


the large, dark-red gland located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, just beneath the diaphragm (see also color plates). Its manifold functions include storage and filtration of blood; secretion of bile; conversion of sugars into glycogen; the synthesis and breakdown of fats and the temporary storage of fatty acids; and the synthesis of serum proteins such as certain of the alpha and beta globulins, albumin (which helps regulate blood volume), and fibrinogen and prothrombin (which are essential coagulation factors).
Storage Functions. The liver can store up to 20 per cent of its weight in glycogen and up to 40 per cent of its weight in fats. The basic fuel of the body is a simple form of sugar called glucose. This comes to the liver as one of the products of digestion, and is converted into glycogen for storage. It is reconverted to glucose, when necessary, to keep up a steady level of sugar in the blood. This is normally a slow, continuous process, but in emergencies the liver, responding to epinephrine in the blood, releases large quantities of this fuel into the blood for use by the muscles.

As the chief supplier of glucose in the body, the liver is sometimes called on to convert other substances into sugar. The liver cells can make glucose out of protein and fat. This may also work in reverse: the liver cells can convert excess sugar into fat and send it for storage to other parts of the body.

In addition to these functions, the liver builds many essential proteins and stores up certain necessary vitamins until they are needed by other organs in the body.
Protective Functions. The liver disposes of worn-out blood cells by breaking them down into their different elements, storing some and sending others to the kidneys for disposal in the urine. It also filters and destroys bacteria. One of the most important functions of the liver is the detoxification of drugs, alcohol, and environmental poisons.

The liver also helps to maintain the balance of sex hormones in the body. A certain amount of female hormone is normally produced in males, and male hormone in females. When the level of this opposite sex hormone rises above a certain point, the liver takes up the excess and disposes of it.

Finally, the liver polices the proteins that have passed through the digestive system. Some of the amino acids derived from protein metabolism cannot be used by the body; the liver rejects and neutralizes these acids and sends them to the kidneys for disposal.
Liver Function Tests. There are many laboratory procedures that measure some aspect of liver functions. Serum bilirubin and urine bilirubin and urobilinogen levels provide information about the metabolism and excretion of bile pigments. Albumin and many of the alpha and beta globulins are synthesized by the liver. Disease that impairs their synthesis is shown by serum protein electrophoresis. Blood-clotting tests, such as one-stage prothrombin time, demonstrate a reduced synthesis of vitamin K–dependent coagulation factors by the liver.

There are many enzymes that occur in the liver and are released into the blood when there is liver damage or biliary obstruction. The ones most commonly determined in the laboratory are alkaline phosphatase, aspartate transaminase (AST), and alanine transaminase (ALT). AST and ALT are also commonly called (serum) glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT or SGOT) and (serum) glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (GPT or SGPT). Alkaline phosphatase is elevated in patients with intrahepatic or extrahepatic obstruction of bile flow, as in cholestatic jaundice or in primary or metastatic carcinoma. AST and ALT are elevated in patients with hepatocellular injury as in acute viral or toxic hepatitis.

Both ultrasonography and radioisotope scans (scintiscans) are useful in demonstrating space-occupying lesions of the liver, such as cysts, abscesses, and tumors. Ultrasonography is an excellent tool for evaluating ascites or preparing for a liver biopsy. The scintiscans use technetium-99m sulfur colloid, which is taken up by the reticuloendothelial cells of the liver and spleen, or gallium-67, which has an affinity for abscesses and certain tumors. On a colloid scan, abscesses and tumors appear as filling defects or “cold spots”; on the gallium scan, they appear as “hot spots.”

A needle biopsy of the liver is useful in demonstrating the presence of cirrhosis, steatosis, alcoholic hepatitis, chronic hepatitis, and carcinoma. Liver biopsy is contraindicated in patients who have clotting defects, severe anemia, or a bacterial infection in an area to be traversed by the biopsy needle, for example, right lower lobar pneumonia.
Disorders of the Liver. The liver, with its many complex functions, can be damaged by various disorders and diseases, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, and abscess. Signs of liver damage include jaundice, ascites, uncontrolled bleeding resulting from a decrease in clotting factors, and increased sensitivity to drugs.
Liver. Bile, manufactured in the liver, is stored in the gallbladder; it passes through the bile duct into the duodenum, the upper end of the small intestine, where it aids in digestion.
fatty liver one affected with fatty infiltration, usually from alcohol abuse, jejunoileal bypass surgery, or occasionally diabetes mellitus; fat is in large droplets and the liver is enlarged but of normal consistency; patients are often asymptomatic but the condition can progress to hepatitis or cirrhosis if the underlying cause is not removed.


