# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

In spite of the paradigmatic role that standard Friedman model has played in cosmology, astronomical observation is not sufficiently precise and rich to close definitely the question of what metric describes universe evolution . In fact, since the original Einstein static universe, many cosmological models have been proposed along the years , each one of them in accordance with some particular aspect of observation.

An important aspect of universe evolution, from both theoretical and observational points of view, is the global rotation, present in the literature since the pioneer works of Gamow  and Gödel , the latter presenting a stationary solution for Einstein equations of gravitation. Evidences of cosmological rotation have been reported -, but always being object of controversy. Another difficulty is related to the fact “that it is impossible to combine pure rotation and expansion in a solution of the general relativity field equations for a simple physical matter source” .

In this paper we discuss a new scenario for universe evolution, in which the universe observed nowadays, described by a Friedman open metric, is originated from a primordial Gödel’s universe, through a phase transition during which the negative cosmological constant, characteristic of Gödel’s solution, vanishes. The possibility of such a scenario is suggested by a mathematical similarity between the Friedman open metric and Gödel’s one, when we consider nearby distances.

This scenario is in accordance with our paradigm of an expanding homogeneous universe and, in addition, it solves some problems of the standard model, as, for example, the presence of the initial singularity. In fact, using as input the Hubble constant and the observed matter density, we show that the radius and density of the primordial Gödel’s universe are close to the present values, while the time of expansion coincides with the age of universe in the standard Friedman model.

As a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum during the Gödel-Friedman phase transition, we show that the primordial global rotation can naturally explain the origin of rotation of galaxies and clusters, a hypothesis corroborated by the observed dipole anisotropy in the distribution of the rotation axes of galaxies and, even quantitatively, by the empirical relation between masses and spins of multi-stellar objects.

Of course, this model should be seen only as a possible scenario, among many others, for universe evolution. Within the spirit referred in the first paragraph, our goal is only to provide an additional theoretical alternative to understand the observational data we have in hand.

## 2 The Gödel-Friedman universe

In spherical coordinates ($`r=sh\chi `$, $`\theta `$, $`\varphi `$, $`\eta `$), the open metric of Friedman is given by 

$$ds_F^2=a^2(\eta )[d\eta ^2d\chi ^2sh^2\chi (d\theta ^2+sin^2\theta d\varphi ^2)]$$
(1)   
while the Gödel one, written in cylindrical coordinates ($`\rho =sh\xi `$, $`y`$, $`\varphi `$, $`\eta `$), has the form 

$$ds_G^2=a^2[d\eta ^2d\xi ^2dy^2+(sh^4\xi sh^2\xi )d\varphi ^2+2\sqrt{2}sh^2\xi d\varphi d\eta ]$$
(2)   
For nearby distances, $`\xi 1`$, and we have

$$ds_G^2a^2[d\eta ^2d\xi ^2dy^2sh^2\xi d\varphi ^2+2\sqrt{2}sh^2\xi d\varphi d\eta ]$$
(3)   
From the transformations

$$\rho =rsin\theta $$
(4)   
$$y=rcos\theta $$
(5)   
relating spherical and cylindrical coordinates, it follows

$$sh\xi =sh\chi sin\theta $$
(6)   
$$y=sh\chi cos\theta $$
(7)   
By differentiation we have

$$d\xi =\frac{1}{ch\xi }(sh\chi cos\theta d\theta +ch\chi sin\theta d\chi )$$
(8)   
$$dy=sh\chi sin\theta d\theta +ch\chi cos\theta d\chi $$
(9)   
So, by using

$$\frac{1}{ch^2\xi }=\frac{1}{1+sh^2\xi }1sh^2\xi =1sh^2\chi sin^2\theta $$
(10)   
we obtain

$$dy^2+d\xi ^2sh^2\chi d\theta ^2+d\chi ^2$$
(11)   
Substituting (6) and (11) into (3), one obtains

$$ds_G^2a^2[d\eta ^2d\chi ^2sh^2\chi (d\theta ^2+sin^2\theta d\varphi ^2)+2\sqrt{2}sh^2\chi sin^2\theta d\varphi d\eta ]$$
(12)   
Comparing (1) and (12), we see that, unless for the non-diagonal term, they are formally equal. This identification leads us to conjecture the following possible model for universe’s evolution: $`ds^2=ds_G^2`$ for $`\eta <\eta _0`$; $`ds^2=ds_F^2`$ for $`\eta \eta _0`$ and $`\xi 1`$.

