cardiovascular disorders
Heart Failure (HF)
Introduction
Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome of ventricular dysfunction. Left ventricular (LV) failure causes shortness of breath and fatigue, and right ventricular (RV) failure causes peripheral and abdominal fluid accumulation; the ventricles can be involved together or separately. Diagnosis is initially clinical, supported by chest x-ray, echocardiography, and levels of plasma natriuretic peptides. Treatment includes patient education, diuretics, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors,angiotensin IIreceptor blockers, beta-blockers, aldosterone antagonists, sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors, neprilysin inhibitors, sinus node inhibitors, specialized implantable pacemakers/defibrillators and other devices, and correction of the cause(s) of the HF syndrome. Heart failure affects about 6.5 million people in the US;>960,000 new cases occur each year. About 26 million people are affected worldwide. (See also Pathophysiology .) 