title: Edward Elric

abstract: Edward Elric is a fictional character and the titular protagonist of the Fullmetal Alchemist manga series created by Hiromu Arakawa. Edward, titled the Fullmetal Alchemist, is the youngest State Alchemist in the history of the fictional country of Amestris. His left leg was divinely severed in a failed attempt to resurrect his dead mother, and then his right arm was taken in exchange for his brother's soul. His missing limbs have been replaced with sophisticated prosthetics called automail. He and his younger brother, Alphonse, who lost his entire body and is spiritually bound to a suit of armor, scour the world in search of the Philosopher's Stone in the hopes of restoring their bodies. Edward has appeared in other media from the series, including video games, original video animations (OVAs) and light novels. Numerous publications in various media have been written on the subject of Edward's character. Reviewers praised Edward as a balance between the typical clever kid and the stubborn kid persona. Additionally, his comedic moments have been celebrated as some of the best moments in the series. His Japanese and English voice actors, Romi Park and Vic Mignogna, have both been praised for their performances as Edward and have won several awards for their work. Numerous pieces of merchandise have been released bearing Edward's likeness, including key chains and action figures.

text:
# Edward Elric

**Edward Elric** (Japanese: エドワード・エルリック, Hepburn: *Edowādo Erurikku*) is a fictional character and the titular protagonist of the *Fullmetal Alchemist* manga series created by Hiromu Arakawa. Edward, titled the **Fullmetal Alchemist** (鋼の錬金術師, *Hagane no Renkinjutsushi*, lit. *Alchemist of Steel*), is the youngest State Alchemist in the history of the fictional country of Amestris. His left leg was divinely severed in a failed attempt to resurrect his dead mother, and then his right arm was taken in exchange for his brother's soul. His missing limbs have been replaced with sophisticated prosthetics called automail (機械鎧(オートメイル), *ōtomeiru*). He and his younger brother, Alphonse, who lost his entire body and is spiritually bound to a suit of armor, scour the world in search of the Philosopher's Stone in the hopes of restoring their bodies. Edward has appeared in other media from the series, including video games, original video animations (OVAs) and light novels.

Numerous publications in various media have been written on the subject of Edward's character. Reviewers praised Edward as a balance between the typical clever kid and the stubborn kid persona. Additionally, his comedic moments have been celebrated as some of the best moments in the series. His Japanese and English voice actors, Romi Park and Vic Mignogna, have both been praised for their performances as Edward and have won several awards for their work. Numerous pieces of merchandise have been released bearing Edward's likeness, including key chains and action figures.

## Creation and conception

Author Hiromu Arakawa integrated several social problems into the plot, such as the way Edward and Alphonse live as brothers after the death of their mother, Trisha. She also looks at how the brothers help people all over the country to gain an understanding of the meaning of family. When describing the character's personality, Arakawa comments that after his father's departure from home and his mother's death, Edward tried to replace the role of the man for the Elric family. As a result, Van Hohenheim's reappearance caused a shocking and terrified reaction in the character. Arakawa has noted that Edward is one of her favorite characters from the series, although she denied having the same personality as him when one of her assistants mentioned it.

When comparing the two brothers during the time Alphonse obtained the ability to use alchemy without a circle like Edward, Arakawa stated nobody was better at alchemy as the two had different preferences in the same way as other alchemist appearing in the series. Although she claims she has not thought of the characters' birthdates, Arakawa noted that she decided Edward's birthdate during the series' serialization. During a chapter in which it was mentioned that Edward was about to be 16, winter was about to begin in Hokkaido, Arakawa's birthplace, so it was decided Edward's birthdate would be in winter. In a common slapstick gag from the series, Edward is often struck by Winry Rockbell's wrench. While commenting that Edward has the ability to easily dodge her, Arakawa comments that he gets hit on purpose as a result of his personality. The director of the first anime series, Seiji Mizushima, says that in the development of the story Edward "evolves and devolves"; Mizushima comments that Edward is continuously overcoming inner struggles in order to determine how to grow up. The appearance of his automail in the anime is used to symbolize the intangibles of his character, making viewers note that Edward lost something important.

In a prototype from the series, Edward was an eighteen-year-old teenager travelling alongside his father whose soul sealed in a flying squirrel. Edward's prototype had an average height, but retained his automail. In order to fit with the readers from the manga magazine *Monthly Shonen Gangan*, Edward's traits were further modified, leaving his current one. His height was reduced in order to contrast with Alphonse's huge armor. In the design of the character, Arakawa is often worried about not making his automail too bulky to avoid balancing it by increasing Edward's muscles, making his appearance unsuitable for his age. She has also often drawn the character in full body length, but at one point noticed she made it too tall. As the manga continued serialization, Arakawa found that she drew Edward half naked several times even more than Alex Louis Armstrong who tends to show his torso. While stating that this was because she wanted to draw Edward's automail, she commented that it was common for men to walk in underwear at their homes.

### Casting

In the Japanese version of *Fullmetal Alchemist*'s anime adaptations, Edward has been voiced by Romi Park. In the English version, the role has been played by Vic Mignogna. Mignogna has stated that performing Edward may be his biggest voice acting achievement since fans do not compare him with Park, noting that their voices are not similar and that he did not plan to sound like her.

Additionally, in the 2017 live-action film based on the series, Edward is portrayed by Ryosuke Yamada. Yamada thinks his short stature might be work as an advantage due to one of Edward's most common characteristics is his low height. Studying Arakawa's manga, Yamada tried imitating Edward's other signature actions such the way he runs. A fan of the series, the actor expressed happiness with the role he was given. Nevertheless, he asked at Anime Expo 2017 if anything from him looked "weird" which resulted in praise from the audience. During questions, Yamada said that one of the most difficult scenes about his acting is interacting with Alphonse as a result of the latter being CGI. As a result, in the shooting of some scenes the staff had a person in Alphonse's place so that Yamada had a better way to act.

## Appearances

### In *Fullmetal Alchemist*

Edward was born in a small town named Resembool in the nation of Amestris, living with his younger brother Alphonse and their parents Trisha Elric and Van Hohenheim. After Hohenheim left the family on a journey early in their lives, Edward developed a loathing for their father as he and Alphonse learned to use alchemy before Trisha died of an illness years later. The two brothers concentrated on studying alchemy in the hopes of bringing their mother back to life, and trained with a skilled alchemist named Izumi Curtis. When they make the attempt to revive their mother, it failed and the brothers paid a bigger price via the Law of Equivalent Exchange: which states that every outcome requires an equal payment.

Edward lost his left leg while meeting the metaphysical being known as Truth (真理, *Shinri*), gaining great knowledge as well as the prodigious ability to perform transmutations just by clapping his hands together without the need of a Transmutation Circle. As Alphonse's entire being was taken by Truth, Edward uses his newly gained knowledge in sacrificing his own right arm to retrieve Alphonse's soul and bind it to a nearby suit of armor. Later meeting Colonel Roy Mustang while being outfitted prosthetic "automail" limbs by the grandmother of his childhood friend, Winry Rockbell, he became motivated to restore Alphonse, Edward joins the State Military. He becomes the youngest State Alchemist, receiving the title of "Fullmetal Alchemist" shortly thereafter from the military head, Führer King Bradley. For the next few years, the Elric Brothers begin an extensive search for the legendary Philosopher's Stone in order to restore their bodies.

Edward strongly believes in the alchemical concept of "Equivalent Exchange," though he also behaves in a childish manner and can violently lash out when confronted about his short height. Besides his abilities as an alchemist, Edward is a formidable fighter as a result of his training with Izumi, who had extensively trained both brothers in martial arts.

During their search for the Stone, from liberating the town of Liore from the cult leader Father Cornello to their tragic meeting with Nina Tucker and her desperate father Shou Tucker, Edward and Alphonse had a near-death experience when attacked by Scar, a vengeful Ishvalan targeting State Alchemists for the mass murder of his people during the Ishvalan Civil War. This led to the Elrics making a brief return to Resembool with Winry becoming Edward's automail mechanic, the brothers encountering a former State Alchemist named Tim Marcoh who gives them the method of creating a Philosopher's Stone. The brothers, deciding to find another means upon learning human souls are required to create a Philosopher's Stone, get later revelations in the form of immortal beings known as the homunculi.

When Edward and Alphonse discover that the homunculi and the Philosopher's Stone are related, they work together with Mustang and the Xingese prince Lin Yao to find them. But the Elric brothers meet the homunculus whom the homunculi call "Father," who is the true leader of Amestris with Bradley being a human-homunculus. The brothers are forced to keep working with the military as Bradley uses Winry as a hostage.

Forced to comply, the Elrics travel to the northern area of the country in order where they eventually reveal what they know to General Olivier Mira Armstrong while dealing with the homunculus Sloth. Shortly after their arrival, the State Alchemist Solf J. Kimblee bring Winry to the north as a hostage, unbeknownst to Winry, to force Edward's help in hunting Scar. But the brothers and Scar made their peace as they end up using his help so Alphonse can take Winry to safety. Upon their success, joined by Lin after he willingly became a host for Greed, Edward learns the Father's full plan of making a massive human transmutation circle out of the country of Amestris to create a Philosopher's Stone. Edward later reunites with Alphonse and their father as they and their allies formulate an attack on Central City from all sides.

The group make their way into the underground complex while dispatching many of the homunculi, but the Elric Brothers, Izumi, Honenhiem, and Mustang are captured by Father who uses them to absorb the souls of Amestrians to absorb the being beyond the Gate of Truth. But Honenheim and Scar act out their backup plans to return the recently stolen souls to their bodies and enable every alchemist to fighting the severely weakened Father. Joining the fray after defeating Pride, Edward loses his automail while battling Father. Alphonse transmutes his soul in order to restore Edward's original flesh-and-blood arm. After defeating Father, Edward manages to bring Alphonse back by sacrificing his own ability to use alchemy. The brothers return to their hometown to live normal lives, but are motivated by the memories of Nina and others they failed to save to learn new methods of alchemy to prevent such tragedies from being repeated. Two years later, Edward decides to head westward for their research with Winry accompanying him as they progressively developed a romantic relationship over the course of their adventure and eventually confessed their feelings to each other. In the epilogue, Edward and Winry are revealed to have married and have a son and daughter together.

