantum number is $`N=(n_r+\frac{1}{2})\mathrm{}+M_0`$.

Thus the quasiclassical method is the appropriate method to solve the 3-dimensional Schrödinger’s equation. The Langer correction has a deep physical origin as the correction to the squared angular momentum eigenvalues. It points out the existence of the integral of motion $`\stackrel{}{M}^2=(l+\frac{1}{2})^2\mathrm{}^2`$. The squared angular momentum eigenvalues $`\stackrel{}{M}^2`$ are the same for all spherically symmetric potentials and no further corrections are necessary.

The eigenfunctions far from turning points can be written in terms of elementary functions in the form of standing wave and can be treated as a special class of the exact solutions. The angular eigenfunction at $`l=0`$ is of the type of standing half-wave. This solution has treated as one which describes the quantum fluctuations of the angular momentum corresponding to the eigenvalue $`M_0=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}`$.