title: Psychometric scales of gender

text:
# Question
Title: Psychometric scales of gender
I have never read any study that has used a psychometric scale to find out the respondent's gender identity, sexual orientation or both. This makes me wonder if there are such scales or not, or if there can be such scales or not.

I am more interested in scales for gender identity, for a study I am currently doing.

I am not looking for qualitative studies. I would like to know if there are quantitative studies using Psychometrics that have tried to develop scales for gender identity, like we have ones for IQ, Big 5 personality, Political Conservatism etc. using factor analysis for example, or some other appropriate psychometric method? Is there any consensus on which approach/ scale is better, or is there any widely used scale? By approach I mean agreement on the main ideas behind a scale, for example there are many scales/ tests for Big 5 using different questions, but it is widely accepted that there are 5 dimensions. Anything like that for gender identity.

# Answer
While many have tried to tie the 2 concepts together, Gender Identity is an entirely different concept to Sexual Orientation.

While you are more interested in scales for gender identity, as you are asking about both, I will give information on both.

## Sexual Orientation Psychometric Scales

There are a few psychometric scales for sexual orientation. The most famous, I would say, is the Kinsey Scale. It was first published in *Sexual Behavior in the Human Male* (Kinsey et al. 1948), and was also prominent in the complementary work *Sexual Behavior in the Human Female* (Kinsey et al. 1953).

The Kinsey scale or Kinsey's Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale measures sexual orientation, from 0 (exclusively heterosexual) to 6 (exclusively homosexual).

| Rating | Description |
| --- | --- |
| 0 | Exclusively heterosexual |
| 1 | Predominantly heterosexual, only incidentally homosexual |
| 2 | Predominantly heterosexual, but more than incidentally homosexual |
| 3 | Equally heterosexual and homosexual |
| 4 | Predominantly homosexual, but more than incidentally heterosexual |
| 5 | Predominantly homosexual, only incidentally heterosexual |
| 6 | Exclusively homosexual |

There is the Shively & DeCecco Scale (Shively, & DeCecco, 1977), which examines, what they believed, are the four components of sexual identity:

* biological sex,
* gender identity,
* "social sex-role" — see also, the Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1974), and
* sexual orientation.

There is also the Klein Scale — also known as The Klein Sexual Orientation Grid (or KSOG). Introduced by Dr. Fritz Klein in the first edition of his book *The Better Option* (Klein, 1978), the KSOG is a system for describing a person's sexual orientation in a way that is more detailed and informative than previous methods.

**Note that the Klein Grid is not a diagnostic tool intended to test and reveal a person's sexual orientation.** Instead, it is a learning tool to help people better understand the nuance and complexity that make up everyone's sexuality.

Then there is Randall Sell's Scale (Sell, 1996).

Sell points out that measures of sexual orientation are categorized as:

1. dichotomous,
2. bipolar (such as the Kinsey Scale),
3. multidimensional (such as the Klein Scale), and/or
4. orthogonal (such as the scale proposed by Shively and DeCecco).

> \[T\]he Sell Assessment of Sexual Orientation, is proposed based upon this review. Finally, methods of scoring and summarizing the proposed measure are discussed.

## Gender Identity Psychometric Scales

Although there was Bem's 1974 characterisation of people as masculine, feminine, or "androgynous" through her BSRI - Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem 1974); Harry Benjamin's Gender Identity Scale (Benjamin, 1966) was the first attempt to create a psychometric scale for gender identities.

Published in his book *The transsexual phenomenon*, it was **extremely biased** for many reasons, covering personal biases of the researcher, biases within society and therefore biases within the law.

As Psychology Wiki points out

> Dr. Benjamin's Scale references and uses Dr. Alfred Kinsey's sexual orientation scale to distinguish between "true transsexualism" and "transvestism". But it should be noted that the strict relationship between gender identity (Benjamin's Scale) and sexual orientation (Kinsey's Scale) was just a result of the researcher's biases, not his scientific findings.
>
> At the time when Dr. Benjamin practised, no transsexual could qualify as eligible for transition if he/she wasn't completely homosexual (relative to his/her birth sex), thus, heterosexual after transition. It was just because at the time it was believed that obviously a real, normal female should be completely heterosexual, and a lesbian female was perceived as somewhat deviant, wrong or abnormal.

## References

Bem, S. L. (1974). *Bem Sex Role Inventory* \[Database Record\]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/t00748-000

Benjamin, H. (1966). *The transsexual phenomenon*. Ace Publishing Company.

Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E. (1953) *Sexual Behavior in the Human Male*, Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders

Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E., & Gebhard, P. H. (1998). *Sexual behavior in the human female*. Indiana University Press.

Sell, R. L. (1996). The Sell assessment of sexual orientation: Background and scoring. *Journal of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Identity, 1*(4), 295-310. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03372244

Shively, M. G., & DeCecco, J. P. (1977). Components of sexual identity. *Journal of homosexuality, 3*(1), 41-48. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v03n01\_04
> 2 votes

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Tags: social-psychology, measurement, reference-request, gender
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# Question
Title: Is restlessness while studying a psychological phenomenon to address?
I observe the phenomenon of restlessness in some students only while studying textbooks. The restlessness starts after few minutes when they start to read and understand from textbooks. They can do the other activities such as typing, writing, coding etc., perfectly well for long times.

The symptoms they exhibit are pressing own body parts, adjusting hair, folding hands, knuckle cracking, moving their body parts, playing with pen etc.,

Is the restlessness mentioned a psychological phenomenon to address?

Although everyone may get restlessness while studying, the individuals I am talking will get it in few minutes of time, say 5-15 minutes after start reading.

# Answer
> 2 votes
The answer depends on the person displaying restlessness.

According to DSM-5, written by the American Psychiatric Association (2013) **emphasis mine**

> A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning. **Mental disorders are usually associated with significant distress in social, occupational, or other important activities**. An expectable or culturally approved response to a common stressor or loss, such as the death of a loved one, is not a mental disorder. Socially deviant behavior (e.g., political, religious, or sexual) and conflicts that are primarily between the individual and society are not mental disorders unless the deviance or conflict results from a dysfunction in the individual, as described above.

In other words, the problem has to induce distress and/or problems functioning in personal, social, work or family activities over a prolonged period of time.

So in order to answer your question

> Is the restlessness mentioned a psychological phenomenon to address?

the question that needs to be asked is does it meet the criteria set in DSM-5?

If it does, then it needs addressing in therapy. If it doesn't, then there is nothing to address.

An aside to the whole situation you have brought here, I wonder if these "indicators of restlessness" are actually something else.

I wonder if they are actually there in body language terms, indicators of interest.

> The symptoms they exhibit are pressing own body parts, adjusting hair, folding hands

I know I thumb my chin or bottom lip when engrossed in, or (during a re-reading of a passage I just read) thinking through, what I am reading. This is not restlessness. This is intense interest.

## References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

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Tags: reading, body-language
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# Question
Title: Precisely, what does it mean for a person to overcome psychological trauma?
It is often said that therapy or meeting a psychologist allows one to overcome trauma and let go of hidden pains. It is not clear to me exactly what the process of therapy entails—how would one know for themselves that they overcome their trauma? How would the therapist know?

There is another side to this as well, what would it mean for a person to be psychologically troubled? And, what would it mean for a person to be psychologically cured?

Due to the inherently subjective nature of reality, I can not imagine that one could argue their perception is of any greater veracity than the other's perception. This last point I know to be a topic of philosophical debate, but I think it is important for one to contemplate the issue from all angles.

# Answer
> It is often said that therapy or meeting a psychologist allows one to overcome trauma and let go of hidden pains...what would mean for a person to be psychologically troubled?

Trauma is an emotional response to a terrible event like an accident, physical assault or natural disaster (APA, 2013).

Repeated childhood abuse, for example, can be just as traumatic as one single incident of sexual assault. Trauma affects different people in different ways (Mind, n.d.; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014).

Immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions, flashbacks (NHS, n.d.), strained relationships and even physical symptoms like headaches or nausea (Very Well Mind, 2020).

While these feelings are normal, some people have difficulty moving on with their lives. Psychotherapists and Psychologists can help these people process their memories in a safe environment, and find constructive ways of managing their emotions.

> how would one know for themselves that they overcome their trauma? How would the therapist know?

Those who have overcome their trauma can move on with their lives comfortably. They are no longer anxious and they are free of the severe emotional effects of the past events which caused the psychological issue(s).

**They will never forget the past events**. At the end of the day, they happened and nobody can change that. But, **those affected by trauma who have gone through effective therapy can remember the past events without being so affected by them**.

## References

APA (2013). *Recovering emotionally from disaster* https://www.apa.org/topics/disasters-response/recovering

Mind (n.d.). *Trauma* https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/types-of-mental-health-problems/trauma/effects-of-trauma/

NHS (n.d.). *Overview - Post-traumatic stress disorder* https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/overview/

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2014). Chapter 3: Understanding the Impact of Trauma. In: *Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 57.* https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207191/

Very Well Mind (2020). *An Overview of Psychosomatic Illness: How Your Stress and Depression Can Really Make You Sick* https://www.verywellmind.com/depression-can-be-a-real-pain-1065455
> 4 votes

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Tags: therapy, trauma
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# Question
Title: What is the meanning of an x-expressing neuron, with x = some protein?
I'm studying a neuroscientific paper, and in it the authors state that "defensive behaviors are mediated by a BLA population of magnocellular R-spondin 2-expressing (RSPO2⁺) neurons".

