Tramadol is a centrally acting analgesic whose mechanism of action is complex and dependent on ability of the parent drug and its metabolites to block serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Because its analgesic effect is only partially antagonized by naloxone, it is thought to depend less on its low-affinity binding to the μ receptor for therapeutic activity. The recommended dosage is 50–100 mg orally four times daily; however, its systemic concentration and analgesic effect are dependent on the enzymatic activity of CYP2D6 polymorphisms. Toxicity includes association with seizures; the drug is relatively contraindicated in patients with a history of epilepsy and for use with other drugs that lower the seizure threshold. Another serious risk is the development of serotonin syndrome, especially if selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants are being administered (see Chapter 16). Other adverse effects include nausea and dizziness, but these symptoms typically abate after several days of therapy. No clinically significant effects on respiration or the cardiovascular system have thus far been reported when used as monotherapy. Given the fact that the analgesic action of tramadol is largely independent of μ-receptor action, tramadol may serve as an adjunct with pure opioid agonists in the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain.
Tapentadol is an analgesic with modest μ-opioid receptor affinity and significant norepinephrine reuptake-inhibiting action. In animal models, its analgesic effects were only moderately reduced by naloxone but strongly reduced by an α2-adrenoceptor antagonist. Furthermore, its binding to the norepinephrine transporter (NET, see Chapter 6) was stronger than that of tramadol, whereas its binding to the serotonin transporter (SERT) was less than that of tramadol. Tapentadol was approved in 2008 and has been shown to be as effective as oxycodone in the treatment of moderate to severe pain but with a reduced profile of gastrointestinal complaints such as nausea. Tapentadol carries risk for seizures in patients with seizure disorders and for the development of serotonin syndrome. It is unknown how tapentadol compares in clinical utility to tramadol or other analgesics whose mechanism of action is not based
The opioid analgesics are among the most effective drugs available for the suppression of cough. This effect is often achieved at doses below those necessary to produce analgesia. The receptors involved in the antitussive effect appear to differ from those associated with the other actions of opioids. For example, the antitussive effect is also produced by stereoisomers of opioid molecules that are devoid of analgesic effects and addiction liability (see below).
The physiologic mechanism of cough is complex, and little is known about the specific mechanism of action of the opioid antitussive drugs. It appears likely that both central and peripheral effects play a role.
The opioid derivatives most commonly used as antitussives are dextromethorphan, codeine, levopropoxyphene, and noscapine (levopropoxyphene and noscapine are not available in the USA). They should be used with caution in patients taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors (Table 31–5). Antitussive preparations usually also contain expectorants to thin and liquefy respiratory secretions. Importantly, due to increasing reports of death in young children taking dextromethorphan in formulations of over-the-counter “cold/cough” medications, its use in children younger than 6 years of age has been banned by the FDA. Moreover, because of variations in the metabolism of codeine, its use for any purpose in young children is being reconsidered.