endocrine and metabolic disorders
Carcinoid Syndrome
Pathophysiology of Carcinoid Syndrome
Serotonin, the primary hormone produced by carcinoid tumors, acts on smooth muscle to cause diarrhea, colic, and malabsorption. Histamine and bradykinin, which are produced in smaller amounts, cause flushing through their vasodilator effects. The role of prostaglandins and various polypeptide hormones, which may be produced by paracrine cells, awaits further investigation; elevatedhuman chorionic gonadotropinand pancreatic polypeptide levels are occasionally present with carcinoids. Some patients develop right-sided endocardial fibrosis, leading to Pulmonic Stenosis and 