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Regions with significant populations
South America, Caribbean, Southern Africa, North America
 Brazil83 million (2010 est.)[1]
 Cuba2,941,710 (2012 est.)[2]
 Dominican Republic1,301,964 (2014 est.)[3]
 Cape Verde418,510[5]
English creoles, French creoles, Spanish creoles, Portuguese creoles, Languages of Europe, Languages of Africa
Related ethnic groups
Pardos and Creole peoples

Mulatto (, ) is a racial classification to refer to people of mixed African and European ancestry. Its use is considered outdated and offensive.[6][7] A mulatta (Spanish: mulata) is a female mulatto.[8][9]


Juan de Pareja by Diego Velázquez, CE 1650 - Juan de Pareja was born into slavery in Spain. He was the son of an enslaved African-descended woman and a white Spanish father.

The English term and spelling mulatto is derived from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato. It was a common term in the Southeastern United States during the era of slavery. Some sources suggest that it may derive from the Portuguese word mula (from the Latin m?lus), meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse and a donkey.[10][11] The Real Academia Española traces its origin to mulo in the sense of hybridity; originally used to refer to any mixed race person.[12] The term is now generally considered outdated and offensive in non-Spanish and non-Portuguese speaking countries,[13] and was considered offensive even in the 19th century.[14]

Jack D. Forbes suggests it originated in the Arabic term muwallad, which means "a person of mixed ancestry".[15] Muwallad literally means "born, begotten, produced, generated; brought up", with the implication of being born and raised among Arabs, but not of Arab blood. Muwallad is derived from the root word WaLaD (Arabic: , direct Arabic transliteration: waw, lam, dal) and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. Walad means, "descendant, offspring, scion; child; son; boy; young animal, young one".

In al-Andalus, muwallad referred to the offspring of non-Arab/Muslim people who adopted the Islamic religion and manners. Specifically, the term was historically applied to the descendants of indigenous Christian Iberians who, after several generations of living among a Muslim majority, adopted their culture and religion. Notable examples of this category include the famous Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm. According to Lisan al-Arab, one of the earliest Arab dictionaries (c. 13th century AD), applied the term to the children of non-Muslim (often Christian) slaves or non-Muslim children who were captured in a war and were raised by Muslims to follow their religion and culture. Thus, in this context, the term "muwalad" has a meaning close to "the adopted". According to the same source, the term does not denote being of mixed-race but rather being of foreign-blood and local culture.


According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado,[17] the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources[18] muwallad is the etymological origin of mulato. These sources specify that mulato would have been derived directly from muwallad independently of the related word muladí, a term that was applied to Iberian Christians who had converted to Islam during the Moorish governance of Iberia in the Middle Ages.


Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto. In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and Josiah Nott began to assert that mulattoes were sterile like mules. They projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollors points out that this etymology is anachronistic: "The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with the rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word 'Mulatto'."[20]


Of São Tomé and Príncipe's 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as mestiço, or mixed race.[21] 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such.[22] The great majority of their current populations descend from unions between the Portuguese, who colonized the islands from the 15th century onward, and black Africans they brought from the African mainland to work as slaves. In the early years, mestiços began to form a third-class between the Portuguese colonists and African slaves, as they were usually bilingual and often served as interpreters between the populations.

In Angola and Mozambique, the mestiço constitute smaller but still important minorities; 2% in Angola[23] and 0.2% in Mozambique.[24]



South Africa


In addition to European ancestry, the Coloured people usually had some portion of Asian ancestry from immigrants from India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, China and/or Saint Helena. Based on the Population Registration Act to classify people, the government passed laws prohibiting mixed marriages. Many people who classified as belonging to the "Asian" category could legally intermarry with "mixed-race" people because they shared the same nomenclature.[26] There was extensive combining of these diverse heritages in the Western Cape.