I know that R-spondin 2 is a protein, but what is the meaning of R-spondin 2-expressing neurons? What is an *x-expressing neuron*, with *x = some protein*?

Thank you very much.

# Answer
Expressing a protein means that the protein is produced in those cells at a detectable level.

From https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/express

> : to cause (a gene) to manifest its effects in the phenotype
>
> also : to manifest or produce (a character, molecule, or effect) by a genetic process

This is basic biology terminology. I'd highly recommend courses/textbooks in cell biology before neuroscience.
> 2 votes

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Tags: neuroscience, behavior, affective-neuroscience
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# Question
Title: Can you use harmful addictions to build good habits?
I am reading the Pavlov's dog experiments, from it I learn that associating a dopamine high event with a neutral event will lead to later that neutral event triggering the same receptors in absence of the dopamine high event. I thought about this and wondered... what if I started doing some harmful addictions like cigarettes and smokes before studying something I may not be interested in... does this mean I would later associate studying with the kicks of these two harmful habits?

P.S: I am not saying to do these illicit substances in excess, just a mild amount where your brain can still function.

The above was the motivation, now is the real question: Has there been human trials based on this principle using illicit substances to train the mind in a positive way? Was it succesful..?

# Answer
> 3 votes
Although smoking is highly addictive and should never be started just because you feel like it enables you to learn something you are not particularly interested in Heishman et al. (2010) note that:

> The significant effects of nicotine on motor abilities, attention, and memory likely represent true performance enhancement because they are not confounded by withdrawal relief. The beneficial cognitive effects of nicotine have implications for initiation of smoking and maintenance of tobacco dependence.

Note that tobacco smoking is not only addictive because of nicotine, but also because tobacco smoke contains potent MAO inhibitors which are speculated to potentiate the effects of nicotine. Berlin & Anthenelli (2001) note that:

> We examine the hypothesis that chronic habitual smoking can be better understood in the context of two pharmacological factors : nicotine and reduced MAO activity. We speculate that MAO inhibition by compounds found in either tobacco or tobacco smoke can potentiate nicotine’s effects

Thus if you want to try nicotine your last choice should be smoking. There is snus or buy nicotine gum. Also consider talking to a professional so (s)he can recommend medication like methylphenidad or similar medication.

Let me give you another suggestion to start micro-dosing caffeine (-powder). Sholey et al. (2008) note that:

> Cognitive performance, mood, autonomic activity and salivary caffeine were assessed pre-dose and at 1, 3, 6 and 9 h post-dose. Compared with placebo, performance was impaired by 2.5 mg, whilst 5 mg had negative effects on mood and mixed effects on performance and 10 mg improved performance.

Another paper about microdosing caffeine reports:

> This study measured the effects of 0, 12.5, 25, 50 and 100 mg caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in adults with low and moderate to high habitual caffeine intakes.Effects on performance and mood confirmed a psychostimulant action of caffeine. All doses of caffeine significantly affected cognitive performance, and the dose-response relationships for these effects were rather flat. Rogers & Smit (2000): Effects of low doses of caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in low and higher caffeine consumers

The effects of caffeine can be enhanced by L-theanin as found in tea (camellia sinensis). A meta-analysis of the combined effects of caffeine and L-theanin notes that:

> Evidence of moderate eﬀect sizes in favor of combined caﬀeine and L-theanine in the ﬁrst 2 hours postdose were found for outcome measures Bond-Lader alertness, attentional switching accuracy, and, to a lesser extent, some unisensory and multisensory attentional outcomes. Moderator analysis of caﬀeine and L-theanine doses revealed trends toward greater change in eﬀect size for caﬀeine dose than for L-theanine dose, particularly during the ﬁrst hour post dose. Camfield et al. 2014

Also note that what you describe in the first paragraph is very likely to happen: You will find it increasingly harder to study a subject you do not particularly like without the help of chemical helpers. This does not necessarily have to be detrimental. The very prolific mathematician Erdös used amphetamines for a significant proportion of his life. Just be warned that smoking tobacco might be the most detrimental chemical aid...

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Tags: cognitive-neuroscience, conditioning
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# Question
Title: how dopamine levels are related with psychosis and schizophrenia?
can someone explain me what is the role of dopamine in psychosis and schizophrenia. somewhere on the internet i read that low dopamine is associated with diseases like psychosis and schizophrenia. And somewhere on the internet i read: "The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia postulates that hyperactivity of dopamine D2 receptor neurotransmission in subcortical and limbic brain regions contributes to positive symptoms of schizophrenia". does this mean high levels of dopamine cause psychosis and schizophrenia. I am so confused please clarify this. Also low levels of serotonin causes depression and the anti depressants increase serotonin levels thus treating depression. But doctor prescribed me anti depressants and anti psychotics at the same time. As second generation antipsychotics that doctror prescribed me are known to be serotonin and dopamine antagonists, then how do both of the medecations work simultaneously?

# Answer
It would have been better if you had split your question into two (one involving psychosis and the other depression) and provide each in a separate stack exchange post.

Schizophrenia is said to be caused by excessive increase in the level of Dopamine in the brain. On the other hand, low level of Dopamine is implicated in Parkinson disease. In connection with schizophrenia In this instance, dopamine act as an excitatory neurotransmitter (that is, it increases the activity of the nerve cells).

Drugs that are used for treating schizophrenia tend to block Dopamine receptors. When such receptors are blocked, the effect of Dopamine will be reduced. Dopamine receptors have five subtypes: D1-, D2-, D3-, D4- and D5-type receptors. Generally, first generation antipsychotic agents block all the dopamine receptors without discrimination. The antisychotic effect occurs when the drugs block the D2-, D3- and D4-type receptors. There are different dopaminergic pathways in the brain, namely: mesolimbic, nigrostriatal, tuberoinfundibular etc. It's the blockade of D2, D3 and D4 type receptors in the mesolimbic pathway that relieves the positve symptoms of schizophrenia. Just as there is dopamine hypothesis,

> The first version of this hypothesis stressed the role of the excess of dopamine but it was developed into an idea linking prefrontal hypodopaminergia and striatal hyperdopaminergia and then to the current aberrant salience hypothesis
>
> (Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19325164/)

So also there is serotonin hypothesis of schizophrenia that attributes the cause of schizophrenia to excessive increase of serotonin.

You said your doctor prescribed both antipsychotic and antidepressant for you. Well, he might have explained to you why he prescribed both medications. Because no two persons are exactly the same, treatment is narrowed down to suit the need of each individual after putting different factors into consideration. So, your doctor is in the best position to explain why he prescribed both medications. It might be that he's treating bipolar disorder in a closely monitored setting.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6222385/
> 3 votes

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Tags: dopamine
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title: Does sadism correlate with narcissism?

text:
# Question
Title: Does sadism correlate with narcissism?
I mean in the general population. I'm aware of proposals/constructs like malignant narcissism but the empirical evidence (in the Wikipedia page at least) is mostly case-based (serial killers and so forth), i.e. anecdotal.

# Answer
At least among a sample of high-school students the dark tetrad correlations look like:

So there's only a moderate correlation between narcissism and sadism (0.37), but it turned out to be strongest of the six (as commonly measured). However it was only the 2nd strongest after an oblique rotation, the psyhopathic-sadistic one "winning" by small margin (0.02) in that approach:

> To evaluate if the different measures of these four traits loaded on a more general second-order factor, we conducted a hierarchical analysis of oblique factors which showed there was not a general deviant personality factor that was likely to reflect all types of traits. There appeared to be four primary unique factors corresponding to psychopathic, narcissistic, Machiavellian and sadistic traits. The four constructs thus obtained, appeared to display a greater degree of independence than the original four, with Pearson’s r ranging from .01 to .26 (Fig. 1).

So despite their moderate correlation (all four) dark tetrad bits are seen as reasonably independent factors.

What I find strange in that figure is that after the oblique rotation there was practically no correlation between Machiavellianism and psychopathy. I'm not sure what to make of that.
> 3 votes

# Answer
A discipline named System-Vector Psychology has an interesting claim on the subject, but few words of caution first.

"System-Vector Psychology" is obviously unscientific (nowhere throughout their web site is any scientific research cited or even mentioned). Deeper look into the web site strongly prompts that is charlatanism. BUT it does seem to stem from more or less established paradigms such as psychoanalysis and Leopold Szondi's works in particular, as well as evolutionary psychology.

"System-Vector Psychology" suggests that sadism is a latent trait inherent especially to the "anal vector" and in some rare circumstance to the "olfactory vector".

Freud's original concepts about the anal character and anal-sadistic stage see an interpretation in "System-Vector Psychology", which, while not necessarily valid, may be interesting as a direction of thinking.

Having said all that, if there's any truth in the whole concept of "anal character" and then, in its relation to sadistic tendencies, then, the answer to your question would more or less exclude narcissism as a decisive factor.
> 0 votes

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Tags: measurement, personality, correlation
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# Question
Title: About the possibility of 'Robot Psychology'
If a Robot system with an advanced A.I. operating system had the 'ability' to 'do' 'undirected' or 'semi-undirected' introspection and 'form' all sorts of 'thought' structures about any subject matter (that didn't directly have something to do with important 'operating' functions) could these not-necessarily important 'thought structures' and the 'managing' of such cause something analogous to psychological problems in the robot?

