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Building society
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A building society is a financial institution owned by its members as a mutual organization, which offers banking and related financial services, especially savings and mortgage lending. They exist in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, and formerly in Ireland and several Commonwealth countries, including South Africa as mutual banks. They are similar to credit unions, but rather than promoting thrift and offering unsecured and business loans, the purpose of a building society is to provide home mortgages to members. Borrowers and depositors are society members, setting policy and appointing directors on a one-member, one-vote basis. Building societies often provide other retail banking services, such as current accounts, credit cards and personal loans. The term "building society" first arose in the 19th century in Great Britain from cooperative savings groups.
In the United Kingdom, building societies compete with banks for most consumer banking services, especially mortgage lending and savings accounts, and regulations permit up to half of their lending to be funded by debt to non-members, allowing societies to access wholesale bond and money markets to fund mortgages. The world's largest building society is Britain's Nationwide Building Society. In Australia, building societies also compete with retail banks and offer the full range of banking services to consumers.
History in the United Kingdom
Building societies as an institution began in late-18th century Birmingham – a town which was undergoing rapid economic and physical expansion driven by a multiplicity of small metalworking firms, whose many highly skilled and prosperous owners readily invested in property. Many of the early building societies were based in taverns or coffeehouses, which had become the focus for a network of clubs and societies for co-operation and the exchange of ideas among Birmingham's highly active citizenry as part of the movement known as the Midlands Enlightenment. The first building society to be established was Ketley's Building Society, founded by Richard Ketley, the landlord of the Golden Cross inn, in 1775. Members of Ketley's society paid a monthly subscription to a central pool of funds which was used to finance the building of houses for members, which in turn acted as collateral to attract further funding to the society, enabling further construction. By 1781 three more societies had been established in Birmingham, with a fourth in the nearby town of Dudley; and 19 more formed in Birmingham between 1782 and 1795. The first outside the English Midlands was established in Leeds in 1785.
Most of the original societies were fully terminating, where they would be dissolved when all members had a house: the last of them, First Salisbury and District Perfect Thrift Building Society, was wound up in March 1980. In the 1830s and 1840s a new development took place with the permanent building society, where the society continued on a rolling basis, continually taking in new members as earlier ones completed purchases, such as Leek Building Society. The main legislative framework for the building society was the Building Societies Act 1874 (37 & 38 Vict. c. 42), with subsequent amending legislation in 1894, 1939 (see Coney Hall), and 1960.
In their heyday, there were hundreds of building societies: just about every town in the country had a building society named after that town. Over succeeding decades the number of societies has decreased, as various societies merged to form larger ones, often renaming in the process, and other societies opted for demutualisation followed by – in the great majority of cases – eventual takeover by a listed bank. Most of the existing larger building societies are the result of the mergers of many smaller societies.
All building societies in the UK are members of the Building Societies Association. At the start of 2008, there were 59 building societies in the UK, with total assets exceeding £360 billion. The number of societies in the UK fell by four during 2008 due to a series of mergers brought about, to a large extent, by the consequences of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. There were three further mergers in each of 2009 and 2010, a demutualisation and a merger in 2011, and four further mergers 2013–2018 which resulted in there being only one building society headquartered respectively in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Since then, the only merger has been in 2023, when the Manchester society merged with the Newcastle society.Demutualisation
was the first society to demutualise in July 1989.]]
In the 1980s, changes to British banking laws allowed building societies to offer banking services equivalent to normal banks. The management of a number of societies still felt that they were unable to compete with the banks, and a new Building Societies Act was passed in 1986 in response to their concerns. This permitted societies to 'demutualise'. If more than 75% of members voted in favour, the building society would then become a limited company like any other. Members' mutual rights were exchanged for shares in this new company. A number of the larger societies made such proposals to their members and all were accepted. Some listed on the London Stock Exchange, while others were acquired by larger financial groups.
The process began with the demutualisation of the Abbey National Building Society in 1989. Then, from 1995 to late 1999, eight societies demutualised accounting for two-thirds of building societies assets as at 1994. Five of these societies became joint stock banks (plc), one merged with another and the other four were taken over by plcs (in two cases after the mutual had previously converted to a plc).
As mentions, demutualisation moves succeeded immediately because neither Conservative nor Labour party UK governments created a framework which put obstacles in the way of demutualisation. Political acquiescence in demutualisation was clearest in the case of the position on 'carpetbaggers', that is those who joined societies by lodging minimum amounts of £100 or so in the hope of profiting from a distribution of surplus after demutualisation. The deregulating Building Societies Act 1986 contained an anti-carpetbagger provision in the form of a two-year rule. This prescribed a qualifying period of two years before savers could participate in a residual claim. But, before the 1989 Abbey National Building Society demutualisation, the courts found against the two-year rule after legal action brought by Abbey National itself to circumvent the intent of the legislators. After this the legislation did prevent a cash distribution to members of less than two years standing, but the same result was obtained by permitting the issue of 'free' shares in the acquiring plc, saleable for cash. The Thatcher Conservative government declined to introduce amending legislation to make good the defect in the 'two-year rule'.
1980s and 1990s
Building societies, like mutual life insurers, arose as people clubbed together to address a common need interest; in the case of the building societies, this was housing and members were originally both savers and borrowers. But it very quickly became clear that 'outsider' savers were needed whose motive was profit through interest on deposits. Thus permanent building societies quickly became mortgage banks and in such institutions there always existed a conflict of interest between borrowers and savers. It was the task of the movement to reconcile that conflict of interest so as to enable savers to conclude that their interests and those of borrowers were to some extent complementary rather than conflictive. Conflict of interest between savers and borrowers was never fully reconciled in the building societies but upon deregulation that reconciliation became something of a lost cause. The management of building societies apparently could expend considerable time and resources (which belonged the organisation) planning their effective capture—of as much of the assets as they could. If so, this is arguably insider dealing on a grand scale with the benefit of inside specialist knowledge of the business and resources of the firm not shared with outsiders like politicians and members (and, perhaps, regulators). Once the opportunity to claim was presented by management the savers in particular could be relied upon to seize it. There were sufficient hard-up borrowers to take the inducement offered them by management (in spite of few simple sums sufficing to demonstrate that they were probably going to end up effectively paying back the inducement).
Management promoting demutualisation also thereby met managerial objectives because the end of mutuality brought joint stock company (plc) style remuneration committee pay standards and share options. Share options for management of converting societies appear to be a powerful factor in management calculation. refers to this in the following terms:
Instead of deploying their margin advantage as a defence of mutuality, around 1980 building societies began setting mortgage rates with reference to market clearing levels. In sum they began behaving more like banks, seeking to maximise profit instead of the advantages of a mutual organisation. Thus, according to the Bank of England's :
As also observe:
draws a rather more direct and cynical conclusion:
Some of these managements ended up in dispute with their own members. Of the first major conversion of the Abbey in 1989, observed:
In the end, after a number of large demutualisations, and pressure from carpetbaggers moving from one building society to another to cream off the windfalls, most of the societies whose management wished to keep them mutual modified their rules of membership in the late 1990s. The method usually adopted were membership rules to ensure that anyone newly joining a society would, for the first few years, be unable to get any profit out of a demutualisation. With the chance of a quick profit removed, the wave of demutualisations came to an end in 2000.
One academic study found that demutualised societies' pricing behaviour on deposits and mortgages was more favourable to shareholders than to customers, with the remaining mutual building societies offering consistently better rates.
2000s and 2010s
The Building Societies (Funding) and Mutual Societies (Transfers) Act 2007, known as the Butterfill Act, was passed in 2007 giving building societies greater powers to merge with other companies. These powers have been used by the Britannia in 2009 and Kent Reliance in 2011 leading to their demutualisation.
Prior to 31 December 2010, deposits with building societies of up to £50,000 per individual, per institution, were normally protected by the Financial Services Compensation Scheme (FSCS), but Nationwide and Yorkshire building societies negotiated a temporary change to the terms of the FSCS to protect members of the societies they acquired in late 2008/early 2009. The amended terms allowed former members of multiple societies which merge into one to maintain multiple entitlements to FSCS protection until 30 September 2009 (later extended to 30 December 2010), so (for example) a member with £50,000 in each of Nationwide, Cheshire and Derbyshire at the time of the respective mergers would retain £150,000 of FSCS protection for their funds in the merged Nationwide. On 31 December 2010 the general FSCS limit for retail deposits was increased to £85,000 for banks and building societies and the transitional arrangements in respect of building society mergers came to an end.List of building societiesUnited KingdomCurrent, there are 42 independent building societies, all of which are members of the Building Societies Association.
! rowspan"2" width125pt|Other trading names
! colspan"2" alignright|Numbers of
! rowspan"2" alignright|No. of<br />staff
! rowspan"2" alignright|Provides<br />current<br />account?
|-
! Branches
! Agencies
|-
| 1 || Nationwide Building Society
| £271,893
| The Mortgage Works
| 605 ||
| 17,680
|
|-
|| 2 || Coventry Building Society
| £58,867
|
| 64|| 15
| 2,824
|
|-
| 3 || Yorkshire Building Society
| £58,754
| Chelsea Building Society;<br/>Accord
| 132 || 99
| 3,117
|
|-
| 4 || Skipton Building Society
| £33,571
|
| 82||
| 2,506
|
|-
| 5 || Leeds Building Society
| £25,514
|
| 50 ||
| 1,538
|
|-
| 6 || Principality Building Society
| £11,257
|
| 54 ||14
| 1,157
|
|-
| 7 || West Bromwich Building Society
| £5,689
|
| 37||
| 633
|
|-
| 8 || Newcastle Building Society
| £5,313
| Manchester Building Society
| 31||
| 1,393
|
|-
| 9 || Nottingham Building Society
| £3,813
|
| 31||
| 513
|
|-
| 10 || Cumberland Building Society
| £3,090
|
| 34||
| 634
|
|-
| 11 || National Counties Building Society
| £2,402
| Family Building Society
| 1||
| 196
|
|-
| 12 || Progressive Building Society
| £1,900
|
| 11 ||36
| 172
|
|-
| 13 || Cambridge Building Society
| £1,859
|
| 13||
| 236
|
|-
| 14 || Newbury Building Society
| £1,547
|
| 10||
| 180
|
|-
| 15 || Monmouthshire Building Society
| £1,488
|
| 11 ||11
| 145
|
|-
| 16 || Saffron Building Society
| £1,286
|
| 8||
| 181
|
|-
| 17 || Leek United Building Society
| £1,238
|
| 12 ||
| 164
|
|-
| 18 || Furness Building Society
| £1,236
|
| 9 ||
| 177
|
|-
| 19 || Darlington Building Society
| £833
|
| 9 ||
| 113
|
|-
| 20 || Hinckley and Rugby Building Society
| £812
|
| 7 || 2
| 116
|
|-
| 21 || Suffolk Building Society
| £799
|
| 9 ||1
| 123
|
|-
| 22 || Marsden Building Society
| £734
|
| 8||
| 79
|
|-
| 23 || Melton Building Society
| £715
|
| 5 ||
| 88
|
|-
| 24 || Market Harborough Building Society
| £647
|
| 5 ||
| 118
|
|-
| 25 || Scottish Building Society
| £645
|
| 6 ||61
| 71
|
|-
| 26 || Dudley Building Society
| £545
|
| 5 ||
| 91
|
|-
| 27 || Tipton & Coseley Building Society
| £540
|
| 4||
| 83
|
|-
| 28 || Loughborough Building Society
| £533
|
| 5 || 1
| 55
|
|-
| 29 || Swansea Building Society
| £530
|
| 4 ||
| 36
|
|-
| 30 || Hanley Economic Building Society
| £516
|
| 7 ||
| 73
|
|-
| 31 || Mansfield Building Society
| £485
|
| 4 ||
| 73
|
|-
| 32 || Vernon Building Society
| £417
|
| 6 ||
| 68
|
|-
| 33 || Teachers Building Society
| £375
|
| 1 ||
| 39
|
|-
| 34 || Bath Building Society
| £362
|
| 2 ||
| 67
|
|-
| 35 || Buckinghamshire Building Society
| £355
|
| 1 ||
| 39
|
|-
| 36 || Chorley & District Building Society
| £334
|
| 3||
| 50
|
|-
| 37 || Harpenden Building Society
| £306
|
| 4 ||
| 64
|
|-
| 38 || Ecology Building Society
| £304
|
| 1 ||
| 25
|
|-
| 39 || Stafford Railway Building Society
| £292
|
| 1 ||
| 31
|
|-
| 40 || Beverley Building Society
| £198
|
| 1 ||
| 22
|
|-
| 41 || Earl Shilton Building Society
| £163
|
| 2 ||
| 27
|
|-
| 42 || Penrith Building Society
| £138
|
| 1 ||
| 26
|
|}
Demutualised
Ten building societies of the United Kingdom demutualised between 1989 and 2000, either becoming a bank or being acquired by a larger bank. By 2008, every building society that floated on the stock market in the wave of demutualisations of the 1980s and 1990s had either been sold to a conventional bank, or been nationalised.
|-
| Halifax || converted to plc || || 1997 || Became part of HBOS in 2001, which itself became part of Lloyds Banking Group in 2009. Trading name still in use.
|-
| Northern Rock
|| converted to plc
|| Virgin Money<br /><small>Northern Rock (Asset Management)</small>
|| 1997
|| Nationalised following near bankruptcy in February 2008, due to the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Most of the business bought by Virgin Money UK in January 2012, with remaining riskier mortgage business retained by the government and renamed NRAM plc (now Landmark Mortgages Limited).
|-
| The Woolwich
|| converted to plc
|| Barclays
|| 1997
|| Now part of Barclays plc. Woolwich brand name now only used for mortgages from Barclays with the Woolwich branch network merging with that of Barclays in 2007.
|-
| Birmingham Midshires
|| taken over by
|| Halifax
|| 1999
|| Now owned by Lloyds Banking Group. The brand name is still retained, but running entirely by post and internet.
|-
| Bradford & Bingley
|| converted to plc
||
|| 2000
|| Nationalisation with sale of savings book to Abbey (now Santander).
|}
No longer exist
The following is an incomplete list of building societies in the United Kingdom that no longer exist independently, since they either merged with or were taken over by other organisations. They may still have an active presence on the high street (or online) as a trading name or as a distinct brand. This is typically because brands will often build up specific reputations and attract certain clientele, and this can continue to be marketed successfully.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Name !!Fate !! Successor !!Year
|-
|Abbey Road Building Society and <br /> National Building Society
| merged to form the || Abbey National Building Society || 1944
|-
|Bingley Permanent Building Society and <br /> Bradford Equitable Building Society
| merged to form the || Bradford & Bingley Building Society || 1964
|-
|Co-operative Permanent Building Society
| changed its name to || Nationwide Building Society || 1970
|-
|Leicester Permanent Building Society and <br /> Leicester Temperance Building Society
| merged to form the || Leicester Building Society || 1974
|-
|Bedfordshire Building Society and <br /> Temperance Building Society
| merged to form || Gateway Building Society || 1974
|-
|Leek & Westbourne Building Society and <br /> Oldbury Britannia Building Society
| merged to form || Britannia Building Society || 1975
|-
|Huddersfield & Bradford Building Society <br /> and West Yorkshire Building Society
| merged to form || Yorkshire Building Society || 1982
|-
|Coventry Economic Building Society and <br /> Coventry Provident Building Society
| merged to form the || Coventry Building Society || 1983
|-
|Burnley Building Society and <br /> Provincial Building Society
| merged to form the || National & Provincial Building Society || 1984
|-
|London Permanent Building Society (est 1914)
| merged into || Cheltenham and Gloucester || 1984
|-
|Alliance Building Society and <br /> Leicester Building Society
| merged to form the || Alliance & Leicester Building Society || 1985
|-
|Waltham Abbey Building Society (1847)
| merged with the || Cheltenham and Gloucester Building Society || 1985
|-
|Birmingham & Bridgwater Building Society <br /> and Midshires Building Society
| merged to form the || Birmingham Midshires Building Society || 1986
|-
|Norwich Building Society and <br /> Peterborough Building Society
| merged to form the || Norwich & Peterborough Building Society || 1986
|-
|Anglia Building Society and <br /> Nationwide Building Society
| merged to form <br /> which changed name to the || Nationwide Anglia Building Society <br /> Nationwide Building Society || 1987 <br /> 1991
|-
|Gateway Building Society and <br /> Woolwich Equitable Building Society
| merged to form the || Woolwich Building Society || 1988
|-
|Wessex Building Society and <br /> Portman Building Society
| merged to form the || Portman Wessex Building Society || 1989
|-
|Regency & West of England Building Society <br /> and Portman Wessex Building Society
| merged to form || Portman Building Society || 1990
|-
|Hendon Building Society
| was taken over by || Bradford & Bingley Building Society || 1991
|-
|Haywards Heath Building Society
| merged with the || Yorkshire Building Society || 1992
|-
|Cheshunt Building Society
| merged with the || Bristol and West Building Society || 1992
|-
|Heart of England Building Society
| merged with the || Cheltenham & Gloucester Building Society || 1993
|-
|St. Pancras Building Society
| merged with the || Portman Building Society || 1993
|-
|Leeds Permanent Building Society
| merged with the || Halifax Building Society || 1995
|-
|City & Metropolitan Building Society
| merged with the || Stroud & Swindon Building Society || 1996
|-
|Nottingham Imperial Building Society
| merged with the || Newcastle Building Society || 2000
|-
|Gainsborough Building Society
| merged with the || Yorkshire Building Society || 2001
|-
|Ilkeston Permanent Building Society
| merged with the || Derbyshire Building Society || 2001
|-
|Clay Cross Building Society
| merged with the || Derbyshire Building Society || 2003
|-
|Padiham Building Society
| merged with the || Bradford & Bingley Building Society || 1983
|-
|Staffordshire Building Society
| merged with the || Portman Building Society || 2003
|-
|Lambeth Building Society
| merged with the || Portman Building Society || 2006
|-
|Mercantile Building Society
| merged with the || Leeds Building Society || 2006
|-
|Universal Building Society
| merged with the || Newcastle Building Society || 2006
|-
|Portman Building Society
| merged with the || Nationwide Building Society || 2007
|-
|Cheshire Building Society
| merged with the || Nationwide Building Society || 2008
|-
|Derbyshire Building Society
| merged with the || Nationwide Building Society || 2008
|-
|Barnsley Building Society
| merged with the || Yorkshire Building Society || 2008
|-
|Catholic Building Society
| merged with the || Chelsea Building Society || 2008
|-
|Scarborough Building Society}}
| merged with the || Skipton Building Society || 2009
|-
|Dunfermline Building Society
| most assets and liabilities<br /> transferred to || Nationwide Building Society || 2009
|-
| Britannia Building Society}}
| acquired by || The Co-operative Bank ||2009
|-
|Chelsea Building Society
| merged with the || Yorkshire Building Society || 2010
|-
|Chesham Building Society, accessed 1 April 2010}}
| merged with the || Skipton Building Society || 2010
|-
|Stroud & Swindon Building Society
| merged with the || Coventry Building Society || 2010
|-
|Kent Reliance Building Society
| acquired by || OneSavings Plc to form OneSavings Bank || 2011
|-
|Norwich and Peterborough Building Society
| merged with the || Yorkshire Building Society || 2011
|-
| Century Building Society
| merged with the || Scottish Building Society || 2013
|-
| Shepshed Building Society
| merged with the || Nottingham Building Society || 2013
|-
| City of Derry Building Society
| merged with the || Progressive Building Society || 2014
|-
| Holmesdale Building Society
| merged with the || Skipton Building Society || 2018
|-
| Manchester Building Society
| merged with the || Newcastle Building Society || 2023
|}
Australia
In Australia, building societies evolved along British lines. Following the end of World War II, the terminating model was revived to fund returning servicemen's need for new houses. Hundreds were created with government seed capital, whereby the capital was returned to the government and the terminating societies retained the interest accumulated. Once all the seed funds were loaned, each terminating society could reapply for more seed capital to the point where they could re-lend their own funds and thus became a permanent society.
Terminating loans were still available and used inside the permanent businesses by staff up until the 1980s because their existence was not widely known after the early 1960s. Because of strict regulations on banks, building societies flourished until the deregulation of the Australian financial industry in the 1980s. Eventually many of the smaller building societies disappeared, while some of the largest (such as Advance and St George) attained the status of banks.
More recent conversions have included Heritage Bank which converted from building society to bank in 2011, Hume in 2014, while Wide Bay Building Society became Auswide Bank and IMB followed suit in 2015, and Greater Building Society became Greater Bank in 2016. Building societies converting to banks are no longer required to demutualise.
A particular difference between Australian building societies and those elsewhere, is that Australian building societies are required to incorporate as limited companies.
Current building societies are
*Bass & Equitable Building Society (Tasmania)
*Maitland Mutual Building Society (Maitland)
Eswatini
The Building Societies Act of 1962 allowed for the registration of building societies in Eswatini. For a long time the country only had one building society. A second was registered in late 2019.
*Swaziland Building Society: Registered in the 1960s, this is the first and oldest building society in Eswatini. It has branches in almost every town and city within the Kingdom and has been known to be conservative. There have been many rumours of this institution wishing to demutualise to the extent that an amendment to the Building Societies Act was passed in 2019 permitting building societies to demutualise and apply for banking licences.
*Status Capital Building Society: Status Capital Building Society was registered as the country's second building society and granted a licence in 2019 by the Financial Services Regulatory Authority after approval and recommendation from the Minister of Finance. Ireland The Republic of Ireland had around 40 building societies at the mid-20th century peak. Many of these were very small and, as the Irish commercial banks began to originate residential mortgages, the small building societies ceased to be competitive. Most merged or dissolved or, in the case of First Active plc, converted into conventional banks. The last remaining building societies, EBS Building Society and Irish Nationwide Building Society, demutualised and were transferred or acquired into Bank subsidiaries in 2011 following the effects of the Irish financial crisis.
Leeds Building Society Ireland and Nationwide UK (Ireland) were Irish branches of building societies based in the United Kingdom; both have since ceased all Irish operations.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Demutualised !! Successor
|-
|Irish Industrial Benefit Building Society (1873–1969)<br/>
Irish Industrial Building Society (1969–1975)<br/>
Irish Nationwide Building Society (1975 – Feb 2011)
:acquired Irish Mutual Building Society, 1989
::formerly Allied Irish Building Society(−1976)
:acquired Garda Building Society, 1983
:acquired Metropolitan Building Society, 1991
|February 2011
|deposit book Permanent TSB Group Holdings plc (February 2011–June 2011)<br/>
loan book Anglo Irish Bank (February 2011–June 2011)<br/>
Irish Bank Resolution Corporation (July 2011–February 2013)
|-
|Educational Building Society (1935−1991)
:acquired The Family Building Society, 1975
EBS Building Society (1991–2011)
:acquired Midland and Western Building Society, 1994
:acquired Norwich Irish Building Society, 1998
|July 2011
|EBS d.a.c., subsidiary of Allied Irish Banks
|-
|Irish Temperance Permanent Building Society (−1888)<br/>
Irish Permanent Benefit Building Society (1888–1940)<br/>
Irish Permanent Building Society (1940–1994)
:acquired Provident Building Society, 1974
:acquired Cork Mutual Building Society, 1975
:acquired Munster & Leinster Building Society, 1978
:acquired Guinness & Mahon, 1994
|1994
|Irish Permanent plc (1994–1999)<br/>
Permanent TSB Group Holdings plc (1999–)<br/>
merged with TSB Bank, 2001<br/>
Permanent TSB Group Holdings plc
|-
|Irish Civil Services and General Building Society (1864–1867)<br/>
Irish Civil Service and General (Permanent Benefit) Building Society (1867–1874)<br/>
Irish Civil Service (Permanent) Building Society (1874–1969)
:acquired City and County Permanent Benefit Building Society, 1932
Irish Civil Service Building Society (1969–1984)
:acquired O'Connell Benefit Building Society, 1983
|1984
|subsidiary of Bank of Ireland
:renamed ICS Building Society (1986)
|-
|Workingman's Benefit Building Society (−1960)<br/>
First National Building Society (1960–1998)
:acquired Grafton Savings and Building Society, 1974
:acquired The Guinness Permanent Building Society, 1984
:acquired Ireland Benefit Building Society, 1984
:acquired Postal Service Permanent Building Society, 1985
:acquired Irish Life Building Society, 1993
|1998
|First Active plc (1998–2004)<br/>
acquired by Ulster Bank 2004 and retired in 2009
|}
Society closures
* Ballygall Building Society, 1977
* City and Provincial Building Society, 1978
* Dublin Model Building Society, 1984
* Dublin Savings Building Society, 1977
* Four Provinces Building Society, 1978
* Independent Building Society, 1977
* Irish Savings Building Society, 1984
* National Provincial Building Society, 1977
* Progressive Building Society, 1977
* West of Ireland Building Society, 1977
Jamaica
In Jamaica, three building societies compete with commercial banks and credit unions for most consumer financial services:
*Jamaica National Building Society
*Victoria Mutual Building Society
*Scotia Jamaica Building Society
New Zealand
Regulation
In New Zealand, building societies are registered with the Registrar of Building Societies under the Building Societies Act 1965. Registration as a building society is merely a process of establishing the entity as a corporation. It is largely a formality, and easily achieved, as the capital requirement is minimal (20 members must be issued shares of not less than NZ$1,000 each, with a total minimum foundation share capital of NZ$200,000).
As regards prudential supervision, a divide exists between building societies that operate in New Zealand, on the one hand, and those that (although formally registered in New Zealand) operate offshore:
* Building societies that accept deposits from members of the public in New Zealand are regulated as "non-bank deposit takers" under the Non-bank Deposit Takers Act 2013. Such building societies must (unless they qualify for a particular exemption) comply with the prudential regulations. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand monitors compliance with the prudential regulations, but does not prudentially supervise individual building societies for financial soundness. Most such building societies are supervised for compliance with the terms of their debt securities by trustees appointed under securities legislation, and those trustees have various reporting requirements to the Reserve Bank.
* Building societies that accept deposits only from offshore customers are not regulated under the Non-bank Deposit Takers Act 2013 or New Zealand's financial markets legislation. Consequently, they are not prudentially monitored by the Reserve Bank or by the Financial Markets Authority. The Reserve Bank cautions on its website that it does not monitor transactions undertaken by New Zealand registered building societies operating in overseas markets. The Department of Internal Affairs is ultimately responsible for all entities that do not expressly fall into other categories for anti money laundering purposes.
Building societies' registration details and filed documents are available in the Register of Building Societies held at the New Zealand Companies Office.
Individual building societies
Over the years, a number of building societies were established.
Some, including Countrywide Building Society and United Building Society, became banks in the 1980s and 1990s. Heartland Building Society (created in 2011 through a merger of Canterbury Building Society, Southern Cross Building Society, and two other financial institutions) became Heartland Bank on 17 December 2012.
Remaining building societies include:
* Pacific Eagle Capital (formerly General Equity Building Society)
* Heretaunga Building Society
* Kiwi Deposit Building Society (in the process of dissolution since 2013)
* Manawatu Permanent Building Society
* Nelson Building Society
* Southland Building Society, which in October 2008 became a registered bank known as SBS Bank. However, it remains a building society and retains its mutual structure.
* Hastings Building Society merged with SBS Bank in October 2010, but with the Hastings Building Society brand continuing to operate as a building society under the name of HBS Bank. In November 2015, HBS Bank brand was discontinued.
* Wairarapa Building Society.
Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, Central Africa Building Society (CABS) is the leading building society offering a diverse range of financial products and services that include transaction and savings accounts, mobile banking, mortgage loans, money market investments, term deposits and pay-roll loans.
Similar organisations in other countries
In other countries there are mutual organisations similar to building societies:
*Austria: In Austria there are four co-operative banks: Allgemeine Bausparkasse (ABV), Raiffeisen-Bausparkasse, Bausparkasse Wüstenrot AG and Bausparkasse der Sparkassen (savings bank).
*Finland: In Finland the Mortgage Society of Finland, a permanent building society, was founded in 1860. Since 2002 mortgage loans are handled by Suomen AsuntoHypoPankki, the licensed bank owned by the society.
*Germany: In Germany there are 8 Bausparkassen of the Sparkassen-Finanzgruppe named Landesbausparkassen (LBS) and 12 private Bausparkassen, for example Schwäbisch Hall, Wüstenrot, Deutsche Bank Bauspar AG and so on.
*United States: In the United States, savings and loan associations, as well as credit unions, have a similar organisation and purpose.
*Denmark In Denmark, nearly all home mortgages are done through a Realkreditinstitut who issue low interest rate bonds tied directly to the value of the home. These institutions are historically member-owned, but since the 00's, several has been acquired by commercial banks. These bonds can cover up to 80% of the home's value, and additional loans at higher rates are needed if you need to finance the rest.
*Other: See Cooperative banking.
Operational differences from banks
Roll numbers
Because most building societies were not direct members of the UK clearing system, it was common for them to use a roll number to identify accounts rather than to allocate a six-digit sort-code and eight-digit account number to the BACS standards.
More recently, building societies have tended to obtain sort-code and account number allocations within the clearing system, and hence the use of roll numbers has diminished. When using BACS, one needs to enter roll numbers for the reference field and the building society's generic sort code and account number would be entered in the standard BACS fields.See also
*Banking in the United Kingdom
*Mutual organisation
*Mutualism
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_society
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Blue Steel (missile)
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minimum
| wingspan
| length
| weight
| speed Mach 3+
| vehicle_range ]]
aerospace museum, showing the twin-chamber "Stentor" rocket motor]]
Origins
During the early 1950s, the Soviet PVO-Strany interceptor aircraft and its associated ground controlled interception systems were steadily improving, making the approach to the V bomber's targets more difficult. An extensive study, "The Pattern of the Future Offensive", suggested that an attacking force of 100 aircraft would suffer 8% losses at night, and as much as 29% during the day due to the much greater number of day fighters in Soviet service. The paper concluded with a summary showing the expected losses over time as the Soviet forces improved, by 1957 it was expected that losses would be 10 to 20% at night, and then further erode.
The UK intelligence services were also aware that the Soviets were planning to deploy an extensive surface-to-air missile (SAM) system around Moscow. The system had been developed to fend off a WWII-style attack by 1,000 low-speed aircraft, like those raids carried out by RAF Bomber Command. Known in the west as the SA-1 "Guild", the system was partially based on World War 2 research in the German Wasserfall program and its V-300 missiles had limited range around at best. Expected to be deployed in the late 1950s, approaching the target for attack with gravity bombs would become increasingly dangerous after that time.
At the time, the Soviet defences were at their best between and , and the existing V-bombers had the required performance to fly over this altitude. But the introduction of the SAMs would make this increasingly unlikely to work as more and more of the missiles were installed. There were two general solutions to this problem. One was to fly higher and faster, but the leap in performance needed to overfly the missiles, with altitudes on the order of could not be met until the mid-1960s at the minimum. This would leave a gap between around 1961 and 1965 when the V-force could not be expected to successfully perform its mission.
The conclusion of this paper, and other reports like it, was that the situation could be greatly improved through the combination of improved electronic countermeasures (ECM) to disrupt fighter operations, and a standoff missile to allow the bombers to turn back before approaching within the range of the SAMs. It was expected that this combination would allow the V force to remain effective until 1965 at least. Beyond that time a new supersonic bomber would be required, a requirement that would ultimately be taken up as the Avro 730.OR.1132On 3 September 1954 the Air Staff issued Operational Requirement OR.1132 for the standoff weapon. This was essentially issued to the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), whose Guided Weapon Department had been studying such a system for a while and had produced a series of "W weapons" of different layouts. These had been designed to address the problem that the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (AWRE) could not guarantee the size of the warhead. Accordingly, the W weapons were designed to the maximum possible size that each of the bombers could carry, diameter for the Vickers Valiant and for Avro Vulcan and Handley Page Victor.
The Ministry of Supply (MoS) did not feel that development should remain at the RAE, and had canvassed the bomber builders asking for comments on the RAE's concepts, considering both a shorter-range and longer-ranged weapon. Avro, having recently given the go-ahead on the 730, appeared cool on the long-range concept and was primarily interested in a short-range weapon of perhaps range, which would allow it to avoid the most heavily defended areas. Vickers Armstrong and Handley Page were much more interested, proposing longer-ranged weapons that would extend the life of their existing V bomber designs. Handley Page's concept rejected the MoS's shorter range and offered a design of using ramjet power. However, the Ministry noted that the inertial navigation system (INS) being developed by Elliott Automation would not be accurate enough to fly this distance and hit its targets within the desired circular error probable (CEP).
Vickers, who had worked on the somewhat similar Blue Boar and Red Rapier projects would seem like the natural choice for the contract, and planned to have their weapon in operation two years earlier than the other teams. But the Ministry had a cold relationship with Vickers after their Red Dean efforts. Avro appears to have been selected due to a number of RAE personnel having been hired by the company to form their design department, the Weapons Research Division, including the Chief Engineer, R.H. Fransis. On 4 May 1955 the Ministry of Supply issued the G/Proj/6220/GW35A contract with Avro and assigned it the rainbow code "Blue Steel".Avro's concept
At the time, nuclear weapon design was still in its early stages, and the intended weapon for the missile was a boosted fission weapon known as "Green Bamboo". To achieve the desired 1 MT yield, the implosion had to be extremely symmetrical, and this required a 72-point explosive system that led to the weapon being in diameter and massing an estimated . This weapon was secret and only the diameter and mass were revealed to prospective entrants. It was the large size of the warhead, and the resulting diameter fuselage needed to carry it, that led Avro to the use of a rocket motor when most standoff weapons to that point were jet or ramjet powered. Avro simply could not find a place to put an air intake on the missile which did not result it in being too large in some other dimension, typically length. The engine, the Armstrong Siddeley Stentor Mark 101, had two chambers, one for cruising at about Mach 1, and a second larger one that was ignited close to the target to increase speed to Mach 3 for a final dash.
At Mach 3, skin friction will heat the fuselage to around , which is higher than the temperature that will cause aluminium to become soft. This is the reason that most high-speed aircraft are generally limited to about Mach 2.4 or lower, flying above this speed risks damage to the airframe. Those aircraft that do operate above this speed have to use other materials, and for this role, Avro chose stainless steel. The difficulties encountered bending sheets of stainless steel led to initial designs for the weapon that were very "linear", with the fuselage made of a single sheet rolled into a cylinder and a second sheet rolled into a cone to form the nose area.
Avro's initial response, in late 1955, outlined a four-stage development effort. In Stage 1, the weapon would be powered by a two-chamber rocket engine that would provide the required range at speeds up to Mach 2.5. The Stage 2 would use an improved engine and more fuel to provide range up to at speeds up to Mach 4.5. Stage 3 would weigh in at and include both disposible boosters and a drop-off fuel tank with range up to . For the future Avro 730, a new delta wing design of 18 to 26,000 lbs would offer range up to .
Considering their submissions, the Ministry responded by ordering Avro to work only on the OR.1137 requirements, and ignore the long-term developments. This produced the first complete design, W.100. They proposed building the missile from AF.520 stainless steel, expecting to learn how to do so using the 730 contract to build testbeds. A series of smaller designs, W.101 through 104, would be made from a variety of materials and used to test the flight dynamics, autopilot and INS. As part of ongoing industry-wide research, the design underwent several evolutionary changes. The wings and canards became deltas and the experience of the Bristol 188 gave Avro confidence in construction of rounded surfaces using stainless steel and the design became much more aerodynamic with a boat tail and ogive nose.Delays
Avro began work proper in 1955, with the assigned Rainbow Code name of "Blue Steel" which it would keep in service. With Elliots working on the guidance system, Armstrong Siddeley would develop the liquid fuel engine. The design period was protracted, with various development problems exacerbated by the fact that designers lacked information on the actual size and weight of the proposed Green Bamboo, or its likely thermonuclear successor derived from the Granite series.
The program ran into delays almost immediately. All of the systems - missile, navigation and motor - ran into problems and this resulted in the companies pointing fingers at each other. By the late 1950s it was clear the missiles would not be ready for their 1962 initial operational introduction, leading to significant critism of Avro on the part of the Ministry of Supply and the Air Ministry.
By this time it was clear that the Soviets were going to install an even more extensive missile system that originally believed, one that would cover the approach routes to the targets and even have sites on the Russian coastline, well outside the range of the missile.
Avro proposed that Blue Steel would evolve over time, subsequent versions increasing speed (to Mach 4.5) and range. The ultimate Blue Steel would be a range weapon that could be launched by the supersonic Avro 730 under development. They were told to limit themselves to the specification of OR.1132. The project was delayed by the need to develop the required stainless steel fabrication techniques; this would have been gained in building the Avro 730 but that had been cancelled by then. The Elliots guidance system was plagued by accuracy problems, delaying test flights.
As it turned out, neither of the originally-proposed UK-designed warheads were actually fitted, being superseded by Red Snow, an Anglicised variant of the U.S. W-28 thermonuclear warhead of 1.1 Mt yield. Red Snow was smaller and lighter than the earlier warhead proposals. The missile was fitted with a state-of-the-art inertial navigation unit. This system allowed the missile to strike within 100 metres of its designated target. In addition, the pilots of the Avro Vulcan or Handley Page Victor bombers could tie their systems into those of the missile and make use of the guidance system to help plot their own flight plan, since the unit in the missile was more advanced than that in the aircraft.
On launch the rocket engine's first chamber developing thrust would power the missile along a predetermined course to the target at around Mach 1.5. Once close to the target, the second chamber of the engine (6,000 lbf) would accelerate the missile to Mach 3. Over the target the engine would cut out and the missile would free-fall before detonating its warhead as an air burst.
To speed the trials at Woomera, the test rounds were flown there by Victors and Vulcans in Operation Blue Ranger. The trials began in 1960 about the time the original requirement expected the weapon to be in service. The missiles were prepared at the Weapons Research Establishment near Salisbury South Australia, and flown to be launched at the Woomera range from RAAF Edinburgh. A specialist unit, No. 4 Joint Services Trials Unit RAF, was established to carry out preparatory and operational tasks.
Blue Steel finally entered service in February 1963, carried by Vulcans and Victors, although its limitations were already apparent. The short range of the missile meant that the V bombers were still vulnerable to enemy surface-to-air missiles. A replacement for Blue Steel, the Mark 2, was planned with increased range and a ramjet engine, but was cancelled in 1960 to minimise delays to the Mk.1. The UK sought to acquire the much longer-ranged United States AGM-48 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile and was greatly frustrated when that weapon was cancelled in late 1962.
]]
Blue Steel required up to seven hours of launch preparation, and was highly unreliable. The Royal Air Force estimated in 1963 that half the missiles would fail to fire and would have to be dropped over their targets, contradicting their purpose of serving as standoff weapons. Even as it deployed Blue Steel as a high-altitude weapon, that year the government decided that because of anti-aircraft missiles' increasing effectiveness, V bombers would have to convert from high-altitude to low-altitude attacks. These trials were conducted in 1964 and concluded in 1965 With no effective long-range weapon the original Blue Steel served on after a crash programme of minor modifications to permit a low-level launch at , even though its usefulness in a hot war was likely limited. A stop-gap weapon (WE.177B) was quickly produced to extend the life of the V-bomber force in the strategic role until the Polaris missile was deployed. This WE.177 laydown weapon supplemented the remaining modified Blue Steel missiles, using a low-level penetration followed by a pop-up manoeuvre to release the weapon at . One live operational round was deployed on each of forty-eight Vulcan and Victor bombers, and a further five live rounds were produced as operational spares. An additional four non-nuclear rounds were produced for various RAF requirements, and there were sixteen other unspecified training rounds.
Blue Steel was officially retired on 31 December 1970, with the United Kingdom's strategic nuclear capacity passing to the submarine fleet.
Operator
;
* Royal Air Force - (V bombers)
Specifications
* Length:
* Wingspan:
* Diameter: minimum
* Launch Weight:
* Speed: Mach 2.3
* Ceiling:
* Maximum Range:
* Guidance: Inertial
* CEP: ~100 metres
* Warhead: Red Snow thermonuclear (1.1 Mt)
See also
*
*
*Rainbow Codes
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
*
* Leitch, Andy. "V-Force Arsenal: Weapons for the Valiant, Victor and Vulcan". Air Enthusiast No. 107, September/October 2003. pp. 52–59.
*
Further reading
*External links
*[http://www.sonicbomb.com/v1.php?vidmilitary/bluesteel.wmv&id352&ttitleAvro%20Blue%20steel Video of Blue Steel in operation]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20030322011429/http://www.spaceuk.org/bsteel/bsteel.htm Blue Steel]
*https://web.archive.org/web/20040208232113/http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluesteel.htm
*Official history: RAF Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Author: Wynne . Publisher: HMSO, 1994.
*https://web.archive.org/web/20061209210406/http://www.vectorsite.net/twcruz.html
*[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1959/1959%20-%200491.html The Vulcan Gets New Striking Power] an AVRO advertisement for the Vulcan from Flight in February 1959, showing the (still unnamed) Blue Steel.
*[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1960/1960%20-%201302.html "Blue Steel And Its Engine"] a 1960 Flight article on the Blue Steel
Category:Cold War air-to-surface missiles of the United Kingdom
Category:Nuclear air-to-surface missiles
Category:Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom
Category:Military equipment introduced in the 1960s
Category:Rainbow code
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Steel_(missile)
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Branch Davidians
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Flag of the Branch Davidians
| population | founder Benjamin Roden
| regions = Texas (United States)
| tablehdr = Branch Davidian
| region1 = Mount Carmel
| pop1 | ref1
| region2 | pop2
| ref2 | region3
| pop3 | ref3
| religions | languages English
| related-c =
}}
The Branch Davidians (or the General Association of Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventists) are a Christian cult founded in 1955 by Benjamin Roden. They regard themselves as a continuation of the General Association of Davidian Seventh-Day Adventists, established by Victor Houteff in 1935. They have often been described as a doomsday cult.
Houteff, a Seventh-day Adventist, wrote a series of tracts titled the "Shepherd's Rod", which called for reform of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. After his ideas were rejected, Houteff and his followers formed the group that became known as "Davidians" and some moved onto land outside Waco, Texas. They built a community called the Mount Carmel Center, which served as headquarters for the movement. After Houteff's death in 1955, his wife Florence took control of the organization. That same year, Benjamin Roden, a follower of Houteff, proclaimed what he believed to be a new message from God and wrote letters presenting it to Davidians. He signed these letters "The Branch" believing that to be the new name Jesus had taken to reflect a new stage of his work in the heavenly sanctuary. Those who accepted Benjamin Roden's teachings became known as Branch Davidians Seventh Day Adventists.
In 1957, Florence sold the Mount Carmel Center and purchased 941 acres near Elk, Texas – 13 miles northeast of Waco – naming it New Mount Carmel Center. After the failure of Florence's prophecy of apocalyptic events on or near April 22, 1959, she dissolved the Davidian Association in 1962 and sold all but 77.86 acres of the New Mount Carmel property. Benjamin Roden took possession of it in 1962 and began efforts to purchase the remaining 77.86 acres. On February 27, 1973, New Mount Carmel was sold to Benjamin, his wife Lois Roden, and their son George Roden. From then on, the property was simply known as Mount Carmel. Upon the death of Benjamin Roden in 1978, Lois became the next Davidian prophet at the compound.
In 1981, a young man named Vernon Howell, later known as David Koresh, came to Mount Carmel and studied biblical prophecy under Lois Roden. By 1983, Howell (Koresh) had gained a group of followers that separated from Lois' organization to form "The Davidian Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Association." Meanwhile, Lois continued to operate the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Association from Mt. Carmel Center near Waco. Koresh's group and the Branch Davidians (Lois's group) were two separate organizations with different leaders, names, and locations from 1983. It was not until 1987, after Lois died, that Koresh filed a document claiming to be the president of the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Association. Koresh and followers, further, went to Mt. Carmel center, engaging in a shootout with George Roden that eventually resulted in Koresh's group occupying the land. These actions are regarded by Branch Davidians who remained loyal to Lois Roden as an act of identity theft against them.
Koresh's leadership ended at the Waco siege of 1993, a fifty-one–day standoff between the sect and federal agents. Four agents of the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) and two residents were killed by the sect during the initial raid, while four sect members were killed by ATF agents on February 28, 1993. Seventy-six members of Koresh's group, including many children, died in a fire that erupted during the siege on April 19, 1993. Early history In 1929, Victor Houteff, a Bulgarian immigrant and a Seventh-day Adventist Sabbath School teacher from southern California, claimed that he had a new message for the entire Adventist church. He presented his views in a book, ''The Shepherd's Rod: The 144,000 – A Call for Reformation''. The Adventist leadership rejected Houteff's views as contrary to the church's basic teachings, and local church congregations disfellowshipped Houteff and his followers.
In 1934, Houteff established his headquarters to the west of Waco, Texas, and his group became known as the Davidians. In 1942, he renamed the group the General Association of Davidian Seventh-day Adventists 'Davidian' which indicated its belief in the restoration of the Davidic Kingdom of Israel. Following Houteff's death in 1955, his wife Florence usurped the leadership believing herself to be a prophet. Convinced that an apocalypse would occur in 1959, a date which is not found in her husband's original writings, Florence and her council gathered hundreds of their faithful followers at the Mount Carmel Center, the group's compound which was located near Waco, for the fulfillment of the prophecy which is written in Ezekiel 9.
The anticipated events did not occur, and following this disappointment, Benjamin Roden formed another group which he called the Branch Davidians and succeeded in taking control of Mount Carmel. The name of this group is an allusion to the anointed 'Branch' (mentioned in Zechariah 3:8; 6:12). When Benjamin Roden died in 1978, he was succeeded by his wife Lois Roden. Members of the Branch Davidians were torn between allegiance to Ben's wife or to his son, George. After Lois died, George assumed the right to the Presidency. However, less than a year later, Vernon Howell rose to power and became the leader over those in the group who sympathized with him.
Rise of David Koresh
Howell's arrival at Mount Carmel in 1981 was well received by nearly everyone at the Davidian commune. He had engaged in an affair with Lois Roden while he was in his early 20s and she was in her late 60s. Howell wanted to father a child with her, who, according to his understanding, would be the Chosen One. When she died, George Roden inherited the positions of prophet and leader of the sect. A power struggle ensued between Roden and Howell, who soon gained the loyalty of the majority of the Davidians. In 1984, Howell and his followers left Mount Carmel after Roden accused Howell of having started a fire that consumed a $500,000 administration building and press, which Roden subsequently renamed "Rodenville". Another splinter group, led by Charlie Pace, left and settled in Alabama.
As an attempt to regain support, Roden challenged Howell to raise the dead, going so far as to exhume the corpse of a two-decades–deceased Davidian in order to demonstrate his spiritual supremacy. (Roden denied this, saying he had only been moving the community cemetery.) This illegal act gave Howell an opportunity to attempt to file charges against Roden, but he was told that he needed evidence in order to substantiate the charges. On November 3, 1987, Howell and seven of his followers raided Mount Carmel, equipped with five .223-caliber semi-automatic rifles, two .22-caliber rifles, two 12-gauge shotguns, and nearly four hundred rounds of ammunition, in an apparent attempt to retake the compound. Although Howell's group claimed that it was trying to obtain evidence of Roden's illegal activities, its members did not take a camera with them.
The trial ended with the jury finding Howell's followers not guilty, but the jury members were unable to agree on a verdict for Howell himself. After his followers were acquitted, Howell invited the prosecutors to Mount Carmel for ice cream.
It is claimed that Howell was never authorized to name his breakaway sect the "Branch Davidians",
Interpreting Revelation 5:2, Koresh identified himself with the Lamb mentioned therein. This is traditionally believed to symbolize Jesus Christ; however, Koresh suggested that the Lamb would come before Jesus and pave the way for his Second Coming.
Federal siege
On February 28, 1993, at 4:20 am, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms attempted to execute a search warrant relating to alleged sexual abuse charges and illegal weapons violations. The ATF attempted to breach the compound for approximately two hours until their ammunition ran low. Four ATF agents (Steve Willis, Robert Williams, Todd McKeehan, and Conway Charles LeBleu) were killed and another sixteen agents were wounded during the raid. The five Branch Davidians killed in the 9:45 a.m. raid were Winston Blake (British), Peter Gent (Australian), Peter Hipsman, Perry Jones, and Jaydean Wendell; two were killed by the Branch Davidians. Almost six hours after the ceasefire, Michael Schroeder was shot dead by ATF agents who alleged he fired a pistol at agents as he attempted to re-enter the compound with Woodrow Kendrick and Norman Allison. His wife said he was merely returning from work and had not participated in the day's earlier altercation.
engulfed in flames]]
On April 19, 1993, the FBI moved for a final siege of the compound using large weaponry such as .50 caliber (12.7 mm) rifles and armored combat engineering vehicles (CEV) to combat the heavily armed Branch Davidians. The FBI attempted to use tear gas to flush out the Branch Davidians. Officially, FBI agents were only permitted to return any incoming fire, not to actively assault the Branch Davidians. When several Branch Davidians opened fire, the FBI's response was to increase the amount of gas being used. Some Branch Davidian survivors maintain that the fires were started either accidentally or deliberately by the assault. Of the eighty-five Branch Davidians in the compound when the final siege began, seventy-six died on April 19 in various ways, from falling rubble to suffocating effects of the fire, or by gunshot from fellow Branch Davidians. As of July 2007, all Branch Davidians had been released from prison.
Civil suits were brought against the United States government, federal officials, former governor of Texas Ann Richards, and members of the Texas Army National Guard. The bulk of these claims were dismissed because they were insufficient as a matter of law or because the plaintiffs could advance no material evidence in support of them. One case, Andrade v. Chojnacki, made it to the Fifth Circuit, which upheld a previous ruling of "take-nothing, denied".
After the siege
There are several groups that claim descent from the Branch Davidians today. The group that retains the original name "Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist" regards Lois Roden's immediate successor to have been Doug Mitchell (who joined the Branch Davidians in 1978 and led the group from 1986 until his death in 2013) and Mitchell's successor to be Trent Wilde (who has led the group since 2013). This group never followed David Koresh.
Another group exists under the leadership of Charles Pace, called The Branch, The Lord Our Righteousness. It is a legally recognized denomination with twelve members. Pace, while regarding Koresh as appointed by God, says that Koresh twisted the Bible's teachings by fathering more than a dozen children with members' wives. Pace believes that the Lord "has anointed me and appointed me to be the leader", but he says he is "not a prophet" but "a teacher of righteousness". Others, once led by Clive Doyle, continue to believe Koresh was a prophet and await his resurrection, along with the followers who were killed. Both of these groups are still waiting for the end times. Flag The original Davidian flag, as described in the Catalog-Syllabus (1942), showed a red lion inside a black six-pointed star, surrounded by five-pointed stars, on a green field.
On February 28, 1993, the day of their initial confrontation with the ATF, a similar flag made of fringed satin was visible hanging in a front window of the compound. This flag had a pink six-pointed star surrounded by five-pointed stars, on a gold field. It had been presented to Benjamin Roden by northern Branch Davidians, but Roden never flew it because "the colors were wrong". Koresh, however, decided to hang it, and although it was destroyed on the first day it continued to hang in tatters throughout the siege.
The Waco sect hoisted a different flag on their flagpole on March 1, 1993, after being surrounded by federal agents. This flag was also made of satin and was sewn in part by Kathy Jones. Steve Schneider described it as containing a "stylistic Star of David" and the fiery flying serpent mentioned in Isaiah 14. According to Koresh, the flag signified Mount Carmel's status as a sovereign power. This flag ripped off its pole during the Mount Carmel compound fire, and the ATF replaced it with an American flag, a Texas flag, and their own flag.
Carol Howe reported that a Branch Davidian flag was hanging in Elohim City as of January 1995, before the Oklahoma City bombing.
Relationship with Seventh-Day Adventists
The Seventh-day Adventist Church, the main church in the Adventist tradition, rejected Victor Houteff's teachings and revoked his membership in 1930.
Houteff then went on to found the Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Association (an offshoot which is also known as the Shepherd's Rod). The Branch Davidians are an offshoot of the Davidians and they are also a product of a schism which was initiated by Benjamin Roden, after Houteff's death and in light of Florence's (Houteff's wife) usurpation of power.
Florence believed that she was a prophet. But her prediction of the demise of the Seventh Day Adventist Church, which according to her should have occurred forty-two months after Houteff's death (1959) failed to materialize. Likewise, Ben Roden believed that he was a prophet as well as a rightful heir to the leadership of the Davidians.
While they were still formally members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Branch Davidian leaders demanded a reform of the church and when their demand was met with opposition (by both the Seventh-day Adventists and the Davidians), they decided to leave that denomination and at the same time, they widely distanced themselves from the Davidians.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church deprived both the Branch Davidians and the Davidians of their membership in the denomination, in spite of this fact, the Branch Davidians actively continued to "hunt" members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and encourage them to leave it and join their group. The Seventh-day Adventists were reportedly "apprehensive" about the group's views because Branch Davidians claimed that they were the "only rightful continuation of the Adventist message", based on their belief that Victor Houteff was the divinely selected prophet and the successor of Ellen G. White. Both the Davidians and the Branch Davidians claimed that Houteff was their spiritual inspiration, as the founder of the Davidians. The Seventh-day Adventist Church issued warnings about the Branch Davidian sect's views to its members on a regular basis.
Schisms within the Branch Davidian sect
There is documented evidence (FBI negotiation transcripts, during the standoff, with Kathryn Shroeder and Steve Schneider with interjections from Koresh himself) that David Koresh and his followers did not call themselves Branch Davidians. In addition, David Koresh, through forgery, stole the identity of the Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventists for the purpose of obtaining the New Mount Carmel Center's property. See also
* Alamo Christian Foundation
* Apocalypticism
* British Israelism
* Christian fundamentalism
* Christian Zionism
* Christianity and Judaism
* Christianity and violence
* Cult
* Judaizers
* Judeo-Christian
* List of Christian denominations
* List of messiah claimants
* List of cults
* List of people claimed to be Jesus
* List of Seventh-day Adventists
* Millenarianism
* New religious movement
* Philo-Semitism
* Polygamy in Christianity
* Polygamy in North America
* Religious abuse
* Religious violence
* Spiritual abuse
References
External links
* [http://2branches.info The BRANCH, The LORD Our Righteousness]
* [http://www.bdsda.com The General Association of Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists]
* [http://www.upa7.org/index.html The Universal Publishing Association-Shepherd's Rod]
* [http://www.theadventmovement.net/ The Advent Movement]
Category:1959 establishments in Texas
Category:Christian organizations established in 1959
Category:Organizations based in Texas
Category:Branch Davidianism
Category:Adventism
Category:Christian denominations established in the 20th century
Category:Paramilitary organizations based in the United States
Category:Religious paramilitary organizations
Category:Seventh-day denominations
Category:Religious controversies in the United States
Category:Religious scandals
Category:Scandals in Christian organizations
Category:Waco siege
Category:Christian denominations founded in the United States
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Burwash Hall
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Burwash Hall refers to both Burwash Dining Hall and Burwash Hall proper, the second oldest of the residence buildings at Victoria University in Toronto, Canada. Construction began in 1911 and was completed in 1913. It was named after Nathanael Burwash, president of Victoria from 1887 to 1912. The building is an extravagant Neo-Gothic work with turrets, gargoyles, and battlements. The architects were Messrs. Sproatt & Rolph.HistoryIn 1910, seven years after the opening of the women's residence, Annesley Hall, the administrators of Victoria University began plans for an elaborate men's residence building on the campus. The project was funded by the estate of Mr. Hart A. Massey, an alumnus from Victoria's early days in Cobourg. Burwash Hall was designed to resemble the residences in Oxford and Cambridge, with modifications to the stair-case system and the division of houses. Constructed of Bedford Indiana cut stone and Georgetown rubble masonry, the residence houses and adjoined dining hall intended to prove that beauty and efficiency were not antithetical. The Gate House emblem is the Phoenix, visible in the bottom-right corner of the Victoria College insignia.
Gate House, with the rest of Upper Burwash, opened in 1913 and has held students every year since then except 1995, when it was renovated. As an all-male residence from 1913 to 2007 it held a number of unique traditions. For 20 years Gate House hosted an annual party called Novemberfest in the Burwash dining hall. The Victoria Dean of Students cancelled Novemberfest in 2003, when police discovered widespread underage drinking and over 800 people in the dining hall, in violation of the fire code. Another Gate House tradition that no longer occurs is the "stirring the chicken," a dinner and keg party where house members cook chicken fajitas for hundreds of guests. Until 2007, Gate House held secretive first-year initiation ceremonies called Traditionals, which involved writing slogans on campus buildings in chalk, singing songs to the all-women's residence (who would then sing back to them), and leading first-years around the house blindfolded. Since Novemberfest, Gate House continued to have conflict with the Administration. In 2004 the Dean evicted three Gate House residents for allegedly "hog-tying" a first-year student. In 2007 President Paul W. Gooch wrote that Gate House undertook an "escalating series of actions" that were "defiant" and "disparaging of women", in response to Gate members constructing a 2.5-metre snow penis and placing a cooked pig's head in an Annesley bathroom. As punishment, during the fall exam period Gooch evicted two residents and relocated the remainder of Gate House to other places in the residence system, banned all current Gate House students from entering the building in 2008.
During its 93 years as a men's residence, Gate House developed a distinct character and reputation. These antics included pranks, toga parties, streaking, caroling to other residences, hazing rituals, "beer bashes" and "incessant pounding" on the Gate House table in the dining hall. Paul Gooch wrote that these traditions gave Gate House an "ethos" that contradicted his vision of residence life. which was followed by the Victoria University Research Panel on the Legacy of Egerton Ryerson in 2020, and ultimately the Presidential Report on the Legacy of Egerton Ryerson in 2021 which resulted in the change.
Although the house had been named Ryerson since 1933, all five Lower Houses were temporarily named First House, Second House, Third House, Fourth House, and Fifth House from 1931 until 1933. The Board of Regents used these placeholder names until they decided upon better alternatives. In 2021, the name of Ryerson House was reverted to its original title, First House.
Nelles House
Named for Victoria principal, president, and chancellor Samuel S. Nelles, Nelles House echoes the position of Middle House amongst the Upper Houses. Like Middle, Nelles House sits between the first and third houses in the set. However, Nelles is the exact same size and shape as Ryerson and Caven House.
Caven House
The only Lower House to not be named after a Victoria College student or administrator, Caven House comes from presbyterian minister William Caven, the second principal of Knox College, Toronto. Although he was not directly involved with the affairs of Victoria, he consulted President Nathanael Burwash and Rev. Alfred Gandier about the division of Arts and Theology at Victoria. After great discussion, this spawned Emmanuel College, Victoria's Faculty of Theology.<ref name":0" /> Since the Lower Houses were originally built for Emmanuel students, it is likely that this is the reason for naming the House after William Caven. Bowles-Gandier House Name
Bowles House is named after Victoria president and chancellor Richard Pinch Bowles, the first-cousin once-removed of Lester B. Pearson.
Gandier House is named after Alfred Gandier, the first principal of Emmanuel College.
Exterior Design
The very last house in Burwash Hall has a unique style to the other three Lower Houses. Rather than continuing the trend of Upper and Lower Houses in a straight line on the East side of the property, Bowles-Gandier House, colloquially "BG", juts out on the West side of the Southern edge of Burwash Hall. Enclosing the residence structure along the property line where Victoria meets St. Michael's College, the house forms an L shape with the other three Lower Houses.
Interior Layout
Unlike Ryerson, Nelles, and Caven House—which are all identical in layout—Bowles-Gandier is the amalgamation of Gandier House and Bowles House, which operated independently until the 1995 renovations.
The floor plan for Bowles-Gandier varies from the other Lower Houses, with a significantly larger common room and two triple-bedrooms on the main floor: each with an in-suite kitchen and bathroom.
The Bowles and Gandier stairwells are connected by a hallway on the second, third, and fourth floors. Each of these floors has a shared kitchen, and two bedrooms at the end of each hall with a connected bathroom, much like the other Lower Houses. They also have two double-rooms in the middle of the hall, which have a connected bathroom and kitchen, meaning BG has the highest kitchen-to-student ratio in Burwash.
Vic One Program
Bowles-Gandier is sometimes referred to as the Vic One House, since it is mostly reserved for students in the Vic One program. While not a requirement to live in BG, it has historically consisted of > 80% Vic One students.
References
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Category:University of Toronto buildings
Category:Gothic Revival architecture in Toronto
Category:University residences in Canada
Category:Collegiate Gothic architecture
Category:Residential buildings in Toronto
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burwash_Hall
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Benzodiazepine
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Benzodiazepines (BZD, BDZ, BZs), colloquially known as "benzos", are a class of depressant drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. They are prescribed to treat conditions such as anxiety disorders, insomnia, and seizures. The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium), was discovered accidentally by Leo Sternbach in 1955, and was made available in 1960 by Hoffmann–La Roche, which followed with the development of diazepam (Valium) three years later, in 1963.
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Benzodiazepines are depressants that enhance the effect of the tissemand neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) at the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, resulting in sedative, hypnotic (sleep-inducing), anxiolytic (anti-anxiety), anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. High doses of many shorter-acting benzodiazepines may also cause anterograde amnesia and dissociation. although cognitive impairment and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition can occur. A minority of people have paradoxical reactions after taking benzodiazepines such as worsened agitation or panic. Long-term use is controversial because of concerns about decreasing effectiveness, physical dependence, benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, and an increased risk of dementia and cancer. The elderly are at an increased risk of both short- and long-term adverse effects, There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy. While they are not major teratogens, uncertainty remains as to whether they cause cleft palate in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioural effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure; Benzodiazepines are commonly used recreationally and also often taken in combination with other addictive substances, and are controlled in most countries. which are useful in a variety of indications such as alcohol dependence, seizures, anxiety disorders, panic, agitation, and insomnia. Most are administered orally; however, they can also be given intravenously, intramuscularly, or rectally. In general, benzodiazepines are well tolerated and are safe and effective drugs in the short term for a wide range of conditions. Tolerance can develop to their effects and there is also a risk of dependence, and upon discontinuation a withdrawal syndrome may occur. These factors, combined with other possible secondary effects after prolonged use such as psychomotor, cognitive, or memory impairments, limit their long-term applicability. The effects of long-term use or misuse include the tendency to cause or worsen cognitive deficits, depression, and anxiety. Benzodiazepines can have serious adverse health outcomes, and these findings support clinical and regulatory efforts to reduce usage, especially in combination with non-benzodiazepine receptor agonists. However, there is disagreement among expert bodies regarding the long-term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder. The views range from those holding benzodiazepines are not effective long-term to those holding they are as effective in the long term as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). note that, in general, benzodiazepines are well tolerated, and their use for the initial treatment for panic disorder is strongly supported by numerous controlled trials. APA states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend any of the established panic disorder treatments over another. The choice of treatment between benzodiazepines, SSRIs, serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants, and psychotherapy should be based on the patient's history, preference, and other individual characteristics. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are likely to be the best choice of pharmacotherapy for many patients with panic disorder, but benzodiazepines are also often used, and some studies suggest that these medications are still used with greater frequency than the SSRIs. One advantage of benzodiazepines is that they alleviate the anxiety symptoms much more quickly than antidepressants, and therefore may be preferred in patients for whom rapid symptom control is critical. However, this advantage is offset by the possibility of developing benzodiazepine dependence. APA does not recommend benzodiazepines for persons with depressive symptoms or a recent history of substance use disorder. APA guidelines state that, in general, pharmacotherapy of panic disorder should be continued for at least a year, and that clinical experience supports continuing benzodiazepine treatment to prevent recurrence. Although major concerns about benzodiazepine tolerance and withdrawal have been raised, there is no evidence for significant dose escalation in patients using benzodiazepines long-term. For many such patients, stable doses of benzodiazepines retain their efficacy over several years. Nevertheless, benzodiazepines are still prescribed for long-term treatment of anxiety disorders, although specific antidepressants and psychological therapies are recommended as the first-line treatment options with the anticonvulsant drug pregabalin indicated as a second- or third-line treatment and suitable for long-term use. NICE stated that long-term use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia is an unlicensed indication, does not have long-term efficacy, and is, therefore, not recommended by clinical guidelines. Psychological therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy are recommended as a first-line therapy for panic disorder; benzodiazepine use has been found to interfere with therapeutic gains from these therapies. but did not demonstrate a favorable dropout rate compared to placebo in one meta-analysis. A newer meta-analysis showed that benzodiazepines are significantly more effective than serotonergic agents, regardless of treatment length. More research is needed, but unfortunately, newer randomized controlled trials are scarce for the off patent benzodiazepines. According to National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), benzodiazepines can be used in the immediate management of GAD, if necessary. However, they should not usually be given for longer than 2–4 weeks. The only medications NICE recommends for the longer term management of GAD are antidepressants.
Likewise, Canadian Psychiatric Association (CPA) recommends benzodiazepines alprazolam, bromazepam, lorazepam, and diazepam only as a second-line choice, if the treatment with two different antidepressants was unsuccessful. Although they are second-line agents, benzodiazepines can be used for a limited time to relieve severe anxiety and agitation. CPA guidelines state that after 4–6 weeks the effect of benzodiazepines may decrease to the level of placebo, Medications with benefit include serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, benzodiazepines, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. It is preferred that benzodiazepines be taken intermittently and at the lowest effective dose. They improve sleep-related problems by shortening the time spent in bed before falling asleep, prolonging the sleep time, and, in general, reducing wakefulness. However, they worsen sleep quality by increasing light sleep and decreasing deep sleep. Other drawbacks of hypnotics, including benzodiazepines, are possible tolerance to their effects, rebound insomnia, and reduced slow-wave sleep and a withdrawal period typified by rebound insomnia and a prolonged period of anxiety and agitation. It is not clear as to whether the new non benzodiazepine hypnotics (Z-drugs) are better than the short-acting benzodiazepines. The efficacy of these two groups of medications is similar. Some experts suggest using nonbenzodiazepines preferentially as a first-line long-term treatment of insomnia.
Seizures
Prolonged convulsive epileptic seizures are a medical emergency that can usually be dealt with effectively by administering fast-acting benzodiazepines, which are potent anticonvulsants. In a hospital environment, intravenous clonazepam, lorazepam, and diazepam are first-line choices. In the community, intravenous administration is not practical and so rectal diazepam or buccal midazolam are used, with a preference for midazolam as its administration is easier and more socially acceptable.
When benzodiazepines were first introduced, they were enthusiastically adopted for treating all forms of epilepsy. However, drowsiness and tolerance become problems with continued use and none are now considered first-line choices for long-term epilepsy therapy. Clobazam is widely used by specialist epilepsy clinics worldwide and clonazepam is popular in the Netherlands, Belgium and France. Clobazam also has a useful role for very short-term seizure prophylaxis and in catamenial epilepsy. but diazepam may be used as an alternative. Both are used in the detoxification of individuals who are motivated to stop drinking, and are prescribed for a short period of time to reduce the risks of developing tolerance and dependence to the benzodiazepine medication itself.
Benzodiazepines are the preferred choice in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome, in particular, for the prevention and treatment of the dangerous complication of seizures and in subduing severe delirium. Lorazepam is the only benzodiazepine with predictable intramuscular absorption and it is the most effective in preventing and controlling acute seizures.Other indications
Benzodiazepines are often prescribed for a wide range of conditions:
* They can sedate patients receiving mechanical ventilation or those in extreme distress. Caution is exercised in this situation due to the risk of respiratory depression, and it is recommended that benzodiazepine overdose treatment facilities should be available. They have also been found to increase the likelihood of later PTSD after people have been removed from ventilators.
*Benzodiazepines are indicated in the management of breathlessness (shortness of breath) in advanced diseases, in particular where other treatments have failed to adequately control symptoms.
* Benzodiazepines are effective as medication given a couple of hours before surgery to relieve anxiety. They also produce amnesia, which can be useful, as patients may not remember unpleasantness from the procedure. They are also used in patients with dental phobia as well as some ophthalmic procedures like refractive surgery; although such use is controversial and only recommended for those who are very anxious. Midazolam is the most commonly prescribed for this use because of its strong sedative actions and fast recovery time, as well as its water solubility, which reduces pain upon injection. Diazepam and lorazepam are sometimes used. Lorazepam has particularly marked amnesic properties that may make it more effective when amnesia is the desired effect. or tizanidine are sometimes used as an alternative to benzodiazepines. Tizanidine has been found to have superior tolerability compared to diazepam and baclofen.
* Benzodiazepines are also used to treat the acute panic caused by hallucinogen intoxication. Benzodiazepines are also used to calm the acutely agitated individual and can, if required, be given via an intramuscular injection. They can sometimes be effective in the short-term treatment of psychiatric emergencies such as acute psychosis as in schizophrenia or mania, bringing about rapid tranquillization and sedation until the effects of lithium or neuroleptics (antipsychotics) take effect. Lorazepam is most commonly used but clonazepam is sometimes prescribed for acute psychosis or mania; their long-term use is not recommended due to risks of dependence.
* Clonazepam, a benzodiazepine is used to treat many forms of parasomnia. Rapid eye movement behavior disorder responds well to low doses of clonazepam. Restless legs syndrome can be treated using clonazepam as a third line treatment option as the use of clonazepam is still investigational.
* Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), although they are generally believed ineffective for this indication. Effectiveness was, however, found in one small study. Benzodiazepines can be considered as a treatment option in treatment resistant cases.
* Antipsychotics are generally a first-line treatment for delirium; however, when delirium is caused by alcohol or sedative hypnotic withdrawal, benzodiazepines are a first-line treatment.
* There is some evidence that low doses of benzodiazepines reduce adverse effects of electroconvulsive therapy.ContraindicationsBenzodiazepines require special precaution if used in the elderly, during pregnancy, in children, alcohol or drug-dependent individuals and individuals with comorbid psychiatric disorders.
Because of their muscle relaxant action, benzodiazepines may cause respiratory depression in susceptible individuals. For that reason, they are contraindicated in people with myasthenia gravis, sleep apnea, bronchitis, and COPD. and are sometimes used for suicidal overdoses.
Exposure to benzodiazepines during pregnancy has been associated with a slightly increased (from 0.06 to 0.07%) risk of cleft palate in newborns, a controversial conclusion as some studies find no association between benzodiazepines and cleft palate. Their use by expectant mothers shortly before the delivery may result in a floppy infant syndrome. Newborns with this condition tend to have hypotonia, hypothermia, lethargy, and breathing and feeding difficulties. Cases of neonatal withdrawal syndrome have been described in infants chronically exposed to benzodiazepines in utero. This syndrome may be hard to recognize, as it starts several days after delivery, for example, as late as 21 days for chlordiazepoxide. The symptoms include tremors, hypertonia, hyperreflexia, hyperactivity, and vomiting and may last for up to three to six months. Tapering down the dose during pregnancy may lessen its severity. If used in pregnancy, those benzodiazepines with a better and longer safety record, such as diazepam or chlordiazepoxide, are recommended over potentially more harmful benzodiazepines, such as temazepam or triazolam. Using the lowest effective dose for the shortest period of time minimizes the risks to the unborn child.
Elderly
The benefits of benzodiazepines are least and the risks are greatest in the elderly. They are listed as a potentially inappropriate medication for older adults by the American Geriatrics Society. The elderly are at an increased risk of dependence and are more sensitive to the adverse effects such as memory problems, daytime sedation, impaired motor coordination, and increased risk of motor vehicle accidents and falls, and an increased risk of hip fractures. The long-term effects of benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine dependence in the elderly can resemble dementia, depression, or anxiety syndromes, and progressively worsens over time. Adverse effects on cognition can be mistaken for the effects of old age. The benefits of withdrawal include improved cognition, alertness, mobility, reduced risk of incontinence, and a reduced risk of falls and fractures. The success of gradual-tapering benzodiazepines is as great in the elderly as in younger people. Benzodiazepines should be prescribed to the elderly only with caution and only for a short period at low doses.
Long-term use of benzodiazepines is associated with increased risk of cognitive impairment and dementia, and reduction in prescribing levels is likely to reduce dementia risk. The association of a history of benzodiazepine use and cognitive decline is unclear, with some studies reporting a lower risk of cognitive decline in former users, some finding no association and some indicating an increased risk of cognitive decline.
Benzodiazepines are sometimes prescribed to treat behavioral symptoms of dementia. However, like antidepressants, they have little evidence of effectiveness, although antipsychotics have shown some benefit. Cognitive impairing effects of benzodiazepines that occur frequently in the elderly can also worsen dementia.
Adverse effects
The most common side-effects of benzodiazepines are related to their sedating and muscle-relaxing action. They include drowsiness, dizziness, and decreased alertness and concentration. Lack of coordination may result in falls and injuries particularly in the elderly. Another result is impairment of driving skills and increased likelihood of road traffic accidents. Decreased libido and erection problems are a common side effect. Depression and disinhibition may emerge. Hypotension and suppressed breathing (hypoventilation) may be encountered with intravenous use.
The long-term effects of benzodiazepine use can include cognitive impairment as well as affective and behavioural problems. Feelings of turmoil, difficulty in thinking constructively, loss of sex-drive, agoraphobia and social phobia, increasing anxiety and depression, loss of interest in leisure pursuits and interests, and an inability to experience or express feelings can also occur. Not everyone, however, experiences problems with long-term use. Additionally, an altered perception of self, environment and relationships may occur.
Compared to other sedative-hypnotics, visits to the hospital involving benzodiazepines had a 66% greater odds of a serious adverse health outcome. This included hospitalization, patient transfer, or death, and visits involving a combination of benzodiazepines and non-benzodiapine receptor agonists had almost four-times increased odds of a serious health outcome.
In September 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required the boxed warning be updated for all benzodiazepine medicines to describe the risks of abuse, misuse, addiction, physical dependence, and withdrawal reactions consistently across all the medicines in the class.
Cognitive effects
The short-term use of benzodiazepines adversely affects multiple areas of cognition, the most notable one being that it interferes with the formation and consolidation of memories of new material and may induce complete anterograde amnesia. This meta-analysis found that long-term use of benzodiazepines was associated with moderate to large adverse effects on all areas of cognition, with visuospatial memory being the most commonly detected impairment. Some of the other impairments reported were decreased IQ, visiomotor coordination, information processing, verbal learning and concentration. The authors of the meta-analysis aggression, violence, impulsivity, irritability and suicidal behavior sometimes occur. However, they occur with greater frequency in recreational abusers, individuals with borderline personality disorder, children, and patients on high-dosage regimes. In these groups, impulse control problems are perhaps the most important risk factor for disinhibition; learning disabilities and neurological disorders are also significant risks. Most reports of disinhibition involve high doses of high-potency benzodiazepines.
Long-term worsening of psychiatric symptoms
While benzodiazepines may have short-term benefits for anxiety, sleep and agitation in some patients, long-term (i.e., greater than 2–4 weeks) use can result in a worsening of the very symptoms the medications are meant to treat. Potential explanations include exacerbating cognitive problems that are already common in anxiety disorders, causing or worsening depression and suicidality, disrupting sleep architecture by inhibiting deep stage sleep, and reducing coping with trauma/stress and increasing vulnerability to future stress. The latter two explanations may be why benzodiazepines are ineffective and/or potentially harmful in PTSD and phobias. Anxiety, insomnia and irritability may be temporarily exacerbated during withdrawal, but psychiatric symptoms after discontinuation are usually less than even while taking benzodiazepines. Functioning significantly improves within 1 year of discontinuation.Physical dependence, withdrawal and post-withdrawal syndromes
2 mg and 5 mg diazepam tablets, which are commonly used in the treatment of benzodiazepine withdrawal.]]
Tolerance
Tolerance and dependence are risks of chronic benzodiazepine use, and can result in doses within the therapeutic range ceasing to offer meaningful symptomatic relief after prolonged use. Tolerance develops at different rates and to different degrees to the sedative, hypnotic, anticonvulsant, muscle relaxant and anxiolytic effects of benzodiazpines. A review of benzodiazepine tolerance concluded that it "appears that tolerance develops relatively quickly for the sedative and anticonvulsant actions of benzodiazepines, whereas tolerance to anxiolytic and amnesic effects probably does not develop at all", although the included randomized controlled trial evidence is limited to 22 weeks. A review of clonazepam in the treatment of psychiatric disorders concluded that there is longitudinal data supporting anxiolytic benefit without tolerance during long-term use, including an open-label study finding continued benefit at 3 years. However, the review concludes that long-term RCT evidence is scant. A study of benzodiazepine sensitivity found that patients treated chronically with alprazolam did not differ from untreated patients in terms of anxiolytic response to diazepam, suggesting a lack of anxiolytic tolerance.
However, controversy remains regarding tolerance to anxiolytic effects, with some publications reporting that there is little evidence of continued efficacy beyond 4–6 months Some evidence suggests that partial tolerance does develop, and that, "memory impairment is limited to a narrow window within 90 minutes after each dose".
A major disadvantage of benzodiazepines is that tolerance to therapeutic effects develops relatively quickly while many adverse effects persist. Tolerance develops to hypnotic and myorelaxant effects within days to weeks, and to anticonvulsant effects within weeks to months. Therefore, benzodiazepines are unlikely to be effective long-term treatments for sleep. While BZD therapeutic effects may disappear with tolerance, depression and impulsivity with high suicidal risk commonly persist. and question their use for anxiety disorders such as PTSD and OCD. This may explain why patients commonly increase doses over time and many eventually take more than one type of benzodiazepine after the first loses effectiveness. Additionally, because tolerance to benzodiazepine sedating effects develops more quickly than does tolerance to brainstem depressant effects, those taking more benzodiazepines to achieve desired effects may experience sudden respiratory depression, hypotension or death. Most patients with anxiety disorders and PTSD have symptoms that persist for at least several months, Severe symptoms usually occur as a result of abrupt or over-rapid withdrawal. Abrupt withdrawal can be dangerous and lead to excitotoxicity, causing damage and even death to nerve cells as a result of excessive levels of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Increased glutamatergic activity is thought to be part of a compensatory mechanism to chronic GABAergic inhibition from benzodiazepines. Therefore, a gradual reduction regimen is recommended.
Symptoms may also occur during a gradual dosage reduction, but are typically less severe and may persist as part of a protracted withdrawal syndrome for months after cessation of benzodiazepines. Approximately 10% of patients experience a notable protracted withdrawal syndrome, which can persist for many months or in some cases a year or longer. Protracted symptoms tend to resemble those seen during the first couple of months of withdrawal but usually are of a sub-acute level of severity. Such symptoms do gradually lessen over time, eventually disappearing altogether.
Benzodiazepines have a reputation with patients and doctors for causing a severe and traumatic withdrawal; however, this is in large part due to the withdrawal process being poorly managed. Over-rapid withdrawal from benzodiazepines increases the severity of the withdrawal syndrome and increases the failure rate. A slow and gradual withdrawal customised to the individual and, if indicated, psychological support is the most effective way of managing the withdrawal. Opinion as to the time needed to complete withdrawal ranges from four weeks to several years. A goal of less than six months has been suggested,
Nonbenzodiazepines are contraindicated during benzodiazepine withdrawal as they are cross tolerant with benzodiazepines and can induce dependence. Antipsychotics are not recommended for benzodiazepine withdrawal (or other CNS depressant withdrawal states) especially clozapine, olanzapine or low potency phenothiazines, e.g., chlorpromazine as they lower the seizure threshold and can worsen withdrawal effects; if used extreme caution is required.
Withdrawal from long term benzodiazepines is beneficial for most individuals. Dementia A number of studies have drawn an association between long-term benzodiazepine use and neuro-degenerative disease, particularly Alzheimer's disease. It has been determined that long-term use of benzodiazepines is associated with increased dementia risk, even after controlling for protopathic bias. where others have not. A large meta-analysis of pre-marketing randomized controlled trials on the pharmacologically related Z-Drugs suggest a small increase in infection risk as well. An immunodeficiency effect from the action of benzodiazepines on GABA-A receptors has been postulated from animal studies. Cancer A meta-analysis of observational studies has determined an association between benzodiazepine use and cancer, though the risk across different agents and different cancers varied significantly. Pancreatitis The evidence suggesting a link between benzodiazepines (and Z-Drugs) and pancreatic inflammation is very sparse and limited to a few observational studies from Taiwan. A criticism of confounding can be applied to these findings as with the other controversial associations above. Further well-designed research from other populations as well as a biologically plausible mechanism is required to confirm this association.Overdose
Although benzodiazepines are much safer in overdose than their predecessors, the barbiturates, they can still cause problems in overdose. Taken alone, they rarely cause severe complications in overdose; statistics in England showed that benzodiazepines were responsible for 3.8% of all deaths by poisoning from a single drug. The elderly are more sensitive to the side effects of benzodiazepines, and poisoning may even occur from their long-term use. The various benzodiazepines differ in their toxicity; temazepam appears most toxic in overdose and when used with other drugs. The symptoms of a benzodiazepine overdose may include; drowsiness, slurred speech, nystagmus, hypotension, ataxia, coma, respiratory depression, and cardiorespiratory arrest. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 326 people, 4 people had serious adverse events and 61% became resedated following the use of flumazenil. Numerous contraindications to its use exist. It is contraindicated in people with a history of long-term use of benzodiazepines, those having ingested a substance that lowers the seizure threshold or may cause an arrhythmia, and in those with abnormal vital signs. One study found that only 10% of the people presenting with a benzodiazepine overdose are suitable candidates for treatment with flumazenil.
