# The quantum cosmology debate

## Introduction

In quantum cosmology the whole universe is treated quantum-mechanically and is described by a wave function rather than by a classical space-time. This quantum approach to cosmology may help us avoid the cosmological singularity problem and understand what determined the initial state of the universe.

The wave function of the universe $`\psi `$ satisfies the Wheeler-DeWitt equation

$$\psi =0$$
(1)   
which is analogous to the Schrodinger equation in ordinary quantum mechanics. To solve this equation, one has to specify some boundary conditions for $`\psi `$. In quantum mechanics, the boundary conditions are determined by the physical setup external to the system. But since there is nothing external to the universe, it appears that boundary conditions for the wave function of the universe should be postulated as an independent physical law. The possible form of this law has been debated for some 15 years and is one of the central points of our debate here.

There are at least three proposals on the table: the Hartle-Hawking wave function HH , the Linde wave function L1 , and the tunneling wave function V84 ; V86 . In this talk I will first review the tunneling wave function. Then, since this is supposed to be a debate, I will attack my opponents. And finally, I will comment on the recent work on quantum creation of open universes.

## The tunneling wave function

To introduce the tunneling wave function, let us consider a very simple model of a closed Robertson-Walker universe filled with a vacuum of constant energy density $`\rho _v`$ and some radiation. The total energy density of the universe is given by

$$\rho =\rho _v+ϵ/a^4,$$
(2)   
where $`a`$ is the scale factor and $`ϵ`$ is a constant characterizing the amount of radiation. The evolution equation for $`a`$ can be written as

$$p^2+a^2a^4/a_0^2=ϵ.$$
(3)   
Here, $`p=a\dot{a}`$ is the momentum conjugate to $`a`$ and $`a_0=(3/4)\rho _v^{1/2}`$.

Eq.(3) is identical to that for a “particle” of energy $`ϵ`$ moving in a potential $`U(a)=a^2a^4/a_0^2`$. For sufficiently small $`ϵ`$, there are two types of classical trajectories. The universe can start at $`a=0`$, expand to a maximum radius $`a_1`$ and then recollapse. Alternatively, it can contract from infinite size, bounce at a minimum radius $`a_2`$ and then re-expand (see Fig. 1). But in quantum cosmology there is yet another possibility. Instead of recollapsing, the universe can tunnel through the potential barrier to the regime of unbounded expansion. The semiclassical tunneling probability can be estimated as

$$𝒫\mathrm{exp}\left(2_{a_1}^{a_2}|p(a)|𝑑a\right).$$
(4)   
It is interesting that this probability does not vanish in the limit of $`ϵ0`$, when there is no radiation and the size of the initial universe shrinks to zero. We then have tunneling from nothing to a closed universe of a finite radius $`a_0`$; the corresponding probability is

$$𝒫\mathrm{exp}\left(2_0^{a_0}|p(a)|𝑑a\right)=\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{3}{8\rho _v}\right).$$
(5)   
The tunneling approach to quantum cosmology assumes that our universe originated in a tunneling event of this kind. Once it nucleates, the universe immediately begins a de Sitter inflationary expansion.

The Wheeler-DeWitt equation for our simple model can be obtained by replacing the momentum $`p`$ in (3) by a differential operator, $`pid/da`$,

$$\left(\frac{d^2}{da^2}a^2+\frac{a^4}{a_0^2}\right)\psi (a)=0.$$
(6)   
This equation has outgoing and ingoing wave solutions corresponding to expanding and contracting universes in the classically allowed range $`a>a_0`$ and exponentially growing and decaying solutions in the classically forbidden range $`0<a<a_0`$. The boundary condition that selects the tunneling wave function requires that $`\psi `$ should include only an outgouing wave at $`a\mathrm{}`$ (see Fig.2). The under-barrier wave function is then a linear combination of the growing and decaying solutions. The two solutions have comparable magnitudes near the classical turning point, $`a=a_0`$, but the decaying solution dominates in the rest of the under-barrier region.