# Answer
> 3 votes
Depending on the definition of "psychology" and "psychological problems" sure. The APA defines psychology as "the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes." If we take this to only apply to biological systems (as I am sure many researchers do) then no, because the robot is not a biological system and therefore we can not study it under the heading of psychology and we would probably study it under something more akin to "engineering". However, if one is happy applying the same to robots, as I assuming you are, then yes.

Assuming the latter, and if you think that a being's "'ability' to 'do' 'undirected' or 'semi-undirected' introspection and 'form' all sorts of 'thought' structures about any subject matter" is a cause of psychological problems, and we are further assuming that a robot could do this, then yes, the robot will have psychological problems by definition. (Is there direct evidence suggesting these are causes though?)

# Answer
> -1 votes
I guess it happens after creating some robots like baby AI, in this kind of AI, they are trying to create different functional part of brain and by connecting those AI parts to Simulated body sensors.

Those Functional part of Brian could create huge amount of feeling like this thermal Photo which are detected on the AI brain by **CPU usage** and the Artificial neurons trying to connect to new Brain part as we see it on the Hopfiled networks

IN this Baby AI models, the Main factor of Psychological problem are problem in managing the data and the new connection between the AI brain part, and **the limitation of CPU or information** which leads to activating some **hopfiled models** and its create new feature in the Baby AI, that we know as **new emotion or feeling**, and it could be detected as mental disorder.

Also, I guess, if the Baby AI have had the time or correct information for tracing the brain functional parts and training those weights, it could stable them and this abnormal would reach to new trained weigh and some extra capability.

These features could be seen in some mental disorder that create hallucination and with wrong information could Leeds dangerous situation for patient or its environment, but you can see some features of hopfild models and the brain functional patterns in Livewired book of David eagleman.

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Tags: cognitive-psychology, artificial-intelligence
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# Question
Title: Do induced brain wave patterns give the same cognitive and perceptual consequences as those that arise naturally?
What I mean to ask by this particular question is that, are the effects resulting from neural interactions in the brain that cause the emergence of certain behaviours, with the neural frequencies in brain waves being a side-product of this or is the synchronization of neurons in the brain necessary to achieving these altercations? To give a more specific example, when individuals show high levels of gamma waves in MEG's, it is correlated to increased sensorial perception. Hence, would inducing the same brain wave/frequency have the same resulting increase in sensorial perception?

As requested in the comments, I will be adding a link to the Gamma waves link to sensorial perception.

UNDERSTANDING THE BRAINWAVES IN NEUROFEEDBACK

# Answer
> 0 votes
I think this is just a question of *causality*. Most cognitive neuroscience has traditionally been correlational. Using your example, when gamma power is higher, sensory perception is increased. But does gamma power *cause* higher sensory perception? That's what the researchers have really always wanted to know, but only now have methods like transcranial stimulation methods (TMS, tACS, tDCS) been able to try and answer this question.

Critically, this question has to be asked *for each phenomenon individually*. It could be that gamma power is causal for sensory perception, but other relationships not so much.

I also agree with Bryan Krause's view/comment of "probably no" in the more specific sense that the underlying neuroscience is far more complicated and the "brain-wave" isn't really what you're after, but I am running with the abstract here.

**tl;dr** \- This is a critical question in cognitive neuroscience, and always has been, but only recently have methods been developed to try and answer it. So look out for answers!

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Tags: neuroscience, theoretical-neuroscience, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy
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title: Carl Jung Psychology Analysis Book

text:
# Question
Title: Carl Jung Psychology Analysis Book
I am Computer Engineer, but i feel strong partiality towards Jungian Psychology. I would like to find the Analysis research book on Carl Jung about

* The Process of Individuation
* Shadow

I seem to know the books written by Jung himself, However, I need some advanced, and in-depth book regarding interpreting above subject.

# Answer
> 2 votes
## The Shadow

Jeffrey, S. (n.d.). *A Definitive Guide to Jungian Shadow Work: How to Get to Know and Integrate Your Dark Side* https://scottjeffrey.com/shadow-work/
provides some information on Shadow Work.

> This guide explores the nature of the shadow and provides tips and exercises for daily shadow work.

And

Fordham, M. (1965). The importance of analysing childhood for assimilation of the shadow. *Journal of Analytical Psychology, 10*(1), 33-47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-5922.1965.00033.x
is a research paper on the subject.

> Examination of the empirical data and the ideas about the shadow which Jung presents to us in his published work and his seminars shows that no single definition is adequate to elucidate what he means to represent by the term. Therefore we shall start by demonstrating the usefulness of having this concept in mind as a metaphor that helps to organize a number of data from different fields. Later on, we shall employ definitions as instruments to further discussion.

The Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2\_635 lists many books and articles on the subject.

## Individuation

Martin Schmidt wrote a paper called *Individuation and the self* and a free PDF of the paper is available from the Society of Analytical Psychology at https://www.thesap.org.uk/resources/articles-on-jungian-psychology-2/about-analysis-and-therapy/individuation/

> Jung’s thinking about the Self and its dynamic of individuation separates Jungian analytical psychology from other psychoanalytical schools. He uses the concept of the Self to describe his understanding of who we are and the concept of individuation to describe the process by which we can fulfil our potential to become all that we can be.

The Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2\_329 lists many books and articles on the subject.

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Tags: cognitive-psychology, reference-request, jung
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# Question
Title: Can sport be used as a counselling tool to help one deal with negative life events?
I found studies on how leisure activities can positively affect well-being, e.g. stress reduction.
My question is more specific as I want to research how participation in sport can help one deal with difficult life circumstances like for instance loss of a loved one or abuse. Academic literature in this area seems to be very scarce.

My aim would be to bring out the implications for counselling practice and demonstrate that sport participation is effective in dealing with negative life events.

# Answer
The American Psychological Association (APA, 2020) points out that:

> Research shows that while exercise initially spikes the stress response in the body, people experience lower levels of stress hormones like cortisol and epinephrine after bouts of physical activity.

So yes. Exercise can help to deal with negative life events and for completeness, the article linked in the APA page is Hackney (2010).

One interesting point they make next is that:

> So far, there's little evidence for the popular theory that exercise causes a rush of endorphins. Rather, one line of research points to the less familiar neuromodulator norepinephrine, which may help the brain deal with stress more efficiently. Research in animals since the late 1980s has found that exercise increases brain concentrations of norepinephrine in brain regions involved in the body's stress response.
>
> Norepinephrine is particularly interesting to researchers because 50% of the brain's supply is produced in the locus coeruleus, a brain area that connects most of the brain regions involved in emotional and stress responses.

## References

APA. (2020). *Working out boosts brain health* https://www.apa.org/topics/exercise-fitness/stress

Hackney, A. C. (2006). Stress and the neuroendocrine system: the role of exercise as a stressor and modifier of stress. *Expert review of endocrinology & metabolism, 1*(6), 783-792. https://doi.org/10.1586/17446651.1.6.783
> 1 votes

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Tags: cognitive-psychology, social-psychology, emotion, reference-request, sport-psychology
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title: Do people still use ACT-R?

text:
# Question
Title: Do people still use ACT-R?
A lot of computational cognitive scientists seem to be working on Neural nets (mostly vision scientists), Reinforcement learning (mostly decision making people) and Bayesian Inferences. I could hardly find anyone working on ACT-R. Is it still relevant?

# Answer
As pointed out in the comments, ACT-R is still actively being used in recent research publications. A simple example of that can be found by a quick Google Scholar search. But likely you are more interested in *how much* it is still being used.

Personally, although I never used ACT-R myself, I read papers using it in the field of Human-Computer Interaction as part of my research on multitasking. I remember Altmann as a frequently cited author using ACT-R as part of their methodologies. My memory seems to serve me right, since a quick search shows up his publication list on the ACT-R website, but granted only with publications up to 2012.

However, on the same website you can **browse all publications related to ACT-R**, which in and of itself should answer your question. 7 publications were listed for 2020, and so far 5 are listed for 2021.
> 1 votes

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Tags: cognitive-neuroscience, computational-modeling, neural-network, cognitive, act-r
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# Question
Title: What books should I study to have a decent understanding of psychology?
**Background:**
I am a student currently doing my undergraduate degree (Electrical and Electronics, if it interests anyone). I am very much interested in studying psychology. I have read quite a bit on psychology, mostly on PsychCentral and PsychologyToday, but the knowledge I have is in bits and pieces. I want to have a well-organised knowledge of psychology like a student who is pursuing a career in psychology. The knowledge that I have right now feels like 'Googled knowledge' to me. I am of the belief that anyone should be able to learn anything he wants to, irrespective of whether he goes to college for it or not.

**Question:**
What subjects does a good university course on psychology have? (Yes! List all of them. Along with the years in which you studied them, starting from the freshman year!)
What are good textbooks for these subjects?

\[It is not possible for me to get formal education in psychology. I would really appreciate it if you just accept this fact and not challenge it. :-) The resources that I really have to study are the internet and books. (Yes, I'll buy them.) I want to make the best I can with what I've got.\]

# Answer
> 16 votes
I’ve compiled a reading list based on the books I acquired during my undergraduate and graduate psychology programs. I’ve not listed the year I took the course because, with the exception of Introduction to Psychology being required first year and History and Systems being required in our last year (History and Systems was supposed to serve as a GRE study aid), the order of the courses were very flexible. Although there were some topics that were more likely to be taken in the second or third year, that was primarily due to how the instructor had structured the course; courses with more rigorous writing or exam requirements were reserved for later years. Because you will be conducting a self-study, you should generally be able to read/explore these topics in the order that you want.