Initially, we have a Gödel universe, described by metric (2) or, for nearby distances, by metric (12). At $`\eta =\eta _0`$ a phase transition occurs, and the cosmological constant vanishes. Now, the metric is non-stationary and, for nearby distances, it coincides with the open metric of Friedman. In the next section, we shall see that this match can be performed in such a way that the scale parameter $`a(\eta )`$ changes continuously.

Though in principle we could find different ways to explain the phase transition from Gödel’s universe to the Friedman one, a plausible mechanism is provided if the cosmological constant is identified with the energy density of a scalar field $`\varphi `$, with a self-interaction potential given, for instance, by 

$$V(\varphi )=a\varphi ^2b\varphi ^3+c\varphi ^4$$
(13)   
with $`a,b,c>0`$.

It is easy to verify that, for $`b>2\sqrt{ac}`$, this potential presents a local minimum at $`\varphi =0`$, for which $`V(\varphi )=0`$, and an absolute minimum at

$$\varphi =\frac{3b}{8c}\left[1+\left(1\frac{32ac}{9b^2}\right)^{1/2}\right]$$
(14)   
for which $`V(\varphi )`$ has a negative value.

Therefore, the desired phase transition can be achieved, for instance, by a tunneling of the scalar field from the absolute minimum, for which the potential (13) (and then the cosmological constant) has a negative value – as should be in Gödel’s model – to the local minimum, for which the potential vanishes, leading to a null cosmological constant – as expected in the standard Friedman model. In section 6 we will return to this point, particularly in what concerns the probability of such a transition.

## 3 Numerical predictions

For $`\eta \eta _0`$, the open model predicts 

$$a(\eta )=a_0(ch\eta 1)$$
(15)   
$$t(\eta )=\frac{a_0}{c}(sh\eta \eta )$$
(16)   
$$\rho a^3(\eta )=\frac{3c^2}{4\pi k}a_0$$
(17)   
where $`a_0`$ is a constant, $`\rho `$ is the matter density, $`k`$ is the gravitational constant and we have introduced the light velocity $`c`$.

From (15) and (17), it follows

$$a=a_0(ch\eta _01)=\frac{4\pi k\rho _G}{3c^2}a^3(ch\eta _01)$$
(18)   
which, by using the Gödel radius  $`a^2=c^2(2\pi k\rho _G)^1`$, leads to $`ch\eta _0=5/2`$, or $`\eta _0=1.6`$, whatever the values of $`a`$ and $`\rho _G`$, the matter density in the Gödel phase.

Equations (15)-(17) give

$$ch\left(\frac{\eta }{2}\right)=H_0\left(\frac{3}{8\pi k\rho }\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}$$
(19)   
$$a(\eta )=\frac{c}{H_0}coth\left(\frac{\eta }{2}\right)$$
(20)   
$$t(\eta )=\frac{1}{H_0}\left[\frac{coth(\eta /2)(sh\eta \eta )}{ch\eta 1}\right]$$
(21)   
where $`H_0\dot{a}(\eta )/a^2(\eta )=h\times 100`$ km/(sMpc) is the Hubble constant. Using $`h=0.75`$, $`k=6.7\times 10^{11}`$ m<sup>3</sup>/kg.s<sup>2</sup> and $`\rho =1.0\times 10^{27}`$ kg/m<sup>3</sup> ($`\mathrm{\Omega }=0.1`$), we have, for the present values of $`\eta `$, $`a(\eta )`$ and $`t(\eta )`$, the values $`\eta =3.7`$, $`a(\eta )=1.3\times 10^{26}`$m and $`t(\eta )=3.8\times 10^{17}`$s.