(liv'ĕr), [TA] Do not confuse this word with livor.
The largest gland of the body, lying beneath the diaphragm in the right hypochondrium and upper part of the epigastric region; it is of irregular shape and weighs from 1-2 kg, or about one fortieth the weight of the body. As an exocrine gland, it secretes bile; it initially receives most absorbed nutrients through the portal vein; it detoxifies drugs and many exogeneous substances and is also of great importance in fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism; also stores glycogen.
Synonym(s): hepar [TA]
[A.S. lifer]


/liv·er/ (liv´er)
1. the large, dark-red gland in the upper part of the abdomen on the right side, just beneath the diaphragm. Its functions include storage and filtration of blood, secretion of bile, conversion of sugars into glycogen, and many other metabolic activities.
2. the same gland of certain animals, sometimes used as food or from which pharmaceutical products are prepared.

fatty liver  one affected with fatty infiltration, the fat in large droplets and the liver enlarged but of normal consistency.
hobnail liver  a liver whose surface is marked with nail-like points from cirrhosis.


1. A large, reddish-brown, glandular organ in the abdominal cavity of vertebrates that secretes bile and is active in the formation of certain blood proteins and in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
2. An organ in invertebrates that is similar to the vertebrate liver.
3. The bile-secreting organ of certain animals, used as food.
4. A dark reddish brown.
1. Made of or flavored with liver: liver pâté.
2. Of a dark reddish brown.


Etymology: AS, lifer
the largest gland of the body and one of its most complex organs. It is located in the upper cranial, right part of the abdominal cavity, occupying almost the entire right hypochondrium and the greater part of the epigastrium. In many individuals it extends into the left hypochondrium as far as the mammary line. It has a soft solid consistency, is shaped like an irregular hemisphere, and is dark reddish-brown. The ventral part of the liver is separated by the diaphragm from the sixth to the tenth ribs on the right side and from the seventh and eighth costal cartilages on the left side. The central section has a deep concavity that fits the vertebral column and the crura of the diaphragm. The liver is divided into four lobes, contains as many as 100,000 lobules, and is served by two distinct blood supplies. The hepatic artery conveys oxygenated blood to the liver, and the hepatic portal vein conveys nutrient-filled blood from the stomach and the intestines. At any given moment the liver holds about 1 pint of blood, or approximately 13% of the total blood supply of the body. The tiny lobules of the organ are composed of polyhedral hepatic cells. These cells communicate with small ducts that connect with larger ducts to form the left and right hepatic ducts that emerge on the caudal surface of the liver. The left and right hepatic ducts converge to form the single hepatic duct, which conveys the bile to the duodenum and gallbladder for storage. More than 500 functions of the liver have been identified. Some of the major functions are the production of bile by hepatic cells; the secretion of glucose, proteins, vitamins, fats, and most of the other compounds used by the body; the processing of hemoglobin for vital use of its iron content; and the conversion of poisonous ammonia to urea. Bile from the liver is stored in the hepatic duct, in numerous blood vessels and in the gallbladder, which is connected to the liver by connective tissue. The liver cells produce about 1 pint of bile daily. The hepatic cells also detoxify numerous ingested substances, such as alcohol, nicotine, and other poisons, as well as various toxic substances produced by the intestine. See also gallbladder.
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Liver lobule