Also, please note that all programs have a range of elective topics and areas of concentration that will vary. Finally, these books were all sufficient textbooks but are not the only option. In my experience, if you look at the top three psychology textbooks on Amazon for a given topic (e.g., social psychology) they will generally cover the same information and should meet your needs. I recommend using this list as a starting place to develop a list of psychology topics, rather than a strict list of books. You can read textbook reviews or consumer feedback and determine which book you prefer for a given topic. I have listed the most recent editions for the books that I used, but for most topics (except perhaps the neuropsychology books and abnormal \[due to DSM-5\]) you could safely use older editions dating back ten years.

**Introduction to Psychology:** This will provide you with an introductory overview of the field, including major theories and areas of psychology. The areas listed in this book (biological psychology, sensation and perception, consciousness, learning, memory, thinking/language/intelligence, motivation and emotion, lifespan development, human sexuality, personality, social psychology, and abnormal psychology) make up the core classes that were part of my undergraduate program.

* Hockenbury, D. H., & Hockenbury, S. E. (2012). Psychology. Worth Publishers. ISBN: 1429243678

**Abnormal Psychology**

* Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Abnormal Psychology. McGraw Hill. ISBN: 0-07-235799-1
* Barlow, D., & Durand, V. (2014). Abnormal psychology: An integrative approach. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 1285755618
* Halgin, R. P. (Ed.). (2000). Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial issues in abnormal psychology. Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. ISBN: 0-07-237193-5

**Social Psychology**

* Brehm, S. S., Kassin, S. M., & Fein, S. (2001). Social Psychology. Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN: 0-618-12964-2

**Biological Psychology/Neuropsychology**

* Kalat, J. (2012). Biological psychology. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 1111831009
* Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I. Q. (2009). Fundamentals of human neuropsychology. Macmillan. ISBN: 0716795868

**Sensation and Perception:** Neuropsychology specific to the five senses

* Goldstein, E. (2013). Sensation and perception. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 1133958494

**Lifespan Development:** The psychology of cognitive, emotional, and social development from birth to death.

* Berger, K. S. (2003). The developing person through childhood and adolescence. Macmillan. ISBN: 1-57259-429-2
* Berk, L. (2013). Development through the lifespan. Pearson Education India. ISBN: 0205957609

**History and Systems of Psychology:** While Intro to Psych will provide an overview of major areas and disciplines of psychology, this will provide a better sense of the development of psychology as a field and origin of different branches of psychology.

* Thorne, B. M., & Henley, T. B. (1997). Connections in the history and systems of psychology. Houghton, Mifflin and Company. ISBN: 0-618-41512-2

**Behavior Therapy/Learning:** This was an undergraduate introduction to classic learning theory and cognitive behavioral therapy.

* Powell, R., Honey, P., & Symbaluk, D. (2012). Introduction to learning and behavior. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 111183430X
* Spiegler, M., & Guevremont, D. (2009). Contemporary behavior therapy. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 049550906X
* Seligman, M. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. A series of books in psychology. New York, NY: WH Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt & Co. ISBN: 0-7167-0752-7

**Human Sexuality**

* Miracle, T. S., Miracle, A. W., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Human sexuality: Meeting your basic needs. Prentice Hall. ISBN: 0-13-032658-5

**Research Methods and Statistics:** Included here because it is required in most programs, though it may not be of interest to you.

* Smith, R., & Davis, S. (2012). The psychologist as detective: An introduction to conducting research in psychology. ISBN: 0205859070
* Gravetter, F., & Wallnau, L. (2006). Statistics for the behavioral sciences. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 0-495-60220-5

My graduate work focused on clinical psychology and research, which this reading list reflects:

* Sansone, C., Morf, C. C., & Panter, A. T. (Eds.). (2003). The Sage handbook of methods in social psychology. Sage Publications. ISBN: 076192535X
* Knapp, S. J., & VandeCreek, L. D. (2006). Practical ethics for psychologists: A positive approach. American Psychological Association. ISBN: 1-59147-326-8
* Egan, G. (2013). The skilled helper: A problem-management and opportunity-development approach to helping. Cengage Learning. ISBN: 0-495-60189-6
* Dobson, K. S. (Ed.). (2009). Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies. Guilford Press. ISBN: 978-1-60623-437-2
* Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond. Guilford Press. ISBN: 978-1-60918-504-6
* Corrigan, P. W., Mueser, K. T., Bond, G. R., Drake, R. E., & Solomon, P. (2012). Principles and practice of psychiatric rehabilitation: An empirical approach. Guilford Press. ISBN: 978-1-60623-344-3
* Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2012). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN: 978-0-470-08632-2

# Answer
> 2 votes
There are hundreds of introductory textbooks out there, not just for psych in general but for the fields in psychology, so choosing a text isn't straightforward. You would be best off asking for an expert opinion from those who have taught intro courses at a university, and then check the ratings on Amazon. For example, you can go the psychology department webpage of any U to find the emails of faculty members in different areas or you can try the undergraduate administrator. At the University of Minnesota, the intro psych text being used is **Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding** by Scott Lilienfeld (first author). You should also absolutely check out the book **How to Think Straight About Psychology** (by Keith Stanovich) which appears to have become a classic and is now in its 10th edition. I know that it is used at several universities.

You might even find the answer to your question by googling something like "best **_** psychology textbook". Should be able to come across some qualified opinions on the web.

# Answer
> 0 votes
A good book I have read and still refer to from time to time is *Life-span human development* by Carol Sigelman and Elizabeth Rider

A new edition is published as things develop and a new edition was published this year:

Sigelman, C. K., & Rider, E. A. (2021). *Life-span human development*. 10th ed. Cengage Learning.

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Tags: teaching-of-psychology
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# Question
Title: What software to use for psychology questionnaire?
I'm doing a schoolwork about Spiral Dynamics and last part is doing practical research and everything is completed except we yet didnt found any digital platform with which we can conduct our research..,

I would love to hear your recommendations because we are little bit lost with this part of project (still noobies).

# Answer
> 3 votes
One that I used at my university is Qualtrics. It was under the university's license, so I don't know what the costs are for single users. Qualtrics allows you to ask many different types of questions (open ended, likert, option select and more) and can easily export the data to excel files for further processing.

Survey Monkey is another tool that is often used. Basic functions can be used for free, but for more powerful tools you'll need to pay.

Finally, I know of Google Form. Afaik it can be used for free, but I am unaware of their privacy policies (Google tends to collect a lot of data).

# Answer
> 1 votes
**Limesurvey:** Just to add to Robin Kramer's answer - a very useful platform is the fully open source Limesurvey. It runs on PHP and, in my opinion, has better capabilities than Surveymonkey plus you fully control it. You can easily install it on your web server, or you can use many hosting solutions that will offer automated LS installations (I know for sure of Siteground and A2 hosting). If you want this to be fully in your control - install it on a dedicated server in your network. To test out - you can install it on your laptop. It has extensive manual and very good user community on Limesurvey forums. It is widely used in universities and commercially.

If you want to use their one-click "comfort-update" you will need to pay something like 78 EUR per year, but you can also do updates manually (that can be a bit cumbersome if you are unfamiliar with simple web server concepts). I have been a bit lazy and update maybe a couple of times a year.

One of the best parts about it is the **ease of getting data** \- whatever format you like, you have it - CSV, SPSS, R and others. If you want to download PDF summaries you can do that too, however these ready made reporting systems are rather poor anywhere - a much better solution is to download pure data, analyze and visualize as you want.

It has an RPC interface that you can use to automate control and getting data from your surveys. I use R a lot and there is a great library at GitHub https://github.com/cloudyr/limer that allows me to just get data instantly from Limesurvey server (about 10 seconds for 10000 rows) and use for automated analysis and visualization that I have defined in R.

If you start trying it out and get stuck, just give me a shout.

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Tags: social-psychology, measurement, methodology, survey
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# Question
Title: Why does journaling seem to reduce stress?
When searching methods to reduce stress and discussing my problems with people I know, it was suggested to me that I journal thoughts, that is write down what worries me elaborately on paper.

I started doing it and I felt my mind having less 'noise' and clearing itself over time. However, I can't seem to understand why this worked and I can't find any good sources which explains why this worked in simple terms. Here is a website discussing journaling.

The closest analogy I can come to for how it feels to journal is how it feels to have a complicated thought relating to mathematics, in my head it is difficult to work out the algebra and see how it plays out but I can easily work my thoughts if I have a paper at hand (and a calculator handy).

Hopefully someone can shed some light on what's going on here.

# Answer
Short answer: Like much of psychotherapy in general, we mostly know *that* it works, but not so much about *why* it works.

Journaling or journal therapy is a type of writing therapy, itself a form of expressive therapy, that includes expressive, interactive, reflective, and creative writing. Several recent literature reviews and meta-analyses confirm the effectiveness of such practices at improving various mental health outcomes (Travagina, Margola, & Revenson, 2015; Santini & Waterhouse, 2012; Harris, 2006; Merz, Fox, & Malcarne, 2014; Nakashima & Gallegos, 2020; Ruini & Mortara, 2021). However, the effect of writing on stress appears to be non-significant (Frattaroli, 2006; Zachariae & O'Toole, 2015; Oh & Kim, 2016; Qian et al, 2020; Nyssen et al, 2016; Mogk et al, 2006), except for post-traumatic stress disorder (Dawson et al, 2021; Gerger et al, 2021; van Emmerik, Reijntjes, & Kamphuis, 2013; Pavlacic et al, 2019). Additionally, in general when positive effects are reported, effect sizes are modest, vary substantially, include little long-term data, suffer from publication bias, and use inconsistent protocols.