### In the first anime

Although following the series storyline to an extent, the first anime's storyline diverts with Edward learning the secret to destroying a homunculus during his encounter with Greed, whom he kills in an effort to save Alphonse. When he learns of Scar's creation of a Philosopher's Stone within Alphonse, Edward saves the people of Lior from being sacrificed for its creation. During his battle against the homunculi, Edward is killed by Envy, who is revealed to be Edward and Alphose's half-brother, but Alphonse trades himself for his brother's revival. In doing so, however, Alphonse's armor with the philosopher's stone within it is used up and he disappears. After being revived, Edward sacrifices his own life to bring back his brother in exchange. As a result, Edward finds himself on the other side of the Gate, a parallel world which greatly resembles the real world during World War II, while Alphonse recovers his original body. Determined to return to Alphonse, Edward becomes involved in rocketry research in Germany, with the intention of using that technology to return to his home world. In the feature film, *Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie: Conqueror of Shamballa*, set two years after the end of the anime, Edward has been living in Germany and looks for a way to return to his world. At the film's end, he decides to stay in the parallel world along with Alphonse so that they may try to protect both worlds.

### In other media

Edward also appears in almost all the *Fullmetal Alchemist* original video animations (OVAs). In the first OVA he appears as a super deformed version of himself at the movie's wrap-up party; in the second, he appears shortly as an old man living in modern-day Tokyo; and in the third OVA, he plays a part in the battle against the first anime's homunculi. As the series' titular character, Edward is playable in all *Fullmetal Alchemist* video games. The three games for the PlayStation 2*Fullmetal Alchemist and the Broken Angel*, *Curse of the Crimson Elixir* and *Kami o Tsugu Shōjo* – feature exclusive stories in which the Elrics keep searching for the Philosopher's Stone. In the Nintendo DS game, *Fullmetal Alchemist Dual Sympathy*, he and Alphonse replay the first anime series. He is also featured in the *Fullmetal Alchemist Trading Card Game*. There are two character CDs featuring tracks based on Edward's character. The first is named *Hagaren Song File – Edward Elric* (Hagaren Song File – エドワード・エルリック) and the second *Theme of Edward Elric*. Both albums were performed by Ed's Japanese voice actress, Romi Park. He also appears in each light novel written by Makoto Inoue which continue Edward and Alphonse's search for the Philosopher's Stone and at the same time feature different stories from the ones appearing the manga and the anime.

## Reception

Edward's character has been well received by manga readers; in each of the popularity polls made by *Monthly Shōnen Gangan* he has ranked first. Edward also won the Twenty-sixth Annual *Animage* Readers' Poll, Anime Grand Prix, in the "Favorite Male Character"; Romi Park, who voices Edward in Japanese, won in the "Favorite Seiyu" category. Edward maintained a high place in the next year's poll in the same category. In the July 2009 issue of *Newtype*, Edward ranked at the top of the survey Male Character Rankings. In the August 2009 issue his rank changed to fourth. In a *Newtype* poll from March 2010, Edward was voted as the fourth most popular male anime character from the 2000s. In the Anime Awards 2006 from About.com, Edward won in the category "Best Lead Character – Male". He was also seventh in IGN's 2009 Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time with writer Chris Mackenzie saying, "\[Edward\] and his kid brother Al make one of the best action-comedy teams in recent memory". In 2014, IGN ranked him as the eighth greatest anime character of all time, saying that "In Edward we had a character who was truly multidimensional. He could be comedic and pull off wild takes and sight gags. He could be placed in the most tragic circumstances and portray the deepest kind of sadness. He could be a complete badass, but he could also be the nicest guy on the planet." Several pieces of merchandise have been released in Edward's likeness, including plush toys, action figures, and key-chains. Vic Mignogna, who performs the voice of Edward in the English dub, was the winner in American Anime Awards in the category "Best Actor" for voicing Edward. In a poll by Anime News Network, he was voted as the 5th best "guy".

Several publications for manga, anime, and other pop culture media have provided both praise and criticism on Edward's character. IGN writer Hilary Goldstein praises Edward as the perfect balance between the typical clever kid and the stubborn kid persona, explaining that this allows the character to "float between comical moments and underlying drama without seeming false." Additionally, Melissa Harper from Anime News Network praises Edward's facial expressions as some of the most humorous highlights of the series, including also the moments in which he reacts quite violently to comments about his small stature. They also praise him for not being a stereotypical *shōnen* character as it is noted that he has "very real skills, relationships, and personality". Samuel Arbogast from T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews also comments that the interaction between the Elric brothers as they travel is interesting, and praises their humor scenes as they help to balance the dark parts of the series. Similarly, Mania Entertainment's Jarred Pine liked the dynamic between the Elrics brothers as while Edward is often faced with following "dark paths" in the same way as villains with the series, he is always supported by Alphonse who makes sure he is okay. Judge Joel Pearce from DVD Verdict commented on Edward's journey, considering it very complex morally because he is trying to do good within a morally questionable organization. Lydia Hojnacki listed Edward as one of the reasons she likes *Fullmetal Alchemist*, noting the progression of the character's personality throughout the series, from simple maturity to a deeper sensitivity. The character was noted to go through a notable development in the manga after meeting his father by Holly Ellingwood from Active Anime as it made him decide to see the investigate from the human he and Alphonse created as children which led him to find a clue about how to recover his brother's body. On the other hand, Maria Lin from Animefringe criticized Edward's development in the first animated adaptation of *Fullmetal Alchemist*, as in the series' finale he once again attempted to resurrect a human. When reviewing the video game *Fullmetal Alchemist and the Broken Angel*, RPGFan's Neal Chandran enjoyed the dynamic between the main characters both in fights as well as dialogues.

In *(Fullmetal) alchemy: the monstrosity of reading words and pictures in shonen manga*, Lesley-Anne Gallacher addressed how the backstory of Edward and Alphonse's failed attempt to revive their mother relate to Shou Tucker's plan to combine his daughter Nina and dog into a monster named chimera. During the discovery of this, Edward and Alphonse are given their own contrast in terms of characterization with the former showing early shock due to understanding what happened to Nina. Nevertheless, Alphonse later reacts violently too once understanding the identity of the chimera. As a result, the writer believes the story "weaken the boundaries between different realms of representation is to compromise the integrity of them all". Julie Sadlier from York University notes how complex is Edward's case of disability despite being a supercrip through his automail; despite acquiring these metallic limbs, Edward still feels at traumatized from his past and searches for a way to recover his lost arm and leg. Sadlier further commented on Edward's past, comparing it with Ishvalian's civil war who also suffered a tragic loss, most notably the antagonistic Scar who also lost his arm. Other foils noticed by the writer are Lan Fan who amputated herself to aid Ling Yao while noting that through his automail, Arakawa managed to link Edward with Alphonse and Winry.

Tien-yi Chao from Intellect commented on Edward's characterization in the film *Conqueror of Shamballa*. Across the movie, Edward meets parallel version of people he met including Maes Hughes (a Nazi soldier with the same name) and King Bradley, (a Jewish film director named Fritz Lang), who behave differently from their Amestris counterparts. Chao addresses that through this exchanges the film also parallels itself from Arakawa's original work that takes a different path in terms of story. Nevertheless, Edward also faces the idea of going back to Amestris and comes in terms with Earth during the climax: in confrontation to Exckhart from the Thule Society, Edward notes that both worlds share similar issues, most notably wars which might become easier to occur if the worlds are connected. As a result, Edward and Alphonse decide to live in the real world in order to protect it from nuclear weapons mentioned across the story.

## InfoBox

| Edward Elric | |
| --- | --- |
| *Fullmetal Alchemist* character | |
| Art by Hiromu Arakawa | |
| First appearance | *Fullmetal Alchemist* manga chapter 1 |
| Created by | Hiromu Arakawa |
| Portrayed by | Ryosuke Yamada <br>(original) <br>Rai Takahashi<br>(young) |
| Voiced by | **Japanese**:<br>Romi Park<br>**English**:<br>Vic Mignogna |
| In-universe information | |
| Title | Fullmetal Alchemist |
| Occupation | State Alchemist |
| Family | * Van Hohenheim (father; deceased) * Trisha Elric (mother; deceased) * Alphonse Elric (brother) * Envy (half-brother; deceased) (first anime only)<br>Yuriy Rockbell (father-in-law; deceased)<br>Sarah Rockbell (mother-in-law; deceased)<br>Pinako Rockbell (grandmother-in-law) |
| Spouse | Winry Rockbell |
| Children | Unnamed son<br>Unnamed daughter |


title: Edmund Strudwick

abstract: Edmund Charles Fox Strudwick at Long Meadows, north of Hillsborough, in Orange County, North Carolina. He eventually designed the first building at Dorothea Dix mental hospital in 1848, where he also was chosen as the first "Physician and Superintendent," a temporary position he held until 1853. He was also instrumental in the founding of the medical school at the University of North Carolina, and was elected the North Carolina Medical Society's first president April 17, 1849. His early education was at Hillsborough's Bingham School. After his father, William Strudwick, died in 1810, Dr. James Webb became his guardian. Strudwick was listed as a "transient member" of the Dialectic Society of the University of North Carolina in 1823, and graduated as a doctor of medicine from the University of Pennsylvania in 1824. After graduation, he served for two years as a resident physician at the Philadelphia Almshouse and Hospital. He returned to Hillsborough, North Carolina, in 1826 or 1827, and in 1828, married Ann E. Nash, with whom he had five children with. One of the children was Frederick N. Strudwick (1833-1890) who was the leader of the Orange County Ku Klux Klan and wrote the articles of impeachment for North Carolina's first republican Governor William W. Holden (1818-1892) who was elected with the aid of the Freeman vote. In the 1860s, Edmund Strudwick was the doctor for the Hillsborough Military Academy in Hillsborough, and also cared for soldiers wounded in the Civil War at his home nearby. He also was an elder in Hillsborough's Presbyterian Church. He died at age 77 on November 29, 1879, from an accidental ingestion of atropine. He is buried in the Hillsborough Old Town Cemetery.

text:
# Edmund Strudwick

**Edmund Charles Fox Strudwick** (born March 25, 1802) at Long Meadows, north of Hillsborough, in Orange County, North Carolina. He eventually designed the first building at Dorothea Dix mental hospital (then called the State Hospital for the Insane) in 1848, where he also was chosen as the first "Physician and Superintendent," a temporary position he held until 1853. He was also instrumental in the founding of the medical school at the University of North Carolina, and was elected the North Carolina Medical Society's first president April 17, 1849.

