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  • 1. 9.0EPIDEMIOLOGY OF ADULT BRAIN CANCER STATEMENT TO THE PUBLIC The reviewers expressed their judgments using two distinct sets of guidelines to evaluate the evidence: • Using the traditional guidelines of the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) for adult brain cancer, their classifications for EMFs was “possible human carcinogen” (IARC’s Group 2B). Panels convened by IARC and the National Institutes for Environmental Health Sciences on the other hand thought the evidence was “inadequate” to make a classification (IARC’s Group 3). • Using the Guidelines developed especially for the California EMF program, one of the reviewers was “prone to believe” that high residential EMFs cause some degree of increased risk of adult brain cancer, and the other two were “close to the dividing line between believing or not believing.” There are several reasons for the differences between the DHS reviewers and those of IARC. The three DHS scientists thought there were reasons why animal and test tube experiments might have failed to pick up a mechanism or a health problem; hence, the absence of much support from such animal and test tube studies did not reduce their confidence much or lead them to strongly distrust epidemiological evidence from statistical studies in human populations. They therefore had more faith in the quality of the epidemiological studies in human populations and hence gave more credence to them. Adult brain cancer has an incidence of around 1/10,000 per year. If one doubled this rate to 2/10,000 per year and accumulated it over a lifetime of continuous high exposure one would accumulate a lifetime risk of 1%. Thus the vast majority (99%) of highly exposed people would still not contract this disease. Furthermore, calculations suggest that the fraction of all cases of adult brain cancer that one could attribute to EMFs would be no more than a few percent of the total cases (if any). Nevertheless, if EMFs do contribute to the cause of this condition, even the low fractions of attributable cases and the size of accumulated lifetime risk of highly exposed individuals could be of concern to regulators. Indeed, when deemed a real cause, estimated lifetime risks smaller than this (1/100,000) have triggered regulatory evaluation and, sometimes, actual regulation of chemical agents such as airborne benzene. The uncommon, accumulated high-EMF exposures implicated by the evidence about these conditions come from unusual configurations of wiring in walls, grounded plumbing, nearby power lines, and exposure from some jobs in electrical occupations. There are ways to avoid these uncommon accumulated exposures by maintaining a distance from some appliances, changes in home wiring and plumbing, and power lines. However, to put things in perspective, individual decisions about things like buying a house or choosing a jogging route should involve the consideration of well-recognized certain risks, such as those from traffic, fire, flood, and crime, as well as the uncertain comparable risks from EMFs. The EMF Program’s policy analysis required each of the three DHS scientists to express in numbers their individual professional judgments that the added personal risk suggested by the epidemiological studies was “real.” They did this as a numerical “degree of certainty” on a scale of 0 to 100. The three scientists each came up with a graph that depicts their best judgments with a little “x” and the margin of uncertainty with a shaded bar: The differences in certainty between the three reviewers arises primarily from how sure they were that they could rule out study flaws or other explanatory agents and how much the evidence on one disease influenced certainty in the findings for other diseases. CONDITION REVIE- IARC CERTAINTY PHRASE DEGREE OF CERTAINTY FOR POLICY ANALYSIS THAT AN AGENT (EMFS) INCREASES WER CLASS DISEASE RISK TO SOME DEGREE Adult Brain Cancer 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 1 2B Prone to believe x 2 2B Close to dividing line x 3 2B Close to dividing line x9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 165California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 2. Study No. Individual Lower Upper 9.1 THE PATTERN OF EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Odds Ratio, CL CL Mean Adult Brain Cancer 100.00 (Guberan, 1989) 6 1.18 0.30 4.72 (Speers MA, 1988) 7 3.94 1.52 10.20 (Thomas et al., 1987) 8 2.30 1.30 4.20 (Milham, 1985b) 9 1.23 1.01 1.49 (Coggon et al., 1986) 10 2.00 0.95 4.20 10.00 (McMillan, 1983) 11 1.00 0.25 4.00 Risk (Thierault, 1994) 12 1.54 0.85 2.81 Risk Ratio RR=1.2 (Savitz & Loomis, 1995) 13 1.68 1.26 2.23 RR=1.5 RR=2.0 (Ryan et al., 1992) 14 0.75 0.30 1.89 (Magnani et al., 1987) 15 1.30 0.70 2.50 1.00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 (Loomis & Savitz, 1990) 16 1.40 1.10 1.70 (Preston-Martin et al, 1987) 17 1.45 0.66 3.18 (Tynes et al., 1992) 18 1.09 0.91 1.30 (Sahl et al., 1993) 19 1.09 0.44 2.69 0.10 (Spinelli, 1991) 20 1.94 0.97 3.88 Study Number (Gallagher et al., 1991) 21 1.21 0.95 1.54 (Olin et al., 1985) 22 1.05 0.26 4.20 Figure 9.1.1 Studies of Adult Brain Cancer Derived Primarily from Kheifets et al. (1995) (Tornqvist et al., 1991) 23 1.00 0.85 1.17 1 Figure 9.1.1 and Table 9.1.1 summarize the epidemiological evidence for adult brain (Juutilainen et al., 1990) 24 0.95 0.63 1.43 2 cancer which is primarily occupational in