title: English passive voice

abstract:
In English, the passive voice is marked by a subject that is followed by a stative verb complemented by a past participle. For example:
The enemy was defeated.
Caesar was stabbed.
The recipient of a sentence's action is referred to as the patient. In sentences using the active voice, the subject is the performer of the action—referred to as the agent. Above, the agent is omitted entirely, but it may also be included adjunctively while maintaining the passive voice:
The enemy was defeated by our troops.
Caesar was stabbed by Brutus.
The initial examples rewritten in the active voice yield:
Our troops defeated the enemy.
Brutus stabbed Caesar.
The English passive voice typically involves forms of the verbs to be or to get followed by a passive participle as the subject complement—sometimes referred to as a passive verb. English allows a number of additional passive constructions that are not possible in many other languages with analogous passive formations to the above. A sentence's indirect object may be promoted to the subject position—e.g. Tom was given a bag. Similarly, the complement of a preposition may be promoted, leaving a stranded preposition—e.g. Sue was operated on. The English passive voice is used less often than the active voice, but frequency varies according to the writer's style and the given field of writing. Contemporary style guides discourage excessive use of the passive voice but generally consider it to be acceptable in certain situations, such as when the patient is the topic of the sentence, when the agent is unimportant and therefore omitted, or when the agent is placed near the end of a sentence as a means of emphasis.

text:
# English passive voice

In English, the passive voice is marked by a subject that is followed by a stative verb complemented by a past participle. For example:

> The enemy was defeated. Caesar was stabbed.

The recipient of a sentence's action is referred to as the patient. In sentences using the active voice, the subject is the *performer* of the action—referred to as the agent. Above, the agent is omitted entirely, but it may also be included adjunctively while maintaining the passive voice:

> The enemy was defeated *by our troops*. Caesar was stabbed *by Brutus*.

The initial examples rewritten in the active voice yield:

> Our troops defeated the enemy. Brutus stabbed Caesar.

The **English passive voice** typically involves forms of the verbs *to be* or *to get* followed by a passive participle as the subject complement—sometimes referred to as a *passive verb*.

English allows a number of additional passive constructions that are not possible in many other languages with analogous passive formations to the above. A sentence's indirect object may be promoted to the subject position—e.g. *Tom was given a bag*. Similarly, the complement of a preposition may be promoted, leaving a stranded preposition—e.g. *Sue was operated on*.

The English passive voice is used less often than the active voice, but frequency varies according to the writer's style and the given field of writing. Contemporary style guides discourage excessive use of the passive voice but generally consider it to be acceptable in certain situations, such as when the patient is the topic of the sentence, when the agent is unimportant and therefore omitted, or when the agent is placed near the end of a sentence as a means of emphasis.

## Identifying the English passive

The passive voice is a specific grammatical construction. The essential components, in English, are a form of the stative verb *be* (or sometimes *get*) and the past participle of the verb denoting the action. The agent (the doer of the action) may be specified using a prepositional phrase with the preposition *by,* but this is optional. It can be used in a number of different grammatical contexts; for instance, in declarative, interrogative, and imperative clauses:

* "Kennedy *was assassinated* in 1963."
* "Mistakes *were made*."
* "The window *got broken*."
* "*Have* you ever *been kicked* by an elephant?"
* "Don't *get killed*."
* "*Being attacked* by Geoffrey Howe was like *being savaged* by a dead sheep."

### Misuse of the term

Though the passive *can* be used for the purpose of concealing the agent, this is not a valid way of identifying the passive, and many other grammatical constructions can be used to accomplish this. Not every expression that serves to take focus away from the performer of an action is an instance of passive voice. For instance, "There were mistakes" and "Mistakes occurred" are both in the active voice. Occasionally, authors express recommendations about use of the passive unclearly or misapply the term "passive voice" to include sentences of this type. An example of this incorrect usage can be found in the following extract from an article from *The New Yorker* about Bernard Madoff (bolding and italics added; bold text indicates the verbs misidentified as passive voice):

> Two sentences later, Madoff said, "When I began the Ponzi scheme, I believed it **would end** shortly, and I would be able to extricate myself, and my clients, from the scheme." As he read this, he betrayed no sense of how absurd it was *to use the passive voice* in regard to his scheme, as if it were a spell of bad weather that had descended on him ... In most of the rest of the statement, one not only heard *the aggrieved passive voice*, but felt the hand of a lawyer: "To the best of my recollection, my fraud **began** in the early nineteen-nineties."

The intransitive verbs *would end* and *began* are in fact ergative verbs in the active voice. Although the speaker may be using words in a manner that diverts responsibility from him, this is not being accomplished by use of passive voice.

## Reasons for using the passive voice

The passive voice can be used without referring to the agent of an action; it may therefore be used when the agent is unknown or unimportant, or the speaker does not wish to mention the agent.

* Three stores were robbed last night (the identity of the agent may be unknown).
* A new cancer drug has been discovered (the identity of the agent may be unimportant in the context).
* Mistakes have been made on this project (the speaker may not wish to identify the agent).

The last sentence illustrates a frequently criticized use of the passive, as the evasion of responsibility by failure to mention the agent (which may even be the speaker themselves).

Nonetheless, the passive voice can be complemented by an element that identifies the agent, usually via a *by*-phrase that is intended to emphasize the agent. For example:

* Don't you see? The patient was murdered **by his own doctor**!

In more technical terms, such uses can be expected in sentences where the agent is the focus (*comment*, *rheme*), while the patient (the undergoer of the action) is the *topic* or *theme* (see Topic–comment). There is a tendency for sentences to be formulated so as to place the focus at the end, which can motivate the choice of active or passive voice:

* My taxi hit an old lady (the taxi is the topic, and the lady is the focus).
* My mother was hit by a taxi (the mother is the topic, and the taxi is the focus).

Similarly, the passive may be used because the noun phrase denoting the agent is a long one (containing many modifiers) since it is convenient to place such phrases at the end of a clause:

* The breakthrough was achieved by Burlingame and Evans, two researchers in the university's genetic engineering lab.

In some situations, the passive may be used so that the most dramatic word or the punchline appears at the end of the sentence.

## Style advice

### Advice against the passive voice

Many language critics and language-usage manuals discourage use of the passive voice. This advice is not usually found in older guides, emerging only in the first half of the twentieth century. In 1916, the British writer Arthur Quiller-Couch criticized this grammatical voice:

> Generally, use transitive verbs, that strike their object; and use them in the active voice, eschewing the stationary passive, with its little auxiliary *its's* \[*sic*\] and *was's*, and its participles getting into the light of your adjectives, which should be few. For, as a rough law, by his use of the straight verb and by his economy of adjectives you can tell a man's style, if it be masculine or neuter, writing or 'composition'.

Two years later, in the original 1918 edition of *The Elements of Style*, Cornell University Professor of English William Strunk, Jr. warned against excessive use of the passive voice:

> The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive ... This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary ... The need to make a particular word the subject of the sentence will often ... determine which voice is to be used. The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forcible writing. This is true not only in narrative concerned principally with action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be made lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive in the active voice for some such perfunctory expression as *there is* or *could be heard*.

In 1926, in *A Dictionary of Modern English Usage*, Henry Watson Fowler recommended against transforming active voice forms into passive voice forms, because doing so "... ...sometimes leads to bad grammar, false idiom, or clumsiness."

In 1946, in the essay "Politics and the English Language", George Orwell recommended the active voice as an elementary principle of composition: "Never use the passive where you can use the active."

*The Columbia Guide to Standard American English* states that:

> *Active voice* makes subjects do something (to something); *passive voice* permits subjects to have something done to them (by someone or something). Some argue that *active voice* is more muscular, direct, and succinct, *passive voice* flabbier, more indirect, and wordier. If you want your words to seem impersonal, indirect, and noncommittal, *passive* is the choice, but otherwise, *active voice* is almost invariably likely to prove more effective.

Use of the passive is more prevalent in scientific writing, but publishers of some scientific publications, such as Nature, Science and the IEEE, explicitly encourage their authors to use active voice.

The principal criticism against the passive voice is its potential for evasion of responsibility. This is because a passive clause may be used to omit the agent even where it is important:

* We had hoped to report on this problem, but the data were inadvertently deleted from our files.

Krista Ratcliffe, a professor at Marquette University, notes the use of passives as an example of the role of grammar as "... ...a link between words and magical conjuring ...: passive voice mystifies accountability by erasing who or what performs an action ..."

### Advice by style guides and grammarians on appropriate use of the passive voice

Jan Freeman, a columnist for *The Boston Globe*, said that the passive voice does have its uses, and that "all good writers use the passive voice."

Passive writing is not necessarily slack and indirect. Many famously vigorous passages use the passive voice, as in these examples with the passive verbs italicized:

* Every valley *shall be exalted*, and every mountain and hill *shall be made* low; and the crooked *shall be made* straight, and the rough places plain. (King James Bible, Isaiah 40:4.)
* Now *is* the winter of our discontent / *Made* glorious summer by this sun of York. (*Shakespeare's Richard III*, I.1, ll. 1–2.)
* We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men *are created* equal, that they *are endowed* by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. (United States Declaration of Independence.)
* Never in the field of human conflict *was* so much *owed* by so many to so few. (Winston Churchill addressing the House of Commons, 20 August 1940.)
* Yesterday, December 7, 1941 - a date which will live in infamy - the United States of America *was* suddenly and deliberately *attacked* by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan. (Franklin D. Roosevelt's Infamy Speech following the Attack on Pearl Harbor.)
* For of those to whom much *is given*, much *is required*. (John F. Kennedy's quotation of Luke 12:48 in his address to the Massachusetts legislature, 9 January 1961.)

While Strunk and White, in *The Elements of Style*, encourage use of the active voice, they also state that the passive is often useful and sometimes preferable, even necessary, the choice of active or passive depending, for instance, on the topic of the sentence.

Another advisor, Joseph M. Williams, who has written several books on style, states with greater clarity that the passive is often the better choice. According to Williams, the choice between active and passive depends on the answers to three questions:

1. "Must the reader know who is responsible for the action?"
2. "Would the active or passive verb help your readers move more smoothly from one sentence to the next?
3. "Would the active or passive give readers a more consistent and appropriate point of view?"

Bryan A. Garner, in *Garner's Modern English Usage*, stresses the advantages of the active voice, but gives the following examples of where the passive is preferred:

* "When the actor is unimportant."
* "When the actor is unknown."
* "When you want to hide the actor's identity."
* "When you need to put the punch word at the end of the sentence."
* "When the focus of the sentence is on the thing being acted on."
* "When the passive simply sounds better."

*Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage* recommends the passive voice when identifying the object (receiver) of the action is more important than the subject (agent), and when the agent is unknown, unimportant, or not worth mentioning:

* The child was struck by the car.
* The store was robbed last night.
* Plows should not be kept in the garage.
* Kennedy was elected president.

The linguist Geoffrey Pullum writes that "The passive is not an undesirable feature limited to bad writing, it's a useful construction often needed for clear expression, and every good writer uses it."

Despite criticism that the passive can be used to hide responsibility by omitting the agent, the passive can also be used to emphasize the agent. Writers have preferred placing the agent at the end of a clause or sentence to give it greater emphasis, as in the examples given in the previous section:

* Don't you see? The patient was murdered by his own doctor!
* The breakthrough was achieved by Burlingame and Evans, two researchers in the university's genetic engineering lab.

### Actual use of the passive voice

Agentless passives were once common in scientific writing, where the agent may be irrelevant, although at least one publisher considers this a "fading practice":

* The mixture was heated to 300 °C.

The passive voice is used more frequently in scientific writing than in other prose, where it is relatively rare.

A statistical study of a variety of periodicals found a maximum incidence of 13 percent passive constructions. Despite Orwell's advice to avoid the passive, his *Politics and the English Language* employs passive voice for about 20 percent of its constructions.

The *Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English* gives the following rough frequencies per million words:

|  | Conversation | Fiction | News | Academic |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Short passives (finite) |  |  |  |  |
| Stative verbs | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,500 |
| Dynamic verbs | 1,000 | 2,500 | 5,000 | 10,000 |
| Get passive | \<250 | \<250 | \<250 | \<250 |
| Other copula | \<250 | \<250 | \<250 | \<250 |
| Long passives (finite) | \<250 | 500 | 1,500 | 1,500 |
| Post modifier in NP (non-finite) |  |  |  |  |
| Short passives | \<250 | 1,000 | 1,500 | 3,500 |
| Long passives | \<250 | 500 | 1,000 | 1,000 |

In academic prose, passives make up roughly 25% of all finite clauses, 15% in news, less in fiction, and even less in conversation.

## Passive constructions

### Canonical passives

In the most commonly considered type of passive clause, a form of the verb *be* (or sometimes *get*) is used as an auxiliary together with the past participle of a transitive verb; that verb is missing its direct object, and the patient of the action (that which would be denoted by the direct object of the verb in an active clause) is denoted instead by the subject of the clause. For example, the active clause:

* John threw the ball.

contains *threw* as a transitive verb with *John* as its subject and *the ball* as its direct object. If we recast the verb in the passive voice (*was thrown*), then *the ball* becomes the subject (it is "promoted" to the subject position) and *John* disappears:

* The ball was thrown.

The original subject (the agent) can optionally be re-inserted using the preposition *by*.

* The ball was thrown **by John**.

The above example uses the verb *be* (in the past tense form *was*) to make the passive. It is often possible to use the verb *get* as an alternative (possibly with slightly different meaning); for example, the active sentence "The ball hit Bob" may be recast in either of the following forms:

* Bob was hit by the ball.
* Bob got hit by the ball.

The auxiliary verb of the passive voice (*be* or *get*) may appear in any combination of tense, aspect and mood, and can also appear in non-finite form (infinitive, participle or gerund). See the article on English verb forms for more information. Notice that this includes use of the verb *be* in progressive aspect, which does not normally occur when *be* is used as a simple copula. Some examples:

* The food **is being served**. (present progressive passive)
* The stadium **will have been built** by next January. (future perfect passive)
* I **would have got/gotten** **injured** if I had stayed in my place. (conditional perfect passive with *get*)
* It isn't nice **to be insulted**. (passive infinitive)
* **Having been humiliated**, he left the stage. (passive present participle, perfect aspect)

### Promotion of indirect objects

Unlike some other languages, English also allows passive clauses in which an indirect object, rather than a direct object, is promoted to the subject. For example:

* John gave Mary a book. → Mary was given a book (by John).

In the active form, *gave* is the verb; *John* is its subject, *Mary* its indirect object, and *a book* its direct object. In the passive forms, the indirect object has been promoted and the direct object has been left in place. (In this respect, English resembles secundative languages.)

It is normally only the first-appearing object that can be promoted; promotion of the indirect object takes place from a construction in which it precedes the direct object (i.e. where there is no *to* or *for* before the indirect object), whereas promotion of the direct object in such cases takes place from a construction in which the indirect object follows the direct object (this time being accompanied by *to* or *for*; see English grammar § Verb phrases). For example:

* John gave Mary a book. → Mary was given a book. (and not normally: ??A book was given Mary.)
* John gave a book **to** Mary. → A book was given **to** Mary. (and not: \*Mary was given a book to.)

Similar restrictions apply to the prepositional passive, as noted in the following section.

### Prepositional passive

It is also possible, in some cases, to promote the object of a preposition. This may be called the **prepositional passive**, or sometimes the **pseudopassive** (although the latter term can also have other meanings, such as being equivalent to the impersonal passive voice, particularly in descriptions of other languages).

* They talked about the problem. → The problem was talked about.

In the passive form here, the preposition is "stranded"; that is, it is not followed by an object.

The prepositional passive is common, especially in informal English. However some potential uses are much less acceptable than others; compare the following examples:

* Someone has slept in this bottom bunk. → This bottom bunk has been slept in. (fully acceptable)
* Someone has slept above this bottom bunk. → ??This bottom bunk has been slept above. (much less acceptable)

The second sentence appears much less acceptable because sleeping above a bunk does not change its state; the verb phrase *been slept above* does not express a "relevantly important property" of the bunk.

It is not usually possible to promote a prepositional object if the verb also has a direct object; any passive rendering of the sentence must instead promote the direct object. For example:

* Someone has put a child in this bunk. → \*This bunk has been put a child in. (unacceptable)
* Someone has put a child in this bunk. → A child has been put in this bunk. (acceptable)

Exceptions occur with certain idiomatic combinations of verb+object+preposition, such as *take advantage of*:

* I feel people have taken advantage of me. → I feel I have been taken advantage of. (acceptable)

### Stative and adjectival uses

A type of clause that is similar or identical in form to the passive clauses described above has the past participle used to denote not an action, but a state being the result of an action. For example, the sentence *The window was broken* may have two different meanings and might be ambiguous:

* The window was broken, *i.e.* Someone or something broke the window. (action, event)
* The window was broken, *i.e.* The window was not intact. (resultant state)

The first sentence is an example of the canonical English passive as described above. However the second case is distinct; such sentences are not passive voice, because the participle is being used adjectivally; Such constructs are sometimes called "false passives" or *stative passives* (rarely called *statal*, *static*, or *resultative passives*), since they represent a state or result. By contrast the canonical passives, representing an action or event, may then be called *dynamic* or *eventive* passives.

The ambiguity in such sentences arises because the verb *be* is used in English both as the passive auxiliary and as the ordinary copular verb for linking to predicate adjectives. When *get* is used to form the passive, there is no ambiguity: *The window got broken* cannot have a stative meaning. (For ways in which some other languages make this distinction, see Passive voice § Stative and dynamic passive.) If a distinct adjective exists for the purpose of expressing the state, then the past participle is less likely to be used for that purpose; this is the case with the verb *open* and the adjective *open*, so the sentence *The door was opened* (but not *the package was unopened*) more likely refers to the action than to the state since one can simply say *The door was open* in the stative case.

Past participles of transitive verbs can also be used as adjectives (as in *a **broken** doll*), and the participles used in the above-mentioned "stative" constructions are often considered to be adjectival (in predicative use). Such constructions may then also be called *adjectival passives* (although they are not normally considered true passives). For example:

* She was relieved to find her car.

Here, *relieved* is an ordinary adjective, though it derives from the past participle of *relieve*. In other sentences that same participle may be used to form the true (dynamic) passive: *He was relieved of duty.*

When the verb being put into the passive voice is a stative verb anyway, the distinctions between uses of the past participle become less clear, since the canonical passive already has a stative meaning. (For example: *People **know** his identity**His identity **is known**.*) However it is sometimes possible to impart a dynamic meaning using *get* as the auxiliary, as in *get known* with the meaning "become known".

### Passive constructions without an exactly corresponding active

Some passive constructions are not derived exactly from a corresponding active construction in the ways described above. This is particularly the case with sentences containing content clauses (usually *that*-clauses). Given a sentence in which the role of direct object is played by such a clause, for example

* They say (that) he cheats.

It is possible to convert this to a passive by promoting the content clause to subject; in this case, however, the clause typically does not change its position in the sentence, and an expletive *it* takes the normal subject position:

* It is said that he cheats.

Another way of forming passives in such cases involves promoting the subject of the content clause to the subject of the main clause, and converting the content clause into a non-finite clause with the *to*-infinitive. This infinitive is marked for grammatical aspect to correspond to the aspect (or past tense) expressed in the content clause. For example:

* They say that he cheats. → He is said to cheat.
* They think that I am dying. → I am thought to be dying.
* They report that she came back / has come back. → She is reported to have come back.
* They say that she will resign. → *e.g.* She is said to be going to resign.

Some verbs are used almost exclusively in the passive voice. This is the case with *rumor*, for example. The following passive sentences are possible:

* He was rumored to be a war veteran. / It was rumored that he was a war veteran.

but it is not possible to use the active counterpart **They rumored that he was a war veteran.* (This was once possible, but has fallen out of use.)

Another situation in which the passive uses a different construction than the active involves the verb *make*, meaning "compel". When this verb is used in the active voice it takes the bare infinitive (without the particle *to*), but in the passive voice it takes the *to*-infinitive. For example:

* They made Jane attend classes.
* Jane was made **to** attend classes.

### Double passives

The construction called **double passive** can arise when one verb appears in the *to*-infinitive as the complement of another verb.

If the first verb takes a direct object ahead of the infinitive complement (this applies to raising-to-object verbs, where the expected subject of the second verb is raised to the position of object of the first verb), then the passive voice may be used independently for either or both of the verbs:

* We expect you to complete the project. (*you* is raised from subject of *complete* to object of *expect*)
* You **are expected** to complete the project. (passive voice used for *expect*)
* We expect the project to **be completed**. (passive voice used for *complete*; now *the project* is raised to object)
* The project **is expected** to **be completed**. (double passive)

Other verbs which can behave similarly to *expect* in such constructions include *order*, *tell*, *persuade*, etc., leading to such double passives as *The man was ordered to be shot* and *I was persuaded to be ordained*.

