I am from a biology background. Using t, χ2, F tests day-to-day, following like a recipe. However, I feel I must understand the background of this. I took an online lecture on p-value and hypothesis testing.  if your p-value is less than 0.01, then you have a very strong case against null hypothesis very strong case. The meaning of this is only in 1 % of the cases your null hypothesis will hold true in 99 % of the cases your null hypothesis will be false  Without many mathematical notations, could someone help me to understand; 1. why having a low probability is strong? 2. What p-value really tells in hypothesis testing? because some say it'd not about probability. 3. Is setting a null hypothesis a mathematical requirement? 4. Is normal distribution a hypothetical thing? because why we have to use different t, χ2, F distributions for different data types to calculate p-value. I am not sure why I fail every time to understand this; is it mathematics or is it the language (wording) use to explain these concepts.
After taking a statistics course and then trying to help fellow students, I noticed one subject that inspires much head-desk banging is interpreting the results of statistical hypothesis tests.  It seems that students easily learn how to perform the calculations required by a given test but get hung up on interpreting the results.  Many computerized tools report test results in terms of "p values" or "t values".  How would you explain the following points to college students taking their first course in statistics:   What does a "p-value" mean in relation to the hypothesis being tested?  Are there cases when one should be looking for a high p-value or a low p-value? What is the relationship between a p-value and a t-value?
One of the assumptions I make as GM is that the players should always be in the spotlight.  Sometimes the players find themselves in a situation where they watch NPCs speak to each other.  I don't like using this kind of situation, because it forces the players to watch me talk to myself and that turns them from active participants into an audience.  Usually I handle it by avoiding the situation.  I try not to write scenes that the players watch.  Instead the players speak to the NPCs one at a time.  When I do come across an exchange between NPCs I opt to summarize the conversation instead of acting it out.    I don't like this limitation though.  It gets a little contrived when all conversations in the game feature 5 PCs and 1 NPC.  Any suggestions? Either how to avoid doing it, or how to effectively role play a conversation between two (or more) NPCs that the characters may or may not be interacting with?   How do you keep clear which character is speaking? How do you make sure that the conversation feels like a real one and not like one person playing both roles? How can I use a command to delete all files in Downloads whose dates added are greater than 1 year? I am using a Mac. How can I use a command to delete all files in ~/Downloads whose dates added are greater than 1 year? How to make Table of Contents manually I'm trying to make table of contents manually, I mean I set the page of each of sections one by one. Here's my target:  and I'm using book class here.  Here's the code that I found   \documentclass[oneside]{book} \renewcommand\contentsname{CONTENTS} \renewcommand\listtablename{LIST OF TABLES} \renewcommand\listfigurename{LIST OF FIGURES} \addtocontents{toc}{{\bfseries Contents\hfill Page No.\bigskip\par}} \addtocontents{lot}{{\bfseries No.\hfill Title\hfill\hfill Page No.\bigskip\par}} \addtocontents{lof}{{\bfseries No.\hfill Title\hfill\hfill Page No.\bigskip\par}}  \usepackage[titles]{tocloft} \usepackage{xcolor,xpatch} \renewcommand\cftbeforechapskip{0ex} \renewcommand\cftchapfont{\mdseries} \renewcommand\cftchappagefont{\mdseries} \renewcommand\cftchappresnum{Chapter~} \renewcommand\cftchapaftersnum{. } \newlength\tocindent \settowidth\tocindent{\cftchapfont\cftchappresnum9\cftchapaftersnum} \edef\cftchapnumwidth{\the\tocindent} \edef\cftsecindent{\the\tocindent} \advance\tocindent2.3em \edef\cftsubsecindent{\the\tocindent} \advance\tocindent3.2em \edef\cftsubsubsecindent{\the\tocindent} \renewcommand\cftsecdotsep{\cftnodots} \renewcommand\cftsubsecdotsep{\cftnodots} \renewcommand\cftsubsubsecdotsep{\cftnodots} \newcommand\tocmainmatter {\renewcommand\cftchappagefont{\color{white}}% } \xapptocmd\mainmatter{\addtocontents{toc}{\protect\tocmainmatter}}{}{}   \newif\ifschaptertoc \makeatletter \renewcommand\@makeschapterhead[1]% {{\parindent \z@ \centering     \normalfont     \interlinepenalty\@M     \Large \bfseries  #1\par\nobreak     \vskip 20\p@ }% \@mkboth{\MakeUppercase{#1}}{\MakeUppercase{#1}}% \ifschaptertoc \addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{#1}% \fi } \makeatother  \usepackage{blindtext}  \begin{document} \frontmatter  \tableofcontents \schaptertoctrue  \chapter*{ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS} \blindtext  \chapter*{ABSTRACT} \blindtext  \listoftables  \listoffigures  \chapter*{ABBREVIATIONS} \Blindtext  \chapter*{NOTATIONS} \Blindtext  \mainmatter  \chapter{INTRODUCTION} \blindtext  \section{General Background} \blindtext  \section{Objective} \blindtext \subsection{Objective 1} \blindtext \subsection{Objective 2} \blindtext \subsection{Objective 3} \blindtext  \section{Scheme} \blindtext \end{document} Write access without read access Is it possible for a user to have a write access to a file and not be able to read it? How is it possible?   