The collecting tubule system is also the site at which the final urine concentration is determined. In addition to their role in control of Na+ absorption and K+ secretion (Figure 15–5), principal cells also contain a regulated system of water channels (Figure 15–6). Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also called arginine vasopressin, AVP) controls the permeability of these cells to water by regulating the insertion of pre-formed water channels (aquaporin-2, AQP2) into the apical membrane. Vasopressin receptors in the vasculature and central nervous system (CNS) are V1 receptors, and those in the kidney are V2 receptors. V2 receptors act via a Gs protein-coupled, cAMP-mediated process. In the absence of ADH, the collecting tubule (and duct) is impermeable to water, and dilute urine is produced. ADH markedly increases water permeability, and this leads to the formation of a more concentrated urine. ADH also stimulates the insertion of urea transporter UT1 (UT-A, UTA-1) molecules into the apical membranes of collecting duct cells in the medulla.
Urea concentration in the medulla plays an important role maintaining the high osmolarity of the medulla and in the concentration of urine. ADH secretion is regulated by serum osmolality and by volume status. A new class of drugs, the vaptans (see Agents That Alter Water Excretion), are ADH antagonists.
A number of locally produced compounds exhibit physiologic effects within the kidney and are therefore referred to as autacoids, or paracrine factors. Several of these autacoids (adenosine, the prostaglandins, and urodilatin) appear to have important effects on the pharmacology of diuretics. Since these effects are complex, they will be treated independently of the individual tubule segments discussed above.
Adenosine is an unphosphorylated ribonucleoside whose actions in the kidney have been intensively studied. As in all tissues, renal adenosine concentrations rise in response to hypoxia and ATP consumption. In most tissues, hypoxia results in compensatory vasodilation and, if cardiac output is sufficient, increased blood flow. The kidney has different requirements because increased blood flow leads to an increase in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and greater solute delivery to the tubules. This increased delivery would increase tubule work and ATP consumption. In contrast, in the hypoxic kidney, adenosine actually decreases blood flow and GFR. Because the medulla is always more hypoxic than the cortex, adenosine increases Na+ reabsorption from the reduced flow in the cortex, so that delivery to medullary segments will be even further reduced.
There are four distinct adenosine receptors (A1, A2a, A2b, and A3), all of which have been found in the kidney. However, probably only one of these (A1) is of importance. The adenosine A1 receptor is found on the pre-glomerular afferent arteriole, as well as the PCT and most other tubule segments. Adenosine is known to affect ion transport in the PCT, the medullary TAL, and collecting tubules. In addition, adenosine (via A1 receptors on the afferent arteriole) reduces blood flow to the glomerulus (and GFR) and is also the key signaling molecule in the process of tubuloglomerular feedback. Adenosine receptor antagonists have generally been found to block the enhancement of NHE3 activity and thus exhibit diuretic activity (see below). It is particularly interesting that unlike other diuretics that act upstream of the collecting tubules, adenosine antagonists do not cause wasting of K+.