Nifurtimox, a nitrofuran, is a standard drug for Chagas disease. Nifurtimox is also used in the treatment of African trypanosomiasis in combination with eflornithine. Nifurtimox is well absorbed after oral administration and eliminated with a plasma half-life of about 3 hours. The drug is administered at a dosage of 8–10 mg/kg/d in three divided doses with meals for 60–90 days. Toxicity related to nifurtimox is common. Adverse effects include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, fever, rash, headache, restlessness, insomnia, neuropathies, and seizures. These effects are generally reversible but often lead to cessation of therapy before completion of a standard course.
This important antifungal drug (see Chapter 48) is an alternative therapy for visceral leishmaniasis, especially in parts of India with high-level resistance to sodium stibogluconate. Liposomal amphotericin has shown excellent efficacy at a dosage of 3 mg/kg/d intravenously on days 1–5, 14, and 21. Other regimens that have shown good efficacy in India include 4 doses of 5 mg/kg over 4–10 days and a single dose of 15 mg/kg. With single-dose therapy, an amphotericin lipid emulsion had similar efficacy to that of the liposomal formulation. Efficacy of amphotericin appears to be lower in Africa. Nonliposomal amphotericin (1 mg/kg intravenously every other day for 30 days) is more toxic, less expensive, also efficacious, and widely used in India. However, in an Indian trial a single infusion of liposomal amphotericin showed noninferior efficacy and decreased cost compared to a standard 30-day course of amphotericin. Amphotericin is also used for cutaneous leishmaniasis in some areas. The use of amphotericin, and especially liposomal preparations, is limited in developing countries by difficulty of administration, cost, and toxicity.
Miltefosine is an alkylphosphocholine analog that is the first effective oral drug for visceral leishmaniasis. It has recently shown excellent efficacy in the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in India, where it is administered orally (2.5 mg/kg/d with varied dosing schedules) for 28 days. It was also recently shown to be effective in regimens including a single dose of liposomal amphotericin followed by 7–14 days of miltefosine. A 28-day course of miltefosine (2.5 mg/kg/d) was also effective for the treatment of New World cutaneous leishmaniasis. Vomiting and diarrhea are common but generally short-lived toxicities. Transient elevations in liver enzymes and nephrotoxicity are also seen. The drug should be avoided in pregnancy (or in women who may become pregnant within 2 months of treatment) because of its teratogenic effects. Miltefosine is registered for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in India and some other countries, and—considering the serious limitations of other drugs, including parenteral administration, toxicity, and resistance—it may become the treatment of choice for that disease. Miltefosine may also have a role in the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis; the drug was noninferior to meglumine antimoniate for this indication in South American children. Resistance to miltefosine develops readily in vitro.