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–10 Some benzodiazepines have long-acting active metabolites, such as diazepam and chlordiazepoxide, which are metabolised into desmethyldiazepam. Desmethyldiazepam has a half-life of 36–200 hours, and flurazepam, with the main active metabolite of desalkylflurazepam, with a half-life of 40–250 hours. These long-acting metabolites are partial agonists. Under Hantzsch–Widman nomenclature, a diazepine is a heterocycle with two nitrogen atoms, five carbon atom and the maximum possible number of cumulative double bonds. The "benzo" prefix indicates the benzene ring fused onto the diazepine ring. Benzodiazepines have been found to mimic protein reverse turns structurally, which enable them with their biological activity in many cases.
Nonbenzodiazepines also bind to the benzodiazepine binding site on the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor and possess similar pharmacological properties. While the nonbenzodiazepines are by definition structurally unrelated to the benzodiazepines, both classes of drugs possess a common pharmacophore (see figure to the lower-right), which explains their binding to a common receptor site.
Not all benzodiazepines increase the conductance of the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor. Flumazenil, an imidazobenzodiazepine, is an antidote for some benzodiazepine overdoses. The structual scaffold can even be used to target receptors other than GABA<sub>A</sub>.
Types
* 2-keto compounds:
::clorazepate, diazepam, flurazepam, halazepam, prazepam, and others
* 3-hydroxy compounds:
::lorazepam, lormetazepam, oxazepam, temazepam Following chlordiazepoxide, diazepam marketed by Hoffmann–La Roche under the brand name Valium in 1963, and for a while the two were the most commercially successful drugs. The introduction of benzodiazepines led to a decrease in the prescription of barbiturates, and by the 1970s they had largely replaced the older drugs for sedative and hypnotic uses.
The new group of drugs was initially greeted with optimism by the medical profession, but gradually concerns arose; in particular, the risk of dependence became evident in the 1980s. Benzodiazepines have a unique history in that they were responsible for the largest-ever class-action lawsuit against drug manufacturers in the United Kingdom, involving 14,000 patients and 1,800 law firms that alleged the manufacturers knew of the dependence potential but intentionally withheld this information from doctors. At the same time, 117 general practitioners and 50 health authorities were sued by patients to recover damages for the harmful effects of dependence and withdrawal. This led some doctors to require a signed consent form from their patients and to recommend that all patients be adequately warned of the risks of dependence and withdrawal before starting treatment with benzodiazepines. The court case against the drug manufacturers never reached a verdict; legal aid had been withdrawn and there were allegations that the consultant psychiatrists, the expert witnesses, had a conflict of interest. The court case fell through, at a cost of £30 million, and led to more cautious funding through legal aid for future cases. This made future class action lawsuits less likely to succeed, due to the high cost from financing a smaller number of cases, and increasing charges for losing the case for each person involved. For treatment of insomnia, benzodiazepines are now less popular than nonbenzodiazepines, which include zolpidem, zaleplon and eszopiclone. Nonbenzodiazepines are molecularly distinct, but nonetheless, they work on the same benzodiazepine receptors and produce similar sedative effects.
Benzodiazepines have been detected in plant specimens and brain samples of animals not exposed to synthetic sources, including a human brain from the 1940s. However, it is unclear whether these compounds are biosynthesized by microbes or by plants and animals themselves. A microbial biosynthetic pathway has been proposed.
Society and culture
Legal status
In the United States, benzodiazepines are Schedule IV drugs under the Federal Controlled Substances Act, even when not on the market (for example, flunitrazepam), with the exception of flualprazolam, etizolam, clonazolam, flubromazolam, and diclazepam which are placed in Schedule I.
In Canada, possession of benzodiazepines is legal for personal use. All benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV substances under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.
In the United Kingdom, benzodiazepines are Class C controlled drugs, carrying the maximum penalty of 7 years imprisonment, an unlimited fine or both for possession and a maximum penalty of 14 years imprisonment, an unlimited fine or both for supplying benzodiazepines to others.
In the Netherlands, since October 1993, benzodiazepines, including formulations containing less than 20 mg of temazepam, are all placed on List 2 of the Opium Law. A prescription is needed for possession of all benzodiazepines. Temazepam formulations containing 20 mg or greater of the drug are placed on List 1, thus requiring doctors to write prescriptions in the List 1 format.
In East Asia and Southeast Asia, temazepam and nimetazepam are often heavily controlled and restricted. In certain countries, triazolam, flunitrazepam, flutoprazepam and midazolam are also restricted or controlled to certain degrees. In Hong Kong, all benzodiazepines are regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance. Previously only brotizolam, flunitrazepam and triazolam were classed as dangerous drugs.
Internationally, benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs, apart from flunitrazepam, which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
Recreational use
) 2 mg tri-score tablets]]
Benzodiazepines are considered major addictive substances. Non-medical benzodiazepine use is mostly limited to individuals who use other substances, i.e., people who engage in polysubstance use. On the international scene, benzodiazepines are categorized as Schedule IV controlled drugs by the INCB, apart from flunitrazepam, which is a Schedule III drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Some variation in drug scheduling exists in individual countries; for example, in the United Kingdom, midazolam and temazepam are Schedule III controlled drugs.
British law requires that temazepam (but not midazolam) be stored in safe custody. Safe custody requirements ensures that pharmacists and doctors holding stock of temazepam must store it in securely fixed double-locked steel safety cabinets and maintain a written register, which must be bound and contain separate entries for temazepam and must be written in ink with no use of correction fluid (although a written register is not required for temazepam in the United Kingdom). Disposal of expired stock must be witnessed by a designated inspector (either a local drug-enforcement police officer or official from health authority). Benzodiazepine use ranges from occasional binges on large doses, to chronic and compulsive drug use of high doses.
Benzodiazepines are commonly used recreationally by poly-drug users. Mortality is higher among poly-drug users that also use benzodiazepines. Heavy alcohol use also increases mortality among poly-drug users. Polydrug use involving benzodiazepines and alcohol can result in an increased risk of blackouts, risk-taking behaviours, seizures, and overdose. Dependence and tolerance, often coupled with dosage escalation, to benzodiazepines can develop rapidly among people who misuse drugs; withdrawal syndrome may appear after as little as three weeks of continuous use. Long-term use has the potential to cause both physical and psychological dependence and severe withdrawal symptoms such as depression, anxiety (often to the point of panic attacks), and agoraphobia. Benzodiazepines and, in particular, temazepam are sometimes used intravenously, which, if done incorrectly or in an unsterile manner, can lead to medical complications including abscesses, cellulitis, thrombophlebitis, arterial puncture, deep vein thrombosis, and gangrene. Sharing syringes and needles for this purpose also brings up the possibility of transmission of hepatitis, HIV, and other diseases. Benzodiazepines are also misused intranasally, which may have additional health consequences. Once benzodiazepine dependence has been established, a clinician usually converts the patient to an equivalent dose of diazepam before beginning a gradual reduction program.
A 1999–2005 Australian police survey of detainees reported preliminary findings that self-reported users of benzodiazepines were less likely than non-user detainees to work full-time and more likely to receive government benefits, use methamphetamine or heroin, and be arrested or imprisoned. Benzodiazepines are sometimes used for criminal purposes; they serve to incapacitate a victim in cases of drug assisted rape or robbery.
Overall, anecdotal evidence suggests that temazepam may be the most psychologically habit-forming (addictive) benzodiazepine. Non-medical temazepam use reached epidemic proportions in some parts of the world, in particular, in Europe and Australia, and is a major addictive substance in many Southeast Asian countries. This led authorities of various countries to place temazepam under a more restrictive legal status. Some countries, such as Sweden, banned the drug outright. Temazepam also has certain pharmacokinetic properties of absorption, distribution, elimination, and clearance that make it more apt to non-medical use compared to many other benzodiazepines.
Veterinary use
Benzodiazepines are used in veterinary practice in the treatment of various disorders and conditions. As in humans, they are used in the first-line management of seizures, status epilepticus, and tetanus, and as maintenance therapy in epilepsy (in particular, in cats). They are widely used in small and large animals (including horses, swine, cattle and exotic and wild animals) for their anxiolytic and sedative effects, as pre-medication before surgery, for induction of anesthesia and as adjuncts to anesthesia.
References
External links
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Category:Chemical classes of psychoactive drugs
Category:Glycine receptor antagonists
Category:Hallucinogen antidotes
Category:Hypnotics
Category:Muscle relaxants
Category:Sedatives
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine
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Bell curve (disambiguation)
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The bell curve is typical of the normal distribution.
Bell curve may also refer to:
Gaussian function, a specific kind of function whose graph is a bell-shaped curve
The Bell Curve, a 1994 book by Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray
The Bell Curve Debate, a 1995 book on The Bell Curve edited by Jacoby and Glauberman
Bell curve grading, a method of evaluating scholastic performance
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_curve_(disambiguation)
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Body mass index
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| MedlinePlus = 007196
| eMedicine = <!--article_number-->
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Body mass index (BMI) is a value derived from the mass (weight) and height of a person. The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height, and is expressed in units of kg/m<sup>2</sup>, resulting from mass in kilograms (kg) and height in metres (m).
The BMI may be determined first by measuring its components by means of a weighing scale and a stadiometer. The multiplication and division may be carried out directly, by hand or using a calculator, or indirectly using a lookup table (or chart). The table displays BMI as a function of mass and height and may show other units of measurement (converted to metric units for the calculation). The table may also show contour lines or colours for different BMI categories.
The BMI is a convenient rule of thumb used to broadly categorize a person as based on tissue mass (muscle, fat, and bone) and height. Major adult BMI classifications are underweight (under 18.5 kg/m<sup>2</sup>), normal weight (18.5 to 24.9), overweight (25 to 29.9), and obese (30 or more).
History
Adolphe Quetelet, a Belgian astronomer, mathematician, statistician, and sociologist, devised the basis of the BMI between 1830 and 1850 as he developed what he called "social physics". Quetelet himself never intended for the index, then called the Quetelet Index, to be used as a means of medical assessment. Instead, it was a component of his study of , or the average man. Quetelet thought of the average man as a social ideal, and developed the body mass index as a means of discovering the socially ideal human person.
The modern term "body mass index" (BMI) for the ratio of human body weight to squared height was coined in a paper published in the July 1972 edition of the Journal of Chronic Diseases by Ancel Keys and others. In this paper, Keys argued that what he termed the BMI was "if not fully satisfactory, at least as good as any other relative weight index as an indicator of relative obesity".
The interest in an index that measures body fat came with observed increasing obesity in prosperous Western societies. Keys explicitly judged BMI as appropriate for population studies and inappropriate for individual evaluation. Nevertheless, due to its simplicity, it has come to be widely used for preliminary diagnoses. Additional metrics, such as waist circumference, can be more useful.
The BMI is expressed in kg/m<sup>2</sup>, resulting from mass in kilograms and height in metres. If pounds and inches are used, a conversion factor of 703 (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)/(lb/in<sup>2</sup>) is applied. (If pounds and feet are used, a conversion factor of 4.88 is used.) When the term BMI is used informally, the units are usually omitted.
<math display"block">\mathrm{BMI} \frac{\text{mass}_\text{kg}}{{\text{height}_\text{m}}^2}
= \frac{\text{mass}_\text{lb}}{{\text{height}_\text{in}}^2}\times 703</math>
BMI provides a simple numeric measure of a person's thickness or thinness, allowing health professionals to discuss weight problems more objectively with their patients. BMI was designed to be used as a simple means of classifying average sedentary (physically inactive) populations, with an average body composition. For such individuals, the BMI value recommendations are as follows: 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m<sup>2</sup> may indicate optimal weight, lower than 18.5 may indicate underweight, 25 to 29.9 may indicate overweight, and 30 or more may indicate obese.
The WHO regards an adult BMI of less than 18.5 as underweight and possibly indicative of malnutrition, an eating disorder, or other health problems, while a BMI of 25 or more is considered overweight and 30 or more is considered obese. In addition to the principle, international WHO BMI cut-off points (16, 17, 18.5, 25, 30, 35 and 40), four additional cut-off points for at-risk Asians were identified (23, 27.5, 32.5 and 37.5). These ranges of BMI values are valid only as statistical categories.
{| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center"
|+ BMI, basic categories
|-
! scope="col"| Category
! scope"col"| BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)
! scope"col"| BMI Prime
|-
! scope="row"| Underweight (Severe thinness)
| < 16.0
| < 0.64
|-
! scope="row"| Underweight (Moderate thinness)
| class="nowrap"| 16.0–16.9
| class="nowrap"| 0.64–0.67
|-
! scope="row"| Underweight (Mild thinness)
| 17.0–18.4
| 0.68–0.73
|-
! scope="row"| Normal range
| 18.5–24.9
| 0.74–0.99
|-
! scope="row"| Overweight (Pre-obese)
| 25.0–29.9
| 1.00–1.19
|-
! scope="row"| Obese (Class I)
| 30.0–34.9
| 1.20–1.39
|-
! scope="row"| Obese (Class II)
| 35.0–39.9
| 1.40–1.59
|-
! scope="row"| Obese (Class III)
| ≥ 40.0
| ≥ 1.60
|}
Children and youth
BMI is used differently for people aged 2 to 20. It is calculated in the same way as for adults but then compared to typical values for other children or youth of the same age. Instead of comparison against fixed thresholds for underweight and overweight, the BMI is compared against the percentiles for children of the same sex and age.
A BMI that is less than the 5th percentile is considered underweight and above the 95th percentile is considered obese. Children with a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentile are considered to be overweight.
Studies in Britain from 2013 have indicated that females between the ages 12 and 16 had a higher BMI than males of the same age by 1.0 kg/m<sup>2</sup> on average.International variationsThese recommended distinctions along the linear scale may vary from time to time and country to country, making global, longitudinal surveys problematic. People from different populations and descent have different associations between BMI, percentage of body fat, and health risks, with a higher risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease at BMIs lower than the WHO cut-off point for overweight, 25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, although the cut-off for observed risk varies among different populations. The cut-off for observed risk varies based on populations and subpopulations in Europe, Asia and Africa.
Hong Kong
The Hospital Authority of Hong Kong recommends the use of the following BMI ranges:
{| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center"
|+ BMI in Hong Kong
|-
! scope="col"| Category
! scope"col"| BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)
|-
! scope="row"| Underweight (Unhealthy)
| < 18.5
|-
! scope="row"| Normal range (Healthy)
| class="nowrap"| 18.5–22.9
|-
! scope="row"| Overweight I (At risk)
| 23.0–24.9
|-
! scope="row"| Overweight II (Moderately obese)
| 25.0–29.9
|-
! scope="row"| Overweight III (Severely obese)
| ≥ 30.0
|}
Japan
A 2000 study from the Japan Society for the Study of Obesity (JASSO) presents the following table of BMI categories:
{| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center"
|+ BMI in Japan
|-
! scope="col"| Category
! scope"col"| BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)
|-
! scope="row"| Underweight (Thin)
| < 18.5
|-
! scope="row"| Normal weight
| class="nowrap"| 18.5–24.9
|-
! scope="row"| Obesity (Class 1)
| 25.0–29.9
|-
! scope="row"| Obesity (Class 2)
| 30.0–34.9
|-
! scope="row"| Obesity (Class 3)
| 35.0–39.9
|-
! scope="row"| Obesity (Class 4)
| ≥ 40.0
|}
Singapore
In Singapore, the BMI cut-off figures were revised in 2005 by the Health Promotion Board (HPB), motivated by studies showing that many Asian populations, including Singaporeans, have a higher proportion of body fat and increased risk for cardiovascular diseases and diabetes mellitus, compared with general BMI recommendations in other countries. The BMI cut-offs are presented with an emphasis on health risk rather than weight.
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+ BMI in Singapore
|-
! scope="col"| Category
! scope"col"| BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)
! scope="col"| Health risk
|-
! scope="row"| Underweight
| style="text-align:center"| < 18.5
| Possible nutritional deficiency and osteoporosis.
|-
! scope="row"| Normal
| style"text-align:center" class"nowrap"| 18.5–22.9
| Low risk (healthy range).
|-
! scope="row"| Mild to moderate overweight
| style="text-align:center"| 23.0–27.4
| Moderate risk of developing heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke, diabetes mellitus.
|-
! scope="row"| Very overweight to obese
| style="text-align:center"| ≥ 27.5
| High risk of developing heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke, diabetes mellitus. Metabolic syndrome.
|}
United Kingdom
In the UK, NICE guidance recommends prevention of type 2 diabetes should start at a BMI of 30 in White and 27.5 in Black African, African-Caribbean, South Asian, and Chinese populations.
Research since 2021 based on a large sample of almost 1.5 million people in England found that some ethnic groups would benefit from prevention at or above a BMI of (rounded):
* 30 in White
* 28 in Black
** just below 30 in Black British
** 29 in Black African
** 27 in Black Other
** 26 in Black Caribbean
* 27 in Arab and Chinese
* 24 in South Asian
** 24 in Pakistani, Indian and Nepali
** 23 in Tamil and Sri Lankan
** 21 in Bangladeshi
United States
In 1998, the U.S. National Institutes of Health brought U.S. definitions in line with World Health Organization guidelines, lowering the normal/overweight cut-off from a BMI of 27.8 (men) and 27.3 (women) to a BMI of 25. This had the effect of redefining approximately 25 million Americans, previously healthy, to overweight.
This can partially explain the increase in the overweight diagnosis in the past 20 years, and the increase in sales of weight loss products during the same time. WHO also recommends lowering the normal/overweight threshold for southeast Asian body types to around BMI 23, and expects further revisions to emerge from clinical studies of different body types.
A survey in 2007 showed 63% of Americans were then overweight or obese, with 26% in the obese category (a BMI of 30 or more). By 2014, 37.7% of adults in the United States were obese, 35.0% of men and 40.4% of women; class 3 obesity (BMI over 40) values were 7.7% for men and 9.9% for women. The U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 2015–2016 showed that 71.6% of American men and women had BMIs over 25. Obesity—a BMI of 30 or more—was found in 39.8% of the US adults.
<div>
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders floatleft"
|-
|+ Body mass index values (kg/m<sup>2</sup>) for males aged 20 and over, and selected percentiles by age: United States, 2011–2014
|-
! scope"col" rowspan"2"| Age
! scope"colgroup" colspan"9"| Percentile
|-
! scope="col"| 5th
! scope="col"| 10th
! scope="col"| 15th
! scope="col"| 25th
! scope="col"| 50th
! scope="col"| 75th
! scope="col"| 85th
! scope="col"| 90th
! scope="col"| 95th
|-
! scope"row" style"text-align:center"| ≥ 20 (total)
| 20.7
| 22.2
| 23.0
| 24.6
| 27.7
| 31.6
| 34.0
| 36.1
| 39.8
|-
! scope"row" style"text-align:center" class="nowrap"| 20–29
| 19.3
| 20.5
| 21.2
| 22.5
| 25.5
| 30.5
| 33.1
| 35.1
| 39.2
|-
! scope"row" style"text-align:center"| 30–39
| 21.1
| 22.4
| 23.3
| 24.8
| 27.5
| 31.9
| 35.1
| 36.5
| 39.3
|-
! scope"row" style"text-align:center"| 40–49
| 21.9
| 23.4
| 24.3
| 25.7
| 28.5
| 31.9
| 34.4
| 36.5
| 40.0
|-
! scope"row" style"text-align:center"| 50–59
| 21.6
| 22.7
| 23.6
| 25.4
| 28.3
| 32.0
| 34.0
| 35.2
| 40.3
|-
! scope"row" style"text-align:center"| 60–69
| 21.6
| 22.7
| 23.6
| 25.3
| 28.0
| 32.4
| 35.3
| 36.9
| 41.2
|-
! scope"row" style"text-align:center"| 70–79
| 21.5
| 23.2
| 23.9
| 25.4
| 27.8
| 30.9
| 33.1
| 34.9
| 38.9
|-
! scope"row" style"text-align:center"| ≥ 80
| 20.0
| 21.5
| 22.5
| 24.1
| 26.3
| 29.0
| 31.1
| 32.3
| 33.8
|}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|-
|+ Body mass index values (kg/m<sup>2</sup>) for females aged 20 and over, and selected percentiles by age: United States, 2011–2014
* Coronary artery disease
* Dyslipidemia
* Type 2 diabetes
* Gallbladder disease
* Hypertension
* Osteoarthritis
* Sleep apnea
* Stroke
* Infertility
* At least 10 cancers, including endometrial, breast, and colon cancer
* Epidural lipomatosis
Among people who have never smoked, overweight/obesity is associated with 51% increase in mortality compared with people who have always been a normal weight.
Applications
Public health
The BMI is generally used as a means of correlation between groups related by general mass and can serve as a vague means of estimating adiposity. The duality of the BMI is that, while it is easy to use as a general calculation, it is limited as to how accurate and pertinent the data obtained from it can be. Generally, the index is suitable for recognizing trends within sedentary or overweight individuals because there is a smaller margin of error. The BMI has been used by the WHO as the standard for recording obesity statistics since the early 1980s.
This general correlation is particularly useful for consensus data regarding obesity or various other conditions because it can be used to build a semi-accurate representation from which a solution can be stipulated, or the RDA for a group can be calculated. Similarly, this is becoming more and more pertinent to the growth of children, since the majority of children are sedentary.
Cross-sectional studies indicated that sedentary people can decrease BMI by becoming more physically active. Smaller effects are seen in prospective cohort studies which lend to support active mobility as a means to prevent a further increase in BMI.LegislationIn France, Italy, and Spain, legislation has been introduced banning the usage of fashion show models having a BMI below 18. In Israel, a model with BMI below 18.5 is banned. This is done to fight anorexia among models and people interested in fashion.Relationship to healthA study published by Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in 2005 showed that overweight people had a death rate similar to normal weight people as defined by BMI, while underweight and obese people had a higher death rate.
A study published by The Lancet in 2009 involving 900,000 adults showed that overweight and underweight people both had a mortality rate higher than normal weight people as defined by BMI. The optimal BMI was found to be in the range of 22.5–25. The average BMI of athletes is 22.4 for women and 23.6 for men.
High BMI is associated with type 2 diabetes only in people with high serum gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase.
In an analysis of 40 studies involving 250,000 people, patients with coronary artery disease with normal BMIs were at higher risk of death from cardiovascular disease than people whose BMIs put them in the overweight range (BMI 25–29.9).
One study found that BMI had a good general correlation with body fat percentage, and noted that obesity has overtaken smoking as the world's number one cause of death. But it also notes that in the study 50% of men and 62% of women were obese according to body fat defined obesity, while only 21% of men and 31% of women were obese according to BMI, meaning that BMI was found to underestimate the number of obese subjects. A 2011 study that followed 60,000 participants for up to 13 years found that waist–hip ratio was a better predictor of ischaemic heart disease mortality.Limitations' NHANES 1994 data. Data in the upper left and lower right quadrants suggest the limitations of BMI.]]
The medical establishment and statistical community have both highlighted the limitations of BMI. Racial and gender differences Part of the statistical limitations of the BMI scale is the result of Quetelet's original sampling methods. As noted in his primary work, A Treatise on Man and the Development of His Faculties, the data from which Quetelet derived his formula was taken mostly from Scottish Highland soldiers and French Gendarmerie.ScalingThe exponent in the denominator of the formula for BMI is arbitrary. The BMI depends upon weight and the square of height. Since mass increases to the third power of linear dimensions, taller individuals with exactly the same body shape and relative composition have a larger BMI. BMI is proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the height. So, if all body dimensions double, and mass scales naturally with the cube of the height, then BMI doubles instead of remaining the same. This results in taller people having a reported BMI that is uncharacteristically high, compared to their actual body fat levels. In comparison, the Ponderal index is based on the natural scaling of mass with the third power of the height.
However, many taller people are not just "scaled up" short people but tend to have narrower frames in proportion to their height. Carl Lavie has written that "The B.M.I. tables are excellent for identifying obesity and body fat in large populations, but they are far less reliable for determining fatness in individuals."
For US adults, exponent estimates range from 1.92 to 1.96 for males and from 1.45 to 1.95 for females.Physical characteristicsThe BMI overestimates roughly 10% for a large (or tall) frame and underestimates roughly 10% for a smaller frame (short stature). In other words, people with small frames would be carrying more fat than optimal, but their BMI indicates that they are normal. Conversely, large framed (or tall) individuals may be quite healthy, with a fairly low body fat percentage, but be classified as overweight by BMI.
For example, a height/weight chart may say the ideal weight (BMI 21.5) for a man is . But if that man has a slender build (small frame), he may be overweight at and should reduce by 10% to roughly (BMI 19.4). In the reverse, the man with a larger frame and more solid build should increase by 10%, to roughly (BMI 23.7). If one teeters on the edge of small/medium or medium/large, common sense should be used in calculating one's ideal weight. However, falling into one's ideal weight range for height and build is still not as accurate in determining health risk factors as waist-to-height ratio and actual body fat percentage.
Accurate frame size calculators use several measurements (wrist circumference, elbow width, neck circumference, and others) to determine what category an individual falls into for a given height. The BMI also fails to take into account loss of height through ageing. In this situation, BMI will increase without any corresponding increase in weight.
Muscle versus fat
Assumptions about the distribution between muscle mass and fat mass are inexact. BMI generally overestimates adiposity on those with leaner body mass (e.g., athletes) and underestimates excess adiposity on those with fattier body mass.
A study in June 2008 by Romero-Corral et al. examined 13,601 subjects from the United States' third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) and found that BMI-defined obesity (BMI ≥ 30) was present in 21% of men and 31% of women. Body fat-defined obesity was found in 50% of men and 62% of women. While BMI-defined obesity showed high specificity (95% for men and 99% for women), BMI showed poor sensitivity (36% for men and 49% for women). In other words, the BMI will be mostly correct when determining a person to be obese, but can err quite frequently when determining a person not to be. Despite this undercounting of obesity by BMI, BMI values in the intermediate BMI range of 20–30 were found to be associated with a wide range of body fat percentages. For men with a BMI of 25, about 20% have a body fat percentage below 20% and about 10% have body fat percentage above 30%.Variation in definitions of categories
It is not clear where on the BMI scale the threshold for overweight and obese should be set. Because of this, the standards have varied over the past few decades. Between 1980 and 2000 the U.S. Dietary Guidelines have defined overweight at a variety of levels ranging from a BMI of 24.9 to 27.1. In 1985, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) consensus conference recommended that overweight BMI be set at a BMI of 27.8 for men and 27.3 for women.
In 1998, an NIH report concluded that a BMI over 25 is overweight and a BMI over 30 is obese.
Alternatives
Corpulence index (exponent of 3)
The corpulence index uses an exponent of 3 rather than 2. The corpulence index yields valid results even for very short and very tall people, which is a problem with BMI. For example, a tall person at an ideal body weight of gives a normal BMI of 20.74 and CI of 13.6, while a tall person with a weight of gives a BMI of 24.84, very close to an overweight BMI of 25, and a CI of 12.4, very close to a normal CI of 12.New BMI (exponent of 2.5)A study found that the best exponent E for predicting the fat percent would be between 2 and 2.5 in <math>\text{mass}/\text{height}^E</math>.
An exponent of 5/2 or 2.5 was proposed by Quetelet in the 19th century:
<blockquote>In general, we do not err much when we assume that during development the squares of the weight at different ages are as the fifth powers of the height</blockquote>
This exponent of 2.5 is used in a revised formula for Body Mass Index, proposed by Nick Trefethen, Professor of numerical analysis at the University of Oxford, which minimizes the distortions for shorter and taller individuals resulting from the use of an exponent of 2 in the traditional BMI formula:
<math display"block">\mathrm{BMI}_\text{new} 1.3 \times \frac{\text{mass}_\text{kg}}{\text{height}_\text{m}^{2.5}}</math>
The scaling factor of 1.3 was determined to make the proposed new BMI formula align with the traditional BMI formula for adults of average height, while the exponent of 2.5 is a compromise between the exponent of 2 in the traditional formula for BMI and the exponent of 3 that would be expected for the scaling of weight (which at constant density would theoretically scale with volume, i.e., as the cube of the height) with height. In Trefethen's analysis, an exponent of 2.5 was found to fit empirical data more closely with less distortion than either an exponent of 2 or 3.
BMI prime (exponent of 2, normalization factor)
BMI Prime, a modification of the BMI system, is the ratio of actual BMI to upper limit optimal BMI (currently defined at 25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>), i.e., the actual BMI expressed as a proportion of upper limit optimal. BMI Prime is a dimensionless number independent of units. Individuals with BMI Prime less than 0.74 are underweight; those with between 0.74 and 1.00 have optimal weight; and those at 1.00 or greater are overweight. BMI Prime is useful clinically because it shows by what ratio (e.g. 1.36) or percentage (e.g. 136%, or 36% above) a person deviates from the maximum optimal BMI.
For instance, a person with BMI 34 kg/m<sup>2</sup> has a BMI Prime of 34/25 1.36, and is 36% over their upper mass limit. In South East Asian and South Chinese populations (see § international variations), BMI Prime should be calculated using an upper limit BMI of 23 in the denominator instead of 25. BMI Prime allows easy comparison between populations whose upper-limit optimal BMI values differ.Waist circumference
Waist circumference is a good indicator of visceral fat, which poses more health risks than fat elsewhere. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), waist circumference in excess of for men and for (non-pregnant) women is considered to imply a high risk for type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease CVD. Waist circumference can be a better indicator of obesity-related disease risk than BMI. For example, this is the case in populations of Asian descent and older people. for men and for women has been stated to pose "higher risk", with the NIH figures "even higher".
Waist-to-hip circumference ratio has also been used, but has been found to be no better than waist circumference alone, and more complicated to measure.
A related indicator is waist circumference divided by height. A 2013 study identified critical threshold values for waist-to-height ratio according to age, with consequent significant reduction in life expectancy if exceeded. These are: 0.5 for people under 40 years of age, 0.5 to 0.6 for people aged 40–50, and 0.6 for people over 50 years of age.
Surface-based body shape index
The Surface-based Body Shape Index (SBSI) is far more rigorous and is based upon four key measurements: the body surface area (BSA), vertical trunk circumference (VTC), waist circumference (WC) and height (H). Data on 11,808 subjects from the National Health and Human Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) 1999–2004, showed that SBSI outperformed BMI, waist circumference, and A Body Shape Index (ABSI), an alternative to BMI.
<math display"block">\mathrm{SBSI} \frac{(\text{H}^{7/4})(\text{WC}^{5/6})}{\text{BSA VTC}}</math>
A simplified, dimensionless form of SBSI, known as SBSI<sup>*</sup>, has also been developed. See also
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description per WP:SEEALSO -->
* Allometry
* Body roundness index
* Body water
* History of anthropometry
* List of countries by body mass index
* Normal weight obesity
* Obesity paradox
* Relative Fat Mass
* Somatotype and constitutional psychology
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->
Explanatory notes
}}
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
<!-- Please do not add more links to more calculators. If you feel a particular online calculator has specific merits, please propose the link on the talk page. -->
* U.S. National Center for Health Statistics:
** [https://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/ BMI Growth Charts for children and young adults]
** [https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/english_bmi_calculator/bmi_calculator.html BMI calculator ages 20 and older]
Category:Belgian inventions
Category:Body shape
Category:Classification of obesity
Category:Human body weight
Category:Human height
Category:Mathematics in medicine
Category:Medical signs
Category:Ratios
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Behistun Inscription
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The Behistun Inscription (also Bisotun, Bisitun or Bisutun; , Old Persian: Bagastana, meaning "the place of god") is a multilingual Achaemenid royal inscription and large rock relief on a cliff at Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran, near the city of Kermanshah in western Iran, established by Darius the Great (). It was important to the decipherment of cuneiform, as it is the longest known trilingual cuneiform inscription, written in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian (a variety of Akkadian).
Authored by Darius the Great sometime between his coronation as king of the Persian Empire in the summer of 522 BC and his death in autumn of 486 BC, the inscription begins with a brief autobiography of Darius, including his ancestry and lineage. Later in the inscription, Darius provides a lengthy sequence of events following the death of Cambyses II in which he fought nineteen battles in a period of one year (ending in December 521 BC) to put down multiple rebellions throughout the Persian Empire. The inscription states in detail that the rebellions were orchestrated by several impostors and their co-conspirators in various cities throughout the empire, each of whom falsely proclaimed himself king during the upheaval following Cambyses II's death. Darius the Great proclaimed himself victorious in all battles during the period of upheaval, attributing his success to the "grace of Ahura Mazda".
The inscription is approximately high by wide and up a limestone cliff from an ancient road connecting the capitals of Babylonia and Media (Babylon and Ecbatana, respectively). The Old Persian text contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite text includes 260 lines in eight columns, and the Babylonian text is in 112 lines. A copy of the text in Aramaic, written during the reign of Darius II, was found in Egypt. The inscription was illustrated by a life-sized bas-relief of Darius I, the Great, holding a bow as a sign of kingship, with his left foot on the chest of a figure lying supine before him. The supine figure is reputed to be the pretender Gaumata. Darius is attended to the left by two servants, and nine one-meter figures stand to the right, with hands tied and rope around their necks, representing conquered peoples. A Faravahar floats above, giving its blessing to the king. One figure appears to have been added after the others were completed, as was Darius's beard, which is a separate block of stone attached with iron pins and lead.
Name
The name Behistun is derived from usage in Ancient Greek and Arabic sources, particularly Diodorus Siculus and Ya'qubi, transliterated into English in the 19th century by Henry Rawlinson. The modern Persian version name is Bisotun.
History
After the fall of the Persian Empire's Achaemenid Dynasty and its successors, and the lapse of Old Persian cuneiform writing into disuse, the nature of the inscription was forgotten, and fanciful explanations became the norm.
In 1598, Englishman Robert Sherley saw the inscription during a diplomatic mission to Safavid Persia on behalf of Austria, and brought it to the attention of Western European scholars. His party incorrectly came to the conclusion that it was Christian in origin. French General Gardanne thought it showed "Christ and his twelve apostles", and Sir Robert Ker Porter thought it represented the Lost Tribes of Israel and Shalmaneser of Assyria. In 1604, Italian explorer Pietro della Valle visited the inscription and made preliminary drawings of the monument.
Translation efforts
(1881).]]
with an Aramaic translation of the Behistun inscription's text, known as TAD C2.1.]]
German surveyor Carsten Niebuhr visited in around 1764 for Frederick V of Denmark, publishing a copy of the inscription in the account of his journeys in 1778. Niebuhr's transcriptions were used by Georg Friedrich Grotefend and others in their efforts to decipher the Old Persian cuneiform script. Grotefend had deciphered ten of the 37 symbols of Old Persian by 1802, after realizing that unlike the Semitic cuneiform scripts, Old Persian text is alphabetic and each word is separated by a vertical slanted symbol.
In 1835, Sir Henry Rawlinson, an officer of the British East India Company army assigned to the forces of the Shah of Iran, began studying the inscription in earnest. As the town of Bisotun's name was anglicized as "Behistun" at this time, the monument became known as the "Behistun Inscription". Despite its relative inaccessibility, Rawlinson was able to scale the cliff with the help of a local boy and copy the Old Persian inscription. The Elamite was across a chasm, and the Babylonian four meters above; both were beyond easy reach and were left for later. In 1847, he was able to send a full and accurate copy to Europe.
Later research and activity
thumb|right|The Behistun Inscription photographed in 2019
The site was visited by the American linguist A. V. Williams Jackson in 1903. Later expeditions, in 1904 sponsored by the British Museum and led by Leonard William King and Reginald Campbell Thompson and in 1948 by George G. Cameron of the University of Michigan, obtained photographs, casts and more accurate transcriptions of the texts, including passages that were not copied by Rawlinson.
It also became apparent that rainwater had dissolved some areas of the limestone in which the text was inscribed, while leaving new deposits of limestone over other areas, covering the text.
In 1938, the inscription became of interest to the Nazi German think tank Ahnenerbe, although research plans were cancelled due to the onset of World War II.
The monument later suffered some damage from Allied soldiers using it for target practice in World War II, and during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.
In 1999, Iranian archeologists began the documentation and assessment of damages to the site incurred during the 20th century. Malieh Mehdiabadi, who was project manager for the effort, described a photogrammetric process by which two-dimensional photos were taken of the inscriptions using two cameras and later transmuted into 3-D images.
In recent years, Iranian archaeologists have been undertaking conservation works. The site became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006.
In 2012, the Bisotun Cultural Heritage Center organized an international effort to re-examine the inscription.
Content
according to the Behistun inscription.]]
Lineage
In the first section of the inscription, Darius the Great declares his ancestry and lineage:
Territories
Darius also lists the territories under his rule:
Conflicts and revolts
Later in the inscription, Darius provides an eye-witness account of battles he successfully fought over a one-year period to put down rebellions which had resulted from the deaths of Cyrus the Great, and his son Cambyses II:
<gallery widths"150px" heights"180px">
Behistun Relief, Assina.jpg|: "This is ššina. He lied, saying "I am king of Elam.""}}
Behistun Relief Nidintu-Bêl.jpg|
References
*Adkins, Lesley, Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of Babylon, St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003.
*Blakesley, J. W. [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?iduc1.b3917316;view1up;seq=23 An Attempt at an Outline of the Early Medo-Persian History, founded on the Rock-Inscriptions of Behistun taken in combination with the Accounts of Herodotus and Ctesias]. (Trinity College, Cambridge,) in the Proceedings of the Philological Society.
* Borger, Rykle. Die Chronologie des Darius-Denkmals am Behistun-Felse, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1982, .
*Cameron, George G. "Darius Carved History on Ageless Rock". National Geographic Magazine. Vol. XCVIII, Num. 6, December 1950. (pp. 825–844)
*Thompson, R. Campbell. "The Rock of Behistun". Wonders of the Past. Edited by Sir J. A. Hammerton. Vol. II. New York: Wise and Co., 1937. (pp. 760–767)
*Louis H. Gray, Notes on the Old Persian Inscriptions of Behistun, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 23, pp. 56–64, 1902
*[https://cdli.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/articles/cdlb/2024-3.pdf]Karaj, Iran, "A New Reading of the 70th Paragraph of the Behistun Inscription", Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin 3, 2024
*Paul J. Kosmin, A New Hypothesis: The Behistun Inscription as Imperial Calendar, Iran - Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies, August 2018
*A. T. Olmstead, Darius and His Behistun Inscription, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 392–416, 1938
*Rawlinson, H.C., Archaeologia, 1853, vol. xxxiv, p. 74.
*Rubio, Gonzalo. "Writing in another tongue: Alloglottography in the Ancient Near East". In Margins of Writing, Origins of Cultures (ed. Seth Sanders. 2nd printing with postscripts and corrections. Oriental Institute Seminars, 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 33–70.
* Saber Amiri Parian, [https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlb/2017/cdlb2017_003.html A New Edition of the Elamite Version of the Behistun Inscription (I)], Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin 2017:003.
* Schmitt, Rüdiger. Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden. Editio minor mit deutscher Übersetzung, Reichert, Wiesbaden, 2023, , pp. 9 and 36–96.
External links
*
**[https://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html The Behistun Inscription] , livius.org article by Jona Lendering, including Persian text (in cuneiform and transliteration), King and Thompson's English translation, and additional materials
*
**[https://web.archive.org/web/20090413214509/http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Persia/Behistun_txt.html Tolman's English translation of the inscription text]
*[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1222 Brief description of Bisotun] from UNESCO
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090605010957/http://www.chnpress.com/news/?section2&id7430 "Bisotun receives its World Heritage certificate"], Cultural Heritage News Agency, Tehran, July 3, 2008
* [https://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun-rem.html Other monuments of Behistun]
* Rüdiger Schmitt, "Bisotun i", Encyclopaedia Iranica [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bisotun-i]
*
Category:Achaemenid inscriptions
Category:Buildings and structures in Kermanshah province
Category:Multilingual texts
Category:Archaeological sites in Iran
Category:Sculpture of the ancient Near East
Category:World Heritage Sites in Iran
Category:Tourist attractions in Kermanshah province
Category:Darius the Great
Category:Buildings and structures on the Iran National Heritage List
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Barry Goldwater
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| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place = Paradise Valley, Arizona, U.S.
| resting_place = Christ Church of the Ascension <br/> Paradise Valley, Arizona, U.S.
| party = Republican
| spouse =
* }}
| children = 4, including Barry Jr.
| education = University of Arizona (did not graduate)
| signature = Barry Goldwater signature.svg
| branch =
* United States Army
** United States Air Forces
* Arizona Air National Guard
* United States Air Force
** United States Air Force Reserve
| serviceyears = 1941–1967
| rank = Major General
| battles =
| module
}}
Barry Morris Goldwater (January 2,<!-- Note that many sources erroneously give his birthdate as January 1. See http://www.accuracyproject.org/cbe-Goldwater,Barry.html for discussion. --> 1909 – May 29, 1998) was an American politician and major general in the Air Force Reserve who served as a United States senator from 1953 to 1965 and 1969 to 1987, and was the Republican Party's nominee for president in 1964.
Goldwater was born in Phoenix, Arizona, where he helped manage his family's department store. During World War II, he flew aircraft between the U.S. and India. After the war, Goldwater served in the Phoenix City Council. In 1952, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he rejected the legacy of the New Deal and, along with the conservative coalition, fought against the New Deal coalition. Goldwater also challenged his party's moderate to liberal wing on policy issues. He supported the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 and the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution but opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, disagreeing with Title II and Title VII. In the 1964 U.S. presidential election, Goldwater mobilized a large conservative constituency to win the Republican nomination, but then lost the general election to incumbent Democratic president Lyndon B. Johnson in a landslide.
Goldwater returned to the Senate in 1969 and specialized in defense and foreign policy. He successfully urged president Richard Nixon to resign in 1974 when evidence of a cover-up in the Watergate scandal became overwhelming and impeachment was imminent. In 1986, he oversaw passage of the Goldwater–Nichols Act, which strengthened civilian authority in the U.S. Department of Defense. Near the end of his career, Goldwater's views on social and cultural issues grew increasingly libertarian.
After leaving the Senate, Goldwater became supportive of homosexuals serving openly in the military, environmental protection, gay rights, abortion rights, adoption rights for same-sex couples, and the legalization of medicinal marijuana. Many political pundits and historians believe he laid the foundation for the conservative revolution to follow as the grassroots organization and conservative takeover of the Republican Party began a long-term realignment in American politics, which helped to bring about the presidency of Ronald Reagan in the 1980s. He also had a substantial impact on the American libertarian movement.Early life and family backgroundBarry Morris Goldwater was born on January 2, 1909, in Phoenix in what was then the Arizona Territory, the son of Baron M. Goldwater and his wife, Hattie Josephine "JoJo" Williams. Goldwater long believed that he was born on January 1, 1909, and thus works published during his career list this as his date of birth; however, in his later years, he discovered documentation revealing that he was actually born at 3 a.m. on January 2. His father's family founded Goldwater's Department Store, a leading upscale department store in Phoenix. Goldwater's paternal grandfather, Michel Goldwasser, a Polish Jew, was born in 1821 in Konin, then part of Congress Poland. He emigrated to London following the Revolutions of 1848. Soon after arriving in London, Michel anglicized his name to Michael Goldwater. Michel married Sarah Nathan, a member of an English-Jewish family, in the Great Synagogue of London.
The Goldwaters later emigrated to the United States, first arriving in San Francisco, California, before finally settling in the Arizona Territory, where Michael Goldwater opened a small department store that was later taken over and expanded by his three sons, Henry, Baron, and Morris. Morris Goldwater (1852–1939) was an Arizona territorial and state legislator, mayor of Prescott, Arizona, delegate to the Arizona Constitutional Convention, and later President of the Arizona State Senate.
Goldwater's father was Jewish, but Goldwater was raised in his mother's Episcopal faith. Hattie Williams came from an established New England family that included the theologian Roger Williams, of Rhode Island. Goldwater's parents were married in an Episcopal church in Phoenix; for his entire life, Goldwater was an Episcopalian, though on rare occasions he referred to himself as Jewish. While he did not often attend church, he stated that "If a man acts in a religious way, an ethical way, then he's really a religious man—and it doesn't have a lot to do with how often he gets inside a church." His first cousin was Julius Goldwater, a convert to Buddhism and Jodo Shinshu priest who assisted interned Japanese Americans during World War II.
After he did poorly as a freshman in high school, Goldwater's parents sent him to Staunton Military Academy in Virginia, where he played varsity football, basketball, track, and swimming; was senior class treasurer; and attained the rank of captain. He graduated from the academy in 1928 and enrolled at the University of Arizona, but dropped out after one year. Barry Goldwater is the most recent non-college graduate to be the nominee of a major political party in a presidential election. Goldwater entered the family's business around the time of his father's death, in 1930. Six years later, he took over the department store, though he was not particularly enthused about running the business.
Following World War II, Goldwater was a leading proponent of creating the United States Air Force Academy and later served on the academy's Board of Visitors. The visitor center at the academy is now named in his honor. Goldwater remained in the Army Air Reserve after the war, and in 1946, at the rank of Colonel, Goldwater founded the Arizona Air National Guard. Goldwater ordered the Arizona Air National Guard desegregated, two years before the rest of the U.S. military. In the early 1960s, while a senator, he commanded the 9999th Air Reserve Squadron as a major general. Goldwater was instrumental in pushing the Pentagon to support the desegregation of the armed services.
Goldwater remained in the Arizona Air National Guard until 1967, retiring as a Command Pilot with the rank of major general.
As a U.S. Senator, Goldwater had a sign in his office that referenced his military career and mindset: "There are old pilots and there are bold pilots, but there are no old, bold pilots."Early political careerIn a heavily Democratic state, Goldwater became a conservative Republican and a friend of Herbert Hoover. He was outspoken against New Deal liberalism, especially its close ties to labor unions. A pilot, amateur radio operator, outdoorsman, and photographer, he criss-crossed Arizona and developed a deep interest in both the natural and the human history of the state. He entered Phoenix politics in 1949, when he was elected to the City Council as part of a nonpartisan team of candidates pledged to clean up widespread prostitution and gambling. The team won every mayoral and council election for the next two decades. Goldwater rebuilt the weak Republican party and was instrumental in electing Howard Pyle as Governor in 1950.Local support for civil rights
Goldwater was a supporter of racial equality. He integrated his family's business upon taking over control in the 1930s. A lifetime member of the NAACP, Goldwater helped found the group's Arizona chapter. He saw to it that the Arizona Air National Guard was racially integrated from its inception in 1946, two years before President Truman ordered the military as a whole be integrated (a process that was not completed until 1954). Goldwater worked with Phoenix civil rights leaders to successfully integrate public schools a year prior to Brown v. Board of Education. Despite this support of civil rights, he remained in objection to some major federal civil rights legislation. Civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. remarked of him, "while not himself a racist, Mr. Goldwater articulates a philosophy which gives aid and comfort to the racists."
Goldwater was an early member and largely unrecognized supporter of the National Urban League's Phoenix chapter, going so far as to cover the group's early operating deficits with his personal funds. Though the NAACP denounced Goldwater in the harshest of terms when he ran for president, the Urban League conferred on him the 1991 Humanitarian Award "for 50 years of loyal service to the Phoenix Urban League". In response to League members who objected, citing Goldwater's vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the League president pointed out that he had saved the League more than once, saying he preferred to judge a person "on the basis of his daily actions rather than on his voting record".
Criticism of the Eisenhower administration
Goldwater was outspoken about the Eisenhower administration, calling some of the policies of the administration too liberal for a Republican president. "Democrats delighted in pointing out that the junior senator was so headstrong that he had gone out his way to criticize the president of his own party." There was a Democratic majority in Congress for most of Eisenhower's career, and Goldwater felt that President Dwight Eisenhower was compromising too much with Democrats in order to get legislation passed. Early on in his career as a senator for Arizona, he criticized the $71.8 billion budget that President Eisenhower sent to Congress, stating, "Now, however, I am not so sure. A $71.8 billion budget not only shocks me, but it weakens my faith." Goldwater opposed Eisenhower's pick of Earl Warren for Chief Justice of the United States. "The day that Eisenhower appointed Governor Earl Warren of California as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Goldwater did not hesitate to express his misgivings." However, Goldwater was present in the United States Senate on March 1, 1954, when Warren was unanimously confirmed, voted in favor of Eisenhower's nomination of John Marshall Harlan II on March 16, 1955, was present for the unanimous nominations of William J. Brennan Jr. and Charles Evans Whittaker on March 19, 1957, and voted in favor of the nomination of Potter Stewart on May 5, 1959.Stance on civil rightsIn his first year in the Senate, Goldwater was responsible for the desegregation of the Senate cafeteria after he insisted that his Black legislative assistant, Katherine Maxwell, be served along with every other Senate employee.
Goldwater and the Eisenhower administration supported the integration of schools in the South, but Goldwater felt the states should choose how they wanted to integrate and should not be forced by the federal government. "Goldwater criticized the use of federal troops. He accused the Eisenhower administration of violating the Constitution by assuming powers reserved by the states. While he agreed that under the law, every state should have integrated its schools, each state should integrate in its own way." There were high-ranking government officials following Goldwater's critical stance on the Eisenhower administration, even an Army General. "Fulbright's startling revelation that military personnel were being indoctrinated with the idea that the policies of the Commander in Chief were treasonous dovetailed with the return to the news of the strange case of General Edwin Walker."
In his 1960 book The Conscience of a Conservative, Goldwater stated that he supported the stated objectives of the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education, but argued that the federal government had no role in ordering states to desegregate public schools. He wrote:<blockquote>"I believe that it is both wise and just for negro children to attend the same schools as whites, and that to deny them this opportunity carries with it strong implications of inferiority. I am not prepared, however, to impose that judgement of mine on the people of Mississippi or South Carolina, or to tell them what methods should be adopted and what pace should be kept in striving toward that goal. That is their business, not mine. I believe that the problem of race relations, like all social and cultural problems, is best handled by the people directly concerned. Social and cultural change, however desirable, should not be effected by the engines of national power."</blockquote>Goldwater voted in favor of both the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, but did not vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1960 because he was absent from the chamber while Senate Minority Whip Thomas Kuchel (R–CA) announced that Goldwater would have voted in favor if present. Congressional Republicans overwhelmingly supported the bill, with Goldwater being joined by only five other Republican senators in voting against it. It is likely that Goldwater significantly underestimated the effect this would have, as his vote against the bill hurt him with voters across the country, including from his own party. In the 1990s, Goldwater would call his vote on the Civil Rights Act "one of his greatest regrets." but was present when Arthur Goldberg was unanimously confirmed.1964 presidential election
Goldwater's direct style had made him extremely popular with the Republican Party's suburban conservative voters, based in the South and the senator's native West. Following the success of The Conscience of a Conservative, Goldwater became the frontrunner for the GOP Presidential nomination to run against John F. Kennedy. Despite their disagreements on politics, Goldwater and Kennedy had grown to become close friends during the eight years they served alongside each other in the Senate. With Goldwater the clear GOP frontrunner, he and Kennedy began planning to campaign together, holding Lincoln-Douglas style debates across the country and avoiding a race defined by the kind of negative attacks that were increasingly coming to define American politics.
Republican primary
thumb|300px|Republican primaries results by state
In South Dakota and Florida, Goldwater finished second to "unpledged delegates", but he finished before all other candidates.]]
Goldwater was grief-stricken by the assassination of Kennedy and was greatly disappointed that his opponent in 1964 would not be Kennedy but instead his vice president, former Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. Goldwater disliked Johnson, later telling columnist John Kolbe that Johnson had "used every dirty trick in the bag."
At the time of Goldwater's presidential candidacy, the Republican Party was split between its conservative wing (based in the West and South) and moderate/liberal wing, sometimes called Rockefeller Republicans (based in the Northeast and Midwest). Goldwater alarmed even some of his fellow partisans with his brand of staunch fiscal conservatism and militant anti-communism. He was viewed by many moderate and liberal Republicans as being too far on the right wing of the political spectrum to appeal to the mainstream majority necessary to win a national election. As a result, moderate and liberal Republicans recruited a series of opponents, including New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., of Massachusetts and Pennsylvania Governor William Scranton, to challenge him. Goldwater received solid backing from most of the few Southern Republicans then in politics. A young Birmingham lawyer, John Grenier, secured commitments from 271 of 279 Southern convention delegates to back Goldwater. Grenier would serve as executive director of the national GOP during the Goldwater campaign, the number two position to party chairman Dean Burch of Arizona. Goldwater fought and won a multi-candidate race for the Republican Party's presidential nomination.
1964 Republican National Convention
Eisenhower gave his support to Goldwater when he told reporters, "I personally believe that Goldwater is not an extremist as some people have made him, but in any event we're all Republicans." His nomination was staunchly opposed by the so-called Liberal Republicans, who thought Goldwater's demand for active measures to defeat the Soviet Union would foment a nuclear war. In addition to Rockefeller, prominent Republican office-holders refused to endorse Goldwater's candidacy, including both Republican senators from New York Kenneth B. Keating and Jacob Javits, Pennsylvania governor William Scranton, Michigan governor George Romney and Congressman John V. Lindsay (NY-17). Rockefeller Republican Jackie Robinson walked out of the convention in disgust over Goldwater's nomination. Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., who was Richard Nixon's running mate in 1960, also opposed Goldwater, calling his proposal of realigning the Democrat and Republican parties into two Liberal and Conservative parties "totally abhorrent" and thought that no one in their right mind should oppose the federal government in having a role in the future of America.
In the face of such opposition, Goldwater delivered a well-received acceptance speech. According to the author Lee Edwards: "[Goldwater] devoted more care [to it] than to any other speech in his political career. And with good reason: he would deliver it to the largest and most attentive audience of his life." Journalist John Adams commented: "his acceptance speech was bold, reflecting his conservative views, but not irrational. Rather than shrinking from those critics who accuse him of extremism, Goldwater challenged them head-on" in his acceptance speech at the 1964 Republican Convention. In his own words:
His paraphrase of Cicero was included at the suggestion of Harry V. Jaffa, though the speech was primarily written by Karl Hess. Because of President Johnson's popularity, Goldwater refrained from attacking the president directly. He did not mention Johnson by name at all in his convention speech.
Although raised as an Episcopalian, Goldwater was the first candidate of Jewish descent, through his father, to be nominated for president by a major American party.General election campaign
with Senator Goldwater, January 16, 1964]]
After securing the Republican presidential nomination, Goldwater chose his political ally, RNC Chairman William E. Miller to be his running mate. Goldwater joked he chose Miller because "he drives Johnson nuts". In choosing Miller, Goldwater opted for a running mate who was ideologically aligned with his own conservative wing of the Republican party. Miller balanced the ticket in other ways, being a practicing Catholic from the East Coast.
Former U.S. senator Prescott Bush, a moderate Republican from Connecticut, was a friend of Goldwater and supported him in the general election campaign.
Future chief justice of the United States and fellow Arizonan William H. Rehnquist also first came to the attention of national Republicans through his work as a legal adviser to Goldwater's presidential campaign. Rehnquist had begun his law practice in 1953 in the firm of Denison Kitchel of Phoenix, Goldwater's national campaign manager and friend of nearly three decades.
Goldwater's advocacy of active interventionism to prevent the spread of communism and defend American values and allies led to effective counterattacks from Lyndon B. Johnson and his supporters, who said that Goldwater's militancy would have dire consequences, possibly even nuclear war. In a May 1964 speech, Goldwater suggested that nuclear weapons should be treated more like conventional weapons and used in Vietnam, specifically that they should have been used at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 to defoliate trees. Regarding Vietnam, Goldwater charged that Johnson's policy was devoid of "goal, course, or purpose," leaving "only sudden death in the jungles and the slow strangulation of freedom". Goldwater's rhetoric on nuclear war was viewed by many as quite uncompromising, a view buttressed by off-hand comments such as, "Let's lob one into the men's room at the Kremlin." He also advocated that field commanders in Vietnam and Europe should be given the authority to use tactical nuclear weapons (which he called "small conventional nuclear weapons") without presidential confirmation.
Goldwater countered the Johnson attacks by criticizing the administration for its perceived ethical lapses, and stating in a commercial that "we, as a nation, are not far from the kind of moral decay that has brought on the fall of other nations and people.... I say it is time to put conscience back in government. And by good example, put it back in all walks of American life." Goldwater campaign commercials included statements of support by actor Raymond Massey and moderate Republican senator Margaret Chase Smith.
Before the 1964 election, Fact magazine, published by Ralph Ginzburg, ran a special issue titled, "The Unconscious of a Conservative: A Special Issue on the Mind of Barry Goldwater". The two main articles contended that Goldwater was mentally unfit to be president. The magazine supported this claim with the results of a poll of board-certified psychiatrists. Fact had mailed questionnaires to 12,356 psychiatrists, receiving responses from 2,417, of whom 1,189 said Goldwater was mentally incapable of holding the office of president. Most of the other respondents declined to diagnose Goldwater because they had not clinically interviewed him but said that, although not psychologically unfit to preside, Goldwater would be negligent in the role.
After the election, Goldwater sued the publisher, the editor and the magazine for libel in Goldwater v. Ginzburg. "Although the jury awarded Goldwater only $1.00 in compensatory damages against all three defendants, it went on to award him punitive damages of $25,000 against Ginzburg and $50,000 against Fact magazine, Inc." According to Warren Boroson, then-managing editor of Fact and later a financial columnist, the main biography of Goldwater in the magazine was written by David Bar-Illan, the Israeli pianist.
Political advertising
A Democratic campaign advertisement known as Daisy showed a young girl counting daisy petals, from one to ten. Immediately following this scene, a voiceover counted down from ten to one. The child's face was shown as a still photograph followed by images of nuclear explosions and mushroom clouds. The campaign advertisement ended with a plea to vote for Johnson, implying that Goldwater (though not mentioned by name) would provoke a nuclear war if elected. The advertisement, which featured only a few spoken words and relied on imagery for its emotional impact, was one of the most provocative in American political campaign history, and many analysts credit it as being the birth of the modern style of "negative political ads" on television. The ad aired only once and was immediately pulled, but it was then shown many times by local television stations covering the controversy.
Goldwater did not have ties to the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), but he was publicly endorsed by members of the organization. Lyndon B. Johnson exploited this association during the elections, but Goldwater barred the KKK from supporting him and denounced them.
Throughout the presidential campaign, Goldwater refused to appeal to racial tensions or backlash against civil rights. After the outbreak of the Harlem riot of 1964, Goldwater privately gathered news reporters on his campaign plane and said that if anyone attempted to sow racial violence on his political behalf, he would withdraw from the presidential raceeven if it was the day before the election.
Past comments came back to haunt Goldwater throughout the campaign. He had once called the Eisenhower administration "a dime-store New Deal", and the former president never fully forgave him. However, Eisenhower did film a television commercial with Goldwater. Eisenhower qualified his voting for Goldwater in November by remarking that he had voted not specifically for Goldwater, but for the Republican Party. In December 1961, Goldwater had told a news conference that "sometimes I think this country would be better off if we could just saw off the Eastern Seaboard and let it float out to sea." That comment boomeranged on him during the campaign in the form of a Johnson television commercial, as did remarks about making Social Security voluntary, and statements in Tennessee about selling the Tennessee Valley Authority, a large local New Deal employer.
The Goldwater campaign spotlighted Ronald Reagan, who appeared in a campaign ad. In turn, Reagan gave a stirring, nationally televised speech, "A Time for Choosing", in support of Goldwater.
Results
Goldwater only won his home state of Arizona and five states in the Deep South. The Southern states, traditionally Democratic up to that time, voted Republican primarily as a statement of opposition to the Civil Rights Act, which had been signed into law by Johnson earlier that year. Despite Johnson's support for the Civil Rights Act, the bill received split support from Congressional Democrats due to southerner opposition. In contrast, Congressional Republicans overwhelmingly supported the bill, with Goldwater being joined by only 5 other Republican senators in voting against it. On the other hand, the defeat of so many older politicians created openings for young conservatives to move up the ladder. While the loss of moderate Republicans was temporary—they were back by 1966—Goldwater also permanently pulled many conservative Southerners and whites out of the New Deal Coalition.
According to Steve Kornacki of Salon, "Goldwater broke through and won five [Southern] states—the best showing in the region for a GOP candidate since Reconstruction. In Mississippi—where Franklin D. Roosevelt had won nearly 100 percent of the vote 28 years earlier—Goldwater claimed a staggering 87 percent." It has frequently been argued that Goldwater's strong performance in Southern states previously regarded as Democratic strongholds foreshadowed a larger shift in electoral trends in the coming decades that would make the South a Republican bastion (an end to the "Solid South")—first in presidential politics and eventually at the congressional and state levels, as well. Also, Goldwater's uncompromising promotion of freedom was the start of a continuing shift in American politics from liberalism to a conservative economic philosophy.
Return to the Senate
, 1984]]
Goldwater remained popular in Arizona, and in the 1968 Senate election he was elected to the seat of retiring Senator Carl Hayden. He was reelected in 1974 and 1980.
Throughout the late 1970s, as the conservative wing under Ronald Reagan gained control of the Republican Party, Goldwater concentrated on his Senate duties, especially in military affairs. Goldwater purportedly did not like Richard Nixon on either a political or personal level, later calling the California Republican "the most dishonest individual I have ever met in my life". At the height of the Watergate scandal, Goldwater met with Nixon at the White House and urged him to resign. At the time, Nixon's impeachment by the House of Representatives was imminent and Goldwater warned him that fewer than 10 Republican senators would vote against conviction.
Despite being a difficult year for Republicans candidates, the 1974 election saw Goldwater easily reelected over his Democratic opponent, Jonathan Marshall, the publisher of The Scottsdale Progress.
At the 1976 Republican National Convention, Goldwater helped block Nelson Rockefeller's renomination as vice president. When Reagan challenged Gerald Ford for the presidential nomination in 1976, Goldwater endorsed the incumbent Ford, looking for consensus rather than conservative idealism. As one historian notes, "The Arizonan had lost much of his zest for battle."
In 1979, when President Carter normalized relations with Communist China, Goldwater and some other Senators sued him in the Supreme Court, arguing that the President could not terminate the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China (Taiwan) without the approval of Congress. The case, Goldwater v. Carter (444 U.S. 996), was dismissed by the court as a political question.
On June 9, 1969, Goldwater was absent during President Nixon's nomination of Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice of the United States while Senate Minority Whip Hugh Scott announced that Goldwater would have voted in favor if present. Goldwater voted in favor of Nixon's failed Supreme Court nomination of Clement Haynsworth on November 21, 1969, and a few months later, Goldwater voted in favor of Nixon's failed Supreme Court nomination of Harrold Carswell on April 8, 1970. The following month, Goldwater was absent when Nixon nominee Harry Blackmun was confirmed on May 12, 1970, while Senate Minority Whip Robert P. Griffin announced that Goldwater would have voted in favor if present. On December 6, 1971, Goldwater voted in favor of Nixon's nomination of Lewis F. Powell Jr., and on December 10, Goldwater voted in favor of Nixon's nomination of William Rehnquist as Associate Justice. On December 17, 1975, Goldwater voted in favor of President Gerald Ford's nomination of John Paul Stevens to the Supreme Court.Final campaign and Senate termWith his fourth Senate term due to end in January 1981, Goldwater seriously considered retiring from the Senate in 1980 before deciding to run for one final term. It was a surprisingly tough campaign for re-election. Goldwater was viewed by some as out of touch and vulnerable for several reasons, chiefly because he had planned to retire in 1981 and he had not visited many areas of Arizona outside of Phoenix and Tucson. Additionally, his Democratic challenger, Bill Schulz, proved to be a formidable opponent. A former Republican and a wealthy real estate developer, Schulz's campaign slogan was "Energy for the Eighties." Arizona's changing population also hurt Goldwater. The state's population had greatly increased, and a large portion of the electorate had not lived in the state at the time Goldwater was previously elected, meaning unlike most incumbents, many voters were less familiar with Goldwater's actual beliefs. Goldwater spent most of the campaign on the defensive. Although he was eventually declared as the winning candidate in the general election by a very narrow margin, receiving 49.5% of the vote to Schulz's 48.4%, early returns on election night indicated that Schulz would win. The counting of votes continued through the night and into the next morning. At around daybreak, Goldwater learned that he had been reelected thanks to absentee ballots, which were among the last to be counted.
Goldwater's close victory in 1980 came despite Reagan's 61% landslide over Jimmy Carter in Arizona. Despite Goldwater's struggles, in 1980, Republicans were able to pick up 12 senate seats, regaining control of the chamber for the first time since 1955, when Goldwater was in his first term. Goldwater was now in the most powerful position he had ever been in the Senate. In October 1983, Goldwater voted against the legislation establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday.
On September 21, 1981, Goldwater voted in favor of Reagan's Supreme Court nomination of Sandra Day O'Connor. Goldwater was absent during the nominations of William Rehnquist as Chief Justice of the United States and Antonin Scalia as Associate Justice on September 17, 1986.
After the new Senate convened in January 1981, Goldwater became chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee. In this role he clashed with the Reagan administration in April 1984 when he discovered that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had been mining the waters of Nicaragua since February, something that he had first denied when the matter was raised. In a note to the CIA director William Casey, Goldwater denounced what he called an "act of war", saying that "this is no way to run a railroad" as he stated crossly that only Congress had the power to declare war and accused the CIA of illegally mining Nicaraguan waters without the permission of Congress. Goldwater subsequently voted for a Congressional resolution condemning the mining.
He introduced the 1984 Cable Franchise Policy and Communications Act, which allowed local governments to require the transmission of public, educational, and government access (PEG) channels, barred cable operators from exercising editorial control over the content of programs carried on PEG channels and absolved them from liability for their content. On May 12, 1986, Goldwater was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Reagan.
, USAFR, with a fourth star, April 10, 1985.]]
In response to Moral Majority founder Jerry Falwell's opposition to the nomination of Sandra Day O'Connor to the Supreme Court, of which Falwell had said, "Every good Christian should be concerned", Goldwater retorted, "Every good Christian ought to kick Falwell right in the ass." According to John Dean, Goldwater actually suggested that good Christians ought to kick Falwell in the "nuts", but the news media "changed the anatomical reference". Goldwater also had harsh words for his one-time political protégé, President Reagan, particularly after the Iran–Contra Affair became public in 1986. Journalist Robert MacNeil, a friend of Goldwater's from the 1964 presidential campaign, recalled interviewing him in his office shortly afterward. "He was sitting in his office with his hands on his cane... and he said to me, 'Well, aren't you going to ask me about the Iran arms sales?' It had just been announced that the Reagan administration had sold arms to Iran. And I said, 'Well, if I asked you, what would you say?' He said, 'I'd say it's the god-damned stupidest foreign policy blunder this country's ever made! Aside from the Iran–Contra scandal, Goldwater thought nonetheless that Reagan was a good president.
Retirement
Goldwater said later that the close result in 1980 convinced him not to run again. He retired in 1987, serving as Chair of the Senate Intelligence and Armed Services Committees in his final term. Despite his reputation as a firebrand in the 1960s, by the end of his career, he was considered a stabilizing influence in the Senate, one of the most respected members of either major party. Although Goldwater remained staunchly anti-communist and "hawkish" on military issues, he was a key supporter of the fight for ratification of the Panama Canal Treaty in the 1970s, which would give control of the canal zone to the Republic of Panama. His most important legislative achievement may have been the Goldwater–Nichols Act, which reorganized the U.S. military's senior-command structure.
Policies
Goldwater became most associated with anti-union work and anti-communism; he was a supporter of the conservative coalition in Congress. His work on labor issues led to Congress passing major anti-labor reforms in 1957, and subsequently a campaign by the AFL–CIO to challenge his 1958 reelection bid. He voted against the censure of Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, who had been making unfounded claims about communists infiltrating the U.S. State Department during the Red Scare, but never actually accused any individual of being a communist or Soviet agent. Goldwater emphasized his strong opposition to the worldwide spread of communism in his 1960 book The Conscience of a Conservative. The book became an important reference text in conservative political circles.
Scott, House Minority Leader Rhodes and the President to discuss the Watergate scandal and impeachment process]]
In 1964, Goldwater ran a conservative campaign that emphasized states' rights. Goldwater's 1964 campaign was a magnet for conservatives since he opposed interference by the federal government in state affairs. Goldwater voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, but did not vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1960 because he was absent from the chamber, with Senate Minority Whip Thomas Kuchel (R–CA) announcing that Goldwater would have voted in favor if present. Though Goldwater had supported the original Senate version of the bill, Goldwater voted against the Civil Rights Act of 1964. His public stance was based on his view that Article II and Article VII of the Act interfered with the rights of private persons to do or not to do business with whomever they chose and believed that the private employment provisions of the Act would lead to racial quotas. In the segregated city of Phoenix in the 1950s, he had quietly supported civil rights for blacks, but would not let his name be used.
All this appealed to white Southern Democrats, and Goldwater was the first Republican to win the electoral votes of all of the Deep South states (South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana) since Reconstruction. However, Goldwater's vote on the Civil Rights Act proved devastating to his campaign everywhere outside the South (besides Dixie, Goldwater won only in Arizona, his home state), contributing to his landslide defeat in 1964.
Goldwater's campaign also included stringently fiscally conservative policies. Goldwater was strongly critical of Johnson's War on Poverty policies and argued that it might be the "attitude or the actions" of the poor that are responsible for their hardship. In his prepared speech before the Economic Club of New York, Goldwater also claimed that arguing unemployment and poverty are caused by lack of education is "like saying that people have big feet because they wear big shoes. The fact is that most people who have no skill have no education for the same reason—low intelligence or low ambition." Goldwater also called for ending agricultural subsidies, privatizing Social Security, and privatizing the Tennessee Valley Authority.
While Goldwater had been depicted by his opponents in the Republican primaries as a representative of a conservative philosophy that was extreme and alien, his voting records show that his positions were in generally aligned with those of other Republicans in the Congress.
Goldwater fought in 1971 to stop U.S. funding of the United Nations after the People's Republic of China was admitted to the organization. He said:
Goldwater and the revival of American conservatismAlthough Goldwater was not as important in the American conservative movement as Ronald Reagan after 1965, he shaped and redefined the movement from the late 1950s to 1964. Arizona Senator John McCain, who succeeded Goldwater in the Senate in 1987, said of Goldwater's legacy, "He transformed the Republican Party from an Eastern elitist organization to the breeding ground for the election of Ronald Reagan." Columnist George Will remarked that Reagan's victory in the 1980 presidential election was the metaphoric culmination of 16 years of counting the votes for Goldwater from the 1964 presidential race.
The Republican Party recovered from the 1964 election debacle, acquiring 47 seats in the House of Representatives in the 1966 mid-term election. In January 1969, after Goldwater had been re-elected to the Senate, he wrote an article in the National Review "affirming that he [was] not against liberals, that liberals are needed as a counterweight to conservatism, and that he had in mind a fine liberal like Max Lerner."
Goldwater was a strong supporter of environmental protection. He explained his position in 1969:
Later life
By the 1980s, with Ronald Reagan as president and the growing involvement of the religious right in conservative politics, Goldwater's libertarian views on personal issues were revealed; he believed that they were an integral part of true conservatism. Goldwater viewed abortion as a matter of personal choice and as such supported abortion rights. As a passionate defender of personal liberty, he saw the religious right's views as an encroachment on personal privacy and individual liberties. Although he voted against making Martin Luther King's birthday a national holiday in his last term as senator, Goldwater later expressed support for it.
In 1987, he received the Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution. In 1988, Princeton University's American Whig-Cliosophic Society awarded Goldwater the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service in recognition of his career.
After his retirement in 1987, Goldwater described Arizona Governor Evan Mecham as "hardheaded" and called on him to resign, and two years later stated that the Republican party had been taken over by a "bunch of kooks".
During the 1988 presidential campaign, he told vice-presidential nominee Dan Quayle at a campaign event in Arizona, "I want you to go back and tell George Bush to start talking about the issues."
Some of Goldwater's statements in the 1990s alienated many social conservatives. He endorsed Democrat Karan English in an Arizona congressional race, urged Republicans to lay off Bill Clinton over the Whitewater scandal, and criticized the military's ban on homosexuals, and, "You don't need to be 'straight' to fight and die for your country. You just need to shoot straight." A few years before his death, he addressed establishment Republicans by saying, "Do not associate my name with anything you do. You are extremists, and you've hurt the Republican party much more than the Democrats have."
In a 1994 interview with The Washington Post, Goldwater said:
Also in 1994, he repeated his concerns about religious groups attempting to gain control of the Republican party, saying,
In 1996, he told Bob Dole, whose own presidential campaign received lukewarm support from conservative Republicans, "We're the new liberals of the Republican party. Can you imagine that?" In that same year, with Senator Dennis DeConcini, Goldwater endorsed an Arizona initiative to legalize medical marijuana against the countervailing opinion of social conservatives.
Personal life
In 1934, Goldwater married Margaret "Peggy" Johnson, daughter of a prominent industrialist from Muncie, Indiana. The couple had four children: Joanne (born January 18, 1936), Barry (born July 15, 1938), Michael (born March 15, 1940), and Peggy (born July 27, 1944). Goldwater became a widower in 1985 and, in 1992, he married Susan Wechsler, a nurse 32 years his junior. Goldwater's son Barry Goldwater Jr. served as a Republican Congressman, representing California from 1969 to 1983.
Goldwater's grandson, Ty Ross, is an interior designer and former Zoli model. Ross, who is openly gay and HIV positive, has been credited as inspiring the elder Goldwater "to become an octogenarian proponent of gay civil rights".
Goldwater ran track and cross country in high school, where he specialized in the 880 yard run. In 1940, he became one of the first to run the Colorado River recreationally through the Grand Canyon, participating as an oarsman on Norman Nevills' second commercial river trip. Goldwater joined them in Green River, Utah, and rowed his own boat down to Lake Mead. In 1970, the Arizona Historical Foundation published the daily journal Goldwater had maintained on the Grand Canyon journey, including his photographs, in a 209-page volume titled Delightful Journey.
In 1963, he joined the Arizona Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. He was also a lifetime member of the Veterans of Foreign Wars, the American Legion, and Sigma Chi fraternity. He belonged to both the York Rite and Scottish Rite of Freemasonry and was awarded the 33rd degree in the Scottish Rite.
Hobbies and interests
Amateur radio
Goldwater was an avid amateur radio operator from the early 1920s, with the call signs 6BPI, K3UIG and K7UGA. The last one is used by an Arizona club honoring him as a commemorative call. During the Vietnam War he was a Military Affiliate Radio System (MARS) operator.
Goldwater was a spokesman for amateur radio and its enthusiasts. Beginning in 1969 and for the rest of his life, he appeared in many educational and promotional films (and later videos) about the hobby, produced for the American Radio Relay League (the national society representing the interests of radio amateurs) by such producers as Dave Bell (W6AQ), ARRL Southwest Director John R. Griggs (W6KW), Alan Kaul (W6RCL), Forrest Oden (N6ENV), and Roy Neal (K6DUE). His first appearance was in Dave Bell's The World of Amateur Radio where Goldwater discussed the history of the hobby and demonstrated a live contact with Antarctica. His last on-screen appearance dealing with "ham radio" was in 1994, explaining an upcoming Earth-orbiting ham radio relay satellite.
Electronics was a hobby for Goldwater beyond amateur radio. He enjoyed assembling Heathkits, completing more than 100 and often visiting their maker in Benton Harbor, Michigan, to buy more, before the company exited the kit business in 1992.
Kachina dolls
In 1916, Goldwater visited the Hopi reservation with Phoenix architect John Rinker Kibby and obtained his first kachina doll. Eventually his collection had 437 dolls and was presented in 1969 to the Heard Museum in Phoenix.PhotographyGoldwater was an amateur photographer and, in his estate, left some 15,000 of his images to three Arizona institutions. He was keen on candid photography. He became interested in the hobby after receiving a camera as a gift from his wife on their first Christmas. He used a 4×5 Graflex, Rolleiflex, 16 mm Bell and Howell motion picture camera, and 35 mm Nikkormat FT. He was a member of the Royal Photographic Society from 1941, becoming a Life Member in 1948.
For decades, he contributed photographs of his home state to Arizona Highways and was recognized for his Western landscapes and pictures of native Americans in the United States. Three books with his photographs are People and Places (1967); Barry Goldwater and the Southwest (1976); and Delightful Journey, (1940, reprinted 1970). Ansel Adams wrote a foreword to the 1976 book.
Goldwater's photography interest occasionally crossed into his political career. John F. Kennedy, as president, would sometimes invite former congressional colleagues to the White House for a drink. On one occasion, Goldwater brought his camera and photographed President Kennedy. When Kennedy received the photo, he returned it to Goldwater with the inscription: "For Barry Goldwater—Whom I urge to follow the career for which he has shown such talent—photography!—from his friend—John Kennedy." This quip became a classic of American political humor after it was relayed by humorist Bennett Cerf. The photo was prized by Goldwater for the rest of his life and sold for $17,925 in a 2010 Heritage auction.
Son Michael Prescott Goldwater formed the Goldwater Family Foundation with the goal of making his father's photography available via the internet. (Barry Goldwater Photographs) was launched in September 2006 to coincide with the HBO documentary Mr. Conservative, produced by granddaughter CC Goldwater.
UFOs
On March 28, 1975, Goldwater wrote to Shlomo Arnon: "The subject of UFOs has interested me for some long time. About ten or twelve years ago I made an effort to find out what was in the building at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base where the information has been stored that has been collected by the Air Force, and I was understandably denied this request. It is still classified above Top Secret." The April 25, 1988, issue of The New Yorker carried an interview with Goldwater in which he recounted efforts to gain access to the room. He did so again in a 1994 Larry King Live interview, saying:}}DeathGoldwater's public appearances ended in late 1996 after he had a massive stroke. Family members disclosed he was in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease. He died on May 29, 1998, at the age of 89, at his long-time home in Paradise Valley, Arizona, of complications from the stroke. His funeral was officiated by both a Christian minister and a rabbi. His ashes were buried at the Episcopal Christ Church of the Ascension in Paradise Valley, Arizona. A memorial statue was erected in a small park in Paradise Valley to honor the memory of Goldwater, near his home and resting place.
Legacy
Buildings and monuments
in National Statuary Hall in Washington, D.C.]]
Among the buildings and monuments named after Barry Goldwater are the Barry M. Goldwater Terminal at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, Goldwater Memorial Park in Paradise Valley, Arizona, the Barry Goldwater Air Force Academy Visitor Center at the United States Air Force Academy, and Barry Goldwater High School in northern Phoenix. In 2010, former Arizona Attorney General Grant Woods, himself a Goldwater scholar and supporter, founded the Goldwater Women's Tennis Classic Tournament to be held annually at the Phoenix Country Club in Phoenix. On February 11, 2015, a statue of Goldwater by Deborah Copenhaver Fellows was unveiled by U.S. House and Senate leaders at a dedication ceremony in National Statuary Hall of the U.S. Capitol building in Washington, D.C. Barry Goldwater Peak is the highest peak in the White Tank Mountains.
Goldwater Scholarship
The Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Program was established by Congress in 1986. Its goal is to provide a continuing source of highly qualified scientists, mathematicians, and engineers by awarding scholarships to college students who intend to pursue careers in these fields.
The Scholarship is widely considered the most prestigious award in the U.S. conferred upon undergraduates studying the sciences. It is awarded to about 400 students (college sophomores and juniors) nationwide in the amount of $7,500 per academic year (for their senior year, or junior and senior years). It honors Goldwater's keen interest in science and technology.DocumentaryGoldwater's granddaughter, CC Goldwater, has co-produced with longtime friend and independent film producer Tani L. Cohen a documentary on Goldwater's life, Mr. Conservative: Goldwater on Goldwater, first shown on HBO on September 18, 2006.In popular cultureIn his song "I Shall Be Free No. 10", Bob Dylan refers to Goldwater: "I'm liberal to a degree, I want everybody to be free. But if you think I'll let Barry Goldwater move in next door and marry my daughter, you must think I'm crazy." In the 1965 film The Bedford Incident, the actor Richard Widmark playing the film's antagonist, Captain Eric Finlander of the fictional destroyer USS Bedford, modelled his character's mannerisms and rhetorical style after Goldwater.Military awards
* Command Pilot Badge
* Service Pilot Badge (former U.S. Army Air Forces rating)
* Legion of Merit
* Air Medal
* Army Commendation Medal
* American Defense Service Medal
* American Campaign Medal
* European–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
* Asiatic–Pacific Campaign Medal with campaign star
* World War II Victory Medal
* Armed Forces Reserve Medal with three bronze hourglasses
Other awards
* Presidential Medal of Freedom (1986)
* American Legion Distinguished Service Medal
* Marconi Gold Medal, Veteran Wireless Operators Association (1968)
* Marconi Medal of Achievement (1968)
* Bob Hope Five Star Civilian Award (1976)
* Good Citizenship Award, Daughters of the American Revolution
* 33rd Degree Mason
* The Douglas MacArthur Memorial Award
* Top Gun Award, Luke Air Force Base
* Order of Fifinella Award – Champion of the Women Air Force Service Pilots (WASP) (1978)
* Thomas D. White National Defense Award 1978
* Conservative Digest Award (1980)
* Senator John Warner Award for Public Service in the field of Nuclear Disarmament (1983)
* Alexander M. Haig, Jr. Memorial Award (1983)
* National Congress of American Indians Congressional Award (1985)
* Space Pioneer Award, Sixth Space Development Conference (1987)
* James Madison Award, American Whig-Cliosophic Society (1988)
* National Aviation Hall of Fame (1982)
Books
* The Conscience of a Conservative (1960)
* [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015002378340 Why Not Victory? A Fresh Look at American Policy] (1963)
* Where I Stand (1964)
* Conscience of a Majority (1971)
* The Coming Breakpoint (1976)
* Arizona (1977)
* With No Apologies: The Personal and Political Memoirs of Senator Barry M. Goldwater (1980)
* Goldwater (1988)
Relatives
Goldwater's son Barry Goldwater Jr. served as a Congressman from California from 1969 to 1983. He was the first Congressman to serve while having a father in the Senate. Goldwater's uncle Morris Goldwater served in the Arizona territorial and state legislatures and as mayor of Prescott, Arizona. Goldwater's nephew Don Goldwater sought the Republican nomination for governor of Arizona in 2006, but he was defeated by Len Munsil.