Similar constructions sometimes occur, however, when the first verb is raising-to-subject rather than raising-to-object – that is, when there is no object before the infinitive complement. For example, with *attempt*, the active voice construction is simply *We attempted to complete the project*. A double passive formed from that sentence would be:

* The project was attempted to be completed.

with both verbs changed simultaneously to the passive voice, even though the first verb takes no object – it is not possible to say *\*We attempted the project to be completed*, which is the sentence from which the double passive would appear to derive.

This latter double passive construction is criticized as questionable both grammatically and stylistically. Fowler calls it "clumsy and incorrect", suggesting that it springs from false analogy with the former (acceptable) type of double passive, though conceding its usefulness in some legal and quasi-legal language. Other verbs mentioned (besides *attempt*) with which the construction is found include *begin*, *desire*, *hope*, *propose*, *seek* and *threaten*. Similarly, *The American Heritage Book of English Usage* declares this construction unacceptable. It nonetheless occurs in practice in a variety of contexts.

### Additional passive constructions

Certain other constructions are sometimes classed as passives. The following types are mentioned by Pullum.

A *bare passive clause* is similar to a typical passive clause, but without the passive auxiliary verb (so it is a non-finite clause consisting of a subject together with a verb phrase based on a past participle with the passive construction). These can be used in such contexts as newspaper headlines:

* City hall damaged by hail

and as modifiers (adverbial phrases), i.e. nominative absolutes:

* **Our work done**, we made our way back home.
* **That said**, there are also other considerations.

Other constructions are mentioned in which a passive past participle clause is used, even though it is not introduced by the auxiliary *be* or *get* (or is introduced by *get* with a direct object):

* I had my car cleaned by a professional.
* Jane had her car stolen last week.
* You ought to get that lump looked at.
* This software comes pre-installed by the manufacturer.

In the *concealed passive*, the present participle or gerund form (*-ing* form) appears rather than the past participle. This can appear after *need*, and for some speakers after *want* (with similar meaning). For example:

* Your car needs washing. (meaning "needs to be washed")
* That rash needs looking at by a specialist.

(An idiomatic expression with the same construction is *... doesn't bear thinking about*.)

The concealed passive (with an *-ing* form) can also be used in a complex construction; Huddleston gives the following example:

* Your hair needs cutting by a professional. \[simple construction\]
* You need your hair cutting by a professional. \[complex construction\]

See also English clause syntax § Non-finite clauses.

## Syntactic components of the passive voice

The sections below discuss some generalizations that linguists have attempted to identify regarding the syntactical distinctions between the passive voice, active past tense, the passive middle voice, and other past tense formations.

### The passive participle

In English, the passive requires the use of the past participle of a verb, generally with an auxiliary verb *be.* The passive uses an auxiliary *be* in order to get tense because participles are non finite. The participle verb is also unable to assign Case. Case is a tool used in transformational grammar that states that Case gives grammatical relations to a noun to show how it functions in the sentence; for example, if a noun needs to be in first or second person due to the form of the verb. So, if a noun phrase in the passive needs to get Case from the participle verb, it must undergo movement to the head of the sentence CP to receive nominative Case.ii

Wanner argues that identification of the passive voice construction can't solely rely on the auxiliary *be* and the past participle as distinguishing features because the auxiliary *be* is also used to express the progressive aspect and the past participle can be found in multiple constructions that are not passive voice constructions. In these instances Wanner refers to, the auxiliary *be* is not found next to or with the past participle. If the auxiliary *be* is present directly in front of a past participle, it is a passive construction.

### External argument, implicit argument and theta roles

Passives always contain an external argument. An external argument is specifically referring to the theta role that is assigned to the subject of the sentence. Often, the external argument is the agent of the sentence. In passive constructions, the external argument does not need to be in subject position, as seen in active constructions. It is often found in an adjunct position instead. The passive voice also doesn't have to use the agent role. The passive allows for a variety of thematic roles in the external argument. For example, the subject could have a theta role of goal instead, as in the sentence below.

* I was sent a letter by them.

In the passive, external arguments can be made explicit in adjunct positions with the use of a *by* phrase. They don't have to be put into argument positions in order to be specific. The external argument in the passive will be represented even without a *by* phrase.

When a *by* phrase is missing in the passive, the external argument of the verb can become an implicit argument. Implicit here refers to the fact that these arguments can be implied and are not required to be explicit when used in a passive construction.

### Control and arguments

Explicit arguments can control a PRO subject within an adjunct purpose clause using thematic control. PRO can also be controlled by an internal or external argument. Specifically, explicit and implicit arguments can control PRO in purpose clauses:

* They<sub>i</sub> sold the books \[PRO<sub>i</sub> to make profit\].

Above, *they* is the controller for PRO, and PRO is referencing that *they* are the ones who did it to make the profit. In this case, the explicit argument of the sentence is *they.* In the passive, arguments can even control a PRO subject without having an explicit external argument, because it is still there *implicitly.*

* The books were sold IMP<sub>i</sub> \[ PRO<sub>i</sub> to make money\].

Above, IMP is the reference to PRO because the books didn't sell themselves to make money, someone, who the interpreter of the sentence knows exists implicitly, sold them. In the passive, PRO is still able to be controlled even without having an explicit argument.

Control abilities can also be limited with implicit arguments in the passive. An implicit subject *cannot* control PRO in the case of ditransitive and subject control verbs. This is related to passive movement. Due to the raising done to get nominative case, the head T is no longer in an Agree relationship with the implicit subject, which means that the implicit subject can no longer control PRO either.

* *Sarah was promised (by Greg<sub>i</sub>) \[PRO<sub>i</sub> to go on a vacation.\]

In the passive, the thematic object can be the controller because it is still connected in agreement.

* Sarah<sub>i</sub> was persuaded \[PRO<sub>i</sub> to go on vacation\].

Some suggest that the ability to control is due to implicit arguments controlling through a thematic control, rather than an argument control like full arguments.

### *By* phrases in the passive

Another feature of the passive is the optional *by* phrase. The by phrase is where the external argument can be explicitly expressed. This *by* phrase acts as an adjunct to the verb and is assigned theta roles that would normally be assigned elsewhere in the sentence, specifically it takes the theta role of the active subject.

* Toni ate the last piece of baklava. (active)
* The last piece of baklava was eaten \[by Toni\]. (passive)

In the passive, the theta role of agent is being given to Toni in the *by* phrase, the same as it previously had in the active subject. These *by* phrases are attached to the VoiceP head and are special to passives.

### Movement in the passive

In Chomsky's generative grammar, the following example of a passive with the auxiliary *be* and a *by* phrase, gives the same reading as in an active sentence.

* Zenobia idolized Caesar. (active)
* Caesar was idolized by Zenobia. (passive)

**Caesar** which acted as the direct object in the active form, as the internal argument, moves from the direct object of the verb into the subject position in the passive for two reasons. The first reason is to satisfy the EPP (extended projection principle) and then second is to get Case, since in its participle form, the verb cannot give Case to **Zenobia**. **Zenobia** receives nominative Case from the finite INFL, the head of the CP.

Movement does not always take place in the passive though we see it often with *by*-phrases. This is because movement only takes place when a NP depends on the verb to get Case. There are instances of the passive that do not use movement.

### Non-passivized verbs

Not all verbs in English can be passivized.

Unaccusative verbs do not form a passive in English.

* *It was wilted quickly.

In the passive the external argument is suppressed, but in unaccusative verbs, there is no external argument to be suppressed. Instead their subject argument generally acts as the object and then moves to the subject position to get Case. In the example above, you can see that the subject *it* moved from the object position to the subject. This is demonstrated in the trace below, where the trace (t<sub>i</sub>) is left behind when the word *it* moves to the front of the sentence into subject position where it receives case.

* \[<sub>CP</sub> \[<sub>TP</sub>\[<sub>VP</sub> was wilted quickly\[<sub>DP</sub> it\]\]\]\].
* \[<sub>CP</sub>\[<sub>TP</sub> It<sub>i</sub> \[<sub>VP</sub> was wilted quickly\[<sub>DP</sub> t<sub>i</sub>\]\]\]\].

English also does not have impersonal passives, even though this can be found in other languages, like Dutch or German.

One argument using the lens of cognitive grammar claims that this is due to how auxiliary *be* functions in the passive. ii With the auxiliary *be*, the passive needs to have a patient argument. Unergative verbs that would form an impersonal passive do not have a patient argument, so the passive can't be formed. In Dutch, the *be* verb functions differently, so that the agent is always present. Therefore, in Dutch, the passive doesn't require a patient argument.

Another view is that it has to do with Case. Specifically, the inability of intransitive verbs to assign Case. Since intransitive verbs do not have objects, they don't assign Case. If the verb can't assign Case, then Case cannot be obtained by the passive; so they can't be passivized. This view claims that in German and Dutch, the verbs are structural case assigners which is why they are able to passivized in those languages.

Another Case-related argument varies slightly, still agreeing that no passive can be formed since the verb has no object, meaning no case can be assigned. However, the difference in this argument is in the analysis of how the impersonal passive works in Dutch and German. In this Case-related argument, Roberts (1985) claims that German and Dutch use dative case, argued to be an inherent Case (this is from Chomsky's generative grammar and means that specific verbs assign specific arguments and theta-roles) on their verbs, meaning these verbs can be put in the passive.

The reasons certain verbs cannot be passivized is not just based on syntax; there are semantic reasons behind their inability to passivize as well.

## *Get* passive

Originally the *get* passive was viewed as another variation of the *be* passive in English. It was assumed to function the exact same as the *be* passive, just using the verb *get* in place of auxiliary *be*. Today this is a topic of discussion among linguists who have noted that there are key differences between the behavior of a *be* passive and a *get* passive.

### Control and agent behavior in *get* passives

Some claim that the *get* passive is considered a subject control verb, a construction where the unstated subject is forced to refer back to the subject of the main clause by the verb.

\[Elle<sub>i</sub> got PRO<sub>i</sub> hired t<sub>i</sub>\]

Above, PRO has to refer to Elle, making it a subject control verb. The *be* passive does not allow for subject control. The patient in the *get* passive is often seen as being to blame for the event or action occurring, more so than in the *be* passive. The *get* passive patient seems to take on more responsibility in relation to the event of the sentence.

Mary **got** arrested.

Mary **was** arrested.

In the *get* passive version, there is some implied amount of accountability for being arrested, as if Mary did something to cause her being arrested, making it more closely related to the event of being arrested, compared to the stative *be* passive which doesn't connect back to the event, but is stative. This is because in *get* passives there is a belief that the surface subject can be identified as a secondary agent, but this is not an available reading in the *be* passive.

