# Kochen-Specker theorem and experimental test on hidden variablesTo appear in Int. J. Mod. Phys. A.

## I The Kochen-Specker theorem

The Kochen-Specker (KS) theorem  contains one of the most fundamental findings in quantum mechanics (QM): Yes-no questions about an individual physical system cannot be assigned a unique answer in such a way that the result of measuring any mutually commuting subset of these yes-no questions can be interpreted as revealing these preexisting answers. To be precise, the KS theorem asserts that, in a Hilbert space with a finite dimension, $`d3`$, it is possible to construct a set of $`n`$ projection operators, which represent yes-no questions about an individual physical system, so that none of the $`2^n`$ possible sets of “yes” or “no” answers is compatible with the sum rule of QM for orthogonal resolutions of the identity (i.e., if the sum of a subset of mutually orthogonal projection operators is the identity, one and only one of the corresponding answers ought to be “yes”). This conclusion holds irrespective of the quantum state of the system. Implicit in the KS theorem is the assumption of noncontextuality: Each yes-no question is assigned a single unique answer, independent of which subset of mutually commuting projection operators one might consider it with. Therefore, the KS theorem discards hidden-variable theories with this property, known as noncontextual hidden-variable (NCHV) theories. Local hidden-variable theories, such as those discarded by Bell’s theorem , are a particular type of NCHV theories, so in this sense, the KS theorem is more general than Bell’s theorem. However, while Bell’s theorem has been successfully tested in the laboratory , the translation of any proof of the KS theorem into an experiment on an individual system seems to be an impossible task. This is so because the $`n`$ projection operators appearing in a proof of the KS theorem can be combined in $`t`$ different orthogonal resolutions of the identity, and each of them represents a maximal test which is incompatible with the other $`t1`$ maximal tests. However, we have recently presented an experiment which seems to challenge the idea that the KS theorem cannot be tested in the laboratory: A test on an individual system of a two-part two-state system (prepared in whatever quantum state) exists for which the predictions of any NCHV theory always differ with those of QM .

This test would be related somehow with some of the proofs of the KS theorem. The smallest proof of the KS theorem currently known contains eighteen projection operators (yes-no questions) which can be combined in nine resolutions of the identity (maximal tests) of a four-dimensional Hilbert space, $`_4`$ . Both results,  and , concern to physical systems described in $`_4`$, and it would be interesting to establish which is the connection between them . That is precisely the aim of this paper.

## II The proof with 18 vectors

The proof of the KS theorem with eighteen projection operators in $`_4`$ is given in Table I .

| $`1000`$ | $`1111`$ | $`1111`$ | $`1000`$ | $`1001`$ | $`1001`$ | $`111\overline{1}`$ | $`111\overline{1}`$ | $`100\overline{1}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`0100`$ | $`11\overline{1}\overline{1}`$ | $`1\overline{1}1\overline{1}`$ | $`0010`$ | $`0100`$ | $`1\overline{1}1\overline{1}`$ | $`1\overline{1}00`$ | $`0101`$ | $`0110`$ |
| $`0011`$ | $`1\overline{1}00`$ | $`10\overline{1}0`$ | $`0101`$ | $`0010`$ | $`11\overline{1}\overline{1}`$ | $`0011`$ | $`10\overline{1}0`$ | $`11\overline{1}1`$ |
| $`001\overline{1}`$ | $`001\overline{1}`$ | $`010\overline{1}`$ | $`010\overline{1}`$ | $`100\overline{1}`$ | $`0110`$ | $`11\overline{1}1`$ | $`1\overline{1}11`$ | $`1\overline{1}11`$ |

TABLE I: Proof of the Kochen-Specker theorem in $`_4`$.   

