title: American (1902 automobile)

abstract: The American, often nicknamed as the American Gas, was a small gasoline-powered buggy manufactured by the American Motor Carriage Company in Cleveland from 1902 to 1903, and sold until early 1904. It was one of nearly two dozen American automobile marques to bear this name. The company evolved in August 1901 from an interior decorating studio. Its president was George F. McKay, with F.D. Dorman as vice president and general manager, J.F. Morris acting as secretary-treasurer and George H. Wadsworth as superintendent. The car was developed by chief engineer George W. Dunham. It was a light two-passenger runabout with a water-cooled, 7-horsepower (5.2 kW) single-cylinder engine fitted under the seat, a planetary transmission and a single chain to the rear axle. The wheel base was 72 inches (180 cm). The most outstanding item of the vehicle was its wheel-steering device. A 7-gallon fuel tank was fitted, which would give a driving range of about 150 miles (240 km). As usual at the time, the car was right-hand driven. Minimalistic coachwork included a small compartment in front. The car came painted in "French carmine", with the running gear in "Valentine red", and the seat bench trimmed in black leather. The car's initial price was $1000, and the company came never close to the targeted capacity of 200 cars per year. In September 1903, the company came under receivership management by the Prudential Trust Company. Dunham became general manager, looking to assemble as many cars as possible from parts ready. These were sold for $750 until April 1904, when a new company named American Automobile Company moved in. They never produced a car. Press noted that the American Motor Carriage Company was the first automobile manufacturer in Cleveland that failed. This is not true, but it was the most important by then.

text:
# American (1902 automobile)

The **American**, often nicknamed as the **American Gas**, was a small gasoline-powered buggy manufactured by the **American Motor Carriage Company** in Cleveland from 1902 to 1903, and sold until early 1904. It was one of nearly two dozen American automobile marques to bear this name.

The company evolved in August 1901 from an interior decorating studio. Its president was George F. McKay, with F.D. Dorman as vice president and general manager, J.F. Morris acting as secretary-treasurer and George H. Wadsworth as superintendent.

The car was developed by chief engineer George W. Dunham. It was a light (1000 lb) two-passenger runabout with a water-cooled, 7-horsepower (5.2 kW) single-cylinder engine fitted under the seat, a planetary transmission and a single chain to the rear axle. The wheel base was 72 inches (180 cm). The most outstanding item of the vehicle was its wheel-steering device. A 7-gallon fuel tank was fitted, which would give a driving range of about 150 miles (240 km). As usual at the time, the car was right-hand driven. Minimalistic coachwork included a small compartment in front. The car came painted in "French carmine", with the running gear in "Valentine red", and the seat bench trimmed in black leather. The car's initial price was $1000, and the company came never close to the targeted capacity of 200 cars per year.

In September 1903, the company came under receivership management by the Prudential Trust Company. Dunham became general manager, looking to assemble as many cars as possible from parts ready. These were sold for $750 until April 1904, when a new company named **American Automobile Company** moved in. They never produced a car.

Press noted that the American Motor Carriage Company was the first automobile manufacturer in Cleveland that failed. This is not true, but it was the most important by then.


title: AmericanMuscle

abstract: AmericanMuscle is an American online retailer of automotive parts and accessories for Ford Mustang and Ford F-150 model automobiles. Founded by Steve Voudouris, it is one of the flagship brands and websites of Turn5 Inc., a holding company that owns and operates a group of specialty after market parts companies.

text:
# AmericanMuscle

**AmericanMuscle** is an American online retailer of automotive parts and accessories for Ford Mustang and Ford F-150 (F-Series truck) model automobiles. Founded by Steve Voudouris, it is one of the flagship brands and websites of Turn5 Inc., a holding company that owns and operates a group of specialty after market parts companies.

## History

The AmericanMuscle brand began in 2003 when the company was operating from a home garage and was managed by two of its current executives—brothers Steve Voudouris and Andrew Voudouris. Today, AmericanMuscle operates from the company's Malvern, Pennsylvania headquarters, which includes a 200,000 square foot warehouse, video room, training room and design area and is one of the largest suppliers of aftermarket Ford Mustang and Ford F-150 performance parts in North America.

The founding partners were awarded the Small Business Administration's Young Entrepreneur of the Year Award in 2009 for their success in building the company's forebear, Xoxide while still in high school. In 2009, the company changed its name to Turn5 Inc, and sold the Xoxide website to gaming equipment manufacturer and distributor, eDimensional Inc.

## Philanthropy

### AmericanMuscle Charity Mustang Show

AmericanMuscle is the host of the annual AmericanMuscle Mustang Show. Originating in 2008 as a customer appreciation day in the company's Malvern, Pennsylvania headquarters, the AmericanMuscle Mustang show has evolved into the largest one day all Mustang car show in the world.

Through the Mustang Car Show's fund-raising activities and efforts, AmericanMuscle has raised and donated more than $150,000 in cash to non-profit organizations.

At its 7th annual Car Show in 2015, The AmericanMuscle team rebuilt a 2000 V6 Mustang for a terminally ill 18-year-old named Jonathan to fulfill his 'Make-A-Wish' dream.

In 2017, the Turn5 team donated $126,751 to the 'Make-A-Wish' foundation.

| Date | Mustangs in Show | Attendees | Amount Raised | Charitable Organization |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| September 3, 2017 | 2,000 | 8,000 | $126,751 | Make-A-Wish Foundation |
| August 15, 2015 | 3,000 | 10,000 | $55,000 | Make-A-Wish Foundation |
| August 16, 2014 | 2,600 | 9,200 | $31,200.00 | Special Olympics |
| August 11, 2013 | 1,400 | 5,000 | $20,522 | Alex's Lemonade Stand |
| August 12, 2012 | 1,200 | 4,000 | $14,408.00 | Cystic Fibrosis Foundation |
| August 14, 2011 | 600 | 2,000 | $14,511.00 | Wounded Warrior Project |
| September 11, 2010 | 524 | 1,700 | $14,825.00 | Homes for Troops |
| July 19, 2009 | 150 | 750 | $9,365.00 | Homes for Troops |

### AmericanMuscle Student Scholarship Program

In 2013 AmericanMuscle began offering four annual scholarships for $2,000 each to students in the US and Canada pursuing an automotive related field of study. AmericanMuscle has awarded 14 scholarships totaling $28,000 since the program's inception.

## Awards

## InfoBox

AmericanMuscle
| Industry | e-commerce (automotive aftermarket) |
| --- | --- |
| Founded | 2003 |
| Headquarters | Malvern, Pennsylvania, United States |
| Key people | CEO, Steve Voudouris, Executive Marketing Director, Andrew Voudouris |
| Products | auto parts and accessories |


title: East Devon National Landscape

abstract: East Devon National Landscape covers over 100 square miles (260 km⁲) of the East Devon countryside (England). This countryside includes eighteen miles of Heritage coastline. The designated area covers: twenty-nine parishes and borders the coastal towns of Exmouth, Seaton and Sidmouth but includes the entire resort of Budleigh Salterton. East Devon has two AONBs within its catchment area which includes the Blackdown Hills and East Devon AONB, both AONBs make up over 66% of the district. East Devon AONB Partnership is a joint initiative funded by Defra, East Devon District Council and Devon County Council. Through ventures such as community projects and project grants East Devon AONB Partnership helps to conserve and manage the East Devon AONB.

text:
# East Devon National Landscape

**East Devon National Landscape** covers over 100 square miles (260 km2) of the East Devon countryside (England).

This countryside includes eighteen miles (29 km) of Heritage coastline. The designated area covers: twenty-nine parishes and borders the coastal towns of Exmouth, Seaton and Sidmouth but includes the entire resort of Budleigh Salterton.

East Devon has two AONBs within its catchment area which includes the Blackdown Hills (designated 1991) and East Devon AONB (designated 1963), both AONBs make up over 66% of the district.

East Devon AONB Partnership is a joint initiative funded by Defra (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs), East Devon District Council and Devon County Council. Through ventures such as community projects and project grants East Devon AONB Partnership helps to conserve and manage the East Devon AONB.

## InfoBox

| East Devon National Landscape | |
| --- | --- |
| East Devon Countryside in winter | |
| Location of the East Devon AONB in the UK | |
| Location | Devon, England |
| Coordinates | 50°18′50″N 3°49′30″W / 50.314°N 3.825°W / 50.314; -3.825 |
| Established | 1963 |


title: American Association rosters

text:
# American Association rosters

Below are the full rosters and coaching staff of the 11 teams of American Association of Professional Baseball.

## East Division

### Chicago Dogs

Chicago Dogs § Roster

### Cleburne Railroaders

Cleburne Railroaders § Roster

### Gary SouthShore RailCats

Gary SouthShore RailCats § Roster

### Kane County Cougars

Kane County Cougars § Roster

### Lake Country DockHounds

Lake Country DockHounds § Roster

### Milwaukee Milkmen

Milwaukee Milkmen § Roster

## West Division

### Fargo-Moorhead RedHawks

Fargo-Moorhead RedHawks § Roster

### Kansas City Monarchs

Kansas City T-Bones § Roster

### Lincoln Saltdogs

Lincoln Saltdogs § Roster

### Sioux City Explorers

Sioux City Explorers § Roster

### Sioux Falls Canaries

Sioux Falls Canaries § Roster

### Winnipeg Goldeyes

Winnipeg Goldeyes § Roster


title: 1904–05 Dundee F.C. season

text:
# 1904–05 Dundee F.C. season

The 1904–05 season was the twelfth season in which Dundee competed at a Scottish national level, playing in Division One, where they would finish in 8th place. Dundee would also compete in the Scottish Cup, where they would lose to Heart of Midlothian in the first round.