See also
* Electoral history of Barry Goldwater
* Goldwater Institute
* Goldwater rule
* Libertarianism in the United States
Notes
References
Primary
*
* Goldwater, Barry M. with Jack Casserly. Goldwater (Doubleday, 1988), autobiography.
*
* by Goldwater's speechwriter
* Shadegg, Stephen. What Happened to Goldwater? The Inside Story of the 1964 Republican Campaign (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).
* White, F. Clifton. Suite 3505: The Story of the Draft Goldwater Movement (Arlington House, 1967).
Secondary
* Annunziata, Frank. "The Revolt Against the Welfare State: Goldwater Conservatism and the Election of 1964." Presidential Studies Quarterly 10.2 (1980): 254–265. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27547569 online]
*
*
* Conley, Brian M. The Rise of the Republican Right: From Goldwater to Reagan (Routledge, 2019).
* Conley, Brian M. "The Politics of Party Renewal: The 'Service Party' and the Origins of the Post-Goldwater Republican Right." Studies in American Political Development 27.1 (2013): 51+ [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brian_Conley5/publication/259432522_The_Politics_of_Party_Renewal_The_Service_Party_and_the_Origins_of_the_Post-Goldwater_Republican_Right/links/5e458b3b299bf1cdb92841b0/The-Politics-of-Party-Renewal-The-Service-Party-and-the-Origins-of-the-Post-Goldwater-Republican-Right.pdf online].
* Crespi, Irving. "The Structural Basis for Right-Wing Conservatism: The Goldwater Case," Public Opinion Quarterly 29#4 (Winter, 1965–66): 523–543.
* Cunningham, Sean P. "Man of the West: Goldwater's Reflection in the Oasis of Frontier Conservatism." Journal of Arizona History 61.1 (2020): 79–88.
*
*
*
* , the standard scholarly biography
*
* Jurdem, Laurence R. "'The Media Were Not Completely Fair to You': Foreign Policy, the Press and the 1964 Goldwater Campaign." Journal of Arizona History 61.1 (2020): 161–180.
* Mann, Robert. Daisy Petals and Mushroom Clouds: LBJ, Barry Goldwater and the Ad That Changed American Politics (Louisiana State UP, 2011).
*
* Middendorf, J. William. ''A Glorious Disaster: Barry Goldwater's Presidential Campaign and the Origins of the Conservative Movement (Basic Books, 2006).
*
* Schuparra, Kurt. "Barry Goldwater and Southern California Conservatism: Ideology, Image and Myth in the 1964 California Republican Presidential Primary." Southern California Quarterly 74.3 (1992): 277–298. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41171632 online]
* Shepard, Christopher. "A True Jeffersonian: The Western Conservative Principles of Barry Goldwater and His Vote Against the Civil Rights Act of 1964." Journal of the West. 49, no. 1, (2010): 34–40
* Shermer, Elizabeth Tandy (ed.) (2013). Barry Goldwater and the Remaking of the American Political Landscape. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013.
* Smith, Dean (1986). The Goldwaters of Arizona, includes brief coverage of the parents.
* Taylor, Andrew. "Barry Goldwater: insurgent conservatism as constitutive rhetoric." Journal of Political Ideologies 21, no. 3 (2016): 242–260. [http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/102758/2/BARRY%2520GOLDWATER%2520JPI%2520submission.pdf online]
* Taylor, Andrew (2018). "The Oratory of Barry Goldwater." in Republican Orators from Eisenhower to Trump''. Palgrave Macmillan. 41–66.
* Thorburn, Wayne. "Barry's Boys and Goldwater Girls: Barry Goldwater and the Mobilization of Young Conservatives in the Early 1960s." Journal of Arizona History 61.1 (2020): 89–107. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/751628/summary excerpt]
* Tønnessen, Alf Tomas. "Goldwater, Bush, Ryan and the Failed Attempts by Conservative Republicans to Reform Federal Entitlement Programs." American Studies in Scandinavia 47.2 (2015): 47–62 [https://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/assc/article/download/5349/5916/ online].
*
* Young, Nancy Beck (2019). Two Suns of the Southwest: Lyndon Johnson, Barry Goldwater, and the 1964 Battle between Liberalism and Conservatism. UP of Kansas. [https://muse.jhu.edu/book/66225 online]
Further reading
* Flynn, John T. Goldwater Either/or: A Self-portrait Based Upon His Own Words. Public Affairs Press, 1949.
* [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780224609999 online]
External links
*
*
** [http://www.c-span.org/video/?301277-1/barry-goldwater-presidential-contender "Barry Goldwater, Presidential Contender"] from C-SPAN's The Contenders
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050612010653/http://www.goldwaterinstitute.org/ The Goldwater Institute]
* Speech delivered by Barry Goldwater to the Comstock Club of Sacramento, California on June 22, 1966
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Goldwater
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2025-04-05T18:26:58.568539
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4794
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Baralong incidents
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|image = File:HMS Baralong.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = HMS Baralong
|date = 19 August and 24 September 1915
|place = Irish Sea, Atlantic Ocean
|combatant1 =
|combatant2 =
|commander1 =
|commander2 = |Klaus Hansen}}
|strength1 =
|strength2 = 2 submarines
|casualties1 = 2 steamers damaged
|casualties2 = 2 submarines sunk
|campaignbox =
}}
The Baralong incidents were two incidents during the First World War in August and September 1915, involving the Royal Navy Q-ship and two German U-boats. Baralong sank , which had been attacking a nearby merchant ship, the Nicosian. About a dozen of the crewmen managed to escape from the sinking submarine and Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, commanding officer of Baralong, ordered the survivors to be fired on. All the survivors of U-27s sinking, including several who had reached the Nicosian, were shot by Baralongs crew and attached marines.
Later, Baralong under command of Andrew Wilmot-Smith sank in an incident which has also been described as a British war crime.First incidentAction of 19 August 1915
After the sinking of by a German submarine in May 1915, Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert, commanding officer of Baralong, was visited by two officers of the Admiralty's Secret Service branch at the naval base at Queenstown, Ireland. He was told, "This Lusitania business is shocking. Unofficially, we are telling you... take no prisoners from U-boats."
Interviews with his subordinate officers have established Herbert's undisciplined manner of commanding his ship. Herbert allowed his men to engage in drunken binges during shore leave. During one such incident, at Dartmouth, several members of Baralongs crew were arrested after destroying a local pub. Herbert paid their bail, then left port with the bailed crewmen aboard. Beginning in April 1915, Herbert ordered his subordinates to cease calling him "Sir", and to address him only by the pseudonym "Captain William McBride".<!--Bridgland? Definitely not messimer-->
Throughout the summer of 1915, Baralong continued routine patrol duties in the Irish Sea without encountering the enemy.
On 19 August 1915, sank the White Star Liner with the loss of 44 lives – this included three Americans and resulted in a diplomatic incident between Germany and the United States. Baralongs crew was infuriated by the attack. The Germans allowed the freighter's crew and passengers to board lifeboats, and prepared to sink the freighter with the U-boat's deck gun. However, Nicosian had sent out SOS messages about her plight. Gibson and Prendergast claim that these messages were still being sent from the ship when Baralong arrived, implying that at least some crew were still on board while U-27 commenced shelling. Halpern equivocates on the issue: they may or may not all have abandoned ship by that time. The messages also told Baralong, inaccurately, that a second submarine was present.
U-27 was lying off Nicosians port quarter and firing into it when Baralong appeared on the scene, flying the ensign of the United States as a false flag. When she was half a mile away, Baralong ran up a signal flag indicating that she was going to rescue Nicosians crew. Wegener acknowledged the signal, then ordered his men to cease firing, and took U-27 along the port side of Nicosian to intercept Baralong. As the submarine disappeared behind the steamship, Herbert steered Baralong on a parallel course along Nicosians starboard side.
Before U-27 came round Nicosians bow, Baralong hauled down the American flag, hoisted the Royal Navy's White Ensign, and unmasked her guns. As U-27 came into view from behind Nicosian, Baralong began shooting with its three 12-pounder guns at a range of , firing 34 rounds. U-27 rolled over and began to sink.
According to Tony Bridgland;
<blockquote>
Herbert screamed, "Cease fire!" But his men's blood was up. They were avenging the Arabic and the Lusitania. For them this was no time to cease firing, even as the survivors of the crew appeared on the outer casing, struggling out of their clothes to swim away from her. There was a mighty hiss of compressed air from her tanks and the U-27 vanished from sight in a vortex of giant rumbling bubbles, leaving a pall of smoke over the spot where she had been. It had taken only a few minutes to fire the thirty-four shells into her.
</blockquote>
Meanwhile, Nicosians crew were cheering from the lifeboats. Captain Manning was heard to yell, "If any of those bastard Huns come up, lads, hit 'em with an oar!"<!--Bridgland? Definitely not messimer-->
Twelve men survived the sinking of the submarine: the crews of her two deck guns and those who had been on the conning tower. Wegener is described by some accounts as being shot while trying to swim to the Baralong, in other accounts he boarded the ship. Corporal Collins later recalled that, after Wegener's death, Herbert threw a revolver in the dead German captain's face and screamed, "What about the Lusitania, you bastard!" An alternative allegation by the Admiralty is that the Germans who boarded Nicosian were killed by the freighter's engine room staff; this report apparently came from the officer commanding the muleteers.
Aftermath
In Herbert's report to the Admiralty, he stated he feared the survivors from the U-boat's crew would board the freighter and scuttle it, so he ordered the Royal Marines on his ship to shoot the survivors. If they had scuttled the freighter, it could have been considered as negligence on the part of Herbert. Moments before Baralong began its attack, the submarine was firing on the freighter. It is not known if the escaping sailors actually intended to scuttle the freighter.
The Admiralty, upon receiving Herbert's report, immediately ordered its suppression, but the strict censorship imposed on the event failed when Americans who had witnessed the incident from Nicosians lifeboats spoke to newspaper reporters after their return to the United States.
The memorandum demanded that the captain and crew of Baralong be tried for the murder of unarmed German sailors, threatening to "take the serious decision of retribution for an unpunished crime". Sir Edward Grey replied through the American ambassador that the incident could be grouped together with three "German crimes" that also took place within 48 hours: the Germans' sinking of SS Arabic, their attack on a stranded British submarine on the neutral Danish coast, and their attack on the crew of the steamship Ruel after they had abandoned ship, and suggested that they be placed before a tribunal composed of US Navy officers.
German reaction
A debate took place in the Reichstag on 15 January 1916, where the incident was described as a "cowardly murder" and Grey's note as being "full of insolence and arrogance". It was announced that reprisals had been decided, but not what they would be.
A German medal was issued commemorating the event.
As a precaution to protect the ships against any reprisals against their crews, in October 1915 HMS Baralong was renamed HMS Wyandra and transferred to the Mediterranean. Baralongs name was deleted from Lloyd's Register. In 1916 Wyandra returned to the Ellerman & Bucknall Line under the name Manica. Nicosian was renamed Nevisian, and the crew was issued new Discharge Books, with the voyage omitted.<!-- Bridgland might mention this, but I don't have that -->
Baralongs crew were later awarded £185 prize bounty for sinking U-27.Second incidentAction of 24 September 1915On 24 September 1915, Baralong sank the U-boat , for which its commanding officer at the time, Lieutenant-Commander Andrew Wilmot-Smith was awarded the DSO, the engineer J. M. Dowie the DSC, and two of the crew received a DSM. A bounty of £1,000 was also awarded. Wilmot-Smith, was later awarded £170 prize bounty by the Prize Court. Crompton later published an account of U-41s exploits in 1917, U-41: der zweite Baralong-Fall, which termed the sinking of U-41 a "second Baralong case".
The event was also commemorated by a propaganda medal designed by the German engraver Karl Goetz. This was one of many medals that were popular in Germany from about 1910 to 1940.
See also
* Q-ship
* Merchant raiders
* Commerce raiding
* Tonnage war
* HMS E13
References
Works cited
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General references
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Category:World War I massacres
Category:British military scandals
Category:Conflicts in 1915
Category:Atlantic operations of World War I
Category:Extrajudicial killings
Category:Deaths by firearm in international waters
Category:Massacres in 1915
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baralong_incidents
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2025-04-05T18:26:58.581882
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4795
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Banda
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Banda may refer to:
People
Banda (surname)
Banda Prakash (born 1954), Indian politician
Banda Kanakalingeshwara Rao (1907–1968), Indian actor
Banda Karthika Reddy (born 1977), Indian politician
Banda Singh Bahadur (1670–1716), Sikh warrior
Places
Singapore
Banda Department, a part of Santiago del Estero Province, Argentina
Canada
Banda, Ontario, a settlement in Ontario
Ghana
Banda Ahenkro, a town in Banda District
Banda District, Ghana, a district in the Bono Region
Banda (Ghana parliament constituency), a constituency in the Bono Region
India
Banda, East Godavari district, a village in Andhra Pradesh, India
Banda, Maharashtra, a small town in Maharashtra
Banda, Uttar Pradesh, a city and district headquarters of Banda District, Uttar Pradesh
Banda District, India, a district in Uttar Pradesh
Banda (Lok Sabha constituency), Uttar Pradesh
Banda (Assembly constituency), a constituency of the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly
Banda (Vidhan Sabha constituency), Madhya Pradesh
Banda, Madhya Pradesh, Town and Tehsil in Madhya Pradesh
Indonesia
Banda Aceh, a capital and largest city of Aceh province
Banda Islands, a group of ten small volcanic islands in the Banda Sea
Banda Sea, the sea of the South Moluccas, a part of the Pacific Ocean
Uganda
Banda, Uganda, a hill and the neighbourhood on that hill, located in Nakawa Division, within the city of Kampala
Music
"A Banda (Ah Bahn-da)", a composition by Chico Buarque
Banda music, a form of Mexican music
Banda (opera), a musical ensemble which is used in addition to the main opera orchestra and plays the music which is actually heard by the characters in the opera
Other uses
Banda people, an ethnic group of the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, and Sudan
Banda languages, a family of Ubangian languages of Central Africa
Banda language (Maluku), an Austronesian language of the Kei Islands, Indonesia
Banda machine, a brand of spirit duplicator - a type of low-volume document copying machine
Banda (state), a former princely state in India
Banda, a large smoked fish in Chad
Banda, a caste of adivasis in Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand
Banda Deul, an 11th-century temple in Purulia district, West Bengal, India
Banda, a clan of the Chewa people
See also
Bandar (disambiguation)
Bande (disambiguation)
Bandha (disambiguation)
La Banda (disambiguation)
Bandaa, a 2023 Indian film
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banda
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2025-04-05T18:26:58.584967
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4796
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Bladder (disambiguation)
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The bladder (or urinary bladder) is an organ that collects urine for excretion in animals.
Bladder may also refer to:
Biology
Artificial urinary bladder, in humans
Gallbladder, which stores bile for digestion
Pig bladder, urinary bladder of a domestic pig, with many human uses
Swim bladder, in bony fishes, an internal organ that helps to control buoyancy (homologous to lungs)
Urinary bladder (Chinese medicine)
Technology
Air bladder effect, a special effect used in filmmaking
Fuel bladder, which stores fuels or other industrial liquids
Hydration system, sometimes known as a bladder
Pneumatic bladder, an old technology with many industrial applications
Waterskin, a traditional container for transporting water
Geography
Bladder Lake, a lake in Minnesota
See also
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bladder_(disambiguation)
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2025-04-05T18:26:58.586734
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4797
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Bob Young (businessman)
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| birth_place = Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| other_names | education University of Toronto
| occupation = Businessman, entrepreneur
| years_active = 1984-present
| known_for = Co-founder of Red Hat, Inc.<br/>Owns the Forge FC<br/>Owns the Hamilton Tiger-Cats
| boards =
}}
Robert Young (born 1953/1954) is a businessman who is best known for founding Red Hat Inc., the open source software company. He owns the franchises for Forge FC of the Canadian Premier League as well as the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League for which he is self-styled caretaker of the team.
Early life
He was born in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. He attended Trinity College School in Port Hope, Ontario. He received a Bachelor of Arts from Victoria College at the University of Toronto.CareerPrior to Red Hat, Young built a couple of computer rental and leasing businesses, including founding Vernon Computer Rentals in 1984. Descendants of Vernon are still operating under that name. After leaving Vernon, Young founded the ACC Corp Inc. in 1993.
Marc Ewing and Young co-founded open-source software company Red Hat. Red Hat was a member of the S&P 500 Index before being purchased by IBM on July 9, 2019. Marc Ewing and Young's partnership started in 1994 when ACC acquired the Red Hat trademarks from Ewing. In early 1995, ACC changed its name to Red Hat Software, which has subsequently been shortened to simply Red Hat, Inc. Young was Red Hat's CEO until 1999.
In 2002, Young founded Lulu.com, a print-on-demand, self-publishing company, and was CEO. In 2006, Young established the Lulu Blooker Prize, a book prize for books that began as blogs. He launched the prize partly as a means to promote Lulu.
Young was CEO of PrecisionHawk, a commercial drone technology company, from 2015 to 2017. Prior to being named PrecisionHawk's CEO in 2015, he was an early investor in the company. He continues on its board as chairman.
Young also co-founded Linux Journal in 1994, and in 2003, he purchased the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League. In 2022, he sold minority stakes in the Tiger-Cats to Jim Lawson, team President Scott Mitchell, and American steel manufacturer Stelco.
Young focuses his philanthropic efforts on access to information and advancement of knowledge. In 1999, he co-founded The Center for the Public Domain. Young has supported the Creative Commons, Public Knowledge.org, the Dictionary of Old English, Loran Scholarship Foundation, ibiblio.org, and the NCSU eGames, among others.
References
Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Category:Living people
Category:Open source people
Category:Red Hat people
Category:University of Toronto alumni
Category:Businesspeople from Hamilton, Ontario
Category:Hamilton Tiger-Cats owners
Category:Forge FC non-playing staff
Category:Canadian soccer chairmen and investors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Young_(businessman)
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2025-04-05T18:26:58.590164
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4800
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Babylon 5
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| creator = J. Michael Straczynski
| starring =
| composer =
| country = United States
| language = English
| num_seasons = 5
| runtime 43-44 minutes
| num_episodes = 110 (+ 6 TV films)
| list_episodes = List of Babylon 5 episodes
| executive_producer =
| cinematography =
| company =
| network =
| first_aired =
| last_aired =
| related =
}}
Babylon 5 is an American space opera television series created by writer and producer J. Michael Straczynski, under the Babylonian Productions label, in association with Straczynski's Synthetic Worlds Ltd. and Warner Bros. Domestic Television. After the successful airing of a test pilot movie on February 22, 1993, Babylon 5: The Gathering, Warner Bros. commissioned the series for production in May 1993 as part of its Prime Time Entertainment Network (PTEN). The show premiered in the US on January 26, 1994, and ran for five 22-episode seasons.
The series follows the human military staff and alien diplomats stationed on a space station, Babylon 5, built in the aftermath of several major inter-species wars as a neutral ground for galactic diplomacy and trade. Major plotlines included intra-race intrigue and upheaval, inter-race wars and their aftermaths, and embroilment in a millennial cyclic conflict between ancient races. The human characters, in particular, become pivotal to the resistance against Earth's descent into totalitarianism.
Many episodes focused on the effect of wider events on individual characters. Episodes contained themes such as personal change, loss, oppression, corruption, and redemption.
Unusually for American broadcast television at the time of its airing, Babylon 5 was conceived as a "novel for television" with a pre-planned five-year story arc, each episode envisioned as a "chapter". Whereas contemporaneous television shows tended to maintain the overall status quo, confining conflicts to individual episodes, Babylon 5 featured story arcs which spanned multiple episodes and even seasons, effecting permanent changes to the series universe. Tie-in novels, comic books, and short stories were also developed to play a significant canonical part in the overall story.
Straczynski announced plans for a reboot of the series in September 2021 in conjunction with Warner Bros. Television. An animated feature-length, direct-to-video film, Babylon 5: The Road Home, was released in August 2023.
Setting
The main Babylon 5 story arc occurs between the years 2257 and 2262. The show depicts a future where Earth has a unified Earth government and has gained the technology for faster-than-light travel using "jump gates", a kind of wormhole technology allowing transport through the alternate dimension of hyperspace. The Colonies within the Solar System and beyond make up the Earth Alliance, which has established contact with other spacefaring species. Ten years before the series is set, Earth barely escaped destruction by the technologically superior Minbari, who sought revenge after an Earth starship unwittingly killed their leader during first contact, only for them to unexpectedly surrender on the brink of victory. Earth has since established peaceful relationships with them and the Earth Alliance has become a significant and generally respected power within the galactic community.
Among the other species are the imperialist Centauri; the Narn, who only recently gained independence from the Centauri empire; and the mysterious, powerful Vorlons. Several dozen less powerful species from the League of Non-Aligned Worlds also have diplomatic contact with the major races, including the Drazi, Brakiri, Vree, Markab, and pak'ma'ra. An ancient and secretive race, the Shadows, unknown to humans but documented in many other races' religious texts, malevolently influence events to bring chaos and war among the known species. Among the chaos the Shadows cause is a Centauri descent into irredentism and Earth sliding into totalitarianism under President Morgan Clark.
The Babylon 5 space station is located in the Epsilon Eridani system, at the fifth Lagrangian point of the fictional planet Epsilon III and its moon. It is an O'Neill cylinder long and in diameter. The station is the last of its line; the first three stations were all destroyed during construction, while Babylon 4 was completed but mysteriously vanished shortly after being made operational. It contains living areas which accommodate various alien species, providing differing atmospheres and gravities. Human visitors to the alien sectors are shown using breathing equipment and other measures to tolerate the conditions.
Cast
Regular cast
Babylon 5 featured an ensemble cast which changed over the course of the show's run:
* Michael O'Hare as Commander (later Ambassador) Jeffrey Sinclair (season 1; guest seasons 2–3): The first commander of Babylon 5, later appointed Earth's ambassador to Minbar.
* Bruce Boxleitner as Captain (later President) John Sheridan (seasons 2–5): Sinclair's replacement on Babylon 5 after his reassignment and a central figure of several prophecies within the Shadow war. Becomes president of the newly formed Interstellar Alliance in season 5.
* Claudia Christian as Lt. Commander (later promoted to Commander) Susan Ivanova (seasons 1–4, guest season 5): Second in command of Babylon 5.
* Jerry Doyle as Michael Garibaldi: Babylon 5s Chief of Security for seasons 1-4; leads the covert intelligence arm of the Interstellar Alliance in season 5.
* Mira Furlan as Delenn: The Minbari ambassador to Babylon 5. Born Minbari, she uses a special artifact at the start of the second season to become a Minbari-human hybrid, and later marries Captain Sheridan.
* Richard Biggs as Doctor Stephen Franklin: Babylon 5s chief medical officer.
* Andrea Thompson as Talia Winters (season 1–2): A commercial Psi-Corps telepath who works aboard the station.
* Stephen Furst as Vir Cotto: Diplomatic aide to Centauri Ambassador Londo Mollari.
* Bill Mumy as Lennier: Diplomatic aide to Minbari Ambassador Delenn.
* Tracy Scoggins as Captain Elizabeth Lochley (season 5): Babylon 5s station commander following Ivanova's departure and Sheridan's resignation.
* Jason Carter as Marcus Cole (seasons 3–4): A Ranger, one of a group of covert agents who fight against the Shadows.
* Caitlin Brown (season 1, guest season 5) and Mary Kay Adams (season 2) as Na'Toth: Diplomatic aide to Narn Ambassador G'Kar.
* Robert Rusler as Warren Keffer (season 2): Commander of the Zeta Wing, one of Babylon 5s small fighter wings.
* Jeff Conaway as Zack Allan (guest season 2, main seasons 3–5): A sergeant in the Babylon 5 security force, replaces Garibaldi as Chief of Security by season 5.
* Patricia Tallman as Lyta Alexander (original TV movie, guest seasons 2–3, main seasons 4–5): A commercial Psi-Corps telepath who takes over for Talia when she leaves the station.
* Andreas Katsulas as G'Kar: The Narn ambassador to Babylon 5.
* Peter Jurasik as Londo Mollari: The Centauri ambassador to Babylon 5.
Recurring guests
* Wayne Alexander as Lorien: An alien of unknown origin that comes to Sheridan's aid after a critical moment in the Shadow War
* Ardwight Chamberlain (voice) /Jeffery Willerth (in the encounter-suit) as Kosh Naranek, the Vorlon ambassador to Babylon 5
* Tim Choate as Zathras, an alien of unknown origins that is central to the disappearance of Babylon 4
* Joshua Cox as Lt. David Corwin, a technician in Babylon 5s Command and Control center
* David L. Crowley as Ofc. Lou Welch, a member of the Babylon 5 security staff
* Robin Atkin Downes as Byron, a rogue telepath
* William Forward as Lord Antono Refa, a colleague of Ambassador Mollari who has his own designs on the Centauri throne.
* Robert Foxworth as General William Hague, the officer overseeing military operations related to Babylon 5
* Denise Gentile as Lise Hampton, a former romantic interest for Michael Garibaldi during his time on the Mars colony
* Melissa Gilbert as Anna Sheridan, Captain Sheridan's wife. The first appearance of Anna Sheridan was portrayed by Beth Toussaint in a recorded message.
* Lenore Kasdorf as a reporter for the Interstellar News (ISN) network
* Walter Koenig as Alfred Bester, a senior officer of Psi-Corps who considers non-telepaths to be inferior
* Wortham Krimmer as Centauri Emperor Cartagia
* Damian London as Regent Virini, a member of the Centauri court under Emperor Cartagia
* Leigh McCloskey as Thomas
* Marjorie Monaghan as Number One / Tessa Holloran, the leader of the Mars resistance
* Julia Nickson-Soul as Catherine Sakai, a commercial explorer and Commander Sinclair's love interest
* Jim Norton as Ombuds Wellington, a judge aboard Babylon 5. Norton also played a projection of G'Kars father in "Dust to Dust" and Dr. Lazarenn, a Markab doctor, in "Confessions and Lamentations"
* John Schuck as Draal (younger), Delenn's teacher and friend from Minbar that becomes part of the Great Machine buried within Epsilon III
* Louis Turenne as Brother Theo, the leader of a group of Roman Catholic monks living aboard Babylon 5.
* John Vickery as Neroon, a member of the Minbari warrior caste that replaced Delenn on the Grey Council following her transformation
* Ed Wasser as Morden, a human agent working for the Shadows
* Efrem Zimbalist Jr. as William Edgars, a wealthy businessman who controls much of the economy in the Mars colony
In addition, several other actors filled more than one minor role on the series. Kim Strauss played the Drazi Ambassador in four episodes, as well as nine other characters in ten more episodes. Some actors had difficulty dealing with the application of prosthetics required to play some of the alien characters. The producers therefore used the same group of people (as many as 12) in various mid-level speaking roles, taking full head and body casts from each. The group came to be unofficially known by the production as the "Babylon 5 Alien Rep Group." Synopsis
The five seasons of the series each correspond to one fictional sequential year in the period 2258–2262. Each season shares its title with an episode that is central to that season's plot.
Pilot film (1993)
In the pilot film, Babylon 5: The Gathering, the Vorlon ambassador Kosh is nearly killed by an assassin shortly after arriving at the station. Jeffrey Sinclair, the commander of Babylon 5, is named as the prime suspect, but is proven to have been framed.
Season 1: Signs and Portents (1994)
Commander Sinclair, a hero of the Minbari war, is troubled by his inability to remember events of the war's last day. Though supported by Minbari ambassador Delenn, who is secretly a member of the Minbari ruling Grey Council, other Minbari remain distrustful of him. The Narn ambassador G'Kar continually presses for concessions from their former overlords the Centauri Republic. Centauri ambassador Londo Mollari finds a new ally in the enigmatic Mr. Morden to strike back at the Narn. Meanwhile, xenophobic groups on Earth challenge humanity's tolerance of aliens. This tension culminates in the assassination of Earth's President Santiago, who favored such contact.
Season 2: The Coming of Shadows (1994–1995)
Sinclair is transferred to be ambassador to Minbar, and General Hague assigns captain John Sheridan command of the station. Hague and Sheridan believe now-president Clark conspired in Santiago's death but have no proof. Clark gradually moves Earth in an isolationist direction and takes steps to install a totalitarian government. When the aging Centauri Emperor Turhan dies, Mollari and his ally Lord Refa install Turhan's unstable nephew Cartagia as emperor and force a war against the Narn. Aided by Mr. Morden's "associates" the Shadows, the Centauri decimate the Narn. The war ends with a planetary bombardment of the Narn homeworld, followed by the enslavement of the surviving Narns. Delenn and Vorlon ambassador Kosh request Sheridan's help to fight against their ancient foe, the Shadows.
Season 3: Point of No Return (1995–1996)
Sheridan and Delenn establish a "conspiracy of light" to fight the influence of the Shadows. When Clark declares martial law, Sheridan declares Babylon 5 independence from the Earth government. Mollari realizes his deal with Mr. Morden has become dangerous but is unable to end it. As the Shadows cause conflict and chaos throughout the galaxy, Sheridan confronts Kosh and successfully convinces the Vorlons to provide military assistance against them. In retaliation for Vorlon intervention, the Shadows assassinate Kosh. Sinclair travels back in time a thousand years to aid the Minbari in the previous Shadow War, becoming the legendary Minbari religious leader Valen. Sheridan discovers vulnerabilities in the Shadow vessels and learns to predict their objectives, leading to the first major military defeat of the Shadows. Despite Kosh's warnings, Sheridan confronts the Shadows on their homeworld Z'ha'dum. He crashes a spacecraft packed with nuclear weapons into the planet, seemingly dying in the explosion.
Season 4: No Surrender, No Retreat (1996–1997)
Sheridan is rescued from Z'ha'dum by the mysterious Lorien. With the Shadows in retreat, the Vorlons begin destroying any planet allied with or influenced by the Shadows. Mollari overthrows the mad emperor Cartagia with the aid of G'Kar in exchange for the liberation of the Narn from Centauri rule. Mollari betrays the Shadows in order to save the Centauri homeworld from the Vorlons. Sheridan realizes the Vorlons and Shadows have used the younger races in a proxy war, and convinces both sides to permanently end their conflict and to leave the younger races alone in peace. Sheridan next refocuses on returning democracy to Earth. He forges a new Interstellar Alliance along with the Minbari, Centauri, and Narn governments. With their help, Sheridan is able to win the Earth civil war and forces President Clark out of office. Sheridan is forced to resign from the Earth military, but is named president of the Interstellar Alliance.
Season 5: The Wheel of Fire (1998)
An ex-lover of Sheridan's, Elizabeth Lochley, is assigned to command the station. A group of rogue human telepaths take sanctuary on the station, seeking Sheridan's aid to escape the control of Psi Corps, the autocratic Earth agency that oversees telepaths. The Interstellar Alliance refuses to grant them a planet of their own, and they are eventually expelled from the station. Meanwhile, the Drakh, former supporters of the Shadows, seek revenge for the Shadows' defeat. They infiltrate the Centauri government and orchestrate attacks against other Alliance members. Mollari attempts to purge the alien manipulation of his government but is too late. After a devastating attack by Alliance forces on Centauri Prime, Mollari is installed as emperor, but under Drakh control. He then withdraws the Centauri from the Interstellar Alliance. Twenty years later, Sheridan has a last reunion with his friends before leaving to join Lorien and the older races "beyond the rim".
Spin-offs and television movies
The original show spawned a multimedia franchise of spin-offs consisting of a miniseries, five television movies, twenty-two novels, two tabletop games (an RPG and a wargame), and various other media such as technical books, comics, and trading cards.
Production
Origin
Having worked on a number of television science fiction shows which had regularly gone over budget, Straczynski concluded that a lack of long-term planning was to blame, and set about looking at ways in which a series could be done responsibly. Taking note of the lessons of mainstream television, which brought stories to a centralized location such as a hospital, police station, or law office, he decided that instead of "[going] in search of new worlds, building them anew each week", a fixed space station setting would keep costs at a reasonable level. A fan of sagas such as the Foundation series, ''Childhood's End, The Lord of the Rings, Dune and the Lensman series, Straczynski wondered why no one had done a television series with the same epic sweep, and concurrently with the first idea started developing the concept for a vastly ambitious epic covering massive battles and other universe-changing events. Realizing that both the fixed-locale series and the epic could be done in a single series, he began to sketch the initial outline of what would become Babylon 5''.
Straczynski set five goals for Babylon 5. He said that the show "would have to be good science fiction". It would also have to be good television, "and rarely are SF shows both good SF *and* good TV; there're generally one or the other." It would have to do for science fiction television what Hill Street Blues had done for police dramas, by taking an adult approach to the subject. It would have to be reasonably budgeted, and "it would have to look unlike anything ever seen before on TV, presenting individual stories against a much broader canvas." He further stressed that his approach was "to take [science fiction] seriously, to build characters for grown-ups, to incorporate real science but keep the characters at the center of the story." Some of the staples of television science fiction were also out of the question (the show would have "no kids or cute robots"). The idea was not to present a perfect utopian future, but one with greed and homelessness; one where characters grow, develop, live, and die; one where not everything was the same at the end of the day's events. Citing Mark Twain as an influence, Straczynski said he wanted the show to be a mirror to the real world and to covertly teach. They were able to secure an order for the pilot from Warner Bros. who were looking at the time to get programming for a planned broadcast network. Warner Bros. had remained skeptical about the show even after greenlighting the pilot. According to Straczynski, Warner Bros. had three main concerns: that American attention spans were too short for a series-long narrative to work, that it would be difficult to sell the show into syndication as the syndicate networks would air the episodes out of order, and that no other science-fiction television show outside of Star Trek had gone more than three seasons before being canceled. Straczynski had proved out that the syndication fear was incorrect, since syndicate stations told him they show their shows in episode order to track broadcasts for royalties; however, he could not assure Warner Bros. about the attention span or premature cancellation concerns, but still set out to show Warner Bros. they were wrong. a feat never before accomplished in American television. Other writers to have contributed scripts to the show include Peter David, Neil Gaiman, Kathryn M. Drennan, Lawrence G. DiTillio, D. C. Fontana, and David Gerrold. Harlan Ellison, a creative consultant on the show, received story credits for two episodes. Each writer was informed of the overarching storyline, enabling the show to be produced consistently under-budget. The rules of production were strict; scripts were written six episodes in advance, and changes could not be made once production had started.
With not all cast members being hired for every episode of a season, the five-year plot length caused some planning difficulties. If a critical scene involving an actor not hired for every episode had to be moved, that actor had to be paid for work on an extra episode. Straczynski stated, "As a writer, doing a long-term story, it'd be dangerous and short-sighted for me to construct the story without trap doors for every single character. ... That was one of the big risks going into a long-term storyline which I considered long in advance;..." This device was eventually used to facilitate the departures of Claudia Christian and Andrea Thompson from the series.
Straczynski purposely went light on elements of the five-year narrative during the first season as he felt the audience would not be ready for the full narrative at that time, but he still managed to drop in some scenes that would be critical to the future narrative. This also made it challenging for the actors to understand their motivations without knowing where their characters were going; Straczynski said "I didn't want to tell them too much, because that risks having them play the result, rather than the process." The intended series finale, "Sleeping in Light", was filmed during season four as a precaution against cancellation. When word came that TNT had picked up Babylon 5, this was moved to the end of season five and replaced with a newly filmed season four finale, "The Deconstruction of Falling Stars". Costume Ann Bruice Aling was costume designer for the show, after production designer John Iacovelli suggested her for the position, having previously worked with her on a number of film and theatrical productions.
With the variety of costumes required she compared Babylon 5 to "eclectic theatre", with fewer rules about period, line, shape and textures having to be adhered to. Preferring natural materials whenever possible, such as ostrich leather in the Narn body armor, Bruice combined and layered fabrics as diverse as rayon and silk with brocades from the 1930s and '40s to give the clothing the appearance of having evolved within different cultures.
In anticipation of the emerging HDTV standard, rather than the usual 4:3 format, the series was shot in 16:9, with the image cropped to 4:3 for initial television transmissions. It was one of the first television shows to use computer technology in creating visual effects, rather than models and miniatures, primarily out of budgetary concerns; Straczynski estimated that each of their episodes cost to make, compared to the cost of each episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation. The effects sequences were designed to simulate Newtonian physics, with particular emphasis on the effects of inertia on the motion of spacecraft.
Foundation Imaging provided the special effects for the pilot film (for which it won an Emmy) and the first three seasons of the show, led by Ron Thornton. After co-executive producer Douglas Netter and producer John Copeland approached Straczynski with the idea of producing the effects in-house, Straczynski agreed to replace Foundation, for season 4 and 5, once a new team had been established by Netter Digital, and an equal level of quality was assured, by using similar technology and a number of former Foundation employees. The Emmy-winning alien make-up was provided by Optic Nerve Studios. Music and scoring
| recorded | venue
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Christopher Franke composed and scored the musical soundtrack for all five years of the show when Stewart Copeland, who worked on the original telefilm, was unable to return for the first season due to recording and touring commitments.
Initially concerned composing for an episodic television show could become "annoying because of the repetition", Franke found the evolving characters and story of Babylon 5 afforded him the opportunity to continually take new directions.
With his recording studio in the same building as his home located in the Hollywood Hills, Franke would attend creative meetings before scoring the 25 minutes or so of music for each episode.
Scores for the acoustic tracks were emailed to his Berlin scoring stage, and would require from four musicians to the full orchestra, with a maximum of 24 present at any one time. One of three conductors would also be required for any score that involved more than six musicians. Franke would direct recording sessions via six fiber optic digital telephone lines to transmit and receive video, music and the SMPTE timecode. The final edit and mixing of the tracks would take place in his Los Angeles studio.
A total of 24 episode and three television film soundtracks were released under Franke's record label, Sonic Images Records, between 1995 and 2001. These contain the musical scores in the same chronological order as they played in the corresponding episodes, or television films. Three compilation albums were also produced, containing extensively re-orchestrated and remixed musical passages taken from throughout the series to create more elaborate suites. In 2007 his soundtrack for The Lost Tales was released under the Varèse Sarabande record label.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" width=70%
|-
! colspan"5" style"text-align:left; border: 0"|Music CD Releases
|-
! style="text-align:left"| Episodic Soundtracks || Tracks || Running Time || Release Date || Catalog No.
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Severed Dreams || 5 || 33:15 || September 16, 1997 || SID-0310
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | A Late Delivery From Avalon || 6 || 26:37 || September 16, 1997 || SID-0312
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Walkabout || 6 || 28:58 || September 16, 1997 || SID-0318
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Shadow Dancing || 6 || 33:50|| September 16, 1997 || SID-0321
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Z'Ha'Dum || 6 || 36:23|| September 16, 1997 || SID-0322
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | The Fall of Night || 6 || 22:45|| April 14, 1998 || SID-0222
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Interludes and Examinations || 6 || 30:14|| April 14, 1998 || SID-0315
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Into The Fire || 6 || 35:05|| April 14, 1998 || SID-0406
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | No Surrender, No Retreat || 6 || 30:53|| April 14, 1998 || SID-0415
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | The Face of the Enemy || 6 || 32:20|| April 14, 1998 || SID-0417
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | The Ragged Edge || 6 || 22:42|| April 14, 1998 || SID-0513
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Chrysalis || 6 || 24:51|| August 11, 1998 || SID-0112
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | The Coming of Shadows || 6 || 26:00|| August 11, 1998 || SID-0209
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | War Without End, Part 1 || 6 || 32:04|| August 11, 1998 || SID-0316
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | War Without End, Part 2 || 6 || 32:41|| August 11, 1998 || SID-0317
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Whatever Happened To Mr. Garibaldi || 6 || 28:41|| August 11, 1998 || SID-0402
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | The Long Night || 6 || 24:32|| August 11, 1998 || SID-0405
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Lines of Communication || 6 || 31:44|| August 11, 1998 || SID-0411
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Endgame || 6 || 35:25|| August 11, 1998 || SID-0420
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Falling Toward Apotheosis || 6 || 23:03|| February 16, 1999 || SID-0404
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Darkness Ascending || 6 || 32:41|| February 16, 1999 || SID-0516
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Objects at Rest || 6 || 27:52|| February 16, 1999 || SID-0522
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Sleeping in Light || 6 || 24:40|| February 16, 1999 || SID-0523
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | And The Rock Cried Out, No Hiding Place || 6 || 27:59|| January 9, 2001 || SID-0320
|-
! colspan"5" style"text-align:left; border: 0"|Movie Soundtracks
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | In The Beginning || 6 || 57:12|| August 11, 1998 || SID-8812
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Thirdspace || 5 || 59:22|| January 12, 1999 || SID-8900
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | The River of Souls || 6 || 49:55 || May 18, 1999 || SID-8907
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | The Lost Tales (released by Varèse Sarabande)|| 28 || 39:39 || July 24, 2007 || VSD-6829
|-
! colspan"5" style"text-align:left; border: 0"|Extended Compilations
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5 Vol.1 – Babylon 5 Suites || 6 || 58:03 || April 11, 1995 || SID-6502
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5 Vol.2 – Messages from Earth || 6 || 57:03|| February 11, 1997 || SID-6602
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | The Best of Babylon 5 || 6 || 50:02|| January 9, 2001 || SID-8931
|}
Broadcast history
Warner Bros. slotted the show to premiere on its nascent Prime Time Entertainment Network (PTEN). As original content from another studio, it was somewhat anomalous in a stable of syndicated content from Warner Bros. and the cause of some friction between Straczynski's company and Warner Bros. The regular series initially aired from January 26, 1994 through November 25, 1998, first on PTEN, then in first-run syndication, debuting with a 6.8 rating/10 share. Figures dipped in its second week, and while it posted a solid 5.0 rating/8 share, with an increase in several major markets, ratings for the first season continued to fall, to a low of 3.4 during reruns. Ratings remained low-to-middling throughout the first four seasons, but Babylon 5 scored well with the demographics required to attract the leading national sponsors and saved up to $300,000 per episode by shooting off the studio lot, The fifth season, which aired on cable network TNT, had ratings about 1.0% lower than seasons two through four.
In the United Kingdom, the show aired every week on Channel 4 without a break, with the result that the last four or five episodes of the early seasons screened in the UK before the US. Babylon 5 was one of the better-rated US television shows on Channel 4, and achieved high audience Appreciation Indexes, with the season 4 episode "Endgame" achieving the rare feat of beating the prime-time soap operas for first position.
Straczynski stated that PTEN only required the show to be profitable for the network to remain in production, and said that while this was the case for its first four seasons, on paper it was always losing money; he also remarked in a 2019 interview that in terms of contractual profit definition the show remained about in the red on paper, and stated that he had therefore never made any profits on Babylon 5.
Babylon 5 successfully completed its five-year story arc on November 25, 1998, after five seasons and 109 aired episodes, when TNT aired the 110th (epilogue) episode "Sleeping in Light," which had been filmed as the Season 4 finale, when Babylon 5 was under threat of ending production at that point. After a fifth season was assured, a new Season 4 finale was used so that "Sleeping in Light" could remain as the series finale.
Remastered version
In November 2020 a remastered version of the show in 4:3 format was released to the iTunes Store and Amazon Prime Video. This version uses the original negatives for filmed elements, and algorithmically upscales the digitally created elements to HD resolution with fewer visual artifacts, for a more visually consistent presentation. In January 2021, it was made available for streaming on HBO Max.
In February 2023, HBO's license expired and streaming rights were acquired by the free streaming service Tubi.
Themes
Throughout its run, Babylon 5 found ways to portray themes relevant to modern and historical social issues. It marked several firsts in television science fiction, including the exploration of the political and social landscapes of the first human colonies, their interactions with Earth, and the underlying tensions. In the show, sexual orientation is as much of an issue as "being left-handed or right-handed". Unrequited love is explored as a source of pain for the characters, though not all the relationships end unhappily. Order vs. chaos; authoritarianism vs. free will The Babylon 5 universe portrays numerous armed conflicts on an interstellar scale, including the Dilgar war, Narn-Centauri conflict, Minbari civil war, Drakh War, Interstellar Alliance-Centauri war, and the Great Burn. The story begins in the aftermath of a war which brought the human race to the brink of extinction, caused by a misunderstanding during a first contact with the Minbari. Babylon 5 is built to foster peace through diplomacy, described as the "last, best hope for peace" in the opening credits monologue during its first three seasons. Wars between separate alien civilizations are featured. The conflict between the Narn and the Centauri is followed from its beginnings as a minor territorial dispute amplified by historical animosity, through to its end, in which weapons of mass destruction are employed to subjugate and enslave a planet. The war is an attempt to portray a more sobering kind of conflict than usually seen on science fiction television. Informed by the events of the first Gulf War, the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Soviet invasion of Prague, the intent was to recreate these moments when "the world held its breath" and the emotional core of the conflict was the disbelief that the situation could have occurred at all, and the desperation to find a way to bring it to an end. By the start of the third season, the opening monolog had changed to say that the hope for peace had "failed" and the Babylon 5 station had become the "last, best hope for victory", indicating that while peace is ostensibly a laudable goal, it can also mean a capitulation to an enemy intent on committing horrendous acts and that "peace is a byproduct of victory against those who do not want peace."
The Shadow War also features prominently in the show, wherein the Shadows work to instigate conflict between other races to promote technological and cultural advancement, opposed by the Vorlons who are attempting to impose their own authoritarian philosophy of obedience. The gradual discovery of the scheme and the rebellion against it underpin the first three seasons, but also as a wider metaphor for competing forces of order and chaos. In that respect, Straczynski stated he presented Earth's descent into a dictatorship as its own "shadow war". In ending the Shadow War before the conclusion of the series, the show was able to more fully explore its aftermath, and it is this "war at home" which forms the bulk of the remaining two seasons. The struggle for independence between Mars and Earth culminates with a civil war between the human colonies (led by the Babylon 5 station) and the home planet. Choosing Mars as both the spark for the civil war, and the staging ground for its dramatic conclusion, enabled the viewer to understand the conflict more fully than had it involved an anonymous colony orbiting a distant star. The conflict, and the reasons behind it, were informed by Nazism, McCarthyism and the breakup of Yugoslavia,
The post-war landscape has its roots in the Reconstruction. The attempt to resolve the issues of the American Civil War after the conflict had ended, and this struggle for survival in a changed world was also informed by works such as Alas, Babylon, a novel dealing with the after-effects of a nuclear war on a small American town. The show expresses that the end of these wars is not an end to war itself. Events shown hundreds of years into the show's future tell of wars which will once again bring the human race to the edge of annihilation, demonstrating that humanity will not change, and the best that can be hoped for after it falls is that it climbs a little higher each time, until it can one day "take [its] place among the stars, teaching those who follow."
Religion
Many of Earth's contemporary religions are shown to still exist, with the main human characters often having religious convictions. Among those specifically identified are the Roman Catholic branch of Christianity (including the Jesuits), Judaism, and the fictional Foundationism (which developed after first contact with alien races). Alien beliefs in the show range from the Centauri's Bacchanalian-influenced religions, to the more pantheistic as with the Narn and Minbari religions. In the show's third season, a community of Cistercian monks takes up residence on the Babylon 5 station, in order to learn what other races call God, and to come to a better understanding of the different religions through study at close quarters.
References to both human and alien religion is often subtle and brief, but can also form the main theme of an episode. The first season episode "The Parliament of Dreams" is a conventional "showcase" for religion, in which each species on the Babylon 5 station has an opportunity to demonstrate its beliefs (humanity's are presented as being numerous and varied), as well as concepts of justice, vengeance, and biblical forgiveness. Other treatments have been more contentious, such as the David Gerrold-scripted "Believers", in which alien parents would rather see their son die than undergo a life-saving operation because their religious beliefs forbid it. and while identifying himself as an atheist, Addiction Substance abuse and its impact on human personalities also features in the Babylon 5 storyline. Garibaldi is a relapsing-remitting alcoholic, who practices complete abstinence throughout most of the series until the middle of season five, only recovering at the end of the season. Zack Allan, his eventual replacement as chief of security, was given a second chance by Garibaldi after overcoming his own addiction to an unspecified drug. Dr. Stephen Franklin develops an addiction to injectable stimulant drugs while trying to cope with the chronic stress and work overload in Medlab, and he takes a leave of absence from his position to recover. Executive Officer Susan Ivanova mentions that her father became an alcoholic after her mother's suicide. Captain Elizabeth Lochley tells Garibaldi that her father was an alcoholic, and that she is a recovering alcoholic herself.
Influences
Babylon 5 draws upon a number of cultural, historical, political and religious influences to inform and illustrate its characters and storylines. Straczynski has stated that there was no intent to wholly represent any particular period of history or preceding work of fiction, but has acknowledged their influence on the series, inasmuch as it uses similar well established storytelling structures, such as the hero's journey.
There are a number of specific literary references. Several episodes take their titles from Shakespearean monologs, and at least one character quotes Shakespeare directly. The Psi-Cop Alfred Bester was named after the science fiction author of the same name, as his work influenced the autocratic Psi Corps organization the character represents.
There are a number of references to the legend of King Arthur, with ships named Excalibur appearing in the main series and the Crusade spin-off, and a character in "A Late Delivery from Avalon" claiming to possess the sword itself. Straczynski links the incident which sparked the Earth-Minbari war, in which actions are misinterpreted during a tense situation, to a sequence in ''Le Morte d'Arthur'', in which a standoff between two armies turns violent when innocent actions are misinterpreted as hostile.
The series also references contemporary and ancient history. The Centauri are in part modeled on the Roman empire. Emperor Cartagia believes himself to be a god, a deliberate reference to Caligula. His eventual assassination leads to the ascension of Londo and eventually Vir, both unlikely candidates for the throne, similar to Claudius' improbable ascension after Caligula was assassinated. The series also references the novel I, Claudius by Robert Graves when Cartagia jokes that he has cured a man of his cough after having him beheaded, something also done by Caligula. In the episode "In the Shadow of Z'ha'dhum," Sheridan ponders Winston Churchill's Coventry dilemma, of whether or not to act on covertly gathered intelligence during a war. Lives would be saved, but at the risk of revealing to the enemy that their intentions are known, which may be far more damaging in the long term. The swearing in of Vice President Morgan Clark invokes the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, being deliberately staged to mirror the scene aboard Air Force One when Lyndon Johnson was sworn in as President.
Several episodes have titles referring to Biblical and/or Christian traditional narratives or texts, such as "Passing Through Gethsemane", "A Voice in the Wilderness," and "And the Rock Cried Out, No Hiding Place," the latter being a line from the gospel song "There's no Hiding Place Down Here."
Use of the Internet
The show employed Internet marketing to create a buzz among online readers far in advance of the airing of the pilot episode, with Straczynski participating in online communities on USENET (in the rec.arts.sf.tv.babylon5.moderated newsgroup), and the GEnie and CompuServe systems before the Web came together as it exists today. The station's location, in "grid epsilon" at coordinates of 470/18/22, was a reference to GEnie ("grid epsilon" "GE") and the original forum's address on the system's bulletin boards (page 470, category 18, topic 22).
Also during this time, Warner Bros. executive Jim Moloshok created and distributed electronic trading cards to help advertise the series. In 1995, Warner Bros. started the Official Babylon 5 Website on the now defunct Pathfinder portal. In September 1995, they hired series fan Troy Rutter to take over the site and move it to its own domain name, and to oversee the Keyword B5 area on America Online.
Reception
In 2004 and 2007, TV Guide ranked Babylon 5 #13 and #16 on its list of the top cult shows ever. Awards
Awards presented to Babylon 5 include:
* Emmy Award: Outstanding Individual Achievement in Special Visual Effects, 1993 (The Gathering)
* Emmy Award: Outstanding Individual Achievement in Makeup for a Series , 1994 (episode, "The Parliament of Dreams")
* Space Frontier Foundation Award: Vision of the Future, 1994
* Space Frontier Foundation Award: Vision of the Future, 1996
* E Pluribus Unum Award: (Presented By American Cinema Association), 1997
* Nebula Award Outstanding Dramatic Presentation, 1998.
Nominated Awards include:
* Emmy Award: Outstanding Individual Achievement in Makeup for a Series, 1995 (episode, "Acts of Sacrifice") when he attempted to sell the show to the studio, and provided them with the series bible, pilot script, artwork, lengthy character background histories, and plot synopses for "22 or so" planned episodes taken from the overall course of the planned series.
Paramount declined to produce Babylon 5, but later announced Star Trek: Deep Space Nine was in development, two months after Warner Bros. announced its plans for Babylon 5. Unlike previous Star Trek shows, Deep Space Nine was based on a space station, and had themes similar to those of Babylon 5, which drew some to compare it with Babylon 5. Straczynski stated that, even though he was confident that Deep Space Nine producer/creators Rick Berman and Michael Piller had not seen the material, he suspected that Paramount executives used his bible and scripts to steer development of Deep Space Nine. Straczynski and Warner did not file suit against Paramount, largely because he believed it would negatively affect both series. He argued the same when confronted by claims that the lack of legal action was proof that his allegation was unfounded.
Influence and legacy
Generally viewed as having "launched the new era of television CGI visual effects", Babylon 5 received multiple awards during its initial run, including two consecutive Hugo Awards for best dramatic presentation, and continues to regularly feature prominently in various polls and listings highlighting top-rated science fiction series.
Babylon 5 has been praised for its depth and complexity against a backdrop of contemporary shows which largely lacked long-term consequences, with plots typically being resolved in the course of a single episode, occasionally two. Straczynski was deeply involved in scriptwriting, writing 92 of 110 teleplays, a greater proportion than some of his contemporaries. Reviewers rated the quality of writing on a widely varying scale, identifying both eloquent soliloquies and dialogue that felt "stilted and theatrical."
Straczynski has claimed that the multi-year story arc, now a feature of most mainstream televised drama, is the lasting legacy of the series. It was an early example of widespread use of CGI rather than models for space scenes, which allowed for more freedom and larger scale in creating said scenes. While praised at the time, due to budgetary and mastering issues these sequences are considered to have aged poorly.
A recurring theme among reviewers is that the series was more than the sum of its parts: while variously criticizing the writing, directing, acting and effects, particularly by comparison to current television productions, reviewers praised the consistency of plotting over the series' run, transcending the quality of its individual elements. Many retrospectives, while criticizing virtually every individual aspect of the production, have praised the series as a whole for its narrative cohesion and contribution to serialized television. Producer John Copeland said: "You're not really tuning in to watch the visual effects," instead, people are watching a two-decades-old show because "the storytelling does hold up" and "you wanna spend more time with the characters." The franchise continued to expand into short stories, RPGs, and novels, with the Technomage trilogy of books being the last to be published in 2001, shortly after the spin-off television series, Crusade, was canceled. Excepting movie rights, which are retained by Straczynski, all production rights for the franchise are owned by Warner Bros.
Media franchise
In November 1994, DC began publishing monthly Babylon 5 comics. A number of short stories and novels were also produced between 1995 and 2001. Additional books were published by the gaming companies Chameleon Eclectic and Mongoose Publishing, to support their desk-top strategy and role-playing games.
Three TV films were released by TNT in 1998, after funding a fifth season of Babylon 5, following the demise of the Prime Time Entertainment Network the previous year. In addition to In the Beginning, Thirdspace, and The River of Souls, they released a re-edited special edition of the original 1993 tv film, The Gathering. In 1999, a fifth tv film was also produced, A Call to Arms, which acted as a pilot movie for the spin-off series Crusade, which TNT canceled after 13 episodes had been filmed.
Dell Publishing started publication of a series of Babylon 5 novels in 1995, which were ostensibly considered canon within the TV series' continuity, nominally supervised by Straczynski, with later novels in the line being more directly based upon Straczynski's own notes and story outlines. In 1997, Del Rey obtained the publication license from Warner Bros., and proceeded to release a number of original trilogies directly scenarized by Straczynski, as well as novelizations of three of the TNT telefilms (In the Beginning, Thirdspace, and A Call to Arms). All of the Del Rey novels are considered completely canonical within the filmic Babylon 5 universe.
In 2000, the Sci-Fi Channel purchased the rights to rerun the Babylon 5 series, and it premiered a new telefilm, The Legend of the Rangers in 2002, which failed to be picked up as a series. In 2007, the first in a planned anthology of straight-to-DVD short stories, entitled The Lost Tales, was released by Warner Home Video, but no others were produced, due to funding issues.
Straczynski announced a Babylon 5 film at the 2014 San Diego Comic-Con, but stated in 2016 that it had been delayed while he completed other productions. In 2018 Straczynski stated that although he possesses the movie rights, he believed that neither a film nor television series revival would happen while Warner Bros. retained the intellectual property for the TV series, believing that Warner Bros would insist on handling production, and that other studios would be hesitant to produce a film without also having the rights to the TV series.
Reboot
A reboot of Babylon 5 was announced in September 2021. It was to be produced by Straczynski through Studio JMS, and developed by Warner Bros. Television for The CW, before Warner took the rights back.
Direct-to-video animated film
Straczynski revealed in May 2023 that he had been working in secret with Warner Bros. Animation to produce Babylon 5: The Road Home, a full-length animated film. Most of the main surviving cast members voice their characters in the film, including Boxleitner, Christian, Jurasik, Mumy, Scoggins and Tallman. Other voice actors, replacing roles of those that had died, including Paul Guyet as Zathras and Jeffery Sinclair, Anthony Hansen as Michael Garibaldi, Mara Junot as Reporter and Computer Voice, Phil LaMarr as Dr. Stephen Franklin, Piotr Michael as David Sheridan, Andrew Morgado as G'Kar, and Rebecca Riedy as Delenn. The film premiered at Comic-Con in July 2023, and was made available on streaming services and physical media on August 15, 2023.
Home media
In July 1995, Warner Home Video began distributing Babylon 5 VHS video tapes under its Beyond Vision label in the UK. Beginning with the original telefilm, The Gathering, these were PAL tapes, showing video in the same 4:3 aspect ratio as the initial television broadcasts. By the release of Season 2, tapes included closed captioning of dialogue and Dolby Surround sound. Columbia House began distributing NTSC tapes, via mail order in 1997, followed by repackaged collector's editions and three-tape boxed sets in 1999, by which time the original pilot telefilm had been replaced by the re-edited TNT special edition. Additional movie and complete season boxed-sets were also released by Warner Bros. until 2000.
Image Entertainment released Babylon 5 laserdiscs between December 1998 and September 1999. Produced on double-sided 12-inch Pioneer discs, each contained two episodes displayed in the 4:3 broadcast aspect-ratio, with Dolby Surround audio and closed captioning for the dialogue. Starting with two TNT telefilms, In the Beginning and the re-edited special edition of The Gathering, Seasons 1 and 5 were released simultaneously over a six-month period. Seasons 2 and 4 followed, but with the decision to halt production due to a drop in sales, precipitated by rumors of a pending DVD release, only the first twelve episodes of Season 2 and the first six episodes of Season 4 were ultimately released.
In November 2001, Warner Home Video began distributing Babylon 5 DVDs with a two-movie set containing the re-edited TNT special edition of The Gathering and In The Beginning. The telefilms were later individually released in region 2 in April 2002, though some markets received the original version of The Gathering in identical packaging.
DVD boxed sets of the individual seasons, each containing six discs, began being released in October 2002. Each included a printed booklet containing episode summaries, with each disc containing audio options for German, French, and English, plus subtitles in a wider range of languages, including Arabic and Dutch. Video was digitally remastered from higher resolution PAL broadcast masters and displayed in anamorphic widescreen with remastered and remixed Dolby Digital 5.1 sound. Disc 1 of each set contained an introduction to the season by Straczynski, while disc 6 included featurettes containing interviews with various production staff, as well as information on the fictional universe, and a gag reel. Three episodes in each season also contained commentary from either Straczynski, members of the main cast, and/or the episode director.
Since its initial release, a number of repackaged DVD boxed sets have been produced for various regional markets. With slightly altered cover art, they included no additional content, but the discs were more securely stored in slimline cases, rather than the early "book" format, with hard plastic pages used during the original release of the first three seasons.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan"4" style"text-align:left; border: 0"|Initial DVD release
|-
! style="text-align:left"| Episode box sets || Region 1 || Region 2 || Region 4
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Complete First Season || November 5, 2002 || October 28, 2002 || November 27, 2002
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Complete Second Season || April 29, 2003 || May 26, 2003 || July 9, 2003
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Complete Third Season || August 12, 2003 || November 10, 2003 || December 19, 2003
|-
| style"padding-left: 1em" align"left" | Babylon 5: The Complete Fourth Season || January 6, 2004 || April 19, 2004 || August 19, 2004
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Complete Fifth Season || April 13, 2004 || Jan 2005 || December 16, 2004
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Complete Television Series || August 17, 2004 || N/A || N/A
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Complete Universe (inc. all movies and Crusade episodes)|| N/A || October 24, 2005 || N/A
|-
! colspan"4" style"text-align:left; border: 0"|Movie releases and box sets
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Gathering / In the Beginning || December 4, 2001 || N/A || November 21, 2001
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Gathering || N/A || April 8, 2002 || N/A
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: In the Beginning || N/A || April 8, 2002 || N/A
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Movie Collection || August 17, 2004 || N/A || March 2, 2005
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: Movie Box Set || N/A || February 21, 2005 || N/A
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers || March 14, 2006 || October 24, 2005 || November 16, 2005
|-
| align"left" style"padding-left: 1em" | Babylon 5: The Lost Tales || July 31, 2007 || September 3, 2007 || January 2, 2008
|}
On July 19, 2023, Warner announced that Babylon 5 would be released on Blu-ray on December 5, 2023, for the show's 30th anniversary. Mastering problems While the series was in pre-production, studios were looking at ways for their existing shows to make the transition from the standard 4:3 aspect ratio to the widescreen formats that would accompany the next generation of televisions. After visiting Warner Bros., which was stretching the horizontal interval for an episode of Lois & Clark, producer John Copeland convinced them to allow Babylon 5 to be shot on Super 35mm film stock. "The idea being that we would telecine to 4:3 for the original broadcast of the series. But what it also gave us was a negative that had been shot for the new 16×9 widescreen-format televisions that we knew were on the horizon."
Though the CG scenes, and those containing live action combined with digital elements, could have been created in a suitable widescreen format, a cost-saving decision was taken to produce them in the 4:3 aspect ratio. When those images were prepared for widescreen release, the top and bottom of the images were simply cropped, and the remaining image 'blown up' to match the dimensions of the live action footage, noticeably reducing the image quality. The scenes containing live action ready to be composited with matte paintings, CG animation, etc., were delivered on tape already telecined to the 4:3 aspect-ratio, and contained a high level of grain, which resulted in further image noise being present when enlarged and stretched for widescreen.
For the purely live-action scenes, rather than using the film negatives, according to Copeland, "Warners had even forgotten that they had those. They used PAL versions and converted them to NTSC for the US market. They actually didn't go back and retransfer the shows." With the resulting aliasing, and the progressive scan transfer of the video to DVD, this has created a number of visual flaws throughout the widescreen release. In particular, quality has been noted to drop significantly in composite shots.
In 2020 a new remastered version was created (as detailed above) which restored the original picture quality and repaired the damage to the CGI scenes, although this also involved reverting to the original 4:3 aspect ratio. The negatives were scanned at ultra HD quality and then down converted to HD and upscaling programs were used to enhance the CGI to HD at the same time.
See also
* ''Babylon 5's'' use of the Internet
* rec.arts.sf.tv.babylon5.moderated
* The Lurker's Guide to Babylon 5
* Babylon 5 (franchise)
References
External links
<!--Please do not add BABYLON5SCRIPTS babylon5scripts.com here. It's already listed in the references section above.-->
<!--Please do not add WIKIA wikia.com here. It's up to community consensus.-->
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070602112525/http://babylon5.warnerbros.com/ Babylon 5 official site]. Archived from the original on June 6, 2007.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020408121202/http://www.scifi.com/babylon5/ Babylon 5] official site (Syfy). Archived from [http://www.scifi.com/babylon5/ the original] on February 8, 2002.
*
*
* [http://www.midwinter.com/lurk/lurker.html The Lurker's Guide to Babylon 5]: Babylon 5 reference and episode guide
* [http://www.b5scrolls.com/ The Babylon 5 Scrolls]: Collection of interviews, concept art and screen used 3D models from FX artists who created Babylon 5
* [http://www.zteamproductions.com/protob5.html Early Babylon 5 Designs]: Information from the original 1991 promotional flyer, with different character names and Peter Ledger's artwork
}}
Category:First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Category:1990s American science fiction television series
Category:Prime Time Entertainment Network
Category:American adventure television series
Category:Serial drama television series
Category:Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios
Category:TNT (American TV network) original programming
Category:1993 American television series debuts
Category:Television franchises
Category:1998 American television series endings
Category:Hugo Award–winning television series
Category:Saturn Award–winning television series
Category:Space adventure television series
Category:Television series set in the 23rd century
Category:American English-language television shows
Category:Television shows adapted into comics
Category:Television shows adapted into novels
Category:Television series about extraterrestrial life
Category:Television series created by J. Michael Straczynski
Category:Fictional space stations
Category:Television shows filmed in Los Angeles
Category:Fiction set around Epsilon Eridani
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_5
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BeOS
|
| latest release version = R5.0.3
| latest release date =
| working_state = Discontinued
| kernel_type Monolithic kernel
| language = English, Japanese
| supported_platforms = IA-32<br> PowerPC
| license = Proprietary
| website = [https://web.archive.org/web/20110804175137/http://www.beincorporated.com/ beincorporated.com]
}}
BeOS is a discontinued operating system for personal computers that was developed by Be Inc. It was conceived for the company's BeBox personal computer which was released in 1995. BeOS was designed for multitasking, multithreading, and a graphical user interface. The OS was later sold to OEMs, retail, and directly to users; its last version was released as freeware.
Early BeOS releases are for PowerPC. It was ported to Macintosh and then x86. Be was ultimately unable to achieve a significant market share and ended development with dwindling finances, so Palm acquired the BeOS assets in 2001. Enthusiasts have since created derivate operating systems including Haiku, which will retain BeOS 5 compatibility as of Release R1.
Development
BeOS is the product of Apple Computer's former business executive Jean-Louis Gassée, with the underlying philosophy of building a "media OS" capable of up-and-coming digital media and multi-processors. Development began in the early 1990s, initially designed to run on AT&T Hobbit-based hardware before being modified to run on PowerPC-based processors: first Be's own BeBox system, and later Apple Computer's PowerPC Reference Platform and Common Hardware Reference Platform, with the hope that Apple would purchase or license BeOS as a replacement for its aging Mac OS.
The first version of BeOS shipped with the BeBox to a limited number of developers in October 1995. It supported analog and digital audio and MIDI streams, multiple video sources, and 3D computation. Developer Release 6 (DR6) was the first officially available version.
The BeOS Developer Release 7 (DR7) was released in April 1996. This includes full 32-bit color graphics, "workspaces" (virtual desktops), an FTP file server, and a web server.
DR8 was released in September 1996 with a new browser with MPEG and QuickTime video formats. It supports OpenGL, remote access, and Power Macintosh.
In 1996, Apple Computer CEO Gil Amelio started negotiations to buy Be Inc., but stalled when Be CEO Jean-Louis Gassée wanted $300 million and Apple offered $125 million. Apple's board of directors preferred NeXTSTEP and purchased Steve Jobs's NeXT instead.
The final developer's release introduced a 64-bit file system. BeOS Preview Release (PR1), the first for the general public, was released in mid 1997. It supports AppleTalk, PostScript printing, and Unicode. The price for the Full Pack was $49.95. Later that year, Preview Release 2 shipped with support for Macintosh's Hierarchical File System (HFS), support for 512MB RAM, and improvements to the user interface.
Release 3 (R3) shipped in March 1998 (initially $69.95, later $99.95), as the first to be ported to the Intel x86 platform in addition to PowerPC, and the first commercially available version of BeOS. The adoption of x86 was partly due to Apple's moves, with Steve Jobs stopping the Macintosh clone market, and Be's mounting debt.
BeOS Release 4 had a claimed performance improvement of up to 30 percent. Keyboard shortcuts were changed to mimic those of Windows. However it still lacked Novell NetWare support. It also brought additional drivers and support for the most common SCSI controllers on the x86 platform - from Adaptec and Symbios Logic. The bootloader switched from LILO to Be's own bootman.
In 2000, BeOS Release 5 (R5) was released. This was split between a Pro Edition, and a free version known as Personal Edition (BeOS PE) which was released for free online and by CD-ROM. Also with R5, Be open sourced elements of the user interface. Be CEO Gassée said in 2001 that he was open to the idea of releasing the entire operating system's source code, but this never materialized.
Release 5 raised BeOS's popularity but it remained commercially unsuccessful, and BeOS eventually halted following the introduction of a stripped-down version for Internet appliances, BeIA, which became the company's business focus in place of BeOS. R5 is the final official release of BeOS as Be Inc. became defunct in 2001 following its sale to Palm Inc. BeOS R5.1 "Dano", which was under development before Be's sale to Palm and includes the BeOS Networking Environment (BONE) networking stack, was leaked to the public shortly after the company's close. Version history table {| class"wikitable"
!Release
!Date
!Hardware
|-
|Developer Release 4
|Prototype
|AT&T Hobbit
|-
|Developer Release 5
|October 1995
| rowspan="7" |PowerPC
|-
|Developer Release 6
|January 1996
|-
|Developer Release 7
|April 1996
|-
|Developer Release 8
|September 1996
|-
|Developer Release 9
(Advanced Access Preview Release)
|May 1997
|-
|Preview Release 1
|June 1997
|-
|Preview Release 2
|October 1997
|-
|Release 3
|March 1998
| rowspan="6" |PowerPC and Intel x86
|-
|R3.1
|June 1998
|-
|R3.2
|July 1998
|-
|Release 4
|November 4, 1998
|-
|R4.5 ("Genki")
|June 1999
|-
|Release 5 ("Maui")
Personal Edition/Pro Edition
|March 28, 2000<br>May 26, 2000 <small>(5.0.3)</small>
|-
|R5.1 ("Dano")
|Leaked
|Intel x86
|}
Hardware support and licensees
After the discontinuation of the BeBox in January 1997, Power Computing began bundling BeOS (on a CD-ROM for optional installation) with its line of PowerPC-based Macintosh clones. These systems can dual boot either Mac OS or BeOS, with a start-up screen offering the choice. Motorola also announced in February 1997 that it would bundle BeOS with their Macintosh clones, the Motorola StarMax, along with MacOS. DayStar Digital was another licensee.
BeOS is compatible with many Macintosh models, but not PowerBook.
With BeOS Release 3 on the x86 platform, the operating system is compatible with most computers that run Windows. Hitachi is the first major x86 OEM to ship BeOS, selling the Hitachi Flora Prius line in Japan, and Fujitsu released the Silverline computers in Germany and the Nordic countries. Be was unable to attract further manufacturers due to their Microsoft contracts. Be closed in 2002, and sued Microsoft, claiming that Hitachi had been dissuaded from selling PCs loaded with BeOS. The case was eventually settled out of court for $23.25 million with no admission of liability on Microsoft's part.
Architecture
BeOS was developed as an original product, with a proprietary kernel, symmetric multiprocessing, preemptive multitasking, and pervasive multithreading. It runs in protected memory mode, with a C++ application framework based on shared libraries and modular code.
BeOS uses modern hardware facilities such as modular I/O bandwidth, a multithreaded graphics engine (with the OpenGL library), and a 64-bit journaling file system named BFS supporting files up to one terabyte each.
BeOS uses Unicode as the default GUI encoding, and support for input methods such as bidirectional text input was never realized.ApplicationsBeOS is bundled with a unique web browser named NetPositive, the BeMail email client, and the PoorMan web server. Be operated the marketplace site BeDepot for the purchase and downloading of software including third party, and a website named BeWare listing apps for the platform. Some third party BeOS apps include the Gobe Productive office suite, and multimedia apps like Cinema 4D. Quake and Quake II were officially ported, and SimCity 3000 was in development.
Reception
Be did not disclose the number of BeOS users, but it was estimated to be running on between 50,000 and 100,000 computers in 1999,
Reception of the operating system was largely positive citing its true and "reliable" multitasking and support for multiple processors. Though its market penetration was low, it gained a niche multimedia userbase due to its well-regarded ability to handle audio and video. BeOS received significant interest in Japan,
BeOS and its successors have been used in media appliances, such as the Edirol DV-7 video editors from Roland Corporation, which run on a modified BeOS and the Tunetracker Radio Automation software that used to run it on BeOS and Zeta, and it was also sold as a "Station-in-a-Box" with the Zeta operating system included. In 2015, Tunetracker released a Haiku distribution bundled with its broadcasting software.
Legacy
The Tascam SX-1 digital audio recorder runs a heavily modified version of BeOS that will only launch the recording interface software. The RADAR 24, RADAR V and RADAR 6, hard disk-based, 24-track professional audio recorders from iZ Technology Corporation were based on BeOS 5. Magicbox, a manufacturer of signage and broadcast display machines, uses BeOS to power their Aavelin product line. Final Scratch, a 12-inch vinyl timecode record-driven DJ software and hardware system, was first developed on BeOS. The "ProFS" version was sold to a few dozen DJs prior to the 1.0 release, which ran on a Linux virtual partition.Spiritual successorsAfter BeOS came to an end, Palm created PalmSource which used parts of BeOS's multimedia framework for its failed Palm OS Cobalt product (with the takeover of PalmSource, the BeOS rights were assigned to Access Co.). However, Palm refused the request of BeOS users to license the operating system. As a result, a few projects formed to recreate BeOS or its key elements with the eventual goal of then continuing where Be Inc. quit.
BeUnited, a BeOS oriented community, converted itself into a nonprofit organization in August 2001 to "define and promote open specifications for the delivery of the Open Standards BeOS-compatible Operating System (OSBOS) platform".
ZETA
Immediately after Palm's purchase of Be, a German company named yellowTAB started developing Zeta based on the BeOS R5.1 codebase and released it commercially. It was later distributed by magnussoft. During development by yellowTAB, the company received criticism from the BeOS community for refusing to discuss its legal position with regard to the BeOS codebase. Access Co. (which bought PalmSource, until then the holder of the intellectual property associated with BeOS) declared that yellowTAB had no right to distribute a modified version of BeOS, and magnussoft was forced to cease distribution of the operating system in 2007.
Haiku (OpenBeOS)
Haiku is a complete open source reimplementation of BeOS. It was originally named OpenBeOS and its first release in 2002 was a community update.
Others
BlueEyedOS tried to create a system under LGPL based on the Linux kernel and an X server that is compatible with BeOS. Work began under the name BlueOS in 2001 and a demo CD was released in 2003. The project was discontinued in February 2005.
Cosmoe, with an interface like BeOS, was designed by Bill Hayden as an open source operating system based on the source code of AtheOS and later OpenBeOS, but using the Linux kernel. ZevenOS was designed to continue where Cosmoe left off. In mid 2024, Cosmoe was resurrected by its original author after 17 years, with a much improved codebase based on contemporary Haiku.
BeFree started in 2003, initially developed under FreeBSD and later Linux.
See also
* Access Co.
* BeIA
* Comparison of operating systems
* Gobe Productive
* Hitachi Flora Prius
References
Further reading
*
* External links
* [https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-dawn-of-haiku-os The Dawn of Haiku], by Ryan Leavengood, IEEE Spectrum May 2012, p 40–43,51-54.
* [http://testou.free.fr/www.beatjapan.org/mirror/www.be.com/ Mirror of the old www.be.com site] [https://web.archive.org/web/20140814144041/http://www.tristomattia.eu/mirror/www.be.com/ Other Mirror of the old www.be.com site]
* [http://www.osnews.com/story.php?news_id=7265/ BeOS] Celebrating Ten Years
* [http://www.begroovy.com/ BeGroovy] A blog and news archive for BeOS
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100527010042/http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2007/01/30/forgotten_tech_beos/ BeOS: The Mac OS X might-have-been], reghardware.co.uk
* [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/beosprog/book/ Programming the Be Operating System]: An O'Reilly Open Book
*
* (BeOS)
Category:BeOS
Category:Discontinued operating systems
Category:Object-oriented operating systems
Category:PowerPC operating systems
Category:X86 operating systems
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeOS
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Biome
|
]]
A biome () is a distinct geographical region with specific climate, vegetation, and animal life. It consists of a biological community that has formed in response to its physical environment and regional climate. In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ecosystem. The International Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.
However, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. In German literature, particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope (a concrete geographical unit), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology—irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name—and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determined by climate zone, altitude or soil).
In the Brazilian literature, the term biome is sometimes used as a synonym of biogeographic province, an area based on species composition (the term floristic province being used when plant species are considered), or also as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both include many biomes in fact. Classifications To divide the world into a few ecological zones is difficult, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other. Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that predominate in them.
A 1978 study on North American grasslands found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m<sup>2</sup>/yr. The general results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary production, while solar irradiation and temperature lead to below-ground primary production (roots), and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit. These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge's bioclassification scheme (see below), which were then later simplified by Whittaker. The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the classification schemes created.
Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones
In 1947, the American botanist and climatologist Leslie Holdridge classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called "humidity provinces", which are clearly visible in his diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that these were important.
Allee (1949) biome-types
The principal biome-types by Allee (1949):
* Tundra
* Taiga
* Deciduous forest
* Grasslands
* Desert
* High plateaus
* Tropical forest
* Minor terrestrial biomes
Kendeigh (1961) biomes
The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):
* Terrestrial
** Temperate deciduous forest
** Coniferous forest
** Woodland
** Chaparral
** Tundra
** Grassland
** Desert
** Tropical savanna
** Tropical forest
* Marine
** Oceanic plankton and nekton
** Balanoid-gastropod-thallophyte
** Pelecypod-annelid
** Coral reef
Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types
Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature. His scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge's; more readily accessible, but missing Holdridge's greater specificity.
Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He had previously compiled a review of biome classifications. Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme
* Physiognomy: sometimes referring to the plants' appearance; or the biome's apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species - including plants.
* Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities.
* Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.
* Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined by physiognomy.
* Formation-type: a grouping of convergent formations.
Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when applied to plant communities only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittaker's convention of biome-type or formation-type is a broader method to categorize similar communities. <!---The world biome-types, as displayed on a world map, can be viewed at the following link: [http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/biomemap.html here] (This link is now dead.)---> Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types Whittaker used what he called "gradient analysis" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.
Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types
The multi-authored series Ecosystems of the World, edited by David W. Goodall, provides a comprehensive coverage of the major "ecosystem types or biomes" on Earth:
|Managed Terrestrial Ecosystems
}}
|Aquatic Ecosystems
|Marine Ecosystems
|Managed Aquatic Ecosystems
}}
|Underground Ecosystems
}}
Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes
The eponymously named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and precipitation. The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the important climate traits and vegetation types. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.
{| class="wikitable"
! Number
! Zonobiome
! Zonal soil type
! Zonal vegetation type
|-
! ZB I
| Equatorial, always moist, little temperature seasonality
| Equatorial brown clays
| Evergreen tropical rainforest
|-
! ZB II
| Tropical, summer rainy season and cooler "winter" dry season
| Red clays or red earths
| Tropical seasonal forest, seasonal dry forest, scrub, or savanna
|-
! ZB III
| Subtropical, highly seasonal, arid climate
| Serosemes, sierozemes
| Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface
|-
! ZB IV
| Mediterranean, winter rainy season and summer drought
| Mediterranean brown earths
| Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands
|-
! ZB V
| Warm temperate, occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum
| Yellow or red forest soils, slightly podsolic soils
| Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-sensitive
|-
! ZB VI
| Nemoral, moderate climate with winter freezing
| Forest brown earths and grey forest soils
| Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest
|-
! ZB VII
| Continental, arid, with warm or hot summers and cold winters
| Chernozems to serozems
| Grasslands and temperate deserts
|-
! ZB VIII
| Boreal, cold temperate with cool summers and long winters
| Podsols
| Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved forest (taiga)
|-
! ZB IX
| Polar, short, cool summers and long, cold winters
| Tundra humus soils with solifluction (permafrost soils)
| Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees, growing over permanently frozen soils
|-
|}
Schultz (1988) eco-zones
Schultz (1988, 2005) defined nine ecozones (his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept of biome than to the concept of ecozone of BBC):
# polar/subpolar zone
# boreal zone
# humid mid-latitudes
# dry mid-latitudes
# subtropics with winter rain
# subtropics with year-round rain
# dry tropics and subtropics
# tropics with summer rain
# tropics with year-round rain
Bailey (1989) ecoregions
Robert G. Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the United States in a map published in 1976. He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989. The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided into four domains (polar, humid temperate, dry, and humid tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain).