occult primary malignancy

Occult cancer, unknown primary A malignancy of unknown 1º site or origin that is symptomless, which first manifests itself as metastases or secondary–paraneoplastic phenomena, and usually has a poor prognosis; OPMs are problematic as appropriate therapy requires that the primary malignancy be eradicated, and many remain obscure despite aggressive diagnostic work-up; certain malignancies metastasize to certain sites with greater than expected frequency; in OPMs affecting the brain, the primary arises in the lungs in up to 85% Treatment Up to 30% of Pts with metastases from an occult primary adenoCA may respond to chemotherapy–mitomycin C, adriamycin, vincristine; poor response is more common in ♂ and in Pts with liver and/or infradiaphragmatic metastases
Occult primary malignancies
Bone Breast, bronchus, prostate, thyroid, kidney
CNS Breast, bronchus, kidney, colon
Head & neck Oropharynx, nasopharynx–most are squamous cell carcinoma;  also adenocarcinoma, melanoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, oat cell, salivary  gland, thyroid carcinomas
Liver CA of stomach, colon, breast, pancreas, or bronchus
Lung Breast, colon, kidney, melanoma, sarcoma, stomach, testis, thyroid
Lymph nodes
• Cervix  Naso– and oropharynx, thyroid, larynx, lymphoma
• Supraclavicular  Bronchi, breast, stomach, esophagus, pancreas, colorectal,
• Axillary  Breast, melanoma, lymphoma
• Inguinal  Urogenital tract, anus, melanoma, lymphoma
Ovary Stomach, colon
Serosal surfaces Bronchi, breast, ovary, lymphoma
Skin Melanoma, breast, bronchus, stomach, kidney  


(liv'ĕr) [TA]
The largest gland of the body, lying beneath the diaphragm in the right hypochondrium and upper part of the epigastrium; it is of irregular shape and weighs from 1-2 kg, or about 1/40 the weight of the body. It secretes bile and is also of great importance in both carbohydrate and protein metabolism.
Synonym(s): hepar [TA] .


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Blood Supply


Nerve Supply





The liver is examined by inspection, auscultation, percussion, and palpation. Inspection of the organ includes indirect assessments (e.g., for jaundice [skin color], palmar erythema, and spider telangiectasias and other signs of chronic liver disease. Auscultation of the liver may reveal bruits associated with liver cancer; auscultation also is used to make a crude estimate of organ size. Percussion of the liver, which is performed in the right midclavicular line, provides another method for roughly estimating size. Palpation of the organ may reveal tenderness, irregular edges, masses, or tumors.

amyloid liver

An enlargement of the liver caused by the deposition of amyloid proteins. Synonym: lardaceous liver




The prognosis is unfavorable.

artificial liver


biliary cirrhotic liver


fatty liver

Degenerative changes in liver cells owing to fat deposits in hepatocytes.
Synonym: steatohepatitis

floating liver

An easily displaced liver. Synonym: wandering liver

foamy liver


hobnail liver


lardaceous liver

Amyloid liver.

nutmeg liver


shock liver


wandering liver

Floating liver.


The largest organ of the ABDOMEN occupying the upper right corner and extending across the midline to the left side. It is wedge-shaped, with the thin edge pointing to the left, of a spongy consistency, reddish-brown in colour and moulded to fit under the domed DIAPHRAGM so that most of it lies behind the ribs. The liver receives chemical substances in the blood, especially in the nutrient-rich blood from the intestines (glucose, amino acids, fats, minerals and vitamins) and processes these according to the needs of the body. It takes up the products of old red blood cells and converts these into a pigment, bilirubin, which together with other substances, form the bile. It breaks down toxic substances into safer forms. Ammonia produced from protein breakdown is converted into urea, which is excreted in the urine. Alcohol and other drugs are altered to safer forms. To a remarkable degree, the liver is able to regenerate itself after disease, toxic damage or injury. But if this capacity is exceeded, functional liver cells form nodules and are replaced by inert fibrous tissue (CIRRHOSIS) and the whole function of the body is severely affected.


the largest and most complex organ of the vertebrate body, with a wide range of functions (see below).several of which are vital for life to continue. In mammals the liver receives a double blood supply, about 70% coming from the HEPATIC PORTAL SYSTEM and 30% from the arterial system. The liver performs the following functions:
  1. removes excess glucose from the blood and stores it as GLYCOGEN.
  2. converts glycogen back to glucose when blood sugar levels are low.
  3. converts food substances to other types, e.g. carbohydrates into fats, amino acids into carbohydrates or fats.
  4. deaminates amino acids, converting the ammonia produced into urea via the ORNITHINE CYCLE, releasing the nitrogenous wastes into the blood.
  5. transaminates amino acids (see TRANSAMINATION from one type to another via keto acids.
  6. detoxifies many harmful compounds.
  7. manufacturers fats, including cholesterol. (h) manufacturers many plasma proteins, including FIBRINOGEN and PROTHROMBIN.
  8. stores several important substances, e.g. iron and fat-soluble vitamins.
  9. excretes bile pigments.
  10. manufacturers bile salts.
  11. destroys worn-out red blood cells.


