Early geologists had no way to determine the absolute age of a geological material. If they didnt see it form, they couldnt know if a rock was one hundred years or 100 million years old. What they could do was determine the ages of materials relative to each other. Using sensible principles they could say whether one rock was older than another and when a process occurred relative to those rocks.  Remember Nicholas Steno, who determined that fossils represented parts of once-living organisms? Steno also noticed that fossil seashells could be found in rocks and mountains far from any ocean. He wanted to explain how that could occur. Steno proposed that if a rock contained the fossils of marine animals, the rock formed from sediments that were deposited on the seafloor. These rocks were then uplifted to become mountains. This scenario led him to develop the principles that are discussed below. They are known as Stenos laws. Stenos laws are illustrated in Figure 1.1. Original horizontality: Sediments are deposited in fairly flat, horizontal layers. If a sedimentary rock is found tilted, the layer was tilted after it was formed. Lateral continuity: Sediments are deposited in continuous sheets that span the body of water that they are deposited in. When a valley cuts through sedimentary layers, it is assumed that the rocks on either side of the valley were originally continuous. Superposition: Sedimentary rocks are deposited one on top of another. The youngest layers are found at the top of the sequence, and the oldest layers are found at the bottom. (a) Original horizontality. (b) Lateral continuity. (c) Superposition.  Other scientists observed rock layers and formulated other principles. Geologist William Smith (1769-1839) identified the principle of faunal succession, which recognizes that: Some fossil types are never found with certain other fossil types (e.g. human ancestors are never found with dinosaurs) meaning that fossils in a rock layer represent what lived during the period the rock was deposited. Older features are replaced by more modern features in fossil organisms as species change through time; e.g. feathered dinosaurs precede birds in the fossil record. Fossil species with features that change distinctly and quickly can be used to determine the age of rock layers quite precisely. Scottish geologist, James Hutton (1726-1797) recognized the principle of cross-cutting relationships. This helps geologists to determine the older and younger of two rock units (Figure 1.2). If an igneous dike (B) cuts a series of metamorphic rocks (A), which is older and which is younger? In this image, A must have existed first for B to cut across it.  The Grand Canyon provides an excellent illustration of the principles above. The many horizontal layers of sedi- mentary rock illustrate the principle of original horizontality (Figure 1.3). The youngest rock layers are at the top and the oldest are at the bottom, which is described by the law of superposition. Distinctive rock layers, such as the Kaibab Limestone, are matched across the broad expanse of the canyon. These rock layers were once connected, as stated by the rule of lateral continuity. The Colorado River cuts through all the layers of rock to form the canyon. Based on the principle of cross- cutting relationships, the river must be younger than all of the rock layers that it cuts through.
Early geologists had no way to determine the absolute age of a geological material . If they did nt see it form , they could nt know if a rock was one hundred years or 100 million years old . What they could do was determine the ages of materials relative to each other . Using sensible principles they could say whether one rock was older than another and when a process occurred relative to those rocks . Remember Nicholas Steno , who determined that fossils represented parts of once - living organisms ? Steno also noticed that fossil seashells could be found in rocks and mountains far from any ocean . He wanted to explain how that could occur . Steno proposed that if a rock contained the fossils of marine animals , the rock formed from sediments that were deposited on the seafloor . These rocks were then uplifted to become mountains . This scenario led him to develop the principles that are discussed below . They are known as Stenos laws . Stenos laws are illustrated in Figure 1.1 . Original horizontality : Sediments are deposited in fairly flat , horizontal layers . If a sedimentary rock is found tilted , the layer was tilted after it was formed . Lateral continuity : Sediments are deposited in continuous sheets that span the body of water that they are deposited in . When a valley cuts through sedimentary layers , it is assumed that the rocks on either side of the valley were originally continuous . Superposition : Sedimentary rocks are deposited one on top of another . The youngest layers are found at the top of the sequence , and the oldest layers are found at the bottom . ( a ) Original horizontality . ( b ) Lateral continuity . ( c ) Superposition . Other scientists observed rock layers and formulated other principles . Geologist William Smith ( 1769 - 1839 ) identified the principle of faunal succession , which recognizes that : Some fossil types are never found with certain other fossil types ( e.g. human ancestors are never found with dinosaurs ) meaning that fossils in a rock layer represent what lived during the period the rock was deposited . Older features are replaced by more modern features in fossil organisms as species change through time ; e.g. feathered dinosaurs precede birds in the fossil record . Fossil species with features that change distinctly and quickly can be used to determine the age of rock layers quite precisely . Scottish geologist , James Hutton ( 1726 - 1797 ) recognized the principle of cross - cutting relationships . This helps geologists to determine the older and younger of two rock units ( Figure 1.2 ) . If an igneous dike ( B ) cuts a series of metamorphic rocks ( A ) , which is older and which is younger ? In this image , A must have existed first for B to cut across it . The Grand Canyon provides an excellent illustration of the principles above . The many horizontal layers of sedi- mentary rock illustrate the principle of original horizontality ( Figure 1.3 ) . The youngest rock layers are at the top and the oldest are at the bottom , which is described by the law of superposition . Distinctive rock layers , such as the Kaibab Limestone , are matched across the broad expanse of the canyon . These rock layers were once connected , as stated by the rule of lateral continuity . The Colorado River cuts through all the layers of rock to form the canyon . Based on the principle of cross- cutting relationships , the river must be younger than all of the rock layers that it cuts through .
the oldest rocks are found ____________________ of a sequence.
the oldest rocks are found _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ of a sequence .
at the bottom
at the bottom