# From the magnetic-field-driven transitions to the zero-field transition in two-dimensions

For more than a decade it was widely accepted that two-dimensional electrons are insulating at zero temperature and at zero magnetic-field . Experimentally it was demonstrated  that, when placed in a strong perpendicular magnetic field, the insulating phase turns into a quantum-Hall state. While this transition was in accordance with existing theoretical models , the density driven metal-insulator transition at zero magnetic-field, recently observed in high-quality two-dimensional systems , was unforeseen and, despite considerable amount of effort, its origins are still unknown . In order to improve our understanding of the zero magnetic-field transition, we conducted a study of the insulator to quantum-Hall transition in low-density, two-dimensional, hole system in GaAs that exhibits the zero magnetic-field metal-insulator transition . We found that, in the low field insulating phase, upon increasing the carrier density towards the metal-insulator transition, the critical magnetic-field of the insulator to quantum-Hall transition decreases and converges to the zero magnetic-field metal-insulator transition. This implies a common origin for both the finite magnetic-field and the zero magnetic-field transitions.   

In Fig. 1a we plot the resistivity ($`\rho `$) of one of our samples as a function of magnetic-field ($`B`$) at several temperatures, with the hole-density ($`p`$) held fixed . At $`B=0`$ the system is insulating as indicated by a rapidly increasing $`\rho `$ as the temperature ($`T`$) approaches zero. The insulating behavior is maintained for $`B<B_c^L`$. For $`B>B_c^L`$, a quantum-Hall (QH) state ($`\nu =1`$, where $`\nu `$ is the Landau-level filling factor) is observed with $`\rho `$ tending to zero upon lowering of $`T`$. We identify $`B_c^L`$, the point where the temperature coefficient of resistivity (TCR) changes its sign, with the critical point of the insulator-to-QH transition . At still higher $`B`$, beyond the $`\nu =1`$ QH state, the system turns insulating and a second $`T`$-independent transition point is seen at $`B_c^H`$. $`B_c^H`$ therefore marks the critical $`B`$ of the QH-to-insulator transition . Following the path set by earlier studies  we focus, for now, on the low-$`B`$ transition and follow, in Figs. 1b-1e, the evolution of the critical point $`B_c^L`$ as we increase $`p`$.   

Data obtained from the same sample at successive increases of the density are shown in Figs. 1b-1e. As in Fig. 1a, the insulator-to-QH transition point is evident in Fig 1b, but the transition point “moves” to a lower $`B`$. This trend continues in Fig. 1c until finally, in Fig. 1d, the crossing point disappears. Along with this shift in $`B_c^L`$, we notice in Figs. 1a-1c, that the insulating behavior at $`B=0`$ becomes weaker until, in Fig. 1d, $`\rho `$ at $`B=0`$ is $`T`$-independent. In the next graph, Fig. 1e, the system has crossed over into its metallic phase and no transition, or $`T`$-independent point, is seen implying that the density of Fig. 1d ($`p=1.3410^{10}`$ cm<sup>-2</sup>) is the critical density of the metal-insulator transition (MIT) at $`B=0`$. This $`B=0`$ transition is the MIT in two dimensions (2D) first reported by Kravchenko *et al.* for Si samples . Our main result can now be stated: Upon increasing $`p`$, $`B_c^L`$ gradually tends to lower $`B`$’s, eventually converging to the $`B`$=0 MIT which, for this sample, takes place at $`p=1.3410^{10}`$ cm<sup>-2</sup>.   

To complement our $`p`$-dependence study of the $`B`$-driven transitions we will next focus on the effect of a perpendicular $`B`$ on the $`p`$-driven transition. Our new starting point is the more conventional experimental demonstration of the $`B=0`$ MIT in 2D. In Fig. 2a we plot $`\rho `$ as a function of $`p`$ at several $`T`$’s and at $`B`$=0. A $`T`$-independent crossing point is seen here as well (at $`p_c=1.3410^{10}`$ cm<sup>-2</sup>), marking the transition from insulating behavior for $`p<p_c`$ to metallic behavior for $`p>p_c`$. We then repeat, in Figs. 2b-2e, the measurement of Fig. 2a at different values of $`B`$. In Figs. 2b and 2c, $`p_c`$ shifts to a lower value, a trend which reverses for $`B0.35`$T (Figs. 2d-2e). This trend reversal of $`p_c(B)`$ is accompanied by the development of non-monotonic dependence of $`\rho `$ on $`p`$, which is a precursor to the quantum Hall effect (QHE). We now combine these $`p_c(B)`$ results with the $`B_c(p)`$ of Fig. 1, to plot a comprehensive phase diagram of our system in the $`Bp`$ plane.   