## Scottish Division One

*Statistics provided by Dee Archive*

| Match Day | Date | Opponent | H/A | Score | Dundee Scorer(s) | Attendance |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 20 August | St Mirren |  | 2–0 | McAteer (2) | 7,500 |
| 2 | 27 August | Queen's Park |  | 1–0 | MacFarlane | 9,000 |
| 3 | 3 September | Airdrieonians |  | 0–1 |  | 7,000 |
| 4 | 10 September | Rangers |  | 0–3 |  | 14,760 |
| 5 | 17 September | Hibernian |  | 1–1 | Bell | 7,000 |
| 6 | 26 September | Kilmarnock |  | 3–0 | Brand, MacFarlane (2) | 7,000 |
| 7 | 1 October | Motherwell |  | 2–0 | McAteer, Cowie | 4,500 |
| 8 | 8 October | St Mirren |  | 1–1 | Cowie |  |
| 9 | 15 October | Greenock Morton |  | 6–1 | Cowie (2), Brown (3), Bell | 6,400 |
| 10 | 22 October | Partick Thistle |  | 0–1 |  | 6,800 |
| 11 | 29 October | Rangers |  | 1–2 | MacFarlane | 13,000 |
| 12 | 5 November | Airdrieonians |  | 0–2 |  | 5,500 |
| 13 | 12 November | Heart of Midlothian |  | 2–0 | Wilson, Bell | 7,300 |
| 14 | 19 November | Celtic |  | 0–3 |  | 8,000 |
| 15 | 3 December | Hibernian |  | 4–1 | Wilson, Findlay, Cowie (2) | 6,000 |
| 16 | 10 December | Third Lanark |  | 0–0 |  | 6,000 |
| 17 | 17 December | Greenock Morton |  | 1–5 | Brand | 2,000 |
| 18 | 26 December | Third Lanark |  | 2–2 | Cowie (2) | 3,000 |
| 19 | 31 December | Port Glasgow Athletic |  | 4–0 | MacFarlane (2), Cowie, Brown | 3,100 |
| 20 | 7 January | Motherwell |  | 0–0 |  | 5,000 |
| 21 | 14 January | Celtic |  | 2–1 | Wilson, Brown | 13,000 |
| 22 | 21 January | Partick Thistle |  | 1–2 | Brown | 2,200 |
| 23 | 11 February | Kilmarnock |  | 1–2 | Jeffray |  |
| 24 | 25 February | Heart of Midlothian |  | 1–3 | Brand | 4,500 |
| 25 | 25 March | Port Glasgow Athletic |  | 0–1 |  |  |
| 26 | 1 April | Queen's Park |  | 3–0 | Bell, Brown, Cowie | 3,500 |

### League table

| Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 6 | Partick Thistle | 26 | 12 | 2 | 12 | 36 | 56 | 20 | 26 |
| 7 | Hearts | 26 | 11 | 3 | 12 | 46 | 44 | +2 | 25 |
| 8 | Dundee | 26 | 10 | 5 | 11 | 38 | 32 | +6 | 25 |
| 9 | Kilmarnock | 26 | 9 | 5 | 12 | 29 | 45 | 16 | 23 |
| 10 | St Mirren | 26 | 9 | 4 | 13 | 33 | 36 | 3 | 22 |

Source: SPFL Archive

## Scottish Cup

*Statistics provided by Dee Archive*

| Match Day | Date | Opponent | H/A | Score | Dundee Scorer(s) | Attendance |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1st round | 28 January | Heart of Midlothian |  | 1–3 | MacFarlane | 14,000 |

## Player statistics

*Statistics provided by Dee Archive*

| No. | Pos | Nat | Player | Total | | First Division | | Scottish Cup | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | | | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals | Apps | Goals |
|  | FW | SCO | Alan Bell | 25 | 3 | 24 | 3 | 1 | 0 |
|  | DF | SCO | Dickie Boyle | 27 | 1 | 26 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
|  | FW | SCO | Arthur Brand | 12 | 3 | 12 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
|  | FW | SCO | Tom Brown | 14 | 7 | 13 | 7 | 1 | 0 |
|  | FW | SCO | Jimmy Burnett | 8 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
|  | DF | SCO | John Chaplin | 26 | 0 | 25 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
|  | FW | SCO | Dave Cowie | 24 | 10 | 23 | 10 | 1 | 0 |
|  | DF | SCO | Johnny Darroch | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
|  | FW | SCO | Bob Findlay | 8 | 1 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
|  | MF | SCO | Jimmy Jeffray | 23 | 1 | 22 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
|  | FW | SCO | Sandy MacFarlane | 25 | 7 | 24 | 6 | 1 | 1 |
|  | DF | SCO | Tom McAteer | 23 | 3 | 22 | 3 | 1 | 0 |
|  | FW | SCO | Fred McDiarmid | 19 | 0 | 19 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
|  | FW | SCO | John McHardy | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
|  | DF | SCO | John McKenzie | 9 | 0 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
|  | DF | SCO | Hugh McNaught | 8 | 0 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
|  | GK | SCO | Willie Muir | 25 | 0 | 24 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
|  | GK | EIR | Matthew Reilly | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
|  | FW | SCO | Billy Thomson | 5 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
|  | FW | ENG | David Wilson | 10 | 3 | 10 | 3 | 0 | 0 |

*

## InfoBox

Dundee
| 1904–05 season | |
| --- | --- |
| Manager | William Wallace |
| Stadium | Dens Park |
| Division One | 8th |
| Scottish Cup | First round |
| Top goalscorer | League: Dave Cowie (10)<br>All: Dave Cowie (10) |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |
|  | |


title: Aminata Ndong

abstract: Aminata Ndong is a right-handed Senegalese former fencer. She competed in the women's individual épée event at the 2004 Summer Olympics.

text:
# Aminata Ndong

**Aminata Ndong** (born 3 May 1980) is a right-handed Senegalese former fencer. She competed in the women's individual épée event at the 2004 Summer Olympics.

## InfoBox

Aminata Ndong
| Personal information | |
| --- | --- |
| Nationality | Senegalese |
| Born | (1980-05-03) 3 May 1980 |
| Height | 167 cm (5 ft 6 in) |
| Weight | 51 kg (112 lb) |
| Sport | |
| Sport | Fencing |
| Event | Epee |


abstract: The 1871 New Hampshire gubernatorial election was held on 14 March 1871 in order to elect the Governor of New Hampshire. Democratic nominee and incumbent Mayor of Manchester James A. Weston defeated Republican nominee and former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Hampshire's 1st district James Pike, Temperance nominee Albert Comings and Labor Reform Party nominee Lemuel P. Cooper.

text:
# 1871 New Hampshire gubernatorial election

The **1871 New Hampshire gubernatorial election** was held on 14 March 1871 in order to elect the Governor of New Hampshire. Democratic nominee and incumbent Mayor of Manchester James A. Weston defeated Republican nominee and former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Hampshire's 1st district James Pike, Temperance nominee Albert Comings and Labor Reform Party nominee Lemuel P. Cooper.

## General election

On election day, 14 March 1871, Democratic nominee James A. Weston won the election by a margin of 808 votes against his foremost opponent Republican nominee James Pike, thereby gaining Democratic control over the office of Governor. Weston was sworn in as the 33rd Governor of New Hampshire on 14 June 1871.

### Results

New Hampshire gubernatorial election, 1871
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Democratic** | **James A. Weston** | **34,700** | **49.76** |
|  | Republican | James Pike | 33,892 | 48.61 |
|  | Prohibition | Albert Comings | 782 | 1.12 |
|  | Labor Reform Party | Lemuel P. Cooper | 314 | 0.45 |
|  |  | Scattering | 41 | 0.06 |
| Total votes | | | **69,729** | **100.00** |
|  | Democratic **gain** from Republican | | | |

## InfoBox

1871 New Hampshire gubernatorial election
| --- | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Nominee **James A. Weston** James Pike   Party Democratic Republican  Popular vote **34,700** 33,892  Percentage **49.76%** 48.61% | |
| ---  County results
**Weston:**      50–60%
**Pike:**      40–50%      50–60% | |
| ---  **Governor before election**
Onslow Stearns
Republican **Elected Governor**
James A. Weston
Democratic | |


title: American Beverage Association

abstract: The American Beverage Association (ABA) is a government lobbying group that represents the beverage industry in the United States. Its members include producers and bottlers of soft drinks, such as The Coca-Cola Company, PepsiCo, and Keurig Dr Pepper, along with other non-alcoholic beverages.

text:
# American Beverage Association

The **American Beverage Association** (**ABA**) is a government lobbying group that represents the beverage industry in the United States. Its members include producers and bottlers of soft drinks, such as The Coca-Cola Company, PepsiCo, and Keurig Dr Pepper, along with other non-alcoholic beverages.

## History

The organization was founded in 1919, and originally named the **American Bottlers of Carbonated Beverages**. In 1966, it renamed itself the **National Soft Drink Association**. Then in November 2004, it changed to its current name, "to better reflect the expanded range of nonalcoholic beverages the industry produces."

## Leadership

Its members are bottling companies and other beverage industry firms, including Bulldog Americas Corporation, several Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola bottlers, Pepsi-Americas Inc, and Royal Crown Bottling Corporation.

## Lobbying

The American Beverage Association's lobbying efforts have recently skyrocketed, largely to finance the industry's opposition to legislators’ considering increased taxes on soft drinks given their impact on Americans' health. The Association has annually spent from $391,000 to more than $690,000 annually on lobbying from 2003 to 2008. In the 2010 election cycle, its lobbying grew more than 1000 percent to $8.67 million. These funds are helping to pay for 25 lobbyists at seven different lobbying firms.

## Latest news

In September 2009, a *New England Journal of Medicine* study called for taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages saying that these actions would cut rates of diet-related diseases and health care costs. Written by experts in nutrition, public health and economics, the study called for an excise tax of a penny per ounce on soft drinks and other beverages that have added sweeteners such as sucrose, high fructose corn syrup or fruit-juice concentrates. The expectation is that such a tax could reduce calorie consumption from sweetened beverages by 10% and create revenue that governments could use to pay for health programs. A report on the *New England Journal of Medicine* study can be read here

To counter these pro-tax efforts, the American Beverage Association and other beverage industry companies have established an "Americans Against Food Taxes" coalition and website. Their efforts include national advertising and other actions positioning the proposed taxes as "taxing hard-working families." This group's actions have been opposed by pro-tax organizations including the Center for Science in the Public Interest.

To date, 33 states have taxes on soft drinks but they are "too low to affect consumption and the revenues are not earmarked for health programs," according to the *New England Journal of Medicine* study.

Maureen Storey, senior vice president for science policy and author of many of the ABA's press releases and official statements

## InfoBox

American Beverage Association
|
|  |
| Trade name | ABA |
| Company type | Trade Association |
| Industry | Non-Alcoholic Beverage Industry |
| Predecessor | American Bottlers of Carbonated Beverages; National Soft Drink Association |
| Founded | 1919 (1919) |
| Headquarters | United States |
| Key people | Matthew Dent, Chair |
| Services | Lobbying on behalf of non-alcoholic beverage producers |
| Website | www.americanbeverage.org |


title: 1910 in Canadian football

text:
# 1910 in Canadian football

The University of Toronto successfully defended its inaugural Grey Cup championship with a victory over the Hamilton Tigers.

## Canadian football news in 1910

The Regina Rugby Club was formed on September 13 at the Regina City Hall and adopted the colours of old gold and purple. Regina played the Moose Jaw Tigers in its first game on October 1 at the Moose Jaw Baseball Grounds, with the Tigers winning 16–6.

