al jazari th century al jazari water device th century middle ages aristotle 's theories criticized modified number figures beginning john philoponus th century central problem projectile motion discussed hipparchus philoponus persian islamic polymath ibn n published theory motion ''the book healing'' said impetus imparted projectile thrower viewed persistent requiring external forces air resistance dissipate ref name espinoza ref ref name nasr ref ref name sayili ref ibn sina made distinction
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