Lethal ventricular arrhythmias occurred in several patients taking either of the early second-generation agents, terfenadine or astemizole, in combination with ketoconazole, itraconazole, or macrolide antibiotics such as erythromycin. These antimicrobial drugs inhibit the metabolism of many drugs by CYP3A4 and cause significant increases in blood concentrations of the antihistamines. The mechanism of this toxicity involves blockade of the HERG (IKr) potassium channels in the heart that contribute to repolarization of the action potential (see Chapter 14). The result is prolongation and a change in shape of the action potential, and these changes lead to arrhythmias. Both terfenadine and astemizole were withdrawn from the US market in recognition of these problems. Where still available, terfenadine and astemizole should be considered to be contraindicated in patients taking ketoconazole, itraconazole, or macrolides and in patients with liver disease. Grapefruit juice also inhibits CYP3A4 and has been shown to increase blood levels of terfenadine significantly.
For those H1 antagonists that cause significant sedation, concurrent use of other drugs that cause central nervous system depression produces additive effects and is contraindicated while driving or operating machinery. Similarly, the autonomic blocking effects of older antihistamines are additive with those of antimuscarinic and α-blocking drugs.
The development of H2-receptor antagonists was based on the observation that H1 antagonists had no effect on histamine-induced acid secretion in the stomach. Molecular manipulation of the histamine molecule resulted in drugs that blocked acid secretion and had no H1 agonist or antagonist effects. Like the other histamine receptors, the H2 receptor displays constitutive activity, and some H2 blockers are inverse agonists.
The high prevalence of peptic ulcer disease created great interest in the therapeutic potential of the H2-receptor antagonists when first discovered. Although these agents are not the most efficacious available, their ability to reduce gastric acid secretion with very low toxicity has made them extremely popular as over-the-counter preparations. These drugs are discussed in more detail in Chapter 62.
Although no selective H3 or H4 ligands are presently available for general clinical use, there is great interest in their therapeutic potential. H3-selective ligands may be of value in sleep disorders, narcolepsy, obesity, and cognitive and psychiatric disorders. Tiprolisant, an inverse H3-receptor agonist, has been shown to reduce sleep cycles in mutant mice and in humans with narcolepsy. Increased obesity has been demonstrated in both H1and H3-receptor knockout mice; however, H3 inverse agonists decrease feeding in obese mouse models. As noted in Chapter 29, several atypical antipsychotic drugs have significant affinity for H3 receptors (and cause weight gain).
Because of the homology between the H3 and H4 receptors, some H3 ligands also have affinity for the H4 receptor. H4 blockers have potential in chronic inflammatory conditions such as asthma, in which eosinophils and mast cells play a prominent role. No selective H4 ligand is available for use in humans, but in addition to research agents listed in Table 16–1, many H1-selective blockers (eg, diphenhydramine, cetirizine, loratadine) show some affinity for this receptor. Several studies have suggested that H4-receptor antagonists may be useful in pruritus, asthma, allergic rhinitis, and pain conditions.