The phase diagram obtained from our data is shown in Fig. 3, where we plot the $`B`$ and $`p`$ coordinates of each one of the transitions. Separate symbols are given to $`B_c^L`$ and $`B_c^H`$, defined in Fig. 1, and to $`p_c`$ from Fig. 2. Several points emerge from inspecting the resulting phase diagram. First, we note that the results obtained from the two data sets (fixed $`p`$ and fixed $`B`$ measurements) are mutually consistent. Second, for fixed $`p`$’s between $`0.88`$ and $`1.3310^{10}`$ cm<sup>-2</sup> the low-$`B`$ insulating phase first turns metallic and then reappears at high $`B`$. This reentrant nature of the insulating phase is clearly reflected in the $`B`$ traces of Figs. 1a-1c. And third, the low $`B`$ region of the phase boundary reiterates the main result of our work and clearly depicts the continuous evolution of the transition from high-$`B`$ to the $`B`$=0 MIT. The relation between the transition at finite $`B`$ and the MIT transition at $`B`$=0, suggests that similar processes govern the transport for both transitions .   

Fig. 3 also includes the high-$`B`$ side of the phase diagram ($`B_c^H`$). In fact, the low and high $`B`$ regimes are smoothly connected to form a single phase-boundary line. It is common practice to describe the finite-$`B`$ transitions in the language of quantum phase transitions . If we assume that the phase-boundary line of Fig. 3 comprises a set of quantum critical points, it is possible that universal features should be observed in its vicinity. To test this proposition we examine the value of $`\rho `$ at the transition points, $`\rho _c`$. In Fig. 4a we plot $`\rho _c`$ of our transitions as a function of $`B`$. Overall, $`\rho _c`$ is not constant, its value changing by almost a factor of 4 over our $`B`$ range. However, at very low as well as very high $`B`$, $`\rho _c`$ approaches a value close to $`h/e^2`$, the quantum unit of resistance. Although for our sample, at $`B`$=0, $`\rho _c`$ is close to $`h/e^2`$ we wish to point out that the value of $`\rho _c`$ at $`B`$=0 obtained from other samples varies by an order of magnitude, between 0.4 and 4$`h/e^2`$ .   

So far we have shown that $`B_c^L`$, $`B_c^H`$ and $`p_c`$ define a common phase boundary line in the $`Bp`$ plane, and that at the intermediate $`B`$ range along this phase boundary $`\rho _c`$ significantly deviates from $`h/e^2`$, its value near $`B`$=0 and at high-$`B`$. It is instructive to consider the dependence of $`\rho _c`$ on $`p`$, rather than on $`B`$. In Figs. 1a-1c we can readily see the general trend: $`\rho _c`$ of the low and high-$`B`$ transitions at fixed $`p`$ are very close to each other. To test this result for our entire range of $`p`$ we plot, in Fig. 4b, $`\rho _c`$ versus $`p`$ obtained from our data. We see that the two transitions have collapsed onto a single curve for our entire range of $`p`$. This result demonstrates that for a given carrier-density $`\rho _c`$ of the low and high-$`B`$ transitions is the same. This supports the notion of symmetry between these transitions .   

A possible relation between different transitions in 2D systems was noted by Jiang *et al.*  who pointed out the similarities between the insulator-to-QH and the insulator-to-superconductor transitions. Theoretical basis for such similarity was introduced in ref. . In our work we found a relation between the finite $`B`$ insulator-to-QH transition and the metal-insulator transition at $`B`$=0. Since both transitions are measured in the same 2D system, we were able to continuously transform one to the other. This raises the possibility that both transitions share a common physical origin.   

Methods

The sample used in this study is a $`p`$-type, inverted semiconductor insulator semiconductor (ISIS) sample  grown on (311)A GaAs substrate  with Si as a $`p`$-type dopant. In an ISIS device the carriers are accumulated in an undoped GaAs layer lying on top of an undoped AlAs barrier, grown over a $`p^+`$ conducting layer. This $`p^+`$ conducting layer is separately contacted and serves as a back-gate. The hole carrier-density ($`p`$) is varied by applying voltage ($`V_g`$) to the back-gate. The sample was wet-etched to the shape of a standard Hall-bar and the measurements were done in a dilution refrigerator with a base $`T`$ of $`57`$ mK, using AC lock-in technique with an excitation current of $`1`$ nA flowing in the \[01$`\overline{1}`$\] direction.   

Acknowledgments.

The authors wish to thank Efrat Shinshoni, M. Hilke and Amir Yacoby for very interesting discussions. This work was supported by the NSF, the BSF and by a grant from the Israeli Ministry of Science and The Arts.