Table I contains eighteen vectors combined in nine columns. Each vector represents the projection operator onto the corresponding normalized vector. For instance, $`001\overline{1}`$ represents the projector onto the vector $`{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}(0,0,1,1)`$. Each column contains four mutually orthogonal vectors, so that the corresponding projectors sum the identity in $`_4`$. Therefore, in a NCHV theory, each column must have assigned the answer “yes” to one and only one vector. But it is easily seen that such an assignment is impossible since each vector in Table I appears twice, so that the total number of “yes” answers must be an even number.

If we examine this proof without noticing which particular physical system it refers to, all we see is that each projector in Table I is orthogonal to other seven projectors and belongs to two distinct resolutions of the identity. In this sense, all involved projectors and resolutions of the identity play the same role in the proof. This absence of privileged yes-no questions or tests is also characteristic of every proof of the KS theorem in $`_3`$ .

However, in $`_4`$ this situation of apparent symmetry changes if $`_4`$ can be viewed as a product of two tensor factors, $`_2_2`$, corresponding to some subsystems of the physical system. Examples of systems in which such a decomposition is physically meaningful (in a sense that will be specified in Sec. III) are two-part two-level systems such as two spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ particles without translational motion, the polarization state of two photons, or two internal levels of a pair of trapped ions. Examples of systems in which such a decomposition is mathematically possible but will not have the same physical meaning mentioned above are the spin state of a single spin-$`\frac{3}{2}`$ particle or two different two-level degrees of freedom in a single ion.

In the following I will suppose that $`_4`$ represents the spin state of two spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ particles. Then the translation from the proof in Table I into a proof in $`_2_2`$ can be easily achieved by realizing that the eighteen vectors in Table I are eigenvectors of some products of the usual representation of the Pauli matrices $`\sigma _z`$ and $`\sigma _x`$ for the spin state of spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ particles. Then Table I can be rewritten as Table II.

| $`zz`$ | $`xx`$ | $`xx`$ | $`zz`$ | $`zzxx`$ | $`zzxx`$ | $`zxxz`$ | $`zxxz`$ | $`zz\overline{xx}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`z\overline{z}`$ | $`\overline{x}x`$ | $`x\overline{x}`$ | $`\overline{z}z`$ | $`z\overline{z}`$ | $`x\overline{x}`$ | $`z\overline{x}`$ | $`x\overline{z}`$ | $`\overline{zz}xx`$ |
| $`\overline{z}x`$ | $`z\overline{x}`$ | $`\overline{x}z`$ | $`x\overline{z}`$ | $`\overline{z}z`$ | $`\overline{x}x`$ | $`\overline{z}x`$ | $`\overline{x}z`$ | $`zx\overline{xz}`$ |
| $`\overline{z}\overline{x}`$ | $`\overline{z}\overline{x}`$ | $`\overline{x}\overline{z}`$ | $`\overline{x}\overline{z}`$ | $`zz\overline{xx}`$ | $`\overline{zz}xx`$ | $`zx\overline{xz}`$ | $`\overline{zx}xz`$ | $`\overline{zx}xz`$ |

TABLE II: Proof of the Kochen-Specker theorem in $`_2_2`$.   

The notation of Table II is the following: $`z\overline{x}`$ represents the yes-no question “are the spin component of first particle positive in the $`z`$ direction and the spin component of second particle negative in the $`x`$ direction?”, and $`\overline{zx}xz`$ denotes the yes-no question “are the products $`zx:=\sigma _{1z}\sigma _{2x}`$ and $`xz:=\sigma _{1x}\sigma _{2z}`$ negative and positive respectively?”, etc. The first is an example of a factorizable yes-no question, since it can be answered after separate tests on the first and second particles. The latter is an example of an entangled yes-no question, since it cannot be answered after separate tests on both particles. Therefore, in Table II there are two types of yes-no questions and, consequently, three types of maximal tests: those involving factorizable yes-no questions only, such as those in columns 1 to 4; those involving both factorizable and entangled yes-no questions, such as those in columns 4 to 8; and those involving entangled yes-no questions only, such as the one in the ninth column. Taking into account this new hierarchy of experiments, the relevant elements of the proof of the KS theorem in $`_2_2`$ can be illustrated as in Fig. 1.