### Arguments as an adjectival passive

Some linguists argue that the *get* passive is actually an adjectival passive, making it not a true passive and different from *be*.

Evidence for the *get* passive as an adjectival passive comes from examples where *get* passives are not allowed to appear and do not behave as *be* passives, which are demonstrated below:

Agent-Oriented Manner Adverbials

\*The book got torn **on purpose**.

Rationale Clauses

\*The ship got sunk **\[PRO/ec) to collect the insurance money\]**.

Predication Structures

\*The food (finally) got served **\[(PRO/ec) kneeling**\].

Reflexive Pronouns

\*Food should never get served only **for oneself**.

However, there are instances where the above examples have a *get* passive that is allowed in the types of constructions above, and a *be* passive that is not. Furthermore, *get* passives allow the use of the by-phrase in the same conditions as the *be* passive.

The criminal got arrested **by Mary**.

This is something that usually isn't seen with true adjectival passives. These notions put the idea that the *get* passive may be an adjectival passive under question.

## Middle voice and passival

The term *middle voice* is sometimes used to refer to verbs used without a passive construction, but in a meaning where the grammatical subject is understood as undergoing the action. The meaning may be reflexive:

* Fred shaved, *i.e.* Fred shaved himself

but is not always:

* These cakes sell well, *i.e.* \[we\] sell these cakes \[successfully\]
* The clothes are soaking, *i.e.* \[the water\] is soaking the clothes

Such verbs may also be called *passival*.

Another construction sometimes referred to as *passival* involves a wider class of verbs, and was used in English until the nineteenth century. Sentences having this construction feature progressive aspect and resemble the active voice, but with meaning like the passive. Examples of this would be:

* The house is building. (modern English: The house is being built)
* The meal is eating. (modern English: The meal is being eaten)

A rare example of the passival form being used in modern English is with the following phrase:

* The drums are beating, *i.e.* the drums are being beaten

This passival construction was displaced during the late 18th and early 19th century by the progressive passive (the form *is being built* as given above). The grammaticality of the progressive passive, called by some the "imperfect passive," was controversial among grammarians in the 19th century, but is accepted without question today. It has been suggested that the passive progressive appeared just to the east of Bristol and was popularized by the Romantic poets.

1. Peters, Pam (2004). *The Cambridge Guide to English Usage*. Cambridge University Press. p. 411. ISBN 978-0-521-62181-6.
2. Wanner, Anja (31 July 2009). *Deconstructing the English Passive*. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-019632-0. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
3. Biber, Douglas; Johansson, Stig; Leech, Geoffrey; Conrad, Susan; Finegan, Edward (1999). *Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English*. Harlow, Essex: Longman. p. 938. ISBN 978-0-582-23725-4.
4. Gee, James Paul (1974). *"Get Passive": On Some Constructions with "get"*. Indiana University Linguistics Club.
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6. "Language Log » "Passive Voice" — 1397-2009 — R.I.P." Retrieved 2023-05-27.
7. Nancy Franklin, "The Dolor of Money," *The New Yorker*, 2009 March 23, at 24, 25.
8. "Language Log » The aggrieved passive voice". Retrieved 2023-05-27.
9. *Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage*. Merriam-Webster. 1994. pp. 720–721. ISBN 978-0-87779-132-4. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
10. *The American Heritage Book of English Usage* (1996).
11. "Grammar Lesson - Passive Voice - ELC". *ELC - English Language Center*. 2014-01-19. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
12. Geoffrey K. Pullum. "The passive in English". *Language Log*.
13. Zwicky, Arnold (2006-07-22). "How long have we been avoiding the passive, and why?". *Language Log*. Archived from the original on 2009-04-16.
14. Arthur Quiller-Couch, *On the Art of Writing* ch. 7 (1916).
15. William Strunk, Jr., *The Elements of Style* ch. 3, sec. 11 (1918).
16. Bell, Griffin B. (1966). "Style in judicial writing". *15 J. Pub. L. 214*. **15**: 214. Retrieved 2010-03-02. Fowler, the recognized modern authority on the use of the English language
17. Fowler, W. W.; Crystal, David (2009) \[1926\]. *A Dictionary of Modern English Usage: The Classic First Edition*. Oxford World's Classics Hardbacks Series (reissue ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 425. ISBN 978-0-19-953534-7. Retrieved 2010-03-02. PASSIVE DISTURBANCES. ... The conversion of an active-verb sentence into a passive-verb one of the same meaning - e.g. of *You killed him* into *He was killed by you* \- is a familiar process. But it sometimes leads to bad grammar, false idiom, or clumsiness.
18. Orwell, George (2000). "Politics and the English Language". *Essays*. Introduction by Bernard Crick. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 9780141919935.
19. Wilson, Kenneth G. (1992). "The Columbia Guide to Standard American English". Archived from the original on November 19, 2008.
20. Fowler, H.W. (2015). Butterfield, Jeremy (ed.). *Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage*. Oxford University Press. p. 606. ISBN 978-0-19-966135-0.
21. Nature Publishing Group (2010). "How to write a paper". *Authors & referees: Writing for a Nature*. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
22. "Instructions for Contributors". *Science*. **167** (3926): xviA–xviB. 1970-03-27. doi:10.1126/science.167.3926.xviA. ISSN 0036-8075. S2CID 220088428.
23. "Write Clearly and Concisely". *IEEE*. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
24. Ratcliffe, Krista (1996). *Anglo-American feminist challenges to the rhetorical traditions: Virginia Woolf, Mary Daly, Adrienne Rich*. SIU Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-8093-1934-3. Retrieved 2010-10-14.
25. Freeman, Jan (2009-03-22). "Active resistance: What we get wrong about the passive voice". *The Boston Globe*. Boston. ISSN 0743-1791. Retrieved 2010-03-01. All good writers use the passive voice.
26. Address to Massachusetts legislature (Jan. 9, 1961)
27. Strunk, William Jr.; White, E.B. (1979). *The Elements of Style* (3rd ed.). Allyn and Bacon. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-205-19158-1. This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary. ... The need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often ... determine which voice is to be used.
28. For instance: Williams, Joseph M. (2015). Bizup, Joseph (ed.). *Style: The Basics of Clarity and Grace* (5th ed.). Pearson. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-321-95330-8. But the passive is often the better choice.
29. Garner, Bryan A. (2016). *Garner's Modern English Usage*. Oxford University Press. pp. 676–677. ISBN 978-0-19-049148-2.
30. International Studies Review (10 March 2010). "Journal house style points" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-08. Retrieved 2010-08-05.
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32. In US English, the general past participle of *get* is *gotten*. In British English it is *got*.
33. Truswell, Robert (2008). "Preposition stranding, passivisation, and extraction from adjuncts in Germanic". *Linguistic Variation Yearbook*. **8**: 131–178. doi:10.1075/livy.8.05tru.
34. Dixon, R. M. W. & Alexandra Aikhenvald (1997). "A Typology of Argument-Determined Constructions. pp 72 of Bybee, Joan, John Haiman, & Sandra A. Thompson (eds.)(1997). *Essays on Language Function and Language Type: Dedicated to T. Givón*. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
35. Language Log: How to defend yourself from bad advice about writing
36. Knabe, Norman (January 2009). *The Get-Passives as an Emotive Language Device*. GRIN Verlag. ISBN 978-3-640-25174-2. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
37. H.W. Fowler, *A Dictionary of Modern English Usage*, Second Revised Edition, 1965. Entry for *double passives*.
38. "§ 24. Double passive. 1. Grammar. The American Heritage Book of English Usage. 1996". 2021-07-29. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2023-05-27.
39. "Double Your Passive, Double Your Fun". *Literal-Minded*. 2005-05-16. Retrieved 2023-05-27.
40. Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoffrey (2002). *The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language*. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1206, 1200. ISBN 978-0-521-43146-0.
41. ALEXIADOU, A., & DORON, E. (2012). The syntactic construction of two non-active Voices: Passive and middle. *Journal of Linguistics*, *48*(1), 1–34
42. Carnie, A. (2021). *Syntax A Generative Introduction* (4th ed.). Wiley Blackwell.
43. van Urk, C. (2013). Visser's Generalization: The Syntax of Control and the Passive. *Linguistic Inquiry*, *44*(1), 168–178.
44. Reed, Lisa A. (2011). "Get-passives". *The Linguistic Review*. **28** (1). De Gruyter Mouton: 41–78. doi:10.1515/tlir.2011.002. ISSN 0167-6318. S2CID 263852574.
45. Thompson, D., Ferreira, F., & Scheepers, C. (n.d.). One Step at a Time: Representational Overlap Between Active Voice, Be-passive, and Get-passive Forms in English. *Journal of Cognition*, *1*(1), 35.
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47. *Oxford English Dictionary*, entry for *passival*.
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49. Vuolo, Mike (May 29, 2012). "The House is Building"? Why you never learned the passival tense, even though it used to be proper English grammar". Slate.
50. *Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage*. Merriam-Webster. 1994. p. 775. ISBN 978-0-87779-132-4. Retrieved 27 January 2013.


title: 1996–97 County Antrim Shield

abstract: The 1996–97 County Antrim Shield was the 108th edition of the County Antrim Shield, a cup competition in Northern Irish football. Cliftonville won the tournament for the 6th time, defeating Ballymena United 5–4 on penalties after the final finished 0-0. This was the second time the final had been played, after the original match was abandoned after 66 minutes due to crowd disorder. For the 11th year running three clubs from County Armagh competed.

text:
# 1996–97 County Antrim Shield

The **1996–97 County Antrim Shield** was the 108th edition of the County Antrim Shield, a cup competition in Northern Irish football.

Cliftonville won the tournament for the 6th time, defeating Ballymena United 5–4 on penalties after the final finished 0-0. This was the second time the final had been played, after the original match was abandoned after 66 minutes due to crowd disorder. For the 11th year running three clubs from County Armagh competed (Glenavon, Newry Town and Portadown).

