The history focuses on elucidating the pattern of voiding: How often does wetting occur? Does it occur during the day, night, or both? Are there any associated conditions with wetting episodes (e.g., bad dreams, consumption of caffeinated beverages, or exhausting days)? Has the child had a period of dryness in the past? Did a stressful event precede the change in wetting pattern? A review of systems should include a developmental history and detailed information about the neurologic, urinary, and gastrointestinal systems (including patterns of defecation). A history of sleep patterns also is important, including snoring, parasomnias, and timing of nighttime urination. A family history often reveals that one or both parents had enuresis as children. Although enuresis is rarely associated with child abuse, physical and sexual abuse history should be included as part of the psychosocial history. Many families have tried numerous interventions before seeking a physician’s help. Identifying these interventions and how they were carried out aids the understanding of the child’s condition and its role within the family.
The physical examination begins with observation of thechild and the parent for clues about child developmental andparent-child interaction patterns. Special attention is paid tothe abdominal, neurologic, and genital examination. A rectalexamination is recommended if the child has constipation.Observation of voiding is recommended if a history of voiding problems, such as hesitancy or dribbling, is elicited. Thelumbosacral spine should be examined for signs of spinaldysraphism or a tethered cord.
For most children with enuresis, the only laboratory test recommended is a clean catch urinalysis to look for chronic urinary tract infection (UTI), renal disease, and diabetes mellitus. Further testing, such as a urine culture, is based on the urinalysis. Children with complicated enuresis, including children with previous or current UTI, severe voiding dysfunction, or a neurologic finding, are evaluated with a renal sonogram and a voiding cystourethrogram. If vesicoureteral reflux, hydronephrosis, or posterior urethral valves are found, the child is referred to a urologist for further evaluation and treatment.
Commonly there is no identified cause of enuresis and, in most cases, enuresis resolves by adolescence without treatment. Children with primary nocturnal enuresis are most likely to have a family history and are least likely to have an identified etiology. Children with secondary diurnal and nocturnal enuresis are more likely to have an organic etiology, such as UTI, diabetes mellitus, or diabetes insipidus, to explain their symptoms. Children with primary diurnal and nocturnal enuresis may have a neurodevelopmental condition or a problem with bladder function. Children with secondary nocturnal enuresis may have a psychosocial stressor or a sleep disturbance as a predisposing condition for enuresis.
Treatment begins with treating any diagnosed underlying organic causes of enuresis. Elimination of underlying chronic constipation is often curative. For a child whose enuresis is not associated with an identifiable disorder, all therapies must be considered in terms of cost in time, money, disruption to the family, the treatment’s known success rate, and the child’s likelihood to recover from the condition without treatment. The most commonly used treatment options are conditioning therapy and pharmacotherapy. The clinician can also assist the family in making a plan to help the child cope with this problem until it is resolved. Many children have to live with enuresis for months to years before a cure is achieved; a few children have symptoms into adulthood. A plan for handling wet garments and linens in a nonhumiliating and hygienic manner preserves the child’s self-esteem. The child should take as much responsibility as he or she is able, depending on age, development, and family culture.