Afro-European tribes and clans

Latin America and the Caribbean

Mulattoes in colonial Spanish America

Spaniard + Negra, Mulatto. Miguel Cabrera. Mexico 1763

Africans were transported by Portuguese slave traders to Spanish America starting in the early 16th century. Offspring of Spaniards and African women resulted early on in mixed-race children, termed Mulattoes. In Spanish law, the status of the child followed that of the mother, so that despite having a Spanish parent, their offspring were enslaved. The label Mulatto was recorded in official colonial documentation, so that marriage registers, censuses, and court documents allow research on different aspects of mulattoes' lives. Although some legal documents simply label a person a Mulatto/a, other designations occurred. In the sales of casta slaves in 17th-century Mexico City, official notaries recorded gradations of skin color in the transactions. These included mulato blanco or mulata blanca (white mulatto), for light-skinned slave. These were usually American-born (criollo) slaves. Some said categorized persons i.e.m 'mulata blanca.' used their light skin to their advantage if they escaped their unlawful and brutal incarceration from their criminal slave owners, thus 'passing' as free persons of color. Mulatos blancos often emphasized their Spanish parentage, and considered themselves and were considered separate from negros or pardos and ordinary mulattoes. Darker mulatto slaves were often termed mulatos prietos or sometimes mulatos cochos.[29] In Chile, along with mulatos blancos, there were also españoles oscuros (dark Spaniards).[30]

There was considerable malleability and manipulation of racial labeling, including the seemingly stable category of mulatto. In a case that came before the Mexican Inquisition, a woman publicly identified as a mulatta was described by a Spanish priest, Diego Xaimes Ricardo Villavicencio, as "a white mulata with curly hair, because she is the daughter of a dark-skinned mulata and a Spaniard, and for her manner of dress she has flannel petticoats and a native blouse (huipil), sometimes silken, sometimes woolen. She wears shoes, and her natural and common language is not Spanish, but Chocho [an indigenous Mexican language], as she was brought up among Indians with her mother, from which she contracted the vice of drunkenness, to which she often succumbs, as Indians do, and from them she has also received the crime of [idolatry]." Community members were interrogated as to their understanding of her racial standing. Her mode of dress, very wavy hair and light skin confirmed for one witness that she was a mulatta. Ultimately though, her rootedness in the indigenous community persuaded the Inquisition that she was an India, and therefore outside of their jurisdiction.[31] Even though the accused had physical features of a mulatta, her cultural category was more important. In colonial Latin America, mulatto could also refer to an individual of mixed African and Native American ancestry, but the term zambo was more consistently used for that racial mixture.[32]

Dominican friar Thomas Gage spent over a decade in the Viceroyalty of New Spain in the early 17th century; he converted to Anglicanism and later wrote of his travels, often disparaging Spanish colonial society and culture. In Mexico City, he observed in considerable detail the opulence of dress of women, writing that "The attire of this baser sort of people of blackamoors and mulattoes (which are of a mixed nature, of Spaniards and blackamoors) is so light, and their carriage so enticing, that many Spaniards even of the better sort (who are too too [sic] prone to venery) disdain their wives for them... Most of these are or have been slaves, though love have set them loose, at liberty to enslave souls to sin and Satan."[33]

In the late 18th century, some mixed-race persons sought legal "certificates of whiteness" (cédulas de gracias al sacar), in order to rise socially and practice professions. American-born Spaniards (criollos) sought to prevent the approval of such petitions, since the "purity" of their own whiteness would be in jeopardy. They asserted their "purity of blood" (limpieza de sangre) as white persons who had "always been known, held and commonly reputed to be white persons, Old Christians of the nobility, clean of all bad blood and without any mixture of commoner, Jew, Moor, Mulatto, or converso in any degree, no matter how remote."[34] Spaniards both American- and Iberian-born discriminated against pardos and mulattoes because of their "bad blood." One Cuban sought the grant of his petition in order to practice as a surgeon, a profession from which he was barred because of his mulatto designation. Royal laws and decrees prevented pardos and mulattoes from serving as a public notary, lawyer, pharmacist, ordination to the priesthood, or graduation from university. Mulattas declared white could marry a Spaniard.[35]


Mulattoes in the modern era

Mulattoes represent a significant part of the population of various Latin American and Caribbean countries,[36] including the Dominican Republic (12.4%),[36][nb 2] Brazil (49.1% mixed-race, Gypsy and Black, Mulattoes (20.5%), Mestiços, Mamelucos or Caboclos (21.3%), Blacks (7.1%) and Eurasian (0.2%)),[37][38] Belize (25%), Colombia (10,4%),[36] Cuba (24.86%),[36] and Haiti (5%).[36]

Although mulattoes, and even full-blooded Africans, did once represent a portion of the population in countries such as Mexico and Honduras, they were absorbed there by the mestizo populations of mixed European and Native American descent.