## Results

### First round

| Team 1 | Score | Team 2 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Ballyclare Comrades | 0–1 | **Chimney Corner** |
| **Ballymena United** | 2–0 | Carrick Rangers |
| Bangor | 0–3 | **Linfield** |
| **Cliftonville** | 1–0 | Ards |
| **Crusaders** | 8–0 | Comber Recreation |
| Larne | 0–1 (a.e.t.) | **Distillery** |
| Newry Town | 0–5 | **Glentoran** |
| **Portadown** | 2–0 | Glenavon |

### Quarter-finals

| Team 1 | Score | Team 2 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **Ballymena United** | 2–0 | Chimney Corner |
| **Crusaders** | 0–0 (a.e.t.)
(7–6 ) | Distillery |
| Glentoran | 0–0 (a.e.t.)
(4–5 ) | **Cliftonville** |
| **Portadown** | 3–2 | Linfield |

### Semi-finals

| Team 1 | Score | Team 2 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **Ballymena United** | 2–1 | Portadown |
| **Cliftonville** | 2–1 | Crusaders |

### Final

| Cliftonville | 0–0 (a.e.t.) | Ballymena United |
| --- | --- | --- |
|  |  | McConnell  100' |
| Penalties | | |
| Stokes
Small
O'Connor
Hill
McCann | 5–4 | Allen
Patton
Smyth
Bustard
Murray |

Windsor Park, BelfastReferee: Alan Snoddy (Carryduff)

## InfoBox

1996–97 County Antrim Shield
| Tournament details | |
| --- | --- |
| Country | Northern Ireland |
| Teams | 16 |
| Defending champions | Glenavon |
| Final positions | |
| Champions | Cliftonville (6th win) |
| Runner-up | Ballymena United |
| Tournament statistics | |
| Matches played | 15 |
| Goals scored | 36 (2.4 per match) |
|  | |


title: Elijah M. McGee

abstract: Elijah Milton McGee was a Democratic Kansas City Mayor in 1870 and a developer whose family name is applied to many streets in Kansas City.

text:
# Elijah M. McGee

**Elijah Milton McGee** (May 10, 1819 – February 11, 1873) was a Democratic Kansas City Mayor in 1870 and a developer whose family name is applied to many streets in Kansas City.

## Biography

McGee was born in Shelby County, Kentucky, on May 10, 1819. His family moved to Kansas City, Clay County, Missouri, and then to Jackson County, Missouri, where they bought a half section of land of what is now Downtown Kansas City. When McGee was 12, he ran away from home to Texas. He returned to Kansas City in 1841. He made a fortune in the California Gold Rush and used the money to build the Southern House hotel at 16th and Grand. The hotel would become a hotbed of southern sympathizers in the Bleeding Kansas war. In 1854, he helped start the *Kansas City Journal-Post*. McGee became mayor of Kansas city from 1870 to 1871, and died on February 11, 1873.

## InfoBox

| Elijah M. McGee | |
| --- | --- |
| McGee in 1870 | |
|  | |
| 12th Mayor of Kansas City | |
| **In office**
1870–1871 | |
| Preceded by | Francis R. Long |
| Succeeded by | William Warner |
|  | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Elijah Milton McGee
(1819-05-10)May 10, 1819
Shelby County, Kentucky, U.S. |
| Died | February 11, 1873(1873-02-11) (aged 53) |
| Political party | Democratic |
|  | |


# Electoral results for the South Eastern Metropolitan Region

This is a list of electoral results for the South Eastern Metropolitan Region in Victorian state elections from the region's creation in 2006 until the present.

## Election results

### Elections in the 2020s

#### 2022

Labor were defending three seats. The Liberal Party and the Liberal Democrats were defending one seat each.

2022 Victorian state election: South-Eastern Metropolitan
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Quota** | | | 78,296 |  |  |
|  | Labor | 1. Lee Tarlamis (elected 1) 2. Michael Galea (elected 3)
3. Tien Kieu
4. Imran Khan
5. Katrina Sullivan | 184,810 | 39.34 | -9.53 |
|  | Liberal/National Coalition | 1. Ann-Marie Hermans (elected 2)
2. Manju Hanumantharayappa
3. Antonietta Moricca
4. Lyndon Samuel
5. Michael Keane | 125,762 | 26.77 | -2.80 |
|  | Greens | 1. Alex Breskin
2. Louisa Willoughby
3. Dewani Harahap
4. Janet Wong
5. Karen Jones | 31,577 | 6.72 | +1.20 |
|  | Legalise Cannabis | 1. Rachel Payne (elected 4) 2. Jeffrey Knipe | 24,672 | 5.25 | +5.25 |
|  | Liberal Democrats | 1. David Limbrick (elected 5) 2. Ethelyn King | 16,971 | 3.61 | +2.46 |
|  | Democratic Labour | 1. Jennifer Bowden
2. Khalif White | 15,399 | 3.28 | +1.78 |
|  | Justice | 1. Derryn Hinch
2. Mohit Dwivedi | 9,334 | 1.99 | -1.11 |
|  | Family First | 1. Lee Jones
2. Colleen Hayward | 9,025 | 1.92 | +1.92 |
|  | Freedom | 1. Morgan Jonas
2. Rebekah Spelman | 8,306 | 1.77 | +1.77 |
|  | One Nation | 1. Beth Stevens
2. Cyndi Marr | 8,299 | 1.77 | +1.77 |
|  | Animal Justice | 1. Bronwyn Currie
2. Davina Hinkley | 6,481 | 1.38 | -0.91 |
|  | United Australia | 1. Matt Babet
2. Bobby Singh | 5,495 | 1.17 | +1.17 |
|  | Sack Dan Andrews | 1. Daniel Costin Puscasu
2. Rodica Ianculescu | 4,554 | 0.97 | +0.97 |
|  | Shooters, Fishers, Farmers | 1. Grant Poulton
2. Will Heily | 4,112 | 0.88 | -0.66 |
|  | Health Australia | 1. Geraldine Gonsalvez
2. Kate Lukis | 3,461 | 0.74 | -0.11 |
|  | Companions and Pets | 1. Marissa Sarif
2. Wendy Hutchison | 2,425 | 0.52 | +0.52 |
|  | Reason | 1. Martin Leahy
2. Ethan Mileikowski | 2,118 | 0.45 | -0.37 |
|  | Victorian Socialists | 1. Lavanya Thavaraja
2. Jaynaya Travis | 1,895 | 0.40 | +0.13 |
|  | Sustainable Australia | 1. Brandon Hoult
2. Steven Armstrong | 1,512 | 0.32 | -0.36 |
|  | Transport Matters | 1. Norm Dunn
2. Toni Peters | 1,380 | 0.29 | +0.94 |
|  | Angry Victorians | 1. Barry Edward Minster
2. George Moliviatis | 1,345 | 0.29 | +0.29 |
|  | New Democrats | 1. Bhaveshkumar Lakhatariya
2. Satinder Singh
3. Nilam Dhaval Panchal
4. Bhavika Amrutlal Patel | 600 | 0.13 | +0.13 |
|  | Independent | 1. Mehdi Sayed | 242 | 0.05 | +0.05 |
| Total formal votes | | | 469,775 | 96.29 | +0.45 |
| Informal votes | | | 18,076 | 3.71 | −0.45 |
| Turnout | | | 487,851 | 88.45 | −1.32 |

### Elections in the 2010s

#### 2018

Liberal and Labor were defending two seats each. The Greens were defending one.

2018 Victorian state election: South Eastern Metropolitan
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Quota** | | | 72,830 |  |  |
|  | Labor | 1. Gavin Jennings (elected 1)
2. Adem Somyurek (elected 2)
3. Tien Kieu (elected 4)
4. Nessie Sayar
5. Ian Spencer | 218,209 | 49.93 | +9.83 |
|  | Liberal | 1. Gordon Rich-Phillips (elected 3)
2. Inga Peulich
3. George Hua
4. Kuldeep Kaur
5. Robert Hicks | 126,615 | 28.97 | −6.24 |
|  | Greens | 1. Nina Springle
2. Matthew Kirwan
3. Jacqueline Mitchell
4. Jake Vos
5. James Bennett | 24,390 | 5.58 | −0.71 |
|  | Justice | 1. Peter Davy
2. Kerri Guy | 13,265 | 3.03 | +3.03 |
|  | Animal Justice | 1. Elizabeth Johnston
2. Derrin Craig | 9,727 | 2.23 | +0.37 |
|  | Democratic Labour | 1. Peter Stevens
2. Michael Palma | 6,396 | 1.46 | −0.76 |
|  | Shooters, Fishers, Farmers | 1. Chris Banhidy
2. Vincent Leone | 6,326 | 1.45 | +0.21 |
|  | Transport Matters | 1. Ali Khan
2. Chetan Sharma
3. Roona Fazal
4. Inderpal Singh
5. Deepakbir Kaur | 5,553 | 1.27 | +1.27 |
|  | Health Australia | 1. Tamsin King
2. Carly Meaden | 3,722 | 0.85 | +0.85 |
|  | Reason | 1. Laura Chipp
2. Brett Kagan | 3,719 | 0.85 | −1.82 |
|  | Liberal Democrats | 1. David Limbrick (elected 5)
2. Matt Ford | 3,681 | 0.84 | −0.89 |
|  | Sustainable Australia | 1. Anthony Cresswell
2. Daryl Budgeon | 3,028 | 0.69 | +0.69 |
|  | Voluntary Euthanasia | 1. Kassandra Hall
2. Mardi Hill | 3,019 | 0.69 | +0.12 |
|  | Aussie Battler | 1. David Armstrong
2. Michael Chamberlain | 2,822 | 0.65 | +0.65 |
|  | Liberty Alliance | 1. David Maddison
2. Ralf Schumann | 2,314 | 0.53 | +0.53 |
|  | Independent | 1. Tarang Chawla
2. Nicole Lee | 1,441 | 0.33 | +0.33 |
|  | Victorian Socialists | 1. Aran Mylvaganam
2. Ben Reid | 1,239 | 0.28 | +0.28 |
|  | Country | 1. Andrew Hepner
2. Marilyn Danieli | 1,202 | 0.28 | +0.28 |
|  | Hudson for Northern Victoria | 1. Jannette Sinclair
2. Holly Madill | 402 | 0.09 | +0.09 |
|  | Independent | 1. Stewart Hine | 62 | 0.01 | +0.01 |
|  | Independent | 1. Bobby Singh | 49 | 0.01 | +0.01 |
|  | Independent | 1. Peter Mack | 27 | 0.01 | +0.01 |
| Total formal votes | | | 436,977 | 95.86 | −0.25 |
| Informal votes | | | 18,962 | 4.16 | +0.25 |
| Turnout | | | 455,939 | 89.77 | −3.10 |