On September 22, the Saskatchewan Rugby Football Union was organized in the Flanagan Hotel at Saskatoon. The SRFU adopted the CRU rules.

Edmonton changed its name from Esquimaux to the Eskimos.

Source:

## Regular season

### Final regular season standings

***Note:** GP = Games Played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, PF = Points For, PA = Points Against, Pts = Points*

| **Interprovincial Rugby Football Union** Team GP W L T PF PA Pts  **Hamilton Tigers** 6 4 2 0 76 43 8  Toronto Argonauts 6 3 3 0 68 92 6  Ottawa Rough Riders 6 3 3 0 70 66 6  Montreal Football Club 6 2 4 0 74 87 4 | Ontario Rugby Football Union Team GP W L T PF PA Pts  **Toronto Amateur Athletic Club** 6 5 1 0 78 46 10  Dundas Rugby Club 6 4 2 0 103 48 8  St. Michael's College 6 3 3 0 75 74 6  Toronto Parkdale Canoe Club 6 0 6 0 25 113 0 | **Intercollegiate Rugby Football Union** Team GP W L T PF PA Pts  **Varsity Blues** 6 6 0 0 114 30 12  Queen's University 6 3 3 0 67 53 6  McGill Redmen 6 3 3 0 70 39 6  University of Ottawa 6 0 6 0 14 143 0 |
| --- | --- | --- |

\*Bold text means that they have clinched the playoffs

Manitoba Rugby Football Union
| Team | GP | W | L | T | PF | PA | Pts |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Winnipeg Rowing Club | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 61 | 28 | 6 |
| St.John's Rugby Football Club | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 28 | 61 | 2 |
|

Saskatchewan Rugby Football Union
| Team | GP | W | L | T | PF | PA | Pts |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Moose Jaw Tigers | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 74 | 18 | 8 |
| Regina Rugby Club | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 18 | 74 | 0 |

Calgary Rugby Football Union
| Team | GP | W | L | T | PF | PA | Pts |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Calgary Tigers | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 29 | 21 | 5 |
| Calgary YMCA | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 21 | 29 | 1 |

Alberta Rugby Football League schools exhibition games
| Team | GP | W | L | T | PF | PA | Pts |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| University of Alberta Varsity | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 30 | 30 | 2 |
| Western Canada College | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 30 | 30 | 2 |

## League Champions

| Football Union | League Champion |
| --- | --- |
| IRFU | Hamilton Tigers |
| CIRFU | University of Toronto |
| ORFU | Toronto Amateur Athletic Club |
| MRFU | Winnipeg Rowing Club |
| SRFU | Moose Jaw Tigers |
| ARFL | Calgary Tigers |
|

## Grey Cup playoffs

*Note: All dates in 1910*

### Alberta Rugby Football League playoffs

| Date Away Home   **ARFL Finals Games 1 & 2** October 31 **Edmonton Eskimos** 7 Calgary Tigers 25  November 5 Calgary Tigers 14 **Edmonton Eskimos** 12 |
| --- |

* *Calgary wins the total-point series 39-19.*

### East semi-final

| Date Away Home  November 19 Toronto Amateur Athletic Club 3 **Toronto Varsity Blues 22** |
| --- |

* *Toronto Varsity Blues advance to the Grey Cup.*

## Playoff bracket

|  | **Semifinals** | | |  |  | **Grey Cup final** | | |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  | IRFU | Hamilton Tigers |  |  |  | | | | |
|  | | | | | |
|  |  | BYE |  |  | |
|  | | | | |  | IRFU | Hamilton Tigers | 7 |  |
|  | | | | | |  | | |  |
|  | |  |  | CIRFU | University of Toronto | 16 |  |
|  | CIRFU | | | | | | University of Toronto | 22 |  |
|  | | | | |  | | | | |
|  | | ORFU | Toronto Amateur Athletic Club | 3 |  |

## Grey Cup Championship

| November 26 *2nd Annual Grey Cup Game*: A.A.A. GroundsHamilton, Ontario  **Toronto Varsity Blues 16** Hamilton Tigers 7  ***Toronto Varsity Blues are the 1910 Grey Cup Champions*** |
| --- |


title: Ecological succession

abstract: Ecological succession is the process of change in the species that make up an ecological community over time. The process of succession occurs either after the initial colonization of a newly created habitat, or after a disturbance substantially alters a pre-existing habitat. Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities, is called primary succession, whereas succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession. Primary succession may happen after a lava flow or the emergence of a new island from the ocean. Surtsey, a volcanic island off the southern coast of Iceland, is an important example of a place where primary succession has been observed. On the other hand, secondary succession happens after disturbance of a community, such as from a fire, severe windthrow, or logging. Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology. Ecological succession was first documented in the Indiana Dunes of Northwest Indiana and remains an important ecological topic of study. Over time, the understanding of succession has changed from a linear progression to a stable climax state, to a more complex, cyclical model that de-emphasizes the idea of organisms having fixed roles or relationships.

text:
# Ecological succession

**Ecological succession** is the process of change in the species that make up an ecological community over time.

The process of succession occurs either after the initial colonization of a newly created habitat, or after a disturbance substantially alters a pre-existing habitat. Succession that begins in new habitats, uninfluenced by pre-existing communities, is called primary succession, whereas succession that follows disruption of a pre-existing community is called secondary succession. Primary succession may happen after a lava flow or the emergence of a new island from the ocean. Surtsey, a volcanic island off the southern coast of Iceland, is an important example of a place where primary succession has been observed. On the other hand, secondary succession happens after disturbance of a community, such as from a fire, severe windthrow, or logging.

Succession was among the first theories advanced in ecology. Ecological succession was first documented in the Indiana Dunes of Northwest Indiana and remains an important ecological topic of study. Over time, the understanding of succession has changed from a linear progression to a stable climax state, to a more complex, cyclical model that de-emphasizes the idea of organisms having fixed roles or relationships.

## History

Precursors of the idea of ecological succession go back to the beginning of the 19th century. As early as 1742 French naturalist Buffon noted that poplars precede oaks and beeches in the natural evolution of a forest. Buffon was later forced by the theological committee at the University of Paris to recant many of his ideas because they contradicted the biblical narrative of Creation.

Swiss geologist Jean-André Deluc and the later French naturalist Adolphe Dureau de la Malle were the first to make use of the word *succession* concerning the vegetation development after forest clear-cutting. In 1859 Henry David Thoreau wrote an address called "The Succession of Forest Trees" in which he described succession in an oak-pine forest. "It has long been known to observers that squirrels bury nuts in the ground, but I am not aware that any one has thus accounted for the regular succession of forests." The Austrian botanist Anton Kerner published a study about the succession of plants in the Danube river basin in 1863.

Ragnar Hult's 1885 study on the stages of forest development in Blekinge noted that grassland becomes heath before the heath develops into forest. Birch dominated the early stages of forest development, then pine (on dry soil) and spruce (on wet soil). If the birch is replaced by oak it eventually develops to beechwood. Swamps proceed from moss to sedges to moor vegetation followed by birch and finally spruce.

### H. C. Cowles

Between 1899 and 1910, Henry Chandler Cowles, at the University of Chicago, developed a more formal concept of succession. Inspired by studies of Danish dunes by Eugen Warming, Cowles studied vegetation development on sand dunes on the shores of Lake Michigan (the Indiana Dunes). He recognized that vegetation on dunes of different ages might be interpreted as different stages of a general trend of vegetation development on dunes (an approach to the study of vegetation change later termed space-for-time substitution, or chronosequence studies). He first published this work as a paper in the *Botanical Gazette* in 1899 ("The ecological relations of the vegetation of the sand dunes of Lake Michigan"). In this classic publication and subsequent papers, he formulated the idea of primary succession and the notion of a sere—a repeatable sequence of community changes specific to particular environmental circumstances.

### Gleason and Clements

From about 1900 to 1960, however, understanding of succession was dominated by the theories of Frederic Clements, a contemporary of Cowles, who held that seres were highly predictable and deterministic and converged on a climatically determined stable climax community regardless of starting conditions. Clements explicitly analogized the successional development of ecological communities with ontogenetic development of individual organisms, and his model is often referred to as the pseudo-organismic theory of community ecology. Clements and his followers developed a complex taxonomy of communities and successional pathways.

Henry Gleason offered a contrasting framework as early as the 1920s. The Gleasonian model was more complex and much less deterministic than the Clementsian. It differs most fundamentally from the Clementsian view in suggesting a much greater role of chance factors and in denying the existence of coherent, sharply bounded community types. Gleason argued that species distributions responded individualistically to environmental factors, and communities were best regarded as artifacts of the juxtaposition of species distributions. Gleason's ideas, first published in 1926, were largely ignored until the late 1950s.

Two quotes illustrate the contrasting views of Clements and Gleason. Clements wrote in 1916:

> The developmental study of vegetation necessarily rests upon the assumption that the unit or climax formation is an organic entity. As an organism the formation arises, grows, matures, and dies. Furthermore, each climax formation is able to reproduce itself, repeating with essential fidelity the stages of its development.
>
> Frederic Clements

while Gleason, in his 1926 paper, said:

> An association is not an organism, scarcely even a vegetational unit, but merely a coincidence.
>
> Henry Gleason

Gleason's ideas were, in fact, more consistent with Cowles' original thinking about succession. About Clements' distinction between primary succession and secondary succession, Cowles wrote (1911):

> This classification seems not to be of fundamental value, since it separates such closely related phenomena as those of erosion and deposition, and it places together such unlike things as human agencies and the subsidence of land.
>
> Henry Cowles

### Eugene Odum

In 1969, Eugene Odum published *The Strategy of Ecosystem Development*, a paper that was highly influential to conservation and environmental restoration. Odum argued that ecological succession was an orderly progression toward a climax state where “maximum biomass and symbiotic function between organisms are maintained per unit energy flow." Odum highlighted how succession was not merely a change in the species composition of an ecosystem, but also created change in more complex attributes of the ecosystem, such as structure and nutrient cycling.

### Modern era

A more rigorous, data-driven testing of successional models and community theory generally began with the work of Robert Whittaker and John Curtis in the 1950s and 1960s. Succession theory has since become less monolithic and more complex. J. Connell and R. Slatyer attempted a codification of successional processes by mechanism. Among British and North American ecologists, the notion of a stable climax vegetation has been largely abandoned, and successional processes have come to be seen as much less deterministic, with important roles for historical contingency and for alternate pathways in the actual development of communities. Debates continue as to the general predictability of successional dynamics and the relative importance of equilibrial vs. non-equilibrial processes. Former Harvard professor Fakhri A. Bazzaz introduced the notion of *scale* into the discussion, as he considered that at local or small area scale the processes are stochastic and patchy, but taking bigger regional areas into consideration, certain tendencies can not be denied.