FIG. 1: Hierarchy of tests in the proof of the Kochen-Specker theorem in $`_2_2`$. Each dot represents a yes-no question. The upper and the lower dots both represent the same yes-no question, and the far left and the far right dots both represent another yes-no question. Dots in the same straight line or in the same circumference represent mutually compatible yes-no questions, and therefore each straight line and circumference represents a maximal test. Each straight line belonging to the square represents a test containing only factorizable yes-no questions. The other straight lines represent tests containing both factorizable and entangled yes-no questions. The circumference represents a test containing only entangled yes-no questions.   

In the next section I will show that the algebraic contradiction contained in this proof of the KS theorem in $`_2_2`$ is of a different kind to that of those appearing in the proofs of the KS theorem in $`_3`$. While in $`_3`$ there are no conflicting predictions between QM and NCHV theories for any of the single tests appearing in the proofs (basically because NCHV theories do not make specific predictions apart from those of QM), in $`_2_2`$ NCHV theories can make specific predictions for single tests that may disagree with those of QM.

## III Noncontextual hidden-variable theories

A NCHV theory must satisfy the following assumptions:

(i) Any one-particle observable must have a definite value. This is not in contradiction with QM since the Kochen-Specker theorem is not valid for $`_2`$. In fact, in $`_2`$ specific NCHV models exist reproducing all statistical predictions of QM . This is one of the reasons why the decomposition of $`_4`$ into $`_2_2`$ makes more physical sense in some systems than in others. For our purposes we will assume that the observables $`z_1:=\sigma _{1z}`$, $`x_1:=\sigma _{1x}`$, $`z_2:=\sigma _{2z}`$, and $`x_2:=\sigma _{2x}`$ must have predefined values, either $`+1`$ or $`1`$ (that will be denoted simply by “$`+`$” or “$``$”). Therefore, there are 16 possible distinct states (in a NCHV theory), corresponding to the different combinations of possible values for these four one-particle observables.

(ii) The value of a two-particle observable which is a product of two one-particle observables corresponding to different particles, such as $`z_1z_2:=\sigma _{1z}\sigma _{2z}`$, $`x_1x_2:=\sigma _{1x}\sigma _{2x}`$, $`z_1x_2:=\sigma _{1z}\sigma _{2x}`$, and $`x_1z_2:=\sigma _{1x}\sigma _{2z}`$, is the product of values of the corresponding one-particle observables. This assumption is a consequence of the general assumption of noncontextuality. Consider, for instance, the obsevable $`zz`$. One particular way of measuring $`zz`$ is by measuring $`z_1`$ and $`z_2`$ separately and multiplying their results. The independece of the results of the separated measurements is garanteed (if such measurements are spacelike separated) by the highest form of noncontextuality: locality (so this the second reason why the decomposition of $`_4`$ into $`_2_2`$ makes more physical sense in some systems than in others). Then the definition of noncontextuality entails that the value for $`zz`$ must be the same whatever the experimental context one might choose .

(iii) The answer to a yes-no question is logically related with the values of the involved observables. For instance, the answer to the question $`zz\overline{xx}`$ is “yes” if $`z_1=z_2`$ and $`x_1=x_2`$, and “no” in any other case.

