endocrine and metabolic disorders
Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetic Retinopathy
 Diabetic Retinopathy is a common cause of adult blindness in the United States. It is characterized initially by retinal capillary microaneurysms (background retinopathy) and later by neovascularization (proliferative retinopathy) and macular edema. There are no early symptoms, but focal blurring, vitreous or retinal detachment, and partial or total vision loss can eventually develop; rate of progression is highly variable. Screening and diagnosis are by retinal examination performed by an ophthalmologist, which should be done regularly (usually annually) in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Early detection and treatment are critical to preventing vision loss. Treatment for all patients includes intensive glycemic and blood pressure control. Panretinal laser photocoagulation is used for proliferative diabetic retinopathy and sometimes severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitors such asaflibercept,bevacizumab, andranibizumabare used for macular edema and can also be used for proliferative retinopathy, but this treatment requires frequent regular visits. 