Given the caveats in effectiveness, determining the mechanism of action is a challenge. A number of hypotheses have been proposed as to why these practices sometimes improve mental health outcomes, but in general they have not stood up to empirical validation on their own.

* Inhibition hypothesis: Perhaps writing about topics otherwise inhibited can effectively result in a sort of cathartic release - seen in psychoanalysis as a mechanism for reducing stress.
* Cognitive processing: Introspection and reflection are also a common mechanism of action proposed for typical cognitive therapies, providing an opportunity to process and reframe stressful events.
* Self-regulation: The confidence-boosting effect of self-affirmation of emotional control, expression, and monitoring, may have a stress-reducing (buffering) effect.
* Exposure therapy: Habituation is a common mechanism of action proposed in the treatment of post-traumatic stress, and writing is analagous to other exposure-based treatment modalities.
* Emotion regulation: The use of language, emotion labeling, narrative, and perspective-taking, may facilitate emotion processing; though the reverse may also happen - where ability to process emotion leads to improvements in written expression.
* Social dynamics: The effect of writing may happen after the fact - eg, it may encourage further sharing, improve communication faculties, and prompt significant life changes.

The actual explanation is likely complex and/or different for different people (Smyth & Pennebaker, 2008; Reinhold, Bürkner, & Holling, 2018; Sloan et al, 2015). As Pennebaker & Chung (2011) put it:

> If you are expecting a clean and simple explanation for the effectiveness of writing, we have some very bad news: There is no single reason that explains it. Over the last two decades, a daunting number of explanations have been put forward, and many have been found to be partially correct. Ultimately, there is no such thing as a single cause for a complex phenomenon.

(Their review of proposed mechanisms, along with evidence that supports and undermines each, is the most extensive I've seen, so check out that chapter for more details. Another good one is Costa & Abreu, 2018.)
> 2 votes

# Answer
Spoken language is the primary medium of counselling and psychotherapy. The therapeutic value of written language has also been studied extensively, both to provide self-help information and to elicit personal reflection (Miller, 2014).

There are two main kinds of journaling. There is *interactive journaling*, and there is *reflective journaling*.

## Interactive Journaling

Interactive journaling is a guided writing process that combines both self-help information and personal reflection (Miller, 2014):

> It has differed from usual therapeutic writing in two ways: (a) by integrating the presentation of treatment-relevant information in graphic-enhanced text to engage the reader, and (b) by offering frequent structured opportunities for the client to respond to and integrate material being presented.

Interactive journaling is very adaptable and can take many forms. Miller's account provides one form. You don't necessarily need to use "graphic-enhanced text" as he prescribes. The Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction (DPI) provides the following description of interactive journaling within education (DPI, n.d.).

> INTERACTIVE JOURNALS provides students with a space to record their thinking about vocabulary words. There are a variety of formats for interactive journals, some with more structure than others. Educators should choose the journal that is most appropriate for the needs of the classroom and should check students' interactive journals and provide feedback to students regularly. Each time students engage with a vocabulary word, they should revisit their interactive journals, modifying their entries with their new understanding.

The following image gives some examples:

The following citations were given regarding research:

* Beck, I., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, I. (2002). *Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction*. New York: Guilford.
* Graves, M. (2008). *Instruction on individual words: One size does not fit all*. In A. E. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.), What research has to say about vocabulary instruction (pp. 56–79). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
* Marzano, R. & Pickering, D. (2005). *Building academic vocabulary*. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Interactive journaling as described by the DPI can be adapted for use in therapy where in person centred or integrative psychotherapy, the therapist and client should collaborate to choose the journal style that is most appropriate for the needs of the therapy. In pure psychodynamic therapy, the therapist will decide according to the requirements of the way the therapy is going.

Interactive journaling can be great for writing down what you are grateful for as suggested by @WinstonL. The client can either use the journal to review their thoughts within therapy by sharing it with their therapist, or the client can review it outside the therapeutic space by re-reading it, and modifying it as therapy continues.

## Reflective Journaling

Reflective journaling was made part of my training as a psychotherapist. Although it is a different model of journaling, it can incorporate some of the styling of interactive journaling, although the information is never altered.

Although used widely throughout counselling psychology and other training programs that incorporate experiential activities, reflective journals have sparse, fragmented and non-comparable theoretical bases to support their use (Hubbs & Brand, 2005). Although the term *reflective journaling* means something slightly different, referring to journals as *paper mirrors* within Hubbs and Brand's 2005 title is a good analogy on the **idea** of reflective journaling.

Reflective journals put in writing exactly what you are thinking right in that very moment in time regarding one or more specific topics. As differing, incongruent or altered thoughts are found, another entry is made referring to the previous thoughts and the entry puts down in writing and/or images how those thoughts have changed or are incongruent.

All the entries are there to be read through in self-reflection and introspection, allowing you to examine whether your thoughts actually are a true reflection of reality.

With introspection, you are learning about your currently ongoing, or perhaps very recently past, mental states or processes (Stanford University, 2019). During introspection, the reflective questions to ask yourself should be (Open University, n.d.):

> * Strengths – What are my strengths? For example, am I well organised? Do I remember things?
> * Weaknesses – What are my weaknesses? For example, am I easily distracted? Do I need more practise with a particular skill?
> * Skills – What skills do I have and what am I good at?
> * Problems – What problems are there at work/home that may affect me? For example, responsibilities or distractions that may impact on study or work.
> * Achievements – What have I achieved?
> * Happiness – Are there things that I am unhappy with or disappointed about? What makes me happy?
> * Solutions – What could I do to improve in these areas?

Journaling is a very personal experience and can be very rewarding. You can do all this reflection and introspection alone, or you can do it with your therapist. Those suffering from stress, depression and trauma can look back at their entries and may choose to evaluate things with their therapist. Discussing the entries with your therapist can allow you to examine and reflect on them and work together to alleviate worries and anxieties.

Once that has been done, maybe another entry can made putting into writing the results of your evaluations at that time. Maybe you have uncovered prejudices you previously were not aware of. Write them down, and write how you feel about that. How do you feel you can change those views?

The whole process is ongoing and can be used just as part of therapy or it can even be used after therapy has concluded, as it counts towards your personal development. Your thoughts and their processes can often change over the years and reflecting back on those changes can show how you have developed your thoughts and beliefs.

## Which is better?

Because journaling is a very personal experience, that is a very subjective question and depends very much on what you intend to get from your journal and how you wish to obtain it.

## References

DPI (n.d.). *Interactive Journals* \[Free PDF\] https://dpi.wi.gov/sites/default/files/imce/ela/bank/6-12\_L.VAU\_Interactive\_Journals.pdf

Hubbs, D. L., & Brand, C. F. (2005). The paper mirror: Understanding reflective journaling. *Journal of Experiential Education, 28*(1), 60-71. https://doi.org/10.1177/105382590502800107

Miller, W. (2014). Interactive journaling as a clinical tool. *Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 36*(1), 31-42. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.36.1.0k5v52l12540w218

Open University (n.d.). *Self reflection* https://www.open.ac.uk/choose/unison/develop/my-skills/self-reflection

Stanford University (2019). *Introspection* https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/introspection/
> 2 votes

# Answer
As a person who has been journaling for more than twelve years ever since a very compassionate friend advised me to, I can attempt to answer why journaling seems to reduce stress.

AliceD mentioned that it's a way of writing down todos. That’s true. I also have Google Tasks for that.

The friend of mine deals a lot in algebra. We had spent a lot of time together working out mathematical problems, playing the guitar as well. It was thoroughly enjoyable to see him logically work towards the right answer. He believes in working things out by deriving from first principles.

We are quite religious so our journaling is quite spiritual in nature.

I didn't go into journaling knowing how good it would be, but looking back the benefits are invaluable.

Absolutely anything can go into your journal. I love to draw diagrams too.

In life we all make mistakes. I write down the fool things that I have done so that I can correct myself. Very often we do not know why certain people are antagonistic or get angry with us. This is because we are not omniscient like God. We do not know what the other person is thinking. By writing events down we are working out problems in our interactions with our fellow human beings. It greatly simplifies our thought processes. We can solve problems much more efficiently. We can improve our relationships with people.

I also write down what I am grateful for : https://www.oprah.com/spirit/oprahs-gratitude-journal-oprah-on-gratitude ;

I used to have a lot of ‘noise’ in my head. I would think about what people said in great detail. Often people tell me not to think too much. It’s those stressful experiences that get me thinking the most. By writing everything down, I’m offloading my thought processes into my journal.

I sincerely want to help the person who posted this question as I feel so much affinity towards the points in Buraian’s question. I hope that my answer would also help the community and people who chance upon this question. I wasn’t expecting to write content targeted at scientific journals so please forgive my very informal first draft. I read the guidelines that personal experiences are valid answers so that’s why I decided to answer this question.

References

Deaver, S. P., & McAuliffe, G. (2009). Reflective visual journaling during art therapy and counselling internships: A qualitative study. Reflective Practice, 10(5), 615-632.

Smyth, J. M., Stone, A. A., Hurewitz, A., & Kaell, A. (1999). Effects of writing about stressful experiences on symptom reduction in patients with asthma or rheumatoid arthritis: A randomized trial. Jama, 281(14), 1304-1309.