nature. Of the 29 studies reviewed by Kheifets (Schlehofer et al., 1990) 25 1.87 0.90 4.10 3 (Kheifets et al., 1995) in her meta-analysis, 23 had ORs above 1.00 (p = 0.0004), and 15 (Floderus, 1993) 26 1.22 0.88 1.71 4 were above 1.2 (p = 0.14). The meta-analytic summary of (Kheifets et al., 1995) for the (Preston-Martin, 1989) 27 1.25 0.82 1.90 5 occupational studies was 1.2 (1.1-1.3). If one adds the residential exposure studies of (Demers et al., 1991) 28 0.90 0.50 1.60 6 Wrensch, Li, and Feychting (Wrensch et al., 1999), (Li, Theriault & Lin, 1997), (Feychting (Guenel et al., 1993) 29 0.97 0.89 1.05 7 & Ahlbom, 1994), (Feychting et al., 1997) one sees a similar pattern. The three other (Wrensch et al., 1999) 30 1.70 0.80 3.60 8 studies that focused on Scandinavian electrical railway workers with exposures in the 10 (Feychting & Ahlbom, 1994) 31 0.70 0.40 1.30 (Li et al., 1997) 32 1.10 0.90 1.30 9 to 100 µT range (Tynes et al., 1994a), (Floderus et al., 1994), and (Alfredsson et al.,10 1996) did not show high relative risks (see table 9.1.2). On the contrary, RR were close11 to 1.0 with confidence limits which included a RR of 1.2. TABLE 9.1.1 KEY FOR FIGURE 9.1.1 Study No. Individual Lower Upper Odds Ratio, CL CL Mean (Pearce et al., 1989) 1 1.01 0.56 1.82 (McLaughlin et al., 1987) 2 1.08 0.98 1.20 (Lin et al., 1985) 3 1.62 1.12 2.34 (Vagero et al., 1985) 4 0.98 0.41 2.35 (Tornqvist et al., 1986) 5 1.15 0.80 1.64 9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 166 California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 3. TABLE 9.1.2 M ORE DETAILS OF THE STUDIES REVIEWED INVESTIGATOR, DATE STUDY POPULATION METHOD FOR EXPOSURE STUDY RISK RISK ESTIMATE ESTIMATE TYPE MEASURE (Pearce et al., 1989) New Zealand: All male cancer patients in Cancer Job title CC OR 1.01 (0.56-1.82) Registry, 1980-1984. 431 cases; 19,904 controls. (McLaughlin et al., 1987) Sweden: Cancer Environment Registry, 1961-1979. Occupation and industry codes Cohort SIR 1.08 (0.98-1.20) 3,394 cases. (Lin et al., 1985) USa: 951 deaths, 1969-1982. Usual occupation & industry on Mortality OR 1.62 (1.12-2.34) death certificate (Vagero et al., 1985) Sweden: Incidence among 2,918 workers at 3 work Employment at Cohort SMR 0.98 (0.41-2.35) sites, 1958-1979. 5 CNS cases. telecommunication work sites (Tornqvist et al., 1986) Sweden: Incidence among 10,061 utility workers, 1961- Job titles Cohort SMR 1.15 (0.80-1.64) 1979. 30 cases CNS cancer. (Guberan, 1989) Switzerland: Incidence among 3,864 workers, 1971- Job titles Cohort SMR 1.18 (0.30-4.72) 1984. 3 cases. (Speers MA, 1988) US: Male residents, east Texas, 1969-1978. 202 cases; Usual occupation and industry on Mortality OR 3.94 (1.52-10.2) 238 controls. death certificate (Thomas et al., 1987) US: White males in Northeast, 1978-1981. 435 cases; Occupation & industry codes Mortality OR 2.30 (1.30-4.20) 386 controls. (Milham, 1985b) US: Males working in electrical occupations, 1950-1982. Death certificate occupation PMR PMR 1.23 (1.01-1.49) 2,649 Brain cancer deaths, 12,714 controls. (Coggon et al., 1986) England: 2,942 males diagnosed with cancer, 97 CNS Occupation and industry from PMR PMR 2.00 (0.95-4.20) cancers as cases, other cancers as controls. postal questionnaire (Theriault et al., 1994) Canada & France: 223,292 electrical utility workers, Job titles and measurements CC OR 1.54 (0.85-2.81) employed from 1970-1989, 108 brain cancer cases. (Savitz & Loomis, 1995) US: 138,905 electrical utility workers, employed Job titles and measurements Cohort RR 1.68 (1.26-2.23) between 1950-1988. 151 Brain cancer cases. (Ryan et al., 1992) Australia: All incidents of primary brain tumors in adults. Job titles CC OR 0.75 (0.30-1.89) 190 brain tumor cases. (Magnani et al., 1987) England: 1,265 males, 1959-1963 and 1965-1979. 423 Occupation and industrial codes Mortality OR 1.30 (0.70-2.50) brain cancer deaths. plus job exposure matrix (Loomis & Savitz, 1990) US: All brain cancer deaths in 16 states, 1985-1986. Job titles Mortality OR 1.40 (1.10-1.70) (Preston-Martin, 1989) US: Males in L.A. county, 1980-1984. 272 cases. Job titles with high likelihood of CC OR 1.45 (0.66-3.18) EMF exposure9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 167California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 4. INVESTIGATOR, DATE STUDY POPULATION METHOD FOR EXPOSURE STUDY RISK RISK ESTIMATE ESTIMATE TYPE MEASURE (Tynes et al., 1992) Norway: 37,945 male workers, 1961-1985. 119 cases Job title Cohort 1.09 (0.91-1.30) brain cancer. SIR Engine Drivers 0.67 (0.2-1.6) (Sahl et al., 1993) US: 36,221 electrical utility workers, 1960-1988. 32 Job titles and measurements Cohort RR 1.09 (0.44-2.69) brain cancer deaths. (Spinelli, 1991) Canada: 4,213 aluminum reduction plant workers, 1954- Job activity Cohort SIR 1.94 (0.97-3.88) 1985. 8 incidences of brain cancer. (Gallagher et al., 1991) Canada: 320,423 male deaths, 1950-1984. 55 brain Job titles PMR PMR 1.21 (.95-1.54) cancer deaths. (Olin et al., 1985) Sweden: 1,254 electrical engineering graduates. 2 brain MS degree in electrical Cohort SMR 1.05 (0.26-4.20) cancer deaths, 1930-1979. engineering, RIT (Tornqvist et al., 1991) Sweden: All men working in electrical occupations, Job titles Cohort SMR 1.00 (0.85-1.17) 1961-1979. 250 cases of brain tumors. (Juutilainen et al., 1990) Finland: Male industrial workers, 1971-1980. 366 Broad job category Cohort RR 0.95 (0.63-1.43) incident brain tumors. (Schlehofer et al., 1990) Germany (Heidelberg region): 1987-1988. 