I tried the following commands:  debianbox@debian:~/posix/io$ touch filetest debianbox@debian:~/posix/io$ ls -l filetest -rw-r--r-- 1 debianbox debianbox 0 14 oct.  03:10 filetest  debianbox@debian:~/posix/io$ echo "Hello World" &gt; filetest debianbox@debian:~/posix/io$ cat filetest Hello World  debianbox@debian:~/posix/io$ chmod u-r filetest debianbox@debian:~/posix/io$ cat filetest cat: filetest: Permission forbidden  debianbox@debian:~/posix/io$   As you can see here, I have write but not read access on this file. How can this be possible? Is this considered as a bug? If not, in what situation would this be useful? June 13th 2017 Microsoft blocked handling HTML markup in SharePoint calculated fields - how to get the same functionality back On June 13th 2017 all SharePoint calculated columns with HTML markup stopped working.   Basically the fields now render text (regardless of setting the data type to number). The gist of the notice from Microsoft () is:     In Microsoft SharePoint lists and libraries, calculated fields that   are running in the classic UI mode can be used to display results   based on Excel-like formulas. This is a long standing capability, and   is documented in Calculate data in lists or libraries.      Some users have added HTML markup or script elements to calculated   fields. This is an undocumented use of the feature, and we will begin   blocking execution of custom markup in calculated fields in SharePoint   Online from June 13, 2017 onwards. We are also providing this as a   configurable option for on-premises in SharePoint Server 2016 and   SharePoint Server 2013 via the June 2017 and subsequent Public   Updates.   As we don't have on premise SharePoint (online), we have to find an immediate work around, given that this impacts our processes and thus, business.   Is anyone aware of third party applications that will allow for HTML, script markup (that works with SP online)? How do I download Minecraft 1.6.4? I tried connecting to a server this morning but it said "outdated client". I understand that that means I have to get Minecraft 1.6.4 but I have no clue how to do it. I tried getting it on Minecraft.net but I couldn't find it. Please tell me how to download it and use it. Almost surely convergence of the sequence Let ${X_n}$ be a sequence of independent and identically distributed, square integrable random variables.   Write $ u = E(X_n)$. Study the almost sure convergence, as $n \rightarrow \infty$, $$S_n = (X_1X_2 + X_2X_3 + ... + X_{n-1}X_{n})/n$$   Since $X_iX_{i+1}$ are not independent, it seems we cannot directly use law of large number for that, so anyone can give me some idea? Deep cloning objects Is a semigroup with unique right identity and left inverse a group? Does the plastic cap on a Presta valve serve any purpose once fitted to a rim? I can see the use of the valve cap on a Presta valve when the tube is still packaged (it obviously stops the valve puncturing the tube), but does it do anything except look pretty (or not) once you've fitted the tube to a rim?  I've kept them on out of habit, because I've had problems with sticking Schrader valves in the past when I've lost the caps and dirt/grime has got in there - but the design of Presta valves suggests to me that they wouldn't suffer this fate.  Given that I really need to , is replacing this cap something I can leave out of my daily chores? Bought in, bought on, bought from, bought at? How to enumerate with small roman capitals (not lowercases)? Although I have seen many similar questions, none has been useful.   The question is quite simple: How do I reproduce the highlighted numerals in the image below?    Note that the form of the numerals addressed in questions as  is different from this one.  Thank you in advance! centering column headers in siunitx table column A classic exponential inequality: $x^y+y^x>1$ I'm new to Linux and Ubuntu. People keep using ~/filename in their answers to my questions. What does ~/ mean? Why is the t-test designed for small samples? How do I mimic Pathauto transliterated output for an alias in my custom PHP code? When writing my custom function I need to manually append node name to a taxonomy term link. To get the taxonomy term part done I use:    $link_uri = taxonomy_term_uri($term);   $path_alias = drupal_get_path_alias($link_uri['path']);   This works ok, now - I want to append node name ("/" . $node_name), but instead of raw string, I want the Pathauto transliterated output, as set in the URL alias configuration, for that node context.  What function should I use to mimic that output? I looked at hook_pathauto_alias_alter(&amp;$alias, array $context) but I'm not sure that's what I need. Please provide me with the guidance to install oracle 11gr2 on Ubuntu 14.04. Python CSV parsing not returning proper rows Prove that $a^2(b+c-a)+b^2(a+c-b)+c^2(a+b-c) \leq 3abc.$