His early education was at Hillsborough's Bingham School. After his father, William Strudwick, died in 1810, Dr. James Webb became his guardian. Strudwick was listed as a "transient member" of the Dialectic Society of the University of North Carolina in 1823, and graduated as a doctor of medicine from the University of Pennsylvania in 1824. After graduation, he served for two years as a resident physician at the Philadelphia Almshouse and Hospital.

He returned to Hillsborough, North Carolina, in 1826 or 1827, and in 1828, married Ann E. Nash, with whom he had five children with (two of them—daughters—died in infancy). One of the children was Frederick N. Strudwick (1833-1890) who was the leader of the Orange County Ku Klux Klan and wrote the articles of impeachment for North Carolina's first republican Governor William W. Holden (1818-1892) who was elected with the aid of the Freeman vote. In the 1860s, Edmund Strudwick was the doctor for the Hillsborough Military Academy in Hillsborough, and also cared for soldiers wounded in the Civil War at his home nearby. He also was an elder in Hillsborough's Presbyterian Church.

He died at age 77 on November 29, 1879, from an accidental ingestion of atropine. He is buried in the Hillsborough Old Town Cemetery.

*Edmund Strudwick: Surgeon*. North Carolina booklet 15, July 1915.

*The Strudwicks—Family of Artists*. Durham Morning Herald, (Durham, N.C.), March 26, 1950.

University of North Carolina. *Catalogue of the Members of the Dialectic Society, Instituted in the University of North Carolina, June 3, 1795*. Raleigh: The Office of the Weekly Post.

Kelly, Howard A. *A Cyclopedia of American Medical Biography*. Volume II. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1912.


title: Edmund Sturge

abstract: Edmund Sturge, was a Quaker businessman and campaigner for liberal causes.

text:
# Edmund Sturge

**Edmund Sturge** (8 December 1808 – 28 June 1893), was a Quaker businessman and campaigner for liberal causes.

## Early life

Edmund Sturge was born at Olveston, near Bristol, the youngest of the twelve children of Joseph Sturge (1752–1817) and his wife, Mary (born Marshall).

His older brother, Joseph Sturge (1793–1859), was active in the anti-slavery movement as was his cousin, Thomas Sturge. Edmund was schooled at James Moxham's (Thornbury) and R. Weston's (Rochester). Both his parents having died by the time he was aged 11, and most holidays were spent with his brother Joseph at Netherton (Bewdley) where he was occupied in the office and warehouse of the corn factors business of Joseph & Charles Sturge. On leaving school he went to live at brother Joseph's new home in Birmingham, where his brother John also resided, and Edmund kept the books of John's Chemical Works until coming of age and entering partnership as J & E Sturge.

Sturge became active in the anti-slavery movement and other liberal causes: for peace, penal reform, the suppression of the opium trade and in the Aborigines' Protection Society.

## Anti-Slavery

From 1837, on Joseph Sturge's return from a tour of the West Indies, Edmund helped to widely distribute Joseph's report on the conditions of slaves. In 1840, he joined the newly formed British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society and in 1860 was appointed to its Committee. He served as the Society's Secretary from 1870 and as its chairman from 1882 to 1891 and then as its vice-president until his death. After he retired from business in 1876, he regularly lobbied Parliament on the Society's business (*see below*: William Tallack's reminiscence).

In 1893, he published a 23-page pamphlet *West India : "compensation" to the owners of slaves : its history and its results*.

Edmund Sturge's Obituary in *The Times* said: "...Mr Sturge ... was a younger brother of the late Mr Joseph Sturge, the Abolitionist, and had himself been a steady but unobtrusive worker in the anti-slavery cause for more than 60 years, and many of the reforms that have taken place in the West Indies in favour of the emancipated negros are mainly due to his intervention".

In 1841, Edmund Sturge and Lydia Albright were married *(See below for details of their marriage and children)*. Lydia was already active in liberal causes, such as the replacement of war with arbitration and the relief of poverty. She was already in the Ladies' Negro's Friendly Society and was later its Secretary. It is clear that throughout their marriage her support in their projects was substantial.

## Chemical manufacturing business

Another of Edmund Sturge's brothers was John Sturge, (1799–1840). In 1814, he was apprenticed at John Bell, a highly successful Quaker pharmacist and manufacturing chemist, with a shop and laboratory on Oxford Street in London.

John Sturge started his own business, at Severnside, manufacturing verdigris and Solution of Tin for the use of dyers. Around 1823, he moved to Edgbaston, Birmingham and bought land between the canal and Wheeleys Road.

His brother Edmund joined him in the business, after completing his schooling. The firm traded under the name J. and E. Sturge & Co.

In 1831 John leased land across the road on which the John and E. Sturge works were later built and the manufacture of industrial chemicals. Citrates, tartrates, bicarbonate of potash and precipitated chalk were among its products.

On the death of John Sturge in 1840, Arthur Albright, brother to Edmund's wife and a trained chemist, joined the partnership. Arthur Albright was responsible for developing practical mass-production of white phosphorus and later the safer allotrope, "red" or "amorphous" phosphorus, used in the manufacture of matches. He later separated this part of the business, which became Albright and Wilson.

## The Montserrat connection

The factory extracted citric acid from citrus juice, using lemons from Sicily, subject to sharp variations in supply. Their brother, Joseph had supported the production of limes on the Caribbean island of Montserrat. This eventually led to the family becoming the largest landholder on Montserrat, successfully running estates with fairly paid labour for many years.

In 1867, Edmund and Lydia Sturge travelled to Montserrat and spent a year developing the growing of limes. This enterprise later became the Montserrat Lime Juice company, of which Edmund Sturge was a director until his death. Their son John Edmund and daughter Edith were also involved in the running of the Montserrat estates.

## Marriage and family

In 1841, Edmund Sturge and Lydia Albright were married. She was a daughter of William and Rachel Albright of Charlbury. Their children were:

* John Edmund, born 3 April 1842, married Jane Richardson. Died Montserrat in 1880, aged 38
* Edith Mary, born 26 October 1843 married James Spencer Hollings, 1868.
* Francis Albright, born 28 August 1845
* Eleanor, born 6 August 1848
* Margaret, born 20 August 1850, married (1) Lewis Sturge, (2) Colin Campbell Scott Moncrieff

Lydia Sturge died 19 December 1892.

## Death

Edmund Sturge died on 28 June 1893, aged 84 at Charlbury.

## William Tallack's reminiscence

William Tallack, prison reformer, wrote:

> Mr Edmund Sturge was for many years an active and highly esteemed member of the Howard Committee, and practically fulfilled the functions of its honorary secretary. He had previously resided in Birmingham, but afterwards divided his time between London and Charlbury, in Oxfordshire.
>
> He was a brother of Mr Joseph Sturge, a man of similarly philanthropic energy, who, like himself, devoted much time and labour to the service of the Anti-Slavery cause.
>
> Edmund Sturge resembled George Washington both in features and dignified aspect. He was part proprietor of estates in the island of Montserrat in the West Indies, and was therefore specially conversant with questions relating to the condition of negroes and coolies. For many years he was a constant visitor to the lobbies of the House of Commons, to interest members of the legislature in the several objects of philanthropic effort which were so dear to himself.
>
> He wore a wig, for he had lost all his hair in a brief illness. A few days later some of his friends were assembling for a committee meeting of which he was a member, and presently one of them exclaimed, " Edmund Sturge has not come yet. I never knew him unpunctual before." " I am here," responded a quiet voice, and on turning round, his colleagues could hardly recognise their old friend in his suddenly altered appearance.
>
> He had a strong objection to wearing an overcoat, even in winter, and used to walk with a noiseless tread, as if his shoes had felted soles.
>
> He was not a man of many words, but had a dry humour and occasionally indulged in anecdotes. One of these related to a member of a well-known Quaker family whose eccentricities obliged his friends to put him under restraint at times in an asylum. But he managed to escape more than once, and afterwards remarked that he had thus come to appreciate a common Quaker counsel, to "proceed as way may open." On another occasion the same Friend, on re-entering an asylum at York, requested a private interview with the superintendent, which being granted, and the two sitting for a little while in silence, the new inmate suddenly exclaimed that he had been thinking of the precept, " Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might," and forthwith he struck the superintendent violently.
>
> Mr Sturge was the subject of one of the cartoons in *Vanity Fair* (November 20, 1886). In the accompanying letterpress the journalist remarked of him : "No kindlier, simpler, gentler, more upright and honourable a soul ever informed a human body than that which is enveloped in the Quaker outside of Mr Sturge. He is a good, honest creature."
>
> At Charlbury, Mr Sturge used to take his friends into the glades of the adjacent Wychwood Forest and into Cornbury Park, which contains some of the finest beech-trees in England. Mrs Sturge was as devoted to the interests of humanity, and especially to the Anti-Slavery cause, as her husband. They lived long enough to celebrate their golden wedding.
>
> On that occasion the Committee of the Howard Association presented them with an illuminated address of congratulation. In it they recorded : " The Committee gladly avail themselves of this opportunity of conveying to their esteemed friend and colleague, Mr Edmund Sturge, the expression of their profound sense of the value, to this Association and to other kindred bodies, of his services, and of his sound judgment and long experience.
>
> At an Anti-Slavery meeting at the Mansion House, London, Mr Sturge's labours in the cause of humanity received public recognition from the Prince of Wales and several eminent statesmen. He died in 1893, aged eighty-four, and was buried at Charlbury. He was a man of a truly noble character.

## Sources

* The main source of vital dates in this article is an entry in the **"Dictionary of Quaker Biography" (DQB)**, a typescript source, held at the Library of the Religious Society of Friends in London. Sources cited in the DQB article on Edmund Sturge are:
    + Birth: Glos. & Wilts. QM Births Digest Register
    + Marriage: Digest of Marriages
    + Death: Digest of Death
    + Children: Digest of Births
    + Testimony of Witney Monthly Meeting in *Yearly Meeting Proceedings, 1894*, p137
    + *Annual Monitor* \[described below\]
    + *The Friend* 33 (1893):437-8

NOTE: The DQB article on Edmund Sturge makes no reference to his business interests. * *Annual monitor* (New Series) 52 (1894): 155–168, a memorial essay, in an annual listing of Quakers who died during the previous year.
* Edward H. Milligan *The Biographical Dictionary of British Quakers in Commerce and Industry 1775-1920*; York, William Sessions Limited (2007), Paperback ISBN 1-85072-367-2 Hardcover ISBN 978-1-85072-367-7. This dictionary contains no article on Edmund Sturge but useful articles on his brothers, Joseph and Charles Sturge and Edmund's brother-in-law and business partner, Arthur Albright.
* **The Montserrat Connection: Family history**, by Joseph Edward Sturge (2004), available online. this is an unreferenced family history by someone who managed the Lime plantations on Montserrat 1960 – 1974. It is written for family members.