226 incident Job activities CC OR 1.87 (0.90-4.10) brain tumors, 418 controls. (Floderus, 1993) Sweden: 1983-1987. 261 brain tumor cases, 1,121 Job activities and measurements CC OR 1.22 (0.88-1.71) controls. (Preston-Martin, 1989) US: L.A. county, 1972-1985. 8612 incident brain tumors. Broad job category PMR PIR 1.25 (0.8-1.9) (Demers et al., 1991) US: Washington State, 1969-1978. 904 brain cancer Job titles Mortality OR 0.90 (0.5-1.6) deaths (Guenel et al., 1993) Denmark: 2.8 persons, 537 brain cancers. Job titles Cohort RR 0.97 (0.9-1.1) (McMillan, 1983) 2,568 men employed at HM Dockyard Devonport 1955- Job activity PMR PMR 1.00 (0.3-4.0) 1975 (UK). (Welders) (Wrensch et al., 1999) 492 incident gliomas. Front door spot measures 73 mG CC OR 1.7 (0.8-3.6) 462 RDD controls. (Feychting & Ahlbom, 223 incident CNS cancer cases. Historically-estimated residential Nested OR 0.7 (0.4-1.3) 1994) 446 pop. controls. fields at diagnosis > 2 mG CC (Feychting et al., 1997) 223 incident CNS cancer cases. Historical fields > 2 mG Nested OR 1.3 (0.0-4.8) 446 pop. controls. occupational JEM > 2 mG CC Exp both vs. Exp neither (Li et al., 1997) 577 incident brain cancer cases. Calculated historical magnetic CC OR 1.1 (0.9-1.3) 552 "other cancer" controls. field with field validation > 2mG9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 168California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 5. INVESTIGATOR, DATE STUDY POPULATION METHOD FOR EXPOSURE STUDY RISK RISK ESTIMATE ESTIMATE TYPE MEASURE (Wertheimer & Leeper, Death addresses of 1,179 cancer deaths matched with Wire code CC Ratio of C ratio = 227 for “Nerv. 1987) addresses of non-cancer deaths or random sample from discordant to System” city directory of Denver. concordant matched pairs = “Cratio” (Miller et al., 1996) 24 Malignant (MT) JEM magnetic and electric fields Nested OR for > 345 BT 0.53 11 Benign Brain (BT) to job history CC V/m-yrs MT 0.99 2,179 Controls OR for > 7.1 BT0.03-105 µT-yrs MT 2.4 vs ref. 0.5-10.8 (Tynes et al., 1994a) 39 Brain ca, 194 controls from 13,300 electric and non- JEM linked to job history of Nested OR Reference: 1.0 Norwegian electric train workers. magnetic and electric fields, CC 0.1-310 0.81 (0.3-2.0) control for smoking, creosote, 311-3600 0.94 (0.4-2.3) pesticides µT-yrs (Floderus et al., 1994) Incident brain cancer (8 engine drivers and 16 Job title Cohort SIR Engineers 1.1 (0.6-2.2) conductors) rates compared to general Swedish Conductors 1.3 (0.8-2.1) population, 1961-1969 (Alfredsson et al., 1996) Incident astrocytoma (10 engineers, 2 conductors) rates Job title Cohort SIR Engineers 1.0 (0.5-1.8) compared to general Swedish population, 1976-1990. Conductors 0.8 (0.1-3.6) (Guenel et al., 1996) 69 Incident brain tumors. JEM electric fields to job history Nested OR for > 387 3.1 (1.1-8.7) 276 Controls. CC V/m arithmetic mean9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 169California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 6. 9.2 ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST CAUSALITYTABLE 9.2.1 CHANCE AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) Most of the studies are not statistically significant. (F1) Meta-analysis can help understand the pattern of evidence in (C1) The reviewers think chance alone is an epidemiological studies as well as experiments. unlikely explanation so that a non- chance explanation including a causal one is relatively more likely.(A2) Meta-analysis is not appropriate for anything but (F2) Attending only to statistically significant results avoids false randomized trials. positives, while meta-analysis may avoid false negatives.(A3) Chance probably contributes a lot in the apparent (F3) Both the meta-analysis and the sign test on ORs above and pattern of evidence. below 1.00 suggest that chance alone is not a likely explanation.(A4) Many of these studies have multiple comparisons so (F4) The later occupational studies had brain cancer and cutpoints “p-values” are over-interpreted. pre-specified.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 170California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 7. TABLE 9.2.2 BIAS AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARYResidential Studies (F1) These objections were raised with regard to (C1) The generic possibility of bias when there is weak Wertheimer’s childhood studies too, yet the Savitz, experimental and mechanistic support is not a(A1) Wertheimers (Wertheimer & Leeper, 1987) study London et al., and Feychting studies showed strong argument against causality because bias can was not blind as to wire code. associations with proximity to power lines, even affect the risk estimate in either direction. though these studies evaluated incident cases blindly.(A2) Wertheimer’s use of deaths might have made the (F2) One should require some evidence for specific bias (C2) The universal problem of non-differential exposure bad survival of poor people and the prevalence of before pulling down confidence because of bias. misclassification tending to underestimate an effect poor people near power lines introduce a bias. would lead us to worry about underestimating the effect.Occupational Studies(A3) Studies with better measurement protocols did not (F3) It is not clear how much better these later studies (C3) In sum, the issue of bias does not change the show larger effects, which shows that the exposure were at reconstructing historic TWAs, much less the reviewers confidence much; it pulls confidence misclassification had not been a problem. Our reconstruction of other exposure metrics. down a little or not at all. inability to rule out bias should pull down confidence a lot.