Jamison, S. G. (2007). Online law school faculty perceptions of journaling as professional development: Influences, barriers and pitfalls (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University).
> 0 votes

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Tags: neuroscience, stress
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# Question
Title: How should results from linear mixed models (LMMs) be reported?
Are there any official APA guidelines for reporting linear mixed model results?

Can I take an approach similar to what would be done with an ANOVA (i.e., report the p-value, standard error and .95-CI for each main effect and interaction)?

What about the intercept? Any additional recommendations?

# Answer
The APA style manual does not provide specific guidelines for linear mixed models. Additionally, a review of studies using linear mixed models reported that the psychological papers surveyed differed 'substantially' in how they reported on these models (Barr, Levy, Scheepers and Tily, 2013). It depends greatly on your study, in other words. Normatively speaking, I find this checklist (Ferron et al., 2008) extremely helpful in such cases.

Besides the more general checklist, Barr, Levy, Scheepers and Tily (2013) also provide some guidelines for reporting on LMMs. The whole paper is well worth a read, but excerpts of their "Reporting results" section are provided below.

> One needs to provide sufficient information for the reader to be able to recreate the analyses. One way of satisfying this requirement is to **report the variance–covariance matrix**, which includes all the information about the random effects, including their estimates. ... A simpler option is to mention that one attempted to use a maximal LMEM and, as an added check, also state which factors had random slopes associated with them.
>
> If it is seen as necessary or desirable in a confirmatory analysis to determine the random effects structure using a data-driven approach, certain minimal guidelines should be followed. First, it is critical to **report the criteria that have been used, including the a-level for exclusion/inclusion of random slopes and the order in which random slopes were tested.** Furthermore, authors should explicitly report the changed assumptions about the generative process underlying the data that result from excluding the random slope (rather than just stating that the slopes did not ‘‘improve model fit’’), and should do so in non-technical language that non-experts can understand. Readers with only background in ANOVA will not understand that removing the random slope corresponds to pooling error across strata in a mixed-model ANOVA analysis. It is therefore preferable to **clearly state the underlying assumption of a constant effect**, e.g., ‘‘by excluding the random slope for the priming manipulation, we assume that the priming effect is invariant across subjects (or items) in the population.’’

Searching the Barr article, I also found a highly relevant CrossVal.SE question which asks for examples rather than guidelines. Since no guidelines appear to exist, I would suggest that.

### References
> 7 votes

# Answer
As an update, this paper may be helpful, though it comes from the medical field.

**References**

Monsalves, M.J., Bangdiwala, A.S., Thabane, A. et al. LEVEL (Logical Explanations & Visualizations of Estimates in Linear mixed models): recommendations for reporting multilevel data and analyses. BMC Med Res Methodol 20, 3 (2020).
> 3 votes

# Answer
There are some informative examples in Baayen, Davidson and Bates (2008), though some of their advice is outdated, having been supplanted by Barr et al. (2013) cited in the answer above. I found it useful to read these two papers together, though.

I'd like to add my voice to @Christian in stressing that one common gap in reporting such models is which random effects included just an intercept, and which (if any) included an intercept and a slope, along with a justification of of these decisions. Baayen et al. provide some examples of such justifications.

### References

Baayen, R. H, Davidson, D. J., Bates, D. M. (2008). Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items. Journal of Memory and Language, 59, 390-412.
> 2 votes

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Tags: statistics, linear-mixed-model, regression, publication, apa-style
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# Question
Title: Whats the term used to describe a situation where one does not finish the work as he is always looking for a better solution?
I read somewhere about a psychological phenomenon where one is not able to finish a task in time as the entire time is spent in looking for a better or optimum version of a solution - but can't remember the term now.

Can someone please suggest whats it called?

# Answer
Analysis Paralysis : Analysis paralysis is when the fear of either making an error or forgoing a superior solution outweighs the realistic expectation or potential value of success in a decision made in a timely manner.
> 1 votes

# Answer
I think the word you're looking for is 'Indecision'. There isn't one cause, certainly perfectionism is one cause, there can be one or many. See below for an article from Psychology Today which goes into further detail:

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/counseling-keys/201707/uncovering-hidden-causes-indecision
> -1 votes

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Tags: cognitive-psychology
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# Question
Title: Is Dissociative Personality Disorder Alter Takeover Possible?
Is it possible for an individual with dissociative personality disorder, with two distinct personalities, for the second personality (the 'alter') to take over and become the primary personality? More specifically, can the individual's second personality delete or suppress the individual's primary personality, therefore becoming the individual's sole personality?

# Answer
I think this question is asking about the movie version of multiple personality disorder, rather than the real dissociative identity disorder (DID) as it presents clinically. As-is, this question is not meaningful, but it is worth answering, if only to address the confusion over what DID is really like.

**Alters and Behaviours**

All humans have "personas". For example, any person may behave like a different person when they are intoxicated, stressed, or in love; they may present different personalities at parties, at work, and around family; they may demonstrate different skills at sports, games, and hobbies; all people mature over time. It is not really meaningful to say that a person's "adult" persona took over their "child" persona when they grew up; or that a "recovered" alcoholic suppressed their "intoxicated" persona when they permanently sobered up; or that someone's "daughter" persona was deleted when her parents died.

Dissociative alters differ from such personas in a few ways. For one thing, they are not socially appropriate in the way that putting on a "game face" might be in a competitive context, and are often problematic to their hosts as a result. Alters can also report quite distinct identities, including having different names, personal histories, perceived memories, personalities, skills, and even differing in age, gender, race, and other characteristics. Nonetheless, much like common personas, they share far more with their host than they are distinct. As such, it is not meaningful to suggest that some alter took over, suppressed, or deleted their host.

**Alters and Cognitions**

Personas are not merely behavioural - they are cognitive as well. For example, people may hear the voice of their parent when slacking off at school or work; they may ruminate on exceptionally negative thoughts when depressed; they may rationalize impulsive behaviours in one moment, and deliberate long-term consequences the next; they routinely compartmentalize beliefs, preferences, and memories - remembering certain events in one context, and different ones in another.

Again, dissociative alters differ in that voices, thoughts, feelings, and compartmentalizations are not context appropriate, are attributed their own identity, and vary in the ways that information is shared from one context to the next. However, research into cognitions of DID patients demonstrates that contrary to subjective experience, alters do in fact share memories (Huntjens, Verschuere, & McNally, 2012; Marsh et al, 2021; Kong, Allen, & Glisk, 2008; Marsh et al, 2018), and while alters do differ from each other cognitively, they are more similar to each other than to healthy controls, in attentional bias (Hermans et al, 2006), memory speficity (Huntjens et al, 2014), and neural activation patterns (Reinders et al, 2012). Alters share motor and perceptual skills, semantic memory, and language and vocabulary (Maiese, 2016). Overall, alters have more in common with each other cognitively than they are different, as would be expected, given that they share the same physical body and brain.

**Integration and Fusion**

A common misconception about alters is that how they present - as different persons - must be how they are. Indeed, during therapy, psychiatrists may treat different alters as separate individuals, as it is natural for anyone to do given how they behave. However, researchers do not view alters as actually distinct entities or separate individuals. As explained above, they are more like dispositions, states, or personas of a single individual, that have certain maladaptive traits. They most certainly share more than they segregate, including the stream of consciousness.

Accordingly, alters are not "deleted" during treatment. Rather, the process of integration or fusion is a common progression in treatment, involving the merger of alters, such that their separate memories, skills, personas, and cognitions become accessible to the host in the same way that they are readily accessible to healthy individuals.
> 3 votes

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Tags: psychiatry, personality-disorder
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# Question
Title: How applicable is the correlation between high IQ and academic achievement in guessing a child's IQ?
IQ is a highly reliable (reliable in the statistical sense) psychometric, ie. several IQ authorised IQ tests administered by a licensed psychologist should produce similar/identical results. This does not, however, mean that IQ is necessarily an accurate test of intelligence - the debate on this is long and expansive.

IQ, being highly reliable, is strongly correlated with a lot of things - SAT score, life expectancy, depression, anxiety and general neurotic tendencies, as well as academic performance. Generally, the higher the IQ of a person, the more likely they are to excel in all the ways most societies tend to favour (wealth, health, for men; marriage and dating success).

My question is, do analyses of IQ and academic success control for extraneous factors such as effort, grit and discipline? It doesn't seem outside the realms of possibility that a person with an average IQ may, with practice and discipline, outperform a person with a higher IQ. The relative age effect seems ilike it would be relevant here.

Is it really accurate to judge a child's intelligence based on their academic performance?

East Asian countries like South Korea place great emphasis on education for young children (and work ethic for adults) and as a result have higher overall educational success (hours studying for children, etc.), but also have some of the higher average IQs on a global scale. Granted, this may be because of rapid development in these countries; poverty is correlated with lower IQs generally.

# Answer
The main meta-analysis that comes to my mind is that by Poropat (2009). It examines correlations between Big Five, general intelligence, and academic grades. The basic conclusion is that both conscientiousness and intelligence are good predictors of academic grades. Other meta-analyses show that intelligence is not really correlated with conscientiousness (e.g., Judge et al 2007). It mainly overlaps with openness a little bit. As a side point, intelligence has a weak negative correlation with neuroticism.

So in summary intelligence and conscientiousness are relatively independent effects. The best students tend to be smart and apply themselves diligently to their studies.