In a more realistic model, the constant vacuum energy density $`\rho _v`$ is replaced by the potential $`V(\varphi )`$ of some scalar field $`\varphi `$. If $`V(\varphi )`$ is a sufficiently slowly-varying function of $`\varphi `$, one finds the same result as before, with the replacement $`\rho _vV(\varphi )`$,

$$𝒫\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{3}{8V(\varphi )}\right).$$
(7)   
Eq.(7) can be interpreted as the probability distribution for the initial values of $`\varphi `$ in the ensemble of nucleated universes. The highest probability is obtained for the largest values of $`V(\varphi )`$ (and smallest initial size $`a_0`$). Thus, the tunneling wave function ‘predicts’ that the universe is most likely to nucleate with the largest possible vacuum energy. This is just the right initial condition for inflation.

In the general case, the wave function of the universe is defined on superspace, which is the space of all 3-dimensional geometries and matter field configurations, $`\psi [g_{ij}(𝐱),\varphi (𝐱)]`$, where $`g_{ij}`$ is the 3-metric, and matter fields are represented by a single field $`\varphi `$. The tunneling boundary condition can be extended to full superspace by requiring that $`\psi `$ should include only outgoing waves at the boundary of superspace, except the part of the boundary corresponding to vanishing 3-geometries.

Alternatively, the tunneling wave function can be defined as a path integral

$$\psi _T(g,\varphi )=_{\mathrm{}}^{(g,\varphi )}e^{iS},$$
(8)   
where the integration is over paths interpolating between a vanishing 3-geometry $`\mathrm{}`$ (‘nothing’) and $`(g,\varphi )`$. In other words, the integration is over compact Lorentzian geometries bounded by the 3-geometry $`g`$ with the field configuration $`\varphi `$.

At present these general definitions of the tunneling wave function remain largely formal since we do not know how to solve the Wheeler-DeWitt equation or how to calculate the path integral (8), except for simple models and small perturbations about them.

## The Hartle-Hawking wave function

The Hartle-Hawking wave function is expressed as a path integral over compact Euclidean grometries bounded by a given 3-geometry $`g`$,

$$\psi _{HH}(g,\varphi )=^{(g,\varphi )}e^{S_E}.$$
(9)   
The Euclidean rotation of the time axis, $`ti\tau `$, is often used in quantum field theory because it improves the convergence of the path integrals. However, in quantum gravity the situation is the opposite. The gravitational part of the Euclidean action $`S_E`$ is unbounded from below, and the integral (9) is badly divergent. One can hope that the problem will somehow be fixed in the future theory of quantum gravity, but at present we cannot meaningfully define an integral such as (9).

In practice, one assumes that the dominant contribution to the path integral is given by the stationary points of the action (the instantons) and evaluates $`\psi _{HH}`$ simply as $`\psi _{HH}e^{S_E}`$. For our simple model, $`S_E3/8V(\varphi )`$ and

$$𝒫\mathrm{exp}\left(+\frac{3}{8V(\varphi )}\right).$$
(10)   
The wave function $`\psi _{HH}(a)`$ for this model is shown in Fig.3. It has only the growing solution under the barrier and a superposition of ingoing and outgoing waves with equal amplitudes in the classically allowed region. This wave function appears to describe a contracting and re-expanding universe.

The distribution (10) is similar to Eq.(7) for the tunneling wave function, but there is a crucial difference in sign. The distribution (10) is peaked at the smallest values of $`V(\varphi )`$, and thus the Hartle-Hawking wave function tends to predict initial conditions that disfavor inflation.

In fairness, one has to admit that this objection is not fatal. Without inflation, a tiny nucleated universe will never reach a macroscopic size and will not evolve any living creatures, so there will be nobody there to observe it. If universes are predominantly of this kind, then most of them will never be observed. The right question to ask, then, is not what a typical universe looks like, but what a typical observer will see M . The larger the universe is, the more stars it contains, the more civilizations are likely to develop. If we are a typical civilization, then we can expect to live in a large and populous universe characterized by a large amount of inflation M ; LGB ; Page . Moreover, in many models inflation is eternal to the future, provided that the initial value of $`V(\varphi )`$ is sufficiently large V83 ; L2 . An eternally inflating universe produces an infinite number of observers, and thus we expect to find ourselves in such a universe with a 100% probability, even if the probability of its nucleation is very low.

## The Linde wave function

Linde suggested that the wave function of the universe is given by a Euclidean path integral like (9), but with the Euclidean time rotation performed in the opposite sense, $`t+i\tau `$, yielding

$$\psi _L=^{(g,\varphi )}e^{+S_E}.$$
(11)   
For our simple model, this wave function gives the same nucleation probability (7) as the tunneling wave function.