(A4) Perhaps researchers didn’t publish null study (F4) Kheifets (Kheifets et al., 1995) concluded that associations or results. publication bias was unlikely.(A5) There is little or no experimental animal pathology (F5) If one has a rule of thumb that all controversial or mechanistic support for a causal interpretation of bodies of evidence are by default due to some associations seen, so they must be due to bias or unspecified bias, one will avoid false positives but confounding. also introduce false negatives. (F6) If there is any bias in all these studies, it is downward from non-differential exposure misclassification.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 171California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 8. TABLE 9.2.3 CONFOUNDING AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) There are not many known risk factors for brain (F1) By assuming without good experimental and (C1) One can never rule out confounding. cancer, so one cannot control for them in the mechanistic support, hidden unknown confounders analysis. as a default explanation for results, one avoids false positives but produce false negatives.(A2) There is little or no experimental animal pathology (F2) One should require positive evidence of a (C2) However, confounding can affect the risk estimates or mechanistic support for a causal interpretation of confounder to have it pull down confidence. either way. associations seen, so they must be due to bias or confounding. (F3) So far known risk factors such as ionizing radiation have not been associated with EMF exposure or confounded the EMF brain cancer association. (F4) The possibility of unspecified confounding without any supporting evidence should not decrease confidence.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 172California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 9. TABLE 9.2.4 STRENGTH OF ASSOCIATION ( LARGE ENOUGH TO BE CAUSE AND NOT BIAS?) AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) The association between adult brain cancer and (F1) Occupational and environmental agents may (C1) The effect may be intrinsically weak, so low ORs highly exposed jobs and estimated exposures has convey a risk which truly is not large enough to be should not be construed as an argument against been estimated meta-analytically as an odds ratio of easily detected by epidemiological studies, causality. An OR slightly above the resolution power only 1.2. Many of the individual studies did not particularly when they can only estimate historical of the body studies pulls up confidence in a modest reach statistical significance and should have been exposure with surrogate measures. An association, effect of causality somewhat but not as much as a ignored. albeit small relative to the resolution power of the strong association would whose strength would body of studies, increases confidence somewhat. make unidentified bias and confounding less likely.(A2) This is barely above the resolution power of the (F2) One needs to invoke one upward bias in all 28 (C2) The size of the association provides an additional combined studies. The absence of a strong studies of different design and different location or a penalty for bias and confounding but not a large association should pull down confidence in a causal series of different biases that are only upward. one. explanation for this association a lot because a Unknown biases can be downward also. small association is much more vulnerable to any confounding and bias.(A3) Some of the early, less well-designed studies had (F3) Because of exposure misclassification, the true higher risk ratios and may have skewed the meta- association may be larger, and therefore less analysis upward. vulnerable to bias than one would think.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 173California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 10. TABLE 9.2.5 CONSISTENCY AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) One should only consider studies with statistically (F1) Only heeding statistically significant results instead (C1) The body of epidemiological evidence on significant associations. of the overall pattern of evidence, it is true, avoids occupational exposures (and to some extent on false-positive results but is a strategy that produces residential exposures) for adult brain cancer is too many false negatives. consistent with an effect just above the resolution power of the various studies.(A2) The majority of the occupational and residential (F2) Of 29 studies, 23 showed ORs above 1.00 when, by (C2) If the effect were statistically significant in all studies studies do not show statistically significant results. chance, 14 would have been expected. The p-value (which is tantamount to saying an association that is This is a random pattern of evidence and should pull for 23/29 = 0.0004. The associations are pretty large relative to the resolution power of the studies), down the reviewers’ degree of certainty a lot. consistently above the null. it would have increased confidence a lot. (C3) The few residential studies do not alter the confidence. They are consistent with the occupational evidence but do not stand on their own.