## Notes and references


title: Edward J. Barcalo

abstract: Edward Joel Barcalo (1870–1963) was an American businessman, noted for founding the Barcalo Manufacturing Company, perhaps best known for the Barcalounger. He was born in Mt. Morris, in the state of New York. Living in Buffalo, New York, Barcolo founded the Barcalo Manufacturing Company in 1896: it originally produced tools, but expanded into the furniture market. By the early 1950s the company had over 550 employees.

text:
# Edward J. Barcalo

**Edward Joel Barcalo** (18701963) was an American businessman, noted for founding the Barcalo Manufacturing Company (now the *Barcalounger Company*), perhaps best known for the Barcalounger. He was born in Mt. Morris, in the state of New York. Living in Buffalo, New York, Barcolo founded the Barcalo Manufacturing Company in 1896: it originally produced tools, but expanded into the furniture market. By the early 1950s the company had over 550 employees.

## Career

In 1916, he served as the president of the Associated Manufacturers of New York State.

Barcalo received a patent for the invention of a bed spring.

## InfoBox

| Edward J. Barcalo | |
| --- | --- |
| Born | 1870<br>Mount Morris, New York, United States |
| Died | 1963(1963-00-00) (aged 92–93) |
| Nationality | American |
| Occupation | Businessman |
| Known for | Founding the *Barcalo Manufacturing Company* |


title: Edward Kissane

abstract: Edward J. Kissane (1886–1959) was an Irish priest, biblical scholar and President of St Patrick's College, Maynooth

text:
# Edward Kissane

**Edward J. Kissane** (1886–1959) was an Irish priest, biblical scholar and President of St Patrick's College, Maynooth

## Early life and education

Born in Killomeroe, Lisselton, County Kerry, he was educated at St Michael's College, Listowel and St. Brendan's College, Killarney before entering Maynooth in 1903. He was ordained a priest in 1910 before pursuing further study in the (then) newly established) Biblical Institute in Rome, where he was awarded the degree of L.S.S. He travelled to the Holy Land pursuing his Old Testament studies, and was much published on the subject. In 1913 Dr. Kissane took up a post at St. Augustine's Seminary, Toronto, Canada, as Professor of Sacred Scripture.

## Staff of Maynooth College

In 1917 he returned to Ireland to take up the post of Professor of Sacred Scripture and Oriental Languages in St. Patrick's College, Maynooth.

Kissane was appointed vice-president of Maynooth College in 1941 in succession to Canon P O'Neill who had been made Parish Priest of Bruff, County Limerick.

## College President

In June 1942 he became the College president when John D'Alton was appointed Bishop of Meath and in 1945 was appointed Domestic Prelate by Pope Pius XII. He was further honoured in June 1953 when he was appointed a Protonotary Apostolic, the highest college of prelates in the Roman curia.

Elected to the Royal Irish Academy in 1942, Monsignor Kissane was appointed pro-vice chancellor of the National University of Ireland in 1949.

He represented Ireland on KLM's inaugural flight from Amsterdam over the North Pole to Japan in November 1958.

He died in a nursing home in February 1959, and was succeeded by Monsignor Gerard Mitchell from the Archdiocese of Tuam.

## Publications

* *Book of Job* by Rev. Edward J. Kissane, D.D., L.S.S., Browne and Nolan Ltd, 1939.
* *Book of Psalms* by Rev. Edward J. Kissane, D.D., L.S.S., Browne and Nolan Ltd, 1954.
* *Book of Issiah* by Rev. Edward J. Kissane, D.D., L.S.S., Browne and Nolan Ltd, 1941.

1. https://www.dib.ie/biography/kissane-edward-joseph-a4595
2. President of Maynooth Dies By Fr. J. Crehan, S.J., Catholic Herald, 27 February 1959
3. https://www.dib.ie/biography/kissane-edward-joseph-a4595
4. Rev. Arthur Ryan, "The Late Monsignor Edward J. Kissane. A memoir", *The Irish Ecclesiastical Record: a monthly journal under episcopal sanction*, Ser. 5, Vol. XCI, No. 4, pp. 233-241, April, 1959
* "Kissane, Rev. Edward". *Thom's Irish Who's Who*. Dublin: Alexander Thom and Son Ltd. 1923. p. 128  via Wikisource.


abstract: The 1939 Louisiana Tech Bulldogs football team was an American football team that represented the Louisiana Polytechnic Institute as a member of the Louisiana Intercollegiate Conference during the 1939 college football season. In their first year under head coach Ray E. Davis, the team compiled a 5–6 record. Louisiana Tech was ranked at No. 246 in the final Litkenhous Ratings for 1939.

text:
# 1939 Louisiana Tech Bulldogs football team

The **1939 Louisiana Tech Bulldogs football team** was an American football team that represented the Louisiana Polytechnic Institute (now known as Louisiana Tech University) as a member of the Louisiana Intercollegiate Conference during the 1939 college football season. In their first year under head coach Ray E. Davis, the team compiled a 5–6 record.

Louisiana Tech was ranked at No. 246 (out of 609 teams) in the final Litkenhous Ratings for 1939.

## Schedule

| Date | Opponent | Site | Result | Attendance | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| September 15 | Arkansas A&M* |  | W 32–0 | 5,000 |  |
| September 23 | Illinois Wesleyan* | * Tech Stadium * Ruston, LA | W 12–7 |  |  |
| September 30 | Jacksonville State* | * Tech Stadium * Ruston, LA | W 39–0 |  |  |
| October 7 | at Western Kentucky State Teachers* |  | L 7–20 | 4,500 |  |
| October 13 | at Birmingham–Southern* |  | L 6–7 |  |  |
| October 21 | vs. Louisiana Normal |  | L 0–26 | 7,500 |  |
| October 27 | Tampa* | * Tech Stadium * Ruston, LA | W 13–0 |  |  |
| November 4 | Southwestern Louisiana |  | L 6–12 | 5,000 |  |
| November 11 | at Louisiana College |  | W 10–9 |  |  |
| November 18 | at Texas Mines* |  | L 0–27 | 5,500 |  |
| November 30 | Centenary | * Tech Stadium * Ruston, LA | L 0–19 |  |  |
| * \*Non-conference game | | | | | |

## InfoBox

| 1939 Louisiana Tech Bulldogs football | |
| --- | --- |
| Conference | Louisiana Intercollegiate Conference |
| Record | 5–6 (1–3 LIC) |
| Head coach |  |
| Captain | Jack Jaggers |
| Home stadium | Tech Stadium |
|


abstract: The 1946 United States Senate election in Mississippi was held on November 3, 1946. Incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Theodore G. Bilbo won re-election to his third term. Because Bilbo was unopposed in the general election, his victory in the July 2 primary was tantamount to election. He defeated a field of candidates with 51% of the vote. However, the United States Senate, with a Republican majority and at the request of liberal Democratic Senator Glen H. Taylor of Idaho, refused to seat Bilbo based on his adamant opposition to voting rights for black Americans anywhere in the country, incitement of violence against those blacks who tried to vote, and history of accepting bribes. While his re-entry to the Senate was being contested in 1947, Bilbo died of oral cancer.

text:
# 1946 United States Senate election in Mississippi

The **1946 United States Senate election in Mississippi** was held on November 3, 1946. Incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Theodore G. Bilbo won re-election to his third term.

Because Bilbo was unopposed in the general election, his victory in the July 2 primary was tantamount to election. He defeated a field of candidates with 51% of the vote.

However, the United States Senate, with a Republican majority and at the request of liberal Democratic Senator Glen H. Taylor of Idaho, refused to seat Bilbo based on his adamant opposition to voting rights for black Americans anywhere in the country, incitement of violence against those blacks who tried to vote, and history of accepting bribes. While his re-entry to the Senate was being contested in 1947, Bilbo died of oral cancer.

## Democratic primary

### Candidates

* Theodore G. Bilbo, incumbent Senator since 1935
* Ross A. Collins, former U.S. Representative from Meridian and candidate for Senate in 1934
* Tom Ellis, clerk of the Mississippi Supreme Court
* Frank "Peachtree" Harper, hitchhiker, folk hero, and former state legislator from Hattiesburg
* Nelson T. Levings, investment banker and Navy Lieutenant Commander during World War II

#### Withdrew

* Douglas Smith, landscaper and greenhouse operator from Jackson

### Results

1946 Democratic U.S. Senate primary
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Democratic** | **Theodore G. Bilbo (incumbent)** | **97,820** | **51.00%** |
|  | Democratic | Tom Ellis | 58,005 | 30.24% |
|  | Democratic | Ross A. Collins | 18,875 | 9.84% |
|  | Democratic | Nelson T. Levings | 15,720 | 8.20% |
|  | Democratic | Frank H. Harper | 1,386 | 0.72% |
| Total votes | | | **191,806** | **100.00%** |

## General election

### Results

1946 U.S. Senate election in Mississippi
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Democratic** | **Theodore G. Bilbo (incumbent)** | **46,747** | **100.00%** |  |
| Total votes | | | **46,747** | **100.00%** |

1. Edson, Peter (May 11, 1946). "Peter Edson". *Los Angeles Daily News*. p. 14. Retrieved April 13, 2023.
2. "MS US Senate - D Primary Race - Jul 02, 1946". *Our Campaigns*.
3. "Statistics of the Congressional Election of November 5, 1946" (PDF). Clerk.house.gov. Retrieved December 29, 2020.
4. "MS US Senate Race - Nov 05, 1946". *Our Campaigns*.

