Observation of any asymmetric movement or altered muscle tone and function may indicate a significant central nervous system abnormality or a nerve palsy resulting from the delivery and requires further evaluation. Primitive neonatal reflexes are unique in the newborn period and can further elucidate or eliminate concerns over asymmetric function. The most important reflexes to assess during the newborn period are as follows: The Moro reflex is elicited by allowing the infant’s head to gently move back suddenly (from a few inches off of the mattress onto the examiner’s hand), resulting in a startle, then abduction and upward movement of the arms followed by adduction and flexion. The legs respond with flexion.
The rooting reflex is elicited by touching the corner of the infant’s mouth, resulting in lowering of the lower lip on the same side with tongue movement toward the stimulus. The face also turns toward the stimulus.
The sucking reflex occurs with almost any object placed in the newborn’s mouth. The infant responds with vigorous sucking. The sucking reflex is replaced later by voluntary sucking.
The grasp reflex occurs when placing an object, such as a finger, onto the infant’s palm (palmar grasp) or sole (plantar grasp). The infant responds by flexing fingers or curling the toes.
The asymmetric tonic neck reflex is elicited by placing the infant supine and turning the head to the side. This placement results in ipsilateral extension of the arm and the leg into a “fencing” position. The contralateral side flexes as well.
A delay in the expected disappearance of the reflexes may also warrant an evaluation of the central nervous system.See Sections 11 and 26 for additional information on the newborn period.
With the development of gross motor skills, the infant is first able to control his or her posture, then proximal musculature, and, last, distal musculature. As the infant progresses through these stages, the parents may notice orthopedic deformities (see Chapters 202 and 203). The infant also may have deformities that are related to intrauterine positioning. Physical examination should indicate whether the deformity is fixed or can be moved passively into the proper position. When a joint held in an abnormal fashion can be moved passively into the proper position, there is a high likelihood of resolving with the progression of gross motor development. Fixed deformities warrant immediate pediatric orthopedic consultation (see Section 26).
Evaluation of vision and ocular movements is important to prevent the serious outcome of strabismus. The cover test and light reflex should be performed at early health maintenance visits; interventions after age 2 decrease the chance of preserving binocular vision or normal visual acuity (see Chapter 179).
Older school-age children who begin to participate in competitive sports should have a comprehensive sports history and physical examination, including a careful evaluation of the cardiovascular system. The American Academy of Pediatrics 4th edition sports preparticipation form is excellent for documenting cardiovascular and other risks. The patient and parent should complete the history form and be interviewed to assess cardiovascular risk. Any history of heart disease or a murmur must be referred for evaluation by a pediatric cardiologist. A child with a history of dyspnea or chest pain on exertion, irregular heart rate (i.e., skipped beats, palpitations), or syncope should also be referred to a pediatric cardiologist. A family history of a primary (immediate family) or secondary (immediate family’s immediate family) atherosclerotic disease (myocardial infarction or cerebrovascular disease) before 50 years of age or sudden unexplained death at any age requires additional assessment.
Children interested in contact sports should be assessed for special vulnerabilities. Similarly vision should be assessed as a crucial part of the evaluation before participation in sports.