Now, from (15) we obtain

$$a(\eta )=a\left(\frac{ch\eta 1}{ch\eta _01}\right)$$
(22)   
which gives $`a=1.1\times 10^{25}`$m.

Moreover, (16) leads to

$$t(\eta _0)=t(\eta )\left(\frac{sh\eta _0\eta _0}{sh\eta \eta }\right)$$
(23)   
i.e., to a time of expansion given by $`\mathrm{\Delta }tt(\eta )t(\eta _0)=3.6\times 10^{17}`$s.

For the open model, (17) gives $`\rho a^3(\eta )=\text{constant}`$. Therefore, $`\rho a^3(\eta )=\rho _Ga^3`$, which leads to $`\rho _G=1.7\times 10^{24}`$kg/m<sup>3</sup>.

Finally, this last result leads us to an angular velocity for Gödel’s primordial universe given by  $`\omega _G=2(\pi k\rho _G)^{1/2}=3.8\times 10^{17}`$s<sup>-1</sup>.

Therefore, by using only two observed parameters as input, namely the values for the Hubble constant and for the present matter density, we conclude that the values for Gödel’s radius and density are close to the present values, and that the time of expansion coincides with the age of universe in the standard model.

It is important to verify how sensitive these results are respect to the used value for the matter density of the present universe. If we use, instead of $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0.1`$, the value $`\rho =1.0\times 10^{28}`$kg/m<sup>3</sup> ($`\mathrm{\Omega }=0.01`$), it is easy to obtain from the above formulae the results $`\eta =6.0`$, $`a(\eta )=1.3\times 10^{26}`$m, $`a=1.0\times 10^{24}`$m, $`t(\eta )=3.2\times 10^{17}`$s, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=3.2\times 10^{17}`$s, $`\rho _G=2.2\times 10^{22}`$kg/m<sup>3</sup> and $`\omega _G=4.3\times 10^{16}`$s<sup>-1</sup>.

## 4 A possible origin for galaxies rotation

An important problem related to the Gödel-Friedman phase transition is the conservation of angular momentum: the Friedman model is isotropic, while in Gödel’s one matter everywhere rotates relative to local gyroscopes. Now, we will see that the conservation of angular momentum in the context of the Gödel-Friedman phase transition leads naturally to a possible explanation for the origin of rotation of galaxies and clusters. For this purpose, we shall adapt to our context a reasoning originally made by L. Li  to describe galaxies formation in a rotating and expanding universe.

Let us consider, in the primordial Gödel’s universe, a proto-galaxy with mass $`M`$, radius $`r`$ and density $`\rho _G`$, rotating with angular velocity $`\omega _G`$ with respect to a local inertial frame (a gyroscope frame). Assuming for this proto-galaxy a spherically symmetric distribution of matter, its angular momentum relative to the gyroscope frame will be given by $`J=2Mr^2\omega _G/5`$, which can be rewritten, using $`M=4\pi r^3\rho _G/3`$, as

$$J=\frac{2}{5}\left(\frac{3}{4\pi \rho _G}\right)^{2/3}\omega _GM^{5/3}$$
(24)   
On the other hand, with respect to a galaxy frame whose origin is fixed at the proto-galaxy center, the proto-galaxy angular momentum is zero because, by definition, the galaxy frame co-rotates with the global rotation.

After the phase transition from Gödel’s universe to the Friedman one, the galaxy frame does not rotate anymore with respect to gyroscope ones, and the galaxy angular momentum relative to it will be given, due to the conservation of angular momentum, by (24).