A solid organ located on the right in the upper abdomen. It plays a major role in metabolism, digestion, detoxification, and elimination of substances from the body.
Mentioned in: Interactions


large organ in the right upper part of the abdominal cavity, immediately below the diaphragm, and protected by the lower ribs. Its many vital functions include nutrient metabolism (protein synthesis, formation and storage of glycogen and its breakdown to provide glucose to the blood); production of bile for storage in the attached gall bladder and discharge into the gut; detoxification of drugs; regulation of cholesterol. Because of its size and metabolic activity, the liver generates considerable heat. As well as its own arterial blood supply, the liver receives all venous blood from the gut in the portal vein, enabling selective uptake of absorbed substances before they reach the general circulation.


large, multifunctional abdominal organ (upper right quadrant); functions include synthesis of plasma proteins (e.g. albumin, globulin, fibrinogen, carrier proteins, all coagulation factors), degradation of amino acids, glucose homeostasis and maintenance of blood sugar levels (via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis), blood fat metabolism (e.g. synthesis of low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein, lipoprotein metabolism), enzymic degradation of drugs (e.g. local anaesthetics)


(liv'ĕr) [TA]
The largest gland of the body, lying beneath the diaphragm in the right hypochondrium and upper part of the epigastric region; it is of irregular shape and weighs from 1-2 kg, or about one fortieth weight of body. Detoxifies drugs and many exogeneous substances and is also of great importance in fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism.


n complex organ with many functions. Main functions include filtration of the blood, production of blood cells, and synthesis of blood-clotting components. It is divided into four lobes, with each containing thousands of lobules, and is served by two distinct blood supplies. The hepatic artery conveys oxygenated blood to the liver, and the hepatic portal vein conveys nutrient-filled blood from the stomach and the intestines.


1. the large, dark-red organ located in the cranial portion of the abdomen, just behind the diaphragm. Its functions include storage and filtration of blood; secretion of bile; detoxication of noxious substances; conversion of sugars into glycogen; synthesis and breakdown of fats and temporary storage of fatty acids; and synthesis of serum proteins such as certain of the alpha and beta globulins, albumin, which helps regulate blood volume, and fibrinogen and prothrombin, which are essential blood clotting factors. See also hepatic.
2. a rich red-brown coat color in dogs that resembles the color of the organ.