So how good is the inference that someone with good academic grades is intelligent? It's a reasonable inference, but there would be quite a few caveats. I imagine it would depend on the validity of the measure of academic grades and degree to which it is g-laden. For instance, standardized assessments like the SAT would correlate more with intelligence than less structured grades or with grades from less g-relevant subjects (e.g., creative arts). More generally, it is also depends on how good their grades are. If they have exceptional grades on a standardized highly g-laden measure of academic grades, then you'd be pretty confident that the person was at least reasonably intelligent.

Poropat, A. E. (2009). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance. Psychological bulletin, 135(2), 322.
> 2 votes

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Tags: intelligence, iq
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# Question
Title: what's the point of range restriction correction in IQ studies?
Specifically, it seems to me that correcting for range restriction of IQ in things like college is like asking "how well would people who don't go to college do in college?"

# Answer
> -1 votes
Correcting for range restriction seeks to estimate the association (typically correlation) between two variables where the range on one or both variables has been reduced. It is typical to distinguish between direct and indirect range restriction. Direct range restriction occurs where the sample as been restricted based on scores on one or both variables. Commonly, this arises in employee and student selection contexts, where for example an intelligence test might be used to determine whether someone gets a job or whether a student is admitted into a program. In particular, the prototypical example occurs where there is a hard cut-off. Indirect range restriction arises where selection occurs based on some other variable that is associated with the variables of interest. This is much more common. For instance, students might be selected on past academic grades which are correlated with intelligence.

You ask the question: is this equivalent to asking "how well would people who don't go to college do in college?"

The answer in rough terms is yes. More specifically, it is seeking to estimate the correlation in some larger population. The definition of this larger population depends on your definition of the target population. In particular, the target population would include students admitted into college and some subset who are not admitted to college (or not the college that you are focussed on).

Implicit in your question is: why would you want to know that? A common scenario is where you are trying to evaluate the effectiveness of a selection tool. For instance, say you are using an intelligence test to determine admission decisions. But you only have data on intelligence and academic grades for students admitted on the basis of the intelligence. What you really want to know is the correlation between applicant intelligence and academic grades. Because it is that validity that determines the utility of using the intelligence test in selection. Corrections for range restriction give you tools to do this.

Other times, you are honestly interested in the research question in order to understand the world. I.e., what is the relationship between intelligence and academic grades in the whole population.

Of course, there are many complications. In particular, often you would be incorporating proxies for intelligence in your selection process anyway (e.g., using past academic grades, interview performance, etc.). So the actual incremental value of the intelligence test in selection will be more complicated.

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Tags: statistics
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title: Are homosexuals more prone to violence?

text:
# Question
Title: Are homosexuals more prone to violence?
A wiki entry on Conservapedia on "Homosexuality and murders" states:

> Dr. Eckert wrote regarding homosexual murders the following: "Equally high is the number of homicides, many probably related to transient attachments, which often lead to suspicion, jealousy, and murder. When murder does occur it is exceptionally brutal with an overkill appearance... Overkill, as it is seen in homosexual and lesbian murders, is certainly a form of sadistic crime. In these instances multiple stabbing and other brutal injuries...are common findings..."\[6\]

Dr. Eckert's background is claimed to be the following:

> According to the New York Times, Dr. William Eckert was a world-renowned authority in the field of pathology and he worked on major murder cases including the assassination of Senator Robert F. Kennedy and the Charles Manson murders.\[4\] Dr. Eckert founded the American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology.\[4\]\[5\] According to Time magazine, Dr. Eckert was a pioneer who encouraged collaborative effort between law-enforcement and forensics teams.\[5\]

I should point out however that in recent years numerous studies have shown that the police have not been very kind to the LGBT community and with interactions with the police very poor and full of bias. For example, consider this urban.org article "“No Cops at Pride”: How the Criminal Justice System Harms LGBTQ People".

So, I wonder if these sources are biased against homosexual couples.

# Answer
**Science Advances**

A study conducted by Science Advances confirmed what researchers already believed, and that is that LGBTQ people are nearly four times as likely to become victims of violent crime compared to non LGBTQ people.

Science Advances

> We find SGMs disproportionately are victims across a variety of crimes. The rate of violent victimization for SGMs is 71.1 victimizations per 1000 people compared with 19.2 victimizations per 1000 people for those who are not SGMs.

**Domestic abuse**

Also it has been reported that homosexual men and women face a high risk of becoming violently victimised by their very own partner, with 47.5% of lesbians and 29.7% of gays reporting having been victimised by their partner.

NCBI

> This study explores gender differences in victimization and perpetration experiences of gays and lesbians in intimate relationships. A sample of 283 gays and lesbians reported on their experiences both as victims and perpetrators of gay/lesbian relationship violence by completing a modified version of the Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980). General results indicate that 47.5% of lesbians and 29.7% of gays have been victimized by a same-sex partner.

**Are homosexuals more prone to violence?**

According to a study LGBTQ people are nearly four times as likely to become a victim of violence than that of a non LGBTQ person, and homosexuals face a high risk of becoming a victim of domestic violence to their same sex partner.
> 2 votes

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Tags: sexuality, aggression
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# Question
Title: Is parasocial love a romantic relationship?
Is parasocial love is a form of romantic relationship? I have read about some articles about parasocial love and have come across the term "parasocial romantic relationships" is this the same as "parasocial love"?

# Answer
> 1 votes
**Parasocial interaction**

Parasocial interaction can definitely lead to a parasocial relationship

SMU

> parasocial relationships mediated the relationships between social media interactions and source trustworthiness, (2) social media interactions influenced parasocial relationships via self-disclosure;and (3) source trustworthiness had a positive effect on brand credibility, which, in turn, led to purchase intention. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

**Dr Sandra L. Calvert**

Dr Sandra L. Calvert talks about the effects of Parasocial interaction and uses News anchors as a good example of how we can wrongfully begin to trust a media personality and grow an attachment to this person and wrongfully believe this person is speaking directly to us.

Wired

> Parasocial interactions were first investigated in regards to their effects on adults watching TV newscasters. News anchors have almost always spoken directly to the camera, fostering the notion that they’re speaking directly, almost exclusively, to viewers watching in their living rooms. The parasocial relationship that forms allows the newscaster to seem as though they're intimately connected with the viewer, similar to Jack’s connection to Dora or Mildred’s connection to the characters in The Family.

> These parasocial interactions impact human beings in both a cognitive and emotional way, Calvert says. It's in the overlap of the two that “feeling something” can become easily confused for “knowing something.” Parasocial relationships can help a person suspend disbelief, and engage more viscerally with worlds they see on television, in a film, or while playing a videogame.

**Parasocial Romantic Relationship**

A parasocial relationship can easily turn in to a parasocial romantic relationship, and there is a book on the subject called Parasocial Romantic Relationships and it explains how PRS can turn in to one-sided love.

PRS

> Parasocial Romantic Relationships: Falling in Love with Media Figures explores how, why, and to what effect individuals develop romantic feelings toward people they "know" from the media. These imaginary, one-sided relationships, dubbed parasocial romantic relationships, are both profound and pervasive, Riva Tukachinsky Forster argues. These relationships can take many forms, including adolescents who develop celebrity crushes on popular music artist, anime enthusiasts who "marry" their favorite characters, and fanfiction authors who insert themselves into narratives as romantic interests of the protagonist.

**Parasocial break up**

There is also such a thing as Parasocial break up, which happens when a media figure dies or stops going on air, and this can be quite distressing for an individual, particularly if it is an individual that has fell victim to PRS.

Digital Scholarship

> The study of one-sided mediated interactions, commonly known as parasocial interactions, have generated significant investigations which have examined both mediated relationships through television, the Internet, other media, and the discontinuation of these relationships (also known as parasocial breakups). These studies have specifically identified certain trends in which respondents have tended to form strong emotional connections with subject(s) within narrative fictional depictions. This study examines the relationship between parasocial breakup and the dissolution of a viewer following the end of primetime series, How I Met Your Mother.

**Is parasocial love a romantic relationship?**

For someone that has became a victim of parasocial interaction and went all the way to developing feelings of love, to the point where they're liable to suffer from parasocial break up, then It could definitely be described as a one-sided romantic relationship.

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Tags: social-psychology
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# Question
Title: What are the advantages of biphasic nerve stimulation?
One can stimulate nerves or muscle cells in different ways - with single-phase or multiphase pulses, cathodic or anodic, and via surface electrodes or implanted ones.

What exactly is the advantage of biphasic stimulation? why does it often provide a better and more "tolerable" response? for example, high-frequency biphasic stimulation is often used with cochlear implants, but also with defibrillators, for example.

What is the advantage of biphasic stimulation? Is it based on an electrotechnical principle of tissue capacitance, etc.?

# Answer
> 1 votes
**Short answer**
Biphasic pulses are often used to electrically stimulate nerve tissue because of safety considerations, because they are charge balanced.