The problem with this proposal is that the Euclidean action is also unbounded from above and, once again, the path integral is divergent. This divergence is even more disastrous than in the Hartle-Hawking case, because now all integrations over matter fields and over inhomogeneous modes of the metric are divergent. It is not clear how Linde’s proposal can be extended beyond the simplest model. This problem of Linde’s wave function makes it an easy target, and I suspect it is for this reason that Stephen likes to confuse $`\psi _L`$ and $`\psi _T`$ and refer to both of them as “the tunneling wave function”. In fact, the two wave functions are quite different, even in the simple model (6) discord . The Linde wave function includes only the decaying solution under the barrier and a superposition of ingoing and outgoing modes with equal amplitudes outside the barrier (see Fig. 3).

To summarize, the Hartle-Hawking and Linde wave functions have serious problems with divergent integrals. In addition, the Hartle-Hawking wave function has a potential problem with inflation. The tunneling wave function appears to do reasonably well on both accounts.

## Quantum creation of open universes

Hawking and Turok (HT) have recently argued 19  that open universes can be spontaneously created from nothing and suggested an instanton to describe this process. They considered a model with a very simple potential,

$$V(\varphi )=\frac{1}{2}m^2\varphi ^2.$$
(12)   
This model is known not to have regular instanton solutions, and indeed, the HT instanton is singular. Geometrically, it is like a sphere with a thorn, the tip of the thorn being the singularity where the curvature and the scalar field are infinite (see Fig. 4). HT point out, however, that the singularity is integrable and the instanton action is finite. Analytic continuation of this instanton gives a closed, singular spacetime. A part of this spacetime, is isometric to an open Robertson-Walker universe. The singularity has the form of an expanding singular bubble. However, it never hits an observer in the Robertson-Walker part of the universe, and HT argue that the singularity is therefore not a problem 24 .

HT instantons have a free parameter corresponding to the strength of the singularity. As this parameter is varied, the density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ of the open universe also changes, and HT use an anthropic approach to find the most probable value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$.

I think there are serious problems with HT approach. In a singular instanton, the field equations are not satisfied at the singularity, and such an instanton is not, therefore, a stationary point of the action. It is not clear why such instantons should dominate the path integral. Moreover, if HT instanton is allowed, we will then have to admit a host of other instantons with integrable singularities. I am going to give some examples of such instantons and argue that they lead to unacceptable consequences.

First, I will construct a singular instanton for nucleation of open universes which has a lower action than the Hawking-Turok one. Take two copies of HT instanton, cut off their thorns and match what remains of the instantons across the cut, as in Fig.5.

The resulting instanton has an integrable domain-wall-type singularity at the matching surface.<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1Note that the field $`\varphi `$ should be continuous across the matching surface in order for the action to be finite. Its action is about twice as negative as that of the HT instanton. One can go further and use HT-type instantons with thorns on both sides<sup>2</sup><sup>2</sup>2Instantons with two singular thorns have been discussed by R. Bousso and A. Linde 21  to construct singular instantons of arbitrarily large negative action (see Fig.6). In the HT approach, such instantons should completely dominate the path integral.

As a second example, for the same model (12) I have constructed an asymptotically-flat singular instanton 23 . Geometrically, it looks like a flat space with a thorn. The behavior of the fields near the singularity is identical to that in the HT instanton and the action is finite, so there is absolutely no reason to reject my instanton if HT instanton is legitimate. The analytic continuation of my instanton gives a flat space with a singular sphere which expands at a speed close to the speed of light. If this were indeed a legitimate instanton, then we would have to conclude that flat space is unstable with respect to nucleation of singular bubbles. The nucleation probability can be made very high by adjusting the strength of the singularity, and since this strength is a free parameter, the universe in this picture would have already been overrun by expanding singular bubbles. Since this is in a glaring contradiction with observations, we have to conclude that HT instanton, as it stands, cannot be used to describe the creation of open universes.

Let me conclude by pointing out one thing that I think is good about the HT instanton. It has invigorated the debate about the basic issues of quantum cosmology and will hopefully lead to a better understanding of some of these issues.