liver abscess
causes toxemia, possibly local signs of subacute abdominal pain, pain on percussion or palpation over the liver if peritoneal inflammation is present, when there may also be a positive paracentesis sample.
liver damage
damage to the liver parenchyma causing some degree of hepatic insufficiency.
liver displacement
may be because of a diaphragmatic hernia with the liver protruding into the thoracic cavity. Usually accompanied by dyspnea.
liver dullness
dullness on percussion over the right rib cage, used to help in defining the size of the liver which must be grossly enlarged to register a recognizable change.
liver dysfunction
the result of diffuse damage to the liver, e.g. in hepatitis. There may be clinical signs including photosensitization, jaundice, hepatic encephalopathy in the form of the dummy syndrome, dullness and anorexia, or there may be subclinical disease detectable by clinicopathological tests, e.g. hypoglycemia, hypoproteinemia, hyperammonemia. All of the functions of the liver will be affected at the one time.
liver enlargement
may be caused by neoplasia, congestion (as with heart failure), and infiltration by fat or inflammatory cells.
liver enzyme
when there is acute, diffuse damage to the liver some of its enzymes are liberated into the blood, where they can be measured. An indication of the severity of the damage can be obtained in this way. Different enzymes are used in each animal species.
liver failure
when liver function is inadequate to sustain life; the end-stage of liver dysfunction.
fatty liver
one affected with fatty infiltration.
fatty liver syndrome
see fat cow syndrome.
liver fluke
liver fluke disease
see hepatic fascioliasis.
liver function
summation of the functions of the liver.
liver function tests
biochemical tests capable of demonstrating that the liver's functions are, or are not, at full capacity. The sulfobromophthalein clearance test is the most commonly used in veterinary medicine.
liver inflammation
inherited liver insufficiency
occurs in several breeds of sheep and is characterized by the appearance of photosensitive dermatitis when the lambs begin to eat green feed. There is an accumulation of phylloerythrin in the blood and other biochemical indications of insufficiency, but the liver is histologically normal. Called also inherited photosensitization.
liver injury
damage to the hepatic parenchyma, possibly by massive trauma, but usually by an hepatic toxin. A common cause of hepatic insufficiency.
liver insufficiency
see liver dysfunction (above).
liver lobe torsion
see liver torsion (below).
liver melanosis
see hepatic lipofuscinosis.
liver meridian points
acupuncture points along the liver meridian.
liver necrobacillosis
a disease characterized by multiple liver abscesses, usually containing Fusobacterium necrophorum and resulting from infection from a chemical rumenitis which originated from carbohydrate engorgement and lactic acid rumenitis.
liver protectant
substance used for the treatment of liver failure. The important ones are choline, methionine, betaine, lecithin, vitamin B12, selenium-vitamin E, essential phospholipids, glucose, fructose, vitamins E and B complex, and glucuronic acid.
liver rot
see acute hepatic fascioliasis.
liver rupture
is usually the result of severe trauma to the abdomen. In most cases there is massive hemorrhage into the peritoneal cavity, acute hemorrhagic anemia and mucosal pallor. Abdominal paracentesis recovers whole blood.
liver torsion
is usually restricted to a single lobe. Causes severe abdominal pain and severe vomiting.

Patient discussion about liver

Q. Why do I have Fatty Liver? I have just had a complete overhaul regarding my health and thankfully the only thing that came back was that I had fatty liver, now I don`t drink, never have, I`m not desperately overweight although have lost 4 stone over a period of time, and I like to think that I eat sensibly, salads, fruit, veg.. Any thoughts anyone?

A. The scholars investigate and find, eight in ten fat people have fatty liver. The main reason is that a large amount of dissociative fat acid in blood is gradually transferred to liver and this overburdens the metabolism ability of liver then leads the fat accumulated and finally the fatty liver formed. More than half the patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus associated with fatty liver. Dextrose and fat acid can’t get a good use and obstacle appears in lipoprotein synthesizing. When dextrose and fat acid change into fat in liver, this will lead fat accumulation and finally fatty liver formed.
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Q. What are the risks of cirrhosis of liver? My dad has cirrhosis and I would like to know what are the risks and how does it get treated.

A. Death!

Q. What is Liver Cirrhosis? I read that alcohol can lead to liver cirrhosis. What does cirrhosis mean?

A. The word "cirrhosis" is a neologism that derives from Greek kirrhos, meaning "orange-yellow". In this condition, the liver appears yellow in pathology from all the tissue changes and damage caused to it. Cirrhosis has many possible causes. Sometimes more than one cause is present in the same patient. In the Western World, chronic alcoholism and hepatitis C are the most common causes. The sick liver gradually loses its function, therefore leading to end stage liver disease that ultimately requires liver transplant.

More discussions about liver
References in periodicals archive ?
Allyl alcohol, also a large-scale industrial chemical, causes a different form of liver toxicity: acute hepatic periportal (zone 1) necrosis.
Animal studies had suggested that cells from bone marrow could develop into liver cells.
Humans need glucose to survive, but the excessive amount of sugar found in everyday foods like processed snack foods, canned food, and soft drinks can do almost as much harm to the liver as alcohol.
Fatty liver is the accumulation of abnormal amounts of fat in liver cells exceeding more than 5% of weight of liver.
Lee said that fatty liver is often discovered in middle-aged patients, or those aged 40 to 60.
I had a sinking feeling that my liver was failing again.
After similar surgery, mice lacking a gene called FXR didn't regrow liver tissue as well, the researchers report in the April 14 Science.
When a patient's blood is pumped through the fibers, the blood is cleansed of impurities and toxins that accumulate in liver failure.
Moreover, the ability to place these cells in 'suspended animation' at room temperature will enable more efficient utilization of HepaLife's artificial liver device in its clinic or hospital setting.