Leeches have been used for bloodletting since the age of Hippocrates. More recently, surgeons have used medicinal leeches (Hirudo medicinalis) to prevent thrombosis in the fine vessels of reattached digits. Hirudin is a specific, irreversible thrombin inhibitor from leech saliva that for a time was available in recombinant form as lepirudin. Its action is independent of antithrombin, which means it can reach and inactivate fibrin-bound thrombin in thrombi. Lepirudin has little effect on platelets or the bleeding time. Like heparin, it must be administered parenterally and is monitored by aPTT. Lepirudin was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in patients with thrombosis related to heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Lepirudin is excreted by the kidney and should be used with great caution in patients with renal insufficiency as no antidote exists. Up to 40% of patients who receive long-term infusions develop an antibody directed against the thrombin-lepirudin complex. These antigen-antibody complexes are not cleared by the kidney and may result in an enhanced anticoagulant effect. Some patients re-exposed to the drug developed life-threatening anaphylactic reactions. Lepirudin production was discontinued by the manufacturer in 2012.
Bivalirudin, another bivalent inhibitor of thrombin, is administered intravenously, with a rapid onset and offset of action. The drug has a short half-life with clearance that is 20% renal and the remainder metabolic. Bivalirudin also inhibits platelet activation and has been FDA-approved for use in percutaneous coronary angioplasty.
Argatroban is a small molecule thrombin inhibitor that is FDA-approved for use in patients with HIT with or without thrombosis and coronary angioplasty in patients with HIT. It, too, has a short half-life, is given by continuous intravenous infusion, and is monitored by aPTT. Its clearance is not affected by renal disease but is dependent on liver function; dose reduction is required in patients with liver disease. Patients on argatroban will demonstrate elevated INRs, rendering the transition to warfarin difficult (ie, the INR will reflect contributions from both warfarin and argatroban). (INR is discussed in detail in the section on warfarin administration.) A nomogram is supplied by the manufacturer to assist in this transition.
Advantages of oral direct thrombin inhibition include predictable pharmacokinetics and bioavailability, which allow for fixed dosing and predictable anticoagulant response and make routine coagulation monitoring unnecessary. Similar to the direct oral anti-Xa drugs described above, the rapid onset and offset of action of these agents allow for immediate anticoagulation.
Dabigatran etexilate mesylate is the only oral direct thrombin inhibitor approved by the FDA. Dabigatran is approved for reduction in risk of stroke and systemic embolism with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation, treatment of VTE following 5–7 days of initial heparin or LMWH therapy, reduction of the risk of recurrent VTE, and VTE prophylaxis following hip or knee replacement surgery.
Dabigatran and its metabolites are direct thrombin inhibitors. Following oral administration, dabigatran etexilate mesylate is converted to dabigatran. The oral bioavailability is 3–7% in normal volunteers. The drug is a substrate for the P-glycoprotein efflux pump; P-glycoprotein inhibitors such as ketoconazole should be avoided in patients with impaired renal function. The half-life of the drug in normal volunteers is 12–17 hours. Renal impairment results in prolonged drug clearance.