* 100 Polar Domain
** 120 Tundra Division (Köppen: Ft)
** M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces
** 130 Subarctic Division (Köppen: E)
** M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces
* 200 Humid Temperate Domain
** 210 Warm Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dcb)
** M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
** 220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dca)
** M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
** 230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of Cf)
** M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces
** 240 Marine Division (Köppen: Do)
** M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces
** 250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of Cf, Dca, Dcb)
** 260 Mediterranean Division (Köppen: Cs)
** M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces
* 300 Dry Domain
** 310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division
** M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces
** 320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division
** 330 Temperate Steppe Division
** 340 Temperate Desert Division
* 400 Humid Tropical Domain
** 410 Savanna Division
** 420 Rainforest Division
Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200
thumb|upright 2
|<small>Terrestrial biomes of the world according to Olson & Dinerstein et al. and used by the WWF and Global 200.
</small>
]]
A team of biologists convened by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a scheme that divided the world's land area into biogeographic realms (called "ecozones" in a BBC scheme), and these into ecoregions (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.). Each ecoregion is characterized by a main biome (also called major habitat type).
This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation. Biogeographic realms (marine)
* Arctic
* Temperate Northern Atlantic
* Temperate Northern Pacific
* Tropical Atlantic
* Western Indo-Pacific
* Central Indo-Pacific
* Eastern Indo-Pacific
* Tropical Eastern Pacific
* Temperate South America
* Temperate Southern Africa
* Temperate Australasia
* Southern Ocean
Biomes (terrestrial)
# Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)
# Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
# Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
# Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)
# Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)
# Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)
# Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid)
# Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid)
# Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)
# Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate)
# Tundra (Arctic)
# Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)
# Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)
# Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)
* Large lakes
* Large river deltas
* Polar freshwaters
* Montane freshwaters
* Temperate coastal rivers
* Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands
* Temperate upland rivers
* Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers
* Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands
* Tropical and subtropical upland rivers
* Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins
* Oceanic islands
Biomes (marine)
Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):
* Polar
* Temperate shelves and sea
* Temperate upwelling
* Tropical upwelling
* Tropical coral Summary of the scheme
* Biosphere
** Biogeographic realms (terrestrial) (8)
*** Ecoregions (867), each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type (14)
**** Ecosystems (biotopes)
* Biosphere
** Biogeographic realms (freshwater) (8)
*** Ecoregions (426), each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type (12)
**** Ecosystems (biotopes)
* Biosphere
** Biogeographic realms (marine) (12)
*** (Marine provinces) (62)
**** Ecoregions (232), each characterized by a biome, a major habitat type (5)
***** Ecosystems (biotopes)
Example:
* Biosphere
** Biogeographic realm: Palearctic
*** Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (PA0418); biome type: temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
**** Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100 and 1,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, nemoral zone (temperate zone)
***** Biotope: Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk. (Plant list)
****** Plant: Silver fir (Abies alba)
Other biomes
Marine biomes
Pruvot (1896) zones or "systems":
* Littoral zone
* Pelagic zone
* Abyssal zone
Longhurst (1998) biomes:
* Coastal
* Polar
* Trade wind
* Westerly
Other marine habitat types (not covered yet by the Global 200/WWF scheme):
* Open sea
* Deep sea
* Hydrothermal vents
* Cold seeps
* Benthic zone
* Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies)
* Abyssal
* Hadal (ocean trench)
* Littoral/Intertidal zone
* Salt marsh
* Estuaries
* Coastal lagoons/Atoll lagoons
* Kelp forest
* Pack ice
Anthropogenic biomes
Humans have altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a result, vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much of Earth's land surface as they have been replaced by crops and rangelands or cities. Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a way to recognize the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and manage Earth's biosphere and anthropogenic biomes.
thumb|upright 2.22
|<small>Similarities can be seen between the 14 terrestrial bioregions of Olson & Dinerstein et al. and the 17 land cover classes of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, "which includes 11 natural vegetation classes, 3 developed and mosaicked land classes, and 3 non-vegetated land classes", as detected by satellites.
</small>
Major anthropogenic biomes:
* Dense settlements
* Croplands
* Rangelands
* Forested
* Indoor
Microbial biomes
Endolithic biomes
The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification schemes. Effects of climate change Anthropogenic climate change has the potential to greatly alter the distribution of Earth's biomes. Meaning, biomes around the world could change so much that they would be at risk of becoming new biomes entirely. More specifically, between 54% and 22% of global land area will experience climates that correspond to other biomes. An example of a biome shift is woody plant encroachment, which can change grass savanna into shrub savanna.
Average temperatures have risen more than twice the usual amount in both arctic and mountainous biomes, which leads to the conclusion that arctic and mountainous biomes are currently the most vulnerable to climate change. With its annual average temperature continuing to increase, the moisture currently located in forest biomes will dry up.
See also
*
*
*
*
References
Further reading
* Ritter, Michael E. (2005). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110228054041/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/biomes/outline.html The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography]. University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point.
External links
* University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley's [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/ The World's Biomes]
* Gale/Cengage [https://web.archive.org/web/20110711070312/http://www.galeschools.com/environment/biomes/overview.htm Biome Overview] (archived 11 July 2011)
*
* [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/global-ecology.php#3 Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110222001659/http://www.worldbiomes.com/ WorldBiomes.com] (archived 22 February 2011)
* Panda.org's [https://web.archive.org/web/20170706065633/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/ Major Habitat Types] (archived 6 July 2017)
* NASA's Earth Observatory [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Experiments/Biome/ Mission: Biomes]
* [https://databayou.com/world/deserts.html World Map of Desert Biomes]
Category:Habitats
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biome
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2025-04-05T18:26:58.752330
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4805
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Behavior
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Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as well as the inanimate physical environment. It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. While some behavior is produced in response to an organism's environment (extrinsic motivation), behavior can also be the product of intrinsic motivation, also referred to as "agency" or "free will".
Taking a behavior informatics perspective, a behavior consists of actor, operation, interactions, and their properties. This can be represented as a behavior vector.
Models
Biology
Definition
Behavior may be defined as "the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of whole living organisms (individuals or groups) to internal or external stimuli".
A broader definition of behavior, applicable to plants and other organisms, is similar to the concept of phenotypic plasticity. It describes behavior as a response to an event or environment change during the course of the lifetime of an individual, differing from other physiological or biochemical changes that occur more rapidly, and excluding changes that are a result of development (ontogeny).
Behaviour can be regarded as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to its environment. Behavior provides outputs from the organism to the environment.
Determination by genetics or the environment
Behaviors can be either innate or learned from the environment, or both, dependent on the organism. The more complex nervous systems (or brains) are, the more influence learning has on behavior. However, even in mammals, a large fraction of behavior is genetically determined. For instance, prairie voles tend to be monogamous while, while meadow voles are more promiscuous, a difference that is strongly determined by a single gene, Avpr1a, encoding a receptor for the peptide hormone Vasopressin.
Human behavior
The endocrine system and the nervous system likely influence human behavior. Complexity in the behavior of an organism may be correlated to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior.
Animal behavior
Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually with a focus on behavior under natural conditions, and viewing behavior as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Behaviorism is a term that also describes the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually referring to measured responses to stimuli or trained behavioral responses in a laboratory context, without a particular emphasis on evolutionary adaptivity.
Consumer behavior
Consumers behavior
Consumer behavior involves the processes consumers go through, and reactions they have towards products or services. It has to do with consumption, and the processes consumers go through around purchasing and consuming goods and services. Consumers recognize needs or wants, and go through a process to satisfy these needs. Consumer behavior is the process they go through as customers, which includes types of products purchased, amount spent, frequency of purchases and what influences them to make the purchase decision or not.
Circumstances that influence consumer behaviour are varied, with contributions from both internal and external factors.
Consumer decision making
Lars Perner presents a model that outlines the decision-making process involved in consumer behaviour. The process initiates with the identification of a problem, wherein the consumer acknowledges an unsatisfied need or desire. Subsequently, the consumer proceeds to seek information, whereas for low-involvement products, the search tends to rely on internal resources, retrieving alternatives from memory. Conversely, for high-involvement products, the search is typically more extensive, involving activities like reviewing reports, reading reviews, or seeking recommendations from friends.
The consumer will then evaluate his or her alternatives, comparing price, and quality, doing trade-offs between products, and narrowing down the choice by eliminating the less appealing products until there is one left. After this has been identified, the consumer will purchase the product.
Finally, the consumer will evaluate the purchase decision, and the purchased product, bringing in factors such as value for money, quality of goods, and purchase experience.
How the 4P's influence consumer behavior
The Marketing mix (4 P's) are a marketing tool and stand for Price, Promotion, Product, and Placement.
Due to the significant impact of business-to-consumer marketing on consumer behavior, the four elements of the marketing mix, known as the 4 P's (product, price, place, and promotion), exert a notable influence on consumer behavior. The price of a good or service is largely determined by the market, as businesses will set their prices to be similar to that of other businesses so as to remain competitive whilst making a profit. When market prices for a product are high, it will cause consumers to purchase less and use purchased goods for longer periods of time, meaning they are purchasing the product less often. Alternatively, when market prices for a product are low, consumers are more likely to purchase more of the product, and more often.
The way that promotion influences consumer behavior has changed over time. In the past, large promotional campaigns and heavy advertising would convert into sales for a business, but nowadays businesses can have success on products with little or no advertising. This is due to the Internet and in particular social media. They rely on word of mouth from consumers using social media, and as products trend online, so sales increase as products effectively promote themselves. Thus, promotion by businesses does not necessarily result in consumer behavior trending towards purchasing products.
The way that product influences consumer behavior is through consumer willingness to pay, and consumer preferences. This means that even if a company were to have a long history of products in the market, consumers will still pick a cheaper product over the company in question's product if it means they will pay less for something that is very similar. This is due to consumer willingness to pay, or their willingness to part with the money they have earned. The product also influences consumer behavior through customer preferences. For example, take Pepsi vs Coca-Cola, a Pepsi-drinker is less likely to purchase Coca-Cola, even if it is cheaper and more convenient. This is due to the preference of the consumer, and no matter how hard the opposing company tries they will not be able to force the customer to change their mind.
Product placement in the modern era has little influence on consumer behavior, due to the availability of goods online. If a customer can purchase a good from the comfort of their home instead of purchasing in-store, then the placement of products is not going to influence their purchase decision.
In management
Behavior outside of psychology includes
Organizational
In management, behaviors are associated with desired or undesired focuses. Managers generally note what the desired outcome is, but behavioral patterns can take over. These patterns are the reference to how often the desired behavior actually occurs. Before a behavior actually occurs, antecedents focus on the stimuli that influence the behavior that is about to happen. After the behavior occurs, consequences fall into place. Consequences consist of rewards or punishments.
Social behavior
Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with the expectation that when one gives, one will receive the same. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment. This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of the person, and the situation they are in.
Behavior informatics
Behavior informatics explores behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives.
Different from applied behavior analysis from the psychological perspective, BI builds computational theories, systems and tools to qualitatively and quantitatively model, represent, analyze, and manage behaviors of individuals, groups and/or organizations.
Health
Health behavior refers to a person's beliefs and actions regarding their health and well-being. Health behaviors are direct factors in maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Health behaviors are influenced by the social, cultural, and physical environments in which we live. They are shaped by individual choices and external constraints. Positive behaviors help promote health and prevent disease, while the opposite is true for risk behaviors. Health behaviors are early indicators of population health. Because of the time lag that often occurs between certain behaviors and the development of disease, these indicators may foreshadow the future burdens and benefits of health-risk and health-promoting behaviors.
Correlates
A variety of studies have examined the relationship between health behaviors and health outcomes (e.g., Blaxter 1990) and have demonstrated their role in both morbidity and mortality.
These studies have identified seven features of lifestyle which were associated with lower morbidity and higher subsequent long-term survival (Belloc and Breslow 1972):
Avoiding snacks
Eating breakfast regularly
Exercising regularly
Maintaining a desirable body weight
Moderate alcohol intake
Not smoking
Sleeping 7–8hrs per night
Health behaviors impact upon individuals' quality of life, by delaying the onset of chronic disease and extending active lifespan. Smoking, alcohol consumption, diet, gaps in primary care services and low screening uptake are all significant determinants of poor health, and changing such behaviors should lead to improved health.
For example, in US, Healthy People 2000, United States Department of Health and Human Services, lists increased physical activity, changes in nutrition and reductions in tobacco, alcohol and drug use as important for health promotion and disease prevention.
Treatment approach
Any interventions done are matched with the needs of each individual in an ethical and respected manner. Health belief model encourages increasing individuals' perceived susceptibility to negative health outcomes and making individuals aware of the severity of such negative health behavior outcomes. E.g. through health promotion messages. In addition, the health belief model suggests the need to focus on the benefits of health behaviors and the fact that barriers to action are easily overcome. The theory of planned behavior suggests using persuasive messages for tackling behavioral beliefs to increase the readiness to perform a behavior, called intentions. The theory of planned behavior advocates the need to tackle normative beliefs and control beliefs in any attempt to change behavior. Challenging the normative beliefs is not enough but to follow through the intention with self-efficacy from individual's mastery in problem solving and task completion is important to bring about a positive change. Self efficacy is often cemented through standard persuasive techniques.
See also
Applied behavior analysis
Behavioral cusp
Behavioral economics
Behavioral genetics
Behavioral sciences
Cognitive bias
Evolutionary physiology
Experimental analysis of behavior
Human sexual behavior
Herd behavior
Instinct
Mere-measurement effect
Motivation
Normality (behavior)
Organizational studies
Radical behaviorism
Reasoning
Rebellion
Social relation
Theories of political behavior
Work behavior
References
General
Cao, L. (2014). Behavior Informatics: A New Perspective. IEEE Intelligent Systems (Trends and Controversies), 29(4): 62–80.
Perner, L. (2008), Consumer behavior. University of Southern California, Marshall School of Business. Retrieved from http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/intro_Consumer_Behavior.html
Further reading
Bateson, P. (2017) behavior, Development and Evolution. Open Book Publishers, Cambridge. .
External links
What is behavior? Baby don't ask me, don't ask me, no more at Earthling Nature.
behaviorinformatics.org
Links to review articles by Eric Turkheimer and co-authors on behavior research
Links to IJCAI2013 tutorial on behavior informatics and computing
Category:Behavior
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior
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2025-04-05T18:26:58.786255
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4806
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Battle of Marathon
|
| result = Greek victory
| combatant1 =
| combatant2 = Achaemenid Empire
| commander1 =
* Aristides
* Xanthippos
* Themistokles
* Stesilaos
* Arimnestos
* Kynaigeiros
}}
| commander2 =
| strength1 = 10,000–11,000 men
| strength2 = }}
| casualties1 = Herodotus: 203 KIA
| casualties2 = Herodotus: 6,400 KIA<br>Other estimates:<br>4,000–5,000 killed
| map_type = Greece
| map_relief = yes
| map_size = 300
| map_marksize = 7
| map_caption = Location of the Battle of Marathon
| map_label =
}}
The Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC during the first Persian invasion of Greece. It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes. The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia under King Darius I to subjugate Greece. The Greek army inflicted a crushing defeat on the more numerous Persians, marking a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars.
The first Persian invasion was a response to Athenian involvement in the Ionian Revolt, when Athens and Eretria sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule. The Athenians and Eretrians had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis, but they were then forced to retreat with heavy losses. In response to this raid, Darius swore to burn down Athens and Eretria. According to Herodotus, Darius had his bow brought to him and then shot an arrow "upwards towards heaven", saying as he did so: "Zeus, that it may be granted me to take vengeance upon the Athenians!" Herodotus further writes that Darius charged one of his servants to say "Master, remember the Athenians" three times before dinner each day.
At the time of the battle, Sparta and Athens were the two largest city-states in Greece. Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC, Darius began plans to subjugate Greece. In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean, to subjugate the Cyclades, and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria. Reaching Euboea in mid-summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians proceeded to besiege and capture Eretria. The Persian force then sailed for Attica, landing in the bay near the town of Marathon. The Athenians, joined by a small force from Plataea, marched to Marathon, and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon. The Athenians also sent a message to the Spartans asking for support. When the messenger arrived in Sparta, the Spartans were involved in a religious festival and gave this as a reason for not coming to help the Athenians.
The Athenians and their allies chose a location for the battle, with marshes and mountainous terrain, that prevented the Persian cavalry from joining the Persian infantry. Miltiades, the Athenian general, ordered a general attack against the Persian forces, composed primarily of missile troops. He reinforced his flanks, luring the Persians' best fighters into his center. The inward wheeling flanks enveloped the Persians, routing them. The Persian army broke in panic towards their ships, and large numbers were slaughtered. The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece, and the Persian force retreated to Asia. Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. After Darius died, his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece, which finally began in 480 BC.
The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to have begun at Marathon. The battle also showed the Greeks that they were able to win battles without the Spartans, as Sparta was seen as the major military force in Greece. This victory was overwhelmingly won by the Athenians, and Marathon raised Greek esteem of them. The following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been enduringly influential in Western society, and so the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in Mediterranean and European history, and is often celebrated today.
Background
The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt, the earliest phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. However, it was also the result of the longer-term interaction between the Greeks and Persians. In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic, but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples. Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean, and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt.
The Ionian Revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos, a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras. In the aftermath, Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power, but before he could do so, Aristagoras abdicated, and declared Miletus a democracy. Aristagoras then appealed to the states of mainland Greece for support, but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops.
The involvement of Athens in the Ionian Revolt arose from a complex set of circumstances, beginning with the establishment of the Athenian Democracy in the late 6th century BC. With Hippias's father Peisistratus, the family had ruled for 36 out of the previous 50 years and fully intended to continue Hippias's rule. In the meantime, Cleomenes helped install a pro-Spartan tyranny under Isagoras in Athens, in opposition to Cleisthenes, the leader of the traditionally powerful Alcmaeonidae family, who considered themselves the natural heirs to the rule of Athens. Cleisthenes, however, found himself being politically defeated by a coalition led by Isagoras and decided to change the rules of the game by appealing to the demos (the people), in effect making them a new faction in the political arena. This tactic succeeded, but the Spartan King, Cleomenes I, returned at the request of Isagoras and so Cleisthenes, the Alcmaeonids and other prominent Athenian families were exiled from Athens. When Isagoras attempted to create a narrow oligarchic government, the Athenian people, in a spontaneous and unprecedented move, expelled Cleomenes and Isagoras. Cleisthenes was thus restored to Athens (507 BC), and at breakneck speed began to reform the state with the aim of securing his position. The result was not actually a democracy or a real civic state, but he enabled the development of a fully democratic government, which would emerge in the next generation as the demos realized its power. The new-found freedom and self-governance of the Athenians meant that they were thereafter exceptionally hostile to the return of the tyranny of Hippias, or any form of outside subjugation, by Sparta, Persia, or anyone else. Cleomenes's attempts to restore Isagoras to Athens ended in a debacle, but fearing the worst, the Athenians had by this point already sent an embassy to Artaphernes in Sardis, to request aid from the Persian empire. Artaphernes requested that the Athenians give him an 'earth and water', a traditional token of submission, to which the Athenian ambassadors acquiesced. The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action, but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant. Whilst there, the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes, marching to Sardis and burning the lower city. This was, however, as much as the Greeks achieved, and they were then repelled and pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen, losing many men in the process. Despite the fact that their actions were ultimately fruitless, the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius's lasting enmity, and he vowed to punish both cities. The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade (494 BC) all but ended the Ionian Revolt, and by 493 BC, the last hold-outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet. The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire's border to the islands of the eastern Aegean and the Propontis, which had not been part of the Persian dominions before. The pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria.
In 492 BC, after the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed, Darius dispatched an expedition to Greece under the command of his son-in-law, Mardonius. Mardonius re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedonia fully subordinate to the Persians; it had been a vassal of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained its general autonomy. Not long after, however, his fleet was wrecked by a violent storm, which brought a premature end to the campaign.
However, in 490 BC, following the successes of the previous campaign, Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by Artaphernes (son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled) and Datis, a Median admiral. Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor. The expedition was intended to bring the Cyclades into the Persian empire, to punish Naxos (which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed. After island-hopping across the Aegean, including successfully attacking Naxos, the Persian force arrived off Euboea in mid summer. The Persians then proceeded to besiege, capture, and burn Eretria. They then headed south down the coast of Attica, to complete the final objective of the campaign—punish Athens. Prelude The Persians sailed down the coast of Attica, and landed at the bay of Marathon, about northeast of Athens, on the advice of the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias (who had accompanied the expedition). Under the guidance of Miltiades, the Athenian general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians, the Athenian army marched quickly to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon, and prevent the Persians moving inland. At the same time, Athens's greatest runner, Pheidippides (or Philippides in some accounts) had been sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to the aid of Athens. Pheidippides arrived during the festival of Carneia, a sacrosanct period of peace, and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days. The Athenians would have to hold out at Marathon for the time being, although they were reinforced by the full muster of 1,000 hoplites from the small city of Plataea, a gesture which did much to steady the nerves of the Athenians Since every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer, the delay worked in favor of the Athenians. In addition, in overall charge, was the War-Archon (polemarch), Callimachus, who had been elected by the whole citizen body. Herodotus suggests that command rotated between the strategoi, each taking in turn a day to command the army. He further suggests that each strategos, on his day in command, instead deferred to Miltiades. There does, however, seem to have been a delay between the Athenian arrival at Marathon and the battle; Herodotus, who evidently believed that Miltiades was eager to attack, may have made a mistake while seeking to explain this delay. This then raises the question of why the battle occurred when it did. Herodotus explicitly tells us that the Greeks attacked the Persians (and the other sources confirm this), but it is not clear why they did this before the arrival of the Spartans.</blockquote> There are many variations of this theory, but perhaps the most prevalent is that the cavalry were completing the time-consuming process of re-embarking on the ships, and were to be sent by sea to attack (undefended) Athens in the rear, whilst the rest of the Persians pinned down the Athenian army at Marathon. Thus, this re-embarcation would have occurred before the battle (and indeed have triggered the battle). Opposing forces Athenians Herodotus does not give a figure for the size of the Athenian army. However, Cornelius Nepos, Pausanias and Plutarch all give the figure of 9,000 Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans; while Justin suggests that there were 10,000 Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans. These numbers are highly comparable to the number of troops Herodotus says that the Athenians and Plataeans sent to the Battle of Plataea 11 years later. Pausanias noticed on the monument to the battle the names of former slaves who were freed in exchange for military services. Modern historians generally accept these numbers as reasonable. The areas ruled by Athens (Attica) had a population of 315,000 at this time including slaves, which implies the full Athenian army at the times of both Marathon and Plataea numbered about 3% of the population.
Persians
at Naqsh-e Rostam, with a mention of each ethnicity in individual labels.<br>Identical depictions were made on the tombs of other Achaemenid emperors, the best preserved frieze being that of Xerxes I.]]
According to Herodotus, the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes. Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army, only saying that they were a "large infantry that was well packed". Among ancient sources, the poet Simonides, another near-contemporary, says the campaign force numbered 200,000; while a later writer, the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, of which only 100,000 fought in the battle, while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion; Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300,000, as does the Suda dictionary. Plato and Lysias give 500,000; and Justinus 600,000.
Modern historians have proposed wide-ranging numbers for the infantry, from 20,000 to 100,000 with a consensus of perhaps 25,000; estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1,000.
The fleet included various contingents from different parts of the Achaemenid Empire, particularly Ionians and Aeolians, although they are not mentioned as participating directly to the battle and may have remained on the ships:
Regarding the ethnicities involved in the battle, Herodotus specifically mentions the presence of the Persians and the Sakae at the center of the Achaemenid line:
Strategic and tactical considerations
), shown in a frieze in Darius's palace, Susa in Persia (which is today Iran)]]
From a strategic point of view, the Athenians had some disadvantages at Marathon. In order to face the Persians in battle, the Athenians had to summon all available hoplites;) Since the Athenians seem to have taken up a strong defensive position at Marathon, the Persian hesitance was probably a reluctance to attack the Athenians head-on.
Whatever event eventually triggered the battle, it obviously altered the strategic or tactical balance sufficiently to induce the Athenians to attack the Persians. If the first theory is correct (see above), then the absence of cavalry removed the main Athenian tactical disadvantage, and the threat of being outflanked made it imperative to attack. the strength of the hoplite was in the melee, and the sooner that could be brought about, the better, from the Athenian point of view. Miltiades ordered the two tribes forming the center of the Greek formation, the Leontis tribe led by Themistocles and the Antiochis tribe led by Aristides, to be arranged in the depth of four ranks while the rest of the tribes at their flanks were in ranks of eight. Some modern commentators have suggested this was a deliberate ploy to encourage a double envelopment of the Persian centre. However, this suggests a level of training that the Greeks are thought not to have possessed. There is little evidence for any such tactical thinking in Greek battles until Leuctra in 371 BC. It is therefore possible that this arrangement was made, perhaps at the last moment, so that the Athenian line was as long as the Persian line, and would not therefore be outflanked.
Second phase: the Greeks attack and the lines make contact
, 1859.|left]]
When the Athenian line was ready, according to one source, the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades: "At them". More likely, they marched until they reached the limit of the archers' effectiveness, the "beaten zone" (roughly 200 meters), and then broke into a run towards their enemy. Indeed, based on their previous experience of the Greeks, the Persians might be excused for this; Herodotus tells us that the Athenians at Marathon were "first to endure looking at Median dress and men wearing it, for up until then just hearing the name of the Medes caused the Hellenes to panic". Some, unaware of the local terrain, ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned. The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships, and managed to capture seven ships, though the majority were able to launch successfully. Herodotus recounts the story that Cynaegirus, brother of the playwright Aeschylus, who was also among the fighters, charged into the sea, grabbed one Persian trireme, and started pulling it towards shore. A member of the crew saw him, cut off his hand, and Cynaegirus died. He also reported that the Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11. not as a result of a tactical planning. It seems that the Persian centre tried to return, realizing that their wings had broken, and was caught in the flanks by the victorious Greek wings. Lazenby (1993) believes that the ultimate reason for the Greek success was the courage the Greeks displayed:
<blockquote> Marathon was won because ordinary, amateur soldiers found the courage to break into a trot when the arrows began to fall, instead of grinding to a halt, and when surprisingly the enemy wings fled, not to take the easy way out and follow them, but to stop and somehow come to the aid of the hard pressured centre.</blockquote>
According to Vic Hurley, the Persian defeat is explained by the "complete failure ... to field a representative army", calling the battle the "most convincing" example of the fact that infantry-bowmen cannot defend any position while stationed in close-quarters and unsupported (i.e. by fortifications, or failing to support them by cavalry and chariots, as was the common Persian tactic).
(reconstitution)]]
Aftermath
In the immediate aftermath of the battle, Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly.
The two tribes which had been in the centre of the Athenian line stayed to guard the battlefield under the command of Aristides. The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing, and seeing that the opportunity was lost, the Persians turned about and returned to Asia. On the next day, the Spartan army arrived at Marathon, having covered the in only three days. The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory.
The Athenian and Plataean dead of Marathon were buried on the battlefield in two tumuli. On the tomb of the Athenians this epigram composed by Simonides was written:
Fighting at the forefront of the Greeks, the Athenians at Marathon
laid low the army of the gilded Medes.}}
Meanwhile, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece. The epic second Persian invasion of Greece finally began in 480 BC, and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium. Defeat at the Battle of Salamis happened after Xerxes burnt Athens to the ground after Athenians left the city, and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea.
Significance
and the skull reportedly found inside it from the Battle of Marathon, now residing in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.]]
The defeat at Marathon barely touched the vast resources of the Persian empire, yet for the Greeks it was an enormously significant victory. It was the first time the Greeks had beaten the Persians, proving that the Persians were not invincible, and that resistance, rather than subjugation, was possible.
The battle was a defining moment for the young Athenian democracy, showing what might be achieved through unity and self-belief; indeed, the battle effectively marks the start of a "golden age" for Athens. This was also applicable to Greece as a whole; "their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries, during which Western culture was born". John Stuart Mill's famous opinion was that "the Battle of Marathon, even as an event in British history, is more important than the Battle of Hastings". According to Isaac Asimov, "if the Athenians had lost in Marathon, . . . Greece might have never gone to develop the peak of its civilization, a peak whose fruits we moderns have inherited."
It seems that the Athenian playwright Aeschylus considered his participation at Marathon to be his greatest achievement in life (rather than his plays) since on his gravestone there was the following epigram:
This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide,
Euphorion's son and fruitful Gela's pride.
How tried his valor, Marathon may tell,
And long-haired Medes, who knew it all too well.}}
Militarily, a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx. This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks; since each city-state fought in the same way, the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious. Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops, and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle. Sources
The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the "Father of History", was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his Enquiries (Greek – Historiai; English – (The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ended in 450 BC).
Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides. Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos), and may therefore have felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting. A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read. However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events. The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his Historiai, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.
The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's. The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias of Cnidus, and are alluded by other authors, such as the playwright Aeschylus. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims.
Legacy
Legends associated with the battle
, Capitoline Museum, Rome]]
The most famous legend associated with Marathon is that of the runner Pheidippides (or Philippides) bringing news to Athens of the battle, which is described below.
Pheidippides' run to Sparta to bring aid has other legends associated with it. Herodotus mentions that Pheidippides was visited by the god Pan on his way to Sparta (or perhaps on his return journey).
, erected in honor of the Battle of Marathon. Destroyed during the Achaemenid destruction of Athens. Acropolis Museum.]]
Similarly, after the victory the festival of the Agroteras Thysia ("sacrifice to the Agrotéra") was held at Agrae near Athens, in honor of Artemis Agrotera ("Artemis the Huntress"). This was in fulfillment of a vow made by the city before the battle, to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in the conflict. The number was so great, it was decided to offer 500 goats yearly until the number was filled. Xenophon notes that at his time, 90 years after the battle, goats were still offered yearly.
Plutarch mentions that the Athenians saw the phantom of King Theseus, the mythical hero of Athens, leading the army in full battle gear in the charge against the Persians, and indeed he was depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile fighting for the Athenians, along with the twelve Olympian gods and other heroes. Pausanias also tells us that: <blockquote>They say too that there chanced to be present in the battle a man of rustic appearance and dress. Having slaughtered many of the foreigners with a plough he was seen no more after the engagement. When the Athenians made enquiries at the oracle, the god merely ordered them to honor Echetlaeus ("he of the Plough-tail") as a hero.
Marathon run
's painting depicting the runner announcing the victory at the Battle of Marathon to the people of Athens.]]
According to Herodotus, an Athenian runner named Pheidippides was sent to run from Athens to Sparta to ask for assistance before the battle. He ran a distance of over 225 kilometers (140 miles), arriving in Sparta the day after he left. Then, following the battle, the Athenian army marched the 40 kilometers (25 miles) or so back to Athens at a very high pace (considering the quantity of armour, and the fatigue after the battle), in order to head off the Persian force sailing around Cape Sounion. They arrived back in the late afternoon, in time to see the Persian ships turn away from Athens, thus completing the Athenian victory.
Later, in popular imagination, these two events were conflated, leading to a legendary but inaccurate version of events. This myth has Pheidippides running from Marathon to Athens after the battle, to announce the Greek victory with the word "nenikēkamen!" (Attic: ; we've won!), whereupon he promptly died of exhaustion. This story first appears in Plutarch's On the Glory of Athens in the 1st century AD, who quotes from Heracleides of Pontus's lost work, giving the runner's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles. Lucian of Samosata (2nd century AD) gives the same story but names the runner Philippides (not Pheidippides). In some medieval codices of Herodotus, the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta before the battle is given as Philippides, and this name is also preferred in a few modern editions.
When the idea of a modern Olympics became a reality at the end of the 19th century, the initiators and organizers were looking for a great popularizing event, recalling the ancient glory of Greece. This would echo the legendary version of events, with the competitors running from Marathon to Athens. So popular was this event that it quickly caught on, becoming a fixture at the Olympic games, with major cities staging their own annual events.<ref name AIMS/> The distance eventually became fixed at , though for the first years it was variable, being around —the approximate distance from Marathon to Athens.<ref name = "AIMS"/>
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Later depictions
The Battle of Marathon was briefly depicted in the opening scenes of the movie 300: Rise of an Empire (2014).
--->
See also
* Ancient Greek warfare
* Timeline of ancient Greece
* Nike of Marathon
Notes
References
Ancient sources
* Herodotus, The Histories
* Thucydides, History of The Peloponnesian Wars
* Diodorus Siculus, Library
* Lysias, Funeral Oration
* Plato, Menexenus
* Xenophon Anabasis
* Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution
* Aristophanes, The Knights
* Cornelius Nepos Lives of the Eminent Commanders (Miltiades)
* Plutarch Parallel Lives (Aristides, Themistocles, Theseus), On the Malice of Herodotus
* Lucian, Mistakes in Greeting
* Pausanias, Description of Greece
* Claudius Aelianus Various history & On the Nature of Animals
* Marcus Junianus Justinus Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus
* Photius, Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon: Epitome of Persica by Ctesias
* Suda Dictionary
Modern studies
* Hans W. Giessen, Mythos Marathon. Von Herodot über Bréal bis zur Gegenwart. Verlag Empirische Pädagogik, Landau (= Landauer Schriften zur Kommunikations- und Kulturwissenschaft. Band 17) 2010. .
*
*
* Lacey, Jim. The First Clash: The Miraculous Greek Victory at Marathon and Its Impact on Western Civilization (2011), popular
* Lagos, Constantinos. Karyanos Fotis, ''Who Really Won the Battle of Marathon? A Bold Re-Appraisal of One of History's Most Famous Battles, Pen and Sword, Barnsley, 2020, ()
* Lazenby, J.F. The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 ()
* Lloyd, Alan. Marathon: The Crucial Battle That Created Western Democracy. Souvenir Press, 2004. ()
* Davis, Paul. 100 Decisive Battles. Oxford University Press, 1999.
* Powell J., Blakeley D.W., Powell, T. Biographical Dictionary of Literary Influences: The Nineteenth Century, 1800–1914. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001.
* Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World. Funk & Wagnalls, 1954.
* Fehling, D. Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.
*
* D.W. Olson et al., [https://archive.today/20120604173137/http://skytonight.com/about/pressreleases/3309276.html "The Moon and the Marathon"], Sky & Telescope Sep. 2004
* Krentz, Peter. The Battle of Marathon.'' Yale University Press, 2010
*
*
*
Historiography
* Fink, Dennis L. The Battle of Marathon in Scholarship: Research, Theories and Controversies since 1850 (McFarland, 2014). 240 pp. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id43354 online review] External links
* [http://www.historynotes.info/the-importance-of-the-battle-of-marathon-1115/ The Importance of the Battle of Marathon] on The History Notes website
* [http://www.losttrails.com/pages/Hproject/Marathon/Marathon.html Black-and-white photo-essay of Marathon]
*
* Hood, E. [http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Greek+Victory+at+Marathon The Greek Victory at Marathon] , Clio History Journal, 1995.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100813093010/http://www.e-marathon.gr/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id48&Itemid54 Battle of Marathon] by e-marathon.gr
* [http://www.army.gr/files/File/pdf/maxh_tou_Marathona.pdf The Battle of Marathon September 490 BC]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150923173917/http://www.army.gr/files/File/History_En/Events/The%20Battle%20Of%20Marathon.pdf The Battle of Marathon September 490 BC], by Major General Dimitris Gedeon, HEAR
*
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lTMYQVhf5Fo Digital representation of the Battle of Marathon 490 BC]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6nnUKsaOFI Marathon, the beginning of history] A documentary from ET1, 2011
* Doenges, N.A. "The Campaign and Battle of Marathon." Historia vol. 47 (1998): 1–17.
Category:490s BC conflicts
Category:Battles involving ancient Athens
Category:Last stands
Category:Battles involving the Achaemenid Empire
Category:Amphibious operations
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Balance of trade
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thumb|upright=1.8|Cumulative current account balance 1980–2008 based on International Monetary Fund data
thumb|upright=1.8|Cumulative current account balance per capita 1980–2008 based on International Monetary Fund data
Balance of trade is the difference between the monetary value of a nation's exports and imports of goods over a certain time period. Sometimes services are also considered but the official IMF definition only considers goods. The balance of trade measures a flow variable of exports and imports over a given period of time. The notion of the balance of trade does not mean that exports and imports are "in balance" with each other.
If a country exports a greater value than it imports, it has a trade surplus or positive trade balance, and conversely, if a country imports a greater value than it exports, it has a trade deficit or negative trade balance. As of 2016, about 60 out of 200 countries have a trade surplus. The notion that bilateral trade deficits are per se detrimental to the respective national economies is overwhelmingly rejected by trade experts and economists.
Explanation
thumb|Balance of trade in goods and services (Eurozone countries)
thumb|US trade balance from 1960
thumb|U.S. trade balance and trade policy (1895–2015)
thumb|U.K. balance of trade in goods (since 1870)
The balance of trade forms part of the current account, which includes other transactions such as income from the net international investment position as well as international aid. If the current account is in surplus, the country's net international asset position increases correspondingly. Equally, a deficit decreases the net international asset position.
The trade balance is identical to the difference between a country's output and its domestic demand (the difference between what goods a country produces and how many goods it buys from abroad; this does not include money re-spent on foreign stock, nor does it factor in the concept of importing goods to produce for the domestic market).
Measuring the balance of trade can be problematic because of problems with recording and collecting data. As an illustration of this problem, when official data for all the world's countries are added up, exports exceed imports by almost 1%; it appears the world is running a positive balance of trade with itself. This cannot be true, because all transactions involve an equal credit or debit in the account of each nation. The discrepancy is widely believed to be explained by transactions intended to launder money or evade taxes, smuggling and other visibility problems. While the accuracy of developing countries' statistics would be suspicious, most of the discrepancy actually occurs between developed countries of trusted statistics.
Factors that can affect the balance of trade include:
The cost of production (land, labor, capital, taxes, incentives, etc.) in the exporting economy vis-à-vis those in the importing economy;
The cost and availability of raw materials, intermediate goods and other inputs;
Currency exchange rate movements;
Multilateral, bilateral and unilateral taxes or restrictions on trade;
Non-tariff barriers such as environmental, health or safety standards;
The availability of adequate foreign exchange with which to pay for imports; and
Prices of goods manufactured at home (influenced by the responsiveness of supply)
In addition, the trade balance is likely to differ across the business cycle. In export-led growth (such as oil and early industrial goods), the balance of trade will shift towards exports during an economic expansion. However, with domestic demand-led growth (as in the United States and Australia) the trade balance will shift towards imports at the same stage in the business cycle.
The monetary balance of trade is different from the physical balance of trade (which is expressed in amount of raw materials, known also as Total Material Consumption). Developed countries usually import a substantial amount of raw materials from developing countries. Typically, these imported materials are transformed into finished products and might be exported after adding value. Financial trade balance statistics conceal material flow. Most developed countries have a large physical trade deficit because they consume more raw materials than they produce.
Examples
Historical example
Many countries in early modern Europe adopted a policy of mercantilism, which theorized that a trade surplus was beneficial to a country. Mercantilist ideas also influenced how European nations regulated trade policies with their colonies, promoting the idea that natural resources and cash crops should be exported to Europe, with processed goods being exported back to the colonies in return. Ideas such as bullionism spurred the popularity of mercantilism in European governments.
thumb|Merchandise exports (1870–1992)
thumb|Trade policy, exports and growth in selected European countries
An early statement concerning the balance of trade appeared in Discourse of the Common Wealth of this Realm of England, 1549: "We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them." Similarly, a systematic and coherent explanation of balance of trade was made public through Thomas Mun's 1630 "England's treasure by foreign trade, or, The balance of our foreign trade is the rule of our treasure".
Since the mid-1980s, the United States has had a growing deficit in tradeable goods, especially with Asian nations (China and Japan) which now hold large sums of U.S. debt that has in part funded the consumption. The U.S. has a trade surplus with nations such as Australia. The issue of trade deficits can be complex. Trade deficits generated in tradeable goods such as manufactured goods or software may impact domestic employment to different degrees than do trade deficits in raw materials. Russia pursues a policy based on protectionism, according to which international trade is not a "win-win" game but a zero-sum game: surplus countries get richer at the expense of deficit countries.
Views on economic impact
The notion that bilateral trade deficits are bad in and of themselves is overwhelmingly rejected by trade experts and economists. On the other hand, Joseph Stiglitz points out that countries running surpluses exert a "negative externality" on trading partners, and pose a threat to global prosperity, far more than those in deficit. Ben Bernanke argues that "persistent imbalances within the euro zone are... unhealthy, as they lead to financial imbalances as well as to unbalanced growth. The fact that Germany is selling so much more than it is buying redirects demand from its neighbors (as well as from other countries around the world), reducing output and employment outside Germany." According to Carla Norrlöf, there are three main benefits to trade deficits for the United States:
Greater consumption than production: the US enjoys the better side of the bargain by being able to consume more than it produces
Usage of efficiently produced foreign-made intermediate goods is productivity-enhancing for US firms: the US makes the most effective use of the global division of labor
A large market that other countries are reliant on for exports enhances American bargaining power in trade negotiations
A 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper by economists at the International Monetary Fund and University of California, Berkeley, found in a study of 151 countries over 1963-2014 that the imposition of tariffs had little effect on the trade balance.
Classical theory
Adam Smith on the balance of trade
Keynesian theory
In the last few years of his life, John Maynard Keynes was much preoccupied with the question of balance in international trade. He was the leader of the British delegation to the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in 1944 that established the Bretton Woods system of international currency management.
He was the principal author of a proposal – the so-called Keynes Plan – for an International Clearing Union. The two governing principles of the plan were that the problem of settling outstanding balances should be solved by 'creating' additional 'international money', and that debtor and creditor should be treated almost alike as disturbers of equilibrium. In the event, though, the plans were rejected, in part because "American opinion was naturally reluctant to accept the principle of equality of treatment so novel in debtor-creditor relationships".
The new system is not founded on free-trade (liberalisation of foreign trade) but rather on the regulation of international trade, in order to eliminate trade imbalances: the nations with a surplus would have a powerful incentive to get rid of it, and in doing so they would automatically clear other nations' deficits. He proposed a global bank that would issue its own currency – the bancor – which was exchangeable with national currencies at fixed rates of exchange and would become the unit of account between nations, which means it would be used to measure a country's trade deficit or trade surplus. Every country would have an overdraft facility in its bancor account at the International Clearing Union. He pointed out that surpluses lead to weak global aggregate demand – countries running surpluses exert a "negative externality" on trading partners, and posed far more than those in deficit, a threat to global prosperity.
In "National Self-Sufficiency" The Yale Review, Vol. 22, no. 4 (June 1933), he already highlighted the problems created by free trade.
His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance. Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences. In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of The Economist, "If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos."
These ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when – in the opinion of Keynes and others – international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.
Influenced by Keynes, economics texts in the immediate post-war period put a significant emphasis on balance in trade. For example, the second edition of the popular introductory textbook, An Outline of Money, devoted the last three of its ten chapters to questions of foreign exchange management and in particular the 'problem of balance'. However, in more recent years, since the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, with the increasing influence of monetarist schools of thought in the 1980s, and particularly in the face of large sustained trade imbalances, these concerns – and particularly concerns about the destabilising effects of large trade surpluses – have largely disappeared from mainstream economics discourse and Keynes' insights have slipped from view.
Monetarist theory
Prior to 20th-century monetarist theory, the 19th-century economist and philosopher Frédéric Bastiat expressed the idea that trade deficits actually were a manifestation of profit, rather than a loss. He proposed as an example to suppose that he, a Frenchman, exported French wine and imported British coal, turning a profit. He supposed he was in France and sent a cask of wine which was worth 50 francs to England. The customhouse would record an export of 50 francs. If in England, the wine sold for 70 francs (or the pound equivalent), which he then used to buy coal, which he imported into France (the customhouse would record an import of 70 francs), and was found to be worth 90 francs in France, he would have made a profit of 40 francs. But the customhouse would say that the value of imports exceeded that of exports and was trade deficit of 20 against the ledger of France.This is not true for the current account that would be in surplus.
By reductio ad absurdum, Bastiat argued that the national trade deficit was an indicator of a successful economy, rather than a failing one. Bastiat predicted that a successful, growing economy would result in greater trade deficits, and an unsuccessful, shrinking economy would result in lower trade deficits. This was later, in the 20th century, echoed by economist Milton Friedman.
In the 1980s, Friedman, a Nobel Memorial Prize-winning economist and a proponent of monetarism, contended that some of the concerns of trade deficits are unfair criticisms in an attempt to push macroeconomic policies favorable to exporting industries.
Friedman argued that trade deficits are not necessarily important, as high exports raise the value of the currency, reducing aforementioned exports, and vice versa for imports, thus naturally removing trade deficits not due to investment. Since 1971, when the Nixon administration decided to abolish fixed exchange rates, America's Current Account accumulated trade deficits have totaled $7.75 trillion as of 2010. This deficit exists as it is matched by investment coming into the United States – purely by the definition of the balance of payments, any current account deficit that exists is matched by an inflow of foreign investment.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. had experienced high inflation and Friedman's policy positions tended to defend the stronger dollar at that time. He stated his belief that these trade deficits were not necessarily harmful to the economy at the time since the currency comes back to the country (country A sells to country B, country B sells to country C who buys from country A, but the trade deficit only includes A and B). However, it may be in one form or another including the possible tradeoff of foreign control of assets. In his view, the "worst-case scenario" of the currency never returning to the country of origin was actually the best possible outcome: the country actually purchased its goods by exchanging them for pieces of cheaply made paper. As Friedman put it, this would be the same result as if the exporting country burned the dollars it earned, never returning it to market circulation.
This position is a more refined version of the theorem first discovered by David Hume. Hume argued that England could not permanently gain from exports, because hoarding gold (i.e., currency) would make gold more plentiful in England; therefore, the prices of English goods would rise, making them less attractive exports and making foreign goods more attractive imports. In this way, countries' trade balances would balance out.
Friedman presented his analysis of the balance of trade in Free to Choose, widely considered his most significant popular work.
Trade balance’s effects upon a nation's GDP
Exports directly increase and imports directly reduce a nation's balance of trade (i.e. net exports). A trade surplus is a positive net balance of trade, and a trade deficit is a negative net balance of trade. Due to the balance of trade being explicitly added to the calculation of the nation's gross domestic product using the expenditure method of calculating gross domestic product (i.e. GDP), trade surpluses are contributions and trade deficits are "drags" upon their nation's GDP; however, foreign made goods sold (e.g., retail) contribute to total GDP.
Balance of trade vs. balance of payments
Balance of trade Balance of payments Includes only visible imports and exports, i.e. imports and exports of merchandise. The difference between exports and imports is called the balance of trade. If imports are greater than exports, it is sometimes called an unfavourable balance of trade. If exports exceed imports, it is sometimes called a favourable balance of trade. Includes all those visible and invisible items exported from and imported into the country in addition to exports and imports of merchandise. Includes revenues received or paid on account of imports and exports of merchandise. It shows only revenue items. Includes all revenue and capital items whether visible or non-visible. The balance of trade thus forms a part of the balance of payments.
See also
List of countries by net exports
Dutch disease
Government budget balance
Transfer problem
References
Category:Balance of payments
Category:International trade theory
Category:International trade
Category:International macroeconomics
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Biosphere
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composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 2001 to August 2017. Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE.]]
The biosphere ( ()|life|| ()|sphere}}), also called the ecosphere ( ()|settlement, house|| ()|sphere}}), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on the Earth. The biosphere (which is technically a spherical shell) is virtually a closed system with regard to matter, with minimal inputs and outputs. Regarding energy, it is an open system, with photosynthesis capturing solar energy at a rate of around 100 terawatts. By the most general biophysiological definition, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process of biopoiesis (life created naturally from matter, such as simple organic compounds) or biogenesis (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago.
In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems. This includes artificial biospheres such as and , and potentially ones on other planets or moons.
Origin and use of the term
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scene on Earth, simultaneously showing the lithosphere (ground), hydrosphere (ocean) and atmosphere (air)]]
The term "biosphere" was coined in 1875 by geologist Eduard Suess, who defined it as the place on Earth's surface where life dwells.
While the concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the effect of both Charles Darwin and Matthew F. Maury on the Earth sciences. The biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s (see Vladimir I. Vernadsky), preceding the 1935 introduction of the term "ecosystem" by Sir Arthur Tansley (see ecology history). Vernadsky defined ecology as the science of the biosphere. It is an interdisciplinary concept for integrating astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, biogeography, evolution, geology, geochemistry, hydrology and, generally speaking, all life and Earth sciences.
Narrow definition
Geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the "biomass" or "biota" as referred to by biologists and ecologists). In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. When these four component spheres are combined into one system, it is known as the ecosphere. This term was coined during the 1960s and encompasses both biological and physical components of the planet.
The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined biospherics as the science and technology of analogs and models of Earth's biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres. Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres—for example, human-centered biospheres or a native Martian biosphere—as part of the topic of biospherics. Earth's biosphere Overview Currently, the total number of living cells on the Earth is estimated to be 10<sup>30</sup>; the total number since the beginning of Earth, as 10<sup>40</sup>, and the total number for the entire time of a habitable planet Earth as 10<sup>41</sup>. This is much larger than the total number of estimated stars (and Earth-like planets) in the observable universe as 10<sup>24</sup>, a number which is more than all the grains of beach sand on planet Earth; but less than the total number of atoms estimated in the observable universe as 10<sup>82</sup>; and the estimated total number of stars in an inflationary universe (observed and unobserved), as 10<sup>100</sup>.
Age
The earliest evidence for life on Earth includes biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks from Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone from Western Australia. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. In 2017, putative fossilized microorganisms (or microfossils) were announced to have been discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada that were as old as 4.28 billion years, the oldest record of life on earth, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" after ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago. According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe." Marine life under many forms has been found in the deepest reaches of the world ocean while much of the deep sea remains to be explored.
Under certain test conditions, microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space. The total amount of soil and subsurface bacterial carbon is estimated as 5 × 10<sup>17</sup> g. Barophilic marine microbes have been found at more than a depth of in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans. In fact, single-celled life forms have been found in the deepest part of the Mariana Trench, by the Challenger Deep, at depths of . Other researchers reported related studies that microorganisms thrive inside rocks up to below the sea floor under of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States, as well as beneath the seabed off Japan. Culturable thermophilic microbes have been extracted from cores drilled more than into the Earth's crust in Sweden, from rocks between . Temperature increases with increasing depth into the Earth's crust. The rate at which the temperature increases depends on many factors, including the type of crust (continental vs. oceanic), rock type, geographic location, etc. The greatest known temperature at which microbial life can exist is (Methanopyrus kandleri Strain 116). It is likely that the limit of life in the "deep biosphere" is defined by temperature rather than absolute depth. On 20 August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living below the ice of Antarctica.
Earth's biosphere is divided into several biomes, inhabited by fairly similar flora and fauna. On land, biomes are separated primarily by latitude. Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles are relatively barren of plant and animal life. In contrast, most of the more populous biomes lie near the equator. <!---Terrestrial organisms in temperate and Arctic biomes have relatively small amounts of total biomass, smaller energy requirements, and display prominent adaptations to cold, including world-spanning migrations, social adaptations, homeothermy, estivation and multiple layers of insulation.--->
Annual variation
Artificial biospheres
Experimental biospheres, also called closed ecological systems, have been created to study ecosystems and the potential for supporting life outside the Earth. These include spacecraft and the following terrestrial laboratories:
* Biosphere 2 in Arizona, United States, 3.15 acres (13,000 m<sup>2</sup>).
* BIOS-1, BIOS-2 and BIOS-3 at the Institute of Biophysics in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, in what was then the Soviet Union.
* Biosphere J (CEEF, Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities), an experiment in Japan.
* Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative (MELiSSA) at Autonomous University of Barcelona
Extraterrestrial biospheres
No biospheres have been detected beyond the Earth; therefore, the existence of extraterrestrial biospheres remains hypothetical. The rare Earth hypothesis suggests they should be very rare, save ones composed of microbial life only. On the other hand, Earth analogs may be quite numerous, at least in the Milky Way galaxy, given the large number of planets. Three of the planets discovered orbiting TRAPPIST-1 could possibly contain biospheres. Given limited understanding of abiogenesis, it is currently unknown what percentage of these planets actually develop biospheres.
Based on observations by the Kepler Space Telescope team, it has been calculated that provided the probability of abiogenesis is higher than 1 to 1000, the closest alien biosphere should be within 100 light-years from the Earth.
It is also possible that artificial biospheres will be created in the future, for example with the terraforming of Mars. See also
* Biosphere model
* Climate system
* Cryosphere
* Habitable zone
* Homeostasis
* Life-support system
* Man and the Biosphere Programme
* Montreal Biosphere
* Noosphere
* Rare biosphere
* Shadow biosphere
* Soil biomantle
* Thomas Gold
* Wardian case
* Winogradsky column
References
Further reading
* The Biosphere (A Scientific American Book), San Francisco, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1970, . This book, originally the December 1970 Scientific American issue, covers virtually every major concern and concept since debated regarding materials and energy resources (including solar energy), population trends, and environmental degradation (including global warming).
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080623204421/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Biosphere Article on the Biosphere at Encyclopedia of Earth]
* [http://www.globio.info/ GLOBIO.info], an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the biosphere
* [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/111 Paul Crutzen Interview], freeview video of Paul Crutzen Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the Vega Science Trust.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110709103140/http://www.sage.wisc.edu/atlas/ Atlas of the Biosphere]
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Biological membrane
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thumb|200px|right|Cross-sectional view of the structures that can be formed by phospholipids in an aqueous solution
A biological membrane, biomembrane or cell membrane is a selectively permeable membrane that separates the interior of a cell from the external environment or creates intracellular compartments by serving as a boundary between one part of the cell and another. Biological membranes, in the form of eukaryotic cell membranes, consist of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded, integral and peripheral proteins used in communication and transportation of chemicals and ions. The bulk of lipids in a cell membrane provides a fluid matrix for proteins to rotate and laterally diffuse for physiological functioning. Proteins are adapted to high membrane fluidity environment of the lipid bilayer with the presence of an annular lipid shell, consisting of lipid molecules bound tightly to the surface of integral membrane proteins. The cell membranes are different from the isolating tissues formed by layers of cells, such as mucous membranes, basement membranes, and serous membranes.
Composition
Asymmetry
thumb|438x438px|A fluid membrane model of the phospholipid bilayer.
The lipid bilayer consists of two layers- an outer leaflet and an inner leaflet. The components of bilayers are distributed unequally between the two surfaces to create asymmetry between the outer and inner surfaces. This asymmetric organization is important for cell functions such as cell signaling. The asymmetry of the biological membrane reflects the different functions of the two leaflets of the membrane. As seen in the fluid membrane model of the phospholipid bilayer, the outer leaflet and inner leaflet of the membrane are asymmetrical in their composition. Certain proteins and lipids rest only on one surface of the membrane and not the other.
Both the plasma membrane and internal membranes have cytosolic and exoplasmic faces.
This orientation is maintained during membrane trafficking – proteins, lipids, glycoconjugates facing the lumen of the ER and Golgi get expressed on the extracellular side of the plasma membrane. In eukaryotic cells, new phospholipids are manufactured by enzymes bound to the part of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane that faces the cytosol. The hydrophobic tails are hydrocarbon tails whose length and saturation is important in characterizing the cell. Lipid rafts occur when lipid species and proteins aggregate in domains in the membrane. These help organize membrane components into localized areas that are involved in specific processes, such as signal transduction.
Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, have a unique lipid composition. The bilayer of red blood cells is composed of cholesterol and phospholipids in equal proportions by weight. This is usually in the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. However, it is flipped to the outer membrane to be used during blood clotting. Glycolipids provide the most extreme example of asymmetry in the lipid bilayer.
Formation
The phospholipid bilayer is formed due to the aggregation of membrane lipids in aqueous solutions. The interactions of lipids, especially the hydrophobic tails, determine the lipid bilayer physical properties such as fluidity.
Membranes in cells typically define enclosed spaces or compartments in which cells may maintain a chemical or biochemical environment that differs from the outside. For example, the membrane around peroxisomes shields the rest of the cell from peroxides, chemicals that can be toxic to the cell, and the cell membrane separates a cell from its surrounding medium. Peroxisomes are one form of vacuole found in the cell that contain by-products of chemical reactions within the cell. Most organelles are defined by such membranes, and are called membrane-bound organelles.
Selective permeability
Probably the most important feature of a biomembrane is that it is a selectively permeable structure. This means that the size, charge, and other chemical properties of the atoms and molecules attempting to cross it will determine whether they succeed in doing so. Selective permeability is essential for effective separation of a cell or organelle from its surroundings. Biological membranes also have certain mechanical or elastic properties that allow them to change shape and move as required.
Generally, small hydrophobic molecules can readily cross phospholipid bilayers by simple diffusion.
Particles that are required for cellular function but are unable to diffuse freely across a membrane enter through a membrane transport protein or are taken in by means of endocytosis, where the membrane allows for a vacuole to join onto it and push its contents into the cell. Many types of specialized plasma membranes can separate cell from external environment: apical, basolateral, presynaptic and postsynaptic ones, membranes of flagella, cilia, microvillus, filopodia and lamellipodia, the sarcolemma of muscle cells, as well as specialized myelin and dendritic spine membranes of neurons. Plasma membranes can also form different types of "supramembrane" structures such as caveolae, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, desmosome, hemidesmosome, focal adhesion, and cell junctions. These types of membranes differ in lipid and protein composition.
Distinct types of membranes also create intracellular organelles: endosome; smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum; sarcoplasmic reticulum; Golgi apparatus; lysosome; mitochondrion (inner and outer membranes); nucleus (inner and outer membranes); peroxisome; vacuole; cytoplasmic granules; cell vesicles (phagosome, autophagosome, clathrin-coated vesicles, COPI-coated and COPII-coated vesicles) and secretory vesicles (including synaptosome, acrosomes, melanosomes, and chromaffin granules).
Different types of biological membranes have diverse lipid and protein compositions. The content of membranes defines their physical and biological properties. Some components of membranes play a key role in medicine, such as the efflux pumps that pump drugs out of a cell.
Fluidity
The hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer is constantly in motion because of rotations around the bonds of lipid tails. Hydrophobic tails of a bilayer bend and lock together. However, because of hydrogen bonding with water, the hydrophilic head groups exhibit less movement as their rotation and mobility are constrained. The transition temperature depends on such components of the lipid bilayer as the hydrocarbon chain length and the saturation of its fatty acids. Temperature-dependence fluidity constitutes an important physiological attribute for bacteria and cold-blooded organisms. These organisms maintain a constant fluidity by modifying membrane lipid fatty acid composition in accordance with differing temperatures.
For all cells, membrane fluidity is important for many reasons. It enables membrane proteins to diffuse rapidly in the plane of the bilayer and to interact with one another, as is crucial, for example, in cell signaling. It permits membrane lipids and proteins to diffuse from sites where they are inserted into the bilayer after their synthesis to other regions of the cell. It allows membranes to fuse with one another and mix their molecules, and it ensures that membrane molecules are distributed evenly between daughter cells when a cell divides. If biological membranes were not fluid, it is hard to imagine how cells could live, grow, and reproduce.
The fluidity property is at the center of the Helfrich model which allows for calculating the energy cost of an elastic deformation to the membrane.
See also
Collodion bag
Fluid mosaic model
Osmosis
Membrane biology
Soft matter
References
External links
membrane
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Balfour Declaration of 1926
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(front, centre) with his prime ministers at the 1926 Imperial Conference.<br />Standing (left to right): Monroe (Newfoundland), Coates (New Zealand), Bruce (Australia), Hertzog (South Africa), Cosgrave (Irish Free State).<br />Seated: Baldwin (United Kingdom), King George V, King (Canada).]]
The Balfour Declaration of 1926 was issued by the 1926 Imperial Conference of British Empire leaders in London. It was named after Arthur Balfour, who was Lord President of the Council. It declared the United Kingdom and the Dominions to be:
The Inter-Imperial Relations Committee, chaired by Balfour, drew up the document preparatory to its unanimous approval by the imperial prime ministers on 15 November 1926. It was first proposed by South African Prime Minister J. B. M. Hertzog and Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King.
The declaration accepted the growing political and diplomatic independence of the Dominions in the years after World War I. It also recommended that the governors-general, the representatives of the King in each dominion, should no longer also serve automatically as the representative of the British government in diplomatic relations between the countries. In following years, high commissioners were gradually appointed, whose duties were soon recognised to be virtually identical to those of an ambassador. The first such British high commissioner was appointed to Canada in 1928.
The conclusions of the Imperial Conference of 1926 were re-stated by the 1930 conference and incorporated in the Statute of Westminster of December 1931. In the statute, the British Parliament provided that it would not enact a law which applied to a Dominion as part of the law of that Dominion, unless the law expressly stated that the Dominion government had requested and consented to the enactment of that law.
References
Further reading
*
*
* External links
*[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/cth11_doc_1926.pdf Transcript of the Declaration]
Category:History of the Commonwealth of Nations
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Category:Monarchy in the Irish Free State
Category:Legal history of Canada
Category:1926 in London
Category:1926 in international relations
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Category:1926 documents
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Balfour Declaration
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| date_created
| location_of_document = British Library
| writer = Walter Rothschild, Arthur Balfour, Leo Amery, Lord Milner
| signers = Arthur James Balfour
| purpose = Confirming support from the British government for the establishment in Palestine of a "national home" for the Jewish people, with two conditions
| wikisource=Balfour Declaration
}}
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The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a small minority Jewish population. The declaration was contained in a letter dated 2November 1917 from the United Kingdom's Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. The text of the declaration was published in the press on 9November 1917.
Immediately following Britain's declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, it began to consider the future of Palestine. Within two months a memorandum was circulated to the War Cabinet by a Zionist member, Herbert Samuel, proposing the support of Zionist ambitions in order to enlist the support of Jews in the wider war. A committee was established in April 1915 by British prime minister H. H. Asquith to determine their policy towards the Ottoman Empire including Palestine. Asquith, who had favoured post-war reform of the Ottoman Empire, resigned in December 1916; his replacement David Lloyd George favoured partition of the Empire. The first negotiations between the British and the Zionists took place at a conference on 7 February 1917 that included Sir Mark Sykes and the Zionist leadership. Subsequent discussions led to Balfour's request, on 19 June, that Rothschild and Chaim Weizmann submit a draft of a public declaration. Further drafts were discussed by the British Cabinet during September and October, with input from Zionist and anti-Zionist Jews but with no representation from the local population in Palestine.
By late 1917, in the lead-up to the Balfour Declaration, the wider war had reached a stalemate, with two of Britain's allies not fully engaged: the United States had yet to suffer a casualty, and the Russians were in the midst of a revolution with Bolsheviks taking over the government. A stalemate in southern Palestine was broken by the Battle of Beersheba on 31 October 1917. The release of the final declaration was authorised on 31 October; the preceding Cabinet discussion had referenced perceived propaganda benefits amongst the worldwide Jewish community for the Allied war effort.
The opening words of the declaration represented the first public expression of support for Zionism by a major political power. The term "national home" had no precedent in international law, and was intentionally vague as to whether a Jewish state was contemplated. The intended boundaries of Palestine were not specified, and the British government later confirmed that the words "in Palestine" meant that the Jewish national home was not intended to cover all of Palestine. The second half of the declaration was added to satisfy opponents of the policy, who had claimed that it would otherwise prejudice the position of the local population of Palestine and encourage antisemitism worldwide by "stamping the Jews as strangers in their native lands". The declaration called for safeguarding the civil and religious rights for the Palestinian Arabs, who composed the vast majority of the local population, and also the rights and political status of the Jewish communities in other countries outside of Palestine. The British government acknowledged in 1939 that the local population's wishes and interests should have been taken into account, and recognised in 2017 that the declaration should have called for the protection of the Palestinian Arabs' political rights.
The declaration had many long-lasting consequences. It greatly increased popular support for Zionism within Jewish communities worldwide, and became a core component of the British Mandate for Palestine, the founding document of Mandatory Palestine. It indirectly led to the emergence of the State of Israel and is considered a principal cause of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict, often described as the world's most intractable. Controversy remains over a number of areas, such as whether the declaration contradicted earlier promises the British made to the Sharif of Mecca in the McMahon–Hussein correspondence.
Background
Early British support
(Hobart, Tasmania, Australia), in 1841]]
Early British political support for an increased Jewish presence in the region of Palestine was based upon geopolitical calculations.}} This support began in the early 1840s and was led by Lord Palmerston, following the occupation of Syria and Palestine by separatist Ottoman governor Muhammad Ali of Egypt. French influence had grown in Palestine and the wider Middle East, and its role as protector of the Catholic communities began to grow, just as Russian influence had grown as protector of the Eastern Orthodox in the same regions. This left Britain without a sphere of influence, and thus a need to find or create their own regional "protégés". These political considerations were supported by a sympathetic evangelical Christian sentiment towards the "restoration of the Jews" to Palestine among elements of the mid-19th-century British political elite – most notably Lord Shaftesbury.}} The British Foreign Office actively encouraged Jewish emigration to Palestine, exemplified by Charles Henry Churchill's 1841–1842 exhortations to Moses Montefiore, the leader of the British Jewish community.}}
Such efforts were premature, and did not succeed;}} only 24,000 Jews were living in Palestine on the eve of the emergence of Zionism within the world's Jewish communities in the last two decades of the 19th century. With the geopolitical shakeup occasioned by the outbreak of the First World War, the earlier calculations, which had lapsed for some time, led to a renewal of strategic assessments and political bargaining over the Middle and Far East. British anti-Semitism Although other factors played their part, Jonathan Schneer says that stereotypical thinking by British officials about Jews also played a role in the decision to issue the Declaration. Robert Cecil, Hugh O’Bierne and Sir Mark Sykes all held an unrealistic view of "world Jewry", the former writing "I do not think it is possible to exaggerate the international power of the Jews." Zionist representatives saw advantage in encouraging such views. James Renton concurs, writing that the British foreign policy elite, including Prime Minister David Lloyd George and Foreign Secretary A.J. Balfour, believed that Jews possessed real and significant power that could be of use to them in the war.
Early Zionism
Zionism arose in the late 19th century in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe.}}}} Romantic nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe had helped to set off the Haskalah, or "Jewish Enlightenment", creating a split in the Jewish community between those who saw Judaism as their religion and those who saw it as their ethnicity or nation. The 1881–1884 anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire encouraged the growth of the latter identity, resulting in the formation of the Hovevei Zion pioneer organizations, the publication of Leon Pinsker's Autoemancipation, and the first major wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine – retrospectively named the "First Aliyah".
" approved at the 1897 First Zionist Congress. The first line states: "Zionism seeks to establish a home (Heimstätte) for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law"]]
In 1896, Theodor Herzl, a Jewish journalist living in Austria-Hungary, published the foundational text of political Zionism, Der Judenstaat ("The Jews' State" or "The State of the Jews"), in which he asserted that the only solution to the "Jewish Question" in Europe, including growing anti-Semitism, was the establishment of a state for the Jews. A year later, Herzl founded the Zionist Organization, which at its first congress called for the establishment of "a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law". Proposed measures to attain that goal included the promotion of Jewish settlement there, the organisation of Jews in the diaspora, the strengthening of Jewish feeling and consciousness, and preparatory steps to attain necessary governmental grants. Herzl died in 1904, 44 years before the establishment of State of Israel, the Jewish state that he proposed, without having gained the political standing required to carry out his agenda.
Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann, later President of the World Zionist Organisation and first President of Israel, moved from Switzerland to the UK in 1904 and met Arthur Balfour – who had just launched his 1905–1906 election campaign after resigning as Prime Minister – in a session arranged by Charles Dreyfus, his Jewish constituency representative.}} Earlier that year, Balfour had successfully driven the Aliens Act through Parliament with impassioned speeches regarding the need to restrict the wave of immigration into Britain from Jews fleeing the Russian Empire. During this meeting, he asked what Weizmann's objections had been to the 1903 Uganda Scheme that Herzl had supported to provide a portion of British East Africa to the Jewish people as a homeland. The scheme, which had been proposed to Herzl by Joseph Chamberlain, Colonial Secretary in Balfour's Cabinet, following his trip to East Africa earlier in the year,}} had been subsequently voted down following Herzl's death by the Seventh Zionist Congress in 1905}} after two years of heated debate in the Zionist Organization. Weizmann responded that he believed the English are to London as the Jews are to Jerusalem.}}
In January 1914 Weizmann first met Baron Edmond de Rothschild, a member of the French branch of the Rothschild family and a leading proponent of the Zionist movement, in relation to a project to build a Hebrew university in Jerusalem. The Baron was not part of the World Zionist Organization, but had funded the Jewish agricultural colonies of the First Aliyah and transferred them to the Jewish Colonization Association in 1899. This connection was to bear fruit later that year when the Baron's son, James deRothschild, requested a meeting with Weizmann on 25November 1914, to enlist him in influencing those deemed to be receptive within the British government to the Zionist agenda in Palestine. Gutwein interpreted this discussion as follows: "James's recommendation that the Zionists should not stop at the demand for settlement of Jews in Palestine, but radicalize their demands for a Jewish state, reflected the political contrast between the reformists, who were prepared to support settlement of Jews in Palestine as part of the reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, and the radicals, who viewed a Jewish state as a means of partitioning it. Although James contended that the demand for a Jewish state would help in gaining the British statesmen's support, in view of Asquith's and Grey's opposition to this demand, it seems that the inaccuracy if not the misleading tenor of James's advice was meant to enlist Weizmann, and through him the Zionist movement, to assist the radicals and Lloyd George."}} Through James's wife Dorothy, Weizmann was to meet Rózsika Rothschild, who introduced him to the English branch of the familyin particular her husband Charles and his older brother Walter, a zoologist and former Member of Parliament (MP). Their father, Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild, head of the English branch of the family, had a guarded attitude towards Zionism, but he died in March 1915 and his title was inherited by Walter.
Prior to the declaration, about 8,000 of Britain's 300,000 Jews belonged to a Zionist organisation. Globally, as of 1913 – the latest known date prior to the declaration – the equivalent figure was approximately 1%. Ottoman Palestine
(ʾarḍ Filasṭīn, "Land of Palestine") extending vertically down the length of the Jordan River.
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The year 1916 marked four centuries since Palestine had become part of the Ottoman Empire, also known as the Turkish Empire. For most of this period, the Jewish population represented a small minority, approximately 3% of the total, with Muslims representing the largest segment of the population, and Christians the second.}}
Ottoman government in Constantinople began to apply restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine in late 1882, in response to the start of the First Aliyah earlier that year. Although this immigration was creating a certain amount of tension with the local population, mainly among the merchant and notable classes, in 1901 the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman central government) gave Jews the same rights as Arabs to buy land in Palestine and the percentage of Jews in the population rose to 7% by 1914. At the same time, with growing distrust of the Young Turks (Turkish nationalists who had taken control of the Empire in 1908) and the Second Aliyah, Arab nationalism and Palestinian nationalism was on the rise; and in Palestine anti-Zionism was a characteristic that unified these forces. Historians do not know whether these strengthening forces would still have ultimately resulted in conflict in the absence of the Balfour Declaration.}}
First World War
1914–16: Initial Zionist–British Government discussions
In July 1914 war broke out in Europe between the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and the Russian Empire) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and, later that year, the Ottoman Empire).
The British Cabinet first discussed Palestine at a meeting on 9November 1914, four days after Britain's declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire, of which the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalemoften referred to as Palestinewas a component. At the meeting David Lloyd George, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, "referred to the ultimate destiny of Palestine". The Chancellor, whose law firm Lloyd George, Roberts and Co had been engaged a decade before by the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland to work on the Uganda Scheme, was to become Prime Minister by the time of the declaration, and was ultimately responsible for it.
'', as published in the British Cabinet papers (CAB 37/123/43), as at 21January 1915]]
Weizmann's political efforts picked up speed,}} and on 10December 1914 he met with Herbert Samuel, a British Cabinet member and a secular Jew who had studied Zionism; Samuel believed Weizmann's demands were too modest.}} Two days later, Weizmann met Balfour again, for the first time since their initial meeting in 1905; Balfour had been out of government ever since his electoral defeat in 1906, but remained a senior member of the Conservative Party in their role as Official Opposition.}}
A month later, Samuel circulated a memorandum entitled The Future of Palestine to his Cabinet colleagues. The memorandum stated: "I am assured that the solution of the problem of Palestine which would be much the most welcome to the leaders and supporters of the Zionist movement throughout the world would be the annexation of the country to the British Empire". Samuel discussed a copy of his memorandum with Nathan Rothschild in February 1915, a month before the latter's death. It was the first time in an official record that enlisting the support of Jews as a war measure had been proposed.
Many further discussions followed, including the initial meetings in 1915–16 between Lloyd George, who had been appointed Minister of Munitions in May 1915, and Weizmann, who was appointed as a scientific advisor to the ministry in September 1915. Seventeen years later, in his War Memoirs, Lloyd George described these meetings as being the "fount and origin" of the declaration; historians have rejected this claim. the popular suggestion that this role influenced the decision to release the declaration has been described as "fanciful", a "legend", a "myth", and "a product of [Lloyd George's] imagination". From Lloyd George's War Memoirs, which created this myth: "But by the spring of 1915 the position in the American acetone market had become extremely delicate ... In the survey we made of all the various prospective requirements, it soon became clear that the supplies of wood alcohol for the manufacture of acetone would prove quite insufficient to meet the increasing demands, particularly in 1916 ... While I was casting about for some solution of the difficulty, I ran against the late C. P. Scott, Editor of the Manchester Guardian ... I took his word about Professor Weizmann and invited him to London to see me ... He could produce acetone by a fermentation process on a laboratory scale, but it would require some time before he could guarantee successful production on a manufacturing scale. In a few weeks' time he came to me and said: "The problem is solved."... When our difficulties were solved through Dr. Weizmann's genius I said to him: 'You have rendered great service to the State, and I should like to ask the Prime Minister to recommend you to His Majesty for some honour.' He said: 'There is nothing I want for myself.' 'But is there nothing we can do as a recognition of your valuable assistance to the country?' I asked. He replied: 'Yes, I would like you to do something for my people.' He then explained his aspirations as to the repatriation of the Jews to the sacred land they had made famous. That was the fount and origin of the famous declaration about the National Home for Jews in Palestine. As soon as I became Prime Minister I talked the whole matter over with Mr. Balfour, who was then Foreign Secretary. As a scientist he was immensely interested when I told him of Dr. Weizmann's achievement. We were anxious at that time to gather Jewish support in neutral countries, notably in America. Dr. Weizmann was brought into direct contact with the Foreign Secretary. This was the beginning of an association, the outcome of which, after long examination, was the famous Balfour Declaration ..."}} 1915–16: Prior British commitments over Palestine
| image1 = Conflicting British Government interpretations of the Hussein McMahon correspondence of 1915, showing interpretations from 1918 and 1922.png
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| caption1 = Excerpts from CAB 24/68/86 (Nov. 1918) and the Churchill White Paper (June 1922)
| footer The Cabinet document states that Palestine was included in the McMahon pledge to the Arabs, whereas the White Paper states that it "has always been regarded" as being excluded.}}
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In late 1915 the British High Commissioner to Egypt, Henry McMahon, exchanged ten letters with Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, in which he promised Hussein to recognize Arab independence "in the limits and boundaries proposed by the Sherif of Mecca" in return for Hussein launching a revolt against the Ottoman Empire. The pledge excluded "portions of Syria" lying to the west of "the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama and Aleppo".}} In the decades after the war, the extent of this coastal exclusion was hotly disputed since Palestine lay to the southwest of Damascus and was not explicitly mentioned.
With respect to the borders, Sykes explained: "By excluding Hebron and the East of the Jordan there is less to discuss with the Moslems, as the Mosque of Omar then becomes the only matter of vital importance to discuss with them and further does away with any contact with the bedouins, who never cross the river except on business. I imagine that the principal object of Zionism is the realization of the ideal of an existing centre of nationality rather than boundaries or extent of territory."}}
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The Arab Revolt was launched on June5th, 1916, on the basis of the quid pro quo agreement in the correspondence. However, less than three weeks earlier the governments of the United Kingdom, France, and Russia secretly concluded the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which Balfour described later as a "wholly new method" for dividing the region, after the 1915 agreement "seems to have been forgotten".}} In the event, neither the French nor the Russians were enthusiastic about the proposed formulation and eventually on 4 July, Wolf was informed that "the present moment is inopportune for making any announcement."
These wartime initiatives, inclusive of the declaration, are frequently considered together by historians because of the potential, real or imagined, for incompatibility between them, particularly in regard to the disposition of Palestine. In the words of Professor Albert Hourani, founder of the Middle East Centre at St Antony's College, Oxford: "The argument about the interpretation of these agreements is one which is impossible to end, because they were intended to bear more than one interpretation."
1916–17: Change in British Government
In terms of British politics, the declaration resulted from the coming into power of Lloyd George and his Cabinet, which had replaced the H. H. Asquith led-Cabinet in December 1916. Whilst both Prime Ministers were Liberals and both governments were wartime coalitions, Lloyd George and Balfour, appointed as his Foreign Secretary, favoured a post-war partition of the Ottoman Empire as a major British war aim, whereas Asquith and his Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, had favoured its reform.
Two days after taking office, Lloyd George told General Robertson, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, that he wanted a major victory, preferably the capture of Jerusalem, to impress British public opinion, and immediately consulted his War Cabinet about a "further campaign into Palestine when El Arish had been secured." Subsequent pressure from Lloyd George, over the reservations of Robertson, resulted in the recapture of the Sinai for British-controlled Egypt, and, with the capture of El Arish in December 1916 and Rafah in January 1917, the arrival of British forces at the southern borders of the Ottoman Empire. Following two unsuccessful attempts to capture Gaza between 26 March and 19 April, a six-month stalemate in Southern Palestine began; the Sinai and Palestine Campaign would not make any progress into Palestine until 31October 1917. 1917: British-Zionist formal negotiations Following the change in government, Sykes was promoted into the War Cabinet Secretariat with responsibility for Middle Eastern affairs. In January 1917, despite having previously built a relationship with Moses Gaster,}} he began looking to meet other Zionist leaders; by the end of the month he had been introduced to Weizmann and his associate Nahum Sokolow, a journalist and executive of the World Zionist Organization who had moved to Britain at the beginning of the war.}}
On 7February 1917, Sykes, claiming to be acting in a private capacity, entered into substantive discussions with the Zionist leadership.}} The previous British correspondence with "the Arabs" was discussed at the meeting; Sokolow's notes record Sykes's description that "The Arabs professed that language must be the measure [by which control of Palestine should be determined] and [by that measure] could claim all Syria and Palestine. Still the Arabs could be managed, particularly if they received Jewish support in other matters."}} At this point the Zionists were still unaware of the Sykes–Picot Agreement, although they had their suspicions. One of Sykes's goals was the mobilization of Zionism to the cause of British suzerainty in Palestine, so as to have arguments to put to France in support of that objective.
Late 1917: Progress of the wider war
During the period of the British War Cabinet discussions leading up to the declaration, the war had reached a period of stalemate. On the Western Front the tide would first turn in favour of the Central Powers in spring 1918, before decisively turning in favour of the Allies from July 1918 onwards. Although the United States declared war on Germany in the spring of 1917, it did not suffer its first casualties until 2 November 1917, at which point President Woodrow Wilson still hoped to avoid dispatching large contingents of troops into the war. The Russian forces were known to be distracted by the ongoing Russian Revolution and the growing support for the Bolshevik faction, but Alexander Kerensky's Provisional Government had remained in the war; Russia only withdrew after the final stage of the revolution on 7November 1917. Approvals April to June: Allied discussions Balfour met Weizmann at the Foreign Office on 22 March 1917; two days later, Weizmann described the meeting as being "the first time I had a real business talk with him". Weizmann explained at the meeting that the Zionists had a preference for a British protectorate over Palestine, as opposed to an American, French or international arrangement; Balfour agreed, but warned that "there may be difficulties with France and Italy".
The French position in regard to Palestine and the wider Syria region during the lead up to the Balfour Declaration was largely dictated by the terms of the Sykes–Picot Agreement and was complicated from 23 November 1915 by increasing French awareness of the British discussions with the Sherif of Mecca. Prior to 1917, the British had led the fighting on the southern border of the Ottoman Empire alone, given their neighbouring Egyptian colony and the French preoccupation with the fighting on the Western Front that was taking place on their own soil. Italy's participation in the war, which began following the April 1915 Treaty of London, did not include involvement in the Middle Eastern sphere until the April 1917 Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne; at this conference, Lloyd George had raised the question of a British protectorate of Palestine and the idea "had been very coldly received" by the French and the Italians.}} In May and June 1917, the French and Italians sent detachments to support the British as they built their reinforcements in preparation for a renewed attack on Palestine.