### Further reading

## InfoBox

1946 U.S. Senate Democratic primary in Mississippi
| --- | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Nominee **Theodore G. Bilbo** Tom Ellis   Party Democratic Democratic  Popular vote **97,820** 58,005  Percentage **51.00%** 30.24%   ---  Nominee Ross A. Collins Nelson T. Levings   Party Democratic Democratic  Popular vote 18,875 15,720  Percentage 9.84% 8.20% | |
| ---  County results
**Bilbo**:      30-40%      40-50%      50-60%      60-70%      70-80%      80-90%
**Ellis**:      40-50%      50-60%      60-70% | |
| ---  **U.S. senator before election**
Theodore G. Bilbo
Democratic **Elected U.S. Senator**
Theodore G. Bilbo
Democratic | |


abstract: The 1940 United States Senate election in Mississippi was held on November 6, 1940. Incumbent Senator Theodore Bilbo was re-elected to a second term. On August 27, Bilbo won the Democratic primary election over Governor Hugh L. White with 59.32% of the vote. Bilbo won the November general election without an opponent.

text:
# 1940 United States Senate election in Mississippi

The **1940 United States Senate election in Mississippi** was held on November 6, 1940. Incumbent Senator Theodore Bilbo was re-elected to a second term.

On August 27, Bilbo won the Democratic primary election over Governor Hugh L. White with 59.32% of the vote. Bilbo won the November general election without an opponent.

## Democratic primary

### Candidates

### Results

1940 United States Senate Democratic primary
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Democratic** | **Theodore Bilbo (incumbent)** | **91,334** | **59.32%** |
|  | Democratic | Hugh L. White | 62,641 | 40.68% |
| Total votes | | | **153,975** | **100.00%** |

## General election

### Results

1940 United States Senate election
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Democratic** | **Theodore Bilbo (incumbent)** | **143,333** | **100.00%** |  |
| Total votes | | | **143,333** | **100.00%** |  |

## InfoBox

1940 Democratic Senate primary election in Mississippi
| --- | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
| Nominee **Theodore Bilbo** Hugh White   Party Democratic Democratic  Popular vote **91,334** 62,641  Percentage **59.32%** 40.68% | |
| ---  County results
**Bilbo**:      50-60%      60-70%      70-80%      80-90%
**White**:      50-60%      60-70%      70-80%
**Tie**:      50% | |
| ---  **U.S. senator before election**
Theodore Bilbo
Democratic **Elected U.S. Senator**
Theodore Bilbo
Democratic | |


title: 1941 NCAA cross country championships

abstract: The 1941 NCAA Cross Country Championships were the fourth annual cross country meet to determine the team and individual national champions of men's collegiate cross country running in the United States. Since the current multi-division format for NCAA championship did not begin until 1973, all NCAA members were eligible. In total, 19 teams and 94 individual runners contested this championship. The meet was hosted by Michigan State College at the Forest Akers East Golf Course in East Lansing, Michigan for the fourth consecutive time. Additionally, the distance for the race was 4 miles. The team national championship was won by the Rhode Island State Rams, their first, while the individual championship was won by Fred Wilt, from Indiana, with a time of 20:32.1.

text:
# 1941 NCAA cross country championships

The **1941 NCAA Cross Country Championships** were the fourth annual cross country meet to determine the team and individual national champions of men's collegiate cross country running in the United States.

Since the current multi-division format for NCAA championship did not begin until 1973, all NCAA members were eligible. In total, 19 teams and 94 individual runners contested this championship.

The meet was hosted by Michigan State College at the Forest Akers East Golf Course in East Lansing, Michigan for the fourth consecutive time. Additionally, the distance for the race was 4 miles (6.4 kilometers).

The team national championship was won by the Rhode Island State Rams, their first, while the individual championship was won by Fred Wilt, from Indiana, with a time of 20:32.1.

## Men's title

* **Distance:** 4 miles

### Team Result

| Rank | Team | Points |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  | **Rhode Island State** | **83** |
|  | Penn State | 110 |
|  | Connecticut | 114 |
| 4 | Purdue | 120 |
| 5 | Michigan State College | 122 |
| 6 | Notre Dame | 137 |
| 7 | Michigan State Normal | 166 |
| 7 | Miami (OH) | 166 |
| 9 | Indiana | 177 |
| 10 | Illinois | 288 |

## InfoBox

| 1941 NCAA Cross Country Championships | |
| --- | --- |
| Organisers | NCAA |
| Edition | 4th |
| Date | November 24, 1941 |
| Host city | East Lansing, MI<br>Michigan State College |
| Venue | Forest Akers East Golf Course |
| Distances | 4 miles (6.4 km) |
| Participation | 94 athletes |
| 1940 1942 | |


title: 1945 New York Giants season

abstract: The 1945 New York Giants season was the franchise's 21st season in the National Football League.

text:
# 1945 New York Giants season

The **1945 New York Giants season** was the franchise's 21st season in the National Football League.

## Schedule

| Week | Date | Opponent | Result | Record | Venue |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | *Bye* | | | | | |
| 2 | *Bye* | | | | | |
| 3 | October 7 | at **Pittsburgh Steelers** | **W** 34–6 | 1–0 | Forbes Field |
| 4 | October 14 | at **Boston Yanks** | **T** 13–13 | 1–0–1 | Yankee Stadium |
| 5 | October 21 | **Pittsburgh Steelers** | **L** 7–21 | 1–1–1 | Polo Grounds |
| 6 | October 28 | **Washington Redskins** | **L** 14–24 | 1–2–1 | Polo Grounds |
| 7 | November 4 | Cleveland Rams | **L** 17–21 | 1–3–1 | Polo Grounds |
| 8 | November 11 | at **Philadelphia Eagles** | **L** 17–38 | 1–4–1 | Shibe Park |
| 9 | November 18 | Detroit Lions | **W** 35–14 | 2–4–1 | Polo Grounds |
| 10 | November 25 | Green Bay Packers | **L** 14–23 | 2–5–1 | Polo Grounds |
| 11 | December 2 | **Philadelphia Eagles** | **W** 28–21 | 3–5–1 | Polo Grounds |
| 12 | December 9 | at **Washington Redskins** | **L** 0–17 | 3–6–1 | Griffith Stadium |
| **Note:** Intra-division opponents are in **bold** text. | | | | | | | |

## Standings

| NFL Eastern Division | | | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | W | L | T | PCT | DIV | PF | PA | STK |
| Washington Redskins | 8 | 2 | 0 | .800 | 6–2 | 209 | 121 | W2 |
| Philadelphia Eagles | 7 | 3 | 0 | .700 | 5–2 | 272 | 133 | W1 |
| Yanks | 3 | 6 | 1 | .333 | 3–2–1 | 123 | 211 | L5 |
| New York Giants | 3 | 6 | 1 | .333 | 2–4–1 | 179 | 198 | L1 |
| Pittsburgh Steelers | 2 | 8 | 0 | .200 | 1–7 | 79 | 220 | L3 |

**Note:** Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972.

## InfoBox

| 1945 New York Giants season | |
| --- | --- |
| Head coach | Steve Owen |
| Home field | Polo Grounds |
| Local radio | WHN |
| Results | |
| Record | 3–6–1 |
| Division place | 3rd (tied) NFL Eastern |
| Playoff finish | *Did not qualify* |
|


title: Ali Mohamed Daoud

abstract: Ali Mohamed Daoud, also known as Jean-Marie, is a Djiboutian politician and the President of the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). He is currently a member of the National Assembly of Djibouti.

text:
# Ali Mohamed Daoud

**Ali Mohamed Daoud**, also known as **Jean-Marie** (born 28 August 1950), is a Djiboutian politician and the President of the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). He is currently a member of the National Assembly of Djibouti.

## Life and career

Daoud is a member of the Afar ethnic group. FRUD, fighting on behalf of Afar interests, began a rebellion against the Issa-dominated government in 1991. Daoud led the moderate faction of FRUD in signing a peace agreement with the government in December 1994. As a result of the agreement, he joined the government (together with one other FRUD member, Secretary-General Ougouré Kiflé Ahmed) as Minister of Public Health and Social Affairs on 8 June 1995. Daoud's faction of FRUD also allied with the governing People's Rally for Progress (RPP). On 1516 April 1997, FRUD held its First Congress; Daoud, who was already FRUD President, remained in that position at the congress. Daoud was elected to the National Assembly in the December 1997 parliamentary election as the first candidate on the joint candidate list of the RPP and FRUD for Tadjourah Region.

Daoud was moved from his post as Minister of Public Health and Social Affairs to that of Minister of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, and the Sea on 12 May 1999; he was also assigned responsibility for hydraulic resources. After holding that post for two years, he was omitted from the government that was appointed on 4 July 2001. FRUD held its Second Ordinary Congress on 2829 April 2002, and Daoud was re-elected as FRUD President.

Daoud was re-elected in the January 2003 parliamentary election as the first candidate on the candidate list of the ruling coalition, the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP), in Tadjourah Region. In this election, the other, more radical wing of FRUD, led by Ahmed Dini Ahmed, participated in the election as part of the opposition; Daoud criticized Ahmed as a "perpetual loser".

President Ismail Omar Guelleh awarded the medal of the Commander of the Great Star of Djibouti to Daoud and Ougouré Kiflé Ahmed during independence day celebrations on 27 June 2004. At FRUD's Third Congress, held on 3031 May 2007, Daoud was re-elected as President of FRUD by acclamation, without opposition. He was again re-elected to the National Assembly in the February 2008 parliamentary election as the second candidate on the UMP's candidate list for the city of Djibouti.


title: 1933 Mitropa Cup

abstract:
The 1933 season of the Mitropa Cup football club tournament was won by Austria Wien who defeated AS Ambrosiana Inter 4–3 on aggregate in the final. It was the third time that a team from Vienna won the tournament, but the first of two wins for FK Austria Wien. The two legs were played on 3 September in Arena Civica in Milan and 8 September in Prater Stadium.
The second leg of the final was decided when the referee didn't convalidate a goal that would equalize the game from Giuseppe Meazza and shortly after that ejected Luigi Allemandi and Atilio Demaría that left Inter with 9 men. The holders, AGC Bologna, had failed to qualify as one of the two Italian clubs. It was the last time that Ferencvárosi FC failed to qualify as one of the Hungarian clubs for the pre-war competition. This was the seventh edition of the tournament. The accolade of top scorer was shared by four players who each scored five goals, Raimundo Orsi of semi-finalists Juventus, František Kloz of the other semi-finalists Sparta Prague, Giuseppe Meazza who scored one goal in each leg of the final for AS Ambrosiana Inter, and Matthias Sindelar who scored all three of FK Austria Wien's goals in the second leg of the final, the third, which was the winner, in the 88th minute.

text:
# 1933 Mitropa Cup

The **1933 season** of the Mitropa Cup football club tournament was won by Austria Wien who defeated AS Ambrosiana Inter 4–3 on aggregate in the final. It was the third time that a team from Vienna won the tournament, but the first of two wins for FK Austria Wien. The two legs were played on 3 September in Arena Civica in Milan and 8 September in Prater Stadium. The second leg of the final was decided when the referee didn't convalidate a goal that would equalize the game from Giuseppe Meazza and shortly after that ejected Luigi Allemandi and Atilio Demaría that left Inter with 9 men.