**Background**
Monophasic pulses are generally more effective than biphasic ones to stimulate nerve tissue. Yet, monophasic pulses lead to a build up of charge that can eventually lead to tissue damage, *e.g.*, to the delicate inner ear structures in case of cochlear implants. Biphasic pulses have the advantage that charge doesn't build up, because the net current injection per pulse is zero. However, often one phase is excitatory, and the other not or less so, making biphasic pulses less effective than monophasic ones. Therefore, in cochlear implant research, people are playing around with asymmetric pulses (pseudomonophasic pulses) where one pulse is short and of high amplitude, and the other phase long and of low amplitude) and/or with biphasic pulses with an interphase gap to make the first phase more effective. Another way is to play around with triphasic pulses where one large excitatory phase is used, and 2 adjacent shorter phases of opposite polarity (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Different pulse shapes used in cochlear implants. SYM: symmetric; C: cathodic first; A: anodic-first; RPS: reversed pseudomonophasic; IPG: interphase gap; TRI: tripolar. source: (Machery & Cazals, 2016)

**Reference**
**-** Macherey & Cazals (2016). In: Van Dijk *et al.* (eds). Physiology, Psychoacoustics and Cognition in Normal and Impaired Hearing. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology (2016); **894**. Springer, Cham

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Tags: neuroscience, cognitive-neuroscience, neurophysiology, electrophysiology
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title: Deflection of the basilar membrane

text:
# Question
Title: Deflection of the basilar membrane
The basilar membrane becomes thicker and heavier from the basal end to the apical upper end - this is why high frequencies are perceived in the lower range and low frequencies in the upper range.

But why? Why does the traveling wave of the membrane reach its maximum amplitude at high frequencies at the bottom and at low frequencies at the top? How is this related to the width, stiffness and mass of the basilar membrane?

This question is related to: Sound decomposition of the brain

# Answer
The wide, slack composition of the basilar membrane (BM) in the apex and the narrow, stiff characteristics at the base are among the factors that underlie the tuning of the BM. Slack, wide structures vibrate at low harmonic frequencies, stiff and narrow structures at high frequencies, just like the strings of a guitar. The apex of the cochlea transduces low frequencies, the base high. Cochlea.eu has an accessible explanation this. What also adds to this is that the hair cells in the apex are longer, and in the base they are shorter. Basically, the BM allows a standing wave to form, where each place on the BM resonates at a typical harmonic frequency that increases from apex to base. The harmonic frequency is governed by the physical properties and is sharpened by the outer hair cells (Purves *et al*., 2001).

Fig. 1. Cochlear structures with a focus on the frequency tuning of the basilar membrane. source: Purves *et al*. (2001)

**Reference**
**-** Purves *et al*., eds. *Neuroscience*, 2nd ed. Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2001
> 2 votes

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Tags: neuroscience, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, hearing
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# Question
Title: How do the outer hair cells amplify the traveling wave?
Depending on the movement frequency, outer hair cells can stretch and contract, amplifying the amplitude of the traveling wave at the basilar membrane.

How can they do this exactly? what is the point of the hair cells shortening or stretching?

This question is related to: Sound decomposition of the brain

# Answer
**Short answer**
Outer hair cells physically contract at a rate corresponding to the characteristic resonant frequency at which they are situated on the basilar membrane, thereby mechanically amplifying the basilar membrane movement.

**Background**
After the exchange of thoughts in the comments I started to understand your question is basically what the mechanism is by which outer hairs cells (OHCs) amplify the basilar membrane (BM) movement.

OHCs can physically oscillate by contracting through an active energy-dependent process. When sound imposes a travelling wave onto the BM, it causes stereocilia deflection on both inner hair cells (IHCs) and OHCs. In both, the mechanical stimulus results in receptor potential changes. In IHCs, these potential changes lead to neurotransmitter release and action potential generation in auditory nerve fibers. In OHCs, by contrast, they result in contraction, which amplifies the BM motion (Fig. 1). Audible sounds in humans go from about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. OHCs have been shown to reach contracting rates of up to 70 kHz, meaning they indeed can amplify the BM response along the audible frequency range.

Fig. 1. IHC and OHC responses in the cochlea. source: University of Minnesota, Dulluth

**Reference**
**-** Ashmore, *Physiol Rev* (2008); **88**(1):173-210
> 2 votes

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Tags: neuroscience, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, sensation, hearing
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# Question
Title: Has there ever been a split brain pianist?
Has there ever been a split brain pianist?

I was thinking about this yesterday and it occurred to me that a split brain pianist might have an advantage over a non-split brain pianist; they could potentially read the bass and treble clef lines independently and thus process the lines independently. Perhaps this advantage would be meaningless at the *professional* level, but it surely could have the potential to make it easier for *beginner* pianists. I spent some time searching but was unfortunately unable to find any case studies of this.

I did, however, find a case study of a ex-professional pianist with alien hand syndrome whose symptoms were exacerbated when playing the piano, but it wasn't what I was looking for.

I'd also be interested in any examples of split brain patients who were able to play any instrument at all – I'd find the outcomes fascinating.

# Answer
> 3 votes
Your hypothesis that those suffering from split-brain syndrome

> could potentially read the bass and treble clef lines independently and thus process the lines independently. Perhaps this advantage would be meaningless at the professional level, but it surely could have the potential to make it easier for beginner pianists.

is flawed. That is because communication between the two brain hemispheres is required in order to learn to play the piano.

Encyclopaedia Britannica points out that

> **Split-brain syndrome**, also called **callosal disconnection syndrome**, \[is a\] condition characterized by a cluster of neurological abnormalities arising from the partial or complete severing or lesioning of the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerves that connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain.
>
> **\[...\]***
>
> The primary cause of split-brain syndrome is intentional severing of the corpus callosum, partially or completely, through a surgical procedure known as corpus callosotomy. Rarely performed in the 21st century (having been replaced largely by drug treatments and other procedures), this operation is reserved as a last measure of treatment for extreme and uncontrollable forms of epilepsy in which violent seizures spread from one side of the brain to the other.

With regard to playing a piano with the corpus callosum completely severed, Encyclopaedia Britannica also points out that (emphasis mine)

> Many patients with split-brain syndrome retain intact memory and social skills. Split-brain patients also maintain motor skills that were learned before the onset of their condition and require both sides of the body; examples include walking, swimming, and biking. They can also learn new tasks that involve either parallel or mirrored movements of their fingers or hands. **They cannot, however, learn to perform new tasks that require interdependent movement of each hand, such as learning to play the piano, where both hands must work together to produce the desired music**.

So therefore, beginner pianists will not be able gain any more abilities with playing the piano, and pianists will not be able to learn any new pieces of music as it will involve learning how to coordinate each hand with the notes within the piece.

The anterior half of the corpus callosum is significantly larger in musicians (Schlaug, et al. 1995), @AliceD points out in the excellent answer to **Unilateral vision in split brain subjects**

> * The corpus callosum is not necessary for low-level visual processing;
> * Both eyes project to both hemispheres; the left visual hemifield of both eyes is projected to the left hemisphere, the right hemifield to the right.

and Chappell (1999) also points out that;

> It is argued that in terms of brain usage, technical skills and note-reading are based largely in the left-hemisphere, while the less used skills of improvisation, memorisation and internalisation are based in the right-hemisphere.

## References

Chappell, S. (1999). Developing the complete pianist: A study of the importance of a whole-brain approach to piano teaching. *British Journal of Music Education, 16*(3), 253-262. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265051799000340

Sand, R. (n.d.). Split-brain syndrome: Pathology *Encyclopaedia Britannica* https://www.britannica.com/science/split-brain-syndrome

Schlaug, G., Jäncke, L., Huang, Y., Staiger, J. F., & Steinmetz, H. (1995). Increased corpus callosum size in musicians. *Neuropsychologia, 33*(8), 1047-1055. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(95)00045-5

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Tags: reference-request, abnormal-psychology, brain
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title: The perception of time of workaholics

text:
# Question
Title: The perception of time of workaholics
> “When you are courting a nice girl an hour seems like a second. When you sit on a red-hot cinder a second seems like an hour. That's relativity.” -Albert Einstein

It's no secret that Elon Musk puts a tremendous number of hours into his work.

It is also said, "Newton, Einstein, Tesla, and few other great scientists were putting too much time in search of truth". As if they were enjoying their time, the work they were doing was like fun to them. Similarly, when I study math sometimes I need someone to remind me "It's time to show you're hungry".

It thus seems like our state of mind can change our perception of time, as pointed out in a previous question on this site.

What can make someone so absorbed in their work that they forget about food?

# Answer
Being deeply immersed in a task is called *flow*. The term was introduced by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, a hungarian psychologist. Csíkszentmihályi spent decades on researching this phenomenon and I can highly recommend reading his book: Flow - The Psychology of Optimal Experience
> 3 votes

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Tags: perception, philosophy-of-mind, time
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# Question
Title: When did we discover the replication crisis in psychology?
I read the the term was coined in 2010s, but that doesn't mean that was when we became aware of it.

# Answer
> 6 votes
I think the answer to this question is not straightforward. The core of the problem is based in statistical significance testing, statistical power of studies, publication pressure, and the greed for positive rather than negative results in general. Libraries have been filled on these topics and the issue is a science-wide issue, not only confined to the Social Sciences, although the problem has been identified in this area first, and seems to be the biggest here as well (probably due to the notorious variability in people's subjective responses).

The 'replication crisis' has of course slowly grown and escalated not from one day to the next. It has started to surface likely due to small meta analyses popping up here and there, up until the point larger meta reviews surfaced and the popular scientific media got hold of the idea as well.

I have been conducting a cursory literature search and one highly cited author in the area of research on reproducibility is John Ioannidis. He has published a series of studies on the (failing) replication of genetic studies. Those publications go back to a meta review published in Nature Genetics in 2001.

I bet if you dig deeper, across other disciplines, similar articles with similar alarming messages will readily surface with publication dates long before the earliest paper from 2001 I was able to find in my search.

<sub>**Reference**
**-** Ionnidis *et al*., *Nature Genetics* (2001); **29**: 306-9</sub>

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Tags: meta-analysis
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