In early April, Sykes and Picot were appointed to act as the chief negotiators once more, this time on a month-long mission to the Middle East for further discussions with the Sherif of Mecca and other Arab leaders. Sykes and Picot arrived in the Middle East at the end of April, and were to continue discussions until the end of May.}} On 3 April 1917, Sykes met with Lloyd George, Lord Curzon and Maurice Hankey to receive his instructions in this regard, namely to keep the French onside while "not prejudicing the Zionist movement and the possibility of its development under British auspices, [and not] enter into any political pledges to the Arabs, and particularly none in regard to Palestine". Before travelling to the Middle East, Picot, via Sykes, invited Nahum Sokolow to Paris to educate the French government on Zionism. Sykes, who had prepared the way in correspondence with Picot, arrived a few days after Sokolow; in the meantime, Sokolow had met Picot and other French officials, and convinced the French Foreign Office to accept for study a statement of Zionist aims "in regard to facilities of colonization, communal autonomy, rights of language and establishment of a Jewish chartered company." Sykes went on ahead to Italy and had meetings with the British ambassador and British Vatican representative to prepare the way for Sokolow once again.
Sokolow was granted an audience with Pope Benedict XV on 6 May 1917. Sokolow's notes of the meeting – the only meeting records known to historians – stated that the Pope expressed general sympathy and support for the Zionist project. Sokolow wrote two reports of the talk with the Pope, one handwritten in French, which Minerbi relies on "because the conversation was probably held in that language and because this report was written in Sokolow's own hand right after the interview" and the other was "typewritten in Italian several days after the audience". Kreutz, following Stein, cautions that they are "not, of course, to be taken as a verbatim record" Minerbi's translation: "Sokolow: I am deeply moved by these historical memories, which are so apt. Allow me the liberty to add that the Rome that destroyed Judea was duly punished. It vanished, whereas not only do the Jewish people live on, they still have sufficient vitality to reclaim their land. His Holiness: Yes, yes, it is providential; God has willed it ... His Holiness: ... But the problem of the Holy Places is for us of utmost importance. The sacred rights must be preserved. We shall arrange this between the Church and the great Powers. You must honor these rights to their full extent ... These are rights hundreds of years old, guaranteed and preserved by all the governments."}} On 21 May 1917 Angelo Sereni, president of the Committee of the Jewish Communities, presented Sokolow to Sidney Sonnino, the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was also received by Paolo Boselli, the Italian prime minister. Sonnino arranged for the secretary general of the ministry to send a letter to the effect that, although he could not express himself on the merits of a program which concerned all the allies, "generally speaking" he was not opposed to the legitimate claims of the Jews. On his return journey, Sokolow met with French leaders again and secured a letter dated 4 June 1917, giving assurances of sympathy towards the Zionist cause by Jules Cambon, head of the political section of the French foreign ministry. This letter was not published, but was deposited at the British Foreign Office.}}
Following the United States' entry into the war on 6 April, the British Foreign Secretary led the Balfour Mission to Washington, D.C., and New York, where he spent a month between mid-April and mid-May. During the trip he spent significant time discussing Zionism with Louis Brandeis, a leading Zionist and a close ally of Wilson who had been appointed as a Supreme Court Justice a year previously.}}
June and July: Decision to prepare a declaration
By 13 June 1917, it was acknowledged by Ronald Graham, head of the Foreign Office's Middle Eastern affairs department, that the three most relevant politiciansthe Prime Minister, the Foreign Secretary, and the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Lord Robert Cecilwere all in favour of Britain supporting the Zionist movement;}} on the same day Weizmann had written to Graham to advocate for a public declaration.}}
Six days later, at a meeting on 19June, Balfour asked Lord Rothschild and Weizmann to submit a formula for a declaration. Over the next few weeks, a 143-word draft was prepared by the Zionist negotiating committee, but it was considered too specific on sensitive areas by Sykes, Graham and Rothschild. Separately, a very different draft had been prepared by the Foreign Office, described in 1961 by Harold Nicolson – who had been involved in preparing the draft – as proposing a "sanctuary for Jewish victims of persecution". The Foreign Office draft was strongly opposed by the Zionists, and was discarded; no copy of the draft has been found in the Foreign Office archives.
Following further discussion, a revised – and at just 46 words in length, much shorter – draft declaration was prepared and sent by Lord Rothschild to Balfour on 18 July. It was received by the Foreign Office, and the matter was brought to the Cabinet for formal consideration.
September and October: American consent and War Cabinet approval
(Herbert Samuel's elder brother), and Chief Rabbi Joseph Hertz. Those against comprised Edwin Montagu, Philip Magnus, Claude Montefiore and Lionel Cohen.]]
The decision to release the declaration was taken by the British War Cabinet on 31 October 1917. This followed discussion at four War Cabinet meetings (including the 31 October meeting) over the space of the previous two months. In order to aid the discussions, the War Cabinet Secretariat, led by Maurice Hankey, the Cabinet Secretary and supported by his Assistant Secretaries – primarily Sykes and his fellow Conservative MP and pro-Zionist Leo Amery – solicited outside perspectives to put before the Cabinet. These included the views of government ministers, war allies – notably from President Woodrow Wilson – and in October, formal submissions from six Zionist leaders and four non-Zionist Jews.
British officials asked President Wilson for his consent on the matter on two occasions – first on 3 September, when he replied the time was not ripe, and later on 6 October, when he agreed with the release of the declaration.
Excerpts from the minutes of these four War Cabinet meetings provide a description of the primary factors that the ministers considered:
* 3 September 1917: "With reference to a suggestion that the matter might be postponed, [Balfour] pointed out that this was a question on which the Foreign Office had been very strongly pressed for a long time past. There was a very strong and enthusiastic organisation, more particularly in the United States, who were zealous in this matter, and his belief was that it would be of most substantial assistance to the Allies to have the earnestness and enthusiasm of these people enlisted on our side. To do nothing was to risk a direct breach with them, and it was necessary to face this situation."
* 4 October 1917: "... [Balfour] stated that the German Government were making great efforts to capture the sympathy of the Zionist Movement. This Movement, though opposed by a number of wealthy Jews in this country, had behind it the support of a majority of Jews, at all events in Russia and America, and possibly in other countries ... Mr. Balfour then read a very sympathetic declaration by the French Government which had been conveyed to the Zionists, and he stated that he knew that President Wilson was extremely favourable to the Movement."
* 25 October 1917: "... the Secretary mentioned that he was being pressed by the Foreign Office to bring forward the question of Zionism, an early settlement of which was regarded as of great importance."
* 31 October 1917: "[Balfour] stated that he gathered that everyone was now agreed that, from a purely diplomatic and political point of view, it was desirable that some declaration favourable to the aspirations of the Jewish nationalists should now be made. The vast majority of Jews in Russia and America, as, indeed, all over the world, now appeared to be favourable to Zionism. If we could make a declaration favourable to such an ideal, we should be able to carry on extremely useful propaganda both in Russia and America." Drafting Declassification of British government archives has allowed scholars to piece together the choreography of the drafting of the declaration; in his widely cited 1961 book, Leonard Stein published four previous drafts of the declaration.
The drafting began with Weizmann's guidance to the Zionist drafting team on its objectives in a letter dated 20 June 1917, one day following his meeting with Rothschild and Balfour. He proposed that the declaration from the British government should state: "its conviction, its desire or its intention to support Zionist aims for the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine; no reference must be made I think to the question of the Suzerain Power because that would land the British into difficulties with the French; it must be a Zionist declaration."
A month after the receipt of the much-reduced 12 July draft from Rothschild, Balfour proposed a number of mainly technical amendments.}}
| sourceReport of the Palin Commission, August 1920
}}
The term "national home" was intentionally ambiguous, having no legal value or precedent in international law, such that its meaning was unclear when compared to other terms such as "state". The term was intentionally used instead of "state" because of opposition to the Zionist program within the British Cabinet. According to historian Norman Rose, the chief architects of the declaration contemplated that a Jewish State would emerge in time while the Palestine Royal Commission concluded that the wording was "the outcome of a compromise between those Ministers who contemplated the ultimate establishment of a Jewish State and those who did not."}}
Interpretation of the wording has been sought in the correspondence leading to the final version of the declaration. An official report to the War Cabinet sent by Sykes on 22 September said that the Zionists did not want "to set up a Jewish Republic or any other form of state in Palestine or in any part of Palestine" but rather preferred some form of protectorate as provided in the Palestine Mandate.}} A month later, Curzon produced a memorandum circulated on 26 October 1917 where he addressed two questions, the first concerning the meaning of the phrase "a National Home for the Jewish race in Palestine"; he noted that there were different opinions ranging from a fully fledged state to a merely spiritual centre for the Jews.
Sections of the British press assumed that a Jewish state was intended even before the Declaration was finalized. The New Europe, on 12, 19, and 26 April 1917, wrote about "a Jewish State," as did other papers, including the Liverpool Courier (24 April), The Spectator (5 May), and the Glasgow Herald (29 May). Some British papers wrote that it was in Britain's interest to reestablish a "Jewish State" or "Jewish Country." Among them were the Methodist Times, The Manchester Guardian, The Globe, and The Daily News.}} In the United States the press began using the terms "Jewish National Home", "Jewish State", "Jewish republic" and "Jewish Commonwealth" interchangeably.
Treaty expert David Hunter Miller, who was at the conference and subsequently compiled a 22 volume compendium of documents, provides a report of the Intelligence Section of the American Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 which recommended that "there be established a separate state in Palestine," and that "it will be the policy of the League of Nations to recognize Palestine as a Jewish state, as soon as it is a Jewish state in fact." The report further advised that an independent Palestinian state under a British League of Nations mandate be created. Jewish settlement would be allowed and encouraged in this state and this state's holy sites would be under the control of the League of Nations. A year later, on the Declaration's second anniversary, General Jan Smuts said that Britain "would redeem her pledge ... and a great Jewish state would ultimately rise." In similar vein, Churchill a few months later stated:
At the 22 June 1921 meeting of the Imperial Cabinet, Churchill was asked by Arthur Meighen, the Canadian Prime Minister, about the meaning of the national home. Churchill said "If in the course of many years they become a majority in the country, they naturally would take it over ... pro rata with the Arab. We made an equal pledge that we would not turn the Arab off his land or invade his political and social rights".
Responding to Curzon in January 1919, Balfour wrote "Weizmann has never put forward a claim for the Jewish Government of Palestine. Such a claim in my opinion is clearly inadmissible and personally I do not think we should go further than the original declaration which I made to Lord Rothschild".
In February 1919, France issued a statement that it would not oppose putting Palestine under British trusteeship and the formation of a Jewish State. Friedman further notes that France's attitude went on to change; Yehuda Blum, while discussing France's "unfriendly attitude towards the Jewish national movement", notes the content of a report made by Robert Vansittart (a leading member of the British delegation to the Paris Peace Conference) to Curzon in November 1920 which said:
Greece's Foreign Minister told the editor of the Salonica Jewish organ Pro-Israel that "the establishment of a Jewish State meets in Greece with full and sincere sympathy ... A Jewish Palestine would become an ally of Greece." In Switzerland, a number of noted historians including professors Tobler, Forel-Yvorne, and Rogaz, supported the idea of establishing a Jewish state, with one referring to it as "a sacred right of the Jews." While in Germany, officials and most of the press took the Declaration to mean a British sponsored state for the Jews.
The British government, including Churchill, made it clear that the Declaration did not intend for the whole of Palestine to be converted into a Jewish National Home, "but that such a Home should be founded in Palestine."}} Paris references only the Marsh letter and while claiming the evidence is unclear, suggests that the letter may have described a meeting that took place shortly after 8 January at Edward Turnour, Earl Winterton's country house.
Faisal's biographer discusses an acrimonious meeting which took place on 20 January 1921 between Faisal, Haddad, Haidar and Lindsey, Young and Kinahan Cornwallis and says that this meeting led to a misunderstanding that would later be used against Faisal as Churchill later claimed in parliament that Faisal had acknowledged that the territory of Palestine was specifically excluded from the promises of support for an independent Arab Kingdom. Allawi says that the minutes of the meeting show only that Faisal accepted that this could be the British government interpretation of the exchanges without necessarily agreeing with them. In parliament, Churchill in 1922 confirmed this, "..a conversation held in the Foreign Office on the 20th January, 1921, more than five years after the conclusion of the correspondence on which the claim was based. On that occasion the point of view of His Majesty's Government was explained to the Emir, who expressed himself as prepared to accept the statement that it had been the intention of His Majesty's Government to exclude Palestine."}} Emir Faisal, King of Syria and Iraq, made a formal written agreement with Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann, which was drafted by T. E. Lawrence, whereby they would try to establish a peaceful relationship between Arabs and Jews in Palestine. The 3 January 1919 Faisal–Weizmann Agreement was a short-lived agreement for Arab–Jewish cooperation on the development of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.}} Faisal did treat Palestine differently in his presentation to the Peace Conference on 6 February 1919 saying "Palestine, for its universal character, [should be] left on one side for the mutual consideration of all parties concerned". The agreement was never implemented. and further referring to the 1937 report of the Palestine Royal Commission which noted that "Not once since 1919 had any Arab leader said that co-operation with the Jews was even possible" despite expressed hopes to the contrary by British and Zionist representatives.}} In a subsequent letter written in English by Lawrence for Faisal's signature, he explained:
</blockquote>
Referring to his 1922 White Paper, Churchill later wrote that "there is nothing in it to prohibit the ultimate establishment of a Jewish State." And in private, many British officials agreed with the Zionists' interpretation that a state would be established when a Jewish majority was achieved.
When Chaim Weizmann met with Churchill, Lloyd George and Balfour at Balfour's home in London on 21 July 1921, Lloyd George and Balfour assured Weizmann "that by the Declaration they had always meant an eventual Jewish State," according to Weizmann minutes of that meeting. Lloyd George stated in 1937 that it was intended that Palestine would become a Jewish Commonwealth if and when Jews "had become a definite majority of the inhabitants", In the UNSCOP report of 1947, the issue of home versus state was subjected to scrutiny arriving at a similar conclusion to that of Lloyd George.}} and
}}}} Scope of the national home "in Palestine" The statement that such a homeland would be found "in Palestine" rather than "of Palestine" was also deliberate.}} The proposed draft of the declaration contained in Rothschild's 12 July letter to Balfour referred to the principle "that Palestine should be reconstituted as the National Home of the Jewish people." In the final text, following Lord Milner's amendment, the word "reconstituted" was removed and the word "that" was replaced with "in".
This text thereby avoided committing the entirety of Palestine as the National Home of the Jewish people, resulting in controversy in future years over the intended scope, especially the Revisionist Zionism sector, which claimed entirety of Mandatory Palestine and Emirate of Transjordan as Jewish Homeland This was clarified by the 1922 Churchill White Paper, which wrote that "the terms of the declaration referred to do not contemplate that Palestine as a whole should be converted into a Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded 'in Palestine.
The declaration did not include any geographical boundaries for Palestine. Following the end of the war, three documents – the declaration, the McMahon–Hussein correspondence and the Sykes–Picot Agreement – became the basis for the negotiations to set the boundaries of Palestine.
Civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine
}}
The declaration's first safeguard clause referred to protecting the civil and religious rights of non-Jews in Palestine. The clause had been drafted together with the second safeguard by Leo Amery in consultation with Lord Milner, with the intention to "go a reasonable distance to meeting the objectors, both Jewish and pro-Arab, without impairing the substance of the proposed declaration".}}
Arabs constituted around 90% of the population of Palestine, butas stated by Ronald Storrs, Britain's Military Governor of Jerusalem between 1917 and 1920they were "not so much [named but] lumped together under the negative and humiliating definition of 'Non-Jewish Communities'".}} Additionally, there was no reference to protecting the political rights of this group, as there was regarding Jews in other countries. This lack of interest was frequently contrasted against the commitment to the Jewish community, with various terms used over subsequent years to regard the two obligations as linked.}} A heated question was whether the status of both groups had "equal weight", which the British government and the Permanent Mandates Commission held to be the case in the 1930 Passfield white paper.}}
Balfour stated in February 1919 that Palestine was considered an exceptional case in which, referring to the local population, "we deliberately and rightly decline to accept the principle of self-determination,"}} although he considered that the policy provided self-determination to Jews. Avi Shlaim considers this the declaration's "greatest contradiction". This principle of self-determination had been declared on numerous occasions subsequent to the declarationPresident Wilson's January 1918 Fourteen Points, Sykes's Declaration to the Seven in June 1918, the November 1918 Anglo-French Declaration, and the June 1919 Covenant of the League of Nations that had established the mandate system. Sykes's June 1918 Declaration to the Seven stated that "the future government of these regions should be based upon the principle of the consent of the governed", the November 1918 Anglo-French Declaration stated that the local "national governments and administrations [will derive] their authority from the free exercise of the initiative and choice of the indigenous populations,"}} The results of the ongoing American King–Crane Commission of Enquiry consultation of the local population – from which the British had withdrawn – were suppressed for three years until the report was leaked in 1922. Subsequent British governments have acknowledged this deficiency, in particular the 1939 committee led by the Lord Chancellor, Frederic Maugham, which concluded that the government had not been "free to dispose of Palestine without regard for the wishes and interests of the inhabitants of Palestine", and the April 2017 statement by British Foreign Office minister of state Baroness Anelay that the government acknowledged that "the Declaration should have called for the protection of political rights of the non-Jewish communities in Palestine, particularly their right to self-determination."}}
Rights and political status of Jews in other countries
, then the only Jew in a senior British government position, wrote a 23 August 1917 memorandum condemning Zionism as a "mischievous political creed" and stating his belief that: "the policy of His Majesty's Government is anti-Semitic in result and will prove a rallying ground for anti-Semites in every country of the world."]]
The second safeguard clause was a commitment that nothing should be done which might prejudice the rights of the Jewish communities in other countries outside of Palestine. The original drafts of Rothschild, Balfour, and Milner did not include this safeguard, which was drafted together with the preceding safeguard in early October, in order to reflect opposition from influential members of the Anglo-Jewish community. Lord Rothschild took exception to the proviso on the basis that it presupposed the possibility of a danger to non-Zionists, which he denied.
The Conjoint Foreign Committee of the Board of Deputies of British Jews and the Anglo-Jewish Association had published a letter in The Times on 24 May 1917 entitled Views of Anglo-Jewry, signed by the two organisations' presidents, David Lindo Alexander and Claude Montefiore, stating their view that: "the establishment of a Jewish nationality in Palestine, founded on this theory of homelessness, must have the effect throughout the world of stamping the Jews as strangers in their native lands, and of undermining their hard-won position as citizens and nationals of these lands." This was followed in late August by Edwin Montagu, an influential anti-Zionist Jew and Secretary of State for India, and the only Jewish member of the British Cabinet, who wrote in a Cabinet memorandum that: "The policy of His Majesty's Government is anti-Semitic in result and will prove a rallying ground for anti-Semites in every country of the world."
Reaction
The text of the declaration was published in the press one week after it was signed, on 9November 1917. Other related events took place within a short timeframe, the two most relevant being the almost immediate British military capture of Palestine and the leaking of the previously secret Sykes–Picot Agreement. On the military side, both Gaza and Jaffa fell within several days, and Jerusalem was surrendered to the British on 9 December. The publication of the Sykes–Picot Agreement, following the Russian Revolution, in the Bolshevik Izvestia and Pravda on 23 November 1917 and in the British Manchester Guardian on 26 November 1917, represented a dramatic moment for the Allies' Eastern campaign: "the British were embarrassed, the Arabs dismayed and the Turks delighted." The Zionists had been aware of the outlines of the agreement since April and specifically the part relevant to Palestine, following a meeting between Weizmann and Cecil where Weizmann made very clear his objections to the proposed scheme. Zionist reaction
'', 9November 1917]]
The declaration represented the first public support for Zionism by a major political power – its publication galvanized Zionism, which finally had obtained an official charter. In addition to its publication in major newspapers, leaflets were circulated throughout Jewish communities. These leaflets were airdropped over Jewish communities in Germany and Austria, as well as the Pale of Settlement, which had been given to the Central Powers following the Russian withdrawal.
Weizmann had argued that the declaration would have three effects: it would swing Russia to maintain pressure on Germany's Eastern Front, since Jews had been prominent in the March Revolution of 1917; it would rally the large Jewish community in the United States to press for greater funding for the American war effort, underway since April of that year; and, lastly, that it would undermine German Jewish support for Kaiser Wilhelm II.
The declaration spurred an unintended and extraordinary increase in the number of adherents of American Zionism; in 1914 the 200 American Zionist societies comprised a total of 7,500 members, which grew to 30,000 members in 600 societies in 1918 and 149,000 members in 1919. Whilst the British had considered that the declaration reflected a previously established dominance of the Zionist position in Jewish thought, it was the declaration itself that was subsequently responsible for Zionism's legitimacy and leadership.}}
Exactly one month after the declaration was issued, a large-scale celebration took place at the Royal Opera House – speeches were given by leading Zionists as well as members of the British administration including Sykes and Cecil. From 1918 until the Second World War, Jews in Mandatory Palestine celebrated Balfour Day as an annual national holiday on 2November. The celebrations included ceremonies in schools and other public institutions and festive articles in the Hebrew press. In August 1919 Balfour approved Weizmann's request to name the first post-war settlement in Mandatory Palestine, "Balfouria", in his honour. It was intended to be a model settlement for future American Jewish activity in Palestine.
Herbert Samuel, the Zionist MP whose 1915 memorandum had framed the start of discussions in the British Cabinet, was asked by Lloyd George on 24April 1920 to act as the first civil governor of British Palestine, replacing the previous military administration that had ruled the area since the war. Shortly after beginning the role in July 1920, he was invited to read the haftarah from Isaiah 40 at the Hurva Synagogue in Jerusalem, which, according to his memoirs, led the congregation of older settlers to feel that the "fulfilment of ancient prophecy might at last be at hand".}} Opposition in Palestine
'', published a four-page editorial addressed to Lord Balfour in March 1925. The editorial begins with "J'Accuse!", in a reference to the outrage at French anti-semitism 27 years previously.]]
The local Christian and Muslim community of Palestine, who constituted almost 90% of the population, strongly opposed the declaration. As described by the Palestinian-American philosopher Edward Said in 1979, it was perceived as being made: "(a)by a European power, (b)about a non-European territory, (c)in a flat disregard of both the presence and the wishes of the native majority resident in that territory, and (d)it took the form of a promise about this same territory to another foreign group."}}
According to the 1919 King–Crane Commission, "No British officer, consulted by the Commissioners, believed that the Zionist programme could be carried out except by force of arms." A delegation of the Muslim-Christian Association, headed by Musa al-Husayni, expressed public disapproval on 3November 1918, one day after the Zionist Commission parade marking the first anniversary of the Balfour Declaration. They handed a petition signed by more than 100 notables to Ronald Storrs, the British military governor:
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The group also protested the carrying of new "white and blue banners with two inverted triangles in the middle", Later that month, on the first anniversary of the occupation of Jaffa by the British, the Muslim-Christian Association sent a lengthy memorandum and petition to the military governor protesting once more any formation of a Jewish state. The majority of Britain's military leaders considered Balfour's declaration either a mistake, or one that presented grave risks. Broader Arab response In the broader Arab world, the declaration was seen as a betrayal of the British wartime understandings with the Arabs. The Sharif of Mecca and other Arab leaders considered the declaration a violation of a previous commitment made in the McMahon–Hussein correspondence in exchange for launching the Arab Revolt.
Following the publication of the declaration in an Egyptian newspaper, Al Muqattam, the British dispatched Commander David George Hogarth to see Hussein in January 1918 bearing the message that the "political and economic freedom" of the Palestinian population was not in question.
In 1919, King Hussein refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. After February 1920, the British ceased to pay subsidy to him. In August 1920, five days after the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres, which formally recognized the Kingdom of Hejaz, Curzon asked Cairo to procure Hussein's signature to both treaties and agreed to make a payment of £30,000 conditional on signature. Hussein declined and in 1921, stated that he could not be expected to "affix his name to a document assigning Palestine to the Zionists and Syria to foreigners." Following the 1921 Cairo Conference, Lawrence was sent to try and obtain the King's signature to a treaty as well as to Versailles and Sèvres, a £60,000 annual subsidy being proposed; this attempt also failed. During 1923, the British made one further attempt to settle outstanding issues with Hussein and once again, the attempt foundered, Hussein continued in his refusal to recognize the Balfour Declaration or any of the Mandates that he perceived as being his domain. In March 1924, having briefly considered the possibility of removing the offending article from the treaty, the government suspended any further negotiations; within six months they withdrew their support in favour of their central Arabian ally Ibn Saud, who proceeded to conquer Hussein's kingdom.
Allies and Associated Powers
The declaration was first endorsed by a foreign government on 27 December 1917, when Serbian Zionist leader and diplomat David Albala announced the support of Serbia's government in exile during a mission to the United States. The French and Italian governments offered their endorsements, on 14 February and 9 May 1918, respectively. At a private meeting in London on 1 December 1918, Lloyd George and French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau agreed to certain modifications to the Sykes–Picot Agreement, including British control of Palestine.
On 25 April 1920, the San Remo conference – an outgrowth of the Paris Peace Conference attended by the prime ministers of Britain, France and Italy, the Japanese Ambassador to France, and the United States Ambassador to Italy – established the basic terms for three League of Nations mandates: a French mandate for Syria, and British mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine. With respect to Palestine, the resolution stated that the British were responsible for putting into effect the terms of the Balfour Declaration. The French and the Italians made clear their dislike of the "Zionist cast of the Palestinian mandate" and objected especially to language that did not safeguard the "political" rights of non-Jews, accepting Curzon's claim that "in the British language all ordinary rights were included in "civil rights"". At the request of France, it was agreed that an undertaking was to be inserted in the mandate's procès-verbal that this would not involve the surrender of the rights hitherto enjoyed by the non-Jewish communities in Palestine. The Italian endorsement of the Declaration had included the condition "... on the understanding that there is no prejudice against the legal and political status of the already existing religious communities ..."<!-- "... che non ne venga nessun pregiudizio allo stato giuridico e politico delle gia esistenti communita religiose ..." --> The boundaries of Palestine were left unspecified, to "be determined by the Principal Allied Powers." Three months later, in July 1920, the French defeat of Faisal's Arab Kingdom of Syria precipitated the British need to know "what is the 'Syria' for which the French received a mandate at San Remo?" and "does it include Transjordania?" – it subsequently decided to pursue a policy of associating Transjordan with the mandated area of Palestine without adding it to the area of the Jewish National Home.
In 1922, Congress officially endorsed America's support for the Balfour Declaration through the passage of the Lodge–Fish Resolution, notwithstanding opposition from the State Department. Professor Lawrence Davidson, of West Chester University, whose research focuses on American relations with the Middle East, argues that President Wilson and Congress ignored democratic values in favour of "biblical romanticism" when they endorsed the declaration. He points to an organized pro-Zionist lobby in the United States, which was active at a time when the country's small Arab American community had little political power.
Central Powers
The publication of the Balfour Declaration was met with tactical responses from the Central Powers; however the participation of the Ottoman Empire in the alliance meant that Germany was unable to effectively counter the British pronouncement.}}
Two weeks following the declaration, Ottokar Czernin, the Austrian Foreign Minister, gave an interview to Arthur Hantke, President of the Zionist Federation of Germany, promising that his government would influence the Turks once the war was over. On 12December, the Ottoman Grand Vizier, Talaat Pasha, gave an interview to the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung that was published on 31December and subsequently released in the German-Jewish periodical Jüdische Rundschau on 4January 1918, in which he referred to the declaration as "une blague" (a deception) and promised that under Ottoman rule "all justifiable wishes of the Jews in Palestine would be able to find their fulfilment" subject to the absorptive capacity of the country. This Turkish statement was endorsed by the German Foreign Office on 5January 1918. On 8January 1918, a German-Jewish Society, the Union of German Jewish Organizations for the Protection of the Rights of the Jews of the East, was formed to advocate for further progress for Jews in Palestine.
Following the war, the Treaty of Sèvres was signed by the Ottoman Empire on 10August 1920. The treaty dissolved the Ottoman Empire, requiring Turkey to renounce sovereignty over much of the Middle East. Article95 of the treaty incorporated the terms of the Balfour Declaration with respect to "the administration of Palestine, within such boundaries as may be determined by the Principal Allied Powers". Since incorporation of the declaration into the Treaty of Sèvres did not affect the legal status of either the declaration or the Mandate, there was also no effect when Sèvres was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne, which did not include any reference to the declaration.
In 1922, German anti-Semitic theorist Alfred Rosenberg in his primary contribution to Nazi theory on Zionism, Der Staatsfeindliche Zionismus ("Zionism, the Enemy of the State"), accused German Zionists of working for a German defeat and supporting Britain and the implementation of the Balfour Declaration, in a version of the stab-in-the-back myth. In addition, Nicosia notes: "Rosenberg argues that the Jews had planned the Great War in order to secure a state in Palestine. In other words, he suggested that they generated violence and war among the gentiles in order to secure their own, exclusively Jewish, interests."}} Adolf Hitler took a similar approach in some of his speeches from 1920 onwards. The Holy See
With the advent of the declaration and the British entry into Jerusalem on 9 December, the Vatican reversed its earlier sympathetic attitude to Zionism and adopted an oppositional stance that was to continue until the early 1990s. Evolution of British opinion
}}
The British policy as stated in the declaration was to face numerous challenges to its implementation in the following years. The first of these was the indirect peace negotiations which took place between Britain and the Ottomans in December 1917 and January 1918 during a pause in the hostilities for the rainy season; although these peace talks were unsuccessful, archival records suggest that key members of the War Cabinet may have been willing to permit leaving Palestine under nominal Turkish sovereignty as part of an overall deal.
In October 1919, almost a year after the end of the war, Lord Curzon succeeded Balfour as Foreign Secretary. Curzon had been a member of the 1917 Cabinet that had approved the declaration, and according to British historian Sir David Gilmour, Curzon had been "the only senior figure in the British government at the time who foresaw that its policy would lead to decades of Arab–Jewish hostility". He therefore determined to pursue a policy in line with its "narrower and more prudent rather than the wider interpretation". Following Bonar Law's appointment as Prime Minister in late 1922, Curzon wrote to Law that he regarded the declaration as "the worst" of Britain's Middle East commitments and "a striking contradiction of our publicly declared principles".
In August 1920 the report of the Palin Commission, the first in a long line of British Commissions of Inquiry on the question of Palestine during the Mandate period, noted that "The Balfour Declaration ... is undoubtedly the starting point of the whole trouble". The conclusion of the report, which was not published, mentioned the Balfour Declaration three times, stating that "the causes of the alienation and exasperation of the feelings of the population of Palestine" included:
* "inability to reconcile the Allies' declared policy of self-determination with the Balfour Declaration, giving rise to a sense of betrayal and intense anxiety for their future";
* "misapprehension of the true meaning of the Balfour Declaration and forgetfulness of the guarantees determined therein, due to the loose rhetoric of politicians and the exaggerated statements and writings of interested persons, chiefly Zionists"; and
* "Zionist indiscretion and aggression since the Balfour Declaration aggravating such fears".
British public and government opinion became increasingly unfavourable to state support for Zionism; even Sykes had begun to change his views in late 1918.}} In February 1922 Churchill telegraphed Samuel, who had begun his role as High Commissioner for Palestine 18 months earlier, asking for cuts in expenditure and noting:}} I do not attach undue importance to this movement, but it is increasingly difficult to meet the argument that it is unfair to ask the British taxpayer, already overwhelmed with taxation, to bear the cost of imposing on Palestine an unpopular policy.}}
Following the issuance of the Churchill White Paper in June 1922, the House of Lords rejected a Palestine Mandate that incorporated the Balfour Declaration by 60 votes to 25, following a motion issued by Lord Islington. The vote proved to be only symbolic as it was subsequently overruled by a vote in the House of Commons following a tactical pivot and variety of promises made by Churchill.}}
In February 1923, following the change in government, Cavendish, in a lengthy memorandum for the Cabinet, laid the foundation for a secret review of Palestine policy:
}}
His covering note asked for a statement of policy to be made as soon as possible and that the cabinet ought to focus on three questions: (1) whether or not pledges to the Arabs conflict with the Balfour declaration; (2) if not, whether the new government should continue the policy set down by the old government in the 1922 White Paper; and (3) if not, what alternative policy should be adopted.
Stanley Baldwin, replacing Bonar Law as Prime Minister, in June 1923 set up a cabinet sub-committee whose terms of reference were:
}}
The Cabinet approved the report of this committee on 31 July 1923. Describing it as "nothing short of remarkable", Quigley noted that the government was admitting to itself that its support for Zionism had been prompted by considerations having nothing to do with the merits of Zionism or its consequences for Palestine. As Huneidi noted, "wise or unwise, it is well nigh impossible for any government to extricate itself without a substantial sacrifice of consistency and self-respect, if not honour."
The wording of the declaration was thus incorporated into the British Mandate for Palestine, a legal instrument that created Mandatory Palestine with an explicit purpose of putting the declaration into effect and was finally formalized in September 1923. Unlike the declaration itself, the Mandate was legally binding on the British government. In June 1924, Britain made its report to the Permanent Mandates Commission for the period July 1920 to the end of 1923 containing nothing of the candor reflected in the internal documents; the documents relating to the 1923 reappraisal stayed secret until the early 1970s.
Historiography and motivations
Lloyd George and Balfour remained in government until the collapse of the coalition in October 1922. Under the new Conservative government, attempts were made to identify the background to and motivations for the declaration. A private Cabinet memorandum was produced in January 1923, providing a summary of the then-known Foreign Office and War Cabinet records leading up to the declaration. An accompanying Foreign Office note asserted that the primary authors of the declaration were Balfour, Sykes, Weizmann, and Sokolow, with "perhaps Lord Rothschild as a figure in the background", and that "negotiations seem to have been mainly oral and by means of private notes and memoranda of which only the scantiest records seem to be available."
Following the 1936 general strike that was to degenerate into the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, the most significant outbreak of violence since the Mandate began, a British Royal Commission – a high-profile public inquiry – was appointed to investigate the causes of the unrest. The Palestine Royal Commission, appointed with significantly broader terms of reference than the previous British inquiries into Palestine, completed its 404-page report after six months of work in June 1937, publishing it a month later. The report began by describing the history of the problem, including a detailed summary of the origins of the Balfour Declaration. Much of this summary relied on Lloyd-George's personal testimony; Balfour had died in 1930 and Sykes in 1919. He told the commission that the declaration was made "due to propagandist reasons ... In particular Jewish sympathy would confirm the support of American Jewry, and would make it more difficult for Germany to reduce her military commitments and improve her economic position on the eastern front". Two years later, in his Memoirs of the Peace Conference,}} Lloyd George described a total of nine factors motivating his decision as Prime Minister to release the declaration, including the additional reasons that a Jewish presence in Palestine would strengthen Britain's position on the Suez Canal and reinforce the route to their imperial dominion in India.
These geopolitical calculations were debated and discussed in the following years. Historians agree that the British believed that expressing support would appeal to Jews in Germany and the United States, given two of Woodrow Wilson's closest advisors were known to be avid Zionists;}}}} they also hoped to encourage support from the large Jewish population in Russia. In addition, the British intended to pre-empt the expected French pressure for an international administration in Palestine. and James Barr writes: "To ward off the inevitable French pressure for an international administration once Palestine had been conquered, the British government now made its support for Zionism public."}}
Some historians argue that the British government's decision reflected what James Gelvin, Professor of Middle Eastern History at UCLA, calls 'patrician anti-Semitism' in the overestimation of Jewish power in both the United States and Russia. American Zionism was still in its infancy; in 1914 the Zionist Federation had a small budget of about $5,000 and only 12,000 members, despite an American Jewish population of three million}} but the Zionist organizations had recently succeeded, following a show of force within the American Jewish community, in arranging a Jewish congress to debate the Jewish problem as a whole.}} This impacted British and French government estimates of the balance of power within the American Jewish public.}}
Avi Shlaim, emeritus Professor of International Relations in the University of Oxford, asserts that two main schools of thought have been developed on the question of the primary driving force behind the declaration, one presented in 1961 by Leonard Stein, a lawyer and former political secretary to the World Zionist Organization, and the other in 1970 by Mayir Vereté, then Professor of Israeli History at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Shlaim states that Stein does not reach any clear cut conclusions, but that implicit in his narrative is that the declaration resulted primarily from the activity and skill of the Zionists, whereas according to Vereté, it was the work of hard-headed pragmatists motivated by British imperial interests in the Middle East. Much of modern scholarship on the decision to issue the declaration focuses on the Zionist movement and rivalries within it, with a key debate being whether the role of Weizmann was decisive or whether the British were likely to have issued a similar declaration in any event. Danny Gutwein, Professor of Jewish History at the University of Haifa, proposes a twist on an old idea, asserting that Sykes's February 1917 approach to the Zionists was the defining moment, and that it was consistent with the pursuit of the government's wider agenda to partition the Ottoman Empire.}} Historian J. C. Hurewitz has written that British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine was part of an effort to secure a land bridge between Egypt and the Persian Gulf by annexing territory from the Ottoman Empire.
Long-term impact
The declaration had two indirect consequences, the emergence of Israel and a chronic state of conflict between Arabs and Jews throughout the Middle East. It has been described as the "original sin" with respect to both Britain's failure in Palestine and for wider events in Palestine. The statement also had a significant impact on the traditional anti-Zionism of religious Jews, some of whom saw it as divine providence; this contributed to the growth of religious Zionism amid the larger Zionist movement.}}
Starting in 1920, intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine broke out, which widened into the regional Arab–Israeli conflict, often referred to as the world's "most intractable conflict". The "dual obligation" to the two communities quickly proved to be untenable; the British subsequently concluded that it was impossible for them to pacify the two communities in Palestine by using different messages for different audiences. Renton wrote: "The attempt to create different messages for different audiences regarding the future of the same place, as had been attempted since the fall of Jerusalem, was untenable."}} The Palestine Royal Commission – in making the first official proposal for partition of the region – referred to the requirements as "contradictory obligations", and that the "disease is so deep-rooted that, in our firm conviction, the only hope of a cure lies in a surgical operation". Following the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, and as worldwide tensions rose in the buildup to the Second World War, the British Parliament approved the White Paper of 1939 – their last formal statement of governing policy in Mandatory Palestine – declaring that Palestine should not become a Jewish State and placing restrictions on Jewish immigration. Whilst the British considered this consistent with the Balfour Declaration's commitment to protect the rights of non-Jews, many Zionists saw it as a repudiation of the declaration. The Arabs, from the 1947 UNSCOP discussions: "Since the proposal did not measure up to the political demands proposed by Arab representatives during the London Conference of early 1939, it was officially rejected by the representatives of Palestine Arab parties acting under the influence of Haj Amin Eff el Husseini. More moderate Arab opinion represented in the National Defence Party was prepared to accept the White Paper."}} Although this policy lasted until the British surrendered the Mandate in 1948, it served only to highlight the fundamental difficulty for Britain in carrying out the Mandate obligations.
Britain's involvement in this became one of the most controversial parts of its Empire's history and damaged its reputation in the Middle East for generations.}} According to historian Elizabeth Monroe: "measured by British interests alone, [the declaration was] one of the greatest mistakes in [its] imperial history." The 2010 study by Jonathan Schneer, specialist in modern British history at Georgia Tech, concluded that because the build-up to the declaration was characterized by "contradictions, deceptions, misinterpretations, and wishful thinking", the declaration sowed dragon's teeth and "produced a murderous harvest, and we go on harvesting even today".}} The foundational stone for modern Israel had been laid, but the prediction that this would lay the groundwork for harmonious Arab-Jewish cooperation proved to be wishful thinking. Palestinian historian Rashid Khalidi has argued that following the Balfour Declaration there ensued "what amounts to a hundred years of war against the Palestinian people".}}
On the bicentenary of its foundation, the British newspaper The Guardian, reflecting on its major errors of judgment, included the support the paper's editor, C. P. Scott, gave to Balfour's declaration. Israel had not become, it said, 'the country the Guardian foresaw or would have wanted.' The Board of Deputies of British Jews through its president Marie van der Zyl denounced the column as 'breathtakingly ill-considered', declaring that the Guardian appeared "to do everything it can to undermine the legitimacy of the world's only Jewish state".
The document
The document was presented to the British Museum in 1924 by Walter Rothschild; today it is held in the British Library, which separated from the British Museum in 1973, as Additional Manuscripts number 41178. From October 1987 to May 1988 it was lent outside the UK for display in Israel's Knesset.
in Tel Aviv]]
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* Proposals for a Jewish state
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* [https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2016-11-16/debates/E6F367C0-2BFD-427B-8A02-2BBB2B1529B8/CentenaryOfTheBalfourDeclaration UK Commons 2017 Centennial Debate on the Balfour Declaration], 16 November 2016
* [https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/oct/17/centenary-britains-calamitous-promise-balfour-declaration-israel-palestine The Guardian: The contested centenary of Britain's 'calamitous promise'], 17 October 2017
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Black Hand (Serbia)
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<br />
| other_name = Black Hand
| leader = Dragutin Dimitrijević
| foundation May 1911<br />(as Unification or Death)
| successor = Serbian Cultural Club (unofficial)
| area = Balkans
| ideology = Yugoslavism<br>Greater Serbia<br>Serbian nationalism
| attacks = Killing of Alexander I<br />Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
}}
Unification or Death (), popularly known as the Black Hand (), was a secret military society formed in May 1911 by officers in the Army of the Kingdom of Serbia. It gained a reputation for its alleged involvement in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 and for the earlier assassination of the Serbian royal couple in 1903, under the aegis of Captain Dragutin Dimitrijević ( "Apis").
The society formed to unite all of the territories with a South Slavic majority that were not then ruled by either Serbia or Montenegro. It took inspiration primarily from the unification of Italy in 1859–1870, but also from the unification of Germany in 1871. Through its connections to the June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, carried out by the members of the youth movement Young Bosnia, the Black Hand was instrumental in starting World War I (1914–1918) by precipitating the July Crisis of 1914, which eventually led to Austria-Hungary's invasion of the Kingdom of Serbia in August 1914.
Background
Apis' conspiracy group and the May Coup
In August 1901, a group of lower officers headed by captain Dragutin Dimitrijević "Apis" established a conspiracy group (called the Black Hand in literature), against the dynasty. The first meeting was held on 6 September 1901. In attendance were captains Radomir Aranđelović, Milan F. Petrović, and Dragutin Dimitrijević, as well as lieutenants Antonije Antić, Dragutin Dulić, Milan Marinković, and Nikodije Popović. They made a plan to kill the royal couple—King Alexander I Obrenović and Queen Draga. On the night of 28/29 May 1903 (Old Style), Captain Apis personally led a group of Army officers who murdered the royal couple at the Old Palace in Belgrade. Along with the royal couple, the conspirators killed Prime Minister Dimitrije Cincar-Marković, Minister of the Army Milovan Pavlović, and General-Adjutant Lazar Petrović. This became known as the May Coup.
National defense
On 8 October 1908, just two days after Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbian ministers, officials, and generals held a meeting at the City Hall in Belgrade. They founded a semi-secret society, the Narodna Odbrana ("National Defense") which gave Pan-Serbism a focus and an organization. The purpose of the group was to liberate Serbs under the Austro-Hungarian occupation. They also shared anti-Austrian propaganda and organized spies and saboteurs to operate within the occupied provinces. Satellite groups were formed in Slovenia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Istria. The Bosnian group became deeply associated with local groups of pan-Serb activists such as Mlada Bosna ("Young Bosnia").
Establishment
Unification or Death was established at the beginning of May 1911, and the original constitution of the organization was signed on 9 May. Ljuba Čupa, Bogdan Radenković, and Vojislav Tankosić wrote the constitution of the organization, modeled after similar German secret nationalist associations and the Italian Carbonari. The organization was mentioned in the Serbian parliament as the "Black Hand" in late 1911.
By 1911–12, Narodna Odbrana had established ties with the Black Hand, and the two became "parallel in action and overlapping in membership".1911–13The organization used the magazine Pijemont (the Serbian name for Piedmont, the kingdom that led the unification of Italy under the House of Savoy) for the dissemination of their ideas. The magazine was founded by Ljuba Čupa in August 1911.1914
By 1914, the group had hundreds of members, many of them Serbian Army officers. The goal of uniting Serb-inhabited territories was implemented by training guerilla fighters and saboteurs. The Black Hand was organized at the grassroots level in cells of three to five members, supervised by district committees and by a Central Committee in Belgrade, whose ten-member executive committee was primarily led by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijević "Apis". To ensure secrecy, members rarely knew much more than the other members of their own cell and one superior above them. New members swore the oath:
The Black Hand took over the terrorist actions of Narodna Odbrana and deliberately worked
to obscure any distinctions between the two groups, trading on the prestige and network of the older organization. Black Hand members held important army and government positions. Crown Prince Alexander was an enthusiastic financial supporter. The group held influence over government appointments and policies. The Serbian government was fairly well-informed of Black Hand activities.
Friendly relations had fairly well cooled by 1914. The Black Hand was displeased with Prime Minister Nikola Pašić and thought that he did not act aggressively enough for the Pan-Serb cause. The Black Hand engaged in a bitter power struggle over several issues, such as who would control territories that Serbia had annexed during the Balkan Wars. By then, disagreeing with the Black Hand was dangerous, as political murder was one of its tools.
In 1914, Apis allegedly decided that Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir-apparent of Austria, should be assassinated, as he was trying to pacify the Serbians, which would prevent a revolution if he was successful. Towards that end, three young Bosnian Serbs were allegedly recruited to kill the Archduke. They were certainly trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship by current and former members of the Serbian military. Gavrilo Princip, Nedeljko Čabrinović, and Trifko Grabež were smuggled across the border back into Bosnia by a chain of contacts similar to the Underground Railroad.
The decision to kill the Archduke was initiated by Apis and not sanctioned by the full Executive Committee (if Apis was involved at all, a question that remains in dispute).
Legacy
The Black Hand was outlawed in Serbia in 1917, although its ideas continued to be influential after World War One and Two. An organization known as the White Hand was created and inspired by it.
In 1938, Konspiracija, a conspiracy group to overthrow the Yugoslav regency was founded by, among others, members of the Serbian Cultural Club (SKK). The organization was modeled after the Black Hand, including the recruitment process. Two members of the Black Hand, Antonije Antić and Velimir Vemić, were the organization's military advisors.See also
* Black Hand (Mandatory Palestine)
* Secret society
* Serb revolutionary organizations
* Serbian Chetnik Organization
* Young Bosnia
* Black Hand (Slovenia)
References
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* Lutz, Hermann. [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idnjp.32101075716959;seq185;view1up;num179 "The Serbian 'Black Hand',"] The Freeman, Vol. 7, N°. 164, pp. 179–81, 2 May 1923.
* John Paul Newman: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/black_hand/ Black Hand], in: [https://web.archive.org/web/20191230080030/https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914–1918 online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
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2025-04-05T18:26:59.012260
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Board of directors
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A board of directors is a governing body that supervises the activities of a business, a nonprofit organization, or a government agency.
The powers, duties, and responsibilities of a board of directors are determined by government regulations (including the jurisdiction's corporate law) and the organization's own constitution and by-laws. These authorities may specify the number of members of the board, how they are to be chosen, and how often they are to meet.
In an organization with voting members, the board is accountable to, and may be subordinate to, the organization's full membership, which usually elect the members of the board. In a stock corporation, non-executive directors are elected by the shareholders, and the board has ultimate responsibility for the management of the corporation. In nations with codetermination (such as Germany and Sweden), the workers of a corporation elect a set fraction of the board's members.
The board of directors appoints the chief executive officer of the corporation and sets out the overall strategic direction. In corporations with dispersed ownership, the identification and nomination of directors (that shareholders vote for or against) are often done by the board itself, leading to a high degree of self-perpetuation. In a non-stock corporation with no general voting membership, the board is the supreme governing body of the institution, and its members are sometimes chosen by the board itself.
Terminology
Other names include board of directors and advisors, board of governors, board of managers, board of regents, board of trustees, and board of visitors. It may also be called the executive board.Roles
Typical duties of boards of directors include:
* Governing the organization by establishing broad policies and setting out strategic objectives
* Selecting, appointing, supporting, reviewing the performance, and terminating the chief executive (of which the titles vary from organization to organization; the chief executive may be titled chief executive officer, president or executive director)
* Ensuring the availability of adequate financial resources
* Approving annual budgets
* Accounting to the stakeholders for the organization's performance
* Setting the salaries, compensation and benefits of senior management
The legal responsibilities of boards and board members vary with the nature of the organization, and between jurisdictions. For companies with shares publicly listed for negotiation, these responsibilities are typically much more rigorous and complex than for those of other types.
Typically, the board chooses one of its members to be the chairman (often now called the "chair" or "chairperson"), who holds whatever title is specified in the by-laws or articles of association. However, in membership organizations, the members elect the president of the organization and the president becomes the board chair, unless the by-laws say otherwise.DirectorsThe directors of an organization are the persons who are members of its board. Several specific terms categorize directors by the presence or absence of their other relationships to the organization.Honorary membersCorporations may designate a former senior executive and ex-board member as an honorary board member, a position that does not carry any executive authority but represents recognition of the person's corporate governorship and performance.
Inside director
An inside director is a director who is also an employee, officer, chief executive, major shareholder, or someone similarly connected to the organization. Inside directors represent the interests of the entity's stakeholders, and often have special knowledge of its inner workings, its financial or market position, and so on.
Typical inside directors are:
* A chief executive officer (CEO) who may also be chair of the board
* Other executives of the organization, such as its chief financial officer (CFO) or executive vice president
* Large shareholders (who may or may not also be employees or officers)
* Representatives of other stakeholders such as labor unions, major lenders, or members of the community in which the organization is located
An inside director who is employed as a manager or executive of the organization is sometimes referred to as an executive director (not to be confused with the title executive director sometimes used for the CEO position in some organizations). Executive directors often have a specified area of responsibility in the organization, such as finance, marketing, human resources, or production.Outside director
An outside director is a member of the board who is not otherwise employed by or engaged with the organization, and does not represent any of its stakeholders. A typical example is a director who is president of a firm in a different industry. Outside directors are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way.
Outside directors bring outside experience and perspectives to the board. For example, for a company that serves a domestic market only, the presence of CEOs from global multinational corporations as outside directors can help to provide insights on export and import opportunities and international trade options. One of the arguments for having outside directors is that they can keep a watchful eye on the inside directors and on the way the organization is run. Outside directors are unlikely to tolerate "insider dealing" between inside directors, as outside directors do not benefit from the company or organization. Outside directors are often useful in handling disputes between inside directors, or between shareholders and the board. They are thought to be advantageous because they can be objective and present little risk of conflict of interest. On the other hand, they might lack familiarity with the specific issues connected to the organization's governance, and they might not know about the industry or sector in which the organization is operating.
Terminology
*Director – a person appointed to serve on the board of an organization, such as an institution or business.
*Inside director – a director who, in addition to serving on the board, has a meaningful connection to the organization
*Outside director – a director who, other than serving on the board, has no meaningful connections to the organization
*Executive director – an inside director who is also an executive with the organization. The term is also used, in a completely different sense, to refer to a CEO
*Non-executive director – a director (inside or outside) who is not an executive with the organization
*De facto director – an individual who acts as a director of the company but has not actually or validly been appointed as such.
*Shadow director – an individual who acts as a director of the company but is not a named director (a de jure director) and does not claim or purport to act as director.
* Nominee director – an individual who is appointed by a shareholder, creditor or interest group (whether contractually or by resolution at a company meeting) and who has a continuing loyalty to the appointors or other interest in the appointing company
Individual directors often serve on more than one board. This practice results in an interlocking directorate, where a relatively small number of individuals have significant influence over many important entities. This situation can have important corporate, social, economic, and legal consequences, and has been the subject of significant research.Process and structure
The process for running a board, sometimes called the board process, includes the selection of board members, the setting of clear board objectives, the dissemination of documents or board package to the board members, the collaborative creation of an agenda for the meeting, the creation and follow-up of assigned action items, and the assessment of the board process through standardized assessments of board members, owners, and CEOs. The science of this process has been slow to develop due to the secretive nature of the way most companies run their boards, however some standardization is beginning to develop. Some who are pushing for this standardization in the US are the National Association of Corporate Directors, McKinsey and The Board Group.Board meetingsA board of directors conducts its meetings according to the rules and procedures contained in its governing documents. These procedures may allow the board to conduct its business by conference call or other electronic means. They may also specify how a quorum is to be determined.
Non-corporate boards
The responsibilities of a board of directors vary depending on the nature and type of business entity and the laws applying to the entity (see types of business entity). For example, the nature of the business entity may be one that is traded on a public market (public company), not traded on a public market (a private, limited or closely held company), owned by family members (a family business), or exempt from income taxes (a non-profit, not for profit, or tax-exempt entity). There are numerous types of business entities available throughout the world such as a corporation, limited liability company, cooperative, business trust, partnership, private limited company, and public limited company.
Much of what has been written about boards of directors relates to boards of directors of business entities actively traded on public markets. More recently, however, material is becoming available for boards of private and closely held businesses including family businesses.
A board-only organization is one whose board is self-appointed, rather than being accountable to a base of members through elections; or in which the powers of the membership are extremely limited.Membership organizationsIn membership organizations, such as a society made up of members of a certain profession or one advocating a certain cause, a board of directors may have the responsibility of running the organization in between meetings of the membership, especially if the membership meets infrequently, such as only at an annual general meeting. The amount of powers and authority delegated to the board depend on the bylaws and rules of the particular organization. Some organizations place matters exclusively in the board's control while in others, the general membership retains full power and the board can only make recommendations.
The setup of a board of directors varies widely across organizations and may include provisions that are applicable to corporations, in which the "shareholders" are the members of the organization. A difference may be that the membership elects the officers of the organization, such as the president and the secretary, and the officers become members of the board in addition to the directors and retain those duties on the board. The directors may also be classified as officers in this situation. There may also be ex-officio members of the board, or persons who are members due to another position that they hold. These ex-officio members have all the same rights as the other board members.
Members of the board may be removed before their term is complete. Details on how they can be removed are usually provided in the bylaws. If the bylaws do not contain such details, the section on disciplinary procedures in ''Robert's Rules of Order'' may be used.
Corporations
In a publicly held company, directors are elected to represent and are legally obligated as fiduciaries to represent owners of the company—the shareholders/stockholders. In this capacity they establish policies and make decisions on issues such as whether there is dividend and how much it is, stock options distributed to employees, and the hiring/firing and compensation of upper management.
Governance
Theoretically, the control of a company is divided between two bodies: the board of directors, and the shareholders in general meeting. In practice, the amount of power exercised by the board varies with the type of company. In small private companies, the directors and the shareholders are normally the same people, and thus there is no real division of power. In large public companies, the board tends to exercise more of a supervisory role, and individual responsibility and management tends to be delegated downward to individual professional executives (such as a finance director or a marketing director) who deal with particular areas of the company's affairs.
Another feature of boards of directors in large public companies is that the board tends to have more de facto power. Most shareholders do not attend shareholder meetings, but rather cast proxy votes via mail, phone, or internet, thus allowing the board to vote for them. However, proxy votes are not a total delegation of the voting power, as the board must vote the proxy shares as directed by their owner even when it contradicts the board's views. In addition, many shareholders vote to accept all recommendations of the board rather than try to get involved in management, since each shareholder's power, as well as interest and information is so small. Larger institutional investors also grant the board proxies. The large number of shareholders also makes it hard for them to organize. However, there have been moves recently to try to increase shareholder activism among both institutional investors and individuals with small shareholdings.
Academic research has identified different types of board directors. Their characteristics and experiences shape their role and performance. For instance, directors with multiple mandates are often referred to as busy directors. Their monitoring performance is considered to be comparatively weak due to the limited time they can dedicate to this task. Overconfident directors are found to pay higher premiums in corporate acquisitions and make worse takeover choices. Locally rooted directors tend to be overrepresented and lack international experience, which can lead to lower valuations, especially in internationally oriented firms. Directors' military experience is associated with rigorous monitoring and improved corporate governance.Two-tier system
In some European and Asian countries, there are two separate boards, an executive board (or management board) for day-to-day business and a supervisory board (elected by the shareholders and employees) for supervising the executive board. In these countries, the chairman of the supervisory board is equivalent to the chairman of a single-tier board, while the chairman of the management board is reckoned as the company's CEO or managing director. These two roles are always held by different people. This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board and allows for clear lines of authority. The aim is to prevent a conflict of interest and too much power being concentrated in the hands of one person. There is a strong parallel here with the structure of government, which tends to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service.
In the United States, the board of directors (elected by the shareholders) is often equivalent to the supervisory board, while the executive board may often be known as the executive committee (operating committee or executive council), composed of the CEO and their direct reports (other C-level officers, division/subsidiary heads).
Board structures and procedures vary both within and among OECD countries. Some countries have two-tier boards that separate the supervisory function and the management function into different bodies. Such systems typically have a "supervisory board" composed of nonexecutive board members and a "management board" composed entirely of executives. Other countries have "unitary" boards, which bring together executive and non-executive board members. In some countries there is also an additional statutory body for audit purposes. The OECD Principles are intended to be sufficiently general to apply to whatever board structure is charged with the functions of governing the enterprise and monitoring management.History
The development of a separate board of directors to manage/govern/oversee a company has occurred incrementally and indefinitely over legal history. Until the end of the 19th century, it seems to have been generally assumed that the general meeting (of all shareholders) was the supreme organ of a company, and that the board of directors merely acted as an agent of the company subject to the control of the shareholders in general meeting.
However, by 1906, the English Court of Appeal had made it clear in the decision of Automatic Self-Cleansing Filter Syndicate Co Ltd v Cuninghame [1906] 2 Ch 34 that the division of powers between the board and the shareholders in general meaning depended on the construction of the articles of association and that, where the powers of management were vested in the board, the general meeting could not interfere with their lawful exercise. The articles were held to constitute a contract by which the members had agreed that "the directors and the directors alone shall manage."
The new approach did not secure immediate approval, but it was endorsed by the House of Lords in Quin & Axtens v Salmon [1909] AC 442 and has since received general acceptance. Under English law, successive versions of Table A have reinforced the norm that, unless the directors are acting contrary to the law or the provisions of the Articles, the powers of conducting the management and affairs of the company are vested in them.
The modern doctrine was expressed in John Shaw & Sons (Salford) Ltd v Shaw [1935] 2 KB 113 by Greer LJ as follows:
<blockquote>A company is an entity distinct alike from its shareholders and its directors. Some of its powers may, according to its articles, be exercised by directors, certain other powers may be reserved for the shareholders in general meeting. If powers of management are vested in the directors, they and they alone can exercise these powers. The only way in which the general body of shareholders can control the exercise of powers by the articles in the directors is by altering the articles, or, if opportunity arises under the articles, by refusing to re-elect the directors of whose actions they disapprove. They cannot themselves usurp the powers which by the articles are vested in the directors any more than the directors can usurp the powers vested by the articles in the general body of shareholders.
</blockquote>
It has been remarked that this development in the law was somewhat surprising at the time, as the relevant provisions in Table A (as it was then) seemed to contradict this approach rather than to endorse it.DemographicsThe age of board members has become a notable trend across global stock exchanges, reflecting an increasingly older demographic in leadership roles. As of 2025, the average age of board members of companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange stands at 62.2 years, while the United Kingdom reports an average of 60.1 years, Germany 59.3 years, South Korea 59 years, and Hong Kong 54.9 years. New York Stock Exchange companies exhibit the highest average age, at 62.9 years. In response to this aging trend, some firms, particularly those in entertainment and trend-driven sectors, have actively sought to appoint younger board members. An example is Sanrio, the Japanese company behind the Hello Kitty franchise, which reduced the average age of its board from 68 years in 2020 to 51 years by 2024, signaling a deliberate intergenerational shift in governance.
Election and removal
In most legal systems, the appointment and removal of directors is voted upon by the shareholders in general meeting or through a proxy statement. For publicly traded companies in the U.S., the directors which are available to vote on are largely selected by either the board as a whole or a nominating committee. nomination committees have historically received input from management in their selections even when the CEO does not have a position on the board. In practice for publicly traded companies, the managers (inside directors) who are purportedly accountable to the board of directors have historically played a major role in selecting and nominating the directors who are voted on by the shareholders, in which case more "gray outsider directors" (independent directors with conflicts of interest) are nominated and elected.
In countries with co-determination, a fixed fraction of the board is elected by the corporation's workers.
Directors may also leave office by resignation or death. In some legal systems, directors may also be removed by a resolution of the remaining directors (in some countries they may only do so "with cause"; in others the power is unrestricted).
Some jurisdictions also permit the board of directors to appoint directors, either to fill a vacancy which arises on resignation or death, or as an addition to the existing directors.
In practice, it can be quite difficult to remove a director by a resolution in general meeting. In many legal systems, the director has a right to receive special notice of any resolution to remove them; the company must often supply a copy of the proposal to the director, who is usually entitled to be heard by the meeting. The director may require the company to circulate any representations that they wish to make. Furthermore, the director's contract of service will usually entitle them to compensation if they are removed, and may often include a generous "golden parachute" which also acts as a deterrent to removal.
A 2010 study examined how corporate shareholders voted in director elections in the United States. It found that directors received fewer votes from shareholders when their companies performed poorly, had excess CEO compensation, or had poor shareholder protection. Also, directors received fewer votes when they did not regularly attend board meetings or received negative recommendations from a proxy advisory firm. The study also shows that companies often improve their corporate governance by removing poison pills or classified boards and by reducing excessive CEO pay after their directors receive low shareholder support.
Board accountability to shareholders is a recurring issue. In September 2010, The New York Times noted that several directors who had overseen companies which had failed in the 2007–2008 financial crisis had found new positions as directors. The SEC sometimes imposes a ban (a "D&O bar") on serving on a board as part of its fraud cases, and one of these was upheld in 2013.
Exercise of powers
The exercise by the board of directors of its powers usually occurs in board meetings. Most legal systems require sufficient notice to be given to all directors of these meetings, and that a quorum must be present before any business may be conducted. Usually, a meeting which is held without notice having been given is still valid if all of the directors attend, but it has been held that a failure to give notice may negate resolutions passed at a meeting, because the persuasive oratory of a minority of directors might have persuaded the majority to change their minds and vote otherwise.
In most common law countries, the powers of the board are vested in the board as a whole, and not in the individual directors. However, in instances an individual director may still bind the company by their acts by virtue of their ostensible authority (see also: the rule in Turquand's Case'').
Duties<!-- This section is linked from Corporate benefit. See WP:MOS#Section management -->
Because directors exercise control and management over the organization, but organizations are (in theory) run for the benefit of the shareholders, the law imposes strict duties on directors in relation to the exercise of their duties. The duties imposed on directors are fiduciary duties, similar to those that the law imposes on those in similar positions of trust: agents and trustees.
The duties apply to each director separately, while the powers apply to the board jointly. Also, the duties are owed to the company itself, and not to any other entity. This does not mean that directors can never stand in a fiduciary relationship to the individual shareholders; they may well have such a duty in certain circumstances.
"Proper purpose"
Directors must exercise their powers for a proper purpose. While in many instances an improper purpose is readily evident, such as a director looking to enrich themselves or divert an investment opportunity to a relative, such breaches usually involve a breach of the director's duty to act in good faith. Greater difficulties arise where the director, while acting in good faith, is serving a purpose that is not regarded by the law as proper.
The seminal authority in the United Kingdom in relation to what amounts to a proper purpose is the Supreme Court decision in Eclairs Group Ltd v JKX Oil & Gas plc (2015). The case concerned the powers of directors under the articles of association of the company to disenfranchise voting rights attached to shares for failure to properly comply with notice served on the shareholders. Prior to that case the leading authority was Howard Smith Ltd v Ampol Ltd [1974] AC 821. The case concerned the power of the directors to issue new shares. It was alleged that the directors had issued many new shares purely to deprive a particular shareholder of his voting majority. An argument that the power to issue shares could only be properly exercised to raise new capital was rejected as too narrow, and it was held that it would be a proper exercise of the director's powers to issue shares to a larger company to ensure the financial stability of the company, or as part of an agreement to exploit mineral rights owned by the company. If so, the mere fact that an incidental result (even if it was a desired consequence) was that a shareholder lost their majority, or a takeover bid was defeated, this would not itself make the share issue improper. But if the sole purpose was to destroy a voting majority, or block a takeover bid, that would be an improper purpose.
Not all jurisdictions recognised the "proper purpose" duty as separate from the "good faith" duty however.
"Unfettered discretion"
Directors cannot, without the consent of the company, fetter their discretion in relation to the exercise of their powers, and cannot bind themselves to vote in a particular way at future board meetings. This is so even if there is no improper motive or purpose, and no personal advantage to the director.
This does not mean, however, that the board cannot agree to the company entering into a contract which binds the company to a certain course, even if certain actions in that course will require further board approval. The company remains bound, but the directors retain the discretion to vote against taking the future actions (although that may involve a breach by the company of the contract that the board previously approved).
"Conflict of duty and interest"
As fiduciaries, the directors may not put themselves in a position where their interests and duties conflict with the duties that they owe to the company. The law takes the view that good faith must not only be done, but must be manifestly seen to be done, and zealously patrols the conduct of directors in this regard; and will not allow directors to escape liability by asserting that their decisions were in fact well founded. Traditionally, the law has divided conflicts of duty and interest into three sub-categories:
1. Transactions with the company
By definition, where a director enters into a transaction with a company, there is a conflict between the director's interest (to enrich themselves with the transaction) and their duty to the company (to ensure that the company gets as much as it can out of the transaction). In some places, this rule is so strictly enforced that, even where the conflict of interest or conflict of duty is purely hypothetical, the directors can be forced to disgorge all personal gains arising from it. In Aberdeen Ry v Blaikie (1854) 1 Macq HL 461 Lord Cranworth stated in his judgment that:
:"A corporate body can only act by agents, and it is, of course, the duty of those agents so to act as best to promote the interests of the corporation whose affairs they are conducting. Such agents have duties to discharge of a fiduciary nature towards their principal. And it is a rule of universal application that no one, having such duties to discharge, shall be allowed to enter into engagements in which he has, or can have, a personal interest conflicting or which possibly may conflict, with the interests of those whom he is bound to protect... So strictly is this principle adhered to that no question is allowed to be raised as to the fairness or unfairness of the contract entered into..." (emphasis added)
However, in many jurisdictions the members of the company are permitted to ratify transactions which would otherwise fall foul of this principle. It is also largely accepted in most jurisdictions that this principle can be overridden in the company's constitution.
In many countries, there is also a statutory duty to declare interests in relation to any transactions, and the director can be fined for failing to make disclosure.
2. Use of corporate property, opportunity, or information
Directors must not, without the informed consent of the company, use for their own profit the company's assets, opportunities, or information. This prohibition is much less flexible than the prohibition against the transactions with the company, and attempts to circumvent it using provisions in the articles have met with limited success.
In Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver [1942] All ER 378 the House of Lords, in upholding what was regarded as a wholly unmeritorious claim by the shareholders, held that:
: "(i) that what the directors did was so related to the affairs of the company that it can properly be said to have been done in the course of their management and in the utilisation of their opportunities and special knowledge as directors; and (ii) that what they did resulted in profit to themselves."
And accordingly, the directors were required to disgorge the profits that they made, and the shareholders received their windfall.
The decision has been followed in several subsequent cases, and is now regarded as settled law.
3. Competing with the company
Directors cannot compete directly with the company without a conflict of interest arising. Similarly, they should not act as directors of competing companies, as their duties to each company would then conflict with each other.
Common law duties of care and skill
Traditionally, the level of care and skill which has to be demonstrated by a director has been framed largely with reference to the non-executive director. In Re City Equitable Fire Insurance Co [1925] Ch 407, it was expressed in purely subjective terms, where the court held that:
: "a director need not exhibit in the performance of his duties a greater degree of skill than may reasonably be expected from a person of his knowledge and experience." (emphasis added)
However, this decision was based firmly in the older notions (see above) that prevailed at the time as to the mode of corporate decision making, and effective control residing in the shareholders; if they elected and put up with an incompetent decision maker, they should not have recourse to complain.
However, a more modern approach has since developed, and in Dorchester Finance Co Ltd v Stebbing [1989] BCLC 498 the court held that the rule in Equitable Fire'' related only to skill, and not to diligence. With respect to diligence, what was required was:
: "such care as an ordinary man might be expected to take on his own behalf."
This was a dual subjective and objective test, and one deliberately pitched at a higher level.
More recently, it has been suggested that both the tests of skill and diligence should be assessed objectively and subjectively; in the United Kingdom, the statutory provisions relating to directors' duties in the new Companies Act 2006 have been codified on this basis. Remedies for breach of duty
In most jurisdictions, the law provides for a variety of remedies in the event of a breach by the directors of their duties:
* Account of profits
* Damages or compensation
* Injunction or declaration
* Rescission of the relevant contract
* Restoration of the company's property
* Summary dismissal
Current trends
Historically, directors' duties have been owed almost exclusively to the company and its members, and the board was expected to exercise its powers for the financial benefit of the company. However, more recently there have been attempts to "soften" the position, and provide for more scope for directors to act as good corporate citizens. For example, in the United Kingdom, the Companies Act 2006 requires directors of companies "to promote the success of the company for the benefit of its members as a whole" and sets out the following six factors regarding a director's duty to promote success:
* The likely consequences of any decision in the long term
* The interests of the company's employees
* The need to foster the company's business relationships with suppliers, customers and others
* The impact of the company's operations on the community and the environment
* The desirability of the company maintaining a reputation for high standards of business conduct
* The need to act fairly as between members of a company
This represents a considerable departure from the traditional notion that directors' duties are owed only to the company. Previously in the United Kingdom, under the Companies Act 1985, protections for non-member stakeholders were considerably more limited (see, for example, s.309 which permitted directors to take into account the interests of employees but which could only be enforced by the shareholders and not by the employees themselves). The changes have therefore been the subject of some criticism.
Board of directors technology
The adoption of technology that facilitates the meeting preparation and execution of directors continues to grow. Board directors are increasingly leveraging this technology to communicate and collaborate within a secure environment to access meeting materials, communicate with each other, and execute their governance responsibilities. This trend is particularly acute in the United States where a robust market of early adopters garnered acceptance of board software by organizations resulting in higher penetration of the board portal services in the region. has society designed into its structure. It elevates the voice of society through specialist appointments to the board and mechanisms that empower innovation from within the organisation. Social boards align themselves with themes that are important to society. These may include measuring worker pay ratios, linking personal social and environmental objectives to remuneration, integrated reporting, fair tax and B-Corp certification.
Social boards recognise that they are part of society and that they require more than a licence to operate to succeed. They balance short-term shareholder pressure against long-term value creation, managing the business for a plurality of stakeholders including employees, shareholders, supply chains and civil society.
United States
Sarbanes–Oxley Act
The Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 has introduced new standards of accountability on boards of U.S. companies or companies listed on U.S. stock exchanges. Under the act, directors risk large fines and prison sentences in the case of accounting crimes. Internal control is now the direct responsibility of directors. The vast majority of companies covered by the act have hired internal auditors to ensure that the company adheres to required standards of internal control. The internal auditors are required by law to report directly to an audit board, consisting of directors more than half of whom are outside directors, one of whom is a "financial expert".
The law requires companies listed on the major stock exchanges (NYSE, NASDAQ) to have a majority of independent directors—directors who are not otherwise employed by the firm or in a business relationship with it.
Size
According to the Corporate Library's study, the average size of publicly traded company's board is 9.2 members, and most boards range from 3 to 31 members. According to Investopedia, some analysts think the ideal size is seven. State law may specify a minimum number of directors, maximum number of directors, and qualifications for directors (e.g. whether board members must be individuals or may be business entities).
Committees
While a board may have several committees, two—the compensation committee and audit committee—are critical and must be made up of at least three independent directors and no inside directors. Other common committees in boards are nominating and governance.CompensationDirectors of Fortune 500 companies received median pay of $234,000 in 2011. Directorship is a part-time job. A 2011 study by the National Association of Corporate Directors in the United States estimated that directors averaged 4.3 hours a week on board work. Surveys have indicated that about 20% of nonprofit foundations pay their board members, and 2% of American nonprofit organizations do.<!--
Discussion:
--> 80% of nonprofit organizations require board members to personally contribute to the organization. As of 2007, this percentage had increased in recent years.
Criticism
According to John Gillespie, a former investment banker and co-author of a book critical of boards, "Far too much of their time has been for check-the-box and cover-your-behind activities rather than real monitoring of executives and providing strategic advice on behalf of shareholders". and cross-border investments.
According to the International Institute of Management, the rise in investor dissatisfaction, class-action lawsuits and shareholder activism has resulted in more attention directed toward the board of directors and the lack of corporate governance accountability. Shareholders' complaints include issues such as excessive executive compensation and passive participation (lack of proper governance) of the board members. The journal paper cites examples of underperforming CEOs of Fortune 500 companies who took compensation and retirement package in hundreds of millions of dollars while the stock price of their companies lost billions of dollars. The research proposes institutionalizing a standardized board evaluation framework to help balance between the executive compensation and protecting the interest of shareholders
The issue of gender representation on corporate boards of directors has been the subject of much criticism in recent years. Governments and corporations have responded with measures such as legislation mandating gender quotas and comply or explain systems to address the disproportionality of gender representation on corporate boards. A study of the French corporate elite has found that certain social classes are also disproportionately represented on boards, with those from the upper and, especially, upper-middle classes tending to dominate.
See also
*Alternate director
*Celebrity board director
*Governing boards of colleges and universities in the United States
*Parliamentary procedure in the corporate world
*Vorstand, German for 'management board'
* Worker representation on corporate boards of directors
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
* P. Blumberg, 'Reflections on Proposals for Corporate Reform Through Change in the Composition of the Board of Directors: "Special Interest" or "Public" Directors' (1973) 53 Boston University Law Review 547
*
* KJ Hopt, '[https://ssrn.com/abstract=159555 The German Two-Tier Board: Experience, Theories, Reforms]' in KJ Hopt and others. (eds), Comparative Corporate Governance: The State of the Art and Emerging Research (Clarendon 1998)
* KJ Hopt and PC Leyens, 'Board Models in Europe – Recent Developments of Internal Corporate Governance Structures in Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy' (2004) [https://ssrn.com/abstract=487944 EGCI Working Paper]
*
* Acre Resources LTD (2018), [https://web.archive.org/web/20181009132159/https://www.acre.com/resources/the-case-for-a-social-board/ The Case for a Social Board], London, UK
External links
*[https://www.NEDonBoard.com NEDonBoard] — UK professional body for non-executive directors and board members
*[https://web.Archive.org/web/20111112141042/http://www.PSU.edu/trustees/ Website of the board of a large U.S. university, illustrating a typical board's composition, duties, concerns, etc.]
*[https://NACDonline.org National Association of Corporate Directors]
*[https://www.iod.com/ Institute of Directors UK]
*[https://www.globalboardadvisors.com/ GBAC Global Board Advisors Corp] GBAC is AACSB Business Alliance Member https://www.aacsb.edu/businesses/business-membership/find-a-member . They operate with two domains Boardroomeducation.com and globalboardadvisors.com
Category:Business law
Category:Business terms
Category:Corporate law
Category:Committees
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_directors
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Balkan Wars
|
)<br/>)}})}}
| place =
| territory | result First Balkan War:
* Balkan League victory
* Treaty of London
Second Balkan War:
* Bulgarian defeat
* Treaty of Bucharest
* Treaty of Constantinople
| status | combatants_header
| combatant1 = First Balkan War:}}
| combatant1a = Second Balkan War:<br>
| combatant2 = First Balkan War:<br>
*
*
*
}}
| combatant2a = Second Balkan War:<br>
*
*
*
<hr/>
*}}
| commander1 = Mehmed V
* Enver Pasha
* Nazım Pasha
* Zeki Pasha
* Abdul Kerim Pasha
* Kölemen Abdullah Pasha}}
* Hasan Tahsin Pasha}}
* Rauf Pasha}}}}
----
Ferdinand I
* Mihail Savov
* Vasil Kutinchev
* Nikola Ivanov
* Radko Dimitriev
* Stiliyan Kovachev}}}}
| commander2 = Ferdinand I
* Mihail Savov
* Vasil Kutinchev
* Nikola Ivanov
* Radko Dimitriev
* Radomir Putnik
* Petar Bojović
* Stepa Stepanović
* Eleftherios Venizelos
* Crown Prince Constantine}}
* Pavlos Kountouriotis
* Nicholas I
* Prince Danilo Petrović
* Carol I
* Ferdinand I}}}}
| strength1 = 437,000+
----
600,000+
| strength2 = 450,000+<br/> 230,000<br/> 125,000<br/> 44,500<br/>Total:<br/>850,000 men
----
348,000<br/> 330,000<br/> 255,000<br/> 148,000<br/> 12,800
<br/>
Total:<br/>1,093,800 men
| strength3 | casualties1
| casualties2 | casualties3
| notes 632,000–1,500,000 Ottoman Muslim civilian deaths <br/> 400,000–813,000 Ottoman Muslim refugees <br> Albanian civilians killed<br/> 60,000–300,000 Albanians deported from Old Serbia<br> 200,000 East Thracian Bulgarians killed or expelled<nowiki></nowiki>
| campaignbox =
| image_size = 300px
}}
The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the Balkan states in 1912 and 1913. In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan states of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defeated it, in the process stripping the Ottomans of their European provinces, leaving only Eastern Thrace under Ottoman control. In the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria fought against the other four combatants of the first war. It also faced an attack from Romania from the north. The Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe. Although not involved as a combatant, Austria-Hungary became relatively weaker as a much enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples. The war set the stage for the July crisis of 1914 and as a prelude to the First World War.
By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large elements of their ethnic populations remained under Ottoman rule. Over the course of the Macedonian Struggle these states fought for influence between themselves and the Ottoman government within Ottoman Macedonia, during which their governments came under the control of nationalists. In 1912, these countries united to formed the Balkan League. The First Balkan War began on 8 October 1912, when the League member states attacked the Ottoman Empire, and ended eight months later with the signing of the Treaty of London on 30 May 1913. The Second Balkan War began on 16 June 1913, when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its loss of Macedonia, attacked its former Balkan League allies. The combined forces of Serbian and Greek armies, with their superior numbers repelled the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked Bulgaria by invading it from the west and the south. Romania, having taken no part in the conflict, had intact armies to strike with and invaded Bulgaria from the north. The Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and advanced in Thrace, regaining Adrianople. In the resulting Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria managed to regain most of the territories it had gained in the First Balkan War. However, it was forced to cede the ex-Ottoman south part of Dobruja province to Romania.
The Balkan Wars were marked by ethnic cleansing, with all parties being responsible for grave atrocities against civilians, and inspired later atrocities including war crimes during the 1990s Yugoslav Wars.Background
.]]
'' cartoon of October 2, 1912, by English cartoonist Leonard Raven-Hill depicting Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia sitting on a lid on top of a pot marked "Balkan Troubles", satirizing the situation in the Balkans leading up to the First Balkan War]]
, the chief of staff of the Ottoman army, was assassinated in January 1913 by Young Turks due to his failure.]]
The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the European territory of the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the 19th century. Serbia had gained substantial territory during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881 (although it lost a small area back to the Ottoman Empire in 1897) and Bulgaria (an autonomous principality since 1878) incorporated the formerly distinct province of Eastern Rumelia (1885). All three countries, as well as Montenegro, sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled region known as Rumelia, comprising Eastern Rumelia, Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace.
The First Balkan War had some main causes, which included:
# The Ottoman Empire was unable to reform itself, govern satisfactorily, or deal with the rising ethnic nationalism of its diverse peoples.
# The loss of Libya to Italy in 1911 and the revolts in the Albanian Provinces showed that the Empire was deeply "wounded" and unable to strike back against another war.
# The Great Powers quarreled amongst themselves and failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out the needed reforms. This led the Balkan states to impose their own solution.
# The Christian populations of the European part of the Ottoman Empire were oppressed by the Ottoman Reign, thus forcing the Christian Balkan states to take action.
# Most importantly, the Balkan League was formed, and its members were confident that under those circumstances an organised and simultaneous declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire would be the only way to protect their compatriots and expand their territories in the Balkan Peninsula.
Policies of the Great Powers
Throughout the 19th century, the Great Powers shared different aims over the "Eastern Question" and the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Russia wanted access to the "warm waters" of the Mediterranean from the Black Sea; so, it pursued a pan-Slavic foreign policy and therefore supported Bulgaria and Serbia. Britain wished to deny Russia access to the "warm waters" and supported the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, although it also supported a limited expansion of Greece as a backup plan in case integrity of the Ottoman Empire was not possible. France wished to strengthen its position in the region, especially in the Levant (today's Lebanon, Syria, and Israel).
Habsburg-ruled Austria-Hungary wished for a continuation of the existence of the Ottoman Empire, since both were troubled multinational entities and thus the collapse of the one might weaken the other. The Habsburgs also saw a strong Ottoman presence in the area as a counterweight to the Serbian nationalistic call to their own Serb subjects in Bosnia, Vojvodina and other parts of the empire. Italy's primary aim at the time seems to have been the denial of access to the Adriatic Sea to another major sea power. The German Empire, in turn, under the "Drang nach Osten" policy, aspired to turn the Ottoman Empire into its own de facto colony, and thus supported its integrity. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Bulgaria and Greece contended for Ottoman Macedonia and Thrace. Ethnic Greeks sought the forced "Hellenization" of ethnic Bulgars, who sought "Bulgarization" of Greeks (Rise of nationalism). Both nations sent armed irregulars into Ottoman territory to protect and assist their ethnic kindred. From 1904, there was low-intensity warfare in Macedonia between the Greek and Bulgarian bands and the Ottoman army (the Struggle for Macedonia). After the Young Turk revolution of July 1908, the situation changed drastically.