The holders, AGC Bologna, had failed to qualify as one of the two Italian clubs. It was the last time that Ferencvárosi FC failed to qualify as one of the Hungarian clubs for the pre-war competition. This was the seventh edition of the tournament.

The accolade of top scorer was shared by four players who each scored five goals, Raimundo Orsi of semi-finalists Juventus, František Kloz of the other semi-finalists Sparta Prague, Giuseppe Meazza who scored one goal in each leg of the final for AS Ambrosiana Inter, and Matthias Sindelar who scored all three of FK Austria Wien's goals in the second leg of the final, the third, which was the winner, in the 88th minute.

## Quarterfinals

| Team 1 | Agg.Tooltip Aggregate score | Team 2 | 1st leg | 2nd leg |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Újpest | 4–10 | **Juventus** | 2–4 | 2–6 |
| Slavia Prague | 3–4 | **Austria Wien** | 3–1 | 0–3 |
| Hungária MTK | 3–5 | **Sparta Prague** | 2–3 | 1–2 |
| First Vienna | 1–4 | **Ambrosiana Inter** | 1–0 | 0–4 |

## Semifinals

| Team 1 | Agg.Tooltip Aggregate score | Team 2 | 1st leg | 2nd leg |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Ambrosiana Inter** | 6–3 | Sparta Prague | 4–1 | 2–2 |
| **Austria Wien** | 4–1 | Juventus | 3–0 | 1–1 |

## Finals

| Team 1 | Agg.Tooltip Aggregate score | Team 2 | 1st leg | 2nd leg |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Ambrosiana Inter | 3–4 | **Austria Wien** | 2–1 | 1–3 |

| Ambrosiana Inter | 2–1 | Austria Wien |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Meazza  40'
Levratto  41' |  | Viertl  77' |

Arena Civica, MilanAttendance: 35,000Referee: Ferenc Klug (Hungary)

---

| Austria Wien | 3–1 | Ambrosiana Inter |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Sindelar  45' (pen.),  80',  88' |  | Meazza  85' |

Praterstadion, ViennaAttendance: 58,000Referee: František Cejnar (Czechoslovakia)

## Top goalscorers

| Rank | Player | Team | Goals |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | Matthias Sindelar | Austria Wien | 5 |
| | Giuseppe Meazza | Ambrosiana Inter | |
| | František Kloz | Sparta Prague | |
| | Raimundo Orsi | Juventus | |
| 5 | Rudolf Viertl | Austria Wien | 4 |
| | Attilio Demaría | Ambrosiana Inter | |

| 1933 Mitropa Cup Champions |
| --- |
|
**Austria Wien**
**1st Title** |

* Mitropa Cup results at Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation
* "Results of Mitropa Cup 1933". *IFFHS*. Archived from the original on 4 December 2010. Retrieved 18 December 2010.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)

## InfoBox

1933 Mitropa Cup
| Tournament details | |
| --- | --- |
| Dates | 21 June – 8 September 1933 |
| Teams | 8 |
| Final positions | |
| Champions | Austria Wien (1st title) |
| Runners-up | Ambrosiana Inter |
| Tournament statistics | |
| Matches played | 14 |
| Top scorer(s) | František Kloz,
Matthias Sindelar,
Giuseppe Meazza,
Renato Cesarini (5 goals) |
|


title: Economy of Baku

abstract: Baku is the capital city of Azerbaijan. On the coast of the Caspian Sea, in the Caucasus region, it is an international junction of land and sea trade routes and the center of Azerbaijan's economic life. The city's economy encompasses a number of sectors.

text:
# Economy of Baku

**Baku** is the capital city of Azerbaijan. On the coast of the Caspian Sea, in the Caucasus region, it is an international junction of land and sea trade routes and the center of Azerbaijan's economic life. The city's economy encompasses a number of sectors.

## Industry

### Heavy industry

Baku's main branches of heavy industry include oil and gas extraction, shipbuilding, steelmaking, mechanical engineering, and chemical manufacturing. The city also manufactures equipment for local and international oil and gas extraction, including a deep foundation plant in Sahil, and engineering plant in Keshla and clay and steel plants in Binagadi.

The Baku Steel Company meets local demand for casting imported steel. It has two electric arc furnaces and three rolling lines, with an annual steel-production capacity of 1,000,000 tonnes. The company manufactures rebar, square and round billets, channels, rolled wire, angle bars, I-beams, square and round rods, and related products. Steel Structures, the open joint-stock company Baku Steel Construction, and several other plants produce products for the construction industry. Radio-electronics factories and car and shipbuilding plants (Baku Shipyard) also operate in the city. The Gozdak, Shuvalan, and Korgöz quarries surrounding Baku produce sawn stones. Reinforced concrete, asbestos and brick plants, and the Garadagh cement plant produce construction materials.

### Light industry

Clothing is an important part of Baku's light industry, in addition to shoe and leather plants. Baku-Glass produces bottles for juice and alcoholic beverages, and Baku Sewing House manufactures coats, jackets, suits and casual clothing. Caucasus Paper Industry is one of the largest producers of cleansing and hygienic paper in Azerbaijan and the South Caucasus.

### Mining

Oil production decreased by 6.2 percent from 2016 to 2017, and commercial gas production decreased by 2.2 percent.

Crude oil and natural gas
| Product | January–November 2017 | January–November 2016 (%) | 1 December 2017 stockpile |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Crude oil (including gas condensate), thousand tons | 34,889.8 | 93.8 | 216 |
| Natural gas, million cubic meters | 16,551.4 | 97.8 | - |

Other mining products
| Product | January–November 2017 | January–November 2016 (%) | 1 December 2017 stockpile |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Limestone for construction, thousand tons | 112.3 | 80.4 | - |
| Gravel, crushed stone | 31,942.6 | 167.6 | - |
| Gypsum and anhydride, tons | 19,739.8 | 130 | 2,585.6 |

Total 2017 oil production was 2,469.2 million, a 9.2-percent decrease from January to November of the previous year. Petrol production increased by 4.7 percent, petroleum coke by 6.8 percent, bitumen by 22.7 percent, and lubricating oil by 370 percent. Diesel-fuel production decreased by 20 percent, mazut fuel oil by 42.6 percent, and white petrolatum by 6.9 percent.

Oil production (thousand tons)
| Product | January–November 2017 | January–November 2016 (%) | 1 December 2017 stockpile |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Petrol for cars | 1,097.6 | 104.7 | 55.2 |
| Petrol for petrochemical use | 169 | 96.5 | 1.1 |
| White petroleum | 539 | 93.1 | 13.4 |
| Diesel fuel | 1,718.4 | 80 | 53.1 |
| Mazut | 262.5 | 57.4 | 7 |
| Lubricating oil | 33.6 | 370 | 8.2 |
| Bitumen | 208.8 | 122.7 | 2.9 |
| Petroleum coke | 197.5 | 106.8 | 1.3 |

### Manufacturing

From January to November 2017, goods with a value of m4,843.7 million were manufactured.

| Period | Change from previous year (%) | Change from previous year (%) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| | 2016 | 2017 |
| January | 99.2 | 102.0 |
| January–February | 103.5 | 92.5 |
| January–March | 103.8 | 84.1 |
| January–April | 106.2 | 89.6 |
| January–May | 106.4 | 89.6 |
| January–June | 112.7 | 89.3 |
| January–July | 103.9 | 89.3 |
| January–August | 98.9 | 89.2 |
| January–September | 99.9 | 87.9 |
| January–October | 100.1 | 89.4 |
| January–November | 100.0 | 89.9 |
| January-December | 99.1 | 102.0 |

## Agriculture

Baku's agricultural sector has been developed in the city's suburbs. Due to its semi-desert, dry-steppe climate, olives, pistachios, almonds and saffron are also grown.

| Total area (ha) | 2010 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Potatoes | 20 | 20 | 10 | 10 | 18 | 19 |
| Vegetables | 459 | 606 | 456 | 509 | 688 | 1196 |
| Plants and flowers | 13 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 11 |
| Fruits and berries | 1,277 | 1,466 | 1,483 | 1,526 | 2,899 | 2,927 |
| Grapes | 1,498 | 1,435 | 1,441 | 1,441 | 1,300 | 1,303 |
| Production (tons) |  | | | | | |
| Potatoes | 50 | 136 | 36 | 50 | 134 | 128 |
| Vegetables | 13,868 | 23,861 | 7,561 | 8,693 | 12,812 | 53,343 |
| Plants and flowers | 105 | 80 | 174 | 322 | 103 | 102 |
| Fruits and berries | 3,972 | 6,999 | 7,125 | 6,022 | 4,688 | 5,313 |
| Grapes | 14,800 | 9,600 | 8,918 | 9,433 | 7,963 | 8,009 |
| Production (centners per ha) |  | | | | | |
| Potatoes | 25 | 68 | 34 | 50 | 76 | 67 |
| Vegetables | 158 | 294 | 154 | 135 | 91 | 50 |
| Plants and flowers | 84 | 80 | 174 | 293 | 93 | 93 |
| Fruits and berries | 31.1 | 47.8 | 48.6 | 41.1 | 18.4 | 19.2 |
| Grapes | 23.1 | 47.8 | 39.9 | 47.8 | 41.2 | 40.8 |
| Total livestock |  | | | | | |
| Cattle (including water buffalo) | 5,343 | 5,963 | 6,203 | 6,022 | 8,289 | 8,341 |
| Sheep and goats | 2,755 | 2,710 | 3,155 | 2,826 | 3,880 | 4,360 |
| Pigs | 15,938 | 16,480 | 16,466 | 13,540 | 18,872 | 18,359 |
| Birds | 578 | 438 | 447 | 422 | 125 | 152 |
| Animal products (tons) | 393,465 | 334,126 | 298,699 | 557,474 | 504,016 | 875,447 |
| Meat | 1,180 | 1,994 | 1,996 | 2,302 | 2,434 | 2,406 |
| Milk | 3,799 | 5,082 | 3,910 | 4,058 | 4,245 | 4,669 |
| Eggs | 10,252 | 7,301 | 5,597 | 9,678 | 7,458 | 7,391 |
| Wool | 36 | 36 | 31 | 31 | 27 | 31 |

## Tourism

Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan, receives 2.5 million tourists a year. According to Ilya Umansky, vice president of the Association of Tour Operators of Russia, Baku has become a more popular tourist destination in recent years.