Let us now examine the predictions of a NCHV theory for the nine tests. Table III contains all possible values for one-particle and two-particle observables involved in the proof.

| one-particle | | | | two-particle | | | | two-particle | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| observables | | | | observables | | | | yes-no questions | | | |
| $`z_1`$ | $`x_1`$ | $`z_2`$ | $`x_2`$ | $`z_1z_2`$ | $`x_1x_2`$ | $`z_1x_2`$ | $`x_1z_2`$ | $`zz\overline{xx}`$ | $`\overline{zz}xx`$ | $`zx\overline{xz}`$ | $`\overline{zx}xz`$ |
| $`\pm `$ | $`\pm `$ | $`\pm `$ | $`\pm `$ | $`+`$ | $`+`$ | $`+`$ | $`+`$ | no | no | no | no |
| $`\pm `$ | $`\pm `$ | $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $`+`$ | $``$ | $``$ | $`+`$ | yes | no | no | yes |
| $`\pm `$ | $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $`+`$ | $`+`$ | $``$ | no | yes | yes | no |
| $`\pm `$ | $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | no | no | no | no |
| $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $`\pm `$ | $`\pm `$ | $`+`$ | $``$ | $`+`$ | $``$ | yes | no | yes | no |
| $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $`+`$ | $`+`$ | $``$ | $``$ | no | no | no | no |
| $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $``$ | $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $``$ | $`+`$ | $`+`$ | no | no | no | no |
| $`\pm `$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $`+`$ | $``$ | $`+`$ | no | yes | no | yes |

TABLE III: Possible values in a NCHV theory for the observables and yes-no questions involved in the ninth test of the KS theorem in $`_2_2`$.   

As can easily be seen studying Table III:

(a) For each of the four tests involving only factorizable yes-no questions (columns 1 to 4 in Table II) NCHV theories predict that one and only one of the answers must be “yes”. The same prediction as in QM. Note that if, instead of $`z`$ and $`x`$, we choose any other spin component, then the predictions of both QM and NCHV theories will still agree.

(b) For each of the four tests involving factorizable and entangled yes-no questions (columns 5 to 8 in Table II) NCHV theories also predict that one and only one of the answers must be “yes”. As QM does. Note that the choice of spin components $`z`$ and $`x`$ allows the corresponding two-particle observables to have a common eigenvalue so the corresponding yes-no question can be represented in QM by a projection operator.

(c) Finally, consider the last test, involving only entangled yes-no questions (column 9 in Table II). If one checks Table III, one reaches the conclusion that in a NCHV theory the four yes-no questions appearing in column 9 in Table II are not mutually exclusive (since the answers to two of them can be “yes”) nor not exhaustive (since the answers to all of them can be “no”). The quantum prediction is radically different. In QM, these four yes-no questions (or, to be precise, their corresponding projectors) form an orthogonal resolution of the identity, so they represent mutually exclusive and exhaustive questions: the answers must be one “yes” and three “no”.

## IV Conclusion and further developments

In brief, the predictions of QM and NCHV agree for the first eight tests of the eighteen vector’s proof of the KS theorem in $`_2_2`$, but disagree for the ninth test. This clarifies the relationship between this proof, originally proposed in , and the test on NCHV theories proposed in .

A joint measurement on a single system of the four projection operators appearing in the ninth test is closely related  to the problem of performing a measurement of a nondegenerate Bell operator . Such a measurement is also required for reliable (i.e., with 100% theoretical probability of success) double density quantum coding  and for reliable teleportation . It has recently been proved  that a measurement of a nondegenerate Bell operator cannot be achieved without using quantum systems interacting one with the other, a condition which is not fulfilled in recent experiments , but which could be achieved with atoms and electro-magnetic cavities  in near-future experiments.   

## Aknowledgments

This paper is the response to a question raised by Lucien Hardy after a talk at Oxford University in May 1998. I would like to thank Mark S. Child and Gonzalo García de Polavieja for inviting me to give that talk. I also acknowledge useful conversations on this subject with Ignacio Cirac, David Mermin, Guillermo García Alcaine, Asher Peres, and Emilio Santos, and stimulating comments by Helle Bechmann Pasquinucci, Sibasish Ghosh, Gebhard Grübl, and R. L. Schafir. This work was financially supported by the Universidad de Sevilla (OGICYT-191-97) and the Junta de Andalucía (FQM-239).