Young Turk Revolution
The 1908 Young Turk Revolution saw the reinstatement of constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire and the start of the Second Constitutional Era. When the revolt broke out, it was supported by intellectuals, the army, and almost all the ethnic minorities of the Empire. It forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to re-adopt the defunct Ottoman constitution of 1876 and parliament. Hopes were raised among the Balkan ethnicities of reforms and autonomy. Elections were held to form a representative, multi-ethnic, Ottoman parliament. However, following the Sultan's failed counter-coup of 1909, the liberal element of the Young Turks was sidelined and the nationalist element became dominant.
In October 1908, Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity of the Ottoman political upheaval to annex the de jure Ottoman province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878 (see Bosnian Crisis). Bulgaria declared independence as it had done in 1878, but this time the independence was internationally recognized. The Greeks of the autonomous Cretan State proclaimed unification with Greece, though the opposition of the Great Powers prevented the latter action from taking practical effect.
Reaction in the Balkan states
Serbia was frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary's incorporation of Bosnia. In March 1909, Serbia was forced to accept the annexation and restrain anti-Habsburg agitation by Serbian nationalists. Instead, the Serbian government (PM: Nikola Pašić) looked to formerly Serb territories in the south, notably "Old Serbia" (the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and the province of Kosovo).
On 15 August 1909, the Military League, a group of Greek officers, launched a coup. The Military League sought the creation of a new political system and thus summoned the Cretan politician Eleftherios Venizelos to Athens as its political advisor. Venizelos persuaded King George I to revise the constitution and asked the League to disband in favor of a National Assembly. In March 1910, the Military League dissolved itself.
Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to annex districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia. In August 1910, Montenegro followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom.Pre-War treaties
]]
Following the Italian victory in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912, the severity of the Ottomanizing policy of the Young Turkish regime and a series of three revolts in Ottoman held Albania, the Young Turks fell from power after a coup. The Christian Balkan countries were forced to take action and saw this as an opportunity to promote their national agenda by expanding in the territories of the falling empire and liberating their enslaved co-patriots. In order to achieve that, a wide net of treaties was constructed and an alliance was formed.
The negotiation among the Balkan states' governments started in the latter part of 1911 and was all conducted in secret. The treaties and military conventions were published in French translations after the Balkan Wars on 24–26 of November in Le Matin, Paris, France
In April 1911, Greek PM Eleutherios Venizelos’ attempt to reach an agreement with the Bulgarian PM and form a defensive alliance against the Ottoman Empire was fruitless, because of the doubts the Bulgarians held on the strength of the Greek Army. On the other side, Bulgaria wanted the autonomy of Macedonia region under the influence of the two countries. The then Bulgarian Minister of Foreign Affairs General Stefan Paprikov stated in 1909 that, "It will be clear that if not today then tomorrow, the most important issue will again be the Macedonian Question. And this question, whatever happens, cannot be decided without more or less direct participation of the Balkan States".
On the naval front, the Ottoman fleet twice exited the Dardanelles and was twice defeated by the Greek Navy, in the battles of Elli and Lemnos. Greek dominance on the Aegean Sea made it impossible for the Ottomans to transfer the planned troops from the Middle East to the Thracian (against the Bulgarian) and to the Macedonian (against the Greeks and Serbians) fronts. According to E.J. Erickson the Greek Navy also played a crucial, albeit indirect role, in the Thracian campaign by neutralizing no less than three Thracian Corps (see First Balkan War, the Bulgarian theater of operations), a significant portion of the Ottoman Army there, in the all-important opening round of the war. After the defeat of the Ottoman fleet, the Greek Navy was also free to occupy the islands of the Aegean. General Nikola Ivanov identified the activity of the Greek Navy as the chief factor in the general success of the allies.
In January, after a successful coup by young army officers, the Ottoman Empire decided to continue the war. After a failed Ottoman counter-attack in the Western-Thracian front, Bulgarian forces, with the help of the Serbian Army, managed to conquer Adrianople, while Greek forces managed to take Ioannina after defeating the Ottomans in the Battle of Bizani. In the joint Serbian-Montenegrin theater of operation, the Montenegrin army besieged and captured the Shkodra, ending the Ottoman presence in Europe west of the Çatalca line after nearly 500 years. The war ended officially with the Treaty of London on 30(17) May 1913.
Prelude to the Second Balkan War
After pressure from the Great Powers towards Greece and Serbia, who had postponed signing in order to fortify their defensive positions, the signing of the Treaty of London took place on 30 May 1913. With this treaty, the war between the Balkan Allies and the Ottoman Empire came to an end. From now on, the Great Powers had the right of decision on the territorial adjustments that had to be made, which even led to the creation of an independent Albania. Every Aegean island belonging to the Ottoman Empire, with the exception of Imbros and Tenedos, was handed over to the Greeks, including the island of Crete.
Furthermore, all European territory of the Ottoman Empire west of the Enos-Midiya (Enez-Kıyıköy) line, was ceded to the Balkan League, but the division of the territory among the League was not to be decided by the Treaty itself.
This event led to the formation of two ‘de facto’ military occupation zones on Macedonian territory, as Greece and Serbia tried to create a common border. In turn, Bulgarians were furious about Serbia's refusal to honour its commitments under the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty, which had split the geographic region of Macedonia into two zones, one contested between Serbia and Bulgaria, and another one, recognised by the two countries as Bulgarian by rights.
Before the war, Serbia had relinquished its claim to the territory east of the Ohrid-Kriva Palanka line in favour of Bulgaria (the ‘Uncontested Zone’), while the future of some 11,000 square km<sup>2</sup> of territory, forming the northwestern corner of geographic region of Macedonia (the ‘Contested Zone’), was to be decided by the Russian Emperor, who was Senior Arbitrary and Guarantor of the alliance.
Assured by the clauses of the Treaty that it would receive what it considered its fair share of Macedonia, Bulgaria sent almost all of its troops to the Thracian front, which was expected to, and eventually did indeed, decide the outcome of the war. At the same time, Serbia pushed into Kosovo and northern Macedonia.
As the establishment of an independent Albanian state, brokered by Italy and Austria-Hungary, deprived the Serbs of their much-coveted Adriatic port, they demanded not only the entire Contested Zone, but also all of the Uncontested one they had occupied. Bulgarian efforts to appeal to the Russian Emperor, quoting, for example, the clauses of the Treaty, the material difference between Serbian (29,698) and Bulgarian casualties (87,926) or the surrender of the Bulgarian City of Silistra to Romania as compensation for its continued neutrality proved futile. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov instead kept encouraging Bulgaria to accede to an ever-increasing list of Serbian demands.
In the end, Bulgaria's overreliance on the Russian Empire, a power which had anathemised the Unification of Bulgaria, invited the Ottoman Sultan to reconquer Eastern Rumelia and organised a coup against the Bulgarian Prince only three decades prior and which had watched Ferdinand's charge towards Istanbul with ill-disguised alarm due to its own long-standing aspirations towards the Turkish Straits, Bulgaria's unwillingness to reach a compromise with Greece, despite several attempts made by Greek Prime Minister Venizelos,
Second Balkan War
was common among the soldiers of the combatant nations]]
Though the Balkan allies had fought together against the common enemy, that was not enough to overcome their mutual rivalries. In the original document for the Balkans league, Serbia promised Bulgaria most of Macedonia. But before the first war had come to an end, Serbia (in violation of the previous agreement) and Greece revealed their plan to keep possession of the territories that their forces had occupied. This act prompted the tsar of Bulgaria to invade his allies. The Second Balkan War broke out on 29 (16) June 1913, when Bulgaria attacked its erstwhile allies in the First Balkan War, Serbia and Greece, while Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire intervened later against Bulgaria, with Romania attacking Bulgaria from the north in violation of a peace treaty.
When the Greek army had entered Thessaloniki in the First Balkan War ahead of the Bulgarian 7th division by only a day, they were asked to allow a Bulgarian battalion to enter the city. Greece accepted in exchange for allowing a Greek unit to enter the city of Serres. The Bulgarian unit that entered Thessaloniki turned out to be an 18,000-strong division instead of the battalion, which caused concern among the Greeks, who viewed it as a Bulgarian attempt to establish a condominium over the city. In the event, due to the urgently needed reinforcements in the Thracian front, Bulgarian Headquarters was soon forced to remove its troops from the city (while the Greeks agreed by mutual treaty to remove their units based in Serres) and transport them to Dedeağaç (modern Alexandroupolis), but it left behind a battalion that started fortifying its positions.
Greece had also allowed the Bulgarians to control the stretch of the Thessaloniki-Constantinople railroad that lay in Greek-occupied territory since Bulgaria controlled the largest part of this railroad towards Thrace. After the end of the operations in Thrace, and confirming Greek concerns, Bulgaria was not satisfied with the territory it controlled in Macedonia and immediately asked Greece to relinquish its control over Thessaloniki and the land north of Pieria, effectively handing over all of Greek Macedonia. These demands, with the Bulgarian refusal to demobilize its army after the Treaty of London had ended the common war against the Ottomans, alarmed Greece, which decided to also keep its army mobilized. A month after the Second Balkan War started, the Bulgarian community of Thessaloniki no longer existed, as hundreds of long-time Bulgarian locals were arrested. Thirteen hundred Bulgarian soldiers and about five hundred komitadjis were also arrested and transferred to Greek prisons. In November 1913, the Bulgarians were forced to admit their defeat, as the Greeks received international recognition on their claim of Thessaloniki.
Similarly, in modern North Macedonia, the tension between Serbia and Bulgaria due to the latter's aspirations over Vardar Macedonia generated many incidents between their respective armies, prompting Serbia to keep its army mobilized. Serbia and Greece proposed that each of the three countries reduce its army by a quarter, as the first step towards a peaceful solution, but Bulgaria rejected it. Seeing the omens, Greece and Serbia started a series of negotiations and signed a treaty on 1 June(19 May) 1913. With this treaty, a mutual border was agreed between the two countries, together with an agreement for mutual military and diplomatic support in case of a Bulgarian or/and Austro-Hungarian attack. Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, being well informed, tried to stop the upcoming conflict on 8 June, by sending an identical personal message to the Kings of Bulgaria and Serbia, offering to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian treaty. But Bulgaria, by making the acceptance of Russian arbitration conditional, in effect denied any discussion, causing Russia to repudiate its alliance with Bulgaria (see Russo-Bulgarian military convention signed 31 May 1902).
The Serbs and the Greeks had a military advantage on the eve of the war because their armies confronted comparatively weak Ottoman forces in the First Balkan War and suffered relatively light casualties, while the Bulgarians were involved in heavy fighting in Thrace. The Serbs and Greeks had time to fortify their positions in Macedonia. The Bulgarians also held some advantages, controlling internal communication and supply lines.
On 29(16) June 1913, General Savov, under direct orders of Tsar Ferdinand I, issued attack orders against both Greece and Serbia without consulting the Bulgarian government and without an official declaration of war. During the night of 30(17) June 1913, they attacked the Serbian army at Bregalnica river and then the Greek army in Nigrita. The Serbian army resisted the sudden night attack, while most of the soldiers did not even know who they were fighting with, as Bulgarian camps were located next to Serbs and were considered allies. Montenegro's forces were just a few kilometers away and also rushed to the battle. The Bulgarian attack was halted.
The Greek army was also successful. It retreated according to plan for two days while Thessaloniki was cleared of the remaining Bulgarian regiment. Then, the Greek army counterattacked and defeated the Bulgarians at Kilkis (Kukush), after which the mostly Bulgarian town was plundered and burnt and part of its mostly Bulgarian population massacred by the Greek army. Following the capture of Kilkis, the Greek army's pace was not quick enough to prevent the retaliatory destruction of Nigrita, Serres, and Doxato and massacres of non-combatant Greek inhabitants at Sidirokastro and Doxato by the Bulgarian army. The Greek committed further war crimes against the Bulgarian population during it advance - in total about 160 Bulgarian villages were destroyed and most of their population expelled. with multiple additional massacres of the Bulgarian civilian population. The Greek army then divided its forces and advanced in two directions. Part proceeded east and occupied Western Thrace. The rest of the Greek army advanced up to the Struma River valley, defeating the Bulgarian army in the battles of Doiran and Mt. Beles, and continued its advance to the north towards Sofia. In the Kresna straits, the Greeks were ambushed by the Bulgarian 2nd and 1st Armies, newly arrived from the Serbian front, that had already taken defensive positions there following the Bulgarian victory at Kalimanci.
]]
By 30 July, the Greek army was outnumbered by the counter-attacking Bulgarian army, which attempted to encircle the Greeks in a Cannae-type battle, by applying pressure on their flanks. The Greek army was exhausted and faced logistical difficulties. The battle was continued for 11 days, between 29 July and 9 August over 20 km of a maze of forests and mountains with no conclusion. The Greek king, seeing that the units he fought were from the Serbian front, tried to convince the Serbs to renew their attack, as the front ahead of them was now thinner, but the Serbs declined. By then, news came of the Romanian advance toward Sofia and its imminent fall. Facing the danger of encirclement, Constantine realized that his army could no longer continue hostilities. Thus, he agreed to Eleftherios Venizelos' proposal and accepted the Bulgarian request for an armistice as had been communicated through Romania.
Romania had raised an army and declared war on Bulgaria on 10 July (27 June) as it had from 28 (15) June officially warned Bulgaria that it would not remain neutral in a new Balkan war, due to Bulgaria's refusal to cede the fortress of Silistra as promised before the First Balkan War in exchange for Romanian neutrality. Its forces encountered little resistance and, by the time the Greeks accepted the Bulgarian request for an armistice, they had reached Vrazhdebna, from the center of Sofia.
Seeing the military position of the Bulgarian army, the Ottomans decided to intervene. They attacked, and, finding no opposition, managed to win back all of their lands which had been officially ceded to Bulgaria as a part of the Sofia Conference in 1914, i.e. Thrace with its fortified city of Adrianople, regaining an area in Europe which was only slightly larger than the present-day European territory of the Republic of Turkey.
Reactions among the Great Powers during the wars
Bazaar at the turn of the 20th century.]]
The developments that led to the First Balkan War did not go unnoticed by the Great Powers. Although there was an official consensus between the European Powers over the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, which led to a stern warning to the Balkan states, unofficially each of them took a different diplomatic approach due to their conflicting interests in the area. As a result, any possible preventive effect of the common official warning was cancelled by the mixed unofficial signals, and failed to prevent or to stop the war:
*Russia was a prime mover in the establishment of the Balkan League and saw it as an essential tool in case of a future war against its rival, the Austro-Hungarian Empire. However, it was unaware of the Bulgarian plans over Thrace and Constantinople, territories on which it had long-held ambitions, and on which it had just secured a secret agreement of expansion from its allies France and Britain, as a reward for participating in the upcoming Great War against the Central Powers.
*France, not feeling ready for a war against Germany in 1912, took a totally negative position against the war, firmly informing its ally Russia that it would not take part in a potential conflict between Russia and Austria-Hungary if it resulted from the actions of the Balkan League. The French, however, failed to achieve British participation in a common intervention to stop the Balkan conflict.
*Great Britain, although officially a staunch supporter of the Ottoman Empire's integrity, took secret diplomatic steps encouraging Greek entry into the League in order to counteract Russian influence. At the same time, it encouraged Bulgarian aspirations over Thrace, preferring a Bulgarian Thrace to a Russian one, despite the assurances the British government had given to the Russians in regard to Russia's expansion there.
*Austria-Hungary, struggling for a port on the Adriatic and seeking ways for expansion in the south at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, was totally opposed to any other nation's expansion in the area. At the same time, the Habsburg empire had its own internal problems with significant Slav populations that campaigned against German-Hungarian control of the multinational state. Serbia, whose aspirations in the direction of Austrian-held Bosnia were no secret, was considered an enemy and the main tool of Russian machinations that were behind the agitation of Austria's Slav subjects. But Austria-Hungary failed to secure German backup for a firm reaction. Initially, Emperor Wilhelm II told the Archduke Franz Ferdinand that Germany was ready to support Austria in all circumstances — even at the risk of a world war, but the Austro-Hungarians hesitated. Finally, in the German Imperial War Council of 8 December 1912 the consensus was that Germany would not be ready for war until at least mid-1914 and passed notes to that effect to the Habsburgs. Consequently, no actions could be taken when the Serbs acceded to the Austrian ultimatum of 18 October and withdrew from Albania.
*Germany, already heavily involved in internal Ottoman politics, officially opposed a war against the Empire. But, in her effort to win Bulgaria for the Central Powers, and seeing the inevitability of Ottoman disintegration, was toying with the idea of replacing the Balkan area of the Ottomans with a friendly Greater Bulgaria in her San Stefano borders—an idea that was based on the German origin of the Bulgarian King and his anti-Russian sentiments.
The Second Balkan war was a catastrophic blow to Russian policies in the Balkans, which for centuries had focused on access to the "warm seas". First, it marked the end of the Balkan League, a vital arm of the Russian system of defense against Austria-Hungary. Second, the clearly pro-Serbian position Russia had been forced to take in the conflict, mainly due to the disagreements over land partitioning between Serbia and Bulgaria, caused a permanent break-up between the two countries. Accordingly, Bulgaria reverted its policy to one closer to the Central Powers' understanding over an anti-Serbian front, due to its new national aspirations, now expressed mainly against Serbia. As a result, Serbia was isolated militarily against its rival Austria-Hungary, a development that eventually doomed Serbia in the coming war a year later. Most damaging, the new situation effectively trapped Russian foreign policy: After 1913, Russia could not afford to lose its last ally in this crucial area and thus had no alternatives but to unconditionally support Serbia when the crisis between Serbia and Austria escalated in 1914. This was a position that inevitably drew Russia into an unwelcome World War with devastating results since it was less prepared (both militarily and socially) for that event than any other Great Power.
Austria-Hungary took alarm at the great increase in Serbia's territory at the expense of its national aspirations in the region, as well as Serbia's rising status, especially to Austria-Hungary's Slavic populations. This concern was shared by Germany, which saw Serbia as a satellite of Russia. These concerns contributed significantly to the two Central Powers' willingness to go to war against Serbia. This meant that when a Serbian backed organization assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the reform-minded heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, causing the 1914 July Crisis, the conflict quickly escalated and resulted in the First World War.
Epilogue
The Treaty of Bucharest
The epilogue to this nine-month pan-Balkan war was drawn mostly by the treaty of Bucharest, 10 August 1913. Delegates of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria, hosted by the deputy of Romania arrived in Bucharest to settle negotiations. Ottoman's request to participate was rejected, on the basis that the talks were to deal with matters strictly among the Balkan allies.
Serbia gained the territory of north-east Macedonia, settled the eastern borders with Bulgaria and gained the eastern half of the Sanjak of Novi-Bazar, doubling its size.
|- style="background:#D4F2CE;"
|align"left"| Battle of Bulair|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Georgi Todorov|| style"text-align:center;"| Mustafa Kemal|| style="text-align:center;"| Bulgarian Victory
|- style="background:#D4F2CE;"
|align"left"| Battle of Şarköy|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Stiliyan Kovachev || style"text-align:center;"| Enver Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Bulgarian Victory
|- style="background:lightgrey;"
|align"left"| Second Battle of Çatalca|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Vasil Kutinchev|| style"text-align:center;"| Ahmet Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Indecisive
|- style="background:#D4F2CE;"
|align"left"| Siege of Adrianople|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Georgi Vazov|| style"text-align:center;"| Gazi Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Bulgarian Victory
|}
Greek–Ottoman battles
{| style"width:76%;" class"wikitable"
|-
! style="width:25%;"| Battle
! style="width:8%;"| Year
! style="width:10%;"| Commander
! style"width:15%;"| Commander
! style="width:12%;"| Result
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Sarantaporo|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Constantine I || style"text-align:center;"| Hasan Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Yenidje|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Constantine I || style"text-align:center;"| Hasan Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Pente Pigadia|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Sapountzakis || style"text-align:center;"| Esat Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|- style="background:#F2CECE;"
|align"left"| Battle of Sorovich|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Matthaiopoulos|| style"text-align:center;"| Hasan Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Ottoman Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Revolt of Himara|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Sapountzakis || style"text-align:center;"| Esat Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Lesbos|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Kountouriotis || style"text-align:center;"| Abdul Ghani|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Chios|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Damianos || style"text-align:center;"| Zihne Bey|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|- style="background:#F2CECE;"
|align"left"| Battle of Driskos|| style"text-align:center;" | 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Matthaiopoulos|| style"text-align:center;"| Esat Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Ottoman Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Elli|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Kountouriotis|| style"text-align:center;"| Remzi Bey|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Capture of Korytsa|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Damianos|| style"text-align:center;"| Davit Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Lemnos|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Kountouriotis|| style"text-align:center;"| Remzi Bey|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Bizani|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Constantine I || style"text-align:center;"| Esat Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Greek Victory
|}
Serbian–Ottoman battles
{| style"width:76%;" class"wikitable"
|-
! style="width:25%;"| Battle
! style="width:8%;"| Year
! style="width:10%;"| Commander
! style"width:15%;"| Commander
! style="width:12%;"| Result
|- style="background:plum;"
|align"left"| Battle of Kumanovo|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Radomir Putnik|| style"text-align:center;"| Zeki Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Serbian Victory
|- style="background:plum;"
|align"left"| Battle of Prilep|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Petar Bojović || style"text-align:center;"| Zeki Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Serbian Victory
|- style="background:plum;"
|align"left"| Battle of Monastir|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Petar Bojović || style"text-align:center;"| Zeki Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Serbian Victory
|- style="background:#F2CECE;"
|align"left"| Battle of Lumë|| style"text-align:center;"| 1912 || style"text-align:center;"| Božidar Jankovic || style"text-align:center;"| Bajram Curri|| style="text-align:center;"| Ottoman victory
|- style="background:lightgrey;"
|align"left"| Siege of Scutari|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Nikola I || style"text-align:center;"| Hasan Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"|Status quo ante bellum
|-
|- style="background:plum;"
|align"left"| Siege of Adrianople|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Stepa Stepanovic || style"text-align:center;"| Gazi Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Serbian Victory
|}
Second Balkan War conflicts
Bulgarian–Greek battles
{| style"width:76%;" class"wikitable"
|-
! style="width:25%;"| Battle
! style="width:8%;"| Date
! style"width:10%;"| Commander
! style="width:15%;"| Commander
! style="width:12%;"| Result
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Kilkis-Lahanas || style"text-align:center;"| 19–21 June 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Nikola Ivanov|| style"text-align:center;"| Constantine I || style="text-align:center;"|Greek Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Doiran|| style"text-align:center;"| 23 June 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Nikola Ivanov|| style"text-align:center;"| Constantine I || style="text-align:center;"|Greek Victory
|- style="background:LightSkyBlue;"
|align"left"| Battle of Demir Hisar|| style"text-align:center;"| 26–27 June 1913|| style"text-align:center;"| Nikola Ivanov || style"text-align:center;"| Constantine I|| style="text-align:center;"|Greek Victory
|- style="background:lightgrey;"
|align"left"| Battle of Kresna Gorge|| style"text-align:center;"| 27–31 July 1913|| style"text-align:center;"| Mihail Savov || style"text-align:center;"| Constantine I|| style="text-align:center;"|Stalemate
|}
Bulgarian–Serbian battles
{| style"width:76%; text-align:center" class"wikitable"
|-
! style="width:20%;"| Battle
! style="width:13%;"| Date
! style"width:13%;"| Commander
! style"width:12%;"| Commander
! style="width:12%;"| Result
|-
|- style="background:plum;"
|align="left"| Battle of Bregalnica
|align="right"| 30 June–9 July 1913
| Mihail Savov
| Radomir Putnik
| Serbian victory
|-
|- style="background:#D4F2CE;"
|align="left"| Battle of Knjaževac
|align="right"| 4–7 July 1913
| Vasil Kutinchev
| Vukoman Aračić
| Bulgarian victory
|- style="background:plum;"
|align="left"| Battle of Pirot
|align="right"| 6–8 July 1913
|Mihail Savov
| Božidar Janković
| Serbian victory
|-
|- style="background:plum;"
|align="left"| Battle of Belogradchik
|align="right"| 8 July 1913
|Mihail Savov
|Božidar Janković
| Serbian victory
|- style="background:lightgrey;"
|align="left"| Siege of Vidin
|align="right"| 12–18 July 1913
| Krastyu Marinov
| Vukoman Aračić
| Peace treaty
|-
|- style="background:#D4F2CE;"
|align="left"| Battle of Kalimanci
|align="right"| 18–19 July 1913
| Mihail Savov
| Božidar Janković
| Bulgarian victory
|}
Bulgarian–Ottoman battles
{| style"width:76%;" class"wikitable"
|-
! style="width:25%;"| Battle
! style="width:8%;"| Year
! style"width:10%;"| Commander
! style"width:15%;"| Commander
! style="width:12%;"| Result
|- style="background:#F2CECE;"
|align"left"| Siege of Adrianople|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Mihail Savov|| style"text-align:center;"| Enver Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| First Armistice
|- style="background:#F2CECE;"
|align"left"| Ottoman Advance of Thrace|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Vulko Velchev|| style"text-align:center;"| Ahmed Pasha|| style="text-align:center;"| Final Armistice
|}
Bulgarian–Romanian battles
{| style"width:76%;" class"wikitable"
|-
! style="width:25%;"| Battle
! style="width:8%;"| Year
! style"width:10%;"| Commander
! style"width:15%;"| Commander
! style="width:12%;"| Result
|- style="background:lightyellow;"
|align"left"| Romanian landings in Bulgaria|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Ferdinand I|| style"text-align:center;"|Carol I of Romania || style="text-align:center;"| First Armistice
|- style="background:lightyellow;"
|align"left"| Southern Dobruja Offensive|| style"text-align:center;"| 1913 || style"text-align:center;"| Ferdinand I|| style"text-align:center;"|Carol I of Romania || style="text-align:center;"| Final Armistice
|}
Legacy
Citizens of Turkey regard the Balkan Wars as a major disaster (Balkan harbi faciası) in the nation's history. The Ottoman Empire lost all its European territories west of the River Maritsa as a result of the two Balkan Wars, which thus delineated present-day Turkey's western border. By 1923, only 38% of the Muslim population of 1912 still lived in the Balkans and majority of Balkan Turks had been killed or expelled. The unexpected fall and sudden relinquishing of Turkish-dominated European territories created a traumatic event amongst many Turks that triggered the ultimate collapse of the empire itself within five years. Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an <nowiki>unrecognized genocide</nowiki>.
Nazım Pasha, Chief of Staff of the Ottoman Army, was held responsible for the failure and was assassinated on 23 January 1913 during the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état.
Most Greeks regard the Balkan Wars as a period of epic achievements. They managed to liberate and gain territories that had been inhabited by Greeks since ancient times and doubled the size of the Greek Kingdom, capturing major cities such as Thessaloniki and Ioannina that had been under Ottoman rule for almost half a millennium. The Greek Army, small and ill-equipped compared to the superior Ottoman but also Bulgarian and Serbian armies, won very important battles. That made Greece a viable pawn in the Great Powers' chess play. Two great personalities rose in the Greek political arena, Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, the leading mind behind the Greek foreign policy, and Crown Prince, and later King, Konstantinos I, the Major General of the Greek Army.
See also
*History of the Balkans
*International relations (1814–1919)
*Ottoman wars in Europe
*Serbo-Bulgarian War (1885)
*Albanian Revolt of 1910
*Albanian Revolt of 1911
*Albanian Revolt of 1912
*Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913
*Balkans Campaign (World War I)
*Balkans Campaign (World War II)
*List of places burned during the Balkan Wars
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Antić, Čedomir. Ralph Paget: a diplomat in Serbia (Institute for Balkan Studies, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, 2006) [https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/200195225.pdf online free].
* Bobroff, Ronald. (2000) "Behind the Balkan Wars: Russian Policy toward Bulgaria and the Turkish Straits, 1912–13." Russian Review 59.1 (2000): 76–95 [http://www.academia.edu/download/50021482/0036-0341.0010920161031-23658-1cqbbgq.pdf online]
* Boeckh, Katrin, and Sabine Rutar. eds. (2020) The Wars of Yesterday: The Balkan Wars and the Emergence of Modern Military Conflict, 1912–13
*
*
*
* Dakin, Douglas. (1962) "The diplomacy of the Great Powers and the Balkan States, 1908–1914." Balkan Studies 3.2 (1962): 327–374. [https://ojs.lib.uom.gr/index.php/BalkanStudies/article/viewFile/123/132 online]
* Farrar Jr, Lancelot L. (2003) "Aggression versus apathy: the limits of nationalism during the Balkan wars, 1912–1913." East European Quarterly 37.3 (2003): 257.
* Ginio, Eyal. The Ottoman Culture of Defeat: The Balkan Wars and their Aftermath (Oxford UP, 2016) 377 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id=52198 online review]
* Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
* Howard, Harry N. "The Balkan Wars in perspective: their significance for Turkey." Balkan Studies 3.2 (1962): 267–276 [https://ojs.lib.uom.gr/index.php/BalkanStudies/article/download/119/128 online].
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
* [https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos143.htm U.S. State Department. "The Formation of the Balkan Alliance of 1912" (1918)]
* C. Hall, Richard: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/balkan_wars_1912-1913/ Balkan Wars 1912–1913], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11676/11676.txt Project Gutenberg's The Balkan Wars: 1912–1913, by Jacob Gould Schurman]
*[http://countrystudies.us/bulgaria/12.htm US Library of Congress in the Balkan Wars]
*[http://cnparm.home.texas.net/Wars/BalkanCrises/BalkanCrises00.htm The Balkan crises, 1903–1914]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081231100539/http://www.turkeyswar.com/prelude/balkanwars1.htm Balkan Wars from a Turkish perspective]
*Wikisource: The New Student's Reference Work/The Balkans and the Peace of Europe
*[http://www.europeanfilmgateway.eu/node/33/efg1914%20balkan%20war/multilingual:1/showOnly:video Historic films about the Balkan Wars at europeanfilmgateway.eu]
Category:Causes of World War I
Category:1910s in Europe
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Buffalo
|
Buffalo most commonly refers to:
True buffalo or Bubalina, a subtribe of wild cattle, including most "Old World" buffalo, such as water buffalo
Bison, a genus of wild cattle, including the American buffalo
Buffalo, New York, a city in the northeastern United States
Buffalo or buffaloes may also refer to:
Animals
Bubalina, a subtribe of the tribe Bovini within the subfamily Bovinae
African buffalo or Cape Buffalo (Syncerus caffer)
Bubalus, a genus of bovines including various water buffalo species
Wild water buffalo (Bubalus arnee)
Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
Buffalo meat, the meat of the water buffalo
Italian Mediterranean buffalo, a breed of water buffalo
Anoa
Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis)
Bubalus murrensis, an extinct species of water buffalo that occupied riverine habitats in Europe in the Pleistocene
Bison, large, even-toed ungulates in the genus Bison within the subfamily Bovinae
American bison (Bison bison), also commonly referred to as the American buffalo or simply "buffalo" in North America
European bison is also known as the European buffalo
Ictiobus, a North American genus of fish, known as buffalos
Places
Canada
Buffalo, Alberta, a ghost town
Buffalo National Park, Alberta
Rural Municipality of Buffalo No. 409, Saskatchewan, a rural municipality
Province of Buffalo, a proposed Canadian province
United States
Buffalo, New York, the largest city by population with its name
Buffalo Niagara International Airport
Buffalo, Illinois
Buffalo, Indiana
Buffalo, Iowa
Buffalo, Kansas
Buffalo, Kentucky
Buffalo, Minnesota
Buffalo, Missouri
Buffalo, Montana
Buffalo, Nebraska
Buffalo, North Carolina
Buffalo, North Dakota
Buffalo, Guernsey County, Ohio
Buffalo, Jackson County, Ohio
Buffalo, Oklahoma
Buffalo, South Carolina
Buffalo, South Dakota
Buffalo, Tennessee (disambiguation)
Buffalo, Texas
Buffalo, Henderson County, Texas
Buffalo, West Virginia
Buffalo, Jackson County, West Virginia
Buffalo, Buffalo County, Wisconsin
Buffalo, Marquette County, Wisconsin
Buffalo, Wyoming
Buffalo City, Arkansas, an unincorporated community and census-designated place
Buffalo City, North Carolina, a town
Buffalo City, Wisconsin, a city
Buffalo County (disambiguation)
Buffalo Township (disambiguation)
Elsewhere
Buffalo, Victoria, Australia
Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
Coins
American Buffalo (coin), a 24-karat bullion coin introduced 2006
Buffalo nickel, a copper-nickel coin minted 1913–1938
Games
Buffalo (card game), a card game
Buffalo (game), a drinking game
Military
, several Royal Navy ships
, several U.S. Navy ships
Landing Vehicle Tracked, a World War II-era amphibious vehicle
Operation Buffalo (disambiguation)
Avro 571 Buffalo, a 1920s prototype British carrier-based torpedo bomber biplane
Brewster F2A Buffalo, a 1930s–1940s American fighter aircraft
Buffalo (mine protected vehicle)
Music
Buffalo (band), an Australian hard rock group
Buffalo (EP), by Buffalo
Buffalo (Frank Zappa album)
Buffalo (The Phoenix Foundation album)
"Buffalo", a track from the album Cherry Bomb by Tyler, the Creator
People
Chief Buffalo (disambiguation)
Norton Buffalo (1951–2009), American singer-songwriter and musician
Ted Buffalo (1885–1969), Native American football player
Tishynah Buffalo, Indigenous Canadian fashion designer
Black Buffalo (wrestler) (born 1974), Japanese professional wrestler
Schools
University at Buffalo, a public research university in New York
Buffalo State College, a public college in Buffalo, New York
Sport
Baseball
Northern Territory Buffaloes, a defunct Australian baseball team
Orix Buffaloes, a 2004–present Japanese baseball team
Osaka Kintetsu Buffaloes, a 1950–2004 Japanese baseball team
Buffalo Bisons, a professional minor league baseball team based in Buffalo, New York
Football
Buffalo Bills, a National Football League team
Darwin Buffaloes, an Australian rules football team
Green Buffaloes F.C., a Zambian football team
K.A.A. Gent, a Belgian association football team
South Africa national Australian rules football team, nicknamed the Buffaloes
Hockey
Buffalo Sabres, a National Hockey League team
Basingstoke Buffalo, an English ice hockey team
Calgary Buffaloes, a 1966–67 Western Canada Junior Hockey League team
Calgary Buffaloes (AJHL), a 1963–1966 Alberta Junior Hockey League team
Other uses in sport
Colorado Buffaloes, the athletic teams of the University of Colorado Boulder
Manitoba Buffalo, a Canadian rugby union team
Milligan College Buffaloes, the athletic teams for Milligan College
Vélodrome Buffalo and Stade Buffalo, cycling tracks in Paris
Buffalo Bulls, the athletic teams of the University at Buffalo
Technology
Buffalo Inc., a Japanese technology company
Buffalo AirStation, a line of wireless LAN equipment
Buffalo network-attached storage series
BUFFALO, the bootloader for the Freescale 68HC11 microcontroller family
Transportation
Air
Buffalo Airways, a Canadian airline
de Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo, a 1965–1972 Canadian turboprop aircraft
Land
Buffalo (1901 automobile), a 1900–1902 American car
Buffalo Electric Vehicle Company, a 1912–1915 American car company
GM Buffalo bus
South Devon Railway Buffalo class, a class of locomotives
GWR 1076 Class, a class of locomotives often referred to as the "Buffalo Class"
Other uses
Buffalo (footwear), a clothing brand
Royal Antediluvian Order of Buffaloes, a fraternal organisation
Pistol-whipping, or "buffaloing", using a handgun as a blunt weapon
See also
American buffalo (disambiguation)
Buffalo Bill, American scout, bison hunter, and showman William Cody (1846–1917)
Buffalo robe, a cured bison hide with the hair, used for saddles, blankets, and padding in carriages and sleighs
Buffalo coat, a heavy winter coat made from a buffalo robe or hide
Buffalo wing, a style of chicken wing prepared with a spicy sauce coating
Buffalo Exchange, a fashion retailer
Buffalo Gap (disambiguation)
Buffalo Trace (disambiguation)
New Buffalo (disambiguation)
Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo, a sentence illustrating homonyms and homophones
Bufalo (disambiguation)
Category:Animal common name disambiguation pages
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BeBox
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<br />BeBox Dual603e-133:
| lifespan | price BeBox Dual603-66 <br>BeBox Dual603e-133
| discontinued =
| unitssold 1000 – BeBox Dual603-66<br />800 – BeBox Dual603e-133
| unitsshipped | media
| os = BeOS
| power = 100–240 volt AC single-phase
| soc | cpu 2× PowerPC 603 @ 66 MHz, or<br>2× PowerPC 603e @ 133 MHz
| memory = Up to 256 MB (Up to eight 72-pin SIMMs)
| storage | memory card
| display | graphics
| sound | input
| controllers | camera
| touchpad | connectivity
| platform | service
| dimensions = 15.68 in × 8.28 in × 18.15 in<br />39.8 cm × 21.0 cm × 46.1 cm
| weight | topgame
| compatibility | predecessor
| successor | related
| website
}}
The BeBox is a discontinued personal computer from Be Inc., running the company's operating system, later named BeOS. It has two PowerPC CPUs, its I/O board has a custom "GeekPort", and the front bezel has "Blinkenlights".
The BeBox debuted in October 1995 with dual PowerPC 603 at 66 MHz. The processors were upgraded to 133 MHz in August 1996 (BeBox Dual603e-133). Production was halted in January 1997, following the port of BeOS to the Macintosh, for the company to concentrate on software. Be sold around 1,000 66 MHz BeBoxes and 800 133 MHz BeBoxes. Main board The main board is in a standard AT format commonly found on PC. It used standard PC components to make it as inexpensive as possible.
* Two PowerPC 603/66 MHz or 603e/133 MHz processors
* Eight 72-pin SIMM sockets
* 128 KB Flash ROM
* Three PCI slots
* Five ISA slots
* Internal SCSI connector
* Internal IDE connector
* Internal floppy connector
* External SCSI-2 connector
* Parallel port
* Keyboard port, AT-style
* Three GeekPort fuses
* I/O Board connector
* Front panel connector
* Power connector
I/O board
The I/O board offers four serial ports (9-pin D-sub), a PS/2 mouse port, and two joystick ports (15-pin D-sub).
There are four DIN MIDI ports (two in, two out), two stereo pairs of RCA connectors audio line-level input and output, and a pair of 3.5 mm stereo phone jacks for microphone input and headphone output. There are also internal audio connectors: 5-pin strip for the audio CD line-level playback, and two 4-pin strips for microphone input and headphone output. The audio is produced with a 16-bit DAC stereo sound system capable of 48 kHz and 44.1 kHz. on the ISA bus:
* Two independent, bidirectional 8-bit ports
* Four A/D pins routing to a 12-bit A/D converter
* Four D/A pins connected to an independent 8-bit D/A converter
* Two signal ground reference pins
* Eleven power and ground pins: Two at +5 V, one at +12 V, one at -12 V, seven ground pins
"Blinkenlights"
Two yellow/green vertical LED arrays, dubbed the "blinkenlights", are built into the front bezel to illustrate the CPU load. The bottommost LED on the right side indicates hard disk activity. Market Be called the BeBox: "the first true real-time, portable, object-oriented system that features multiple PowerPC processors, true preemptive multitasking, an integrated database, fast I/O, and a wide range of expansion options — all at an extremely aggressive price that is well below that of any competitive offering."
Prototype
As of 1993, prototypes (at the time called Be Machine) had two 25 MHz AT&T Hobbit processors and three AT&T 9308S DSPs. In 2009, a rare prototype of the BeBox with Hobbit processors was sold at an auction. Linux Craftworks Solutions developed Be_Linux for the BeBox. Craftworks and Be Inc. announced in 1996 that they would work together to bring Be_Linux to the BeBox. See also * Multi Emulator Super System (MESS) able to emulate both BeBox [http://www.progettoemma.net/mess/system.php?machinebebox 66] and [http://www.progettoemma.net/mess/system.php?machinebebox2 133] References External links * An interview with Be Inc. CEO Jean-Louis Gassée and VP of Engineering Erich Ringewald.
*
*
* [http://www.josephpalmer.com/BeBox/BeBox.shtml BeBox Photo Gallery (Joseph Palmer: Be HW Engineer)]
* (BeBox)
Category:Be Inc.
Category:Computer-related introductions in 1995
Category:Computer workstations
Category:Personal computers
Category:PowerPC computers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BeBox
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Biomedical engineering
|
. Federal Center of Neurosurgery in Tyumen, 2013]]
, a process of purifying the blood of a person whose kidneys are not working normally]]
Biomedical engineering (BME) or medical engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare applications (e.g., diagnostic or therapeutic purposes). BME is also traditionally logical sciences to advance health care treatment, including diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy. Also included under the scope of a biomedical engineer is the management of current medical equipment in hospitals while adhering to relevant industry standards. This involves procurement, routine testing, preventive maintenance, and making equipment recommendations, a role also known as a Biomedical Equipment Technician (BMET) or as a clinical engineer.
Biomedical engineering has recently emerged as its own field of study, as compared to many other engineering fields. Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields to being considered a field in itself. Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below). Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, imaging technologies such as MRI and EKG/ECG, regenerative tissue growth, and the development of pharmaceutical drugs including biopharmaceuticals. Subfields and related fields Bioinformatics
with enlarged inset to show detail]]
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, and engineering to analyze and interpret biological data.
Bioinformatics is considered both an umbrella term for the body of biological studies that use computer programming as part of their methodology, as well as a reference to specific analysis "pipelines" that are repeatedly used, particularly in the field of genomics. Common uses of bioinformatics include the identification of candidate genes and nucleotides (SNPs). Often, such identification is made with the aim of better understanding the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties (esp. in agricultural species), or differences between populations. In a less formal way, bioinformatics also tries to understand the organizational principles within nucleic acid and protein sequences.
Biomechanics
obtained from crash test dummy impacts are integral to the field of biomechanics.]]
Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole organisms to organs, cells and cell organelles, using the methods of mechanics. Biomaterials
A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with living systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.
Biomedical optics
Biomedical optics combines the principles of physics, engineering, and biology to study the interaction of biological tissue and light, and how this can be exploited for sensing, imaging, and treatment. It has a wide range of applications, including optical imaging, microscopy, ophthalmoscopy, spectroscopy, and therapy. Examples of biomedical optics techniques and technologies include optical coherence tomography (OCT), fluorescence microscopy, confocal microscopy, and photodynamic therapy (PDT). OCT, for example, uses light to create high-resolution, three-dimensional images of internal structures, such as the retina in the eye or the coronary arteries in the heart. Fluorescence microscopy involves labeling specific molecules with fluorescent dyes and visualizing them using light, providing insights into biological processes and disease mechanisms. More recently, adaptive optics is helping imaging by correcting aberrations in biological tissue, enabling higher resolution imaging and improved accuracy in procedures such as laser surgery and retinal imaging.
Tissue engineering
Tissue engineering, like genetic engineering (see below), is a major segment of biotechnology – which overlaps significantly with BME.
One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs (via biological material) for patients that need organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs. Researchers have grown solid jawbones and tracheas from human stem cells towards this end. Several artificial urinary bladders have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients. Bioartificial organs, which use both synthetic and biological component, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct.
]]
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes. Unlike traditional breeding, an indirect method of genetic manipulation, genetic engineering utilizes modern tools such as molecular cloning and transformation to directly alter the structure and characteristics of target genes. Genetic engineering techniques have found success in numerous applications. Some examples include the improvement of crop technology (not a medical application, but see biological systems engineering), the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research. Neural engineering Neural engineering (also known as neuroengineering) is a discipline that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems. Neural engineers are uniquely qualified to solve design problems at the interface of living neural tissue and non-living constructs. Neural engineering can assist with numerous things, including the future development of prosthetics. For example, cognitive neural prosthetics (CNP) are being heavily researched and would allow for a chip implant to assist people who have prosthetics by providing signals to operate assistive devices.
Pharmaceutical engineering
Pharmaceutical engineering is an interdisciplinary science that includes drug engineering, novel drug delivery and targeting, pharmaceutical technology, unit operations of chemical engineering, and pharmaceutical analysis. It may be deemed as a part of pharmacy due to its focus on the use of technology on chemical agents in providing better medicinal treatment.
Hospital and medical devices
]]
This is an extremely broad category—essentially covering all health care products that do not achieve their intended results through predominantly chemical (e.g., pharmaceuticals) or biological (e.g., vaccines) means, and do not involve metabolism.
A medical device is intended for use in:
* the diagnosis of disease or other conditions
* in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease.
Some examples include pacemakers, infusion pumps, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, artificial organs, implants, artificial limbs, corrective lenses, cochlear implants, ocular prosthetics, facial prosthetics, somato prosthetics, and dental implants.
schematic used in monitoring low voltage biological signals, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electronic engineering to electrophysiology]]
Stereolithography is a practical example of medical modeling being used to create physical objects. Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring, of complex diseases.
Medical devices are regulated and classified (in the US) as follows (see also Regulation):
* Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices. Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments, and other similar types of common equipment.
* Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices. Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and postmarket surveillance. Devices in this class are typically non-invasive and include X-ray machines, PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and surgical drapes.
* Class III devices generally require premarket approval (PMA) or premarket notification (510k), a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I. Examples include replacement heart valves, hip and knee joint implants, silicone gel-filled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimulators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and endosseous (intra-bone) implants.
Medical imaging
Medical/biomedical imaging is a major segment of medical devices. This area deals with enabling clinicians to directly or indirectly "view" things not visible in plain sight (such as due to their size, and/or location). This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, radiology, and other means.
Alternatively, navigation-guided equipment utilizes electromagnetic tracking technology, such as catheter placement into the brain or feeding tube placement systems. For example, ENvizion Medical's ENvue, an electromagnetic navigation system for enteral feeding tube placement. The system uses an external field generator and several EM passive sensors enabling scaling of the display to the patient's body contour, and a real-time view of the feeding tube tip location and direction, which helps the medical staff ensure the correct placement in the GI tract.
scan of a human head, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electrical engineering to diagnostic imaging. Click here to view an animated sequence of slices.]]Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including: fluoroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear medicine, positron emission tomography (PET), PET-CT scans, projection radiography such as X-rays and CT scans, tomography, ultrasound, optical microscopy, and electron microscopy.
Medical implants
An implant is a kind of medical device made to replace and act as a missing biological structure (as compared with a transplant, which indicates transplanted biomedical tissue). The surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium, silicone or apatite depending on what is the most functional. In some cases, implants contain electronics, e.g. artificial pacemakers and cochlear implants. Some implants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery devices in the form of implantable pills or drug-eluting stents.
s: The right arm is an example of a prosthesis, and the left arm is an example of myoelectric control.]]
, an example of a biomedical engineering application of mechanical engineering and biocompatible materials to ophthalmology]]
Bionics
Artificial body part replacements are one of the many applications of bionics. Concerned with the intricate and thorough study of the properties and function of human body systems, bionics may be applied to solve some engineering problems. Careful study of the different functions and processes of the eyes, ears, and other organs paved the way for improved cameras, television, radio transmitters and receivers, and many other tools.
Biomedical sensors
In recent years biomedical sensors based in microwave technology have gained more attention. Different sensors can be manufactured for specific uses in both diagnosing and monitoring disease conditions, for example microwave sensors can be used as a complementary technique to X-ray to monitor lower extremity trauma. The sensor monitor the dielectric properties and can thus notice change in tissue (bone, muscle, fat etc.) under the skin so when measuring at different times during the healing process the response from the sensor will change as the trauma heals. Clinical engineering
Clinical engineering is the branch of biomedical engineering dealing with the actual implementation of medical equipment and technologies in hospitals or other clinical settings. Major roles of clinical engineers include training and supervising biomedical equipment technicians (BMETs), selecting technological products/services and logistically managing their implementation, working with governmental regulators on inspections/audits, and serving as technological consultants for other hospital staff (e.g. physicians, administrators, I.T., etc.). Clinical engineers also advise and collaborate with medical device producers regarding prospective design improvements based on clinical experiences, as well as monitor the progression of the state of the art so as to redirect procurement patterns accordingly.
Their inherent focus on practical implementation of technology has tended to keep them oriented more towards incremental-level redesigns and reconfigurations, as opposed to revolutionary research & development or ideas that would be many years from clinical adoption; however, there is a growing effort to expand this time-horizon over which clinical engineers can influence the trajectory of biomedical innovation. In their various roles, they form a "bridge" between the primary designers and the end-users, by combining the perspectives of being both close to the point-of-use, while also trained in product and process engineering. Clinical engineering departments will sometimes hire not just biomedical engineers, but also industrial/systems engineers to help address operations research/optimization, human factors, cost analysis, etc. Also, see safety engineering for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems. The clinical engineering department is constructed with a manager, supervisor, engineer, and technician. One engineer per eighty beds in the hospital is the ratio. Clinical engineers are also authorized to audit pharmaceutical and associated stores to monitor FDA recalls of invasive items.
Rehabilitation engineering
representation of urinary bladder (black butterfly-like shape) a hyperplastic prostate. An example of practical science and medical science working together.]]
Rehabilitation engineering is the systematic application of engineering sciences to design, develop, adapt, test, evaluate, apply, and distribute technological solutions to problems confronted by individuals with disabilities. Functional areas addressed through rehabilitation engineering may include mobility, communications, hearing, vision, and cognition, and activities associated with employment, independent living, education, and integration into the community.
Regardless of the country-specific legislation, the main regulatory objectives coincide worldwide. For example, in the medical device regulations, a product must be: 1) safe and 2) effective and 3) for all the manufactured devices (why is this part deleted?)
A product is safe if patients, users, and third parties do not run unacceptable risks of physical hazards (death, injuries, ...) in its intended use. Protective measures have to be introduced on the devices to reduce residual risks at an acceptable level if compared with the benefit derived from the use of it.
A product is effective if it performs as specified by the manufacturer in the intended use. Effectiveness is achieved through clinical evaluation, compliance to performance standards or demonstrations of substantial equivalence with an already marketed device.
The previous features have to be ensured for all the manufactured items of the medical device. This requires that a quality system shall be in place for all the relevant entities and processes that may impact safety and effectiveness over the whole medical device lifecycle.
The medical device engineering area is among the most heavily regulated fields of engineering, and practicing biomedical engineers must routinely consult and cooperate with regulatory law attorneys and other experts. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the principal healthcare regulatory authority in the United States, having jurisdiction over medical devices, drugs, biologics, and combination products. The paramount objectives driving policy decisions by the FDA are safety and effectiveness of healthcare products that have to be assured through a quality system in place as specified under 21 CFR 829 regulation. In addition, because biomedical engineers often develop devices and technologies for "consumer" use, such as physical therapy devices (which are also "medical" devices), these may also be governed in some respects by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. The greatest hurdles tend to be 510K "clearance" (typically for Class 2 devices) or pre-market "approval" (typically for drugs and class 3 devices).
In the European context, safety effectiveness and quality is ensured through the "Conformity Assessment" which is defined as "the method by which a manufacturer demonstrates that its device complies with the requirements of the European Medical Device Directive". The directive specifies different procedures according to the class of the device ranging from the simple Declaration of Conformity (Annex VII) for Class I devices to EC verification (Annex IV), Production quality assurance (Annex V), Product quality assurance (Annex VI) and Full quality assurance (Annex II). The Medical Device Directive specifies detailed procedures for Certification. In general terms, these procedures include tests and verifications that are to be contained in specific deliveries such as the risk management file, the technical file, and the quality system deliveries. The risk management file is the first deliverable that conditions the following design and manufacturing steps. The risk management stage shall drive the product so that product risks are reduced at an acceptable level with respect to the benefits expected for the patients for the use of the device. The technical file contains all the documentation data and records supporting medical device certification. FDA technical file has similar content although organized in a different structure. The Quality System deliverables usually include procedures that ensure quality throughout all product life cycles. The same standard (ISO EN 13485) is usually applied for quality management systems in the US and worldwide.
joints, are generally extensively regulated due to the invasive nature of such devices.]]
In the European Union, there are certifying entities named "Notified Bodies", accredited by the European Member States. The Notified Bodies must ensure the effectiveness of the certification process for all medical devices apart from the class I devices where a declaration of conformity produced by the manufacturer is sufficient for marketing. Once a product has passed all the steps required by the Medical Device Directive, the device is entitled to bear a CE marking, indicating that the device is believed to be safe and effective when used as intended, and, therefore, it can be marketed within the European Union area.
The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in particular technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. While nations often strive for substantive harmony to facilitate cross-national distribution, philosophical differences about the optimal extent'' of regulation can be a hindrance; more restrictive regulations seem appealing on an intuitive level, but critics decry the tradeoff cost in terms of slowing access to life-saving developments.
RoHS II
Directive 2011/65/EU, better known as RoHS 2 is a recast of legislation originally introduced in 2002. The original EU legislation "Restrictions of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronics Devices" (RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC) was replaced and superseded by 2011/65/EU published in July 2011 and commonly known as RoHS 2.
RoHS seeks to limit the dangerous substances in circulation in electronics products, in particular toxins and heavy metals, which are subsequently released into the environment when such devices are recycled.
The scope of RoHS 2 is widened to include products previously excluded, such as medical devices and industrial equipment. In addition, manufacturers are now obliged to provide conformity risk assessments and test reports – or explain why they are lacking. For the first time, not only manufacturers but also importers and distributors share a responsibility to ensure Electrical and Electronic Equipment within the scope of RoHS complies with the hazardous substances limits and have a CE mark on their products.
IEC 60601
The new International Standard IEC 60601 for home healthcare electro-medical devices defining the requirements for devices used in the home healthcare environment. IEC 60601-1-11 (2010) must now be incorporated into the design and verification of a wide range of home use and point of care medical devices along with other applicable standards in the IEC 60601 3rd edition series.
The mandatory date for implementation of the EN European version of the standard is June 1, 2013. The US FDA requires the use of the standard on June 30, 2013, while Health Canada recently extended the required date from June 2012 to April 2013. The North American agencies will only require these standards for new device submissions, while the EU will take the more severe approach of requiring all applicable devices being placed on the market to consider the home healthcare standard.
AS/NZS 3551:2012
AS/ANS 3551:2012 is the Australian and New Zealand standards for the management of medical devices. The standard specifies the procedures required to maintain a wide range of medical assets in a clinical setting (e.g. Hospital). The standards are based on the IEC 606101 standards.
The standard covers a wide range of medical equipment management elements including, procurement, acceptance testing, maintenance (electrical safety and preventive maintenance testing) and decommissioning.
Training and certification
Education
Biomedical engineers require considerable knowledge of both engineering and biology, and typically have a Bachelor's (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) or Master's (M.S., M.Sc., M.S.E., or M.Eng.) or a doctoral (Ph.D., or MD-PhD) degree in BME (Biomedical Engineering) or another branch of engineering with considerable potential for BME overlap. As interest in BME increases, many engineering colleges now have a Biomedical Engineering Department or Program, with offerings ranging from the undergraduate (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng. or B.S.E.) to doctoral levels. Biomedical engineering has only recently been emerging as its own discipline rather than a cross-disciplinary hybrid specialization of other disciplines; and BME programs at all levels are becoming more widespread, including the Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering which includes enough biological science content that many students use it as a "pre-med" major in preparation for medical school. The number of biomedical engineers is expected to rise as both a cause and effect of improvements in medical technology.
In the U.S., an increasing number of undergraduate programs are also becoming recognized by ABET as accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering programs. As of 2023, 155 programs are currently accredited by ABET.
In Canada and Australia, accredited graduate programs in biomedical engineering are common. For example, McMaster University offers an M.A.Sc, an MD/PhD, and a PhD in Biomedical engineering. The first Canadian undergraduate BME program was offered at University of Guelph as a four-year B.Eng. program. The Polytechnique in Montreal is also offering a bachelors's degree in biomedical engineering as is Flinders University.
As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of a program may factor into the desirability of a degree holder for either employment or graduate admission. The reputation of many undergraduate degrees is also linked to the institution's graduate or research programs, which have some tangible factors for rating, such as research funding and volume, publications and citations. With BME specifically, the ranking of a university's hospital and medical school can also be a significant factor in the perceived prestige of its BME department/program.
Graduate education is a particularly important aspect in BME. While many engineering fields (such as mechanical or electrical engineering) do not need graduate-level training to obtain an entry-level job in their field, the majority of BME positions do prefer or even require them. Since most BME-related professions involve scientific research, such as in pharmaceutical and medical device development, graduate education is almost a requirement (as undergraduate degrees typically do not involve sufficient research training and experience). This can be either a Masters or Doctoral level degree; while in certain specialties a Ph.D. is notably more common than in others, it is hardly ever the majority (except in academia). In fact, the perceived need for some kind of graduate credential is so strong that some undergraduate BME programs will actively discourage students from majoring in BME without an expressed intention to also obtain a master's degree or apply to medical school afterwards.
Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientific fields, are highly varied, and particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within the field. They may also feature extensive collaborative efforts with programs in other fields (such as the university's Medical School or other engineering divisions), owing again to the interdisciplinary nature of BME. M.S. and Ph.D. programs will typically require applicants to have an undergraduate degree in BME, or another engineering discipline (plus certain life science coursework), or life science (plus certain engineering coursework).
Education in BME also varies greatly around the world. By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, its numerous major universities, and relatively few internal barriers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in its development of BME education and training opportunities. Europe, which also has a large biotechnology sector and an impressive education system, has encountered trouble in creating uniform standards as the European community attempts to supplant some of the national jurisdictional barriers that still exist. Recently, initiatives such as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related education and professional standards. Other countries, such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to correct deficiencies in their BME education. Also, as high technology endeavors are usually marks of developed nations, some areas of the world are prone to slower development in education, including in BME.Licensure/certification
As with other learned professions, each state has certain (fairly similar) requirements for becoming licensed as a registered Professional Engineer (PE), but, in US, in industry such a license is not required to be an employee as an engineer in the majority of situations (due to an exception known as the industrial exemption, which effectively applies to the vast majority of American engineers). The US model has generally been only to require the practicing engineers offering engineering services that impact the public welfare, safety, safeguarding of life, health, or property to be licensed, while engineers working in private industry without a direct offering of engineering services to the public or other businesses, education, and government need not be licensed. This is notably not the case in many other countries, where a license is as legally necessary to practice engineering as it is for law or medicine.
Biomedical engineering is regulated in some countries, such as Australia, but registration is typically only recommended and not required.
In the UK, mechanical engineers working in the areas of Medical Engineering, Bioengineering or Biomedical engineering can gain Chartered Engineer status through the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. The Institution also runs the Engineering in Medicine and Health Division. The Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) has a panel for the accreditation of MSc courses in Biomedical Engineering and Chartered Engineering status can also be sought through IPEM.
The Fundamentals of Engineering exam – the first (and more general) of two licensure examinations for most U.S. jurisdictions—does now cover biology (although technically not BME). For the second exam, called the Principles and Practices, Part 2, or the Professional Engineering exam, candidates may select a particular engineering discipline's content to be tested on; there is currently not an option for BME with this, meaning that any biomedical engineers seeking a license must prepare to take this examination in another category (which does not affect the actual license, since most jurisdictions do not recognize discipline specialties anyway). However, the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) is, as of 2009, exploring the possibility of seeking to implement a BME-specific version of this exam to facilitate biomedical engineers pursuing licensure.
Beyond governmental registration, certain private-sector professional/industrial organizations also offer certifications with varying degrees of prominence. One such example is the Certified Clinical Engineer (CCE) certification for Clinical engineers.
Career prospects
In 2012 there were about 19,400 biomedical engineers employed in the US, and the field was predicted to grow by 5% (faster than average) from 2012 to 2022. Biomedical engineering has the highest percentage of female engineers compared to other common engineering professions. Now as of 2023, there are 19,700 jobs for this degree, the average pay for a person in this field is around $100,730.00 and making around $48.43 an hour. There is also expected to be a 7% increase in jobs from here 2023 to 2033 (even faster than the last average).
Notable figures
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* Julia Tutelman Apter (deceased) – One of the first specialists in neurophysiological research and a founding member of the Biomedical Engineering Society
* Earl Bakken (deceased) – Invented the first transistorised pacemaker, co-founder of Medtronic.
* Forrest Bird (deceased) – aviator and pioneer in the invention of mechanical ventilators
<!--Non-Notable name * Kenneth R. Diller – Chaired and Endowed Professor in Engineering, University of Texas at Austin. Founded the BME department at UT Austin. Pioneer in bioheat transfer, mass transfer, and biotransport -->
* Y.C. Fung (deceased) – professor emeritus at the University of California, San Diego, considered by many to be the founder of modern biomechanics
* Leslie Geddes (deceased) – professor emeritus at Purdue University, electrical engineer, inventor, and educator of over 2000 biomedical engineers, received a National Medal of Technology in 2006 from President George Bush for his more than 50 years of contributions that have spawned innovations ranging from burn treatments to miniature defibrillators, ligament repair to tiny blood pressure monitors for premature infants, as well as a new method for performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
<!--Non-Notable name * Richard J. Johns – [http://ethw.org/Oral-History:Richard_J._Johns] Massey Professor and Director of Johns Hopkins University Biomedical Engineering at Johns Hopkins University, leading Johns Hopkins Biomedical Engineering 1965–1991 during its great expansion as a department in both the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and Whiting School of Engineering. Johns was said to have been the first to coin the term Systems Biology as part of an Annual report in 1972–1973. -->
* Willem Johan Kolff (deceased) – pioneer of hemodialysis as well as in the field of artificial organs
* Robert Langer – Institute Professor at MIT, runs the largest BME laboratory in the world, pioneer in drug delivery and tissue engineering
<!--Non-Notable name * Herbert Lissner (deceased) – Professor of Engineering Mechanics at Wayne State University. Initiated studies on blunt head trauma and injury thresholds beginning in 1939 in collaboration with E.S. Gurdjian, a neurosurgeon at Wayne State's School of Medicine. Individual for whom the American Society of Mechanical Engineers' top award in Biomedical Engineering, the Herbert R. Lissner Medal, is named. -->
* John Macleod (deceased) – one of the co-discoverers of insulin at Case Western Reserve University.
* Alfred E. Mann – Physicist, entrepreneur and philanthropist. A pioneer in the field of Biomedical Engineering.
*J. Thomas Mortimer – Emeritus professor of biomedical engineering at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)
*Robert M. Nerem – professor emeritus at Georgia Institute of Technology. Pioneer in regenerative tissue, biomechanics, and author of over 300 published works. His works have been cited more than 20,000 times cumulatively.
*P. Hunter Peckham – Donnell Professor of Biomedical Engineering and Orthopaedics at Case Western Reserve University. Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)
*Nicholas A. Peppas – Chaired Professor in Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, pioneer in drug delivery, biomaterials, hydrogels and nanobiotechnology.
* Robert Plonsey – professor emeritus at Duke University, pioneer of electrophysiology
<!--Non-Notable name * Murray B. Sachs – Director of the Johns Hopkins University Department of Biomedical Engineering from 1991–2005, and a pioneer in the field of Biomedical Engineering in Hearing Science winning the 1998 Von Bekesy award. He and members of his laboratory, the Neural Encoding Laboratory at Johns Hopkins, were one of the first to derive primary auditory nerve population codes that became the basis of the modern cochlear implant. -->
* Otto Schmitt (deceased) – biophysicist with significant contributions to BME, working with biomimetics
* Ascher Shapiro (deceased) – Institute Professor at MIT, contributed to the development of the BME field, medical devices (e.g. intra-aortic balloons)
* Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic – University Professor at Columbia University, pioneer in tissue engineering and bioreactor design
<!--Non-Notable name * Frederick Thurstone (deceased) – professor emeritus at Duke University, pioneer of diagnostic ultrasound -->
* John G. Webster – professor emeritus at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, a pioneer in the field of instrumentation amplifiers for the recording of electrophysiological signals
* Fred Weibell, coauthor of Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements
* U.A. Whitaker (deceased) – provider of the Whitaker Foundation, which supported research and education in BME by providing over $700 million to various universities, helping to create 30 BME programs and helping finance the construction of 13 buildings
<!-- Non-Notable name * Seymour Ben-Zvi, ScD, CCE – Established the Scientific and Medical Instrumentation Center (SMIC) at SUNY Downstate -->See also
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*Biomedical Engineering and Instrumentation Program (BEIP)
References
<small> 45. ^Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, [https://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/biomedical-engineers.htm "Bioengineers and Biomedical Engineers"], retrieved October 27, 2024.</small>
Further reading
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Balkans
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The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula (Peninsula of Haemus, Haemaic Peninsula), is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains (Haemus Mountains) that stretch throughout the whole of Bulgaria. The Balkan Peninsula is bordered by the Adriatic Sea in the northwest, the Ionian Sea in the southwest, the Aegean Sea in the south, the Turkish straits in the east, and the Black Sea in the northeast. The northern border of the peninsula is variously defined. The highest point of the Balkans is Musala, , in the Rila mountain range, Bulgaria.
The concept of the Balkan Peninsula was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, who mistakenly considered the Balkan Mountains the dominant mountain system of Southeast Europe spanning from the Adriatic Sea to the Black Sea. In the 19th century the term Balkan Peninsula was a synonym for Rumelia, the parts of Europe that were provinces of the Ottoman Empire at the time. It had a geopolitical rather than a geographical definition, which was further promoted during the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the early 20th century. The definition of the Balkan Peninsula's natural borders does not coincide with the technical definition of a peninsula; hence modern geographers reject the idea of a Balkan Peninsula, while historical scholars usually discuss the Balkans as a region. The term has acquired a stigmatized and pejorative meaning related to the process of Balkanization. The alternative term used for the region is Southeast Europe.
The borders of the Balkans are, due to many contrasting definitions, disputed. There exists no universal agreement on the region's components. The term by most definitions fully encompasses Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, the mainland of Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, European Turkey, the Romanian coast, most of Serbia and large parts of Croatia. The term sometimes includes all of Romania, Serbia and Croatia, and southern parts of Slovenia. Although they have no territory on the peninsula, Hungary and Moldova are sometimes incorporated into the Balkans region due to cultural and historical affiliations. The Province of Trieste in northeastern Italy, although by some definitions considered part of the Balkan Peninsula, is generally excluded from the Balkans region.
Name
Etymology
The origin of the word Balkan is obscure; it may be related to Turkish 'mud' (from Proto-Turkic *bal 'mud, clay; thick or gluey substance', cf. also Turkic bal 'honey'), and the Turkish suffix -an 'swampy forest' or Persian bālā-khāna 'big high house'.
Historical names and meaning
Classical antiquity and the early Middle Ages
From classical antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Balkan Mountains were called by the local Thracian name Haemus. According to Greek mythology, the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment and the mountain has remained with his name. A reverse name scheme has also been suggested. D. Dechev considers that Haemus (Αἷμος) is derived from a Thracian word *saimon, 'mountain ridge'. A third possibility is that "Haemus" () derives from the Greek word haima () meaning 'blood'. The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon. Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhon's blood fell on the mountains, giving them their name.
Late Middle Ages and Ottoman period
The earliest mention of the name appears in an early 14th-century Arab map, in which the Haemus Mountains are referred to as Balkan. The first attested time the name "Balkan" was used in the West for the mountain range in Bulgaria was in a letter sent in 1490 to Pope Innocent VIII by Buonaccorsi Callimaco, an Italian humanist, writer and diplomat. The Ottomans first mention it in a document dated from 1565. There is also a claim about an earlier Bulgar Turkic origin of the word popular in Bulgaria, however it is only an unscholarly assertion. The name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary (Balkan Mountains) and the Balkan Region of Turkmenistan. The English traveler John Bacon Sawrey Morritt introduced this term into English literature at the end of the 18th century, and other authors started applying the name to the wider area between the Adriatic and the Black Sea. The concept of the "Balkans" was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, who mistakenly considered it as the dominant central mountain system of Southeast Europe spanning from the Adriatic Sea to the Black Sea. In European books printed until late 1800s it was also known as Illyrian Peninsula or Illyrische Halbinsel in German.
Evolution of meaning in the 19th and 20th centuries
with the north-west demarcation Soča-Vipava-Postojna-Krka-Sava, i.e. the border between the Alps and the Dinaric Mountains]]The term was not commonly used in geographical literature until the mid-19th century because, already then, scientists like Carl Ritter warned that only the part south of the Balkan Mountains could be considered as a peninsula and considered it to be renamed as "Greek peninsula". Other prominent geographers who did not agree with Zeune were Hermann Wagner, Theobald Fischer, Marion Newbigin, and Albrecht Penck, while Austrian diplomat Johann Georg von Hahn, in 1869, for the same territory, used the term Südosteuropäische Halbinsel ('Southeastern European peninsula'). Another reason it was not commonly accepted as the definition of then European Turkey had a similar land extent. However, after the Congress of Berlin (1878) there was a political need for a new term and gradually "the Balkans" was revitalized, but in the maps, the northern border was in Serbia and Montenegro and Greece was not included (it only depicted the Ottoman occupied parts of Europe), while Yugoslavian maps also included Croatia and Bosnia. The term Balkan Peninsula was a synonym for European Turkey, the political borders of former Ottoman Empire provinces.
The usage of the term changed in the very end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, when it was embraced by Serbian geographers, most prominently by Jovan Cvijić. especially since the military conflicts of the 1990s in Yugoslavia in the western half of the region, the term Southeast Europe is becoming increasingly popular. A European Union (EU) initiative of 1999 is called the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe.
The online newspaper Balkan Times renamed itself Southeast European Times in 2003.Current
In other languages of the region, the region is known as:
* Slavic languages:
** Bulgarian and , transliterated:
** Bosnian, Montenegrin and /
** Bosnian and
**
* Romance languages:
** or
** or
** or
* Other languages:
** and
** , transliterated:
** or Balkanlar
Definitions and boundaries
-Sava-Kupa line]]
Balkan Peninsula
The Balkan Peninsula is bounded by the Adriatic Sea to the west, the Mediterranean Sea (including the Ionian and Aegean seas) and the Sea of Marmara to the south and the Black Sea to the east. Its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa Rivers. The Balkan Peninsula has a combined area of about . The peninsula is generally encompassed in the region known as Southeast Europe.
Italy currently holds a small area around Trieste that is by some older definitions considered a part of the Balkan Peninsula. However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, due to their definition of the Balkans that limits its western border to the Kupa River.BalkansThe borders of the Balkans are due to many contrasting definitions disputed. There exists no universal agreement on the region's components. The term by most definitions fully encompasses Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, European Turkey, Romanian coast, most of Serbia and large parts of Croatia. Sometimes the term also includes Romania as a whole and southern parts of Slovenia. Hungary and Moldova are sometimes included in discussions of the Balkans due to cultural and historical affiliation. The Province of Trieste in Italy, although by some definitions on the peninsula, is generally excluded from the Balkans.
The term Southeast Europe is also used for the region, with various definitions. Individual Balkan states can also be considered part of other regions, including Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and Central Europe. Turkey, including its European territory, is generally included in Western Asia or the Middle East.
Western Balkans
, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia. Croatia (yellow) joined the EU in 2013]]
The Western Balkans is a political neologism coined to refer to Albania and the territory of the former Yugoslavia, except Slovenia, since the early 1990s. The region of the Western Balkans, a coinage exclusively used in pan-European parlance, roughly corresponds to the Dinaric Alps territory.
The institutions of the EU have generally used the term Western Balkans to mean the Balkan area that includes countries that are not members of the EU, while others refer to the geographical aspects.
Each of these countries aims to be part of the future enlargement of the EU and reach democracy and transmission scores but, until then, they will be strongly connected with the pre-EU waiting programme Central European Free Trade Agreement. Croatia, considered part of the Western Balkans, joined the EU in July 2013.
Criticism as geographical definition
The term is scrutinised for having a geopolitical, rather than a geographical meaning and definition, as a multiethnic and political area in the southeastern part of Europe. while John Lampe and Marvin Jackman in Balkan Economic History (1971) noted that "modern geographers seem agreed in rejecting the old idea of a Balkan Peninsula". According to M. S. Altić, the term has two different meanings, "geographical, ultimately undefined, and cultural, extremely negative, and recently strongly motivated by the contemporary political context". In 2018, President of Croatia Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović stated that the use of the term "Western Balkans" should be avoided because it does not imply only a geographic area, but also negative connotations, and instead must be perceived as and called Southeast Europe because it is part of Europe.
Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek said of the definition,
Nature and natural resources
, the highest mountain range of the Balkans and Southeast Europe (2,925 m)]]
contains Perućica, which is the largest primeval forest in the Balkans, and one of the last remaining in Europe]]
is the largest lake in the Balkans and Southern Europe]]
Most of the area is covered by mountain ranges running from the northwest to southeast. The main ranges are the Balkan Mountains (Stara Planina in Bulgarian language), running from the Black Sea coast in Bulgaria to the border with Serbia, the Rila-Rhodope massif in southern Bulgaria, the Dinaric Alps in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Montenegro, the Korab-Šar mountains which spreads from Kosovo to Albania and North Macedonia, and the Pindus range, spanning from southern Albania into central Greece and the Albanian Alps, and the Alps at the northwestern border. The highest mountain of the region is Rila in Bulgaria, with Musala at 2,925 m, second being Mount Olympus in Greece, with Mytikas at 2,917 m, and Pirin mountain with Vihren, also in Bulgaria, being the third at 2915 m. The karst field or polje is a common feature of the landscape.
On the Adriatic and Aegean coasts, the climate is Mediterranean, on the Black Sea coast the climate is humid subtropical and oceanic, and inland it is humid continental. In the northern part of the peninsula and on the mountains, winters are frosty and snowy, while summers are hot and dry. In the southern part, winters are milder. The humid continental climate is predominant in Bosnia and Herzegovina, northern Croatia, Bulgaria, Kosovo, northern Montenegro, the Republic of North Macedonia, and the interior of Albania and Serbia. Meanwhile, the other less common climates, the humid subtropical and oceanic climates, are seen on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and Balkan Turkey (European Turkey). The Mediterranean climate is seen on the Adriatic coasts of Albania, Croatia and Montenegro, as well as the Ionian coasts of Albania and Greece, in addition to the Aegean coasts of Greece and Balkan Turkey (European Turkey).
Over the centuries, forests have been cut down and replaced with bush. In the southern part and on the coast there is evergreen vegetation. Inland there are woods typical of Central Europe (oak and beech, and in the mountains, spruce, fir and pine). The tree line in the mountains lies at the height of 1,800–2,300 m. The land provides habitats for numerous endemic species, including extraordinarily abundant insects and reptiles that serve as food for a variety of birds of prey and rare vultures.
The soils are generally poor, except on the plains, where areas with natural grass, fertile soils and warm summers provide an opportunity for tillage. Elsewhere, land cultivation is mostly unsuccessful because of the mountains, hot summers and poor soils, although certain cultures such as olive and grape flourish.
Resources of energy are scarce, except in Kosovo, where considerable coal, lead, zinc, chromium and silver deposits are located. Other deposits of coal, especially in Bulgaria, Serbia and Bosnia, also exist. Lignite deposits are widespread in Greece. Petroleum scarce reserves exist in Greece, Serbia and Albania. Natural gas deposits are scarce. Hydropower is in wide use, from over 1,000 dams. The often relentless bora wind is also being harnessed for power generation.
Metal ores are more usual than other raw materials. Iron ore is rare, but in some countries there is a considerable amount of copper, zinc, tin, chromite, manganese, magnesite and bauxite. Some metals are exported.
History and geopolitical significance
Antiquity
]]
, the only remaining Roman amphitheatre to have four side towers and with all three Roman architectural orders entirely preserved]]
, a UNESCO World Heritage Site]]
The Balkan region was the first area in Europe to experience the arrival of farming cultures in the Neolithic era. The Balkans have been inhabited since the Paleolithic and are the route by which farming from the Middle East spread to Europe during the Neolithic (7th millennium BC). The practices of growing grain and raising livestock arrived in the Balkans from the Fertile Crescent by way of Anatolia and spread west and north into Central Europe, particularly through Pannonia. Two early culture-complexes have developed in the region, Starčevo culture and Vinča culture. The Balkans are also the location of the first advanced civilizations. Vinča culture developed a form of proto-writing before the Sumerians and Minoans, known as the Old European script, while the bulk of the symbols had been created in the period between 4500 and 4000 BC, with the ones on the Tărtăria clay tablets even dating back to around 5300 BC.
The identity of the Balkans is dominated by its geographical position; historically the area was known as a crossroads of cultures. It has been a juncture between the Latin and Greek bodies of the Roman Empire, the destination of a massive influx of pagan Bulgars and Slavs, an area where Orthodox and Catholic Christianity met, as well as the meeting point between Islam and Christianity.
Albanic, Hellenic, and other Palaeo-Balkan languages, had their formative core in the Balkans after the Indo-European migrations in the region. In pre-classical and classical antiquity, this region was home to Greeks, Illyrians, Paeonians, Thracians, Dacians, and other ancient groups. The Achaemenid Persian Empire incorporated parts of the Balkans comprising Macedonia, Thrace (parts of present-day eastern Bulgaria), and the Black Sea coastal region of Romania beginning in 512 BC. Following the Persian defeat in the Greco-Persian Wars in 479 BC, they abandoned all of their European territories, which regained their independence. During the reign of Philip II of Macedon (359-336 BC), Macedonia rose to become the most powerful state in the Balkans. In the second century BC, the Roman Empire conquered the region and spread Roman culture and the Latin language, but significant parts still remained under classical Greek influence. The only Paleo-Balkan languages that survived are Albanian and Greek. However large spaces south of Jireček Line were and are inhabited by Vlachs (Aromanians), the Romance-speaking heirs of Roman Empire.
The Bulgars and Slavs arrived in the sixth-century and began assimilating and displacing already-assimilated (through Romanization and Hellenization) older inhabitants of the northern and central Balkans. This migration brought about the formation of distinct ethnic groups amongst the South Slavs, which included the Bulgarians, Croats and Serbs and Slovenes. Prior to the Slavic landing, parts of the western peninsula have been home to the Proto-Albanians. Including cities like Nish, Shtip, and Shkup. This can be proven through the development of the names, for example Naissos > Nish and Astibos > Shtip follow Albanian phonetic sound rules and have entered Slavic, indicating that Proto-Albanian was spoken prior to the Slavic invasion of the Balkans. Proto-Albanian speakers were Christianized under the Latin sphere of influence, specifically in the 4th century CE, as shown by the basic Christian terms in Albanian, which are of Latin origin and entered Proto-Albanian before the Gheg–Tosk dialectal diversification.Middle Ages and Early modern period
, built in the 6th century Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) as an Eastern Orthodox cathedral, later it became a mosque, then a museum, and now its both a mosque and a museum]]
, built in the 14th century to overlook the strategically important Iron Gates gorge, was one of the many Balkan fortresses built in the Middle Ages to resist invading forces]]
During the Early Middle Ages, The Byzantine Empire was the dominant state in the region, both military and culturally. Their cultural strength became particularly evident in the second half of the 9th century when the Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius managed to spread the Byzantine variant of Christianity to the majority of the Balkans inhabitants who were pagan beforehand. Initially, it was adopted by the Bulgarians and Serbs, with the Romanians joining a bit later. The lack of Old Church Slavonic terms in Albanian Christian terminology shows that the missionary activities during the Christianization of the Slavs did not involve Albanian-speakers, indeed, the Christian belief among Albanians had survived through the centuries and already become an important cultural element in their ethnic identity.
The emergence of the First Bulgarian Empire and the constant conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the First Bulgarian Empire significantly weakened the Byzantine control over the Balkans by the end of the 10th century. The Byzantines further lost power in the Balkans after the resurgence of the Bulgarians in the late 12th century, with the forming of their Second Bulgarian Empire. After the collapse of the Second Bulgarian Empire, the Byzantine's Empire grip on power was prolonged by the inability of the Slavs to unite, which was caused by frequent infighting amongst themselves. Bulgaria in the first half of the 14th century was then overshadowed by the new rising regional power of Serbia, which was a result of Stefan Dušan rising up and conquering much of the Balkans to create the Serbian Empire. The Serbian and Byzantine empires continued to be the dominant forces in the region until the arrival of the Ottomans several decades later.
Ottoman expansion in the region began in the second half of the 14th century, as the Byzantine Empire continued to lose its grip on the region after several defeats to the Ottomans. In 1362, the Ottoman Turks conquered Adrianople (now Edirne, Turkey). This was the start of their conquest of the Balkan Peninsula, which lasted for more than a century. Other states in the area starting falling like Serbia after the Siege of Smederevo in 1459, Bulgaria in 1396, Byzantine Empire in 1453, Bosnia in 1463, Herzegovina in 1482, and Montenegro in 1496. The conquest was made easier for the Ottomans due to existing divisions among the Orthodox peoples and by the even deeper rift that had existed at the time between the Eastern and Western Christians of Europe.