More recent definitions of succession highlight change as the central characteristic. New research techniques are greatly enhancing contemporary scientists' ability to study succession, which is now seen as neither entirely random nor entirely predictable.

## Factors

Ecological succession was formerly seen as having a stable end-stage called the climax, sometimes referred to as the 'potential vegetation' of a site, and shaped primarily by the local climate. This idea has been largely abandoned by modern ecologists in favor of nonequilibrium ideas of ecosystems dynamics. Most natural ecosystems experience disturbance at a rate that makes a "climax" community unattainable. Climate change often occurs at a rate and frequency sufficient to prevent arrival at a climax state. Additions to available species pools through range expansions and introductions can also continually reshape communities.

The development of some ecosystem attributes, such as soil properties and nutrient cycles, are both influenced by community properties, and, in turn, influence further successional development. This feed-back process may occur only over centuries or millennia. Coupled with the stochastic nature of disturbance events and other long-term (e.g., climatic) changes, such dynamics make it doubtful whether the 'climax' concept ever applies or is particularly useful in considering actual vegetation.

The trajectory of successional change can be influenced by initial site conditions, by the type of disturbance that triggers succession, by the interactions of the species present, and by more random factors such as availability of colonists or seeds or weather conditions at the time of disturbance. Some aspects of succession are broadly predictable; others may proceed more unpredictably than in the classical view of ecological succession. Two important perturbation factors today are human actions and climatic change.

Though the idea of a fixed, predictable process of succession with a single well-defined climax is an overly simplified model, several predictions made by the classical model are accurate. Species diversity, overall plant biomass, plant lifespans, the importance of decomposer organisms, and overall stability all increase as a community approaches a climax state, while the rate at which soil nutrients are consumed, rate of biogeochemical cycling, and rate of net primary productivity all decrease as a community approaches a climax state.

Communities in early succession will be dominated by fast-growing, well-dispersed species (opportunist, fugitive, or r-selected life-histories). These are also called pioneer species. As succession proceeds, these species will tend to be replaced by more competitive (k-selected) species.

Some of these trends do not apply in all cases. For example, species diversity almost necessarily increases during early succession as new species arrive, but may decline in later succession as competition eliminates opportunistic species and leads to dominance by locally superior competitors. Net Primary Productivity, biomass, and trophic properties all show variable patterns over succession, depending on the particular system and site.

## Types

### Primary succession

Successional dynamics beginning with colonization of an area that has not been previously occupied by an ecological community are referred to as primary succession. This includes newly exposed rock or sand surfaces, lava flows, and newly exposed glacial tills. The stages of primary succession include pioneer microorganisms, plants (lichens and mosses), grassy stage, smaller shrubs, and trees. Animals begin to return when there is food there for them to eat. When it is a fully functioning ecosystem, it has reached the climax community stage.

### Secondary succession

Secondary succession follows severe disturbance or removal of a preexisting community that has remnants of the previous ecosystem. Secondary succession is strongly influenced by pre-disturbance conditions such as soil development, seed banks, remaining organic matter, and residual living organisms. Because of residual fertility and preexisting organisms, community change in early stages of secondary succession can be relatively rapid.

Secondary succession is much more commonly observed and studied than primary succession. Particularly common types of secondary succession include responses to natural disturbances such as fire, flood, and severe winds, and to human-caused disturbances such as logging and agriculture. In secondary succession, the soils and organisms need to be left unharmed so there is a way for the new material to rebuild.

As an example, in a fragmented old field habitat created in eastern Kansas, woody plants "colonized more rapidly (per unit area) on large and nearby patches".

Secondary succession can quickly change a landscape. In the 1900s, Acadia National Park had a wildfire that destroyed much of the landscape. Originally evergreen trees grew in the landscape. After the fire, the area took at least a year to grow shrubs. Eventually, deciduous trees started to grow instead of evergreens.

Secondary succession has been occurring in Shenandoah National Park following the 1995 flood of the Moorman's and Rapidan rivers, which destroyed plant and animal life.

### Seasonal and cyclic dynamics

Unlike secondary succession, these types of vegetation change are not dependent on disturbance but are periodic changes arising from fluctuating species interactions or recurring events. These models modify the climax concept towards one of dynamic states.

### Causes of plant succession

Autogenic succession can be brought by changes in the soil caused by the organisms there. These changes include accumulation of organic matter in litter or humic layer, alteration of soil nutrients, or change in the pH of soil due to the plants growing there. The structure of the plants themselves can also alter the community. For example, when larger species like trees mature, they produce shade on to the developing forest floor that tends to exclude light-requiring species. Shade-tolerant species will invade the area.

Allogenic succession is caused by external environmental influences and not by the vegetation. For example, soil changes due to erosion, leaching or the deposition of silt and clays can alter the nutrient content and water relationships in the ecosystems. Animals also play an important role in allogenic changes as they are pollinators, seed dispersers and herbivores. They can also increase nutrient content of the soil in certain areas, or shift soil about (as termites, ants, and moles do) creating patches in the habitat. This may create regeneration sites that favor certain species.

Climatic factors may be very important, but on a much longer time-scale than any other. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will promote changes in communities. As the climate warmed at the end of each ice age, great successional changes took place. The tundra vegetation and bare glacial till deposits underwent succession to mixed deciduous forest. The greenhouse effect resulting in increase in temperature is likely to bring profound Allogenic changes in the next century. Geological and climatic catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, avalanches, meteors, floods, fires, and high wind also bring allogenic changes.

### Mechanisms

In 1916, Frederic Clements published a descriptive theory of succession and advanced it as a general ecological concept. His theory of succession had a powerful influence on ecological thought. Clements' concept is usually termed classical ecological theory. According to Clements, succession is a process involving several phases:

1. Nudation: Succession begins with the development of a bare site, called Nudation (disturbance).
2. Migration: refers to arrival of propagules.
3. Ecesis: involves establishment and initial growth of vegetation.
4. Competition: as vegetation becomes well established, grows, and spreads, various species begin to compete for space, light and nutrients.
5. Reaction: during this phase autogenic changes such as the buildup of humus affect the habitat, and one plant community replaces another.
6. Stabilization: a supposedly stable climax community forms.

## Seral communities

A seral community is an intermediate stage found in an ecosystem advancing towards its climax community. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are attained. A *prisere* is a collection of seres making up the development of an area from non-vegetated surfaces to a climax community. Depending on the substratum and climate, different seres are found.

## Changes in animal life

Succession theory was developed primarily by botanists. The study of succession applied to whole ecosystems initiated in the writings of Ramon Margalef, while Eugene Odum's publication of *The Strategy of Ecosystem Development* is considered its formal starting point.

Animal life also exhibits changes with changing communities. In the lichen stage, fauna is sparse. It comprises a few mites, ants, and spiders living in cracks and crevices. The fauna undergoes a qualitative increase during the herb grass stage. The animals found during this stage include nematodes, insect larvae, ants, spiders, mites, etc. The animal population increases and diversifies with the development of the forest climax community. The fauna consists of invertebrates like slugs, snails, worms, millipedes, centipedes, ants, bugs; and vertebrates such as squirrels, foxes, mice, moles, snakes, various birds, salamanders and frogs.

A review of succession research by Hodkinson et al. (2002) documented what was likely first noted by Darwin during his voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle:

> The often repeated description of the stately palm and other nobel plants, then birds, and lastly man, taking possession of the coral islets as soon as formed in the Pacific, is probably not quite correct; I fear it destroys the poetry of this story, that feather and dirt-feeding and parasitic insects and spiders should be the first inhabitants of newly-formed oceanic land.
>
> C. Darwin

These naturalists note that prior to the establishment of autotrophs, there is a foodweb formed by heterotrophs built on allochthonous inputs of dead organic matter (necromass). Work on volcanic systems such as Kasatochi Volcano in the Aleutians by Sikes and Slowik (2010) supports this idea.

## Microsuccession

Succession of micro-organisms including fungi and bacteria occurring within a microhabitat is known as microsuccession or serule. In artificial bacterial meta-communities of motile strains *on-chip* it has been shown that ecological succession is based on a trade-off between colonization and competition abilities. To exploit locations or explore the landscape? *Escherichia coli* is a fugitive species, whereas *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* is a slower colonizer but superior competitor. Like in plants, microbial succession can occur in newly available habitats (primary succession) such as surfaces of plant leaves, recently exposed rock surfaces (i.e., glacial till) or animal infant guts, and also on disturbed communities (secondary succession) like those growing in recently dead trees, decaying fruits, or animal droppings. Microbial communities may also change due to products secreted by the bacteria present. Changes of pH in a habitat could provide ideal conditions for a new species to inhabit the area. In some cases the new species may outcompete the present ones for nutrients leading to the primary species demise. Changes can also occur by microbial succession with variations in water availability and temperature. Theories of macroecology have only recently been applied to microbiology and so much remains to be understood about this growing field. A recent study of microbial succession evaluated the balances between stochastic and deterministic processes in the bacterial colonization of a salt marsh chronosequence. The results of this study show that, much like in macro succession, early colonization (primary succession) is mostly influenced by stochasticity while secondary succession of these bacterial communities was more strongly influenced by deterministic factors.

## Climax concept

According to classical ecological theory, succession stops when the sere has arrived at an equilibrium or steady state with the physical and biotic environment. Barring major disturbances, it will persist indefinitely. This end point of succession is called climax.

### Climax community

The final or stable community in a sere is the *climax community* or *climatic vegetation*. It is self-perpetuating and in equilibrium with the physical habitat. There is no net annual accumulation of organic matter in a climax community. The annual production and use of energy is balanced in such a community.

### Characteristics

* The vegetation is tolerant of environmental conditions.
* It has a wide diversity of species, a well-drained spatial structure, and complex food chains.
* The climax ecosystem is balanced. There is equilibrium between gross primary production and total respiration, between energy used from sunlight and energy released by decomposition, between uptake of nutrients from the soil and the return of nutrient by litter fall to the soil.
* Individuals in the climax stage are replaced by others of the same kind. Thus the species composition maintains equilibrium.
* It is an index of the climate of the area. The life or growth forms indicate the climatic type.