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 174California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 11. TABLE 9.2.6 HOMOGENEITY AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) Most of these associations are not statistically (F1) If EMFs were promoters requiring the presence of (C1) The various results, occupational and residential, significant and thus not consistent or homogeneous. initiators whose prevalence varies from place to are consistent with an association a little above the place, one would expect some inconsistency above resolution power of the studies. and beyond that created by statistical imprecision.(A2) Kheifets (Kheifets et al., 1995) shows less of an (F2) Perhaps Scandinavia lacks some co-factor. The association in Scandinavia and in studies with good Scandinavian studies tended to have less exact designs. exposure assessment.(A3) Later studies show less of an effect. (F3) In Kheifets, the average RR of studies fell from 1.29 in 1985 to 1.12 in 1994, only a 13% decrease.(A4) The 16/29 better quality studies in Kheifetz show a (F4) In her meta-analysis of occupational brain cancer smaller association. RR =1.06 (1.0-1.12). studies, Kheifets (Kheifets et al., 1995) found the summary results not sensitive to adding or subtracting individual studies and consistent with a RR of 1.2 ( 1.1-1.33). (F5) The three “best studies” in Kheifetss meta analysis (Floderus, Theriault, and Savitz) averaged to RR above 1.2 from exposures above the 50th percentile (but showed no monotonic increasing dose response).9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 175California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 12. TABLE 9.2.7 DOSE RESPONSE AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) Even in occupational studies where cases tended to (F1) It is true that the presence of an orderly monotonic (C1) The evidence does not suggest an effect that is have higher estimated exposures than did controls, dose response within and between studies is large compared to the resolution power of the there was not an orderly monotonic increase in extremely unlikely by chance or bias and when studies at any dose. Nor does it suggest an effect relative risk. present would pull up confidence a lot. that becomes ever larger at extremely high occupational exposures. A similar pattern is observed for adult leukemia, where electric train engineers have RRs not much different from utility workers with lower exposures.(A2) There was no consistent increase in risk estimated (F2) But it is not guaranteed that a suspected promoter (C2) A promoter or co-promoter truly may not have a by studies investigating occupational groups acting indirectly on carcinogenisis would always monotonically increasing dose response. exposed to levels of 2-5 mG (residence near power convey linearly increasing risk as dose increased, lines), 10-20 mG (most heavily exposed electrical as is the case with some initiators. occupations), and 70-150 mG (electrical train operators) (see (Floderus et al., 1994), (Tynes et al., 1994a), (Alfredsson et al., 1996), (Tynes et al., 1992)). This lack of dose response should pull confidence down a lot. (F3) The effect, if real, is not very large relative to the (C3) Exposure misclassification can mask dose- resolution power of the body of evidence so it would response relationships (Dosemeci et al., 1990), be difficult to discern the shape of a dose response (DelPizzo, 1992). curve in any case. (F4) The approximate methods for reconstructing historical exposures makes this even more difficult. (F5) Using TWA, which may not be the right metric, makes it more difficult still. (F6) The absence of dose response should not pull down confidence much. (F7) Exposure misclassification can mask dose response trends.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 176California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 13. TABLE 9.2.8 COHERENCE/VISIBILITY AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) Everyone is exposed to electricity, so an epidemic (F1) There has been an increase in the incidence of (C1) To the extent that it suggests anything, the of brain cancer should have been seen as the use brain cancer over the last twenty years. epidemiology suggests that the associations appear of electricity increased. in the top percentiles of exposure. An OR of 1.2 applied to the risk of the top 5% of the population would increase the overall rate by a factor of 1.01, not something which would be visible as an epidemic. (C2) The increase in brain cancer incidence may be partly due to better diagnosis. Since it is hard to assess how personal EMF exposure has changed in the last 20 years, the reviewers do not think scrutiny of temporal trends in brain cancer is reliable enough to contribute to the confidence of EMF causality.TABLE 9.2.9 EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) Animal bioassays have shown no increased risk of (F1) Animal bioassays of one aspect of a complex (C1) The animal evidence does not increase confidence nervous system tumors. mixture which, if it has any effect, is not linear in risk but does not pull it down greatly. at high dose, are not highly sensitive. Null results do not pull down confidence as much as positive results should pull them up. (F2) Experimental studies showing bioeffects at high doses, and isolated studies showing co-promotional effects on other types of cancer should increase confidence somewhat.