Fingolimod hydrochloride (FH) is an orally active sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptor modulator that is derived from the fungal metabolite myriocin. The S1P receptor (subtype 1) controls the release of lymphocytes from lymph nodes and the thymus. FH is metabolized to fingolimod phosphate, which subsequently binds the S1P receptor and ultimately decreases circulating lymphocyte numbers in the periphery and central nervous system. S1P receptors are also expressed on neurons, such that FH may also be affecting neurodegeneration, gliosis, and endogenous repair mechanisms as well as resulting in lymphopenia to modify disease activity in multiple sclerosis. FH can cause serious cardiac toxicity including bradycardia, prolongation of the QT interval, and other abnormalities. Because of these potential complications, the drug requires cardiac monitoring for 6 hours after the first dose is given. FH is contraindicated in patients with preexisting conditions such as type II or III heart block, prolonged QTc, recent myocardial infarction, or heart failure. Less common adverse effects include macular edema, elevated hepatic enzymes, headache, diarrhea, and cough. The drug is metabolized primarily by the cytochrome P450 system; thus caution is needed when it is used in combination with other drugs metabolized in the same manner.
The development of hybridoma technology by Milstein and Köhler in 1975 revolutionized the antibody field and radically increased the purity and specificity of antibodies used in the clinic and for diagnostic tests in the laboratory. Hybridomas are B cells fused to immortal plasmacytoma cells that secrete monoclonal antibodies specific for a target antigen. Large-scale hybridoma culture facilities are employed by the pharmaceutical industry to produce diagnostic and clinical-grade monoclonal antibodies.
More recently, molecular biology has been used to develop monoclonal antibodies. Combinatorial libraries of cDNAs encoding immunoglobulin heavy and light chains expressed on bacteriophage surfaces are screened against purified antigens. The result is an antibody fragment with specificity and high affinity for the antigen of interest. This technique has been used to develop antibodies specific for viruses (eg, HIV), bacterial proteins, tumor antigens, and even cytokines. Many antibodies developed in this manner are FDA-approved for use in humans.
Other genetic engineering techniques involve production of chimeric and humanized versions of murine monoclonal antibodies in order to reduce their antigenicity and increase the half-life of the antibody in the patient. Murine antibodies administered as such to human patients elicit production of human antimouse antibodies (HAMAs), which clear the original murine proteins very rapidly. Humanization involves replacing most of the murine antibody with equivalent human regions while keeping only the variable, antigen-specific regions intact. Chimeric mouse-human antibodies have similar properties with less complete replacement of the murine components. The current naming convention for these engineered substances uses the suffix “-umab” or “-zumab” for humanized antibodies, and “-imab” or “-ximab” for chimeric products. These molecular engineering procedures have been successful in reducing or preventing HAMA production for many of the antibodies discussed below.
Antilymphocyte & Antithymocyte Antibodies, & Chimeric Molecules
Antisera directed against lymphocytes have been prepared sporadically for over 100 years. With the advent of human organ transplantation as a realistic therapeutic option, heterologous antilymphocyte globulin (ALG) took on new importance. ALG and antithymocyte globulin (ATG) are now in clinical use in many medical centers, especially in transplantation programs. The antiserum is usually obtained by immunization of horses, sheep, or rabbits with human lymphoid cells.