#### 2014

2014 Victorian state election: South Eastern Metropolitan
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Quota** | | | 70,159 |  |  |
|  | Labor | 1. Gavin Jennings (elected 1)
2. Adem Somyurek (elected 3)
3. Lee Tarlamis
4. Ian Spencer
5. Rosalie Davis | 168,803 | 40.10 | −2.92 |
|  | Liberal | 1. Gordon Rich-Phillips (elected 2)
2. Inga Peulich (elected 4)
3. Ali Khan
4. Moti Visa
5. George Hua | 148,236 | 35.21 | −6.16 |
|  | Greens | 1. Nina Springle (elected 5)
2. Chris Jobe
3. Wendy Smith
4. John Flanders
5. Stefan Zibell | 26,489 | 6.29 | −2.20 |
|  | Sex Party | 1. Martin Leahy
2. Alex Chevallier | 11,239 | 2.67 | +2.67 |
|  | Family First | 1. Lynette Harland
2. Jeremy Orchard | 11,229 | 2.67 | −0.61 |
|  | Democratic Labour | 1. Michael Pulma
2. Lucia De Summa | 9,345 | 2.22 | −0.47 |
|  | Palmer United | 1. Jason Kennedy
2. Bobby Singh
3. Michael Oldfield | 8,330 | 1.98 | +1.98 |
|  | Animal Justice | 1. Elio Celotto
2. Tyson Jack | 7,840 | 1.86 | +1.86 |
|  | Liberal Democrats | 1. Leslie Hughes
2. Matthew Lesich | 7,300 | 1.73 | +1.73 |
|  | Christians | 1. Sami Greiss
2. Manal Dawoud | 5,656 | 1.34 | +1.34 |
|  | Rise Up Australia | 1. Daniel Nalliah
2. Rosalie Crestani | 5,324 | 1.26 | +1.26 |
|  | Shooters and Fishers | 1. Ryan Perry
2. Allan Bevan | 5,211 | 1.24 | +1.24 |
|  | Voluntary Euthanasia | 1. Sorin Ionascu
2. Greg Mauldon | 2,408 | 0.57 | +0.57 |
|  | People Power Victoria | 1. Basil Waters
2. Maria Sirianni | 1,824 | 0.43 | +0.43 |
|  | Cyclists | 1. Robert Siddle
2. Troy Parsons | 1,636 | 0.39 | +0.39 |
|  | Independent | Arif Okil | 81 | 0.02 | +0.02 |
| Total formal votes | | | 420,951 | 96.09 |  |
| Informal votes | | | 17,121 | 3.91 |  |
| Turnout | | | 438,072 | 92.87 |  |

#### 2010

2010 Victorian state election: South Eastern Metropolitan
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Quota** | | | 66,157 |  |  |
|  | Labor | 1. Gavin Jennings (elected 1)
2. Adem Somyurek (elected 3)
3. Lee Tarlamis (elected 5)
4. Kelly Liu
5. Janet Kaylock | 172,306 | 43.4 | -6.4 |
|  | Liberal | 1. Gordon Rich-Phillips (elected 2)
2. Inga Peulich (elected 4)
3. Gladys Liu
4. Ashton Ashokkumar
5. Tim Cincotta | 162,517 | 40.9 | +7.2 |
|  | Greens | 1. Colin Long
2. Dee-Ann Kelly
3. Chris Carman
4. Linda McIver
5. Daniela Tymms | 34,754 | 8.8 | +1.6 |
|  | Family First | 1. Felicity Hemmersbach
2. Jadah Pleiter | 12,560 | 3.2 | -2.1 |
|  | Democratic Labor | 1. Geraldine Gonsalvez
2. Catherine Dodd
3. Agnieszka Chlipala
4. Genevieve Cattell
5. Helen O'Loghlen | 10,202 | 2.6 | +1.7 |
|  | Christian Democrats | 1. Vivian Hill
2. Wolf Voigt | 4,510 | 1.1 | +0.4 |
| Total formal votes | | | 396,939 | 96.4 | +1.6 |
| Informal votes | | | 14,758 | 3.6 | −1.6 |
| Turnout | | | 411,697 | 92.7 | −0.7 |

### Elections in the 2000s

#### 2006

2006 Victorian state election: South Eastern Metropolitan
| Party | | Candidate | Votes | % | ±% |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Quota** | | | 60,925 |  |  |
|  | Labor | 1. Gavin Jennings (elected 1)
2. Adem Somyurek (elected 3)
3. Bob Smith (elected 5)
4. Vince Rossi
5. Shilana Yip | 181,986 | 49.8 | -4.4 |
|  | Liberal | 1. Gordon Rich-Phillips (elected 2)
2. Inga Peulich (elected 4)
3. Ken Ong
4. Susanne La Fontaine
5. John Aivaliotis | 123,067 | 33.7 | -0.9 |
|  | Greens | 1. Jim Reiher
2. Nicole Avery
3. Dean Andrew | 26,408 | 7.2 | -1.8 |
|  | Family First | 1. Ann-Marie Hermans
2. Steven Ashdown
3. Ann Ross
4. Annette Blazé | 19,238 | 5.3 | +5.3 |
|  | Democrats | 1. Karen Bailey
2. David Batten
3. Daniel Berk | 4,967 | 1.4 | -0.8 |
|  | Democratic Labor | 1. Denise de Graaff
2. Frances Murphy | 3,276 | 0.9 | +0.9 |
|  | People Power | 1. Linda Hancock
2. Maria Pazaitis | 2,580 | 0.7 | +0.7 |
|  | Christian Democrats | 1. Sandra Herrmann
2. Jenny Zuiderwyk | 2,468 | 0.7 | +0.7 |
|  | Group E | 1. Geraldine Gonsalvez
2. Julie Boustead | 1,557 | 0.4 | +0.4 |
| Total formal votes | | | 365,547 | 94.8 | −1.3 |
| Informal votes | | | 20,200 | 5.2 | +1.3 |
| Turnout | | | 385,747 | 93.4 |  |


title: Appan Menon

abstract: Appan Menon was a senior Indian print and television journalist, most known News editor and anchor with NDTV. He anchored the international news show The World This Week on Doordarshan in 1980s and moved to NDTV when it was established in 1988.

text:
# Appan Menon

**Appan Menon** (17 September 1947 – 28 June 1996) was a senior Indian print and television journalist, most known News editor and anchor with NDTV. He anchored the international news show *The World This Week* on Doordarshan in 1980s and moved to NDTV when it was established in 1988.

## Career

Starting as an agency reporter, Menon worked with news agencies PTI and UNI, and also covered the United Nations Headquarters for Inter Press Service and specialized in Latin American politics. Then he moved to print media working with *The Hindu* newspaper and *Frontline* magazine. Eventually he moved to television, where he anchored *The World This Week* first with state-run Doordarshan and subsequently with NDTV and became its leading news anchor along with Prannoy Roy

He died in his sleep early morning on 28 June 1996 at the age of 48, at the time of death he was news editor with NDTV. He was survived by his wife Kamala Menon and two children. Republic TV Editor-in-chief Arnab Goswami has said that he owed Menon a lot for his career.

## Appan Menon Memorial Award

After his death, the Appan Menon Memorial Trust was set up in 1996 in memory of Menon. The Appan Menon Award for Journalism is awarded annually by the trust to journalists "having special interest in international affairs or developmental issues with an Indian viewpoint". The award is announced on 17 September, coinciding with his birth anniversary.

## InfoBox

| Appan Menon | |
| --- | --- |
| Appan Menon, captured by *The Times of India* photographer in New Delhi on 7 September 1990 | |
| Born | (1947-09-17)17 September 1947 |
| Died | 28 June 1996(1996-06-28) (aged 48)<br>New Delhi, India |
| Nationality | Indian |
| Occupation(s) | News editor and anchor NDTV |
| Known for | *The World This Week* |
| Spouse | Kamala Menon |
| Children | 2 |


title: Antonio Maceo monument, Havana

abstract: The Antonio Maceo monument is a 1916 bronze statue by the Italian sculptor Doménico Boni located in the neighborhood of San Lázaro, between Malecón and the Hermanos Ameijeiras Hospital.

text:
# Antonio Maceo monument, Havana

The **Antonio Maceo monument** is a 1916 bronze statue by the Italian sculptor Doménico Boni located in the neighborhood of San Lázaro, between Malecón and the Hermanos Ameijeiras Hospital.

## History

La Casa de Beneficencia, the hotel Manhattan on Calles Belascoáin and San Lazaro, by the U.S. Engineering firm of Purdy and Henderson, and the Hotel Vista Alegre also at the beginning of Calle Belascoáin, anchored a geographically important corner close to the sea of the large expanse of land known as El Barrio San Lazaro and within it and immediately to the north was the Caleta de San Lazaro. Cayo Hueso was also a part of El Barrio de San Lazaro. Cayo Hueso ("bone cay"), its name derives from its location near the Espada Cemetery. it was demolished in 1908. Among the oldest institutions in the area were the leprosy hospital (demolished in 1916), the Casa de Beneficencia orphanage (currently the Hermanos Ameijeiras hospital). Buildings in the Barrio San Lazaro that were important to the early development of the city were the Hospital de San Dionisio for the mentally insane, the *Cementerio General* known as the Campo Santo and more commonly referred to as the Espada Cemetery was the precursor to the Colon Cemetery, and a room for the treatment of the mentally ill located on the side of the Real Casa de Beneficencia on Calle Belascoáin. The monument to Antonio Maceo was located near a place previously occupied by the Batería de la Reina, (1861), located in front of the La Casa de Beneficencia y Maternidad, at the intersection of Belascoaín and San Lázaro. In 1916 the monument was placed but the park was not built, many voices were raised in a protest demanding that a greater tribute be paid to the figure of Antonio Maceo.

## InfoBox

| Antonio Maceo monument | |
| --- | --- |
|  | |
|  | |
| General information | |
| Type | Sculpture |
| Architectural style | New classical |
| Town or city | Havana |
| Country | Cuba |
| Coordinates | 23°08′29″N 82°22′20″W / 23.141309°N 82.372093°W / 23.141309; -82.372093 |
| Estimated completion | 1916 |


title: Early life of John Milton

abstract: John Milton wrote poetry during the English Renaissance. He was born on 9 December 1608 to John and Sara Milton. Only three of their children survived infancy. Anne was the oldest, John was the middle child, and Christopher was the youngest. John Milton was educated under a strong Protestant influence and attended Christ's College, Cambridge, with the intention of pursuing a career as a minister. During his college years, Milton produced his poems L'Allegro and Il Penseroso. After leaving Cambridge, Milton changed his mind about his future, and hesitated during many years of study. Instead, he spent time composing poetry, which led to the production of the dramatic verse of Arcades and Comus. After the death of his mother, Milton left England to tour Europe. Upon returning, Milton was brought into the realm of political writing and he began a career composing political tracts which put forth his views on state and religious matters. He first supported the presbyterian leaders who were lining up in England behind Stephen Marshall; a few years later he would promote more radical views.

text:
# Early life of John Milton

**John Milton** wrote poetry during the English Renaissance. He was born on 9 December 1608 to John and Sara Milton. Only three of their children survived infancy. Anne was the oldest, John was the middle child, and Christopher was the youngest.