The Albanians under Skanderbeg's leadership resisted the Ottomans for a time (1443–1468) by using guerilla warfare. Skanderbeg's achievements, in particular the Battle of Albulena and the First Siege of Krujë won him fame across Europe. The Ottomans eventually conquered the near entirety of the Balkans and reached central Europe by the early 16th century. Some smaller countries, such as Montenegro managed to retain some autonomy by managing their own internal affairs, since the territory was too mountainous to completely subdue. Another small country that retained its independence, both de facto and de jure in this case, was the Adriatic trading hub of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik, Croatia).
By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire had become the controlling force in the region after expanding from Anatolia through Thrace to the Balkans. Many people in the Balkans place their greatest folk heroes in the era of either the onslaught or the retreat of the Ottoman Empire. As examples, for Greeks, Constantine XI Palaiologos and Kolokotronis; and for Serbs, Miloš Obilić, Tsar Lazar and Karađorđe; for Albanians, George Kastrioti Skanderbeg; for ethnic Macedonians, Nikola Karev and Goce Delčev;
Most of the Balkan nation-states emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries as they gained independence from the Ottoman or Habsburg empires: Greece in 1821, Serbia and Montenegro in 1878, Romania in 1881, Bulgaria in 1908 and Albania in 1912.
Recent history
World wars
In 1912–1913, the First Balkan War broke out when the nation-states of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro united in an alliance against the Ottoman Empire. As a result of the war, almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire were captured and partitioned among the allies. Ensuing events also led to the creation of an independent Albanian state. Bulgaria insisted on its status quo territorial integrity, divided and shared by the Great Powers next to the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) in other boundaries and on the pre-war Bulgarian-Serbian agreement. Bulgaria was provoked by the backstage deals between its former allies, Serbia and Greece, on the allocation of the spoils at the end of the First Balkan War. At the time, Bulgaria was fighting at the main Thracian Front. Bulgaria marks the beginning of Second Balkan War when it attacked them. The Serbs and the Greeks repulsed single attacks, but when the Greek army invaded Bulgaria together with an unprovoked Romanian intervention in the back, Bulgaria collapsed. The Ottoman Empire used the opportunity to recapture Eastern Thrace, establishing its new western borders that still stand today as part of modern Turkey.
World War I was sparked in the Balkans in 1914 when members of Young Bosnia, a revolutionary organization with predominantly Serb and pro-Yugoslav members, assassinated the Austro-Hungarian heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Bosnia and Herzegovina's capital, Sarajevo. That caused a war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, which—through the existing chains of alliances—led to the World War I. The Ottoman Empire soon joined the Central Powers becoming one of the three empires participating in that alliance. The next year Bulgaria joined the Central Powers attacking Serbia, which was successfully fighting Austro-Hungary to the north for a year. That led to Serbia's defeat and the intervention of the Entente in the Balkans which sent an expeditionary force to establish a new front, the third one of that war, which soon also became static. The participation of Greece in the war three years later, in 1918, on the part of the Entente finally altered the balance between the opponents leading to the collapse of the common German-Bulgarian front there, which caused the exit of Bulgaria from the war, and in turn, the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, ending the First World War.
Between the two wars, in order to maintain the geopolitical status quo in the region after the end of World War I, the Balkan Pact, or Balkan Entente, was formed by a treaty between Greece, Romania, Turkey and Yugoslavia on 9 February 1934 in Athens.
With the start of the World War II, all Balkan countries, with the exception of Greece, were allies of Nazi Germany, having bilateral military agreements or being part of the Axis Pact. Fascist Italy expanded the war in the Balkans by using its protectorate Albania to invade Greece. After repelling the attack, the Greeks counterattacked, invading Italy-held Albania and causing Nazi Germany's intervention in the Balkans to help its ally. Days before the German invasion, a successful ''coup d'état'' in Belgrade by neutral military personnel seized power.
Although the new government reaffirmed its intentions to fulfill its obligations as a member of the Axis, Germany, with Bulgaria, invaded both Greece and Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia immediately disintegrated when those loyal to the Serbian King and the Croatian units mutinied. Greece resisted, but, after two months of fighting, collapsed and was occupied. The two countries were partitioned between the three Axis allies, Bulgaria, Germany and Italy, and the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state of Italy and Germany.
During the occupation, the population suffered considerable hardship due to repression and starvation, to which the population reacted by creating a mass resistance movement. Together with the early and extremely heavy winter of that year (which caused hundreds of thousands of deaths among the poorly fed population), the German invasion had disastrous effects in the timetable of the planned invasion in Russia causing a significant delay, which had major consequences during the course of the war.
Finally, at the end of 1944, the Soviets entered Romania and Bulgaria forcing the Germans out of the Balkans. They left behind a region largely ruined as a result of wartime exploitation.
Cold War
During the Cold War, most of the countries on the Balkans were governed by communist governments. Greece became the first battleground of the emerging Cold War. The Truman Doctrine was the US response to the civil war, which raged from 1944 to 1949. This civil war, unleashed by the Communist Party of Greece, backed by communist volunteers from neighboring countries (Albania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia), led to massive American assistance for the non-communist Greek government. With this backing, Greece managed to defeat the partisans and, ultimately, remained one of the two only non-communist countries in the region with Turkey.
However, despite being under communist governments, Yugoslavia (1948) and Albania (1961) fell out with the Soviet Union. Yugoslavia, led by Marshal Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980), first propped up then rejected the idea of merging with Bulgaria and instead sought closer relations with the West, later even spearheaded, together with India and Egypt the Non-Aligned Movement. Albania on the other hand gravitated toward Communist China, later adopting an isolationist position.
On 28 February 1953, Greece, Turkey and Yugoslavia signed the treaty of Agreement of Friendship and Cooperation in Ankara to form the Balkan Pact of 1953. The treaty's aim was to deter Soviet expansion in the Balkans and eventual creation of a joint military staff for the three countries. When the pact was signed, Turkey and Greece were members of the NATO, while Yugoslavia was a non-aligned communist state. With the Pact, Yugoslavia was able to indirectly associate itself with NATO. Though it was planned for the pact to remain in force for 20 years, it dissolved in 1960.
As the only non-communist countries, Greece and Turkey were (and still are) part of NATO composing the southeastern wing of the alliance.
Post–Cold War
In the 1990s, the transition of the regions' ex-Eastern bloc countries towards democratic free-market societies went peacefully. While in the non-aligned Yugoslavia, Wars between the former Yugoslav republics broke out after Slovenia and Croatia held free elections and their people voted for independence on their respective countries' referendums. Serbia, in turn, declared the dissolution of the union as unconstitutional and the Yugoslav People's Army unsuccessfully tried to maintain the status quo. Slovenia and Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991, which prompted the Croatian War of Independence in Croatia and the Ten-Day War in Slovenia. The Yugoslav forces eventually withdrew from Slovenia in 1991 while the war in Croatia continued until late 1995. The two were followed by Macedonia and later Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Bosnia being the most affected by the fighting. The wars prompted the United Nations' intervention and NATO ground and air forces took action against Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina and FR Yugoslavia (i.e. Serbia and Montenegro).
, 2008]]
From the dissolution of Yugoslavia, six states achieved internationally recognized sovereignty: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia; all of them are traditionally included in the Balkans which is often a controversial matter of dispute. In 2008, while under UN administration, Kosovo declared independence (according to the official Serbian policy, Kosovo is still an internal autonomous region). In July 2010, the International Court of Justice, ruled that the declaration of independence was legal. Most UN member states recognise Kosovo. After the end of the wars a revolution broke in Serbia and Slobodan Milošević, the Serbian communist leader (elected president between 1989 and 2000), was overthrown and handed for a trial to the International Criminal Tribunal for crimes against the International Humanitarian Law during the Yugoslav wars. Milošević died of a heart attack in 2006 before a verdict could have been released. Ιn 2001 an Albanian uprising in Macedonia (North Macedonia) forced the country to give local autonomy to the ethnic Albanians in the areas where they predominate.
With the dissolution of Yugoslavia, an issue emerged over the name under which the former (federated) republic of Macedonia would internationally be recognized, between the new country and Greece. Being the Macedonian part of Yugoslavia (see Vardar Macedonia), the federated republic under the Yugoslav identity had the name (Socialist) Republic of Macedonia on which it declared its sovereignty in 1991. Greece, having a large homonymous region (see Macedonia), opposed the usage of the name as an indication of a nationality and ethnicity. Thus dubbed Macedonia naming dispute was resolved under UN mediation in the June 2018 Prespa agreement was reached, which saw the country's renaming into North Macedonia in 2019.
Balkan countries control the direct land routes between Western Europe and South-West Asia (Asia Minor and the Middle East). Since 2000, all Balkan countries are friendly towards the EU and the US.
Greece has been a member of the EU since 1981, while Slovenia is a member since 2004, Bulgaria and Romania are members since 2007, and Croatia is a member since 2013. In 2005, the EU decided to start accession negotiations with candidate countries; Turkey, and North Macedonia were accepted as candidates for EU membership. In 2012, Montenegro started accession negotiations with the EU. In 2014, Albania is an official candidate for accession to the EU. In 2015, Serbia was expected to start accession negotiations with the EU, however this process has been stalled over the recognition of Kosovo as an independent state by existing EU member states.
Greece and Turkey have been NATO members since 1952. In March 2004, Bulgaria, Romania and Slovenia have become members of NATO. As of April 2009, Albania and Croatia are members of NATO. Montenegro joined in June 2017. The most recent member state to be added to NATO was North Macedonia on 27 March 2020.
Almost all other countries have expressed a desire to join the EU, NATO, or both at some point in the future.Economy
in Montenegro, tourism makes up a significant portion of the Montenegrin economy]]
in Serbia, which is the capital of Serbia and a major industrial city that accounts for a large component of the Serbian economy]]
in Greece, tourism plays a crucial role in the Greek economy]]
.]]
and Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge in Bosnia and Herzegovina, tourism is a rapidly growing sector of the Bosnian economy]]
in Croatia, tourism contributes substantially to the Croatian economy]]
Currently, all of the states are republics, but until World War II all countries were monarchies. Most of the republics are parliamentary, excluding Romania and Bosnia which are semi-presidential. All the states have open market economies, most of which are in the upper-middle-income range ($4,000–12,000 p.c.), except Croatia, Romania, Greece, and Slovenia that have high income economies (over $12,000 p.c.), and are classified with very high HDI, along with Bulgaria, in contrast to the remaining states, which are classified with high HDI. The states from the former Eastern Bloc that formerly had planned economy system and Turkey mark gradual economic growth each year. The gross domestic product per capita is highest in Slovenia (over $29,000), followed by Croatia and Greece (~$20,000), Romania, Bulgaria (over $11,000), Turkey, Montenegro, Serbia (between $10,000 and $9,000), and Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, North Macedonia (~$7,000) and Kosovo ($5,000). The Gini coefficient, which indicates the level of difference by monetary welfare of the layers, is on the second level at the highest monetary equality in Albania, Bulgaria, and Serbia, on the third level in Greece, Montenegro and Romania, on the fourth level in North Macedonia, on the fifth level in Turkey, and the most unequal by Gini coefficient is Bosnia at the eighth level which is the penultimate level and one of the highest in the world. The unemployment is lowest in Romania and Bulgaria (around 5%), followed by Serbia and Albania (11–12%), Turkey, Greece, Bosnia, North Macedonia (13–16%), Montenegro (~18%), and Kosovo (~25%).
As nations in the Western Balkans opened up to private investment in the 1990s, newly created enterprises (mostly SMEs) fueled regional economic development by facilitating the transition from a massive state-owned structure to a market economy. SMEs now account for 99% of all active businesses, up to 81% of total value created, and 72% of total employment in the Western Balkans. At the end of 2023, the macroeconomic environment in the Western Balkans indicates that risks are increasing, threatening to worsen the financial imbalance. Recent survey findings give conflicting data on enterprises' funding circumstances. While supply has fallen as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and interest rate increasers, it has showed progressive recovery.<!-- GDP per capita and unemployment is new updated info -->Regional organizations<!-- This section is linked from Black Sea -->
{| style="width:500px"
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| (SEECP) member states]] || ]]
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| (SECI) ]] || (BSEC) ]]
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See also the Black Sea regional organizations
Statistics
<div class"left" style"max-width:100%; overflow:auto;">
{| classwikitable style"margin:auto; border-collapse:collapse;"
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!
! Albania
! Bosnia and Herzegovina
! Bulgaria
! Croatia
! Greece
! Kosovo
! Montenegro
! North Macedonia
! Romania
! Serbia
! Slovenia
! Turkey
|-
! Flag
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
|-
! Coat of arms
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style"text-align:center;" |
| style="text-align:center;" | <!-- The Turkish Constitution doesn't specify an official coat of arms -->
|-
! Capital
| Tirana
| Sarajevo
| Sofia
| Zagreb
| Athens
| Pristina
| Podgorica
| Skopje
| Bucharest
| Belgrade
| Ljubljana
| Ankara
|-
! Independence
| 28 November 1912
| 3 March 1992
| 5 October 1908
| 26 June 1991
| 25 March 1821
| 17 February 2008
| 3 June 2006
| 17 November 1991
| 9 May 1878
| 5 June,<br /> 2006
| 25 June,<br /> 1991
| 29 October,<br /> 1923
|-
! Head of state
| Bajram Begaj
| <small>Željka Cvijanović<br /> Željko Komšić<br /> Denis Bećirović</small>
| Rumen Radev
| Zoran Milanović
| Katerina Sakellaropoulou
| Vjosa Osmani
| Jakov Milatović
| Gordana Siljanovska-Davkova
| Klaus Iohannis
| Aleksandar Vučić
| Nataša Pirc Musar
| Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
|-
! Head of government
| Edi Rama
| Borjana Krišto
| Rosen Zhelyazkov
| Andrej Plenković
| Kyriakos Mitsotakis
| Albin Kurti
| Milojko Spajić
| Hristijan Mickoski
| Marcel Ciolacu
| Miloš Vučević
| Robert Golob
| Office abolished in 2018
|-
! Population (2023)
| 2,761,785
| 3,502,550
| 6,447,710
| 3,850,894
| 10,394,055
| 1,798,188
| 616,695
| 1,829,954
| 19,051,562
| 6,664,449
| 2,116,792
| 85,279,553
|-
! Area
| 28,749 km<sup>2</sup>
| 51,197 km<sup>2</sup>
| 111,900 km<sup>2</sup>
| 56,594 km<sup>2</sup>
| 131,117 km<sup>2</sup>
| 10,908 km<sup>2</sup>
| 13,812 km<sup>2</sup>
| 25,713 km<sup>2</sup>
| 238,391 km<sup>2</sup>
| 77,474 km<sup>2</sup>
| $15.418 bln
| $20.106 bln
| $66.250 bln
| $60.702 bln
| $214.012 bln
| $8.402 bln
| $5.424 bln
| $12.672 bln
| $243.698 bln
| $55.437 bln
| $54.154 bln
| $774.708 bln
|-
! GDP (PPP, 2018)
| 29.0 (2012)
| 33.0 (2011)
| 39.6
| 29.7
| 32.3
| 29.0 (2017)
| 36.7 (2017)
| 31.9
| 35.1
| 35.6
| 23.4
| 43.0
|-
! HDI (2018)
| 0.791
| 0.769
| 0.816
| 0.837
| 0.872
| 0.739 (2016)
| 0.816
| 0.759
| 0.816
| 0.799
| 0.902
| 0.806
|-
! IHDI (2018)
| 0.705
| 0.658
| 0.713
| 0.768
| 0.766
| N/A
| 0.746
| 0.660
| 0.725
| 0.710
| 0.858
| 0.676
|-
! Internet TLD
| .al
| .ba
| .bg
| .hr
| .gr
| Doesn't have
| .me
| .mk
| .ro
| .rs
| .si
| .tr
|-
! Calling code
| +355
| +387
| +359
| +385
| +30
| +383
| +382
| +389
| +40
| +381
| +386
| +90
|}
</div>
Demographics
The region is inhabited by Albanians, Aromanians, Bulgarians, Bosniaks, Croats, Gorani, Greeks, Istro-Romanians, Macedonians, Magyars, Megleno-Romanians, Montenegrins, Serbs, Slovenes, Romanians, Turks, and other ethnic groups which present minorities in certain countries like the Romani and Ashkali.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:95%"
|-
! State !! Population (2023)!! Density/km2 (2018)!! Life expectancy (2018)
|-
|
|2,761,785
|100
|78.3 years
|-
|
|3,502,550
|69
|77.2 years
|-
|
|6,447,710
|64
|79.9 years
|-
|
|3,850,894
|73
|78.2 years
|-
|
|10,394,055
|82
|80.1 years
|-
|
|1,798,188
|165
|77.7 years
|-
|
|616,695
|45
|76.4 years
|-
|
|1,829,954
|81
|76.2 years
|-
|
|19,051,562
|82
|76.3 years
|-
|
|6,664,449
|90
|76.5 years
|-
|
|2,116,792
|102
|80.3 years
|-
|
| 11,929,013
|101
|78.5 years
|}
Religion
The region is a meeting point of Orthodox Christianity, Islam and Roman Catholic Christianity. Eastern Orthodoxy is the majority religion in both the Balkan Peninsula and the Balkan region, The Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe. A variety of different traditions of each faith are practiced, with each of the Eastern Orthodox countries having its own national church. A part of the population in the Balkans defines itself as irreligious.
Islam has a significant history in the region where Muslims make up a large percentage of the population. A 2013 estimate placed the total Muslim population of the Balkans at around eight million. Islam is the largest religion in nations like Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Kosovo with significant minorities in Bulgaria, North Macedonia and Montenegro. Smaller populations of Muslims are also found in Romania, Serbia and Greece.
! Religious minorities of these territories Sephardi Jews used to have a large presence in the city of Thessaloniki, and by 1900, some 80,000, or more than half of the population, were Jews. The Jewish communities in the Balkans suffered immensely during World War II, and the vast majority were killed during the Holocaust. An exception were the Bulgarian Jews who Boris III of Bulgaria sent to forced labor camps instead of Nazi concentration camps. Almost all of the few survivors have emigrated to the (then) newly founded state of Israel and elsewhere. Almost no Balkan country today has a significant Jewish minority.Languages
ways of the Romance-speaking Vlach shepherds in the past]]
The Balkan region today is a very diverse ethnolinguistic region, being home to multiple Slavic and Romance languages, as well as Albanian, Greek, Turkish, Hungarian and others. Romani is spoken by a large portion of the Romanis living throughout the Balkan countries. Throughout history, many other ethnic groups with their own languages lived in the area, among them Thracians, Illyrians, Romans, Celts and various Germanic tribes. All of the aforementioned languages from the present and from the past belong to the wider Indo-European language family, with the exception of the Turkic languages (e.g., Turkish and Gagauz) and Hungarian.
{| class"wikitable" style"font-size: 90%;"
|-
! State !!Most spoken language
! Linguistic minorities
| 12% Kurdish, 3% other and unspecified
A list of largest cities:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! City !! Country !!data-sort-type"number"| Agglomeration !!data-sort-type"number"| City proper !! Year
|-
| Istanbul || || 10,097,862 || 10,097,862 || 2019
|-
| Athens || || 3,753,783 || 664,046 || 2018
|-
| Bucharest || ||2,272,163 || 1,887,485 || 2018
|-
| Sofia || || 1,995,950 || 1,313,595 || 2018
|-
| Belgrade || || 1,659,440 || 1,119,696 || 2018
|-
| Zagreb || || 1,217,150 || 767,131 || 2021
|-
|Tekirdağ
|
|1,055,412
|1,055,412
|2019
|-
| Thessaloniki || ||1,012,297 || 325,182 || 2018
|-
| Ljubljana || || 537,712 || 292,988 || 2018
|-
| Skopje || || 506,926 || 444,800 || 2018
|-
| Constanța || || 425,916 || 283,872 || 2018
|-
| Sarajevo || || 413,593 || 275,524 || 2018
|-
| Cluj-Napoca || || 411,379 || 324,576 || 2018
|-
| Timișoara || || 356,443 || 319,279 || 2018
|-
|Split
|
|325,600
|161,312
|2021 It is home to two-thirds of the city's 15,519,267 inhabitants.
|}
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|align"right" valign"top"|e.
|See:<ref name"bmeia.gv.at" /><ref name"wbif.eu" /><ref name"ec.europa.eu" /><ref name"auto" />
|}
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
* Carter, Francis W., ed. (1977). An Historical Geography of the Balkans Academic Press.
* Dvornik, Francis (1962). The Slavs in European History and Civilization Rutgers University Press.
* Fine, John V. A., Jr. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century [1983]; The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, [1987].
* Forbes, Nevill (1915). The Balkans: A History of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Rumania, Turkey Clarendon Press, [https://archive.org/details/balkanshistoryof00forbuoft online]
*
*
*
*
* Lampe, John R., and Marvin R. Jackson (1982). Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations Indiana University Press.
* Király, Béla K., ed. (1984). East Central European Society in the Era of Revolutions, 1775–1856.
*
*
*
* [https://archive.org/details/balkanssince145300lsst online free to borrow]
*
* Underwood, E. W. (1919), [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73663 Short stories from the Balkans], Boston: Marshall Jones Company
*
* Zametica, John (2017). Folly and malice: the Habsburg empire, the Balkans and the start of World War One London: Shepheard–Walwyn. 416 pp. .
External links
* [http://www.balkaninsight.com/ Balkan Insight – Analysis from Balkans]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060617145859/http://balkanalysis.com/ Balkanalysis, in-depth research on Balkan geopolitics]
* [https://www.facebook.com/WesternBalkans Western Balkans Photo impression]
* [https://www.academia.edu/18698805/Shared_Pasts_in_Central_and_Southeast_Europe_17th_21st_Centuries_Hungarian_and_Bulgarian_Approaches._Eds._G%C3%A1bor_Demeter_Penka_Peykovska._Sofia-Budapest_2015_440_p/ Shared Pasts in Central and Southeast Europe, 17th–21st Centuries]. Eds. G. Demeter, P. Peykovska. 2015.
Category:Geography of Europe
Category:Peninsulas of Europe
Category:Regions of Europe
Category:Southeastern Europe
Category:Turkish toponyms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans
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Bohr model
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thumb|310px|The Bohr
model of the hydrogen atom ( 1}}) or a hydrogen-like ion (), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (hν). The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as n<sup>2</sup>, where n is the principal quantum number. The transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen ( 1}}) it results in a photon of wavelength 656 nm (red light).
In atomic physics, the Bohr model or Rutherford–Bohr model was the first successful model of the atom. Developed from 1911 to 1918 by Niels Bohr and building on Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model, it supplanted the plum pudding model of J. J. Thomson only to be replaced by the quantum atomic model in the 1920s. It consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).
In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, including Joseph Larmor's Solar System model (1897), Jean Perrin's model (1901), the cubical model (1902), Hantaro Nagaoka's Saturnian model (1904), the plum pudding model (1904), Arthur Haas's quantum model (1910), the Rutherford model (1911), and John William Nicholson's nuclear quantum model (1912). The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the new quantum mechanical interpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according to classical physics.
The model's key success lies in explaining the Rydberg formula for hydrogen's spectral emission lines. While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced. Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results.
The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of the hydrogen atom, compared to the valence shell model. As a theory, it can be derived as a first-order approximation of the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be an obsolete scientific theory. However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to quantum mechanics or energy level diagrams before moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom. A related quantum model was proposed by Arthur Erich Haas in 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed. The quantum theory of the period between Planck's discovery of the quantum (1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as the old quantum theory. Background
]]
Until the second decade of the 20th century, atomic models were generally speculative. Even the concept of atoms, let alone atoms with internal structure, faced opposition from some scientists.
These models faced a significant constraint.
In 1897, Joseph Larmor showed that an accelerating charge would radiate power according to classical electrodynamics, a result known as the Larmor formula. Since electrons forced to remain in orbit are continuously accelerating, they would be mechanically unstable. Larmor noted that electromagnetic effect of multiple electrons, suitable arranged, would cancel each other. Thus subsequent atomic models based on classical electrodynamics needed to adopt such special multi-electron arrangements.
Thomson's atom model
When Bohr began his work on a new atomic theory in the summer of 1912 Thomson proposed a model with electrons rotating in coplanar rings within an atomic-sized, positively-charged, spherical volume. Thomson showed that this model was mechanically stable by lengthy calculations and was electrodynamically stable under his original assumption of thousands of electrons per atom. Moreover, he suggested that the particularly stable configurations of electrons in rings was connected to chemical properties of the atoms. He developed a formula for the scattering of beta particles that seemed to match experimental results.
Bohr begins his first paper on his atomic model by describing Rutherford's atom as consisting of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus attracting negatively charged electrons.
Atomic spectra
By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the many atomic spectral lines. These lines were summarized in empirical formula by Johann Balmer and Johannes Rydberg. In 1897, Lord Rayleigh showed that vibrations of electrical systems predicted spectral lines that depend on the square of the vibrational frequency, contradicting the empirical formula which depended directly on the frequency.
In 1907 Arthur W. Conway showed that, rather than the entire atom vibrating, vibrations of only one of the electrons in the system described by Thomson might be sufficient to account for spectral series. Although Bohr's model would also rely on just the electron to explain the spectrum, he did not assume an electrodynamical model for the atom.
The other important advance in the understanding of atomic spectra was the Rydberg–Ritz combination principle which related atomic spectral line frequencies to differences between 'terms', special frequencies characteristic of each element.<!-- Both Conway and Ritz discussed --> Haas atomic model<span class"anchor" id"Haas atomic model"></span> In 1910, Arthur Erich Haas proposed a model of the hydrogen atom with an electron circulating on the surface of a sphere of positive charge. The model resembled Thomson's plum pudding model, but Haas added a radical new twist: he constrained the electron's potential energy, <math>E_\text{pot}</math>, on a sphere of radius to equal the frequency, , of the electron's orbit on the sphere times the Planck constant: and discussed them with Rutherford.
The subject of the conference was the theory of radiation and the energy quanta of Max Planck's oscillators.
Planck's lecture at the conference ended with comments about atoms and the discussion that followed it concerned atomic models. Hendrik Lorentz raised the question of the composition of the atom based on Haas's model, a form of Thomson's plum pudding model with a quantum modification. Lorentz explained that the size of atoms could be taken to determine the Planck constant as Haas had done or the Planck constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms. Bohr would adopt the second path.
The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom. Planck explicitly mentions the failings of classical mechanics. In his 1913 paper Bohr cites Nicholson as finding quantized angular momentum important for the atom. This was further generalized by Johannes Rydberg in 1888, resulting in what is now known as the Rydberg formula.
After this, Bohr declared, "everything became clear".
# According to the Maxwell theory the frequency <math>\nu</math> of classical radiation is equal to the rotation frequency <math>\nu</math><sub>rot</sub> of the electron in its orbit, with harmonics at integer multiples of this frequency. This result is obtained from the Bohr model for jumps between energy levels <math>E_n</math> and <math>E_{n-k}</math> when <math>k</math> is much smaller than <math>n</math>. These jumps reproduce the frequency of the <math>k</math>-th harmonic of orbit <math>n</math>. For sufficiently large values of <math>n</math> (so-called Rydberg states), the two orbits involved in the emission process have nearly the same rotation frequency, so that the classical orbital frequency is not ambiguous. But for small <math>n</math> (or large <math>k</math>), the radiation frequency has no unambiguous classical interpretation. This marks the birth of the correspondence principle, requiring quantum theory to agree with the classical theory only in the limit of large quantum numbers.
# The Bohr–Kramers–Slater theory (BKS theory) is a failed attempt to extend the Bohr model, which violates the conservation of energy and momentum in quantum jumps, with the conservation laws only holding on average.
Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple of <math>\hbar</math>, was later reinterpreted in 1924 by de Broglie as a standing wave condition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit:
: <math>n \lambda = 2 \pi r.</math>
According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave as waves. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron is
: <math>\lambda = \frac{h}{mv},</math>
which implies that
: <math>\frac{nh}{mv} = 2 \pi r,</math>
or
: <math>\frac{nh}{2 \pi} = mvr,</math>
where <math>mvr</math> is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron. Writing <math>\ell</math> for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes
: <math>\ell = \frac{nh}{2 \pi},</math>
which is Bohr's second postulate.
Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as <math>2/h</math> while de Broglie's wavelength of <math>\lambda = h/p</math> described <math>h</math> divided by the electron momentum. In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation. In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected.
In 1925, a new kind of mechanics was proposed, quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into a more accurate model of electron motion. The new theory was proposed by Werner Heisenberg. Another form of the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger independently, and by different reasoning. Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of a hydrogen-like atom, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge.
Electron energy levels
The Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light. This not only involves one-electron systems such as the hydrogen atom, singly ionized helium, and doubly ionized lithium, but it includes positronium and Rydberg states of any atom where one electron is far away from everything else. It can be used for K-line X-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (see Moseley's law below). In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses of heavy quark mesons.
Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions.
* Classical mechanics
: The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction. The centripetal force is equal to the Coulomb force.
:: <math> \frac{m_\mathrm{e} v^2}{r} = \frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{r^2},</math>
: where m<sub>e</sub> is the electron's mass, e is the elementary charge, k<sub>e</sub> is the Coulomb constant and Z is the atom's atomic number. It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption). This equation determines the electron's speed at any radius:
:: <math> v = \sqrt{\frac{Zk_\mathrm{e} e^2}{m_\mathrm{e} r}}. </math>
: It also determines the electron's total energy at any radius:
:: <math> E = -\frac{1}{2} m_\mathrm{e} v^2.</math>
: The total energy is negative and inversely proportional to r. This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the proton. For infinite values of r, the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton. The total energy is half the potential energy, the difference being the kinetic energy of the electron. This is also true for noncircular orbits by the virial theorem.
* A quantum rule
: The angular momentum m<sub>e</sub>vr}} is an integer multiple of ħ:
:: <math> m_\mathrm{e} v r n \hbar.</math> Derivation
In classical mechanics, if an electron is orbiting around an atom with period T, and if its coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, it will emit electromagnetic radiation in a pattern repeating at every period, so that the Fourier transform of the pattern will only have frequencies which are multiples of 1/T.
However, in quantum mechanics, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels of the orbits, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels. This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation.
Bohr assumes that the electron is circling the nucleus in an elliptical orbit obeying the rules of classical mechanics, but with no loss of radiation due to the Larmor formula.
Denoting the total energy as E, the negative electron charge as e, the positive nucleus charge as KZ|e|, the electron mass as m<sub>e</sub>, half the major axis of the ellipse as a, he starts with these equations:
The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (R<sub>E</sub>):
:<math> R_\mathrm{E} = \frac{ (k_\mathrm{e} e^2)^2 m_\mathrm{e}}{2 \hbar^2}.</math>
This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form more natural units:
: <math>m_\mathrm{e} c^2 </math> is the rest mass energy of the electron (511 keV),
: <math>\frac{k_\mathrm{e} e^2}{\hbar c} = \alpha \approx \frac{1}{137} </math> is the fine-structure constant,
: <math>R_\mathrm{E} = \frac{1}{2} (m_\mathrm{e} c^2) \alpha^2</math>.
Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a charge , where Z is the atomic number. This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of the actual energy levels. So for nuclei with Z protons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation):
: <math> E_n = -\frac{Z^2 R_\mathrm{E}}{n^2}.</math>
The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (see n-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by the nucleus but also interact with each other via the Coulomb force.
When Z 1/α (), the motion becomes highly relativistic, and Z<sup>2</sup> cancels the α<sup>2</sup> in R; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy. Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity. This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge. Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei.
The Bohr formula properly uses the reduced mass of electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron,
:<math>m_\text{red} \frac{m_\mathrm{e} m_\mathrm{p}}{m_\mathrm{e} + m_\mathrm{p}} m_\mathrm{e} \frac{1}{1 + m_\mathrm{e}/m_\mathrm{p}}.</math>
However, these numbers are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946. This fact was historically important in convincing Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4.
For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2. For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy. The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus.
:<math> E_n \frac{R_\mathrm{E}}{2 n^2}</math> (positronium). Rydberg formula
Beginning in late 1860s, Johann Balmer and later Johannes Rydberg and Walther Ritz developed increasingly accurate empirical formula matching measured atomic spectral lines.
Critical for Bohr's later work, Rydberg expressed his formula in terms of wave-number, equivalent to frequency. These formula contained a constant, <math>R</math>, now known the Rydberg constant and a pair of integers indexing the lines:
<math display"block">\nu R \left( \frac{1}{m^2} - \frac{1}{n^2} \right).</math>
Despite many attempts, no theory of the atom could reproduce these relatively simple formula.
<math display"block">W_\tau \frac{2\pi^2me^4}{h^2\tau^2}</math>
The energy difference between two such levels is then:
<math display"block">h\nu W_{\tau_2} - W_{\tau_1} = \frac{2\pi^2me^4}{h^2}\left( \frac{1}{\tau_2^2} - \frac{1}{\tau_1^2} \right)</math>
Therefore, Bohr's theory gives the Rydberg formula and moreover the numerical value the Rydberg constant for hydrogen in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge, the electron's mass, and the Planck constant:
<math display"block">cR_H \frac{2\pi^2me^4}{h^3}.</math>
Since the energy of a photon is
: <math>E = \frac{hc}{\lambda},</math>
these results can be expressed in terms of the wavelength of the photon given off:
: <math>\frac{1}{\lambda} = R \left( \frac{1}{n_f^2} - \frac{1}{n_i^2} \right).</math>
Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of the Lyman ( 1), Balmer (2), and Paschen ( 3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was immediately accepted. The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail and John William Nicholson was one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium.
In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on the periodic table, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms. This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemist Charles Rugeley Bury
Bohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 was Walther Kossel who corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: "shells". Irving Langmuir is credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to the octet rule of 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916. Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge. Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons. Per Kossel, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used.
In 1913, Henry Moseley found an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as the K-alpha line), and their atomic number . Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions only Ernest Rutherford and Antonius Van den Broek in terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper). The two additional assumptions that [1] this X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and [2], that the atomic number when used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to .
Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help. At that time, he thought that the postulated innermost "K" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result. So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation.
It was Walther Kossel in 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: "This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated." Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge. Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913.
The K-alpha line of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as (Kα<sub>1</sub> and Kα<sub>2</sub>) in Siegbahn notation.
Shortcomings
The Bohr model gives an incorrect value ħ}} for the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment. Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern "orbital" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to revolve "around" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as "back and forth", without striking or interacting with the nucleus). This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's. Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric – it doesn't point in any particular direction.
In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is a spherical cloud of probability that grows denser near the nucleus. The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a "coincidence". (However, many such coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr–Sommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics).
The Bohr model also failed to explain:
* Much of the spectra of larger atoms. At best, it can make predictions about the K-alpha and some L-alpha X-ray emission spectra for larger atoms, if two additional ad hoc assumptions are made. Emission spectra for atoms with a single outer-shell electron (atoms in the lithium group) can also be approximately predicted. Also, if the empiric electron–nuclear screening factors for many atoms are known, many other spectral lines can be deduced from the information, in similar atoms of differing elements, via the Ritz–Rydberg combination principles (see Rydberg formula). All these techniques essentially make use of Bohr's Newtonian energy-potential picture of the atom.
* The relative intensities of spectral lines; although in some simple cases, Bohr's formula or modifications of it, was able to provide reasonable estimates (for example, calculations by Kramers for the Stark effect).
* The existence of fine structure and hyperfine structure in spectral lines, which are known to be due to a variety of relativistic and subtle effects, as well as complications from electron spin.
* The Zeeman effect – changes in spectral lines due to external magnetic fields; these are also due to more complicated quantum principles interacting with electron spin and orbital magnetic fields.
* Doublets and triplets appear in the spectra of some atoms as very close pairs of lines. Bohr's model cannot say why some energy levels should be very close together.
* Multi-electron atoms do not have energy levels predicted by the model. It does not work for (neutral) helium.
Refinements
Several enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably the Sommerfeld or Bohr–Sommerfeld models, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits.
: <math>\int_0^T p_r \, dq_r = n h,</math>
where p<sub>r</sub> is the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinate q<sub>r</sub>, which is the radial position, and T is one full orbital period. The integral is the action of action-angle coordinates. This condition, suggested by the correspondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers are adiabatic invariants.
The Bohr–Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes. The magnetic quantum number measured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to the xy plane, and it could only take a few discrete values. This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could have any orientation relative to the coordinates, without restriction. The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers. The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape. The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom, which was first given by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925, using Heisenberg's matrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on the atomic orbitals of wave mechanics, which Erwin Schrödinger developed in 1926.
However, this is not to say that the Bohr–Sommerfeld model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr–Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-order perturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in the Stark effect. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model. The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron.
The Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics. Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized. In particular, the symplectic form should be the curvature form of a connection of a Hermitian line bundle, which is called a prequantization.
Bohr also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable "closed shells".
Model of the chemical bond
Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom and a model of the chemical bond. According to his model for a diatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei. The dynamic equilibrium of the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei. The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account the Coulomb repulsion – the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other. Symbolism of planetary atomic models
Although Bohr's atomic model was superseded by quantum models in the 1920s, the visual image of electrons orbiting a nucleus has remained the popular concept of atoms.
The concept of an atom as a tiny planetary system has been widely used as a symbol for atoms and even for "atomic" energy (even though this is more properly considered nuclear energy). Examples of its use over the past century include but are not limited to:
* The logo of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, which was in part responsible for its later usage in relation to nuclear fission technology in particular.
* The flag of the International Atomic Energy Agency is a "crest-and-spinning-atom emblem", enclosed in olive branches.
* The US minor league baseball Albuquerque Isotopes' logo shows baseballs as electrons orbiting a large letter "A".
* A similar symbol, the atomic whirl, was chosen as the symbol for the American Atheists, and has come to be used as a symbol of atheism in general.
* The Unicode Miscellaneous Symbols code point U+269B (⚛) for an atom looks like a planetary atom model.
* The television show The Big Bang Theory uses a planetary-like image in its print logo.
* The JavaScript library React uses planetary-like image as its logo.
* On maps, it is generally used to indicate a nuclear power installation.
See also
* 1913 in science
* Balmer's Constant
* Bohr–Sommerfeld model
* The Franck–Hertz experiment provided early support for the Bohr model.
* The inert-pair effect is adequately explained by means of the Bohr model.
* Introduction to quantum mechanics
References
Footnotes
Primary sources
*
*
*
*
*
* Reprinted in The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, A. Engel translator, (1997) Princeton University Press, Princeton. 6 p. 434. (provides an elegant reformulation of the Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions, as well as an important insight into the quantization of non-integrable (chaotic) dynamical systems.)
*
Further reading
*
** Reprint:
*
*
*
* Klaus Hentschel: Elektronenbahnen, Quantensprünge und Spektren, in: Charlotte Bigg & Jochen Hennig (eds.) Atombilder. Ikonografien des Atoms in Wissenschaft und Öffentlichkeit des 20. Jahrhunderts, Göttingen: Wallstein-Verlag 2009, pp. 51–61
*
* External links
* [http://www.lucamoroni.it/cdf-simulations/standing-waves-in-bohrs-atomic-model/ Standing waves in Bohr's atomic model]—An interactive simulation to intuitively explain the quantization condition of standing waves in Bohr's atomic mode
Category:1913 in science
Category:Atomic physics
Category:Foundational quantum physics
Category:Hydrogen physics
Category:Niels Bohr
Category:Old quantum theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model
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Bombay Sapphire
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}}
Bombay Sapphire is a brand of gin that is distilled by the Bombay Spirits Company, a subsidiary company of Bacardi, at Laverstoke Mill in the village of Laverstoke in the English county of Hampshire.
The brand was first launched in 1986 by English wine-merchant International Distillers & Vintners. In 1997 Diageo sold the brand to Bacardi. Its name originates from the gin and tonic popularised by the Royal Indian Armed Forces during the British Raj in colonial India; "Bombay" refers to the Indian city and "Sapphire" refers to the violet-blue Star of Bombay which was mined from British Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and is now on display at the Smithsonian Institution. Bombay Sapphire is marketed in a flat-sided, sapphire-coloured bottle that bears a picture of Queen Victoria on the label. angelica, coriander, cassia, cubeb, and grains of paradise. Alcohol brought in from another supplier is evaporated three times using a carterhead still, and the alcohol vapours are passed through a mesh/basket containing the ten botanicals to gain flavour and aroma. This is felt to give the gin a lighter, more floral taste compared to gins created using a copper pot still. Water from Lake Vyrnwy, a reservoir in Powys, Wales is added to bring the strength of Bombay Sapphire down to 40.0% (UK, the Nordics, several continental European markets, Canada and Australia).
The 47.0% version is the standard for sale at duty-free shops in all markets.
Production
, Hampshire]]
for growing the botanicals]]
Until 2013, production and bottling of Bombay Sapphire was contracted out by Bacardi to G&J Greenall in Warrington, Cheshire. However, in 2011, plans were announced to move the manufacturing process to a new facility at Laverstoke Mill in Laverstoke, Hampshire. These plans included the restoration of the former Portal's paper mill at the proposed site and the construction of a visitor centre.
Planning permission was granted in February 2012, and the centre opened to the public in the autumn of 2014. The visitor centre included a new construction by Thomas Heatherwick of two glasshouses for plants used as botanicals in the production of Bombay Sapphire gin. As part of the transfer of production, two of Greenall's stills were moved from Warrington to Laverstoke.
In September 2011, Bombay Sapphire East was launched in test markets in New York and Las Vegas. This variety has another two botanicals, lemongrass and black peppercorns, in addition to the original ten. It is bottled at 42% and was designed to counteract the sweetness of most tonic water.
A special edition of Bombay gin called Star of Bombay was produced in 2015 for the UK market. It is bottled at 47.5% and is distilled from grain. It features bergamot and ambrette seeds in harmony with Bombay's signature botanicals. This version has later been extended to several other markets.
Bombay Bramble is a variety infused with blackberries and raspberries and bottled at 37.5% ABV.
In the summer of 2019, Bacardi launched a limited edition gin called Bombay Sapphire English Estate, which features three additional English-sourced botanicals: Pennyroyal Mint, rosehip and hazelnut. It is bottled at 41%.
Design connection
The brand started a series of design collaborations. Their first step into the design world was a series of advertisements featuring work from currently popular designers. Their works, varying from martini glasses to tiles and cloth patterns, are labelled as "Inspired by Bombay Sapphire". The campaign featured designers such as Marcel Wanders, Yves Béhar, Karim Rashid, Ulla Darni, and Dror Benshetrit and performance artist Jurgen Hahn.
From the success of this campaign, the company began a series of events and sponsored locations. The best known is the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition, held each year, where design students worldwide can participate by designing their own "inspired" martini cocktail glass. The finalists (one from each participating country) are then invited to the yearly Salone del Mobile, an international design fair in Milan, where the winner is chosen.
Bombay Sapphire also endorses glass artists and designers with the Bombay Sapphire Prize, which is awarded yearly to an outstanding design featuring glass. Bombay Sapphire also showcases the designers' work in the Bombay Sapphire endorsed blue room, a design exhibition touring the world each year.
From 2008 the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition final will be held at 100% Design in London, and the Bombay Sapphire Prize will take place in Milan at the Salone del Mobile.
Evaluation
Bombay Sapphire has been reviewed by several outside spirits ratings organisations to various degrees of success. Recently, it was awarded a score of 92 (on a 100-point scale) from the Beverage Testing Institute. Ratings aggregator Proof66.com categorizes the Sapphire as a Tier 2 spirit, indicating highly favourable "expert" reviews.
Cultural references
* Bombay Sapphire was used in the video work Victoria Day (Bombay Sapphire), 2002 by contemporary artists Marina Roy and Abbas Akhavan.
* Long-time sports radio personality Jim Rome is known for his love of Bombay Sapphire Gin, which he often refers to as "the Magic Blue".
* American hip-hop artist Wiz Khalifa and his "Taylor Gang" are also known for their love of Bombay Sapphire dry gin.
* Former Las Vegas, Nevada mayor Oscar Goodman is known for his love of Bombay Sapphire Gin, and he has served as a spokesman for the brand.
* American country singer-songwriter and entertainer Robert Earl Keen references "a quart of Bombay gin" in the song "The Road Goes on Forever".
* American YouTuber and live streamer Etika was known for drinking Bombay Sapphire, among other alcoholic drinks, during streams as a way to celebrate donations.
* In the Netflix series BoJack Horseman a bottle strongly resembling Bombay Sapphire can be seen in Princess Carolyn's office.
* The gin is referenced in the Kaytranada song 4EVA
References
External links
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110708083617/http://www.boozebasher.com/2007-07-04/gin/review-bombay-sapphire-gin/ BoozeBasher review of Bombay Sapphire]
* [http://www.designerglasscompetition.com/ Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205635/http://www.bombaysapphireprize.com/ Bombay Sapphire Prize]
* [http://www.dfnionline.com/article/Bombay-Sapphire-sparkles-in-latest-collaboration-1856077.html Bombay Sapphire sparkles in latest collaboration]
Category:Bacardi brands
Category:Gin brands
Category:Products introduced in 1986
Category:English distilled drinks
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombay_Sapphire
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Bob Wills
|
| birth_name = James Robert Wills
| alias = "King of Western Swing"
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Kosse, Texas, U.S.
| instrument = Fiddle, vocals
| origin | death_date
| death_place = Fort Worth, Texas, U.S.
| genre = Western swing
| years_active = 1929‒1973
| label = Vocalion, OKeh, Columbia, MGM, Liberty
| associated_acts = The Strangers, Light Crust Doughboys, Texas Playboys
| website =
}}
James Robert Wills (March 6, 1905 – May 13, 1975) was an American Western swing musician, songwriter, and bandleader. Considered by music authorities as the founder of Western swing, he was known widely as the King of Western Swing (although Spade Cooley self-promoted the moniker "King of Western Swing" from 1942 to 1969). He was also noted for punctuating his music with his trademark "ah-haa" calls.
Wills formed several bands and played radio stations around the South and West until he formed the Texas Playboys in 1934 with Wills on fiddle, Tommy Duncan on piano and vocals, rhythm guitarist June Whalin, tenor banjoist Johnnie Lee Wills, and Kermit Whalin who played steel guitar and bass. Oklahoma guitar player Eldon Shamblin joined the band in 1937 bringing jazzy influence and arrangements. The band played regularly on Tulsa, Oklahoma, radio station KVOO and added Leon McAuliffe on steel guitar, pianist Al Stricklin, drummer Smokey Dacus, and a horn section that expanded the band's sound. Wills favored jazz-like arrangements and the band found national popularity into the 1940s with such hits as "Steel Guitar Rag", "San Antonio Rose", "Smoke on the Water", "Stars and Stripes on Iwo Jima", and "New Spanish Two Step".
Wills and the Texas Playboys recorded with several publishers and companies, including Vocalion, Okeh, Columbia, and MGM. In 1950, Wills had two top 10 hits, "Ida Red likes the Boogie" and "Faded Love", which were his last hits for a decade. Throughout the 1950s, he struggled with poor health and tenuous finances. He continued to perform frequently despite a decline in the popularity of his earlier hit songs, and the growing popularity of rock and roll. Wills had a heart attack in 1962, and a second one the next year, which forced him to disband the Texas Playboys. Wills continued to perform solo.
The Country Music Hall of Fame inducted Wills in 1968 and the Texas State Legislature honored him for his contribution to American music. In 1972, Wills accepted a citation from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers in Nashville. He recorded an album with fan Merle Haggard in 1973. Wills suffered two strokes that left him partially paralyzed, and unable to communicate. He was comatose the last two months of his life, and died in a Fort Worth nursing home in 1975. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducted Wills and the Texas Playboys in 1999.
Biography
Early years
He was born on a cotton farm in Kosse, Texas, to Emma Lee Foley and John Tompkins Wills. His parents were both of primarily English ancestry, but had distant Irish ancestry, as well. The entire Wills family was musically inclined. His father was a statewide champion fiddle player, and several of his siblings played musical instruments. The family frequently held country dances in their home, and while living in Hall County, Texas, they also played at "ranch dances", which were popular throughout West Texas. In this environment, Wills learned to play the fiddle and the mandolin early.
Wills not only learned traditional music from his family, but he also learned some blues songs directly from African-American families who worked in the cotton fields near Lakeview, Texas. As a child, he mainly interacted with African-American children, learning their musical styles and dances such as jigs. Aside from his own family, he knew few other White children until he was seven or eight years old.New Mexico and TexasThe family moved to Hall County in the Texas Panhandle in 1913, and in 1919 they bought a farm between the towns of Lakeview, Texas, and Turkey, Texas. At the age of 16, Wills left the family and hopped a freight train, travelling under the name Jim Rob. He drifted from town to town trying to earn a living for several years, once nearly falling from a moving train.
In his 20s, he attended barber school, married his first wife Edna, and moved first to Roy, New Mexico, then returned to Turkey in Hall County (now considered his home town) to work as a barber at Ham's Barber Shop. He alternated barbering and fiddling, even when he moved to Fort Worth, Texas, after leaving Hall County in 1929. There, he played in minstrel and medicine shows, and, as with other Texas musicians such as Ocie Stockard, continued to earn money as a barber. He wore blackface makeup to appear in comedy routines, something that was common at the time. Wills played the violin and sang, and had two guitarists and a banjo player with him. "Bob was in blackface and was the comic; he cracked jokes, sang, and did an amazing jig dance."
Since there was already a Jim on the show, the manager began calling him Bob. Wills quickly became known for being talkative on the bandstand, a tendency he picked up from family, local cowboys, and the style of Black musicians he had heard growing up.
While in Fort Worth, Wills added the "rowdy city blues" of Bessie Smith and Emmett Miller, whom he idolized, to a repertoire of mainly waltzes and breakdowns he had learned from his father, and patterned his vocal style after that of Miller and other performers such as Al Bernard. His 1935 version of "St. Louis Blues" replicates Al Bernard's patter from the 1928 version of the song. He described his love of Bessie Smith's music with an anecdote: "I rode horseback from the place between the rivers to Childress to see Bessie Smith... She was about the greatest thing I had ever heard. In fact, there was no doubt about it. She was the greatest thing I ever heard."
In Fort Worth, Wills met Herman Arnspiger and formed the Wills Fiddle Band. In 1930, Milton Brown joined the group as lead vocalist and brought a sense of innovation and experimentation to the band, which became known as the Aladdin Laddies and then soon renamed itself the Light Crust Doughboys because of radio sponsorship by the makers of Light Crust Flour. Brown left the band in 1932 to form the Musical Brownies, the first true Western swing band. Brown added twin fiddles, tenor banjo, and slap bass, pointing the music in the direction of swing, which they played on local radio and at dancehalls.
The Texas Playboys
|300px]]
After forming a new band, The Playboys, and relocating to Waco, Texas, Wills found enough popularity there to decide on a bigger market. They left Waco in January 1934 for Oklahoma City. Wills soon settled the renamed Texas Playboys in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and began broadcasting noon shows over the 50,000-watt KVOO radio station, from the stage of Cain's Ballroom. They also played dances in the evenings. Wills largely sang blues and sentimental ballads. "One Star Rag", "Rat Cheese Under the Hill", "Take Me Back to Tulsa", "Basin Street Blues", "Steel Guitar Rag", and "Trouble in Mind" were some of the songs in the extensive repertory played by Wills and the Playboys.
Wills added a trumpet to the band inadvertently when he hired Everet Stover as an announcer, not knowing that he had played with the New Orleans symphony and had directed the governor's band in Austin. Stover, thinking he had been hired as a trumpeter, began playing with the band, and Wills never stopped him. Although Wills initially disapproved of it, young saxophonist Zeb McNally was eventually hired. Wills hired the young, "modern-style musician" Smoky Dacus as a drummer to balance out the horns.
He continued to expand the lineup through the mid- to late 1930s. The addition of steel guitar whiz Leon McAuliffe in March 1935 added not only a formidable instrumentalist, but also a second engaging vocalist. Wills and the Texas Playboys did their first recordings on September 23–25, 1935, in Dallas. Session rosters from 1938 show both lead guitar and electric guitar in addition to guitar and steel guitar in the Texas Playboys recordings. About this time, Wills purchased and performed with an antique Guadagnini violin. The instrument, worth an estimated $7,600 at the time, was purchased for only $1,600.Film careerIn 1940, Wills, along with the Texas Playboys, co-starred with Tex Ritter in Take Me Back to Oklahoma. Altogether, Wills appeared in 19 films, including The Lone Prairie (1942), Riders of the Northwest Mounted (1943), Saddles and Sagebrush (1943), The Vigilantes Ride (1943), The Last Horseman (1944), Rhythm Round-Up (1945), Blazing the Western Trail (1945), and Lawless Empire (1945). but received a medical discharge in 1943. After leaving the Army, Wills moved to Hollywood and began to reorganize the Texas Playboys. He became an enormous draw in Los Angeles, where many of his fans had relocated during the Great Depression and World War II in search of jobs. Monday through Friday, the band played the noon hour timeslot over KMTR-AM (now KLAC) in Los Angeles. They also played regularly at the Mission Beach Ballroom in San Diego.
He commanded enormous fees playing dances there, and began to make more creative use of electric guitars to replace the big horn sections the Tulsa band had boasted. For a very brief period in 1944, the Wills band included 23 members, Billboard reported that Wills out-grossed Harry James, Benny Goodman, "both Dorsey brothers bands, et al." at Civic Auditorium in Oakland, California, in January 1944.
Wills and His Texas Playboys began their first cross-country tour in November 1944, and appeared at the Grand Ole Opry on December 30, 1944. According to Opry policy, drums and horns were considered pop instruments, inappropriate to country music. The Opry had two Western swing bands on its roster, led by Pee Wee King and Paul Howard. Neither was allowed to use their drummers at the Opry. Wills' band at the time consisted of two fiddlers, two bass fiddles, two electric guitars, electric steel guitar, and a trumpet. Wills's then-drummer was Monte Mountjoy, who played in the Dixieland style. Wills battled Opry officials and refused to perform without his drummer. An attempt to compromise by keeping Mountjoy behind a curtain collapsed when Wills had his drums placed front and center onstage at the last minute.
In 1945, Wills' dances were drawing larger crowds than dances put on by Tommy Dorsey and Benny Goodman. That year, he lived in both Santa Monica and Fresno, California. Wills was in such high demand that venues would book him even on weeknights, because they knew the show would still be a draw. Wills recalled the early days of what became known as Western swing music in a 1949 interview: "Here's the way I figure it. We sure not tryin' to take credit for swingin' it."
Still a binge drinker, Wills became increasingly unreliable in the late 1940s, causing a rift with Tommy Duncan (who bore the brunt of audience anger when Wills's binges prevented him from appearing). It ended when he fired Duncan in the fall of 1948.Later yearsHaving lived a lavish lifestyle in California, Wills moved back to Oklahoma City in 1949, then went back on the road to maintain his payroll and Wills Point. He opened a second club, the Bob Wills Ranch House, in Dallas, Texas. Turning the club over to managers, later revealed to be dishonest, left Wills in desperate financial straits with heavy debts to the IRS for back taxes. This caused him to sell many assets, including the rights to "New San Antonio Rose".
In 1950, Wills had two top-10 hits, "Ida Red Likes the Boogie" and "Faded Love". After 1950, radio stations began to increasingly specialize in one form or another of commercially popular music. Although usually labelled "country and western", Wills did not fit into the style played on popular country and western stations, which typically played music in the Nashville sound. Neither did he fit into the conventional sound of pop stations, although he played a good deal of pop music.
Wills continued to appear at the Bostonia Ballroom in San Diego throughout the 1950s. He continued to tour and record through the 1950s into the early 1960s despite the fact that Western swing's popularity, even in the Southwest, had greatly diminished. Charles R. Townsend described his drop in popularity: Bob could draw "a thousand people on Monday night between 1950 and 1952, but he could not do that by 1956. Entertainment habits had changed."
On Wills' return to Tulsa late in 1957, Jim Downing of the Tulsa Tribune wrote an article headlined "Wills Brothers Together Again: Bob Back with Heavy Beat". The article quotes Wills as saying "Rock and roll? Why, man, that's the same kind of music we've been playin' since 1928! ... We didn't call it rock and roll back when we introduced it as our style back in 1928, and we don't call it rock and roll the way we play it now. But it's just basic rhythm and has gone by a lot of different names in my time. It's the same, whether you just follow a drum beat like in Africa or surround it with a lot of instruments. The rhythm's what's important." The use of amplified guitars accentuates Wills's claim; some Bob Wills recordings from the 1930s and 1940s sound similar to rock and roll records of the 1950s.
Even a 1958 return to KVOO, where his younger brother Johnnie Lee Wills had maintained the family's presence, did not produce the success he hoped. He appeared twice on ABC-TV's Jubilee USA and kept the band on the road into the 1960s. After two heart attacks, in 1965, he dissolved the Texas Playboys (who briefly continued as an independent unit) to perform solo with house bands. While he did well in Las Vegas and other areas, and made records for the Kapp Records label, he was largely a forgotten figure—even though inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968. A 1969 stroke left his right side paralyzed, ending his active career. He did, however, recover sufficiently to appear in a wheelchair at various Wills tributes held in the early 1970s. A revival of interest in his music, spurred by Merle Haggard's 1970 album A Tribute to the Best Damn Fiddle Player in the World, led to a 1973 reunion album, teaming Wills, who spoke with difficulty, with key members of the early band, as well as Haggard.
Wills died in Fort Worth of pneumonia on May 13, 1975.
Personal life
Bob Wills was married six times and divorced five times. He was twice married to, and twice divorced from, Mary Helen Brown, the widow of Wills' ex-band member Milton Brown.
* Edna Posey, married 1926, divorced 1935 (one daughter, Robbie Joe Wills)
* Ruth McMaster, married 1936, divorced 1936
* Mary Helen Brown, married 1938, divorced 1938, remarried 1938, divorced 1939
* Mary Louise Parker, married 1939, divorced 1939 (one daughter, Rosetta Wills)
* Betty Anderson, married 1942 (four children, James Robert II, Carolyn, Diane, and Cindy Wills)
Legacy
Wills' style influenced performers Buck Owens, Merle Haggard, and The Strangers and helped to spawn a style of music now known as the Bakersfield Sound. (Bakersfield, California, was one of Wills' regular stops in his heyday). A 1970 tribute album by Haggard, A Tribute to the Best Damn Fiddle Player in the World (or, My Salute to Bob Wills) directed a wider audience to Wills's music, as did the appearance of younger "revival" bands like Asleep at the Wheel and Commander Cody and His Lost Planet Airmen plus the growing popularity of longtime Wills disciple and fan Willie Nelson. By 1971, Wills recovered sufficiently to travel occasionally and appear at tribute concerts. In 1973, he participated in a final reunion session with members of some of the Texas Playboys from the 1930s to the 1960s. Merle Haggard was invited to play at this reunion. The session, scheduled for two days, took place in December 1973, with the album to be titled For the Last Time. Wills, speaking or attempting to holler, appeared on a couple tracks from the first day's session but suffered a stroke overnight. He had a more severe one a few days later. The musicians completed the album without him. Wills by then was comatose. He lingered until his death on May 13, 1975.
Reviewing For the Last Time in ''Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies'' (1981), Robert Christgau wrote: "This double-LP doesn't represent the band at its peak. But though earlier recordings of most of these classic tunes are at least marginally sharper, it certainly captures the relaxed, playful, eclectic Western swing groove that Wills invited in the '30s."
In addition to being inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968, Wills was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the Early Influence category along with the Texas Playboys in 1999, and received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2007.
From 1974 until his 2002 death, Waylon Jennings performed a song he had written called "Bob Wills Is Still the King". Released as the B-side of a single that was a double-sided hit, it went to number one on the country charts. The song has become a staple of classic country radio station formats. In addition, The Rolling Stones performed this song live in Austin, Texas, at Zilker Park on their A Bigger Bang Tour, a shout-out to Wills. This performance was included on their subsequent DVD The Biggest Bang. In a 1968 issue of Guitar Player, rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix said of Wills and the Playboys: "I dig them. The Grand Ole Opry used to come on, and I used to watch that. They used to have some pretty heavy cats, some heavy guitar players." In fact, Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys only performed on the Opry twice: in 1944 and 1948. Hendrix almost surely referred to Nashville guitarists.
Wills ranked number 27 in ''CMT's 40 Greatest Men in Country Music'' in 2003.
Wills' upbeat 1938 song "Ida Red" was Chuck Berry's primary inspiration for creating his first rock-and-roll hit "Maybellene".
Fats Domino once remarked that he patterned his 1960 rhythm section after that of Bob Wills.
During the 49th Grammy Awards in 2007, Carrie Underwood performed his song "San Antonio Rose". Today, George Strait performs Wills' music on concert tours and records songs influenced by Wills and his Texas-style swing.
The Austin-based Western swing band Asleep at the Wheel has honored Wills' music since the band's inception, mostly notably with their continuing performances of the musical drama A Ride with Bob, which debuted in Austin in March 2005 to coincide with celebrations of Wills' 100th birthday.
The Bob Wills Birthday Celebration is held every year in March at the Cain's Ballroom in Tulsa, Oklahoma, with a Western swing concert and dance.
In 2004, a documentary film about his life and music, titled ''Fiddlin' Man: The Life and Music of Bob Wills, was released by VIEW Inc.
In 2011, Proper Records released an album by Hot Club of Cowtown titled What Makes Bob Holler: A Tribute to Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys and the Texas Legislature adopted a resolution designating Western swing as the official State Music of Texas.
The Greenville Chamber of Commerce hosts an annual Bob Wills Fiddle Festival and Contest in downtown Greenville, Texas, in November.
Bob Wills was honored in episode two of Ken Burns' 2019 series on PBS called Country Music.
In 2021, Wills was inducted into the Texas Cowboy Hall of Fame.
Select discography
Albums
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Album
! <small>US Country</small>
! Label
|-
| 1949
| Bob Wills Round Up [10"] (HL-9003); originally issued in 1947 as a 4-disc 78rpm album set (C-128); and reissued in 1948 (H-2)
|
| Columbia
|-
| 1951
| Ranch House Favorites [10"] (E-91); also issued as a 4-disc 78rpm album set (MGM-91), and a 4-disc 45rpm album set (K-91)
|
| MGM
|-
| 1953
| Old Time Favorites [10"] (LP-6000); issued as a limited edition 'Fan Club Members Only' release
|
| The Antones [Los Angeles, CA]
|-
| 1954
| Old Time Favorites, Vol. 2 [10"] (LP-6010); issued as a limited edition 'Fan Club Members Only' release
|
| The Antones [Los Angeles, CA]
|-
| 1955
| Country and Western Dance-O-Rama, No. 2 [10"] (DL-5562)
|
| Decca
|-
| 1956
| Ranch House Favorites, Vol. 2 (E-3352)
|
| MGM
|-
| 1957
| Bob Wills Special (HL-7036) reissue of Bob Wills Round Up plus 2 extra tracks, August
|
| Harmony
|-
| 1958
| Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys (DL-8727), July
|
| Decca
|-
| 1960
| Together Again (with Tommy Duncan) (LRP-3173)
| style="text-align:center;"|
| rowspan="4" | Liberty
|-
| 1961
| A Living Legend (with Tommy Duncan) (LRP-3182)
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| 1961
| Mr. Words & Mr. Music (with Tommy Duncan) (LRP-3194)
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| 1963
| Bob Wills Sings & Plays (with Tommy Duncan) (LRP-3303)
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| 1965
| Bob Wills Keepsake Album No. 1 (LP-001)
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Longhorn
|-
| 1966
| From the Heart of Texas
| style="text-align:center;"| 33
| rowspan="4" | Kapp
|-
| 1967
| King of Western Swing
| style="text-align:center;"| 43
|-
| 1968
| ''Here's That Man Again
| style="text-align:center;"| 24
|-
| 1970
| The Best of Bob Wills
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| 1971
| San Antonio Rose (VL 73922)
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Vocalion
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1973
| Bob Wills Plays the Greatest String Band Hits (re-release; originally issued in 1969)
| style="text-align:center;"| 28
| MCA
|-
| The Bob Wills Anthology [2LP]
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Columbia
|-
| 1974
| For the Last Time [2LP]
| style="text-align:center;"| 28
| United Artists
|-
| 1975
| The Best of Bob Wills, Vol. II [2LP]
| style="text-align:center;"| 36
| MCA
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1976
| Remembering ...The Greatest Hits of Bob Wills
| style="text-align:center;"| 46
| Columbia
|-
| Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys 'In Concert' [2LP]
| style="text-align:center;"| 44
| Capitol
|-
| 1977
| 24 Great Hits by Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys [2LP]
| style="text-align:center;"| 39
| MGM
|-
| 1991
| Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys 'Anthology 1935–1973' [2CD]
|
| Rhino
|-
| 1992
| The Essential Bob Wills (1935–1947)
|
| Columbia/Legacy
|-
| 2001
| Boot Heel Drag: The MGM Years [2CD]
|
| Mercury/Universal
|-
| 2006
| Legends of Country Music: Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys'' [4CD]
|
| Columbia/Legacy
|}
Singles
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Single
! <small>US Country</small>
! Label
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1935
| "St. Louis Blues" / "Four or Five Times"
|
| Vocalion 03076
|-
| "Good Old Oklahoma" / "Mexicali Rose"
|
| Vocalion 03086
|-
| "Osage Stomp" / "Get with It"
|
| Vocalion 03096
|-
| rowspan="11" | 1936
| "Sitting on Top of the World" / "Black and Blue Rag"
|
| Vocalion 03139
|-
| "I Can't Be Satisfied" / "Wang Wang Blues"
|
| Vocalion 03173
|-
| "I Ain't Got Nobody (and Nobody Cares for Me)" / "Who Walks in When I Walk Out?"
|
| Vocalion 03206
|-
| "Spanish Two Step" / "Blue River"
|
| Vocalion 03230
|-
| "I Can't Give You Anything but Love" / "Never No More Blues"
|
| Vocalion 03264
|-
| "Old Fashioned Love" / "Oklahoma Rag"
|
| Vocalion 03295
|-
| "Trouble in Mind" / "Weary of the Same Ol' Stuff"
|
| Vocalion 03343
|-
| "Basin Street Blues" / "Red Hot Gal of Mine"
|
| Vocalion 03344
|-
| "Sugar Blues" / "Fan It"
|
| Vocalion 03361
|-
| "Smith's Reel" / "Harmony" [billed as 'Bob Wills and Sleepy Johnson']
|
| Melotone 6-11-58
|-
| "Steel Guitar Rag" / "Swing Blues No. 1"
|
| Vocalion 03394
|-
| rowspan="10" | 1937
| "She's Killing Me" / "What's the Matter with the Mill?"
|
| Vocalion 03424
|-
| "Get Along Home Cindy" / "Right or Wrong"
|
| Vocalion 03451
|-
| "Mean Mama Blues" / "Bring It on Down to My House"
|
| Vocalion 03492
|-
| "No Matter How She Done It (She's Just a Dirty Dame)" / "Too Busy!"
|
| Vocalion 03537
|-
| "Back Home Again in Indiana" / "Swing Blues No. 2"
|
| Vocalion 03578
|-
| "Dedicated to You" / "Bleeding Hearted Blues"
|
| Vocalion 03597
|-
| "White Heat" / "Bluin' the Blues"
|
| Vocalion 03614
|-
| "I'm a Ding Dong Daddy (from Dumas)" / "Rosetta"
|
| Vocalion 03659
|-
| "The New St. Louis Blues" / "Oozlin' Daddy Blues"
|
| Vocalion 03693
|-
| "Playboy Stomp" / "Tie Me to Your Apron Strings Again"
|
| Vocalion 03854
|-
| rowspan="9" | 1938
| "Maiden's Prayer" / "Never No More Hard Time Blues"
|
| Vocalion 03924
|-
| "Steel Guitar Stomp" / "Sunbonnet Sue"
|
| Vocalion 03997
|-
| "Black Rider" / "Everybody Does It in Hawaii"
|
| Vocalion 04132
|-
| "Keep Knocking (but You Can't Come In)" / "Empty Bed Blues"
|
| Vocalion 04184
|-
| "Alexander's Ragtime Band" / "Gambling Polka Dot Blues"
|
| Vocalion 04275
|-
| "Tulsa Stomp" / "Little Red Head"
|
| Vocalion 04235
|-
| "Loveless Love" / "Way Down upon the Swanee River"
|
| Vocalion 04387
|-
| "Moonlight and Roses (Bring Mem'ries of You)" / "I Wish I Could Shimmy Like My Sister Kate"
|
| Vocalion 04439
|-
| "Oh, Lady Be Good" / "Oh You Beautiful Doll"
|
| Vocalion 04515
|-
| rowspan="9" | 1939
| "I Wonder if You Feel the Way I Do" / "That's What I Like 'Bout the South"
|
| Vocalion 04566
|-
| "Whoa Babe" / "Little Girl, Go Ask Your Mama"
|
| Vocalion 04625
|-
| "San Antonio Rose" / "The Convict and the Rose"
|
| Vocalion 04755
|-
| "You're Okay" / "Liza Pull Down the Shades"
|
| Vocalion 04839
|-
| "Silver Bells" / "Yearning Just for You"
|
| Vocalion 04934
|-
| "Beaumont Rag" / "The Waltz You Saved for Me"
|
| Vocalion 04999
|-
| "Ida Red" / "Carolina in the Morning"
|
| Vocalion 05079
|-
| "Dreamy Eyes Waltz" / "My Window Faces the South"
|
| Vocalion 05161
|-
| "If I Could Bring Back My Buddy" / "Prosperity Special"
|
| Vocalion 05228
|-
| rowspan="9" | 1940
| "Don't Let the Deal Go Down" / "Drunkard Blues"
|
| Vocalion 05282
|-
| "Blue Prelude" / "Sophisticated Hula"
|
| Vocalion 05333
|-
| "Pray for the Lights to Go Out" / "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star"
|
| Vocalion 05401
|-
| "Blue Bonnet Rag" / "Medley of Spanish Waltzes: La Golondrina / Lady of Spain / Cielito Lindo"
|
| Vocalion 05523
|-
| "You Don't Love Me (but I'll Always Care)" / "No Wonder"
|
| Vocalion 05597
|-
| "Lone Star Rag" / "I Don't Lov'a Nobody"
|
| OKeh 05637
|-
| "New San Antonio Rose" / "Bob Wills' Special"
|
| OKeh 05694
|-
| "That Brownskin Gal" / "Time Changes Everything"
|
| OKeh 05753
|-
| "There's Going to Be a Party (for the Old Folks)" / "Big Beaver"
|
| OKeh 05905
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1941
| "Take Me Back to Tulsa" / "New Worried Mind"
|
| OKeh 06101
|-
| "Maiden's Prayer" / "Takin' It Home"
|
| OKeh 06205
|-
| "Twin Guitar Special" / "Lyla Lou"
|
| OKeh 06327
|-
| "Bob Wills' Stomp" / "Lil Liza Jane"
|
| OKeh 06371
|-
| "Corrine, Corrina" / "Goodnight Little Sweetheart"
|
| OKeh 06530
|-
| rowspan="7" | 1942
| "Cherokee Maiden" / "Ride On! (My Prairie Pinto)"
|
| OKeh 06568
|-
| "Dusty Skies" / "It's All Your Fault"
|
| OKeh 06598
|-
| "Oh! You Pretty Woman" / "I Knew the Moment I Lost You"
|
| OKeh 06640
|-
| "Please Don't Leave Me" / "My Life's Been a Pleasure"
|
| OKeh 6681
|-
| "This Little Rosary" / "When It's Honey Suckle Time in the Valley" (Unreleased)
|
| OKeh 6692
|-
| "Ten Years" / "Let's Ride with Bob (Theme Song)"
|
| OKeh 6692
|-
| "My Confession" / "Whose Heart Are You Breaking Now?"
|
| OKeh 6703
|-
| 1943
| "Home in San Antone" / "Miss Molly"
|
| OKeh 6710
|-
| 1944
| "We Might as Well Forget It" / "You're from Texas"
| style="text-align:center;"| 2
| OKeh 6722
|-
| rowspan="9" | 1945
| "Goodbye, Liza Jane" / It Seems Like Yesterday" (Unreleased)
|
| OKeh 6734
|-
| "Smoke on the Water"
| style="text-align:center;"| 1
| rowspan="2" | OKeh 6736
|-
| / "Hang Your Head in Shame"
| style="text-align:center;"| 3
|-
| "Stars and Stripes on Iwo Jima"
| style="text-align:center;"| 1
| rowspan="2" | OKeh 6742
|-
| / "You Don't Care What Happens to Me"
| style="text-align:center;"| 5
|-
| "Silver Dew on the Blue Grass Tonight"
| style="text-align:center;"| 1
| rowspan="2" | Columbia 36841
|-
| / "Texas Playboy Rag"
| style="text-align:center;"| 2
|-
| "White Cross on Okinawa"
| style="text-align:center;"| 1
| rowspan="2" | Columbia 36881
|-
| / "Empty Chair at the Christmas Table"
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1946
| "New Spanish Two Step"
| style="text-align:center;"| 1
| rowspan="2" | Columbia 36966
|-
| / "Roly Poly"
| style="text-align:center;"| 3
|-
| "Stay a Little Longer"
| style="text-align:center;"| 2
| rowspan="2" | Columbia 37097
|-
| / "I Can't Go on This Way"
| style="text-align:center;"| 4
|-
| "Cotton Eyed Joe" / "Staccato Waltz"
|
| Columbia 37212
|-
| rowspan="12" | 1947
| "There's a Big Rock in the Road"
| style="text-align:center;"|
| rowspan="2" | Columbia 37205
|-
| / "I'm Gonna Be Boss from Now On"
| style="text-align:center;"| 5
|-
| "Sugar Moon"
| style="text-align:center;"| 1
| rowspan="2" | Columbia 37313
|-
| / "Brain Cloudy Blues"
| style="text-align:center;"|
|-
| "Rose of Old Pawnee"
| style="text-align:center;"|
| rowspan="2" | Columbia 37357
|-
| / "Bob Wills Boogie"
| style="text-align:center;"| 4
|-
| "How Can It Be Wrong?" / "Punkin' Stomp"
|
| Columbia 37564
|-
| "Fat Boy Rag" / "You Should Have Thought of That Before"
|
| Columbia 37824
|-
| "Liberty" / "The Kind of Love I Can't Forget"
|
| Columbia 37926
|-
| "A Sweet Kind of Love" / "Cowboy Stomp"
|
| Columbia 37988
|-
| "Spanish Fandango""
| style="text-align:center;"|
| rowspan="2" | MGM 10116
|-
| / "Bubbles in My Beer"
| style="text-align:center;"| 4
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1948
| "Deep Water" / "This is Southland"
| style="text-align:center;"|
| Columbia 38137
|-
| "Texarkana Baby"
| style="text-align:center;"| 15
| Columbia 38179
|-
| "Keeper of My Heart"
| style="text-align:center;"| 8
| MGM 10175
|-
| "'Neath Hawaiian Palms"
| style="text-align:center;"|
| rowspan="2" | MGM 10236
|-
| / "Thorn in My Heart"
| style="text-align:center;"| 10
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1950
| "Ida Red Likes the Boogie"
| style="text-align:center;"| 10
| MGM 10570
|-
| "Jolie Blond Likes the Boogie" / "Pastime Blues"
| style="text-align:center;"|
| MGM 10681
|-
| "Faded Love"
| style="text-align:center;"| 8
| MGM 10786
|-
| "'Tater Pie" / "I Didn't Realize"
| style="text-align:center;"|
| MGM 10836
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1953
| "I Won't Be Back Tonight" / "B. Bowman Hop"
| style="text-align:center;"|
| MGM 11568
|-
| "As I Sit Broken-Hearted" / "Bottle Baby Boogie"
| style="text-align:center;"|
| MGM 11635
|-
| 1960
| "Heart to Heart Talk" <small>(with Tommy Duncan)</small>
| style="text-align:center;"| 5
| Liberty 55260
|-
| 1961
| "The Image of Me" <small>(with Tommy Duncan)</small>
| style="text-align:center;"| 26
| Liberty 55264
|-
| 1976
| "Ida Red"
| style="text-align:center;"| 99
| Capitol 4332
|}
See also
* Aragon Ballroom (Ocean Park)
References
Bibliography
* Townsend, Charles R. (1998). "Bob Wills". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kinsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 594–95.
* West, Elliot. "Trails and Footprints: The Past of the Future Southern Plains". The Future of the Southern Plains (pp. 17–37) edited by Sherry L. Smith. University of Oklahoma Press, 2005.
* Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Book of Top 40 Country Hits. Billboard Books, 2006.
* Wolff, Kurt; Orla Duane. Country Music: The Rough Guide. Rough Guides, 2000.
External links
* [http://www.bobwills.com/ Official Web site and virtual museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040413100334/http://www.texasplayboys.net/ Texas Playboys Web site]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100520232632/http://www.countrymusichalloffame.org/full-list-of-inductees/view/bob-wills Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum]
* [http://www.tiffanytranscriptions.com/ The Bob Wills Tiffany Transcriptions]
*
*
}}
Category:1905 births
Category:1975 deaths
Category:People from Kosse, Texas
Category:Musicians from Dallas
Category:Musicians from Fort Worth, Texas
Category:American bandleaders
Category:American male singer-songwriters
Category:American country singer-songwriters
Category:Musicians from Waco, Texas
Category:Country musicians from Texas
Category:Country musicians from Oklahoma
Category:Musicians from Tulsa, Oklahoma
Category:Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Category:Blackface minstrel performers
Category:Western swing fiddlers
Category:Charly Records artists
Category:Liberty Records artists
Category:Longhorn Records artists
Category:Vocalion Records artists
Category:20th-century American violinists
Category:20th-century American singer-songwriters
Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Texas
Category:Singer-songwriters from Texas
Category:Singer-songwriters from Oklahoma
Category:20th-century American male singers
Category:Country bandleaders
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Wills
|
2025-04-05T18:26:59.428949
|
4834
|
Badtrans
|
BadTrans is a malicious Microsoft Windows computer worm distributed by e-mail. Because of a known vulnerability in older versions of Internet Explorer (CVE-2001-0154), some email programs, such as Microsoft's Outlook Express and Microsoft Outlook programs, may install and execute the worm as soon as the e-mail message is viewed.
Once executed, the worm replicates by sending copies of itself to other e-mail addresses found on the host's machine, and installs a keystroke logger, which then captures everything typed on the affected computer. Badtrans then transmits the data to one of several e-mail addresses.
Among the e-mail addresses that received the keyloggers were free addresses at Excite, Yahoo, and IJustGotFired.com.
The target address at IJustGotFired began receiving emails at 3:23pm on November 24, 2001. Once the account exceeded its quotas, it was automatically disabled, but the messages were still saved as they arrived. The address received over 100,000 keylogs in the first day alone.
In mid-December, the FBI contacted Rudy Rucker, Jr., owner of MonkeyBrains, and requested a copy of the keylogged data. All of that data was stolen from the victims of the worm; it includes no information about the creator of Badtrans.
Instead of complying with the FBI request, MonkeyBrains published a database website, https://web.archive.org/web/20070621140432/https://badtrans.monkeybrains.net/ for the public to determine if a given address has been compromised. The database does not reveal the actual passwords or keylogged data.
References
Category:Email worms
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badtrans
|
2025-04-05T18:26:59.431908
|
4836
|
Barış Manço
|
| birth_place = Üsküdar, Istanbul, Turkey
| death_date
| death_place = Moda, Kadıköy, Istanbul, Turkey
| occupation =
| years_active = 1958–1999
| spouse = Marie Claude<br><small>(m. January – July 1970)</small><br>Lale Manço (Çağlar)<br><small>(m. 1978 – 1999)</small>
| children = 2
| signature = Barış Manço imza.png
| module =
| genre =
| label = Sayan<br>Yavuz Plak<br>CBS Disques / Grammofoonplaten SABV<br>Türküola<br>Emre Plak
| associated_acts = Moğollar, Kafadarlar, Harmoniler, Les Mistigris, Kaygısızlar, Cem Karaca, Kurtalan Ekspres, George Hayes Orchestra
}}
}}
Mehmet Barış Manço (born Tosun Yusuf Mehmet Barış Manço; 2 January 1943 – 1 February 1999), better known by his stage name Barış Manço, was a Turkish rock musician, singer, composer, actor, television producer and show host. Beginning his musical career while attending Galatasaray High School, he was a pioneer of rock music in Turkey and one of the founders of the Anatolian rock genre. Manço composed around 200 songs and is among the best-selling Turkish artists to date and the winner of the most awards. Many of his songs were translated into other languages including English, French, Japanese, Greek, Italian, Bulgarian, Romanian, Persian, Hebrew, Urdu, Arabic, and German. Through his TV programme, ''7'den 77'ye (From 7 to 77''), Manço travelled the world and visited many countries. He remains one of Turkey's most popular public figures long after his death. Early life and career Barış Manço was born in Üsküdar, Istanbul, Turkey on 2 January 1943. Born in Adana, his mother Rikkat Uyanık, was a famous singer in the early 1940s. His older brother, who was born during World War II, was named Savaş ("War" in Turkish) while he was named Barış ("Peace" in Turkish) by his parents to celebrate the end of the war. At birth, he was additionally named Tosun Yusuf after his deceased uncle Yusuf nicknamed Tosun (literally: Joseph the Sturdy). However, this name was erased just before he attended primary school. but mostly presenting a somewhat modernised version of the "aşık" (wandering folk poets) tradition, were marginal to the pop music scene of the 1980s which was mostly dominated by love songs.