In this way, besides providing a possible origin for galaxies rotation, the Gödel-Friedman phase transition leads to a relation between angular momentum and mass of multi-stellar objects corroborated by observational data. In fact, the masses and spins of spiral galaxies, globular clusters and clusters of galaxies (including the Local Supercluster)<sup>2</sup><sup>2</sup>2See Table I of . can be fitted by the relation $`J=\kappa M^{5/3}`$, with $`\kappa 6.2\times 10^2`$ (SI units)<sup>3</sup><sup>3</sup>3If we use the relation $`J=\kappa M^n`$, with $`n`$ free, the fitting gives $`n1.69`$ (while $`5/31.67`$) and $`\kappa 0.48\times 10^2`$ (SI units), in accordance with the value referred by Li ..

A theoretical value for $`\kappa `$ can be predicted from (24), but it will depend on $`\rho _G`$ and $`\omega _G`$, i.e., on the value of the present matter density used as input. For $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0.1`$ we have $`\kappa 4.1\times 10^2`$ and for $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0.01`$ we obtain $`\kappa 1.8\times 10^2`$ (SI units).

If this picture for the origin of galaxies angular momentum is correct, an alignment of galaxies angular momenta along the direction of global rotation of the primordial Gödel’s universe would be expected. This prediction was already supported in the literature by the discovery of a dipole anisotropy in the distribution of the rotation axes of galaxies , but, as pointed out by Li, an irregular shape of the proto-galaxies can lead, after the phase transition, to an almost random distribution .

## 5 The global metric

What happens for large distances after the phase transition? To answer this question, let us write the Gödel metric in the form

$$ds_G^2=a^2\{[d\eta +\mathrm{\Lambda }sh^2(\xi /2)d\varphi ]^2(d\xi ^2+dy^2+sh^2\xi d\varphi ^2)\}$$
(25)   
with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=2\sqrt{2}`$. The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-term originates the non-diagonal one in the nearby approximation (12), what suggests that the global metric arising from the phase transition should be given by the non-stationary, anisotropic metric

$$ds^2=a^2(\eta )[d\eta ^2(d\xi ^2+dy^2+sh^2\xi d\varphi ^2)]$$
(26)   
This metric (which reduces to the Friedman open metric for nearby distances) is solution of Einstein equations of gravitation, with $`\rho <\rho _c`$, where $`\rho _c=3H_0^2/8\pi k`$ is the critical density at the moment of observation. From it, instead of relations (15)-(17), we can obtain the following ones

$$a(\eta )=a_0\left[ch\left(\frac{\eta }{\sqrt{3}}\right)1\right]$$
(27)   
$$t(\eta )=\frac{\sqrt{3}a_0}{c}\left[sh\left(\frac{\eta }{\sqrt{3}}\right)\frac{\eta }{\sqrt{3}}\right]$$
(28)   
$$\rho a^3(\eta )=\frac{c^2}{4\pi k}a_0$$
(29)   
From them, it is easy to re-obtain the numerical predictions of section $`3`$. For $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0.1`$, we obtain $`\eta _0=3.1`$ (actually this value does not depends on $`\rho `$), $`\eta =6.6`$, $`a(\eta )=0.7\times 10^{26}`$m, $`a=6.2\times 10^{24}`$m, $`t(\eta )=3.5\times 10^{17}`$s, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=3.3\times 10^{17}`$s, $`\rho _G=1.4\times 10^{24}`$kg/m<sup>3</sup> and $`\omega _G=3.4\times 10^{17}`$s<sup>-1</sup>. Besides, for the parameter $`\kappa `$ introduced in section $`4`$, we obtain the value $`\kappa =4.2\times 10^2`$ (SI units). On the other hand, for $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0.01`$, we have $`\eta =10.5`$, $`a(\eta )=0.7\times 10^{26}`$m, $`a=6.5\times 10^{23}`$m, $`t(\eta )=4.0\times 10^{17}`$s, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=4.0\times 10^{17}`$s, $`\rho _G=1.3\times 10^{22}`$kg/m<sup>3</sup>, $`\omega _G=3.3\times 10^{16}`$s<sup>-1</sup> and $`\kappa =2.0\times 10^2`$ (SI units).