John Milton was educated under a strong Protestant influence and attended Christ's College, Cambridge, with the intention of pursuing a career as a minister. During his college years, Milton produced his poems *L'Allegro* and *Il Penseroso*. After leaving Cambridge, Milton changed his mind about his future, and hesitated during many years of study. Instead, he spent time composing poetry, which led to the production of the dramatic verse of *Arcades* and *Comus*.

After the death of his mother, Milton left England to tour Europe. Upon returning, Milton was brought into the realm of political writing and he began a career composing political tracts which put forth his views on state and religious matters. He first supported the presbyterian leaders who were lining up in England behind Stephen Marshall; a few years later he would promote more radical views.

## Parents

Milton's parents were John Milton, Sr. (1562–1647), a composer and scrivener, and his wife Sara Jeffrey (1572–1637). John Milton, Sr.'s business owned many properties and was involved in making loans. He was from a yeoman family and was raised in Oxford, where he trained as a chorister. However, when Richard Milton, his father and a staunch Roman Catholic, discovered that John Milton, Sr. had Protestant leanings, he disinherited his son. John Milton, Sr., left for London and became a scrivener apprentice in 1583. Little is known about Sara Jeffrey besides the fact that Paul Jeffrey, her father, was a tailor and her mother Ellen lived with the Miltons until her death in 1611. The two married around 1600 and buried an unnamed child on 12 May 1601.

John Milton, Sr., ran his business from his home on Bread Street. He was constantly at work, and only took a partial day off the day his son was born. In 1633, John Milton, Sr. became warden for the Chapel of St Paul. He continued his job as a scrivener until 1636, when he left the Company of Scriveners's Court of Assistants and he moved his family from Hammersmith to Horton. While not working as a scrivener, John Milton, Sr. composed music, which brought him into a close relationship with other musicians and composers including Henry Lawes, who proved influential in commissioning the young Milton's masques. At least twenty of Milton Sr.'s compositions survived, and most of them contain a religious theme. His works were published in many collections, including Thomas Morley's *Triumphs of Oriana* (1601), William Leighton's *The Tears or Lamentations of a Sorrowful Soul* (1612) and Thomas Ravenscroft's *The Whole Book of Psalms* (1621), amongst others. He also composed poetry, and two poems, never published, are known to have existed: a sonnet and a poem dedicated to John Lane.

## Childhood

Milton was born 6:30 a.m. on Friday 9 December 1608, in Cheapside, London along Bread Street, near St. Paul's Cathedral. He was baptised at All Hallows Church on 20 December 1608. At the time of Milton's birth, his father was 46 and mother 36. He had one older sister Anne; her date of birth is unknown. Milton had three younger siblings: Christopher, baptised 3 December 1615; Sara, baptised 15 July 1612 and died 6 August 1612; and Tabitha, baptised 30 January 1614 and died 3 August 1615.

Milton attended church at All Hallows and was influenced by the minister Richard Stock, a Puritan who was anti-Catholic and emphasised the need to read the Bible. In addition to his time at church, he spent most of his early life near St. Paul's Cathedral and was privately tutored. From the ages of 5 and 7, Milton was taught how to read and write in English and Latin, along with arithmetic. Milton was provided with several tutors between the ages of 7 and 12, but one in particular, Thomas Young, would prove influential. Young was a Scottish Presbyterian who had moved south, was highly educated and respected by his peers. Young's religious views affected Milton, and he adopted both Puritan appearances and ideas during his tutoring. Young was not the only major figure in Milton's early education; Milton acknowledged his father's care in teaching him many languages, including French, Italian, and Hebrew.

After a few years, he was sent to St. Paul's School, which was run by Alexander Gil, William Sound, and Oliver Smythe. Gil had a reputation for scholarship in Greek, Latin, and theology. He was also a proponent of English grammar structures and relied on poetry, including that written by Edmund Spenser and Philip Sidney, to discuss the English language. Milton travelled each day between school and home, and his path took him by St Paul's. It is possible that he listened to the sermons put on during this time by John Donne. John Aubrey, in *Brief Lives*, quotes his brother Christopher to describe how Milton spent his time: "When he went to school, when he was very young, he studied very hard and sat up very late, commonly till twelve or one o'clock at night; and his father ordered the main to sit up for him". Milton later attributed his blindness, in his *Defensio Secunda*, to the rigorous study that he undertook during this time.

There is little evidence about Milton's time at St. Paul's, because the school's records were lost in a fire during the late 17th century. The actual date of Milton's start at the school is uncertain, further than estimate in the range from 1615 to 1622. According to accounts by Edward Phillips, Milton's nephew, and by Christopher Milton, Milton started at the school during his earliest years. However, Phillips states that Milton went to school with his brother, which ambiguous phrasing pushes the date to 1622. Milton, in his *Defensio Secunda*, claims that he began his deeper studies at the age of 12, which places the date after 1620. While at the school, Milton befriended Charles Diodati, and the two kept up a regular correspondence of letters and poetry. It is certain that the friendship was established Diodati before Diodati left to study at Oxford in early 1623.

Milton composed his first hymn in 1623, and, in 1624, his earliest completed poem, "A Paraphrase on Psalm 114". "A Paraphrase on Psalm 114" describes how the Jews were led by God out of Egypt, the miracle of the parting of the Red Sea, and their eventual arrival in Canaan. The psalm emphasises the importance of the father figure and serves as an early model for the relationship between father and son in Milton's later works, including *Paradise Lost* (God and Son) and *Samson Agonistes* (Manoa and Samson).

## College

On 12 February 1625, Milton was admitted into Christ's College, Cambridge as a minor pensioner. Christ's under Thomas Bainbrigg, Master from 1622, was harmonious on religious questions, a great contrast to the situation some years earlier when Valentine Carey had clashed with William Ames, and the fellowship of 13 included a range of views. Milton matriculated on 9 April 1625 with William Chappell as his tutor. He intended, according to the Subscription Book, to become a minister, and his course of study at Cambridge was based around this vocation. More of Milton's studies at Cambridge is unknown, but he did begin to study with Chappell, who was a respected scholar and became a staunch Arminian and Laudian. Milton would have attended lectures by Samuel Collins, Robert Creighton, and Robert Metcalfe, in addition to hearing Richard Sibbes and George Herbert preach. The Fellow of Christ's with the greatest reputation for his contemporaries was Joseph Mede, but it has not been shown that he had personal influence on Milton. It has been argued that Milton later took from Mede's writings some conceptions on the millennium.

When the plague hit England in August 1625, the University of Cambridge had to be shut down until December. Milton had been there only for a few months before he had an altercation with Chappell and he was rusticated by this time. It is possible that the conflict originated in Chappell's Arminianism conflicting with Milton's Calvinistic views. He was suspended temporarily from the college, and returned to London from April to July 1625. During this period, Milton composed many of his earlier poems; his poems on the Gunpowder Plot, his Hobson poems, and his *An Epitaph on the Marchioness of Winchester* were written while working on various college exercises. Other poems, such as *On the Morning of Christ's Nativity* or *On Time*, *Upon the Circumcision*, and *At a Solemn Music*, were written during Milton's free time.

When Milton returned in 1626, he changed his tutor, because Chappell had wanted Milton removed from the college completely. His new tutor, Nathaniel Tovey, was a friend to both Diodati's family and to Chappell, which eased the personal problems. Tovey's views were Calvinist, and he was a Ramist in logic, a style followed later by Milton in his *Art of Logic*. Milton spent time writing Latin verse with other students, including *Elegy II*, which honoured Richard Ridding after his death 26 September 1626. Another elegy was written for the vice-chancellor, John Gostlin, who died on 21 October 1626. In the poem, Milton relies on Horatian poetics. The poem was placed first among the Latin poems in his 1645 collection. It is possible that the work was partly from an early poem that was then expanded in memory of Gostlin. In *Elegy III*, Milton honours Lancelot Andrewes, the Bishop of Winchester, who died 25 September 1626. In the poem, he also honours two others, whose deaths compounded his time of mourning, and the many Protestants who died during the Thirty Years War.

He received a bachelor's degree in 1629. In 1630, Milton composed "On Shakespeare". The poem became the first poem of Milton's to be published, and it was including anonymously in the Second Folio of Shakespeare's *Works*. During this time, Milton began composing a series of love-sonnets, with seven of the poems written during his college years and a final set of three written after 1642. In 1632, he received a master of arts degree. He graduated *cum laude*, but the route into academia was blocked to him by the Christ's College statutes, there already being a Fellow of London origins, Michael Honywood.

## Early writing

After graduating from Cambridge, Milton returned to live with his parents in Hammersmith, for a long "studious retirement". During this period, extending from 1630 to 1638, Milton hesitated over a career and composed his *Arcades*, *A Mask* (better known as *Comus*, a title it acquired only in 1738 at the hands of John Dalton), and *Lycidas*.

Both *Arcades* and *A Mask Presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634* were masques commissioned by the family of John Egerton, 1st Earl of Bridgewater through the influence of Lawes, the Earl's music tutor for his children. *Arcades* was written to honour Alice Spencer, Countess Dowager of Derby, and performed on her estate at Harefield west of London; the date is debated, perhaps in October 1632 as the family tried to put behind it the scandal of the execution of her son-in-law Mervyn Tuchet, 2nd Earl of Castlehaven for sexual offences, or on her 75th birthday, 4 May 1634. *A Mask* was performed for Michaelmas eve, 29 September 1634, at Ludlow Castle, the Earl of Bridgewater's residence. This masque differed in some ways from other masques of the time, in that it was longer and did not rely as much on music. The text was revised and published in 1638. Milton was a theatre-goer in his youth, as he mentions in *Elegy I*, and his dramatic work on masques, though the genre was closely associated with court entertainments, has been seen as suggestive of a reforming rather than a negative attitude to drama, in contrast to militant critics such as William Prynne from the Puritan side.

Milton's family moved out west from Hammersmith to Horton during 1636, further into the English countryside. In November 1638, Milton wrote *Lycidas* and the work was published in a collection of other memorial works for Edward King, who had attended Christ's College with Milton, published that year. While Milton knew King, who had been elected to a fellowship, it is not clear they were close friends. *Lycidas* is a thoughtful elegy in the pastoral style, and it appeared over the initials J.M.