### Types of climax

Climatic ClimaxIf there is only a single climax and the development of climax community is controlled by the climate of the region, it is termed as climatic climax. For example, development of Maple-beech climax community over moist soil. Climatic climax is theoretical and develops where physical conditions of the substrate are not so extreme as to modify the effects of the prevailing regional climate. Edaphic ClimaxWhen there are more than one climax communities in the region, modified by local conditions of the substrate such as soil moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire, and animal activity, it is called *edaphic climax*. Succession ends in an edaphic climax where topography, soil, water, fire, or other disturbances are such that a climatic climax cannot develop. Catastrophic ClimaxClimax vegetation vulnerable to a catastrophic event such as a wildfire. For example, in California, chaparral vegetation is the final vegetation. The wildfire removes the mature vegetation and decomposers. A rapid development of herbaceous vegetation follows until the shrub dominance is re-established. This is known as catastrophic climax. DisclimaxWhen a stable community, which is not the climatic or edaphic climax for the given site, is maintained by man or his domestic animals, it is designated as Disclimax (disturbance climax) or anthropogenic subclimax (man-generated). For example, overgrazing by stock may produce a desert community of bushes and cacti where the local climate actually would allow grassland to maintain itself. SubclimaxThe prolonged stage in succession just preceding the climatic climax is *subclimax*. Preclimax and PostclimaxIn certain areas different climax communities develop under similar climatic conditions. If the community has life forms lower than those in the expected climatic climax, it is called *preclimax*; a community that has life forms higher than those in the expected climatic climax is *postclimax*. Preclimax strips develop in less moist and hotter areas, whereas Postclimax strands develop in more moist and cooler areas than that of surrounding climate.

### Theories

There are three schools of interpretations explaining the climax concept:

* Monoclimax or Climatic Climax Theory was advanced by Clements (1916) and recognizes only one climax whose characteristics are determined solely by climate (climatic climax). The processes of succession and modification of environment overcome the effects of differences in topography, parent material of the soil, and other factors. The whole area would be covered with uniform plant community. Communities other than the climax are related to it, and are recognized as subclimax, postclimax and disclimax.
* Polyclimax Theory was advanced by Tansley (1935). It proposes that the climax vegetation of a region consists of more than one vegetation climaxes controlled by soil moisture, soil nutrients, topography, slope exposure, fire, and animal activity.
* Climax Pattern Theory was proposed by Whittaker (1953). The climax pattern theory recognizes a variety of climaxes governed by responses of species populations to biotic and abiotic conditions. According to this theory the total environment of the ecosystem determines the composition, species structure, and balance of a climax community. The environment includes the species' responses to moisture, temperature, and nutrients, their biotic relationships, availability of flora and fauna to colonize the area, chance dispersal of seeds and animals, soils, climate, and disturbance such as fire and wind. The nature of climax vegetation will change as the environment changes. The climax community represents a pattern of populations that corresponds to and changes with the pattern of environment. The central and most widespread community is the climatic climax.

The theory of alternative stable states suggests there is not one end point but many which transition between each other over ecological time.

## Succession by habitat type

### Forest succession

Forests, being an ecological system, are subject to the species succession process. There are "opportunistic" or "pioneer" species that produce great quantities of seed that are disseminated by the wind, and therefore can colonize big empty extensions. They are capable of germinating and growing in direct sunlight. Once they have produced a *closed canopy*, the lack of direct sun radiation at the soil makes it difficult for their own seedlings to develop. It is then the opportunity for shade-tolerant species to become established under the protection of the pioneers. When the pioneers die, the shade-tolerant species replace them. These species are capable of growing beneath the canopy, and therefore, in the absence of disturbances, will stay. For this reason it is then said the stand has reached its climax. When a disturbance occurs, the opportunity for the pioneers opens up again, provided they are present or within a reasonable range.

An example of pioneer species, in forests of northeastern North America are *Betula papyrifera* (White birch) and *Prunus serotina* (Black cherry), that are particularly well-adapted to exploit large gaps in forest canopies, but are intolerant of shade and are eventually replaced by other shade-tolerant species in the absence of disturbances that create such gaps. In the tropics, well known pioneer forest species can be found among the genera *Cecropia*, *Ochroma* and *Trema*.

Things in nature are not black and white, and there are intermediate stages. It is therefore normal that between the two extremes of light and shade there is a gradient, and there are species that may act as pioneer or tolerant, depending on the circumstances. It is of paramount importance to know the tolerance of species in order to practice an effective silviculture.

### Wetland succession

Since many types of wetland environments exist, succession may follow a wide array of trajectories and patterns in wetlands. Under the classical model, the process of secondary succession holds that a wetland progresses over time from an initial state of open water with few plants, to a forested climax state where decayed organic matter has built up over time, forming peat. However, many wetlands are maintained by regular disturbance or natural processes at an equilibrium state that does not resemble the predicted forested "climax." The idea that ponds and wetlands gradually fill in to become dry land has been criticized and called into question due to lack of evidence.

Wetland succession is a uniquely complex, non-linear process shaped by hydrology. Hydrological factors often work against linear processes that predict a succession to a "climax" state. The energy carried by moving water may create a continuous source of disturbance. For example, in coastal wetlands, the tides moving in and out continuously acts upon the ecological community. Fire may also maintain an equilibrium state in a wetland by burning off vegetation, thus interrupting the accumulation of peat. Water entering and leaving the wetland follows patterns that are broadly cyclical but erratic. For example, seasonal flooding and drying may occur with yearly changes in precipitation, causing seasonal changes in the wetland community that maintain it at a stable state. However, unusually heavy rain or unusually severe drought may cause the wetland to enter a positive feedback loop where it begins to change in a linear direction. Since wetlands are sensitive to changes in the natural processes that maintain them, human activities, invasive species, and climate change could initiate long-term changes in wetland ecosystems.

### Grassland succession

For a long time, grasslands were thought to be early stages of succession, dominated by weedy species and with little conservation value. However, comparing grasslands that form after recovery from long-term disruptions like agricultural tillage with ancient or "old-growth" grasslands has shown that grasslands are not inherently early-successional communities. Rather, grasslands undergo a centuries-long process of succession, and a grassland that is tilled up for agriculture or otherwise destroyed is estimated to take a minimum of 100 years, and potentially on average 1,400 years, to recover to its previous level of biodiversity. However, planting a high diversity of late-successional grassland species in a disturbed environment can accelerate the recovery of the soil's ability to sequester carbon, resulting in twice as much carbon storage as a naturally recovering grassland over the same period of time.

Many grassland ecosystems are maintained by disturbance, such as fire and grazing by large animals, or else the process of succession will change them to forest or shrubland. In fact, it is debated whether fire should be considered disturbance at all for the North American prairie ecosystems, since it maintains, rather than disrupts, an equilibrium state. Many late-successional grassland species have adaptations that allow them to store nutrients underground and re-sprout rapidly after "aboveground" disturbances like fire or grazing. Disturbance events that severely disrupt or destroy the soil, such as tilling, eliminate these late-successional species, reverting the grassland to an early successional stage dominated by pioneers, whereas fire and grazing benefit late-successional species. Both too much and too little disturbance can damage the biodiversity of disturbance-dependent ecosystems like grasslands.

In North American semi-arid grasslands, the introduction of livestock ranching and absence of fire was observed to cause a transition away from grasses to woody vegetation, particularly mesquite. However, the means by which ecological succession under frequent disturbance results in ecosystems of the sort seen in remnant prairies is poorly understood.

## Further reading

* Connell JH, Slatyer RO (1977). "Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization". *The American Naturalist*. **111** (982): 1119–44. doi:10.1086/283241. S2CID 3587878.
* Frouz J, Prach K, Pižl V, Háněl L, Starý J, Tajovský K, et al. (2008). "Interactions between soil development, vegetation and soil fauna during spontaneous succession in post mining sites". *European Journal of Soil Biology*. **44**: 109–121. doi:10.1016/j.ejsobi.2007.09.002.


title: Ecological thinning

abstract: Ecological thinning is a silvicultural technique used in forest management that involves cutting trees to improve functions of a forest other than timber production. Although thinning originated as a man-made forest management tool, aimed at increasing timber yields, the shift from production forests to multifunctional forests brought with it the cutting of trees to manipulate an ecosystem for various reasons, ranging from removing non-native species from a plot to removing poplars growing on a riverside beach aimed at recreational use. Since the 1970s, leaving the thinned trees on the forest floor has become an increasingly common policy: wood can be decomposed in a more natural fashion, playing an important role in increasing biodiversity by providing habitat to various invertebrates, birds and small mammals. Many fungi and mosses are saproxylic or epixylic as well – some moss species completing their entire life-cycle on a single log. Where trees are managed under a commercial regime, competition is reduced by removing adjacent stems that exhibit less favourable timber quality potential. When left in a natural state trees will "self-thin", but this process can be unreliable in some circumstances. Examples of this can be found in the Buxus–Ironbark forests and woodlands of Victoria (Australia) where a large proportion of trees are coppice, resultant from timber cutting in decades gone by.

text:
# Ecological thinning

**Ecological thinning** is a silvicultural technique used in forest management that involves cutting trees to improve functions of a forest other than timber production.

Although thinning originated as a man-made forest management tool, aimed at increasing timber yields, the shift from production forests to multifunctional forests brought with it the cutting of trees to manipulate an ecosystem for various reasons, ranging from removing non-native species from a plot to removing poplars growing on a riverside beach aimed at recreational use.

Since the 1970s, leaving the thinned trees on the forest floor has become an increasingly common policy: wood can be decomposed in a more natural fashion, playing an important role in increasing biodiversity by providing habitat to various invertebrates, birds and small mammals. Many fungi (e.g. *Calocera viscosa*) and mosses are saproxylic or epixylic as well (e.g. *Marchantiophyta*) – some moss species completing their entire life-cycle on a single log.

Where trees are managed under a commercial regime, competition is reduced by removing adjacent stems that exhibit less favourable timber quality potential. When left in a natural state trees will "self-thin", but this process can be unreliable in some circumstances. Examples of this can be found in the BuxusIronbark forests and woodlands of Victoria (Australia) where a large proportion of trees are coppice, resultant from timber cutting in decades gone by.

## Ecophysiological repercussions

Thinning decreases canopy closure and increases the penetration of solar radiation into the canopy. The photosynthetic efficiency of this energy is improved, and needle retention is prolonged, especially in the lower parts of the crown. The root system, crown length, crown diameter, and crown area all increase after thinning. Even if soil evaporation and individual tree transpiration increases after thinning, total evapo-transpiration at stand level tends to decrease; canopy water interception is reduced and throughfall increased, so that tree-water status usually improves after thinning.

Radial annual growth is an integrative index of tree physiological response to environmental variation. Working with Norway spruce, which can be expected to behave in some respects similarly to white spruce, Misson et al. showed that a reduction in stand density alters the classical climate–growth relationship. At individual tree level, thinning could be used to increase tree resistance to drought stress. Nevertheless, this effect is limited when site conditions are limiting. Misson et al. concluded that heavy thinning should be applied when forest decline is expected from drought stress. Furthermore, stands on dry sites should be thinned more heavily because such sites cannot support high-density stands.