Tourism in the city of Baku, Azerbaijan.

Tourism in Baku

## Construction

The new Baku Higher Oil School campus, the new Narimanov District Court administrative building, a bridge in Pirallahı raion, the Pirallahi Solar Power Plant, the Balakhani Industrial Park, the Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway, the Pirshagi-Novkhani road and the Binagadi-Novkhani-Corat highway were completed between January and November 2017. Almost three-quarters of the funds allocated to capital assets were spent on construction.

Construction costs, January–November 2017
|  | Total (thousand m) | January–November 2016 (%) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Baku | 5,130,130 | 104 |
| Raions | | |
| Binəqədi | 227,090.3 | 97.9 |
| Xətai | 858,471.7 | 103.9 |
| Xəzər | 100,992.8 | 3.9 d. |
| Qaradağ | 492,102.9 | 120.5 |
| Nərimanov | 476,879.7 | 112.3 |
| Nəsimi | 1,047,540.8 | 123.5 |
| Nizami | 168,072.8 | 43,2 |
| Sabunçu | 114,550.7 | 163.7 |
| Səbail | 1,073,628 | 85.7 |
| Suraxanı | 47,033.7 | 88 |
| Yasamal | 523,766.7 | 131.1 |

## Metallurgy

Baku is considered one of the country's largest metallurgy centers due to the availability of scrap metal, local energy resources (oil and natural gas) and a large, well-trained labor force. The city produces non-ferrous and ferrous metals.

## Transportation

Baku's transportation system consists of the Baku Metro, buses, and taxis. According to data from January to November 2017, freight transport by road increased by 1.6 percent over 2016 to 5,3021.2 thousand tons. Passenger transportation increased by 0.1 percent, to 623,024.1 thousand passengers. The number of metro passengers increased by 5.3 percent over 2016, to 207.6 million.

## Consumption

From January to November 2017, the cost of consumer products and services in Baku increased 2.2 percent over the same period of 2016 to m21,964.1 million. Non-governmental goods and services made up 95.6 percent of the total; retail goods and services in this sector increased by 1.7 percent over the previous year, to m21,001.3 million.

Consumer spending
| Markets | January–November 2017 (million m) | 2016 (%) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Total | 21,964.1 | 102.2 |
| On state property | 962.8 | 115.1 |
| On non-state property | 21,001.3 | 101.7 |
| Private enterprise | 15,663.5 | 99.4 |

## Pipelines

The Baku-Novorossiysk, Baku-Supsa (Georgia) and Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (Turkey since 2006) pipelines originate in Baku and transport Azerbaijani oil to the global market.


title: Abhideyaka Abhishekam

abstract: Abhideyaka Abhishekam is a festival conducted in the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, Andhra Pradesh in India. The purpose of the festival is to conduct special Abhishekam to protect the Utsava deities — Lord Malayappa swami and his consorts Sridevi and Bhudevi from damage that might occur while conducting processions and Tirumanjanam.

text:
# Abhideyaka Abhishekam

**Abhideyaka Abhishekam** is a festival conducted in the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, Andhra Pradesh in India. The purpose of the festival is to conduct special *Abhishekam* to protect the Utsava deities — Lord Malayappa swami and his consorts *Sridevi* and *Bhudevi* from damage that might occur while conducting processions and *Tirumanjanam* (holy baths).

## Festival details

The festival is performed in the Hindu calendar month of Jyesta. In the Gregorian Calendar, this falls in June/July. Because of the association with the *Jyesta* month, the festival is also called as *Jyestabhishekam*.

The festival lasts three days and on each of these days, after the second bell, the lord and his consorts are taken to the *Kalyanotsava mantapa* (Hall used for celestial wedding) and *Snapana Tirumanjanam* is conducted amidst vedic chants. Snapana Tirumanjanam involves performing a bath to the deities involving holy and consecrated water mixed with spices including turmeric. The lord and his consorts are attired in different *kavacham* (armours) on each of these days.

* First Day: *Vajrakavacham* (armour studded with diamonds)
* Second Day: *Muthyala kavcham* (armour studded with pearls)
* Third Day: *Svarna kavacham* (armour of gold) on the third day.

The Svarna kavacham is adorned to the Lord and his consorts throughout the year as well.

## Festival history

There is no record on the history of the festival and the start dates.

## Pilgrim access

The festival is considered as *Arjitha Seva* (paid service) and hence devotees can pay to view the performance of the *Abhishekam*. The purchase of a ticket allows access five people to the *Kalyanotsava mantapa* and the primary ticket holder is gifted *Vastram* (one upper cloth and a blouse), one laddu and one vada.

---


title: 100,000-year problem

abstract:
The 100,000-year problem of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation, or insolation over the past 800,000 years. Due to variations in the Earth's orbit, the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000, 40,000, 100,000, and 400,000 years. Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth, and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations. While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years, related to Earth's orbital eccentricity, its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity. The 100,000-year problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years, but not before, when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years.
The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the Mid-Pleistocene Transition, dated to some 800,000 years ago. The related 400,000-year problem refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years. The transition in periodicity from 41,000 years to 100,000 years can now be reproduced in numerical simulations that include a decreasing trend in carbon dioxide and glacially induced removal of regolith, as explained in more detail in the article Mid-Pleistocene Transition.

text:
# 100,000-year problem

The **100,000-year problem** (also **100 ky problem** or **100 ka problem**) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation, or insolation over the past 800,000 years. Due to variations in the Earth's orbit, the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000, 40,000, 100,000, and 400,000 years. Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth, and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations.

While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years, related to Earth's orbital eccentricity, its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity. The 100,000-year problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years, but not before, when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years. The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the Mid-Pleistocene Transition, dated to some 800,000 years ago.

The related 400,000-year problem refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years.

The transition in periodicity from 41,000 years to 100,000 years can now be reproduced in numerical simulations that include a decreasing trend in carbon dioxide and glacially induced removal of regolith, as explained in more detail in the article *Mid-Pleistocene Transition*.

## Recognition of the 100,000-year cycle

The geologic temperature record can be reconstructed from sedimentary evidence. Perhaps the most useful paleotemperature indicator of past climate is the fractionation of oxygen isotopes, denoted δ18O. This fractionation is controlled mainly by the amount of water locked up in ice and the absolute temperature of the planet and has allowed a timescale of marine isotope stages to be constructed.

By the late 1990s, δ18O records of air (in the Vostok ice core) and marine sediments were available and were compared with estimates of insolation, which should affect both temperature and ice volume. As described by Shackleton (2000), the deep-sea sediment record of δ18O "is dominated by a 100,000-year cyclicity that is universally interpreted as the main ice-age rhythm". Shackleton (2000) adjusted the time scale of the Vostok ice core δ18O record to fit the assumed orbital forcing and used spectral analysis to identify and subtract the component of the record that in this interpretation could be attributed to a linear (directly proportional) response to the orbital forcing. The residual signal (the remainder), when compared with the residual from a similarly retuned marine core isotope record, was used to estimate the proportion of the signal that was attributable to ice volume, with the rest (having attempted to allow for the Dole effect) being attributed to temperature changes in the deep water.

The 100,000-year component of ice volume variation was found to match sea level records based on coral age determinations, and to lag orbital eccentricity by several thousand years, as would be expected if orbital eccentricity were the pacing mechanism. Strong non-linear "jumps" in the record appear at deglaciations, although the 100,000-year periodicity was not the strongest periodicity in this "pure" ice volume record.

The separate deep sea temperature record was found to vary directly in phase with orbital eccentricity, as did the Antarctic temperature and CO2; so eccentricity appears to exert a geologically immediate effect on air temperatures, deep-sea temperatures, and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Shackleton (2000) concluded: "The effect of orbital eccentricity probably enters the paleoclimatic record through an influence on the concentration of atmospheric CO2".

Elkibbi and Rial (2001) identified the 100 ka cycle as one of five main challenges met by the Milankovitch model of orbital forcing of the ice ages.

## Hypotheses to explain the problem

As the 100,000-year periodicity only dominates the climate of the past million years, there is insufficient information to separate the component frequencies of eccentricity using spectral analysis, making the reliable detection of significant longer-term trends more difficult, although the spectral analysis of much longer palaeoclimate records, such as the Lisiecki and Raymo stack of marine cores and James Zachos' composite isotopic record, helps to put the last million years in a longer-term context. Hence there is still no clear proof of the mechanism responsible for the 100 ka periodicity—but there are several credible hypotheses.

### Climatic resonance

The mechanism may be internal to the Earth system. The Earth's climate system may have a natural resonance frequency of 100 ka; that is to say, feedback processes within the climate automatically produce a 100 ka effect, much as a bell naturally rings at a certain pitch. Opponents to this claim point out that the resonance would have to have developed 1 million years ago, as a 100 ka periodicity was weak to non-existent for the preceding 2 million years. This is feasible—continental drift and sea floor spreading rate change have been postulated as possible causes of such a change. Free oscillations of components of the Earth system have been considered as a cause, but too few Earth systems have thermal inertia on a thousand-year timescale for any long-term changes to accumulate. The most common hypothesis looks to the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets, which might expand through a few shorter cycles until large enough to undergo a sudden collapse. The 100,000-year problem has been scrutinized by José A. Rial, Jeseung Oh and Elizabeth Reischmann who find that master-slave synchronization between the climate system's natural frequencies and the eccentricity forcing started the 100 ky ice ages of the late Pleistocene and explain their large amplitude.

### Orbital inclination

Orbital inclination has a 100 ka periodicity, while eccentricity's 95 and 125ka periods could inter-react to give a 108ka effect. While it is possible that the less significant, and originally overlooked, inclination variability has a deep effect on climate, the eccentricity only modifies insolation by a small amount: 1–2% of the shift caused by the 21,000-year precession and 41,000-year obliquity cycles. Such a big impact from inclination would therefore be disproportionate in comparison to other cycles. One possible mechanism suggested to account for this was the passage of Earth through regions of cosmic dust. Our eccentric orbit would take us through dusty clouds in space, which would act to occlude some of the incoming radiation, shadowing the Earth.