In modern Europe, there is now a slowly emerging community of contemporary mulattoes not associated with the centuries of history of those born before them. These are the offspring of current European citizens and recent African immigrants across several European countries.


Genomic ancestry of individuals in Porto Alegre (Rio Grande do Sul state) [39]
Color Amerindian African European
White 9.3% 5.3% 85.5%
Pardo 15.4% 42.4% 42.2%
Black 11% 45.9% 43.1%
Total 9.6% 12.7% 77.7%
Genomic ancestry of individuals in Ilhéus (Bahia state) [39]
Color Amerindian African European
White 8.8% 24.4% 66.8%
Pardo 11.9% 28.8% 59.3%
Black 10.1% 35.9% 53.9%
Total 9.1% 30.3% 60.6%
Genomic ancestry of individuals in Belém (Pará state) [39]
Color Amerindian African European
White 14.1% 7.7% 78.2%
Pardo 20.9% 10.6% 68.6%
Black 20.1% 27.5% 52.4%
Total 19.4% 10.9% 69.7%
Genomic ancestry of individuals in Fortaleza (Ceará state) [39]
Color Amerindian African European
White 10.9% 13.3% 75.8%
Pardo 12.8% 14.4% 72.8%
Black N.S. N.S. N.S

Autosomal DNA studies (tables below) have shown the Brazilian population as a whole tends to have European, African and Native American components.


Region[40] European African Native American
North Region 51% 16% 32%
Northeast Region 58% 27% 15%
Central-West Region 64% 24% 12%
Southeast Region 67% 23% 10%
South Region 77% 12% 11%



Region[42] European African Native American
North Region 51% 17% 32%
Northeast Region 56% 28% 16%
Central-West Region 58% 26% 16%
Southeast Region 61% 27% 12%
South Region 74% 15% 11%

An autosomal DNA study (2011), with nearly 1000 samples from all over the country ("whites", "pardos" and "blacks", according to their respective proportions), found a major European contribution, followed by a high African contribution and an important Native American component.[39] "In all regions studied, the European ancestry was predominant, with proportions ranging from 60.6% in the Northeast to 77.7% in the South".[43] The 2011 autosomal study samples came from blood donors (the lowest classes constitute the great majority of blood donors in Brazil[44]), and also public health institutions' personnel and health students. The study showed that Brazilians from different regions are more homogenous than previously thought by some based on the census alone. "Brazilian homogeneity is, therefore, a lot greater between Brazilian regions than within Brazilian regions".[45]

Region[39] European African Native American
Northern Brazil 68.80% 10.50% 18.50%
Northeast of Brazil 60.10% 29.30% 8.90%
Southeast Brazil 74.20% 17.30% 7.30%
Southern Brazil 79.50% 10.30% 9.40%


Region[48] European African Native American
North Region 71.10% 18.20% 10.70%
Northeast Region 77.40% 13.60% 8.90%
Central-West Region 65.90% 18.70% 11.80%
Southeast Region 79.90% 14.10% 6.10%
South Region 87.70% 7.70% 5.20%


Region[50] European African Native American
North Region 60.6% 21.3% 18.1%
Northeast Region 66.7% 23.3% 10.0%
Central-West Region 66.3% 21.7% 12.0%
Southeast Region 60.7% 32.0% 7.3%
South Region 81.5% 9.3% 9.2%
A Redenção de Cam (Redemption of Ham), Modesto Brocos, 1895, Museu Nacional de Belas Artes. (Brazil) The painting depicts a black grandmother, mulatta mother, white father and their quadroon child, hence three generations of hypergamy through racial whitening.