## 6 Concluding remarks

We have seen that the mathematical similarity between the Friedman open metric and Gödel’s one in the limit of nearby distances suggests conjecturing about a new cosmological scenario for universe’s evolution, where the nowadays expanding universe is originated from a primordial Gödel’s one. Besides providing a possible origin for the rotation of galaxies, such a cosmology solves some problems of the standard Friedman model, as the presence of an initial singularity and problems related to the age of universe: before the Gödel-Friedman phase transition, universe could have existed for a long time…

Of course, there remain several open questions. How to explain hot universe phenomena, e.g. the cosmic microwave background radiation or the nucleosynthesis, in the context of a cosmological scenario where no dense phase exists? Despite the possibility of explaining those phenomena without reference to a hot phase , this question should be elucidated in order to put this model in a more physical basis.

Another point which deserves better understanding is the mechanism of phase transition. What is the probability of tunneling for the scalar field? Is there inflation or the production of bubbles and topological defects? Must the cosmological constant be exactly zero after the phase transition?

Actually, it is possible that all these problems are related, and that a more detailed study of the phase transition mechanism could shed light on problems like the origin of the cosmic microwave background.

As discussed in section 2, a possible scenario for the phase transition is provided by a tunneling of the scalar field from the absolute minimum of potential (13) to the local one. This kind of transition may be very improbable, but it is precisely this fact that turns this scenario an interesting one. Before the phase transition, we have a Gödel, stationary universe, where no cosmological time can be defined. During the phase transition, we have a huge fluctuation with decrease of entropy of the matter content, after which the universe starts expanding and the cosmological time arrow coincides with the thermodynamic one. Despite to be much improbable, this scenario is not forbidden by any physical law, and the anthropic principle could be used to justify it.

Another possibility is to consider (13) as an effective, temperature dependent potential. In this case, the phase transition can be caused by a change in the potential itself, due to possible thermal processes in the primordial phase. Such kind of transition of potential (13) was already investigated in the scenario of QCD deconfinement .

In any case, a detailed study of the phase transition should provide us a continuous match between the Gödel metric and the Friedman one, instead of the discontinuous match considered in this paper, that could turn the model richer in several aspects. A continuous transition from the absolute minimum of (13) to its local minimum necessarily crosses its local, positive maximum, from which the potential rolls down to zero. This means that in the latest phase of the transition a huge amount of energy should be released, perhaps followed by an inflation process, and that a reminiscent, positive cosmological constant could exist nowadays, as suggested by recent observations . Besides, the necessity of a finite interval of time for the transition to occur can lead to a primordial phase more dense than the one obtained in this work.

Its also important to investigate the role of closed time-like curves, characteristic of the Gödel universe, in the process of phase transition. Though we are considering, in the Gödel phase, only gravitational interaction between dust matter, the appearance of CTC s can occur during the phase transition itself, where a self-interacting scalar field enters into play. In any case, note that the eventual appearance of CTCs does not affect the match considered in section 2, where only nearby distances are considered. However, their presence can be important when considering large ones, as done in section 5.

Finally, we would like to refer to the relation between this model and the ideas concerning the similarity between the universe and elementary particles . If such similarity has a true physical significance, we could say that the Gödel-Friedman model describes a decaying universe. In this context, the Dirac hypothesis  about the dependence of physical quantities, as the gravitational constant, on the cosmological time is not necessary anymore: the similarity should be found between particles (the electron, in the Dirac original conjecture, or hadrons, in more recent ones) and the primordial Gödel’s universe. In fact, using the values obtained for $`a`$, $`\rho _G`$ and $`\omega _G`$ and typical values for the radius $`r`$, mass $`m`$ and spin $`\mathrm{}`$ of a particle, one can check the relations $`a/r(M/m)^{1/2}(J/\mathrm{})^{1/3}10^{40}`$, where $`M\rho _Ga^3`$ and $`JM\omega _Ga^2`$ are, respectively, the mass and angular momentum of the primordial universe.

## Acknowledgements

I would like to thank P.F. González-Díaz and A. Saa for the encouragement, R. Muradian, E. Radu and A.E. Santana for useful discussions, and N. Andion for the reading of the manuscript.