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 177California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 14. TABLE 9.2.10 PLAUSIBILITY AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) There is no coherent mechanistic chain of events (F1) Many agents do not have mechanistic explanations (C1) The absence of a mechanistic explanation does not that suggests EMFs as a contributory cause of CNS pull down confidence as much as the presence of cancer. one would pull it up.TABLE 9.2.11 ANALOGY AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARYSee generic discussion.TABLE 9.2.12 TEMPORALITY AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARYSee generic discussion.TABLE 9.2.13 SPECIFICITY AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY(A1) There is no greater association that is statistically (F1) Kheifets (Kheifets et al., 1995) mentions a slight See "Generic Issues" chapter. significant with particular cell types. tendency for gliomas to show a stronger association.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 178California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 15. TABLE 9.2.14 OTHER DISEASE ASSOCIATIONS AGAINST CAUSALITY FOR CAUSALITY COMMENT AND SUMMARYSee "Generic Issues" chapter.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 179California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 16. TABLE 9.2.15 SUMMARY TABLE FOR ADULT BRAIN CANCER HOW LIKELY IS THIS ATTRIBUTE OF THE EVIDENCE UNDER: ATTRIBUTE OF THE EVIDENCE "NO-EFFECT" HYPOTHESIS CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS HOW MUCH AND IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES THIS ATTRIBUTE CHANGE CONFIDENCE?Chance highly unlikely in meta-analysis. Unlikely Need non-chance explanationUpward bias not supported. Possible Possible No impact to slight decreaseConfounding possible but not supported. More possible Possible No impact to slight decreaseCombined effect of chance, bias, More possible Possible No impact to slight decrease confounding.Strength of association doesn’t exceed More possible Possible No impact to slight decrease possible bias or confounding.Consistency: 23/29 studies have RR = 1.0. Unlikely Likely IncreaseHomogeneity: less association in Possible Possible No impact to slight decrease Scandinavian studies but compatible with effect near resolution power of studies.Coherent with national and temporal trends. Possible Possible No impactExperimental evidence shows no effect on Possible Possible No impact to slight decrease CNS cancer, but other experimental data suggest bioactivity.Plausibility: lack of strong mechanistic Possible Possible No impact to slight increase explanation (chicks, MCF-7).Analogy. Possible Possible No impactTemporality. NA NA No impactNo specificity of cell type, leukemia Possible More possible No impact to slight increase association.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 180California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 17. 24 IARC Classification: The animal and mechanistic streams of evidence provide little if any 9.3 POSTERIOR (UPDATED) DEGREE OF CERTAINTY AND IARC 25 support. The epidemiological evidence as usually assessed by IARC would not eliminate CLASSIFICATION 26 all doubts of possible confounding or bias yet it is highly unlikely to be due to chance. In 27 fact, it looks similar to the evidence for adult lymphocytic leukemia except that there is no 9.3.1 STATEMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL REVIEWERS 28 cell type specificity for adult brain cancer. This warrants a Possible (2B) carcinogen IARC 1 Reviewer 1 (DelPizzo) 29 classification, “limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient 30 evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals.” 2 Degree of Certainty: The evidence regarding this endpoint has attributes very similar to 3 those of childhood leukemia, with the dose-response relationship being less clear, but 31 Reviewer 3 (Lee) 4 the consistency of results being even stronger and the plausibility being increased by 5 having already established a high degree of certainty for the childhood leukemia risk. 32 Degree of Certainty: The meta-analysis for the occupational brain cancer studies 6 This reviewer is “prone to believe” that EMFs increase the risk of adult brain cancer to 33 indicates a slightly higher risk for electrical workers. As a result, this reviewer’s posterior 7 some degree. For the purpose of policy analysis, this reviewer would use values between 34 for a relative risk around 1.2 is considerably increased from the initial prior by a 8 60 and 100, with a median of 80 in a certainty scale from 0-100. 35 consistent association slightly above the resolution power of the many occupational 36 studies and by the positive association of EMF with childhood and adult leukemia. The 9 IARC classification: “Possible Human Carcinogen, 2B.” 37 childhood brain cancer results do not increase the confidence in adult brain cancer. This 38 reviewer’s posterior is only slightly decreased by the fact that for most of the studies,10 Reviewer 2 (Neutra) 39 confounding and bias cannot be completely ruled out and by the lack of a dose response. 