One of the earliest major advances in immunopharmacology was the development of a technique for preventing Rh hemolytic disease of the newborn. The technique is based on the observation that a primary antibody response to a foreign antigen can be blocked if specific antibody to that antigen is administered passively at the time of exposure to antigen. Rho(D) immune globulin is a concentrated (15%) solution of human IgG containing high-titer antibodies against the Rho(D) antigen of the red cell.
Sensitization of Rh-negative mothers to the D antigen occurs usually at the time of birth of an Rho(D)-positive or Du-positive infant, when fetal red cells leak into the mother’s bloodstream. Sensitization might also occur occasionally with miscarriages or ectopic pregnancies. In subsequent pregnancies, maternal antibody against Rh-positive cells is transferred to the fetus during the third trimester, leading to the development of erythroblastosis fetalis (hemolytic disease of the newborn).
If an injection of Rho(D) antibody is administered to the Rh-negative mother within 24–72 hours after the birth of an Rh-positive infant, the mother’s own antibody response to the foreign Rho(D)-positive cells is suppressed because the infant’s red cells are cleared from circulation before the mother can generate a B-cell response against Rho(D). Therefore she has no memory B cells that can activate upon subsequent pregnancies with an Rho(D)positive fetus.
When the mother has been treated in this fashion, Rh hemolytic disease of the newborn has not been observed in subsequent pregnancies. For this prophylactic treatment to be successful, the mother must be Rho(D)-negative and Du-negative and must not already be immunized to the Rho(D) factor. Treatment is also often advised for Rh-negative mothers antepartum at 26–28 weeks’ gestation who have had miscarriages, ectopic pregnancies, or abortions, when the blood type of the fetus is unknown. Note: Rho(D) immune globulin is administered to the mother and must not be given to the infant.
The usual dose of Rho(D) immune globulin is 2 mL intramuscularly, containing approximately 300 mcg anti-Rho(D) IgG. Adverse reactions are infrequent and consist of local discomfort at the injection site or, rarely, a slight temperature elevation.
Hyperimmune immunoglobulins are IGIV preparations made from pools of selected human or animal donors with high titers of antibodies against particular agents of interest such as viruses or toxins (see also Appendix). Various hyperimmune IGIVs are available for treatment of respiratory syncytial virus, cytomegalovirus, varicella zoster, human herpesvirus 3, hepatitis B virus, rabies, tetanus, and digoxin overdose. Intravenous administration of the hyperimmune globulins is a passive transfer of high-titer antibodies that either reduces risk or reduces the severity of infection. Rabies hyperimmune globulin is injected around the wound and given intravenously. Tetanus hyperimmune globulin is administered intravenously when indicated for prophylaxis. Rattlesnake and coral snake hyperimmune globulins (antivenoms) are of equine or ovine origin and are effective for North and South American rattlesnakes and some coral snakes (but not Arizona coral snake). Equine and ovine antivenoms are available for rattlesnake envenomations, but only equine antivenom is available for coral snake bite. An Arizona bark scorpion antivenom is also available as equine (Fab)′2. This preparation prevents neurologic manifestations of scorpion envenomation and is generally used in young children and infants.