During the later stages of the HIV growth cycle, the gag and gag-pol gene products are translated into polyproteins, and these become immature budding particles. The HIV protease is responsible for cleaving these precursor molecules to produce the final structural proteins of the mature virion core. By preventing post-translational cleavage of the Gag-Pol polyprotein, protease inhibitors (PIs) prevent the processing of viral proteins into functional conformations, resulting in the production of immature, noninfectious viral particles (Figure 49–3). Unlike the NRTIs, PIs do not need intracellular activation.
Specific genotypic alterations that confer phenotypic resistance are fairly common with these agents, thus contraindicating mono-therapy. Some of the most common mutations conferring broad resistance to PIs are substitutions at the 10, 46, 54, 82, 84, and 90 codons; the number of mutations may predict the level of phenotypic resistance. The I50L substitution emerging during atazanavir therapy has been associated with increased susceptibility to other PIs. Darunavir and tipranavir appear to have improved virologic activity in patients harboring HIV-1 resistant to other PIs.
As a class, PIs are associated with gastrointestinal intolerance, which may be dose-limiting, and lipodystrophy, which includes both metabolic (hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia) and morphologic (lipoatrophy, fat deposition) derangements. A syndrome of redistribution and accumulation of body fat that results in central obesity, dorsocervical fat enlargement (buffalo hump), peripheral and facial wasting, breast enlargement, and a cushingoid appearance has been observed, least commonly with atazanavir. PIs may be associated with cardiac conduction abnormalities, including PR and QT interval prolongation. A baseline electrocardiogram and avoidance of other agents causing prolonged PR or QT intervals should be considered. Abacavir, lopinavir/ritonavir, and fosamprenavir/ritonavir have been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in some, but not all, studies. Drug-induced hepatitis and rare severe hepatotoxicity have been reported to varying degrees with all PIs; the frequency of hepatic events is higher with tipranavir/ritonavir than with other PIs. Unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia may occur with atazanavir or indinavir. Whether PI agents are associated with bone loss and osteoporosis after long-term use is under investigation. PIs have been associated with increased spontaneous bleeding in patients with hemophilia A or B; an increased risk of intracranial hemorrhage has been reported in patients receiving tipranavir/ritonavir. Darunavir, amprenavir, fosamprenavir, and tipranavir are sulfonamides; caution should be used in patients with a history of sulfa allergy.
All of the antiretroviral PIs are extensively metabolized by CYP3A4, with ritonavir having the most pronounced inhibitory effect and saquinavir the least. Some PI agents, such as amprenavir and ritonavir, are also inducers of specific CYP isoforms. As a result, there is enormous potential for drug-drug interactions with other antiretroviral agents and other commonly used medications (Tables 49–3 and 49–4). Expert resources about drug-drug interactions should be consulted, as dosage adjustments are frequently required and some combinations are contraindicated. It is noteworthy that the potent CYP3A4 inhibitory properties of ritonavir are used to clinical advantage by having it “boost” the levels of other PI agents when given in combination, thus acting as a pharmacokinetic enhancer rather than an antiretroviral agent. Ritonavir boosting increases drug exposure, thereby prolonging the drug’s half-life and allowing reduction in frequency; in addition, the genetic barrier to resistance is raised.