40 Given the rudimentary way exposure is classified, weak associations such as these are11 Degree of Certainty: The overall pattern of epidemiological associations is compatible 41 to be expected; a stronger effect may be observed if exposure classification was not as12 with an effect a little above the resolution power of the body of studies, and the best 42 crude. Also, dose-response effects are difficult to detect using such surrogate measures13 occupational studies are compatible with a slightly greater effect. The fact that the 43 for exposure. The classified groups may not even indicate a gradient of high to low14 association is so near the resolution power of the epidemiology leaves it more vulnerable 44 exposure. Hence, this reviewer is “close to the dividing line between believing and not15 to unspecified bias and confounding, but not so much, with so many studies of different 45 believing that EMFs increase the risk of adult brain cancer to some degree. For16 design and location, that one’s confidence is decreased substantially. The lack of 46 purposes of the policy analysis, she would select 60 with a range of 30 to 75 on a17 obvious animal pathology or mechanistic support pulls confidence down somewhat, but 47 certainty scale ranging from 0 to 100.18 the epidemiological evidence remains and moves ones degree of certainty substantially19 upward from wherever it started. For the purposes of the policy projects, reviewers need 48 IARC Classification: The human evidence is credible but bias and confounding cannot be20 to quantify their degree of certainty and uncertainty. This reviewer is “close to the dividing 49 completely ruled out. The associations observed are weak, however; the strong21 line between believing and not believing" that EMFs increase the risk of adult brain 50 consistency of slightly positive effects has a very low probability of being explained by22 cancer to some degree. In a certainty scale from 0 to100, he would select 51 and a range 51 chance alone. The animal studies are less than sufficient. There is support from positive23 form 30 to 70. 52 findings associated with leukemia. The evidence as a whole is sufficient for a Group 2B 53 classification, “possibly carcinogenic to humans.” 9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 181 California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 18. 9.3.2 SUMMARY OF THE THREE REVIEWERS ’ CLASSIFICATIONS CONDITION REVIE- IARC CERTAINTY PHRASE DEGREE OF CERTAINTY FOR POLICY ANALYSIS THAT AN AGENT (EMFS) INCREASES DISEASE WER CLASS RISK TO SOME DEGREE Adult Brain Cancer 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 1 2B Prone to believe x 2 2B Close to dividing line x 3 2B Close to dividing line x9.4.1 QUESTIONS RELEVANT TO DOSE RESPONSE AND P OLICYTABLE 9.4.1 HOW CONFIDENT ARE THE REVIEWERS THAT SPECIFIC EXPOSURE METRIC OR ASPECT OTHER THAN 60 HZ TWA MAGNETIC FIELD IS ASSOCIATED WITH THIS DISEASE? COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) Guenel (Guenel et al., 1996) found an OR 3.08 (1.08-8.74) for electric field above 387 volt/meter with 12 cases. Miller (Miller et al., 1996) (I1) No consistent reported an OR of 0.53 (0.03-8.10) for the possibility of an electric field effect. But Guenel and Miller explored the associations between many guidance possible. diseases and many metrics of exposure. Some were bound to come out “significant.” Evidence for magnetic field is(C2) Sahl systematically explored associations with various metrics and found none. stronger.(C3) The evidence for or against electric-field effects and brain cancer are not extensive or clear enough to affect confidence.(C4) Floderus (Floderus, 1993) shows slight tendency for “time above 2 mG” to show stronger association than “TWA.” The reverse was the case for the leukemias. There is not strong support for one or the other summary exposure metric.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 182California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 19. TABLE 9.4.2 EVIDENCE FOR THRESHOLD OR PLATEAU COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) The cross-study comparison does not suggest a steady increase in risk over the wide range of human exposure, but the data is insufficient to (I1) No ability to set locate a plateau or threshold, if any. refined exposure standards.(C2) The evidence is not extensive enough or of such quality to alter ones confidence in the presence or location of thresholds or plateaus.TABLE 9.4.3 EVIDENCE FOR BIOLOGICAL WINDOWS OF VULNERABILITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) The fact there is an association with (primarily) daytime workshift exposures and perhaps a hint of (primarily) nighttime residential associations (I1) There is no reason to would not much support the idea of diurnal differences in vulnerability. suspect vulnerable periods.TABLE 9.4.4 CONSISTENT INDUCTION PERIOD OR REQUIRED DURATION OF EXPOSURE COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) The scant evidence is contradictory. Thieriault et al. (Thierault, 1994) suggest a long latency. (I1) If causal, concern would not be(C2) Sahl (Sahl et al., 1993) found no pattern. restricted to(C3) Savitz (Savitz & Loomis, 1995) and Guenel (Guenel et al., 1996) suggest shorter incubation periods. populations with decades of exposure.(C4) There is weak support for the effect of exposures from the last 5-10 years. This fact makes EMFs more compatible with a promoter than an initiator. One cannot tease out the independent effects, if any, of duration of exposure and interval between first exposure and disease.