Aussenac, also working with Norway spruce, investigated the response to thinning. Thinning altered the temporal evolution of radial growth at all frequencies in radial growth chronologies. Previous studies had shown, not surprisingly, that thinning decreases the canopy closure and encourages solar radiation to penetrate the canopy. Solar energy then becomes more important inside the crown. The improved photosynthetic efficiency of this energy influences the retention time of needles, especially in the lower part of the crown. Furthermore, the length, diameter, and area, of the crown, and the size of the root system all increase after thinning.

These modifications at the crown level influence photosynthate production positively as long as water supply is not limiting. Even if soil evaporation and individual tree transpiration are more important after thinning, total evapo-transpiration at stand level tends to decrease. Furthermore, with the reduced importance of leaf area index (LAI), thinning reduces canopy water interception and increases throughfall. This explains why the soil moisture content increases in a thinned stand. Thus, during the vegetation period, tree-water status is usually better in a thinned stand than in a high-density stand.

For semi-tolerant species such as Norway spruce and white spruce, solar energy is less limiting than for intolerant species. This can account for the exponential relationship found by Misson et al. between thinning intensity and mean radial growth. Only when thinning was relatively severe did important radial growth variation occur. Furthermore, the ecophysiological advantage of an improved water supply could be counterbalanced by limiting site conditions.

For Norway spruce in the Belgian Ardennes, Misson et al. recommended that stand basal area should not exceed 26 m2/ha on a dry site, or 29 m2/ha on a moist site if the objective is to maintain high long-term radial growth.

Misson et al. found that adaptations to thinning cover a continuous range of different time scales, with long-, medium-, and short-term growth variations being controlled by very different internal factors influenced by the environment. Misson et al. ascribed what they called long- and medium-term radial growth variation of individual trees mainly to structural adaptation, such as enlargement of the crown or the root system. Short-term radial growth variations, on the other hand, were considered to be due mainly to physiological acclimatisation, with response to factors such as stomatal conductance regulation, variation of photosynthetic capacity, and respiration. Nevertheless, it is clear that the adaptations are linked, and that radial growth is the integrative response of this mutual inter-relationship.

## Research

Research programs under way in various parts of the world (e.g. United States and Australia) are aimed at providing an alternate approach in forest management where conservation objectives are a high priority. Methods of ecological thinning being developed on silvicultural techniques for local forest types. Ecological thinning is being developed using two principles: 1. appropriate stem reduction to reduce competition and 2. retention of trees (selection) that are more suitable for wildlife (i.e. not timber production). An example of ecological thinning research is the project in Victoria's Box-Ironbark forests, investigating various thinning and timber removal methods under an adaptive management or AEM framework. The primary objective is to generate (over time) a number of forest habitat values (i.e. tree hollows) that are crucial for wildlife conservation.


title: Ecological threshold

abstract:
Ecological threshold is the point at which a relatively small change or disturbance in external conditions causes a rapid change in an ecosystem. When an ecological threshold has been passed, the ecosystem may no longer be able to return to its state by means of its inherent resilience. Crossing an ecological threshold often leads to rapid change of ecosystem health. Ecological threshold represent a non-linearity of the responses in ecological or biological systems to pressures caused by human activities or natural processes.
Critical load, regime shift, critical transition and tipping point are examples of other closely related terms.

text:
# Ecological threshold

**Ecological threshold** is the point at which a relatively small change or disturbance in external conditions causes a rapid change in an ecosystem. When an ecological threshold has been passed, the ecosystem may no longer be able to return to its state by means of its inherent resilience. Crossing an ecological threshold often leads to rapid change of ecosystem health. Ecological threshold represent a non-linearity of the responses in ecological or biological systems to pressures caused by human activities or natural processes. Critical load, regime shift, critical transition and tipping point are examples of other closely related terms.

## Characteristics

Thresholds can be characterized as points or as zones. Zone-type thresholds imply a gradual shift or transition from one state to another rather than an abrupt change at a specific point. Ecological thresholds have caught attention because many cases of catastrophic worsening of conditions have proved to be difficult or nearly impossible to remedy (also known as points of no return). Ecological extinction is an example of a definitive point of no return.

Ecological thresholds are often characterized by hysteresis, which means the dependence of the state of a system on the history of its state. Even when the change is not irreversible, the return path from altered to original state can be drastically different from the development leading to the altered state.

Another related concept is panarchy. Panarchy views coupled human-natural systems as a cross-scale set of adaptive cycles that reflect the dynamic nature of human and natural structures across time and space. Sudden shifts in ecosystem state can induce changes in human understanding of the way the systems need to be managed. These changes, in turn, may alter the institutions that carry out that management and as a result, some new changes occur in ecosystems.

## Detection

There are many different types of thresholds and detecting the occurrence of a threshold is not always straightforward. One approach is to process time series which are thought to display a shift in order to identify a possible jump. Methods have been developed to enhance and localize the jumps.

## Examples

Some examples of ecological thresholds, such as clear lakes turning into turbid ones, are well documented but many more probably exist. The thresholds database by Resilience Alliance and Santa Fe Institute includes over one hundred examples.


title: American Psycho (conceptual novel)

abstract: American Psycho is a conceptual novel by Jason Huff and Mimi Cabell, based on the 1991 novel by Bret Easton Ellis. Huff and Cabell emailed the text of the novel to each other's Gmail accounts one page at a time, collected the contextual advertisements generated for each of those pages, and presented those in book form. The book was part of Erreur d’impression at the Jeu de Paume, Paris in 2012 and received international attention.

text:
# American Psycho (conceptual novel)

***American Psycho*** is a conceptual novel by Jason Huff and Mimi Cabell, based on the 1991 novel by Bret Easton Ellis. Huff and Cabell emailed the text of the novel to each other's Gmail accounts one page at a time, collected the contextual advertisements generated for each of those pages, and presented those in book form (published by Traumawien).

The book was part of Erreur d’impression at the Jeu de Paume, Paris in 2012 and received international attention.

## Further reading


title: American Cardinals Dinner

abstract: The American Cardinals Dinner is an annual fundraiser that benefits The Catholic University of America (CUA). Each year, a different U.S. archdiocese hosts the Cardinals Dinner, a black-tie event which traditionally features all or most of the cardinals who serve as residential or emeritus archbishops of various U.S. dioceses. It is traditionally preceded by a Mass at the local cathedral.

text:
# American Cardinals Dinner

The **American Cardinals Dinner** is an annual fundraiser that benefits The Catholic University of America (CUA). Each year, a different U.S. archdiocese hosts the Cardinals Dinner, a black-tie event which traditionally features all or most of the cardinals who serve as residential or emeritus archbishops of various U.S. dioceses. It is traditionally preceded by a Mass at the local cathedral.

## 2016

The American Cardinals Dinner was not held in 2016. Instead, the financial support that would have gone toward a dinner in 2016 was to be directed toward supporting the 2016 visit of Pope Francis to the Catholic University campus, which was a very special and significant event for the university.

## 26th annual dinner (2015)

The 2015 dinner was held in St. Louis, Missouri, with the Mass celebrated at Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis. The Cardinals that attended were: Sean O'Malley OFMCap, Archbishop of Boston; Daniel N. DiNardo, Archbishop of Galveston-Houston; Donald W. Wuerl, Archbishop of Washington; Timothy M. Dolan, Archbishop of New York; Theodore McCarrick, Archbishop Emeritus of Washington; and Justin Rigali, Archbishop Emeritus of Philadelphia. The event was hosted by Archbishop Robert J. Carlson, Archbishop of St. Louis and John Garvey, President of The Catholic University of America. Mr. and Mrs. Charles Drury were co-chairs of the dinner and were honored with the Archbishop's Appreciation Award.

The dinner was held at The Ritz-Carlton St. Louis and raised over $1.1 million, which goes directly to support scholarships for students at The Catholic University of America.

## 25th annual dinner (2014)

The 2014 dinner was held in New York City, with the Mass celebrated at St. Patrick's Cathedral with Cardinal Timothy Dolan serving as homilist. The dinner raised a record $2.1 million to support scholarships.

## 20th annual dinner (2009)

The 20th annual dinner was held in Houston, Texas, at the Hyatt Regency Houston and was co-hosted by Very Rev. David M. O'Connell, CM, president of the university, and Daniel Cardinal DiNardo, archbishop of Galveston-Houston. Over 700 guests attended the gala, at which Angela House, a transitional-housing facility for women after incarceration, received the American Cardinals Encouragement Award. Sister Maureen O'Connell, OP, president of Angela House, accepted the award and $10,000 grant on behalf of the Houston-based organization.

The Mass preceding the dinner was held at the Co-Cathedral of the Sacred Heart, with Cardinal DiNardo as the principal celebrant and O'Connell as the homilist. The principal concelebrants were Francis Cardinal George OMI, archbishop of Chicago; Roger Cardinal Mahony, archbishop of Los Angeles; Justin Cardinal Rigali, archbishop of Philadelphia; Seán Cardinal O’Malley OFMCap, archbishop of Boston; William Cardinal Keeler, archbishop emeritus of Baltimore; Adam Cardinal Maida, archbishop emeritus of Detroit; Edward Cardinal Egan, archbishop emeritus of New York; Archbishop Pietro Sambi, apostolic nuncio to the United States; and O'Connell.

Other prelates concelebrating were Archbishop Donald Wuerl, archbishop of Washington and chancellor of CUA, along with Archbishop Emeritus Joseph Fiorenza, Auxiliary Bishop Joe S. Vásquez, and Auxiliary Bishop Emeritus Vincent M. Rizzotto of Galveston-Houston and Auxiliary Bishop Oscar Cantú of the Archdiocese of San Antonio.

## 17th annual dinner (2006)

At the 2006 dinner, a gift of $8,000,000 from the Knights of Columbus was announced, to renovate Keane Hall and rename it McGivney Hall after Michael J. McGivney, who founded the Knights in 1882 in New Haven, Conn.