## Travels in Europe

In April 1637, Sara Milton died, and Milton used the opportunity to distance himself from his family. After money was provided for the care of his father, now retired, Milton left to tour Europe in May 1638. This early "Grand Tour" of France, Italy and Switzerland lasted until either July or August 1639. While they did not follow the later model of tutelage and instruction for a young man of good financial position straight from university, Milton's travels brought him directly to the urban centres of Europe from a life in semi-rural Horton; and Milton was exposed to various artistic and religious traditions, especially the Catholic world, and current political thought. He also met numerous celebrated theorists and intellectuals to whom he was able to display his poetic skills. As to specific details, only a general account is preserved, and there is just one major source: Milton's own *Defensio Secunda*. Although there are other records, some letters, some mentions in his other prose tracts and the rest, the bulk of the information therefore comes from a work that, according to Barbara Lewalski, "was not intended as autobiography but as rhetoric, designed to emphasize his sterling reputation with the learned of Europe." However, many of the major events can still be pieced together from various documents.

He travelled a standard route relied on by other Englishmen touring Europe at the time. He first went to Calais and then on to Paris, riding horseback. He had brought a letter from diplomat Henry Wotton which allowed him to be introduced at the British embassy. From ambassador John Scudamore, Milton received other letters of introduction, and they proved their value as he received assistance from other Englishmen along his travels and met important individuals. Scudamore introduced him directly to Hugo Grotius, whom Milton called "a most learned man" and one "I ardently desired to meet" Grotius was a Dutch jurist and major philosopher of law, playwright and poet; he was a defender of Arminianism and believer in religious toleration, and his views on theology and politics were in some ways similar to Milton's own. However, Milton quickly left France after this meeting, after visiting a few landmarks including the Louvre and Notre Dame de Paris; Cyriack Skinner, his assistant, explains that Milton did not appreciate the French regime, under the control of Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu, who were anti-Huguenot.

> In \[Florence\], which I have always admired above all others because of the elegance, not just of its tongue, but also of its wit, I lingered for about two months. There I at once became the friend of many gentlemen eminent in rank and learning, whose private academies I frequented – a Florentine institution which deserves great praise not only for promoting humane studies but also for encouraging friendly intercourse. Time will never destroy my recollection – ever welcome and delightful – of you, Jacopo Gaddi, Carol Dati, Frescobaldi, Coltellini, Buonmattei, Chimetelli, Francini, and many others.

– Milton's account of Florence in *Defensio Secunda*

Milton travelled south to Nice and then on to Genoa. He then journeyed to Livorno and Pisa, seeing the Leaning Tower. He reached Florence around July 1638 and stayed there until September. While there, Milton enjoyed many of the sites and structures of the city. He also met many intellectuals and attended social and artistic events. He enjoyed spending time in the Florentine academies that claimed to operate in a similar fashion to Plato's *Symposium*. In particular, Milton probably visited the Florentine Academy and the Academia della Crusca along with smaller academies in the area including the Apastisti, operated by Milton's friend Carlo Dati, and the Svogliati, operated by Jacopo Gaddi. While at the Svogliati, Milton read some of his Neo-Latin poetry. His candour of manner and erudite neo-Latin poetry made him many friends in Florentine intellectual circles, and he met a number of famous and influential people through these connections including the astronomer Galileo at Arcetri, Benedetto Buonmattei, Antonio Malatesti, and others. Although Milton enjoyed himself in Florence, he left in September to continue onward to Rome.

Now with many connections from Florence, Milton had easy access to Rome's intellectual circles, including groups like the Fantastici. His poetic abilities impressed such as Giovanni Salzilli, who honoured Milton in an epigram; this praise was later mentioned in the preface to the Latin portion of Milton's *Poems* of 1645. In return for this poetic generosity, Milton returned the favour in his Latin *Ad Salzillum*, which discusses his own merits and laments that Salzilli was ill at the time. In late October, Milton, despite his dislike for the Society of Jesus, attended a dinner given by the English College, Rome, meeting English Catholics who were also guests, theologian Henry Holden and the poet Patrick Cary. There is little else known about this time beyond that he met David Codner, an English Benedictine with court connections, who also praised Milton's poetry, and that he attended various musical events, including oratorios, operas, and melodramas. Milton left for Naples near the end of November and he stayed only for a month, finding that Spanish control diminished the local intellectual and artistic community. He was introduced to Giovanni Battista Manso, patron to both Torquato Tasso and to Giovanni Battista Marino. Manso became Milton's guide through Naples and gifted Milton with books and a distich that teases Milton through Gregory the Great's pun on "Angle" and "angel" when describing the English. Milton responded in his *Mansus* that he was grateful for the gesture of good will and claims Manso as his patron.

Milton had wanted to travel to Sicily and then on to Greece; but he started to retrace his steps, and after lingering on the way home he returned to England during the summer of 1639. He claimed in *Defensio Secunda* that his plans were changed by "sad tidings of civil war in England."

> As I was on the point of returning to Rome, I was warned by merchants that they had learned through letters of plots laid against me by the English Jesuits, should I return to Rome, because of the freedom with which I had spoken about religion.

– Milton on the plot against him in *Defensio Secunda*

It is possible, as he wrote later, that he was warned by a group of merchants that there was a plot to murder him if he was to re-enter Rome. This claim could be merely an exaggeration to reinforce himself as a defender of Protestantism. However, Milton's theological frankness did limit what Manso could do for him as patron. A lingering reputation is suggested by what Nicolaas Heinsius, a Dutch poet, later wrote: "That Englishman was hated by the Italians, among whom he lived a long time, on account of his over-strict morals, because he both disputed freely about religion, and on any occasion whatever prated very bitterly against the Roman Pontiff." Regardless, these were all points that Milton later took pride in. He actually spent two months in Rome on his return journey.

He arrived in time to experience Carnival and its festivities. Also, Milton met Lukas Holste, a Vatican librarian, and was given a personal tour through the library and its vast collection of books and manuscripts. Through Holste, Milton was also introduced to Cardinal Francesco Barberini, and was able to view the opera *Chi soffre speri*, hosted by the Cardinal. Milton later praised Barberini, steering away from theological subjects. He also experienced a concert of Leonora Baroni, writing a few Latin epigrams in tribute. Around March, Milton travelled once again to Florence and stayed there for two months. While there, he attended further meetings of the academies and spent time with the friends that he made on his previous visit. After leaving Florence, he travelled to Lucca and passed through Bologna and Ferrara along the way.

He stopped in Venice for a month and experienced various *operates* and other theatrical and musical events. Venice also showed him a Republican form of government that he later admired as promoting freedom. While in Italy, Milton's childhood friend, Diodati, had died. Milton composed an elegy in memory of Diodati, and included a headnote saying that they "had pursued the same studies" and that they were the "most intimate friends from childhood on". It took Milton seven months in all to return finally to England, with the trip extended from Venice as he visited Giovanni Diodati, his friend's uncle, in Geneva. There he encountered Calvinism in power and another model republic. He was introduced to the various scholars and theologians of the region. From Switzerland, Milton travelled to Paris and then to Calais before finally arriving in England in either July or August 1639.

## Published author

His tour over, Milton within two years found roles and independence in teaching and controversy. By the summer of 1642, which also marked the outbreak of the First English Civil War, he felt ready to marry. Milton's early poetry, written from 1624 onwards, was eventually published in December 1645. This work contained both Milton's English poetry and his Latin poetry. Only three poems were not included, but they were eventually introduced into the 1673 edition of the poems. The frontispiece of the work, by William Marshall, depicted Milton at the age of 21.

Milton returned to England, in late 1639, in the interlude between the two Bishops' Wars. Rather than living with his father, he found accommodation of his own in London, and began tutoring. He lived for a year near St Bride's Church, and moved in 1640 a short way to Aldersgate, just outside the City proper. His first pupils were his young nephews, Edward Phillips and John Phillips, sons of his sister Anne and both later known as writers. Milton's 1644 intervention *Of Education* in debate on pedagogy is based on his practical experience, as well as stating his own relationship to humanist tradition. At this period he was casting around for a literary project, compiling long lists of possible Biblical and historical topics, abandoning the idea of an Arthurian work and considering subjects mainly in a dramatic light.

Political events now began to unfold rapidly; and controversial publications, particularly on episcopacy, sprang up in a pamphleteering battle. During his early years, Milton had been placed under Thomas Young for tutoring. Now 30 years later, Young was one of five clerics of presbyterian views who formed Smectymnuus. The group, titled after a combination of each contributor's initials, wrote on antiprelatical matters, and Young encouraged Milton to write his first prose work, *Of Reformation* (1641), to aid in their cause. In all, Milton's antiprelatical tracts amounted to five pamphlets written in the space of a year. Of these, only the fourth carried his name, but he took on easily the role of polemicist, both lofty and resorting to low gibes and scurrility.

At the same time as the final pamphlet of the series, May 1642, Milton married Marie Powell (see John Milton's relationships). The marriage was short-lived, as the First English Civil War broke out, for reasons not fully explained, but set off Milton's divorce tracts, another polemical series of pamphlets beginning in 1643. Milton's advocacy of divorce pushed him away from Puritan orthodoxy, and led on to *Areopagitica* of 1644 against censorship, his most lasting prose work.

* Campbell, Gordon. "The Life Records" in *A Companion to Milton*. Ed. Thomas Corns. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.
* Campbell, Gordon and Thomas Corns. *John Milton: Life, Work, and Thought*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
* Chaney, Edward. *The Grand Tour and the Great Rebellion: Richard Lassels and 'The Voyage of Italy' in the Seventeenth Century* (Geneva, CIRVI, 1985) and "Milton's Visit to Vallombrosa: A literary tradition", *The Evolution of the Grand Tour*, 2nd ed (Routledge, London, 2000)
* Heinsius, Nicolaas. "Written Encomiums" in *Milton in Italy: Contexts, Images, Contradictions*. ed. Mario Di Cesare and trans. Estelle Haan. Binghamton: MRTS, 1991.
* Hill, Christopher. *Milton and the English Revolution*. London: Faber and Faber, 1977.
* Hill, John. *John Milton: Poet, Priest, and Prophet*. London: Macmillan, 1979.
* Hutton, Sarah "Mede, Milton, and More: Christ's College Millenarians" in *Milton and the Ends of Time*. Ed. Juliet Cummins. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
* Lewalski, Barbara K. *The Life of John Milton*. Oxford: Blackwells Publishers, 2003.
* Masson, David. *The Life of John Milton* London: Macmillan, 1881.
* Milton, John. Complete Prose Works 8 Vols. gen. Ed. Don M. Wolfe. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959.
* Shawcross, John. *John Milton: The Self and the World*. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993.
* "John Milton (1562–1647), biography for the father". *Oxford Dictionary of National Biography* (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/18799. Retrieved 30 July 2008. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) (requires a subscription).