Patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) is widely used for the management of breakthrough pain. With PCA, the patient controls a parenteral (usually intravenous) infusion device by pressing a button to deliver a preprogrammed dose of the desired opioid analgesic, called the demand dose. A programmable lockout interval prevents administration of another dose for a set period of time. In addition, the pumps can be programmed with a continuous or basal infusion (which should generally be avoided due to safety concerns) and the 1or 4-hour lockout dose (the maximum amount of drug that can be delivered in that time period). Claims of better patient satisfaction are supported by well-designed clinical trials, making this approach very useful in postoperative pain control. However, health care personnel must be very familiar with the use of PCAs to avoid overdosage secondary to misuse or improper programming. There is a proven risk of PCA-associated respiratory depression and hypoxia that requires careful monitoring of vital signs and sedation level, and provision of supplemental oxygen. Continuous pulse oximetry is also recommended for patients receiving PCA-administered opioids; this is not a fail-safe method for early detection of hypoventilation or apnea but rather serves as a safety net for an unrecognized adverse event. Monitoring of ventilation is ideal, but is often inadequate. The risk of sedation is increased if medications with sedative properties, such as benzodiazepines and certain types of antiemetics, are concurrently prescribed.
Rectal suppositories of morphine and hydromorphone have been used when oral and parenteral routes are undesirable. The transdermal fentanyl patch provides stable blood levels of drug and better pain control while avoiding the need for repeated parenteral injections. Fentanyl is the most successful opioid in transdermal application and is indicated for the management of persistent unremitting pain. Because of the complication of fentanyl-induced respiratory depression, the FDA recommends that introduction of a transdermal fentanyl patch (25 mcg/h) be reserved for patients with an established oral morphine requirement of at least 60 mg/d for 1 week or more. Extreme caution must be exercised in any patient initiating therapy or undergoing a dose increase because the peak effects may not be realized until 24–48 hours after patch application. The buprenorphine patch (BuTrans) is an example of the transdermal delivery of a mixed agonist-antagonist for the treatment of chronic pain in addition to opioid maintenance or detoxification. The intranasal route avoids repeated parenteral drug injections and the first-pass metabolism of orally administered drugs. Butorphanol is the only opioid currently available in the USA in a nasal formulation, but more are expected. Another alternative to parenteral administration is the buccal transmucosal route, which uses a fentanyl citrate lozenge or a “lollipop” mounted on a stick.
Direct toxic effects of the opioid analgesics that are extensions of their acute pharmacologic actions include respiratory depression, nausea, vomiting, and constipation (Table 31–4). Tolerance, dependence, diagnosis and treatment of overdosage, and contraindications must be considered.
A. Tolerance and Dependence
Drug dependence of the opioid type is marked by a relatively specific withdrawal or abstinence syndrome. Just as there are pharmacologic differences between the various opioids, there are also differences in psychological dependence and the severity of withdrawal effects. For example, withdrawal from dependence on a strong agonist is associated with more severe withdrawal signs and symptoms than withdrawal from a mild or moderate agonist. Administration of an opioid antagonist to an opioid-dependent person is followed by brief but severe withdrawal symptoms (see
TABLE 31–4 Adverse effects of the opioid analgesics.
antagonist-precipitated withdrawal, below). The potential for physical and psychological dependence of the partial agonistantagonist opioids appears to be less than that of the strong agonist drugs.