## Past dinners

1. December 12, 1989, in Washington, D.C.
2. January 18, 1991, in New York, New York
3. January 11, 1992, in Chicago, Illinois
4. April 24, 1993, in Boston, Massachusetts
5. April 16, 1994, in Washington, D.C.
6. February 25, 1995, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
7. April 19, 1996, in Los Angeles, California
8. June 6, 1997, in Detroit, Michigan
9. May 1, 1998, in Baltimore, Maryland
10. April 23, 1999, in Boston, Massachusetts
11. May 5, 2000, in Chicago, Illinois
12. April 27, 2001, in New York, New York
13. April 26, 2002, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
14. May 2, 2003, in San Francisco, California
15. April 23, 2004, in Saint Paul–Minneapolis, Minnesota
16. January 28, 2005, in Miami, Florida
17. April 28, 2006, in Washington, D.C.
18. April 27, 2007, in Las Vegas, Nevada
19. April 25, 2008, in Boston, Massachusetts
20. April 24, 2009, in Houston, Texas
21. April 23, 2010 in Atlanta, Georgia
22. May 6, 2011, in Phoenix, Arizona
23. April 27, 2012, in Chicago, Illinois
24. May 10, 2013, in Washington, D.C.
25. May 30, 2014 in New York, New York
26. April 24, 2015 in St. Louis, Missouri
27. May 5, 2017 - Location TBD
28. April 27, 2018 - Location TBD

1. "American Cardinals Dinner". *Archdiocese of St. Louis*. Retrieved 27 September 2017.
2. "Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston hosts U.S. cardinals, CUA Gala" *Texas Catholic Herald*, May 8, 2009


title: 1886 North Monaghan by-election

abstract: The 1886 North Monaghan by-election was a parliamentary by-election held for the United Kingdom House of Commons constituency of North Monaghan on 10 February 1886. Tim Healy of the Irish Parliamentary Party had won the seat in the general election of 1885, but having been elected also in South Londonderry, he chose to sit for the latter. The North Monaghan seat thus became vacant, and in the ensuing by-election, Patrick O'Brien of the Irish Parliamentary Party was elected, defeating his Conservative opponent, Dr Hall, by 4,015 votes to 2,551, a slightly increased majority from the general election.

text:
# 1886 North Monaghan by-election

**By-election 1886**: North Monaghan
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Irish Parliamentary** | **Pat O'Brien** | **4,015** | **61.1** | **+0.9** |
|  | Irish Conservative | James Campbell Hall | 2,551 | 38.9 | −0.9 |
| Majority | | | 1,464 | 22.2 | +1.8 |
| Turnout | | | 6,566 | 87.3 | −2.3 |
| Registered electors | | | 7,525 |  |  |
|  | Irish Parliamentary **hold** | | Swing | +0.9 |  |

The **1886 North Monaghan by-election** was a parliamentary by-election held for the United Kingdom House of Commons constituency of North Monaghan on 10 February 1886. Tim Healy of the Irish Parliamentary Party had won the seat in the general election of 1885, but having been elected also in South Londonderry, he chose to sit for the latter. The North Monaghan seat thus became vacant, and in the ensuing by-election, Patrick O'Brien of the Irish Parliamentary Party was elected, defeating his Conservative opponent, Dr Hall, by 4,015 votes to 2,551, a slightly increased majority from the general election.


title: 1909 SAFL season

abstract: The 1909 South Australian Football League season was the 33rd season of the top-level Australian rules football competition in South Australia. West Adelaide won their 2nd SAFL premiership.

text:
# 1909 SAFL season

The **1909 South Australian Football League season** was the 33rd season of the top-level Australian rules football competition in South Australia.

West Adelaide won their 2nd SAFL premiership.

## Ladder

1909 SAFL Ladder
| Pos | Team | Pld | W | L | D | PF | PA | PP | Pts |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Port Adelaide | 12 | 9 | 3 | 0 | 619 | 462 | 57.26 | 18 |
| 2 | West Adelaide (P) | 12 | 8 | 4 | 0 | 704 | 548 | 56.23 | 16 |
| 3 | Norwood | 12 | 7 | 5 | 0 | 586 | 506 | 53.66 | 14 |
| 4 | West Torrens | 12 | 7 | 5 | 0 | 661 | 593 | 52.71 | 14 |
| 5 | Sturt | 12 | 6 | 6 | 0 | 669 | 544 | 55.15 | 12 |
| 6 | North Adelaide | 12 | 5 | 7 | 0 | 510 | 625 | 44.93 | 10 |
| 7 | South Adelaide | 12 | 0 | 12 | 0 | 446 | 917 | 32.72 | 0 |

Source:
Rules for classification: 1) points; 2) percentage; 3) number of points for.
(P) Premiers

## InfoBox

| 1909 SAFL premiership season | |
| --- | --- |
| 33rd season
Pictured above is the 1909 West Adelaide premiership team. | |
| Teams | 7 |
| Premiers | West Adelaide
2nd premiership |
| Minor premiers | Port Adelaide
7th minor premiership |
| Magarey Medallist | Richard Head
West Adelaide |
| Leading goalkicker | Richard Townsend
Norwood (22 goals) |
| Matches played | 46 |
| Highest | 25,000 (Grand Final, West Adelaide vs. Port Adelaide) |
|  | |


title: American Musical Theatre of San Jose

abstract: The American Musical Theatre of San Jose (AMTSJ), previously known as the San Jose Civic Light Opera (SJCLO), was a major professional nonprofit musical theatre company in San Jose, California. Founded in 1934 as the San Jose Light Opera Association, it became the second largest theatre company in the Northern California, with an annual budget of $9.8 million and an attendance exceeding 150,000, including 15,000 season ticket holders. The company performed at the 2,677-seat San Jose Center for the Performing Arts. The organization incurred debts after a 2002 agreement to become a receiving house for touring Broadway productions. It closed in December 2008.

text:
# American Musical Theatre of San Jose

The **American Musical Theatre of San Jose** (**AMTSJ**), previously known as the **San Jose Civic Light Opera** (**SJCLO**), was a major professional nonprofit musical theatre company in San Jose, California. Founded in 1934 as the **San Jose Light Opera Association**, it became the second largest theatre company in the Northern California (exceeded only by the American Conservatory Theater), with an annual budget of $9.8 million and an attendance exceeding 150,000, including 15,000 season ticket holders. The company performed at the 2,677-seat San Jose Center for the Performing Arts. The organization incurred debts after a 2002 agreement to become a receiving house for touring Broadway productions. It closed in December 2008.

## History

The American Musical Theatre of San Jose had been through many name changes:

### San Jose Light Opera Association

In 1934, a group of community volunteers formed the San Jose Light Opera Association (SJLOA), performing works by Gilbert and Sullivan. The first production was *The Mikado*, held at the Victory Theatre on North First Street near Santa Clara Avenue in downtown San Jose, where they would perform for several more years. Shows were later held at Theodore Roosevelt Junior High School Auditorium, the Montgomery Theatre downtown, and then the Santa Clara University Theatre.

For the 1957/1958 season, SJLOA shifted from light opera to musical theatre. (Light opera is light-hearted opera usually with a happy ending; musical theatre can be thought of as a play with singing.) Also, performances were moved to the San Jose Civic Auditorium. The first productions in the new venue were *Carousel* and *Guys and Dolls*.

### San Jose Music Theatre

In 1972, as the company continued to grow in popularity and success, SJLOA changed its name to San Jose Music Theatre (SJMT), in time for its move into the new San Jose Community Theatre (renamed in 1975 as the San Jose Center for the Performing Arts). To mark the occasion, SJMT hired its first Equity actor, Enzo Stuarti, for its production of *South Pacific*. Unfortunately, the move to the new venue was delayed when the interior ceiling of the Community Theatre collapsed, closing the building for three years for repairs.

In 1975, SJMT finally debuted at the Center for Performing Arts with *Guys and Dolls*. That same year, SJMT began to contract much more Equity talent, including stars like Michele Lee, Tommy Tune, JoAnne Worley, Theodore Bikel, and Tyne Daly. The influx of Equity actors forced SJMT to begin a costume shop; before that, actors were responsible for making their own costumes. By 1979 SJMT was providing costumes for the entire cast.

The 1979/1980 season saw a downturn in the company's fortunes. The premiere of *City of Broken Promises*, based on the book of the same name by Austin Coates, ran so far over budget that SJMT faced bankruptcy. The President of the board resigned, and newly installed President Anthony J. Mercant demanded that each board member donate $500 or resign. The members complied, and this, coupled with a grant from Chevron, averted financial disaster.

### San Jose Civic Light Opera

After the 1979/1980 season the board hired Stewart Slater as General Manager, ushering in a new era and another new name: the San Jose Civic Light Opera (SJCLO). In Slater, who had been general manager of American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco, the board chose someone from outside the organization and a proven business leader. Within two years of Slater's hiring, SJCLO once again had a balanced budget and began a streak of eight profitable seasons.

When Slater took over, the company relied heavily on star power to draw audiences. The big names were paid for at the expense of production quality; many of the supporting cast were unpaid volunteers. One of Slater's first acts was to end this practice, avoiding costly stars to bolster the quality of the entire production.

In 1984, thanks to a successful season ticket renewal campaign, the CLO had a rare surplus of $40,000 in advance ticket sales, prompting Slater to take an unprecedented risk for the organization. He hired a Chicago arts publicist, Danny Newman, to organize the largest direct mailing campaign ever done by an arts organization, spending the entire surplus. The gamble paid off, with the number of season ticket subscribers increasing by 10,000 within two years.

The Slater era saw steady growth in the company's reputation and attendance. Performances such as the critically acclaimed production of *Jesus Christ Superstar* in the 1989/1990 season and the widely successful restaging of *Chess* in 1991/1992 were considered notable achievements by Dianna Shuster, whom Slater had promoted to Artistic Director in 1985.

### American Musical Theatre of San Jose

In 1995, the theatre changed its name yet again, this time to American Musical Theatre of San Jose, to commemorate its 60th anniversary.

In February 2002, AMTSJ announced an agreement with the Nederlander Organization, one of the largest operators of live theatre and music in the United States, allowing AMTSJ to present touring Broadway shows in the same season with locally produced shows. The move ended a 67-year era of exclusive locally produced works and led to the departure of artistic director Dianna Shuster.

Following the Nederlander agreement, single-ticket sales, subscriptions, and donations all plummeted, leading to a loss at least $2 million over two years, and to the departure of Slater after 24 years as executive producer. Michael Miller, the new executive producer, blamed the downturn on the community disconnect caused when the Nederlander agreement displaced local talent and on the struggling Silicon Valley economy.

Upon his arrival from Paper Mill Playhouse in New Jersey, the AMTSJ alumnus Miller launched a program to boost revenues with flexible ticket package offerings, extensive marketing, and aggressive fundraising. The plan paid off almost immediately, with AMTSJ showing over $500,000 of positive revenue for 2005, cutting debt by one third.