Studies carried out by the geneticist Sergio Pena estimated the average white Brazilian also to have African and Native American ancestries, on average, this way: is 80% European, 10% Amerindian, and 10% African/black.[52] Another study, carried out by the Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, concludes the average white Brazilian is (>70%) European.[53]



Such autosomal DNA studies, which measure total genetic contribution, continue to reveal differences between how individuals identify, which is usually based in family and close community, with genetic ancestry, which may relate to a distant past they know little about.[57][58] An autosomal DNA study from Rio de Janeiro poor periphery showed that self-perception and real ancestry may not go hand in hand. "The results of the tests of genomic ancestry are quite different from the self made estimates of European ancestry", say the researchers. The test results showed that the proportion of European genetic ancestry was higher than students expected. When questioned before the test, students who identified as "pardos", for example, identified as 1/3 European, 1/3 African and 1/3 Amerindian.[59][60] On the other hand, students classified as "white" tended to overestimate their proportion of African and Amerindian genetic ancestry.[59]


About one-fourth of Cubans are mulattoes. Whites have been the dominant ethnic group for centuries. Although mulattoes have become increasingly prominent since the mid-20th century, some mulattoes still face racial discrimination.[61]



Many Haitian mulattoes were slaveholders and often actively participated in the oppression of the black majority.[63] Some Dominican mulattoes were also slave owners.[64]

The Haitian Revolution was started by mulattoes. The subsequent struggle within Haiti between the mulattoes led by André Rigaud and the black Haitians led by Toussaint Louverture devolved into the War of Knives.[65][66] With secret aid from the United States,[67] Toussaint eventually won the conflict and made himself ruler of the entire island of Hispaniola. Napoleon ordered for Charles Leclerc and a substantial army to put down the rebellion; Leclerc seized Toussaint in 1802 and deported him to France, where he died in prison a year later. Leclerc was succeeded by General Rochambeau. With reinforcements from France and Poland, Rochambeau began a bloody campaign against the mulattoes and intensified operations against the blacks, importing bloodhounds to track and kill them. Thousands of black POW and suspects were chained to cannonballs and tossed into the sea.[68] Historians of the Haitian Revolution credit Rochambeau's brutal tactics for uniting black and mulatto soldiers against the French.

Jean-Pierre Boyer, the mulatto ruler of Haiti (1818-43)

In 1806, Haiti divided into a black-controlled north and a mulatto-ruled south. Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer, the son of a Frenchman and a former African slave, managed to unify a divided Haiti but excluded blacks from power. In 1847, a black military officer named Faustin Soulouque was made president, with the mulattoes supporting him; but, instead of proving a tool in the hands of the senators, he showed a strong will, and, although by his antecedents belonging to the mulatto party, he began to attach the blacks to his interest. The mulattoes retaliated by conspiring; but Soulouque began to decimate his enemies by confiscation, proscriptions, and executions. The black soldiers began a general massacre in Port-au-Prince, which ceased only after the French consul, Charles Reybaud, threatened to order the landing of marines from the men-of-war in the harbor.

Dominican Republic

Soulouque considered the neighbouring Dominican Republic's white and mulatto rulers as his "natural" enemies.[69] He invaded the Dominican Republic in March 1849, but was defeated at the Battle of Las Carreras by Pedro Santana[nb 3] near Ocoa on 21 April and compelled to retreat. Haitian strategy was ridiculed by the American press:

[At the first encounter] ... a division of negro troops of Faustin ran, and their commander, Gen. Garat, was killed. The main body, eighteen thousand troops, under the Emperor, encountered four hundred Dominicans with a field piece, and notwithstanding the disparity of force, the latter charged and caused the Haytiens to flee in every direction ... Faustin came very near falling into the enemy's hands. They were once within a few feet of him, and he was only saved by Thirlonge and other officers of his staff, several of whom lost their lives. The Dominicans pursued the retreating Haytiens some miles until they were checked and driven back by the Garde Nationale of Port-au-Prince, commanded by Robert Gateau, the auctioneer.[71]

The Haitians were unable to ward off a series of Dominican navy reprisal raids along Haiti's south coast, launched by Dominican president Buenaventura Báez.[72] Despite the failure of the Dominican campaign, Soulouque caused himself to be proclaimed emperor on 26 August 1849, under the name of Faustin I. He was called a rey de farsa (clown emperor) by the Dominicans.[69] Toward the close of 1855, he invaded the Dominican Republic again at the head of an army of 30,000 men, but was again defeated by Santana, and barely escaped being captured. His treasure and crown fell into the hands of the enemy. Soulouque was ousted in a military coup led by mulatto General Fabre Geffrard in 1858-59.