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 183California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 20. TABLE 9.4.5 EMF COMPARED TO OTHER RISK FACTORS FOR THIS DISEASE COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) Except for genetic predisposition, the few suspected risk factors for brain cancer have ORs and attributable fractions which also are not large. (I1) No impact. Exposure to ionizing radiation, nitrosamines, head trauma, etc. are all rare and have modest associations. They do not account for much of the burden of brain cancer.(C2) The comparison of the size of the EMF "effect" relative to the effect of other agents has no bearing on the confidence in causality or on policy. Cost benefit policy is driven by relative cost per case avoided, not on comparison with other risk factors.TABLE 9.4.6 RELATIVE RISK COMPARED TO THAT WHICH WOULD GENERATE 1/1000 OR 1/100,000 THEORETICAL LIFETIME RISK COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) A relative risk of 1.2 applied to the low baseline rate of brain cancer over a 40-year occupational period would not exceed 1/1000 lifetime risk (I1) Might be considered but would exceed 1/100,000. de minimis for regulatory purposes for occupational exposure but not for residential exposure.TABLE 9.4.7 EVIDENCE FOR RACIAL OR CLASS DIFFERENCES IN EXPOSURE OR VULNERABILITY COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) No evidentiary base. (I1) No evidentiary base.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 184California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 21. TABLE 9.4.8 ROOM FOR IMPROVEMENT IN QUALITY OR SIZE IN BEST EXISTING STUDIES COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) The later residential studies, which have been viewed as “null,” although they are they are compatible with the occupational results, and the (I1) Larger studies and later occupational brain cancer studies, are very sophisticated and large, but not large enough. They are some of the best occupational studies studies of electric done to date. Studies of highly exposed electric train engineers could have been bigger and more detailed. train engineers could be helpful in(C2) Any epidemiological study of brain cancer would have the potential problem of confounding by as yet unknown risk factors. understanding dose response issues.TABLE 9.4.9 NEW STUDIES IN PIPELINE AND ABILITY TO MODIFY ASSESSMENT COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) Reanalysis of the Harrington study not likely to cancel evidence to date. (I1) NoneTABLE 9.4.10 HOW LIKELY IS IT THAT FURTHER STUDIES COULD RESOLVE CONTROVERSIES? COMMENT AND SUMMARY IMPACT ON POLICY(C1) Job exposure matrix studies of magnetic and electric fields, contact currents, and shocks using a variety of exposure summary metrics could be (I1) Because brain cancer used to reanalyze existing data sets related to a variety of diseases and could guide future experimental studies. is a rare and poorly understood disease it may not provide the most relevant policy information.9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 185California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002
  • 22. 13 TWA magnetic field is compatible with a 1.2-fold relative risk which if true would be of 9.5 CONCLUSIONS ON SCIENTIFICALLY RELEVANT ISSUES 14 regulatory concern for long-term environmental exposures but might fall below the de 15 minimis bench mark of 1/1,000 for occupational exposures. 9.5.1 DOSE-RESPONSE ISSUES 1 The associations reported for neighbors of power lines, exposed vs. unexposed electrical 9.5.2 RESEARCH POLICY 2 workers, and exposed vs. unexposed electric train workers all are close to the resolution 3 power of the studies. If there is any effect, it does not seem to increase monotonically 16 The reviewers are not aware of animal or epidemiological studies in the pipeline that are 4 with dose, although the evidentiary base is insufficient for identifying either thresholds or 17 likely to change the overall assessment. Brain cancer has a number of characteristics 5 plateaus of effect. If true, this makes it difficult to assess EMFs in the usual small cancer 18 that make it difficult to study epidemiologically. It is rare, the causes are poorly 6 bioassay which is designed with the assumption that high doses will produce an obvious 19 understood, and they are not always reliably diagnosed as to histological type. 7 effect even in a few hundred animals. The evidence on electric fields is limited and 20 Nonetheless, one or more job exposure matrix studies exploring contact currents, 8 contradictory. The possibility that contact currents or repeated shocks might confound 21 shocks, electric fields, and magnetic fields using various summary exposure metrics 9 magnetic field exposure has been raised for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (see Chapter 22 would allow one to reanalyze the large occupational cohort and nested case control10 15). There is no evidentiary base to link these other aspects of the EMF mixture to 23 studies to determine if these other aspects of the EMF mixture might better explain the11 magnetic field exposure. If this were confirmed for ALS it would become a hypothesis for 24 associations seen with brain cancer and other diseases. From a policy and logistic point12 other EMF-associated diseases as well. The evidence for something associated with the 25 of view, brain cancer studies are not the highest priority. 9.0 Epidemiology of Adult Brain Cancer 186 California EMF Risk Evaluation June 2002