## Bankruptcy and liquidation

On November 26, 2008, AMTSJ laid off all of its employees. The following week, it filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy and ended operations. Executive producer Michael Miller announced that the sudden failure was due to a $1.7 million loss on an adaptation of Disney's musical *Tarzan* in partnership with Theater of the Stars in Atlanta. Miller called legal action against Theater of the Stars "likely" and claimed that money given to Theater of the Stars by AMTSJ for *Tarzan* was diverted for other purposes. Company assets were auctioned the last week of February 2009.


title: Economy of Azad Kashmir

abstract: The economy of Kashmir is largely a developing one. The per capita income and provincial GDP estimates of Azad Kashmir are comparatively underrated when compared with development in other regions of the country, although Azad Kashmir notably has a literacy rate that is substantially above the national average. Azad Kashmir's economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, but also relies on remittances sent each year by the members of the large Kashmiri diaspora. The Kashmiri diaspora in the United Kingdom have contributed greatly to the development of Azad Kashmir through their in-flow of remittances. In the southern districts, many men have been recruited into the Pakistani Armed Forces. Other locals travel to countries in Europe or the Middle East where they work in labour-oriented jobs. The local tourism industry has potential although it is underdeveloped. Challenges faced by Azad Kashmir's economy include the devastating 2005 Kashmir earthquake, the effects of which the region is still recovering from. As of 2022, the GDP of Azad Jammu and Kashmir was estimated to be US$6.6 billion, giving per capita income of 1512 dollar USD, above from Sept 2013, when Azad Kashmir's GDP was estimated at $3.2 Billion.

text:
# Economy of Azad Kashmir

The **economy of Kashmir** is largely a developing one. The per capita income and provincial GDP estimates of Azad Kashmir are comparatively underrated when compared with development in other regions of the country, although Azad Kashmir notably has a literacy rate that is substantially above the national average. Azad Kashmir's economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, but also relies on remittances sent each year by the members of the large Kashmiri diaspora. The Kashmiri diaspora in the United Kingdom have contributed greatly to the development of Azad Kashmir through their in-flow of remittances. In the southern districts, many men have been recruited into the Pakistani Armed Forces. Other locals travel to countries in Europe or the Middle East where they work in labour-oriented jobs. The local tourism industry has potential although it is underdeveloped.

Challenges faced by Azad Kashmir's economy include the devastating 2005 Kashmir earthquake, the effects of which the region is still recovering from.

As of 2022, the GDP of Azad Jammu and Kashmir was estimated to be US$6.6 billion, giving per capita income of 1512 dollar USD, above from Sept 2013, when Azad Kashmir's GDP was estimated at $3.2 Billion.


title: 1911–12 Istanbul Football League

abstract: The 1911–12 İstanbul Football League season was the 8th season of the league. Fenerbahçe won the league for the first time. Galatasaray protested Istanbul League Organization' s decision regarding Adnan İbrahim Pirioglu's penalty and did not join the league. Fenerbahçe, which developed and strengthened its squad with new young players, became champions without being defeated. The most important aspect of this season was that with Fenerbahçe being champions, the championship streak of English and Greek teams completely ended, and from this date on, only Turkish teams became champions in the Istanbul Football League. NB: 3-2-1 point system.

text:
# 1911–12 Istanbul Football League

The **1911–12 İstanbul Football League** season was the 8th season of the league. Fenerbahçe won the league for the first time. Galatasaray protested Istanbul League Organization' s decision regarding Adnan İbrahim Pirioglu's penalty and did not join the league.

Fenerbahçe, which developed and strengthened its squad with new young players, became champions without being defeated. The most important aspect of this season was that with Fenerbahçe being champions, the championship streak of English and Greek teams completely ended, and from this date on, only Turkish teams became champions in the Istanbul Football League.

NB: 3-2-1 point system.

## Season

| Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Fenerbahçe SK | 8 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 16 | 5 | +11 | 21 |
| 2 | Rumblers FC | 8 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 18 | 9 | +9 | 19 |
| 3 | Strugglers FC | 8 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 13 | 8 | +5 | 18 |
| 4 | Progress FC | 8 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 10 | 20 | 10 | 11 |
| 5 | Cadi-Keuy FC | 8 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 6 | 21 | 15 | 10 |

Source:

## Matches

29 October 1911, Fenerbahçe SK \- Cadi-Keuy FC: 3-1
9 November 1911, Fenerbahçe SK \- Rumblers FC: 2-2
24 December 1911, Fenerbahçe SK \- Progress FC: 2-0
21 January 1912, Fenerbahçe SK \- Strugglers FC: 0-0
2 February 1912, Fenerbahçe SK \- Cadi-Keuy FC: 4-0
25 February 1912, Fenerbahçe SK \- Rumblers FC: 1-1
17 March 1912, Fenerbahçe SK \- Progress FC: 3-1
31 March 1912, Fenerbahçe SK \- Strugglers FC: 1-0 *(goal:Sait Selahattin Cihanoğlu min. 82)*

* Dağlaroğlu, Rüştü. *Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü Tarihi 1907-1957*

## InfoBox

İstanbul Football League
| Season | 1911–12 |
| --- | --- |
| Champions | Fenerbahçe (1st title) |
| Matches played | 40 |
| Goals scored | 48 (1.2 per match) |
| 1910–11 1913–14 | |


title: 1911–12 Luxembourg National Division

abstract: The 1911–12 Luxembourg National Division was the 3rd season of top level association football in Luxembourg.

text:
# 1911–12 Luxembourg National Division

The **1911–12 Luxembourg National Division** was the 3rd season of top level association football in Luxembourg.

## Overview

It was performed by 4 teams, and US Hollerich won the championship.

## League standings

| Pos | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Pts |  | HOL | SCL | RAC | DAR |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | US Hollerich | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 21 | 10 | +11 | 8 |  |  | 1–1 | 4–2 | 9–1 |
| 2 | SC Luxembourg | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 24 | 9 | +15 | 8 |  | 3–2 |  | 2–2 | 12–0 |
| 3 | Racing Club Luxembourg | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 23 | 11 | +12 | 7 |  | 1–3 | 3–1 |  | 9–0 |
| 4 | Daring Club Eich | 6 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 43 | 38 | 1 |  | 2–2 | 1–5 | 1–6 |  |

Source: fussball-lux.lu

## InfoBox

Luxembourg National Division
| Season | 1911–12 |
| --- | --- |
| Champions | US Hollerich (1st title) |
| Matches played | 12 |
| Goals scored | 73 (6.08 per match) |
| 1910–11 1913–14 | |


title: EcoOcean

abstract: EcoOcean is an Israeli non-profit environmental organization that was founded in 2002, working to preserve the marine and coastal environments, by promoting marine research, education and community engagement.

text:
# EcoOcean

**EcoOcean** is an Israeli non-profit environmental organization that was founded in 2002, working to preserve the marine and coastal environments, by promoting marine research, education and community engagement.

## History

EcoOcean was founded by the Weil family and a group of Israeli scientists in 2002. The organization's goal is to promote the preservation of the coastal and marine environment through research, education and broad community activities.

## Activities

### Research

EcoOcean operates the R/V Mediterranean Explorer research vessel and underwater robot (ROV) that enables local and world researchers, who are often subsidized by the organization to expand knowledge, improving the state of the marine and coastal environment. The research vessel is also used in co-operation with research and industrial institutes around the world for scientific expeditions such as TASCMAR and ODYSSEA.

#### TASCMAR

TASCMAR is a research project under the Horizon 2020 Framework Program for Research and Innovation of the European Union. It brings together researchers from leading research and industrial institutions in Europe, Thailand and Israel, and is managed by the National Center for Scientific Research in France (CNRS). The study was designed to examine the efficacy and feasibility of using bioactive chemical compounds derived from marine invertebrates, bacteria and algae in the pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical industries to create medicinal and cosmetic products, especially for the treatment of aging-associated ailments and diseases. Most of this study is conducted in deep water, where there is greater potential for locating organisms that have not yet been studied in order to find new sources for the production of natural materials.

#### ODYSSEA

Participation in ODYSSEA, which is a project that received funding from the EU's Horizon 2020 Program in June 2017. ODYSSEA is dedicated to developing an “integrated and user-friendly” platform to integrate a network of observatory and forecasting systems across the Mediterranean Basin, both in the open sea and in the coastal region. The data will be extracted from the numerous databases operated by the different agencies, public authorities, research institutions and universities of the European Union, the Mediterranean and non-EU countries, and will serve as a region-wide platform and public portal for existing monitoring and network stations in the Mediterranean. Data gaps will be bridged by the development and operation of nine regional monitoring stations and civil science networks. The ODYSSEA consortium comprises 28 partners, eight academic partners, three technology companies, seven information and computer service developers, six NGOs, two policy specialists and two entities that will engage in the management of this complex project spanning 14 EU and non-EU countries (Greece, Turkey, Israel, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, and Egypt).

### Education

EcoOcean operates the ‘Megalim Center’, an educational center that teaches marine and environmental sciences at Kibbutz Sdot Yam in Israel. The educational programs include: field trips, research studies, seminars, sea/beach activities and annual education program in schools across the country. The organization also host lecturers from the maritime field and produce conferences, exhibitions and beach clean-up campaigns.

### FEE

EcoOcean is the Israel representative of the Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE), running its global Blue Flag beach program. The Blue Flag is an eco-label awarded to bathing beaches and marinas based on strict criteria that must be met on environmental education, seawater quality, services to the public and environmental management. Other programs operated by EcoOcean on behalf of the FEE include ‘Young Reporters for the Environment’, which promotes involvement of youth in environmental issues through journalistic tools, and the Green Key International program which is an eco-label for the hospitality industry.

### Protecting Sharks and Stingrays

Throughout the Mediterranean, shark populations have dwindled by more than 90%, but in recent years an amazing phenomenon has been witnessed along the Israeli coast - dozens of sharks now gather near the power stations and fish cages in the deep sea. Israel is the only country in the Mediterranean where sharks and stingrays are protected by law. It is the case that although fishing of these species is prohibited, illegal fishing does continue. EcoOcean actively engages in and lobbies for better enforcement of the law and other measures to protect both sharks and stingrays. In 2015, EcoOcean published an Action Plan for the protection of sharks and stingrays in the Mediterranean Sea of Israel. The association assists in shark research and engages in efforts to raise awareness of the importance of protecting sharks and stingrays.

1. TASCMAR project
2. EU Horizon 2020
3. Plan of Action for Protection of Sharks and Rays in the Israeli Mediterranean,June 2015

## InfoBox

EcoOcean
|
|  |
| Formation | 2002 |
| Founder | Weil family |
| Type | NGO, Non-profit organization |
| Purpose | Marine Conservation, Environmentalism |
| Location |  |
| Website | www.ecoocean.org |