g.
Truncal rigidity—Several opioids can intensify tone in the large trunk muscles. It was originally believed that truncal rigidity involved a spinal cord action of these drugs, but a supraspinal action is likely. Truncal rigidity reduces thoracic compliance and thus interferes with ventilation. The effect is most apparent when high doses of the highly lipid-soluble opioids (eg, fentanyl, sufentanil, alfentanil, remifentanil) are rapidly administered intravenously. Truncal rigidity may be overcome by administration of an opioid antagonist, which of course will also antagonize the analgesic action of the opioid. Preventing truncal rigidity while preserving analgesia requires the concomitant use of neuromuscular blocking agents.
h.
Nausea and vomiting—The opioid analgesics can activate the brainstem chemoreceptor trigger zone to produce nausea and vomiting. As ambulation seems to increase the incidence of nausea and vomiting there may also be a vestibular component in this effect.
i.
Temperature—Homeostatic regulation of body temperature is mediated in part by the action of endogenous opioid peptides in the brain. For example, administration of μ-opioid receptor agonists, such as morphine to the anterior hypothalamus produces hyperthermia, whereas administration of κ agonists induces hypothermia.
j.
Sleep architecture—Although the mechanism by which opioids interact with circadian rhythm is unclear, they can decrease the percentage of stage 3 and 4 sleep, which may result in fatigue and other sleep disorders, including sleep-disordered breathing and central sleep apnea.
2. Peripheral effects a. Cardiovascular system—Most opioids have no significant direct effects on the heart and, other than bradycardia, no major effects on cardiac rhythm. Meperidine is an exception to this generalization because its antimuscarinic action can result in tachycardia. Blood pressure is usually well maintained in subjects receiving opioids unless the cardiovascular system is stressed, in which case hypotension may occur. This hypotensive effect is probably due to peripheral arterial and venous dilation, which has been attributed to a number of mechanisms including central depression of vasomotor-stabilizing mechanisms and release of histamine. No consistent effect on cardiac output is seen, and the electrocardiogram is not significantly affected. However, caution should be exercised in patients with decreased blood volume, because the above mechanisms make these patients susceptible to hypotension. Opioid analgesics affect cerebral circulation minimally except when Pco2 rises as a consequence of respiratory depression. Increased Pco2 leads to cerebral vasodilation associated with a decrease in cerebral vascular resistance, an increase in cerebral blood flow, and an increase in intracranial pressure.
b.