In the eastern two-thirds of Hispaniola, the mulattoes were an ever-growing majority group, and in essence they took over the entire Dominican Republic, with no organized black opposition. Many of its rulers and famous figures were mulattoes, such as Gregorio Luperón, Ulises Heureaux, José Joaquín Puello, Matías Ramón Mella,[73] Buenaventura Báez,[74] and Rafael Trujillo.[75] The Dominican Republic has been described as the only true mulatto country in the world.[76] Pervasive Dominican racism, based on rejection of African ancestry, has led to many assaults against the large Haitian immigrant community,[76] the most lethal of which was the 1937 parsley massacre. Approximately 5,000-67,000[77] men, women, children, babies and elderly, who were selected by their skin color, were massacred with machetes, or were thrown to sharks.[78]

Puerto Rico




United States

Colonial and Antebellum eras

Creole woman with black servant, New Orleans, 1867.




Historian F. James Davis says,


Historically in the American South, the term mulatto was also applied at times to persons with mixed Native American and African American ancestry.[87] For example, a 1705 Virginia statute reads as follows:



Certain Native American tribes of the Inocoplo family in Texas referred to themselves as "mulatto".[89] At one time, Florida's laws declared that a person from any number of mixed ancestries would be legally defined as a mulatto, including White/Hispanic, Black/Native American, and just about any other mix as well.[90]








Contemporary era

Mulatto was used as an official census racial category in the United States, to acknowledge multiracial persons, until 1930.[93] (In the early 20th century, several southern states had adopted the one-drop rule as law, and southern Congressmen pressed the US Census Bureau to drop the mulatto category: they wanted all persons to be classified as "black" or "white".)[94][95][96]

In the 2000 United States Census, 6,171 Americans self-identified as having mulatto ancestry.[97] Since then, persons responding to the census have been allowed to identify as having more than one type of ethnic ancestry.

On 4 November 2008, Barack Obama became America's first mulatto president,[98] as he is the son of a European American mother and a Luo father from Kenya. His official White House biography describes him as African American.[99]

Colonial references

See also


  3. ^ General Pedro Santana, who also held the Spanish noble name Marquess de las Carreras.[70]
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  2. ^ "Central America :: Cuba -- The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov.
  3. ^ "Central America :: Dominican Republic -- The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov.
  4. ^ "Africa :: Angola -- The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov.
  5. ^ "Africa :: Cabo Verde -- The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov.
  6. ^ "MULATTO | Definition of MULATTO by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of MULATTO". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 2021.
  7. ^ Mulatto - dictionary.com
  8. ^ "Mulatta definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary". www.collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 2021.
  9. ^ "mulato | Traducción de MULATTO al inglés por Oxford Dictionary en Lexico.com y también el significado de MULATTO en español". Lexico Dictionaries | Español (in Spanish). Retrieved 2021.
  11. ^ Harper, Douglas. "mulatto". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2008.
  12. ^ "Mulato". Real Academia Española. Retrieved 2017. De mulo, en el sentido de híbrido, aplicado primero a cualquier mestizo
  13. ^ Kimberly McClain DaCosta (2007). Making Multiracials: State, Family, and Market in the Redrawing of the Color Line. Stanford University Press. pp. 165-166. ISBN 978-0-8047-5545-0. Although the "mulatto" ad is supposed to be streetwise, authentic, and hip, the mixed-race character's use of an outdated, even offensive, term to refer to herself belies such assertions.
  14. ^ Nicholas Patrick Beck (1975). The Other Children: Minority Education in California Public Schools from Statehood to 1890. University of California, Los Angeles. p. 132. Strictly speaking, a "mulatto" is the first-generation offspring of a white and a Negro. Often regarded, even in the 19th century, as an offensive term, the word was frequently used to indicate a person of any mixture of caucasian and Negro ancestry.
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