In such a scenario, the abundance of the isotope 3He, produced by solar rays splitting gases in the upper atmosphere, would be expected to decrease—and initial investigations did indeed find such a drop in 3He abundance. Others have argued possible effects from the dust entering the atmosphere itself, for example by increasing cloud cover (on 9 July and 9 January, when the Earth passes through the invariable plane, mesospheric cloud increases). Therefore, the 100 ka eccentricity cycle can act as a "pacemaker" to the system, amplifying the effect of precession and obliquity cycles at key moments, with its perturbation.

### Precession cycles

A similar suggestion holds the 21,636-year precession cycles solely responsible. Ice ages are characterized by the slow buildup of ice volume, followed by relatively swift melting phases. It is possible that ice built up over several precession cycles, only melting after four or five such cycles.

### Dust and albedo

It has been suggested that ice-sheet albedo and dust are responsible. The high albedo of northern ice sheets will resist climatic warming from Milankovitch maxima unless they are covered in dust. Dust episodes occur just before each interglacial warming period, and it is claimed that the resulting reduced albedo of northern ice sheets assists in interglacial warming. Dust episodes are said to be caused by low atmospheric CO2 creating CO2-deserts in northern China upland areas, with the resulting dust creating the Loess Plateau and coating the northern ice sheets.

### Solar luminosity fluctuation

A mechanism that may account for periodic fluctuations in solar luminosity has also been proposed as an explanation. Diffusion waves occurring within the Sun can be modeled in such a way that they explain the observed climatic shifts on Earth.

### Land vs. oceanic photosynthesis

The Dole effect describes trends in δ18O arising from trends in the relative importance of land-dwelling and oceanic photosynthesizers. Such a variation is a plausible cause of the phenomenon.

### Ongoing research

The recovery of higher-resolution ice cores spanning more of the past 1,000,000 years by the ongoing EPICA project may help shed more light on the matter. A new, high-precision dating method developed by the team allows better correlation of the various factors involved and puts the ice core chronologies on a stronger temporal footing, endorsing the traditional Milankovitch hypothesis, that climate variations are controlled by insolation in the northern hemisphere. The new chronology is inconsistent with the "inclination" theory of the 100,000-year cycle. The establishment of leads and lags against different orbital forcing components with this method—which uses the direct insolation control over nitrogen-oxygen ratios in ice core bubbles—is in principle a great improvement in the temporal resolution of these records and another significant validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis. An international climate modelling exercise (Abe-ouchi *et al.*, Nature, 2013) demonstrated that climate models can replicate the 100,000-year cyclicity given the orbital forcing and carbon dioxide levels of the late Pleistocene. The isostatic history of ice sheets was implicated in mediating the 100,000-year response to the orbital forcing. Larger ice sheets are lower in elevation because they depress the continental crust upon which they sit, and are therefore more vulnerable to melting.

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title: American submarine NR-1

abstract: Deep Submergence Vessel NR-1 was a unique United States Navy (USN) nuclear-powered ocean engineering and research submarine, built by the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics at Groton, Connecticut. NR-1 was launched on 25 January 1969, completed initial sea trials 19 August 1969, and was home-ported at Naval Submarine Base New London. NR-1 was the smallest nuclear submarine ever put into operation. The vessel was casually known as "Nerwin" and was never officially named or commissioned. The U.S. Navy is allocated a specific number of warships by the U.S. Congress, but Admiral Hyman Rickover avoided using one of those allocations for the construction of NR-1 in order to circumvent the oversight that a warship receives from various bureaus.

text:
# American submarine NR-1

**Deep Submergence Vessel *NR-1*** was a unique United States Navy (USN) nuclear-powered ocean engineering and research submarine, built by the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics at Groton, Connecticut. *NR-1* was launched on 25 January 1969, completed initial sea trials 19 August 1969, and was home-ported at Naval Submarine Base New London. *NR-1* was the smallest nuclear submarine ever put into operation. The vessel was casually known as "Nerwin" and was never officially named or commissioned. The U.S. Navy is allocated a specific number of warships by the U.S. Congress, but Admiral Hyman Rickover avoided using one of those allocations for the construction of *NR-1* in order to circumvent the oversight that a warship receives from various bureaus.

## History

*NR-1*'s missions included search, object recovery, geological survey, oceanographic research, and installation and maintenance of underwater equipment. *NR-1* had the unique capability to remain at one site and completely map or search an area with a high degree of accuracy, and this was a valuable asset on several occasions.

In the 1970s and 1980s, *NR-1* conducted numerous classified missions involving recovery of objects from the floor of the deep sea. These missions remain classified and few details have been made public. One publicly acknowledged mission in 1976 was to recover parts of an F-14 that were lost from the deck of an aircraft carrier and sank with at least one AIM-54A Phoenix air-to-air missile. The secrecy typical of USN submarine operations was heightened by Rickover's personal involvement, and he shared details of *NR-1* operations only on a need-to-know basis. Rickover envisioned building a small fleet of *NR-1* type submarines, but only one was built due to budget restrictions.

Following the loss of the Space Shuttle *Challenger* in 1986, *NR-1* was used to search for, identify, and recover critical parts of the *Challenger* craft. It could remain on the sea floor without resurfacing frequently, and was a major tool for searching deep waters. *NR-1* remained submerged and on station even when heavy weather and rough seas hit the area and forced all other search and recovery ships into port.

In October 1994, a survey was done by the *NR-1* off the Florida straits 65 km southwest of Key West where it encountered and explored an uncharted sink hole. On 2 December 1998, an advisory committee approved the name "NR-1" for the hole.

In 1995, Robert Ballard used the *NR-1* and its support ship MV *Carolyn Chouest* to explore the wreck of HMHS *Britannic*, the sister ship of RMS *Titanic*, which sank off the coast of Greece while serving as a hospital ship during World War I.

On 25 February 2007, *NR-1* arrived in Galveston, Texas, towed by *Carolyn Chouest*, in preparation for an expedition to survey the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary and other sites in the Gulf of Mexico.

*NR-1* was deactivated on 21 November 2008 at the U.S. Navy submarine base at Groton, Connecticut, defuelled at Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, then sent to Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to be scrapped. On 13 November 2013, the U.S. Navy announced that salvaged pieces of the sub would be put on display at the Submarine Force Library and Museum in Groton.

## Capabilities

*NR-1* performed underwater search and recovery, oceanographic research missions, and installation and maintenance of underwater equipment to a depth of almost half a nautical mile. Its features included extending bottoming wheels, three viewing ports, exterior lighting, television and still cameras for color photographic studies, an object recovery claw, a manipulator that could be fitted with various gripping and cutting tools, and a work basket that could be used in conjunction with the manipulator to deposit or recover items in the sea. Surface vision was provided by a television periscope permanently installed on a fixed mast in her sail area.

*NR-1* had sophisticated electronics, computers, and sonar systems that aided in navigation, communications, and object location and identification. It could maneuver or hold a steady position on or close to the seabed or underwater ridges, detect and identify objects at a considerable distance, and lift objects off the ocean floor.

*NR-1* was equipped with two electric motor-driven propellers and its maneuverability was enhanced by four ducted thrusters, two forward and two aft. The vehicle had diving planes mounted on the sail, and a conventional rudder.

*NR-1* could travel submerged at approximately 4 knots (7.4 km/h; 4.6 mph) for long periods, limited only by consumable supplies—primarily food. It could study and map the ocean bottom, including temperature, currents, and other information for military, commercial, and scientific uses. Its nuclear propulsion provided independence from surface support ships and essentially unlimited endurance.

*NR-1*'s size limited its crew comforts. The crew of about 10 men could stay at sea for as long as a month, but had no kitchen or bathing facilities. They ate frozen TV dinners, bathed once a week with a bucket of water, and burned chlorate candles to produce oxygen. The sub was so slow that it was towed to sea by a surface vessel, and so tiny that the crew felt the push and pull of the ocean's currents. "Everybody on *NR-1* got sick," said Allison J. Holifield, who commanded the sub in the mid-1970s. "It was only a matter of whether you were throwing up or not throwing up."

*NR-1* was generally towed to and from remote mission locations by an accompanying surface tender, which was also capable of conducting research in conjunction with the submarine. *NR-1*'s last mother ship was MV *Carolyn Chouest*, which provided towing, communications, berthing, and direct mission support for all *NR-1* operations—a versatile platform and an indispensable member of the *NR-1* deep submergence team. *NR-1* command was crewed with thirty-five Navy personnel and ten civilian contractor personnel. *NR-1* carried as many as thirteen persons (crew and specialists) at one time, including three of the four assigned officers. (The operations officer rode on *Carolyn Chouest*). All personnel who crewed *NR-1* were nuclear-trained and specifically screened and interviewed by the Director, Navy Nuclear Propulsion Program.

## Awards

| Navy Unit Commendation | Meritorious Unit Commendation
with five award stars | Navy E Ribbon
with Battle "E" device (6 awards) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| National Defense Service Medal
with two stars | Global War on Terrorism Service Medal | Sea Service Deployment Ribbon |

## Further reading

## InfoBox

*NR-1*
| Deep submergence vessel *NR-1* | |
| --- | --- |
| History | |
| United States | |
| Name | *NR-1* |
| Builder | General Dynamics Electric Boat |
| Laid down | 10 June 1967 |
| Launched | 25 January 1969 |
| In service | 27 October 1969 |
| Out of service | 21 November 2008 |
| Motto | The World's Finest Deep Submersible |
| Nickname(s) | *Nerwin* |
| Fate | Scrapped |
| General characteristics | |
| Class and type | Unique submarine |
| Displacement | 400 tons |
| Length | * 45 m (147 ft 8 in) overall * 29.3 m (96 ft 2 in) pressure hull |
| Beam | * 3.8 m (12 ft 6 in) * 4.8 m (15 ft 9 in) at stern stabilizers. |
| Draft | * 4.6 m (15 ft 1 in) * Box keel depth (below base-line): 1.2 m (3.9 ft) |
| Installed power | Single nuclear reactor, one turbine generator |
| Propulsion | * 2 × external motors * 2 × propellers * 4 × ducted thrusters (mounted diagonally in two "x-configured" pairs) |
| Speed | * 4.5 knots (8.3 km/h; 5.2 mph) surfaced * 3.5 knots (6.5 km/h; 4.0 mph) submerged |
| Endurance | * 210-man-days nominal * 16 days for a 13 person crew * 330-man-days maximum * 25 days for a 13 person crew |
| Test depth | 3,000 feet (910 m) |
| Complement | 3 officers, 8 crewmen, 2 scientists |