Prostaglandins contribute importantly to renal physiology and to the function of many other organs (see Chapter 18). Five prostaglandin subtypes (PGE2, PGI2, PGD2, PGF2α, and thromboxane [TXA2]) are synthesized in the kidney and have receptors in this organ. The role of some of these receptors in renal physiology is not yet completely understood. However, PGE2 (acting on EP1, EP3, and possibly EP2 receptors) has been shown to play a role in the activity of certain diuretics. Among its many actions, PGE2 blunts Na+ reabsorption in the TAL of Henle’s loop and ADH-mediated water transport in collecting tubules. These actions of PGE2 contribute significantly to the diuretic efficacy of loop diuretics. Blockade of prostaglandin synthesis with NSAIDs can therefore interfere with loop diuretic activity.
The natriuretic peptides (ANP, BNP, and CNP, see Chapter 17) induce natriuresis through several different mechanisms. ANP and BNP are synthesized in the heart, while CNP comes primarily from the CNS. Some of these peptides exert both vascular effects (see Chapter 17) and sodium transport effects in the kidney, which participate in causing natriuresis. A fourth natriuretic peptide, urodilatin, is structurally very similar to ANP but is synthesized and functions only in the kidney. Urodilatin is made in distal tubule epithelial cells and blunts Na+ reabsorption through effects on Na+ uptake channels and Na+/K+-ATPase at the downstream collecting tubule system. In addition, through effects on vascular smooth muscle, it reduces glomerular afferent and increases glomerular efferent vasomotor tone. These effects cause an increase in GFR, which adds to the natriuretic activity. Ularitide is a recombinant peptide that mimics the activity of urodilatin.
The cardiac peptides ANP and BNP increase GFR through effects on glomerular arteriolar vasomotor tone and also exhibit diuretic activity. CNP has very little diuretic activity. Three agents in this group are in clinical use or under investigation: nesiritide (BNP), carperitide (ANP, available only in Japan), and ularitide (urodilatin, under investigation). Intravenous ularitide has been studied extensively for use in acute heart failure. Experimentally, it can improve cardiovascular function and promote diuresis without reducing creatinine clearance, but it has not yet proved to be clinically useful. There is also evidence that nesiritide (simulating BNP) may enhance the activity of other diuretics while helping to maintain stable renal function. However, the Acute Study of Clinical Effectiveness of Nesiritide in Decompensated Heart Failure (ASCEND-HF) study did not show an improvement in outcomes with nesiritide compared with regular care in patients with heart failure.