Air pollution may result from vapors, aerosols, smokes, particulates, and individual chemicals. Five major substances have been said to account for about 98% of air pollution: carbon monoxide (about 52%); sulfur oxides (about 14%); hydrocarbons (about 14%); nitrogen oxides (about 14%) and ozone, their breakdown product; and particulate matter (about 4%). Agriculture, especially industrial-scale farming, contributes a variety of air pollutants: dusts as particulates, pesticidal chemicals, hydrogen sulfide, and others. Sources of pollutants include fossil fuel burning, transportation, manufacturing, other industrial activities, generation of electric power, space heating, refuse disposal, and others. Studies in Helsinki and other cities have shown that uncatalyzed automobile traffic emissions are larger contributors to ground-level air pollution than any other source. The introduction of catalytic converters on automobiles and their mandatory use in many countries has greatly reduced automobile-released air pollution. In addition, the ban on tetraethyl lead in gasoline has eliminated a major source of lead contamination and childhood lead poisoning in urban environments. In emerging economies, the use of transport based on two-cycle engines creates heavy ground-level air pollution in very crowded cities. The introduction of “clean, low-sulfur” diesel fuels is helping to reduce urban and highway pollutants such as sulfur oxides.
Sulfur dioxide and smoke from incomplete combustion of coal have been associated with acute adverse effects among children, the elderly, and individuals with preexisting cardiac or respiratory disease. Ambient air pollution has been implicated as a cause of cardiac disease, bronchitis, obstructive ventilatory disease, pulmonary emphysema, bronchial asthma, and airway or lung cancer. Extensive basic science and clinical epidemiologic literature on air pollutant toxicology has been published and has led to modifications of regulatory standards for air pollutants. EPA standards for these substances apply to the general environment, and OSHA standards apply to workplace exposure. Ambient air standards for carbon monoxide and five other harmful pollutants—particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and lead—may be found at https://www.epa.gov/criteria-air-pollutants.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, tasteless, odorless, and nonirritating gas, a byproduct of incomplete combustion. The average concentration of CO in the atmosphere is about 0.1 ppm; in heavy traffic, the concentration may exceed 100 ppm. Current recommended permissible exposure limit (PEL) values are shown in Table 56–1 (see also http://www.osha.gov, Standard Number 1910.1000, Table Z-1).
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Mechanism of action—CO combines tightly but reversibly with the oxygen-binding sites of hemoglobin and has an affinity for hemoglobin that is about 220 times that of oxygen. The product formed—carboxyhemoglobin—cannot transport oxygen. Furthermore, the presence of carboxyhemoglobin interferes with the dissociation of oxygen from the remaining oxyhemoglobin as a result of the Bohr effect. This reduces the transfer of oxygen to tissues. Organs with the highest oxygen demand (the brain, heart, and kidneys) are most seriously affected. Normal nonsmoking adults have carboxyhemoglobin levels of less than 1% saturation (1% of total hemoglobin is in the form of carboxyhemoglobin); this has been attributed to the endogenous formation of CO from heme catabolism. Smokers may exhibit 5–10% CO saturation. The level depends on their smoking habits. A person who breathes air that contains 0.1% CO (1000 ppm) would have a carboxyhemoglobin level of about 50% in a short period of time.
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