Treatment with large doses of cyclophosphamide carries considerable risk of pancytopenia and therefore is generally combined with stem cell rescue (transplant) procedures. Although cyclophosphamide appears to induce tolerance for marrow or immune cell grafting, its use does not prevent the subsequent GVH syndrome, which may be serious or lethal if the donor is a poor histocompatibility match (despite the severe immunosuppression induced by high doses of cyclophosphamide). The drug may also cause hemorrhagic cystitis, which can be prevented or treated with mesna. Other adverse effects of cyclophosphamide include nausea, vomiting, cardiac toxicity, and electrolyte disturbances.
Leflunomide is a prodrug of an inhibitor of pyrimidine synthesis. Teriflunomide is the principal active metabolite of leflunomide. They both reversibly inhibit the mitochondrial enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, which is involved in pyrimidine synthesis and ultimately results in decreased lymphocyte activation. They have anti-inflammatory activity in addition to immunomodulatory properties.
Leflunomide is orally active, and the active metabolite has a long half-life of several weeks. Thus, the drug should be started with a loading dose, but it can be taken once daily after reaching steady state. It is approved only for rheumatoid arthritis at present, though studies are underway combining leflunomide with mycophenolate mofetil for a variety of autoimmune and inflammatory skin disorders, as well as preservation of allografts in solid organ transplantation. Leflunomide also appears (from murine data) to have antiviral activity. Toxicities include elevation of liver enzymes with some risk of liver damage and renal impairment. Patients with severe liver disease should not receive leflunomide. This drug is teratogenic and contraindicated in pregnancy. A low frequency of cardiovascular effects (angina, tachycardia) has been reported.
Teriflunomide is FDA-approved for the treatment of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Although immunomodulatory, its exact mechanism of action in the treatment of multiple sclerosis is unclear. It is hypothesized to decrease the number of activated lymphocytes in the central nervous system. It is a once-daily oral drug that, unlike leflunomide, does not require a loading dose. Teriflunomide’s side effect profile is similar to that of leflunomide, and it is contraindicated in pregnancy and severe liver disease. The incidence of neutropenia in patients taking the drug is 15%, and 10% of patients have a decrease in platelet counts.
Hydroxychloroquine is an antimalarial agent with immunosuppressant properties. It is thought to suppress intracellular antigen processing and loading of peptides onto MHC class II molecules by increasing the pH of lysosomal and endosomal compartments, thereby decreasing T-cell activation.
Because of these immunosuppressant activities, hydroxychloroquine is used to treat some autoimmune disorders (see Chapter 36), eg, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. It has also been used to both treat and prevent GVH disease after allogeneic stem cell transplantation.