In 2002, a tribute album was released under the name Yüreğimdeki Barış Şarkıları ("Songs of Barış (Peace) In My Heart"), featuring fifteen popular Turkish artists from such diverse genres as arabesque, and pop and rock (both Anatolian and western style), demonstrating his wide range of influences.
of Barış Manço in his house (Barış Manço Evi) in the Moda district of Istanbul (now a museum)]]
bust of Barış Manço in the İstanbul Artists Park at Akatlar]]
On 2 January 2013, Google Doodle celebrated Barış Manço's 70th birthday.See also* Whittall Mansion, Moda, an Ottoman-era mansion built by James William Whittall in the early 1900s. Used by Barış Manço from 1984, it was transformed into a historic house museum after his death.
References
Further reading
<!-- this issue is devoted entirely to Manco. feel free to mine its articles for citations. -->
* External links
*[http://www.barismancorock.org Barış Manço Rock Derneği Resmi Sitesi]
*[http://www.barismanco.kadikoy.bel.tr/ Barış Manço House Museum]
*[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/07/nyregion/baris-manco-turkish-pop-star-and-television-personality-56.html Obituary in The New York Times]
*[https://www.discogs.com/artist/1670946-Les-Mistigris Barış Manço & Les Mistigris, Discogs]
*[https://www.last.fm/music/Baris+Man%C3%A7o+&+Les+Mistigris Barış Manço & Les Mistigris, Last FM]
*[https://myturkishrock.ru/barış-manço-english Barış Manço on MyTurkıshRock]
Category:1943 births
Category:1999 deaths
Category:Death in Istanbul
Category:Alternative rock musicians
Category:Anatolian rock musicians
Category:Burials at Kanlıca Cemetery
Category:Composers of Ottoman classical music
Category:Composers of Turkish makam music
Category:Galatasaray High School alumni
Category:People from Adana Province
Category:Turkish rock musicians
Category:Turkish male singer-songwriters
Category:20th-century Turkish composers
Category:20th-century Turkish songwriters
Category:Turkish nationalists
Category:Turkish rock guitarists
Category:Turkish pianists
Category:Turkish male guitarists
Category:Turkish pop musicians
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barış_Manço
|
2025-04-05T18:26:59.442356
|
4840
|
Blitz BASIC
|
-->
| discontinued = Yes
| latest release version | latest release date <!-- -->
| latest preview version | latest preview date <!-- -->
| programming language = Compiled to C++, but the languages are dialects of BASIC
| operating system = AmigaOS<br />Microsoft Windows
| size | language English
| genre = Game creation system
| license = zlib License
| alexa | website
}}
Blitz BASIC is the programming language dialect of the first Blitz compilers, devised by New Zealand–based developer Mark Sibly. Being derived from BASIC, Blitz syntax was designed to be easy to pick up for beginners first learning to program. The languages are game-programming oriented, but are often found general-purpose enough to be used for most types of application. The Blitz language evolved as new products were released, with recent incarnations offering support for more advanced programming techniques such as object-orientation and multithreading. This led to the languages losing their BASIC moniker in later years.HistoryThe first iteration of the Blitz language was created for the Amiga platform and published by the Australian firm Memory and Storage Technology. Returning to New Zealand, Blitz BASIC 2 was published several years later (around 1993 according this press release ) by Acid Software, a local Amiga game publisher. Since then, Blitz compilers have been released on several platforms. Following the demise of the Amiga as a commercially viable platform, the Blitz BASIC 2 source code was released to the Amiga community. Development continues to this day under the name AmiBlitz.BlitzBasic
Idigicon published BlitzBasic for Microsoft Windows in October 2000. The language included a built-in API for performing basic 2D graphics and audio operations. Following the release of Blitz3D, BlitzBasic is often synonymously referred to as Blitz2D.
Recognition of BlitzBasic increased when a limited range of "free" versions were distributed in popular UK computer magazines such as PC Format. This resulted in a legal dispute between the developer and publisher, which was eventually resolved amicably.
BlitzPlus
In February 2003, Blitz Research Ltd. released BlitzPlus also for Microsoft Windows. It lacked the 3D engine of Blitz3D, but did bring new features to the 2D side of the language by implementing limited Microsoft Windows control support for creating native GUIs. Backwards compatibility of the 2D engine was also extended, allowing compiled BlitzPlus games and applications to run on systems that might only have DirectX 1.
BlitzMax
| typing = Static, Weak, Strong (optional)
| implementations | dialects Official BlitzMax, bmx-ng
| influenced_by = BlitzBasic
| influenced = Monkey
| operating_system = Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Linux
}}
The first BlitzMax compiler was released in December 2004 for Mac OS X. This made it the first Blitz dialect that could be compiled on *nix platforms. Compilers for Microsoft Windows and Linux were subsequently released in May 2005. BlitzMax brought the largest change of language structure to the modern range of Blitz products by extending the type system to include object-oriented concepts and modifying the graphics API to better suit OpenGL. BlitzMax was also the first of the Blitz languages to represent strings internally using UCS-2, allowing native-support for string literals composed of non-ASCII characters.
BlitzMax's platform-agnostic command-set allows developers to compile and run source code on multiple platforms. However the official compiler and build chain will only generate binaries for the platform that it is executing on. Unofficially, users have been able to get Linux and Mac OS X to cross-compile to the Windows platform.
BlitzMax is also the first modular version of the Blitz languages, improving the extensibility of the command-set. In addition, all of the standard modules shipped with the compiler are open-source and so can be tweaked and recompiled by the programmer if necessary. The official BlitzMax cross-platform GUI module (known as MaxGUI) allows developers to write GUI interfaces for their applications on Linux (FLTK), Mac (Cocoa) and Windows. Various user-contributed modules extend the use of the language by wrapping such libraries as wxWidgets, Cairo, and Fontconfig as well as a selection of database modules. There are also a selection of third-party 3D modules available namely MiniB3D - an open-source OpenGL engine which can be compiled and used on all three of BlitzMax's supported platforms.
In October 2007, BlitzMax 1.26 was released which included the addition of a reflection module. BlitzMax 1.32 shipped new threading and Lua scripting modules and most of the standard library functions have been updated so that they are unicode friendly.
Blitz3D SDK
Blitz3D SDK is a 3D graphics engine based on the engine in Blitz3D. It was marketed for use with C++, C#, BlitzMax, and PureBasic, however it could also be used with other languages that follow compatible calling conventions.
Max3D module
In 2008, the source code to Max3D – a C++-based cross-platform 3D engine – was released under a BSD license. This engine focused on OpenGL but had an abstract backend for other graphics drivers (such as DirectX) and made use of several open-source libraries, namely Assimp, Boost, and ODE.
Despite the excitement in the Blitz community of Max3D being the eagerly awaited successor to Blitz3D, interest and support died off soon after the source code was released and eventually development came to a halt. There is no indication that Blitz Research will pick up the project again.
Open-source release
BlitzPlus was released as open-source on 28 April 2014 under the zlib license on GitHub. Blitz3D followed soon after and was released as Open Source on 3 August 2014. BlitzMax was later released as Open Source on 21 September 2015.
Reception
Blitz Basic 2.1 was well received by Amiga magazines. CU Amiga highlighted its ability to create AmigaOS compliant applications and games (unlike AMOS Basic) and Amiga Shopper called it a powerful programming language.
Examples
A "Hello, World!" program that prints to the screen, waits until a key is pressed, and then terminates: <syntaxhighlight lang="blitzbasic">
Print "Hello, World!" ; Prints to the screen.
WaitKey() ; Pauses execution until a key is pressed.
End ; Ends Program.
</syntaxhighlight>Program that demonstrates the declaration of variables using the three main data types (strings, integers and floats) and printing them onto the screen:<syntaxhighlight lang="blitzbasic">
name$ = "John" ; Create a string variable ($)
age = 36 ; Create an integer variable (No Suffix)
temperature# = 27.3 ; Create a float variable (#)
print "My name is " + name$ + " and I am " + age + " years old."
print "Today, the temperature is " + temperature# + " degrees."
Waitkey() ; Pauses execution until a key is pressed.
End ; Ends program.
</syntaxhighlight>
Program that creates a windowed application that shows the current time in binary and decimal format. See below for the BlitzMax and BlitzBasic versions:
<!-- Copy, modify and redistribute these sources with no limit -->
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
! BlitzBasic version
! BlitzMax version
|-style="vertical-align:bottom"
|
<syntaxhighlight lang="BlitzBasic">
AppTitle "Binary Clock"
Graphics 150,80,16,3
;create a timer that means the main loop will be
;executed twice a second
secondtimer=CreateTimer(2)
Repeat
Hour = Left(CurrentTime$(),2)
Minute = Mid(CurrentTime$(),4,2)
Second = Right(CurrentTime$(),2)
If Hour >12 Then PM 1
If Hour > 12 Then Hour = Hour - 12
If Hour 0 Then Hour 12
;should do this otherwise the PM dot will be
;left up once the clock rolls past midnight!
Cls
Color(0,255,0) ;make the text green for the PM part
If PM = 1 Then Text 5,5,"PM"
;set the text colour back to white for the rest
Color(255,255,255)
For bit=0 To 5
xpos=20*(6-bit)
binaryMask=2^bit
;do hours
If (bit<4)
If (hour And binaryMask)
Text xpos,5,"1"
Else
Text xpos,5,"0"
EndIf
EndIf
;do the minutes
If (minute And binaryMask)
Text xpos,25,"1"
Else
Text xpos,25,"0"
EndIf
;do the seconds
If (second And binaryMask)
Text xpos,45,"1"
Else
Text xpos,45,"0"
EndIf
Next
;make the text red for the decimal time
Color(255,0,0)
Text 5,65,"Decimal: " + CurrentTime$()
;set the text back to white for the rest
Color(255,255,255)
;will wait half a second
WaitTimer(secondTimer)
Forever
</syntaxhighlight>
|
<syntaxhighlight lang="BlitzMax">
Import BRL.Timer
Import BRL.TimerDefault
AppTitle = "Binary Clock"
Graphics 145,85
'create a timer that means the main loop will be
'executed twice a second
Local secondtimer:TTimer = CreateTimer(2)
Local Hour:Int
Local Minute:Int
Local Second:Int
Local PM:Int
local bit:Int
local xpos:Int
Local binaryMask:Int
Repeat
Hour = CurrentTime()[..2].ToInt()
Minute = CurrentTime()[4..6].ToInt()
Second = CurrentTime()[6..].ToInt()
If Hour >12 Then PM 1
If Hour > 12 Then Hour = Hour - 12
If Hour 0 Then Hour 12
'should do this otherwise the PM dot will be
'Left up once the clock rolls past midnight!
Cls
SetColor(0,255,0) 'make the text green For the PM part
If PM = 1 Then DrawText "PM",5,5
'set the text colour back To white For the rest
SetColor(255,255,255)
For bit=0 Until 6
xpos=20*(6-bit)
binaryMask=2^bit
'do hours
If (bit < 4)
If (hour & binaryMask)
DrawText "1",xpos,5
Else
DrawText "0",xpos,5
EndIf
EndIf
'do the minutes
If (minute & binaryMask)
DrawText "1", xpos,25
Else
DrawText "0", xpos,25
EndIf
'do the seconds
If (second & binaryMask)
DrawText "1",xpos,45
Else
DrawText "0",xpos,45
EndIf
Next
'make the text red For the decimal time
SetColor(255,0,0)
DrawText "Decimal: " + CurrentTime(),5,65
'set the text back To white For the rest
SetColor(255,255,255)
Flip
'will wait half a second
WaitTimer(secondTimer)
If KeyHit(KEY_ESCAPE) Then Exit
Forever
</syntaxhighlight>
|}
Software written using BlitzBasic
<!-- Please read WP:EL and do not add non-notable links here. Spam will be removed and warnings left on user talk pages. -->
*Eschalon: Book I – BlitzMax
*Eschalon: Book II – BlitzMax
*Fairway Solitaire – BlitzMax
*GridWars – BlitzMax
*TVTower (open source clone of MadTV) – BlitzMax
*Platypus – Blitz2D (Mac port, BlitzMax)
*SCP – Containment Breach – Blitz3D
*Worms – originally titled Total Wormage and developed in Blitz Basic on the Amiga before its commercial release
Legacy
In 2011, BRL released a new cross-platform programming language called Monkey and its first official module called Mojo. Monkey has a similar syntax to BlitzMax, but instead of compiling direct to assembly code, it translates Monkey source files directly into source code for a chosen language, framework or platform e.g. Windows, Mac OS X, iOS, Android, HTML5, and Adobe Flash.
Since 2015 development of Monkey X has been halted in favour of Monkey 2, an updated version of the language by Mark Sibly.
The developer of Blitz BASIC, Mark Sibly, passed away in early December of 2024.ReferencesExternal links
*[https://blitzresearch.itch.io/ Blitz Research subsite] on itch.io (BlitzPlus, Blitz 3D, Monkey X, Monkey 2)
**[https://blitzresearch.itch.io/monkeyx Monkey X subsite] (open source)
**[https://blitzresearch.itch.io/monkey2 Monkey 2 subsite]
*[https://github.com/blitz-research blitz-research (Mark Sibly)] on GitHub (BlitzPlus, BlitzMax, Blitz3D, Monkey, BlitzMax, Blitz3D for MSVC-CE 2017)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20170603205639/http://www.blitzbasic.com/ Blitz Research website] (archived 3 June 2017)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20170715134814/http://monkey-x.com/ Monkey X website] (archived 15 July 2017)
Category:Amiga development software
Category:Articles with example BASIC code
Category:BASIC compilers
Category:BASIC programming language family
Category:Formerly proprietary software
Category:Free game engines
Category:Object-oriented programming languages
Category:Software using the zlib license
Category:Video game development software
Category:Video game IDE
Category:Video games developed in New Zealand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blitz_BASIC
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Bliss bibliographic classification
|
The Bliss bibliographic classification (BC) is a library classification system that was created by Henry E. Bliss (1870–1955) and published in four volumes between 1940 and 1953. Although originally devised in the United States, it was more commonly adopted by British libraries. A second edition of the system (BC2) has been in ongoing development in Britain since 1977.
Origins of the system
Henry E. Bliss began working on the Bliss Classification system while working at the City College of New York Library as Assistant Librarian. Bliss wanted a classification system that would provide distinct rules yet still be adaptable to whatever kind of collection a library might have, as different libraries have different needs. His solution was the concept of "alternative location," in which a particular subject could be put in more than one place, as long as the library made a specific choice and used it consistently.
Bliss discusses his theories and basis of organization for the Bliss Classification for the first time in his 1910 article, "A Modern Classification for Libraries, with Simple Notation, Mnemonics, and Alternatives". This publication followed his 1908 reclassification of the City College collection. His work, Organization of Knowledge and the System of the Sciences was published in four volumes between 1940 and 1953.
The four broad underlying policies of the BC system are:
T Economics
TD Business Economics
TDG Management of Industry
Adoption and change to BC2
In 1967 the Bliss Classification Association was formed. Its first publication was the Abridged Bliss Classification (ABC), intended for school libraries. In 1977 it began to publish and maintain a revised version of Bliss's system, the Bliss Bibliographic Classification (Second Edition) or BC2. This retains only the broad outlines of Bliss's scheme, replacing most of the detailed notation with a new scheme based on the principles of faceted classification. 15 of approximately 28 volumes of schedules have so far been published. A revision of this nature has been considered by some to be a completely new system.
The general organizational pattern for classifying titles in the BC2 method are:
Agents
Operations
Properties
Materials
Processes
Parts
Types
Thing itself
Classifications (BC2)
The Class Schedule is:
2/9 - Generalia, Phenomena, Knowledge, Information science & technology
A/AL - Philosophy & Logic
AM/AX - Mathematics, Probability, Statistics
AY/B - General science, Physics
C - Chemistry
D - Space and Earth sciences
DG/DY - Earth sciences (includes Geology & Geography)
E/GQ - Biological sciences
GR/GZ - Applied biological sciences: agriculture and ecology
H - Physical Anthropology, Human biology, Health sciences
I - Psychology & Psychiatry
J - Education
K - Society (includes Social sciences, sociology & social anthropology)
L/O - History (including area studies, travel and topography, and biography)
LA - Archaeology
P - Religion, Occult, Morals and ethics
Q - Social welfare & Criminology
R - Politics & Public administration
S - Law
T - Economics & Management of economic enterprises
U/V - Technology and useful arts (including household management and services)
W - The Arts
WV/WX - Music
X/Y - Language and literature
ZA/ZW - Museology
See also
Colon classification
Dewey Decimal Classification
Library of Congress Classification
Universal Decimal Classification
References
Bibliography
External links
Category:Library cataloging and classification
Category:Controlled vocabularies
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bliss_bibliographic_classification
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Blood alcohol content
|
, , ,
| HCPCSlevel2 | reference_range
}}
Blood alcohol content (BAC), also called blood alcohol concentration or blood alcohol level, is a measurement of alcohol intoxication used for legal or medical purposes.
BAC is expressed as mass of alcohol per volume of blood. In US and many international publications, BAC levels are written as a percentage such as 0.08%, i.e. there is 0.8 grams of alcohol per liter of blood. BAC levels above 0.40% (4 g/L) can be potentially fatal.
{| class"wikitable" style"margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
! Sign !! Units !! Used in
|-
| 1 percent (%), 1 g% Canada
|-
| 1 per mille (‰) || 100 mg/1 dL || Austria, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Ireland, Canada, New Zealand implicitly assuming that 1 L of blood weighs 1 kg.
In pharmacokinetics, it is common to use the amount of substance, in moles, to quantify the dose. As the molar mass of ethanol is 46.07 g/mol, a BAC of 1 g/L is 21.706 mmol/L (21.706 mM). Effects by alcohol level
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan=3" | Alcohol level
!rowspan="2" | Effects
!rowspan="2" | Ref
|-
!BAC (%)
!per mille (‰)
!mg (%)
|-
|0.01 – 0.05
|0.1 – 0.5
|10 – 50
|Mild relaxation and reduced social inhibition; impaired judgment and coordination
|
|-
|0.3 – 0.4
|3 – 4
|300 – 400
|Potential total loss of consciousness; signs of severe alcohol intoxication
| The NIAAA defines the term "binge drinking" as a pattern of drinking that brings a person's blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above. Estimation Direct measurement Blood samples for BAC analysis are typically obtained by taking a venous blood sample from the arm. A variety of methods exist for determining blood-alcohol concentration in a blood sample. Forensic laboratories typically use headspace-gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry or flame ionization detection, as this method is accurate and efficient.
In Germany, BAC is determined by measuring the serum level and then converting to whole blood by dividing by the factor 1.236. This calculation underestimates BAC by 4% to 10% compared to other methods.
By breathalyzer
s in the United Kingdom, in 1967]]
The amount of alcohol on the breath can be measured, without requiring drawing blood, by blowing into a breathalyzer, resulting in a breath alcohol content (BrAC). The BrAC specifically correlates with the concentration of alcohol in arterial blood, satisfying the equation . Its correlation with the standard BAC found by drawing venous blood is less strong. Jurisdictions vary in the statutory conversion factor from BrAC to BAC, from 2000 to 2400. Many factors may affect the accuracy of a breathalyzer test, but they are the most common method for measuring alcohol concentrations in most jurisdictions.
By intake
Blood alcohol content can be quickly estimated by a model developed by Swedish professor Erik Widmark in the 1920s. The model corresponds to a pharmacokinetic single-compartment model with instantaneous absorption and zero-order kinetics for elimination. The model is most accurate when used to estimate BAC a few hours after drinking a single dose of alcohol in a fasted state, and can be within 20% CV of the true value. It is not at all realistic for the absorption phase, and is not accurate for BAC levels below 0.2 g/L (alcohol is not eliminated as quickly as predicted) and consumption with food (overestimating the peak BAC and time to return to zero). The equation varies depending on the units and approximations used, but in its simplest form is given by:
:<math>EBAC = \frac{A}{V_d}-\beta\times T</math>
where:
* is the estimated blood alcohol concentration (in g/L)
* is the mass of alcohol consumed (g).
* is the amount of time during which alcohol was present in the blood (usually time since consumption began), in hours.
* is the rate at which alcohol is eliminated, averaging around 0.15 g/L/hr.
* is the volume of distribution (L); typically body weight (kg) multiplied by 0.71 L/kg for men and 0.58 L/kg for women although estimation using TBW is more accurate.
A standard drink, defined by the WHO as 10 grams of pure alcohol, is the most frequently used measure in many countries. Examples:
* An 80 kg man drinks 20 grams ethanol. After one hour:
<math display"block"> EBAC 20/(0.71 \cdot 80) - (0.148 \cdot 1) \approx 0.204 \text{g/L} = 0.0204% \text{BAC}</math>
* A 70 kg woman drinks 10 grams of ethanol. After one hour:
<math display"block"> EBAC 10/(0.58 \cdot 70) - (0.156 \cdot 1) \approx 0.090 \text{g/L} = 0.0090% \text{BAC}</math>
In terms of fluid ounces of alcohol consumed and weight in pounds, Widmark's formula can be simply approximated as<br /><small>Based on one drink having 17.7 mL alcohol by volume</small>
|-
! scope"col" rowspan"2" | Drinks
! scope"col" rowspan"2" | Sex
! scope"col" colspan"9" | Body weight
|-
! scope"col" class"nowrap" | 40 kg<br />90 lb
! scope"col" class"nowrap" | 45 kg<br />100 lb
! scope"col" class"nowrap" | 55 kg<br />120 lb
! scope"col" class"nowrap" | 64 kg<br />140 lb
! scope"col" class"nowrap" | 73 kg<br />160 lb
! scope"col" class"nowrap" | 82 kg<br />180 lb
! scope"col" class"nowrap" | 91 kg<br />200 lb
! scope"col" class"nowrap" | 100 kg<br />220 lb
! scope"col" class"nowrap" | 109 kg<br />240 lb
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1 || Male || – || 0.04 || 0.03 || 0.03 || 0.02 || 0.02 || 0.02 || 0.02 || 0.02
|-
| Female || 0.05 || 0.05 || 0.04 || 0.03 || 0.03 || 0.03 || 0.02 || 0.02 || 0.02
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2 || Male || – || 0.08 || 0.06 || 0.05 || 0.05 || 0.04 || 0.04 || 0.03 || 0.03
|-
| Female || 0.10 || 0.09 || 0.08 || 0.07 || 0.06 || 0.05 || 0.05 || 0.04 || 0.04
|-
| rowspan="2" | 3 || Male || – || 0.11 || 0.09 || 0.08 || 0.07 || 0.06 || 0.06 || 0.05 || 0.05
|-
| Female || 0.15 || 0.14 || 0.11 || 0.10 || 0.09 || 0.08 || 0.07 || 0.06 || 0.06
|-
| rowspan="2" | 4 || Male || – || 0.15 || 0.12 || 0.11 || 0.09 || 0.08 || 0.08 || 0.07 || 0.06
|-
| Female || 0.20 || 0.18 || 0.15 || 0.13 || 0.11 || 0.10 || 0.09 || 0.08 || 0.08
|-
| rowspan="2" | 5 || Male || – || 0.19 || 0.16 || 0.13 || 0.12 || 0.11 || 0.09 || 0.09 || 0.08
|-
| Female || 0.25 || 0.23 || 0.19 || 0.16 || 0.14 || 0.13 || 0.11 || 0.10 || 0.09
|-
| rowspan="2" | 6 || Male || – || 0.23 || 0.19 || 0.16 || 0.14 || 0.13 || 0.11 || 0.10 || 0.09
|-
| Female || 0.30 || 0.27 || 0.23 || 0.19 || 0.17 || 0.15 || 0.14 || 0.12 || 0.11
|-
| rowspan="2" | 7 || Male || – || 0.26 || 0.22 || 0.19 || 0.16 || 0.15 || 0.13 || 0.12 || 0.11
|-
| Female || 0.35 || 0.32 || 0.27 || 0.23 || 0.20 || 0.18 || 0.16 || 0.14 || 0.13
|-
| rowspan="2" | 8 || Male || – || 0.30 || 0.25 || 0.21 || 0.19 || 0.17 || 0.15 || 0.14 || 0.13
|-
| Female || 0.40 || 0.36 || 0.30 || 0.26 || 0.23 || 0.20 || 0.18 || 0.17 || 0.15
|-
| rowspan="2" | 9 || Male || – || 0.34 || 0.28 || 0.24 || 0.21 || 0.19 || 0.17 || 0.15 || 0.14
|-
| Female || 0.45 || 0.41 || 0.34 || 0.29 || 0.26 || 0.23 || 0.20 || 0.19 || 0.17
|-
| rowspan="2" | 10 || Male || – || 0.38 || 0.31 || 0.27 || 0.23 || 0.21 || 0.19 || 0.17 || 0.16
|-
| Female || 0.51 || 0.45 || 0.38 || 0.32 || 0.28 || 0.25 || 0.23 || 0.21 || 0.19
|- class="sortbottom"
| colspan"11" style"text-align: center" | Subtract approximately 0.01 every 40 minutes after drinking.
|}
By training
If individuals are asked to estimate their BAC, then given accurate feedback via a breathalyzer, and this procedure is repeated a number of times during a drinking session, studies show that these individuals can learn to discriminate their BAC, to within a mean error of 9 mg/100 mL (0.009% BAC). The ability is robust to different types of alcohol, different drink quantities, and drinks with unknown levels of alcohol. Trained individuals can even drink alcoholic drinks so as to adjust or maintain their BAC at a desired level. Training the ability does not appear to require any information or procedure besides breathalyzer feedback, although most studies have provided information such as intoxication symptoms at different BAC levels. Subjects continue to retain the ability one month after training.
Post-mortem
After fatal accidents, it is common to check the blood alcohol levels of involved persons. However, soon after death, the body begins to putrefy, a biological process which produces ethanol. This can make it difficult to conclusively determine the blood alcohol content in autopsies, particularly in bodies recovered from water. For instance, following the 1975 Moorgate tube crash, the driver's kidneys had a blood alcohol concentration of 80 mg/100 mL, but it could not be established how much of this could be attributed to natural decomposition. Newer research has shown that vitreous (eye) fluid provides an accurate estimate of blood alcohol concentration that is less subject to the effects of decomposition or contamination.
Legal limits
For purposes of law enforcement, blood alcohol content is used to define intoxication and provides a rough measure of impairment. Although the degree of impairment may vary among individuals with the same blood alcohol content, it can be measured objectively and is therefore legally useful and difficult to contest in court. Most countries forbid operation of motor vehicles and heavy machinery above prescribed levels of blood alcohol content. Operation of boats and aircraft is also regulated. Some jurisdictions also regulate bicycling under the influence. The alcohol level at which a person is considered legally impaired to drive varies by country.
Test assumptions
Extrapolation
Retrograde extrapolation is the mathematical process by which someone's blood alcohol concentration at the time of driving is estimated by projecting backwards from a later chemical test. This involves estimating the absorption and elimination of alcohol in the interim between driving and testing. The rate of elimination in the average person is commonly estimated at 0.015 to 0.020 grams per deciliter per hour (g/dL/h), although again this can vary from person to person and in a given person from one moment to another. Metabolism can be affected by numerous factors, including such things as body temperature, the type of alcoholic beverage consumed, and the amount and type of food consumed.
In an increasing number of states, laws have been enacted to facilitate this speculative task: the blood alcohol content at the time of driving is legally presumed to be the same as when later tested. There are usually time limits put on this presumption, commonly two or three hours, and the defendant is permitted to offer evidence to rebut this presumption.
Forward extrapolation can also be attempted. If the amount of alcohol consumed is known, along with such variables as the weight and sex of the subject and period and rate of consumption, the blood alcohol level can be estimated by extrapolating forward. Although subject to the same infirmities as retrograde extrapolation—guessing based upon averages and unknown variables—this can be relevant in estimating BAC when driving and/or corroborating or contradicting the results of a later chemical test.
Metabolism
The pharmacokinetics of ethanol are well characterized by the ADME acronym (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion). Besides the dose ingested, factors such as the person's total body water, speed of drinking, the drink's nutritional content, and the contents of the stomach all influence the profile of blood alcohol content (BAC) over time. Breath alcohol content (BrAC) and BAC have similar profile shapes, so most forensic pharmacokinetic calculations can be done with either. Relatively few studies directly compare BrAC and BAC within subjects and characterize the difference in pharmacokinetic parameters. Comparing arterial and venous BAC, arterial BAC is higher during the absorption phase and lower in the postabsorptive declining phase.
Highest levels
According to Guinness World Records, the 2013 incident where a BAC of 1.374% (13.74 g/L) was recorded is the highest BAC recorded in a human who survived the ordeal.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Date !! BAC (%) !! Location !! Description !! Result (died or survived) !! Cause of Death (If Died)
|-
| 1982
|data-sort-value=1.33| 1.33 BAC, approximated from 1.51 SAC
| Los Angeles, California, USA
| A 24-year-old woman was admitted to the UCLA emergency room with a serum alcohol content of 1.51%, corresponding to a blood alcohol content of 1.33%. She was alert and oriented to person and place and survived. Serum alcohol concentration is not equal to nor calculated in the same way as blood alcohol content.
| Survived
|
|-
| 1984
| 1.50
|
| A 30-year-old man survived a blood alcohol concentration of 1.5% after vigorous medical intervention that included dialysis and intravenous therapy with fructose.
| Survived
|
|-
| 1995
| 1.48
| Wrocław, Poland
| In 1995, a man from Wrocław, Poland, caused a car accident near his hometown. He had a blood alcohol content of 1.48%; he was tested five times, with each test returning the same reading. He died a few days later of injuries from the accident.
| Died
| Alcohol intoxication
|-
| 22 Dec 2010
| 1.60
| Queenstown, South Africa
| In South Africa, a man driving a Mercedes-Benz Vito light van containing 15 sheep allegedly stolen from nearby farms was arrested on December 22, 2010, near Queenstown in Eastern Cape. His blood had an alcohol content of 1.6%. Also in the vehicle were five boys and a woman, who were also arrested.
| Survived
|
|-
| 26 Oct 2012
|data-sort-value=2.23| 2.23 (possible contamination)
| Gmina Olszewo-Borki, Poland
| A man died in a car accident, recorded a blood alcohol content of 2.23%; however, the blood sample was collected from a wound and thus possibly contaminated.
| Died
| Injuries from a car accident
|-
| 26 July 2013
| 1.374
| Alfredówka, Poland
| A 30-year-old man from Alfredówka, Poland, was found unconscious by Municipal Police Patrol from Nowa Dęba lying in the ditch along the road in Tarnowska Wola. First responders reportedly did not believe the initial BAC readings taken at the scene. At the hospital, it was recorded that the man had a blood alcohol content of 1.374%. The man survived.
| Survived
|
|}
Notes
References
Citations
General and cited references
* Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Science and Technology Department. The Handy Science Answer Book. Pittsburgh: The Carnegie Library, 1997. .
*
* Taylor, L., and S. Oberman. Drunk Driving Defense, 6th edition. New York: Aspen Law and Business, 2006. .
External links
* [https://www.mdcalc.com/estimated-ethanol-toxic-alcohol-serum-concentration-based-ingestion Estimated alcohol]
Category:Alcohol law
Category:Alcohol policy
Category:Concentration indicators
Category:Driving under the influence
Category:Metabolism
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_alcohol_content
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Barrister
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}}
A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialize in courtroom advocacy and litigation. Their tasks include arguing cases in courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the law and giving legal opinions.
Barristers are distinguished from solicitors and other types of lawyers (e.g. chartered legal executives) who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional legal work. In some legal systems, including those of South Africa, Scandinavia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and the British Crown dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, the word barrister is also regarded as an honorific.
In a few jurisdictions, barristers are usually forbidden from "conducting" litigation, and can only act on the instructions of another lawyer, who perform tasks such as corresponding with parties and the court, and drafting court documents. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorization from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation, allowing a barrister to practice in a dual capacity.
In some common law jurisdictions, such as New Zealand and some Australian states and territories, lawyers are entitled to practice both as barristers and solicitors, but it remains a separate system of qualification to practice exclusively as a barrister. In others, such as the United States, the distinction between barristers and other types of lawyers does not exist at all.
Differences between barristers and other lawyers
A barrister is a lawyer who represents a litigant as an advocate before a court. A barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge, with or without a jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in evidence law, ethics, and court practice and procedure. In contrast, other legal professionals (such as solicitors) generally meet with clients, perform preparatory and administrative work, and provide legal advice. Barristers often have little or no direct contact with their clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the legal adviser, who is also primarily responsible for the barrister's fees.
In England and Wales, solicitors and chartered legal executives can support barristers when in court, such as managing through the managing of large volumes of documents in the case or negotiating a settlement outside the courtroom.
A barrister will usually have rights of audience in the higher courts, whereas other legal professionals will often have more limited access, or will need to acquire additional qualifications to have such access. As in common law countries in which there is a split between the roles of barrister and solicitor, the barrister in civil law jurisdictions is responsible for appearing in trials or pleading cases before the courts.
Barristers usually have particular knowledge of case law, precedent, and the skills to build a case. When another legal professional is confronted with an unusual point of law, they may seek the opinion of a barrister on the issue.
In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation. In 2009, the Clemens Report recommended the abolition of this restriction in England and Wales. However, barristers normally band together into barristers' chambers to share clerks (administrators) and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated. In some jurisdictions, barristers may be employed by firms and companies as in-house legal advisers.
In court, barristers may be visibly distinguished from solicitors, chartered legal executives, and other legal practitioners by their apparel. For example, in criminal courts in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a horsehair wig, stiff collar, bands, and a gown. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, but wear different gowns.
In many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and other legal representatives are gradually decreasing. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the higher courts, but particularly within the United Kingdom this is no longer true. Solicitor-advocates and qualified chartered legal executives can generally appear on behalf of clients at trial. Increasingly, law firms are keeping even the most advanced advisory and litigation work in-house for economic and client relationship reasons. Similarly, the prohibition on barristers taking instructions directly from the public has also been widely abolished. But, in practice, direct instruction is still a rarity in most jurisdictions, partly because barristers with narrow specialisations, or who are only really trained for advocacy, are not prepared to provide general advice to members of the public.
Historically, barristers have had a major role in trial preparation, including drafting pleadings and reviewing evidence. In some areas of law, that is still the case. In other areas, it is relatively common for the barrister to receive the brief from the instructing solicitor to represent a client at trial only a day or two before the proceeding. Part of the reason for this is cost. A barrister is entitled to a "brief fee" when a brief is delivered, and this represents the bulk of his or her fee in relation to any trial. They are then usually entitled to a "refresher" for each day of the trial after the first, but if a case is settled before trial, the barrister is not needed and the brief fee would be wasted. Some solicitors avoid this by delaying delivery of the brief until it is certain the case will go to trial.
Justification for a split profession
Some benefits of maintaining the split include:
* Having an independent barrister reviewing a course of action gives the client a fresh and independent opinion from an expert in the field distinct from solicitors who may maintain ongoing and long-term relationships with the client.
* In many jurisdictions, judges are appointed from the bar (members of the profession of barrister within a given jurisdiction). Since barristers do not have long-term client relationships and are further removed from clients than solicitors, judicial appointees are more independent.
* Having recourse to all of the specialist barristers at the bar can enable smaller firms, who could not maintain large specialist departments, to compete with larger firms.
* A barrister acts as a check on the solicitor conducting the trial; if it becomes apparent that the claim or defence has not been properly conducted by the solicitor prior to trial, the barrister can (and usually has a duty to) advise the client of a separate possible claim against the solicitor.
* Expertise in conducting trials, since barristers are specialist advocates.
* In many jurisdictions, barristers must follow the cab-rank rule, which obliges them to accept a brief if it is in their area of expertise and if they are available, facilitating access to justice for the unpopular.
Some disadvantages of the split include:
* A multiplicity of legal advisers can lead to less efficiency and higher costs.
* Because they are further removed from the client, barristers can be less familiar with the client's needs.
Regulation
, London]]
Barristers are regulated by the Bar for the jurisdiction where they practice, and in some countries, by the Inn of Court to which they belong. In some countries, there is external regulation.
Inns of Court, where they exist, regulate admission to the profession. Inns of Court are independent societies that are responsible for the training, admission, and discipline of barristers. Where they exist, a person may only be called to the bar by an Inn, of which they must be a member. Historically, call to and success at the bar, to a large degree, depended upon social connections made early in life.
A bar collectively describes all members of the profession of barrister within a given jurisdiction. While as a minimum the bar is an association embracing all its members, it is usually the case, either de facto or de jure, that the bar is invested with regulatory powers over the manner in which barristers practice.
Barristers around the world
In the common law tradition, the respective roles of a lawyer, as legal adviser and advocate, were formally split into two separate, regulated sub-professions. Historically, the distinction was absolute, but in the modern age, some countries that had a split legal profession now have a fused profession. In practice, the distinction in split jurisdictions may be minor, or marked. In some jurisdictions, such as Australia, Scotland and Ireland, there is little overlap.
Australia
, 1930s Australian court dress|thumb]]
In the Australian states of New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland, there is a split profession. Nevertheless, subject to conditions, barristers can accept direct access work from clients. Each state Bar Association regulates the profession and essentially has the functions of the English Inns of Court. In the states of South Australia and Western Australia, as well as the Australian Capital Territory, the professions of barrister and solicitor are fused, but an independent bar nonetheless exists, regulated by the Legal Practice Board of the state or territory. In Tasmania and the Northern Territory, the profession is fused, although a very small number of practitioners operate as an independent bar.
Generally, counsel dress in the traditional English manner (wig, gown, bar jacket and jabot) before superior courts, although this is not usually done for interlocutory applications. Wigs and robes are still worn in the Supreme Court and the District Court in civil matters and are dependent on the judicial officer's attire. Robes and wigs are worn in all criminal cases. In Western Australia, wigs are no longer worn in any court.
Each year, the Bar Association appoints certain barristers of seniority and eminence to the rank of "Senior Counsel" (in most States and Territories) or "King's Counsel" (in the Northern Territory, Queensland, Victoria and South Australia). Such barristers carry the title "SC" or "KC" after their name. The appointments are made after a process of consultation with members of the profession and the judiciary. Senior Counsel appear in particularly complex or difficult cases. They make up about 14 per cent of the bar in New South Wales.
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, the law relating to barristers is the Bangladesh Legal Practitioners and Bar Council Order as administered and enforced by the Bangladesh Bar Council. The Bar Council is the supreme statutory body that regulates the legal professions in Bangladesh and ensures educational standards and regulatory compliance of advocates. Newly enrolled advocates are permitted to start practice in the district courts after admission. After two years of practice, advocates may apply to practice in the High Court Division of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh by passing the Bar Council Examination. Only advocates who are barristers in the United Kingdom may use the title of barrister.
Canada
In Canada (except Quebec), the professions of barrister and solicitor are fused, and many lawyers refer to themselves with both names, even if they do not practise in both areas. In colloquial parlance within the Canadian legal profession, lawyers often term themselves as "litigators" (or "barristers"), or as "solicitors", depending on the nature of their law practice though some may in effect practise as both litigators and solicitors. However, "litigators" would generally perform all litigation functions traditionally performed by barristers and solicitors; in contrast, those terming themselves "solicitors" would generally limit themselves to legal work not involving practice before the courts (not even in a preparatory manner as performed by solicitors in England), though some might practise before chambers judges. As is the practice in many other Commonwealth jurisdictions such as Australia, Canadian litigators are gowned, but without a wig, when appearing before courts of superior jurisdiction. All law graduates from Canadian law schools, and certified internationally qualified lawyers, can apply to the relevant provincial law society for admission. A year of articling as a student supervised by a qualified lawyer and the passing of provincial bar exams are also required for an individual to be called to bar as a barrister and solicitor.
The situation is somewhat different in Quebec as a result of its civil law tradition. The profession of solicitor, or , never took hold in colonial Quebec, so lawyers () have traditionally been a fused profession, arguing and preparing cases in contentious matters, whereas Quebec's other type of lawyer, civil-law notaries (), handle out-of-court non-contentious matters. However, a number of areas of non-contentious private law are not monopolized by notaries so that lawyers / avocats often specialize in handling either trials, cases, advising, or non-trial matters. The only disadvantage is that lawyers / avocats cannot draw up public instruments that have the same force of law as notarial acts. Most large law firms in Quebec offer the full range of legal services of law firms in common-law provinces. Individuals who seek to become lawyers / avocats must earn a bachelor's degree in civil law, pass the provincial bar examination, and successfully complete legal articles to be admitted to practice. Lawyers are regulated by the , constituted under Quebec law.
France
In France, avocats, or attorneys, were, until the 20th century, the equivalent of barristers. The profession included several grades ranked by seniority: avocat-stagiaire (trainee, who was already qualified but needed to complete two years (or more, depending on the period) of training alongside seasoned lawyers), avocat, and avocat honoraire (emeritus barrister). Since the 14th century and during the course of the 19th and 20th in particular, French barristers competed in territorial battles over respective areas of legal practice against the conseil juridique (legal advisor, transactional solicitor) and avoué (procedural solicitor), and expanded to become the generalist legal practitioner, with the notable exception of notaires (notaries), who are ministry appointed lawyers (with a separate qualification) and who retain exclusivity over conveyancing and probate. After the 1971 and 1990 legal reforms, the avocat was fused with the avoué and the conseil juridique, making the avocat (or, if female, avocate) an all-purpose lawyer for matters of contentious jurisdiction, analogous to an American attorney. French attorneys usually do not (although they are entitled to) act both as litigators (trial lawyers) and legal consultants (advising lawyers), known respectively as avocat plaidant and avocat-conseil. This distinction is however purely informal and does not correspond to any difference in qualification or admission to the role. All intending attorneys must pass an examination to be able to enrol in one of the ''Centre régional de formation à la profession d'avocat (CRFPA) (Regional centre for the training of lawyers). The CRFPA course has a duration of two years and is a mix between classroom teachings and internships. Its culmination is the stage final (final training), where the intending attorney spends six months in a law firm (generally in their favoured field of practice and in a firm in which they hope to be recruited afterwards). The intending attorney then needs to pass the Certificat d'Aptitude à la Profession d'Avocat (CAPA)'', which is the last professional examination allowing them to join a court's bar (barreau). It is generally recognised that the first examination is much more difficult than the CAPA and is dreaded by most law students. Each bar is regulated by a Bar Council (Ordre du barreau).
A separate body of barristers exists called the ''avocats au Conseil d'Etat et à la Cour de Cassation. Although their legal background, training and status is the same as the all-purpose avocats, these have a monopoly over litigation taken to the supreme courts, in civil, criminal or administrative matters.
Germany
In Germany, no distinction between barristers and solicitors is made. Lawyers may plead at all courts except the civil branch of the Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof), to which fewer than fifty lawyers are admitted. Those lawyers, who deal almost exclusively with litigation, may not plead at other courts and are usually instructed by a lawyer who represented the client in the lower courts. However, these restrictions do not apply to criminal cases, nor to pleadings at courts of the other court systems, including labour, administrative, taxation, and social courts and the European Union court system.Hong Kong
The legal profession in Hong Kong is also divided into two branches: barristers and solicitors.
In the High Court of Hong Kong (including both the Court of First Instance and the Court of Appeal) and the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal, as a general rule, only barristers and solicitor-advocates are allowed to speak on behalf of any party in open court. This means that solicitors are restricted from doing so. In these two courts, save for hearings in chambers, barristers dress in the traditional English manner, as do the judges and other lawyers.
In Hong Kong, the rank of King's Counsel was granted prior to the handover of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to China in 1997. After the handover, the rank has been replaced by Senior Counsel post-nominal letters: SC. Senior Counsel may still, however, style themselves as silks, like their British counterparts.
India
as barrister in 1923. Ambedkar was a notable Indian barrister, father of the Indian Constitution and the first Law Minister of India.]]
In India, the law relating to barristers is the Advocates Act, 1961, which is administered and enforced by the Bar Council of India. Under the act, the council is the supreme regulatory body for the legal profession in India, ensuring the compliance of the laws and maintenance of professional standards by the legal profession in the country. The council is authorised to pass regulations and make orders in individual cases.
Each state has a bar council whose function is to enrol barristers practising predominantly within that state. Each barrister must be enrolled with a single state bar council to practise in India. However, this does not restrict a barrister from appearing before any court in India.
For all practical and legal purposes, the Bar Council of India retains with it, the final power to take decisions in any and all matters related to the legal profession on the whole or with respect to any
There are two requirements to practise in India. First, the applicant must be a holder of a law degree from a recognised institution in India (or from one of the four recognised universities in the United Kingdom). Second, they must pass the enrolment qualifications of the bar council of the state they seek to be enrolled in. Through regulation, the Bar Council of India also ensures the standard of education required for practising in India is met with.
A barrister is required to maintain certain standards of conduct and professional demeanour at all times. The Bar Council of India prescribes rules of conduct to be observed by the Barristers in the courts, while interacting with clients and in non-professional settings.
Ireland
, the first female Irish barrister]]
In the Republic of Ireland, admission to the Bar by the Chief Justice of Ireland is restricted to those on whom a Barrister-at-Law degree (BL) has first been conferred. The Honorable Society of King's Inns<!-- without a "u" --> is the only educational establishment which runs vocational courses for barristers in the Republic and degrees of Barrister-at-Law can only be conferred by King's Inns. King's Inns are also the only body with the capacity to call individuals to the bar and to disbar them.
Most Irish barristers choose to be governed thereafter by the Bar of Ireland, a quasi-private entity. Senior members of the profession may be selected for elevation to the Inner Bar, when they may describe themselves as Senior Counsel ("SC"). All barristers who have not been called to the Inner Bar are known as Junior Counsel (and are identified by the postnominal initials "BL"), regardless of age or experience. Admission to the Inner Bar is made by declaration before the Supreme Court, patents of precedence having been granted by the Government. Irish barristers are sole practitioners and may not form chambers or partnerships if they wish to remain members of the Bar of Ireland's Law Library.
To practise under the Bar of Ireland's rules, a newly qualified barrister is apprenticed to an experienced barrister of at least seven years' experience. This apprenticeship is known as pupillage or devilling. Devilling is compulsory for those barristers who wish to be members of the Law Library and lasts for one legal year. It is common to devil for a second year in a less formal arrangement but this is not compulsory. Devils are not generally paid for their work in their devilling year.
<big>Israel</big>
In Israel, those certified to practice law hold the title of Advocate. The certification to practice law is unified, as there is no distinction between barristers and solicitors.
Japan
Japan adopts a unified system. However, there are certain classes of qualified professionals who are allowed to practice in certain limited areas of law, such as scriveners (shiho shoshi, qualified to handle title registration, deposit, and certain petite court proceedings with additional certification), tax accountants (zeirishi, qualified to prepare tax returns, provide advice on tax computation and represent a client in administrative tax appeals) and patent agents ("benrishi", qualified to practice patent registration and represent a client in administrative patent appeals). Only the lawyers (bengoshi) can appear before the court and are qualified to practice in any areas of law, including, but not limited to, areas that those qualified law-related professionals above are allowed to practice. Most attorneys still focus primarily on court practice and still a very small number of attorneys give sophisticated and expert legal advice on a day-to-day basis to large corporations.
Netherlands
The Netherlands used to have a semi-separated legal profession comprising the lawyer and the procureur, the latter resembling, to some extent, the profession of barrister. Under that system, lawyers were entitled to represent their clients in law, but were only able to file cases before the court at which they were registered. Cases falling under the jurisdiction of another court had to be filed by a procureur registered at that court, in practice often another lawyer exercising both functions. Questions were raised on the necessity of the separation, given the fact that its main purpose – the preservation of the quality of the legal profession and observance of local court rules and customs – had become obsolete. For that reason, the procureur as a separate profession was abolished and its functions merged with the legal profession in 2008. Currently, lawyers can file cases before any court, regardless of where they are registered. The only notable exception concerns civil cases brought before the Supreme Court, which have to be handled by lawyers registered at the Supreme Court, thus gaining from it the title "lawyer at the Supreme Court".
New Zealand
In New Zealand, the professions are not formally fused but practitioners are enrolled in the High Court as "Barristers and Solicitors". They may choose, however, to practice as barristers sole. About 15% practice solely as barristers, mainly in the larger cities and usually in "chambers" (following the British terminology). They receive "instructions" from other practitioners, at least nominally. They usually conduct the proceedings in their entirety.
Any lawyer may apply to become a King's Counsel (KC) to recognize the long-standing contribution to the legal profession but this status is only conferred on those practicing as solicitors in exceptional circumstances. This step referred to as "being called to the inner bar" or "taking silk", is considered highly prestigious and has been a step in the career of many New Zealand judges.
Unlike other jurisdictions, the term "junior barrister" is popularly used to refer to a lawyer who holds a practicing certificate as a barrister, but is employed by another, more senior barrister. Generally, junior barristers are within their first five years of practice and are not yet qualified to practice as barristers sole. Barristers sole (i.e. barristers who are not employed by another barrister) who are not King's Counsel are never referred to as junior barristers.
Nigeria
In Nigeria, there is no formal distinction between barristers and solicitors. All students who pass the bar examinations – offered exclusively by the Nigerian Law School – are called to the Nigerian bar, by the Body of Benchers. Lawyers may argue in any Federal trial or appellate court as well as any of the courts in Nigeria's 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory. The Legal Practitioner's Act refers to Nigerian lawyers as Legal Practitioners, and following their call to the Bar, Nigerian lawyers enter their names in the register or Roll of Legal Practitioners kept at the Supreme Court. For this reason, a Nigerian lawyer is often referred to as a Barrister and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Nigeria, and many Nigerian lawyers term themselves Barrister-at-Law with the postnominal initials "B.L".
The vast majority of Nigerian lawyers combine contentious and non-contentious work, although there is a growing tendency for practitioners in the bigger practices to specialize in one or the other. In colloquial parlance within the Nigerian legal profession, lawyers may, therefore, be referred to as "litigators" or as "solicitors".
Consistent with the practice in England and elsewhere in the Commonwealth, senior members of the profession may be selected for elevation to the Inner Bar by the conferment of the rank of Senior Advocate of Nigeria (SAN).
Pakistan
The profession in Pakistan is fused; an advocate works both as a barrister and a solicitor, with higher rights of audience being provided. To practice as a barrister in Pakistan, a law graduate must complete three steps; pass the Bar Practical and the Training Course (BPTC), and be called to the Provincial Bar Council, and obtain a license to practice as an advocate in the courts of Pakistan from the relevant Bar Council, either on provincial or federal level.PolandIn Poland, there are two main types of legal professions: advocate and legal counsel. Both are regulated and these professions are restricted only for people who graduated five-year law studies, have at least three years of experience and passed five difficult national exams (civil law, criminal law, company law, administrative law and ethic) or have a doctor of law degree. Before 2015, the only difference was that advocates have a right to represent clients before the court in all cases and the legal advisors could not represent clients before the court in criminal cases. Presently, legal advisors can also represent clients in criminal cases, making the historical differences between these professions largely obsolete.South Africa
In South Africa the employment and practice of advocates (as barristers are known in South Africa) is consistent with the rest of the Commonwealth. Advocates carry the rank of Junior or Senior Counsel (SC), and are mostly briefed and paid by solicitors (known as attorneys). They are usually employed in the higher courts, particularly in the Appeal Courts where they often appear as specialist counsel. South African solicitors (attorneys) follow a practice of referring cases to Counsel for an opinion before proceeding with a case, when Counsel in question practices as a specialist in the case law at stake. Aspiring advocates currently spend one year in pupillage (formerly only six months) before being admitted to the bar in their respective provincial or judicial jurisdictions. The term "Advocate" is sometimes used in South Africa as a title, e. g. "Advocate John Doe, SC" (Advokaat in Afrikaans) in the same fashion as "Dr. John Doe" for a medical doctor.
South Korea
In South Korea, there was no distinction between the judiciary and lawyers. Previously, a person who passed the national bar exam after two years of national education could become a judge, prosecutor, or "lawyer" based on their grades upon graduation. Due to changes brought by the implementation of an accommodated law school system, there are now two standard pathways to becoming a lawyer. Under the current legal system, lawyers who wish to become judges or prosecutors must first gain practical experience in legal practice. There is no specific limitation on what areas of law a "lawyer" may practice.
Spain
Spain has a division but it does not correspond to the division in Britain between barristers/advocates and solicitors. Procuradores represent the litigant procedurally in court, generally under the authority of a power of attorney executed by a civil law notary, while abogados represent the substantive claims of the litigant through trial advocacy. Abogados perform both transactional work and advise in connection with court proceedings, and they have full right of audience in front of the court. The court proceeding is carried out with abogados, not with procuradores. In essence, procuradores act as court agents operating under the instructions of an abogado. Their practice is confined to the locality of the court to which they are admitted.
United Kingdom
Under EU law, barristers, along with advocates, chartered legal executives and solicitors, are recognized as lawyers.
England and Wales
, one of the first female British barristers]]
Although with somewhat different laws, England and Wales are considered within the United Kingdom a single united and unified legal jurisdiction for the purposes of both civil and criminal law, alongside Scotland and Northern Ireland, the other two legal jurisdictions within the United Kingdom. England and Wales are covered by a common bar and a single law society.
The profession of barrister in England and Wales is a separate profession from that of solicitor. It is, however, possible to hold the qualification of both barrister and solicitor, and/or chartered legal executive at the same time. It is not necessary to leave the bar to qualify as a solicitor.
Barristers are regulated by the Bar Standards Board, a division of the General Council of the Bar. A barrister must be a member of one of the Inns of Court, which traditionally educated and regulated barristers. There are four Inns of Court: The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn, The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple, and The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple. All are located in central London, near the Royal Courts of Justice. They perform both scholastic and social roles, and in all cases, provide financial aid to student barristers (subject to merit) through scholarships. It is the Inns that call students to the Bar at a ceremony akin to a graduation. Social functions include dining with other members and guests and hosting other events.
Law graduates wishing to work and be known as barristers must take a course of professional training (known as the "vocational component") at one of the institutions approved by the Bar Council. Until late 2020 this course was exclusively the Bar Professional Training Course, but since then the approved training offer was broadened to would-be barristers via a number of different courses, such as the new Bar Vocational Course at the Inns of Court College of Advocacy. On successful completion of the vocational component, student barristers are called to the bar by their respective inns and are elevated to the degree of barrister. However, before they can practise independently they must first undertake 12 months of pupillage. The first six months (the "non-practising period") are spent shadowing more senior practitioners, after which pupil barristers may begin to undertake some court work of their own (the "practising period"). Following successful completion of this stage, most barristers then join a set of Chambers, a group of counsel who share the costs of premises and support staff whilst remaining individually self-employed.
There are approximately 17,000 barristers, of whom about ten per cent are King's Counsel and about 4,000 are "young barristers"" (i.e., under seven years' Call). In April 2023, there were 13,800 barristers in self-employed practice.
Certain barristers in England and Wales are now instructed directly by members of the public. Members of the public may engage the services of the barrister directly within the framework of the Public Access Scheme; a solicitor is not involved at any stage. Barristers undertaking public access work can provide legal advice and representation in court in almost all areas of law and are entitled to represent clients in any court or tribunal in England and Wales. Once instructions from a client are accepted, it is the barrister who advises and guides the client through the relevant legal procedure or litigation.
Before a barrister can undertake Public Access work, they must have completed a special course. At present, about one in 20 barristers has so qualified. There is also a separate scheme called "Licensed Access", available to certain nominated classes of professional client. It is not open to the general public. Public access work is experiencing a huge surge at the bar, with barristers taking advantage of the new opportunity for the bar to make profit in the face of legal aid cuts elsewhere in the profession.
The ability of barristers to accept such instructions is a recent development; it results from a change in the rules set down by the General Council of the Bar in July 2004. The Public Access Scheme has been introduced as part of the drive to open up the legal system to the public and to make it easier and cheaper to obtain access to legal advice. It further reduces the distinction between solicitors and barristers. The distinction remains however because there are certain aspects of a solicitor's role that a barrister is not able to undertake.
Historically a barrister might use the honorific, Esquire. Even though the term barrister-at-law is sometimes seen, and was once very common, it has never been formally correct in England and Wales. Barrister is the only correct nomenclature.
Barristers are expected to maintain very high standards of professional conduct. The objective of the barristers code of conduct is to avoid dominance by either the barrister or the client and the client being enabled to make informed decisions in a supportive atmosphere and, in turn, the client expects (implicitly and/or explicitly) the barrister to uphold their duties, namely by acting in the client's best interests (CD2), acting with honesty and integrity (CD3), keeping the client's affairs confidential (CD6) and working to a competent standard (CD7). These core duties (CDs) are a few, among others, that are enshrined in the BSB Handbook.Northern Ireland
In April 2003 there were 554 barristers in independent practice in Northern Ireland. 66 were King's Counsel (KCs), barristers who have earned a high reputation and are appointed by the King on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor as senior advocates and advisers.
Those barristers who are not KCs are called Junior Counsel and are styled "BL" or "Barrister-at-Law". The term junior is often misleading since many members of the Junior Bar are experienced barristers with considerable expertise.
Benchers are, and have been for centuries, the governing bodies of the four Inns of Court in London and King's Inns, Dublin. The Benchers of the Inn of Court of Northern Ireland governed the Inn until the enactment of the Constitution of the Inn in 1983, which provides that the government of the Inn is shared between the Benchers, the Executive Council of the Inn and members of the Inn assembled in General Meeting.
The Executive Council (through its Education Committee) is responsible for considering Memorials submitted by applicants for admission as students of the Inn and by Bar students of the Inn for admission to the degree of Barrister-at-Law and making recommendations to the Benchers. The final decisions on these Memorials are taken by the Benchers. The Benchers also have the exclusive power of expelling or suspending a Bar student and of disbarring a barrister or suspending a barrister from practice.
The Executive Council is also involved with: education; fees of students; calling counsel to the Bar, although call to the Bar is performed by the Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland on the invitation of the Benchers; administration of the Bar Library (to which all practising members of the Bar belong); and liaising with corresponding bodies in other countries.
Scotland
In Scotland, an advocate is, in all respects except name, a barrister, but there are significant differences in professional practice. Admission to and the conduct of the profession is regulated by the Faculty of Advocates (as opposed to an Inn).
Crown dependencies and UK Overseas Territories
Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey
In the Bailiwick of Jersey, there are solicitors (called ecrivains) and advocates (French avocat). In the Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey and on the Isle of Man, advocates perform the combined functions of both solicitors and barristers.
Gibraltar
Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory boasting a legal profession based on the common law. The legal profession includes both barristers and solicitors with most barristers also acting as solicitors. Admission and disciplinary matters in Gibraltar are dealt with by the Bar Council of Gibraltar and the Supreme Court of Gibraltar. For barristers or solicitors to be admitted as practicing lawyers in Gibraltar they must comply with the Supreme Court Act 1930 as amended by the Supreme Court Amendment Act 2015 which requires, amongst other things, for all newly admitted lawyers as of 1 July 2015 to undertake a year's course in Gibraltar law at the University of Gibraltar. Solicitors also have right of audience in Gibraltar's courts.
United States
The United States does not distinguish between lawyers as barristers and solicitors. Any American lawyer who has passed a bar examination and has been admitted to practice law in a particular US jurisdiction may prosecute or defend. The barrister–solicitor distinction existed historically in some US states, which had a separate label for barristers (called "counselors", hence the expression "attorney and counselor at law"). Both professions have long since been fused.
Additionally, some state appellate courts require attorneys to obtain a separate certificate of admission to plead and practice in the appellate court. Federal courts require specific admission to that court's bar to practice before it. At the state appellate level and in federal courts, there is generally no separate examination process, although some US district courts require an examination on practices and procedures in their specific courts. Unless an examination is required, admission is usually granted as a matter of course to any licensed attorney in the state where the court is located. Some federal courts will grant admission to any attorney licensed in any US jurisdiction.
Popular culture
* Rumpole of the Bailey (UK) – classic courtroom series
* Kavanagh QC (1995–2001) (UK)
* North Square (2000) (UK) – Channel 4 court drama series contains interactions between barristers and solicitors
* ''Bridget Jones's Diary (1996 book and 2001 film) – A major character, Mark Darcy, is described as a "top barrister"
* A Fish Called Wanda'' (1988) – John Cleese's character, Archie Leach, is a barrister who, in defending a hapless jewel thief, becomes entangled in the crime
* Silk (2011–2014) (UK) – BBC court drama series
* Rake (2010–2016) – Australian TV series based on the story of a colourful barrister
* Sydney Carton – central character, a barrister, in Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities
* Witness for the Prosecution, in which the central character is the barrister Sir Wilfred Robards, QC
* Arnold Timsh – Target in The Knife of Dunwall, an expansion on the video game Dishonored
* Barrister Babu (2020) – Indian social drama TV series on Colors TV
* The Munchkin Barrister (1987) – A character with a featured role in the Wizard of Oz Musical (RSC)
See also
* Bar (law)
* Barristers' Ball
* Legal professions in England and Wales
* Revising barrister
* Serjeant-at-law
* Special pleader
References
Further reading
* Abel, Richard L. The Making of the English Legal Profession: 1800-1988 (1998), 576pp
* Lemmings, David. Gentlemen and Barristers: The Inns of Court and the English Bar, 1680-1730 (Oxford 1990)
* Levack, Brian. The civil lawyers (Oxford 1973)
* Prest, Wilfrid. The Inns of Court (1972)
* Prest, Wilfrid. The Rise of the Barristers (1986)
External links
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* [http://www.hkba.org/ Hong Kong Bar Association (barristers in Hong Kong)]
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* [http://www.cba.org/ Canadian Bar Association]
Australia
* [http://www.austbar.asn.au/ Australian Bar Association (barristers in the Commonwealth of Australia)]
* [https://nswbar.asn.au/ New South Wales Bar Association]
* [http://www.vicbar.com.au/ The Victorian Bar (Australia)]
* [http://www.qldbar.asn.au/ Queensland Bar Association (Australia)]
* [http://www.sabar.org.au/ South Australian Bar Association (Australia)]
* [http://www.wabar.asn.au/ Western Australian Bar Association (Australia)]
* [http://ntba.asn.au/ The Northern Territory Bar Association (Australia)]
UK and Ireland
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120620145923/http://www.barristermagazine.com/ The Barrister magazine]
* [http://www.innertemple.org.uk/ The Inner Temple]
* [http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/ Bar Council (barristers in England and Wales)]
* [http://www.barlibrary.com/ Bar Library of Northern Ireland]
* [http://www.advocates.org.uk Faculty of Advocates in Scotland]
* [http://www.lawlibrary.ie/ The Bar of Ireland]
* [http://irishbarrister.com/FAQs.html The difference between barristers and solicitors]
*
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Category:Common law
Category:Law of the United Kingdom
Category:Legal professions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrister
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Battle of Gettysburg
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<!-- NPS visitor center location-->
| no-location-property = yes
| result = Union victory
| combatant1 = United States
| combatant2 = Confederate States
| commander1 = George Meade
| commander2 = Robert E. Lee
| units1 Army of the Potomac
| units2 Army of Northern Virginia
| strength1 93,500–104,256<br>360 artillery pieces<br>36 cavalry regiments
| strength2 65,000–75,000, possibly as many as 80,000<br>270 artillery pieces<br>9,500 cavalry
| casualties1 23,049
| casualties2 23,000–28,000
| campaignbox =
}}
during the three-day Battle of Gettysburg, showing troop and artillery positions and movements, relief hachures, drainage, roads, railroads, and houses with the names of Gettysburg residents at the time of the battle]]
illustration showing Confederate Army troops escorting captured African American civilians south into slavery. En route to Gettysburg, the Army of Northern Virginia kidnapped between 40 and nearly 60 Black civilians and sent them south into slavery.]]
The Battle of Gettysburg () was a three-day battle in the American Civil War, which was fought between the Union and Confederate armies between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, won by the Union, is widely considered the Civil War's turning point, leading to an ultimate victory of the Union and the preservation of the nation. The Battle of Gettysburg was the bloodiest battle of both the Civil War and of any battle in American military history, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties. Union Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North and forcing his retreat.
After his success in the Battle of Chancellorsville in Spotsylvania County, Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his Confederate forces through Shenandoah Valley to begin the Gettysburg Campaign, his second attempt to invade the North. With Lee's army in high spirits, he intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged Northern Virginia in the hopes of penetrating as far as Harrisburg or Philadelphia, which he hoped would convince northern politicians to end the war. President Abraham Lincoln initially prodded Major General Joseph Hooker to lead his troops in pursuing Lee. But Lincoln relieved Hooker of his command just three days before the Battle of Gettysburg commenced, replacing him with Meade.
On July 1, 1863, as Lee's forces moved on Gettysburg in the hopes of destroying the Union army, the two armies initially collided, and the battle commenced. Low ridges to the northwest of Gettysburg were initially defended by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier General John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. Two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, however, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, leading them to retreat through the streets of Gettysburg to the hills just south of the city. On the second day of battle, on July 2, the Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union's left flank, leading to fierce fighting at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union's right flank, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. Despite incurring significant losses, Union forces held their lines.
On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south of Gettysburg. Pickett's Charge featured the main military engagement, a dramatic Confederate infantry assault of approximately 12,000 Confederates troops, who attacked the center of the Union line at Cemetery Ridge, which was successfully repelled by Union rifle and artillery fire, leading to great Confederate losses. The following day, on the Fourth of July, Lee led his Confederate troops on the torturous retreat from the North. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day Battle of Gettysburg, representing both the most deadly battle in the Civil War and all of U.S. history.
On November 19, Lincoln traveled to Gettysburg, where he spoke at a ceremony dedicating Gettysburg National Cemetery, which honored the fallen Union soldiers and redefined the purpose of the Civil War in his famed Gettysburg Address, a 271-word address that has endured as one of the most famous speeches in American history.
Background
Military situation
through July 3, 1863, including cavalry movements shown with dashed lines
]]
Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (April 30 – May 6, 1863), General Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessful Maryland campaign of September 1862, which ended in the bloody Battle of Antietam). Such a move would upset the Union's plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much-needed rest. In addition, Lee's 72,000-man armyInitial movements to battle
Thus, on June 3, Lee's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, Virginia. Following the death of Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps, commanded by Lieutenant General James Longstreet (First Corps), Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell (Second), and Lieutenant General A.P. Hill (Third); both Ewell and Hill, who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders, were new to this level of responsibility. The cavalry division remained under the command of Major General J.E.B. Stuart.
The Union's Army of the Potomac, commanded by Major General Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an artillery reserve, for a combined strength of more than 100,000 men.
By mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland. After defeating the Union garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg, Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15. Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on June 24 and 25. Hooker's army pursued, keeping between Washington, D.C., and Lee's army. The Union army crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27.
Lee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative effects on the civilian population. Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright unless a citizen concealed property, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants with Confederate money which was virtually worthless or with equally worthless promissory notes were not well received. Various towns, most notably York, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction. During the invasion, the Confederates seized between 40 and nearly 60 northern African Americans. A few of them were escaped fugitive slaves, but many were freemen; all were sent south into slavery under guard. Early laid the borough under tribute, but did not collect any significant supplies. Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge, and destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines. The following morning, Early departed for adjacent York County.
Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army. Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By June 29, Lee's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg ( northwest of Gettysburg) to Carlisle ( north of Gettysburg) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River.
In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and Abraham Lincoln and General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to rid themselves of him, immediately accepted. They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Major General George Gordon Meade, then commander of the V Corps.
On June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown, located at the eastern base of South Mountain and west of Gettysburg. On June 30, while part of Hill's corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades (North Carolinians under Brigadier General J. Johnston Pettigrew) ventured toward Gettysburg. In his memoirs, Major General Henry Heth, Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town—especially shoes.
When Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Major General John Buford arriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Union force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg.
Opposing forces
Union
The Army of the Potomac, initially under Hooker (Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28), consisted of more than 100,000 men in the following organization:
* I Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. James S. Wadsworth, Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson, and Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday.
* II Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. John C. Caldwell, John Gibbon, and Alexander Hays.
* III Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gen. David B. Birney and Maj. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys.
* V Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. George Sykes (George G. Meade until June 28), with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. James Barnes, Romeyn B. Ayres, and Samuel W. Crawford.
* VI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Horatio G. Wright, Brig. Gen. Albion P. Howe, and Maj. Gen. John Newton.
* XI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Oliver Otis Howard, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow, Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr, and Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz.
* XII Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. Alpheus S. Williams and John W. Geary.
* Cavalry Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. John Buford, David McM. Gregg, and H. Judson Kilpatrick.
* Artillery Reserve, commanded by Brig. Gen. Robert O. Tyler. (The preeminent artillery officer at Gettysburg was Brig. Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt, chief of artillery on Meade's staff.)
During the advance on Gettysburg, Reynolds was in operational command of the left, or advanced, wing of the Army, consisting of the I, III, and XI corps. Many other Union units (not part of the Army of the Potomac) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign, but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg. These included portions of the Union IV Corps, the militia and state troops of the Department of the Susquehanna, and various garrisons, including that at Harpers Ferry.
Confederate
In reaction to the death of Jackson after Chancellorsville, Lee reorganized his Army of Northern Virginia (75,000 men) from two infantry corps into three.
* First Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Lafayette McLaws, George Pickett, and John Bell Hood.
* Second Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Jubal A. Early, Edward "Allegheny" Johnson, and Robert E. Rodes.
* Third Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. A. P. Hill, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Richard H. Anderson, Henry Heth, and W. Dorsey Pender.
* Cavalry division, commanded by Maj. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart, with brigades commanded by Brig. Gens. Wade Hampton, Fitzhugh Lee, Beverly H. Robertson, Albert G. Jenkins, William E. "Grumble" Jones, and John D. Imboden, and Col. John R. Chambliss.
First day of battle
Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge
of the Battle of Gettysburg]]
regiments during the Battle of Gettysburg]]
Anticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town: Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge. These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp's Hill. Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade's army would have difficulty dislodging them.
Heth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by brigadier generals James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry, and deployed into line. According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was Lieutenant Marcellus Jones. Eventually Heth's men encountered dismounted troopers of Colonel William Gamble's cavalry brigade. The dismounted troopers resisted stoutly, delaying the Confederate advance with most firing their breech-loading Sharp's carbines from behind fences and trees. (A small number of troopers had other carbine models. A small minority of historians have written that some troopers had Spencer repeating carbines or Spencer repeating rifles but most sources disagree.) Still, by 10:20 am, the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the I Corps (Major General John F. Reynolds) finally arrived.
North of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brigadier General Lysander Cutler's brigade but was repelled with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson's) Woods. The Union Iron Brigade under Brigadier General Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself.
General Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods. Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be "the best general in the army". Major General Abner Doubleday assumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 pm. It resumed around 2:30 pm, when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Colonel John M. Brockenbrough.
As Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army, with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three-day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South. Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added Major General William Dorsey Pender's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets.
As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union XI Corps (Major General Oliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the Union line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg.
However, the Union did not have enough troops; Cutler, whose brigade was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line.
Around 2:00p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of major generals Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out-flanked the Union I and XI corps' positions north and northwest of town. The Confederate brigades of Colonel Edward A. O'Neal and Brigadier General Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brigadier General John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill. Early's division profited from a blunder by Brigadier General Francis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented a salient in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran Barlow's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack.
As Union positions collapsed both north and west of town, Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brigadier General Adolph von Steinwehr in reserve. Major General Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. Hancock, commander of the II Corps and Meade's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle. Hancock told Howard, "I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw." When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: "Very well, sir, I select this as the battle-field." Hancock's determination had a morale-boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day.
General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken "if practicable". Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity.
The first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged. About one quarter of Meade's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee's army (27,000) were engaged.
Second day of battle
Plans and movement to battle
general Robert E. Lee's plan for the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, fought on July 2, 1863]]
against a Confederate brigade on the battle's second day]]
Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps. Two of Longstreet's divisions were on the road: Brigadier General George Pickett, had begun the march from Chambersburg, while Brigadier General Evander M. Law had begun the march from Guilford. Both arrived late in the morning. Law completed his march in eleven hours.
The Union line ran from Culp's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top. Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a "fishhook" formation.
The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill. Thus, the Union army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly long.
Lee's battle plan for July 2 called for a general assault of Meade's positions. On the right, Longstreet's First Corps was to position itself to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the Union line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens. John Bell Hood's and Lafayette McLaws's divisions, followed by Major General Richard H. Anderson's division of Hill's Third Corps.
On the left, Lee instructed Ewell to position his Second Corps to attack Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill when he heard the gunfire from Longstreet's assault, preventing Meade from shifting troops to bolster his left. Though it does not appear in either his or Lee's Official Report, Ewell claimed years later that Lee had changed the order to simultaneously attack, calling for only a "diversion", to be turned into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself.
Lee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield. Though Lee personally reconnoitered his left during the morning, he did not visit Longstreet's position on the Confederate right. Even so, Lee rejected suggestions that Longstreet move beyond Meade's left and attack the Union flank, capturing the supply trains and effectively blocking Meade's escape route.
Lee did not issue orders for the attack until 11:00 a.m. |groupfn}} About noon, General Anderson's advancing troops were discovered by General Sickles's outpost guard and the Third Corps—upon which Longstreet's First Corps was to form—did not get into position until 1:00 pm.
Hood and McLaws, after their long march, were not yet in position and did not launch their attacks until just after 4:00p.m. and 5:00p.m., respectively.
Attacks on the Union left flank
As Longstreet's left division, under Major General Lafayette McLaws, advanced, they unexpectedly found Major General Daniel Sickles's III Corps directly in their path. Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge. Seeing ground better suited for artillery positions to the west—centered at the Sherfy farm's Peach Orchard—he violated orders and advanced his corps to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road, moving away from Cemetery Ridge. The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brigadier General Andrew A. Humphreys's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Major General David B. Birney's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively. The Confederate artillery was ordered to open fire at 3:00 pm. After failing to attend a meeting at this time of Meade's corps commanders, Meade rode to Sickles's position and demanded an explanation of the situation. Knowing a Confederate attack was imminent and a retreat would be endangered, Meade refused Sickles' offer to withdraw.
Meade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements: the entire V Corps, Brigadier General John C. Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. Hood's division moved more to the east than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road, attacking Devil's Den and Little Round Top. McLaws, coming in on Hood's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy's Peach Orchard. McLaws's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the "Valley of Death") before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, and Sickles's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson's division, coming from McLaws's left and starting forward around 6p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive.
As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil's Den, Colonel Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line. His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Law's brigade of Hood's division. Meade's chief engineer, Brigadier General Gouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine, ordered by Colonel Joshua L. Chamberlain and possibly led down the slope by Lieutenant Holman S. Melcher, was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Chamberlain into prominence after the war.Attacks on the Union right flank
breastworks on Culp's Hill in 1863]]
Ewell interpreted his orders as calling only for a cannonade.
Major General Edward "Allegheny" Johnson's division had contemplated an assault on Culp's Hill, but they were still a mile away and had Rock Creek to cross. The few possible crossings would make significant delays. Because of this, only three of Johnson's four brigades moved to the attack.
Early was similarly unprepared when he ordered Harry T. Hays's and Isaac E. Avery's brigades to attack the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill. Once started, fighting was fierce: Colonel Andrew L. Harris of the Union 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, XI Corps came under a withering attack, losing half his men. Avery was wounded early on, but the Confederates reached the crest of the hill and entered the Union breastworks, capturing one or two batteries. Seeing he was not supported on his right, Hays withdrew. His right was to be supported by Robert E. Rodes's division, but Rodes—like Early and Johnson—had not been ordered up in preparation for the attack. He had twice as far to travel as Early; by the time he came in contact with the Union skirmish line, Early's troops had already begun to withdraw.
Jeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day's battle. Brigadier General Wade Hampton's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23-year-old Brigadier General George Armstrong Custer's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg.
Third day of battle
Lee's plan
of the Battle of Gettysburg, fought on July 3, 1863]]
Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the Union left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill. However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that, after some seven hours of bitter combat, "the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before".
Lee was forced to change his plans. Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the Union II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the Union positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line.
In his memoir, Longstreet states that he told Lee that there were not enough men to assault the strong left center of the Union line by McLaws's and Hood's divisions reinforced by Pickett's brigades. Longstreet thought the attack would be repulsed and a counterattack would put Union forces between the Confederates and the Potomac River. Longstreet wrote that he said it would take a minimum of thirty thousand men to attack successfully as well as close coordination with other Confederate forces. He noted that only about thirteen thousand men were left in the selected divisions after the first two days of fighting. They would have to walk a mile under heavy artillery and long-range musketry fire. Longstreet states that he further asked Lee: "the strength of the column. He [Lee] stated fifteen thousand. Opinion was then expressed [by Longstreet] that the fifteen thousand men who could make successful assault over that field had never been arrayed for battle; but he was impatient of listening, and tired of talking, and nothing was left but to proceed."Largest artillery bombardment of the war
with the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry Monument commemorating the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment (on right) and The Angle (on left) in August 2005]]
on the Gettysburg Battlefield]]
Around 1p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war. To save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery, under the command of Brigadier General Henry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 Union cannons opened fire. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position.
Pickett's Charge
Around 3p.m., the cannon fire subsided, and between 10,500 and 12,500 Confederate soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge. Pickett's division role in leading the attack has led to the attack to be known as Pickett's Charge.
As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and the Little Round Top area, and musket and canister fire from Hancock's II Corps. In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment (to save it for the infantry assault, which Meade had correctly predicted the day before), leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out. However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results.
Although the Union line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called The Angle in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repelled. The farthest advance, by Brigadier General Lewis A. Armistead's brigade of Pickett's division at the Angle, is referred to as the "high-water mark of the Confederacy". Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand-to-hand combat, attacking with their rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands. Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops, but discovered that there was no ammunition left, the last double canister shots having been used against the charging Confederates. Armistead was mortally wounded shortly afterward. Nearly one half of the Confederate attackers did not return to their own lines. Pickett's division lost about two-thirds of its men, and all three brigadiers were killed or wounded. The site of this engagement is now known as the East Cavalry Field. The second engagement was a loss for Union cavalry attacking Confederate infantry. It has been labeled as a "fiasco", and featured faulty cavalry tactics. The site of this engagement is now known as the South Cavalry Field.
Northeast of Gettysburg
Stuart's cavalry division (three brigades), with the assistance of Jenkins' brigade, was sent to guard the Confederate left flank. Stuart was also in position to exploit any success the Confederate infantry (Pickett's Charge) might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the Union right and getting behind Union infantry facing the Confederate attack. The cavalry fight took place about northeast of Gettysburg at about 3:00pm—around the end of the Confederate artillery barrage that preceded Pickett's charge. Stuart's forces collided with Union cavalry: Brigadier General David McMurtrie Gregg's division and Custer's brigade from Kilpatrick's division. The fight evolved into "a wild melee of swinging sabers and blazing pistols and carbines". One of Custer's regiments, the 5th Michigan Cavalry Regiment, was armed with Spencer repeating rifles, and at least two companies from an additional regiment were also armed with repeaters. The fight ended in a standoff, as neither side changed positions. However, Gregg and Custer prevented Stuart from gaining the rear of Union infantry facing Pickett. Brigadier General Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders. Farnsworth was killed in the fourth of five unsuccessful attacks, and his brigade suffered significant losses. Although Kilpatrick was described by at least one Union leader as "brave, enterprising, and energetic", incidents such as Farnsworth's charge earned him the nickname of "Kill Cavalry".
Aftermath
Casualties
'', a photo of dead Union army soldiers on the Gettysburg Battlefield, which was taken by Timothy H. O'Sullivan on either July 5 or July 6, 1863]]
in July 2003]]
, a War of 1812 veteran, who fought with the Union army during the Battle of Gettysburg as a civilian]]
The two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties. Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing), while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate. Many authors have referred to as many as 28,000 Confederate casualties, and Busey and Martin's more recent 2005 work, Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg, documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing). The casualties for both sides for the 6-week campaign, according to Sears, were 57,225.
In addition to being the deadliest battle of the war, Gettysburg also had the most generals killed in action. Several generals also were wounded. The Confederacy lost generals Paul Jones Semmes, William Barksdale, William Dorsey Pender, Richard Garnett, and Lewis Armistead, as well as J. Johnston Pettigrew during the retreat after the battle. Confederate generals who were wounded included Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood who lost the use of his left arm and Maj. Gen. Henry Heth who received a shot to the head on the first day of battle (though incapacitated for the rest of the battle, he remarkably survived without long-term injuries, credited in part due to his hat stuffed full of paper dispatches). Confederate generals James L. Kemper and Isaac R. Trimble were severely wounded during Pickett's charge and captured during the Confederate retreat. Confederate Brig. Gen. James J. Archer, in command of a brigade that most likely was responsible for killing Reynolds, was taken prisoner shortly after Reynolds' death. In the Confederate 1st Corps, eight of Longstreet's fourteen division and brigade commanders were killed or wounded, including Brig. Gen. George T. Anderson and Brig. Gen. Jerome B. Robertson, who were wounded. In Ewell's 2nd Corps, Brig. Gen. Isaac E. Avery was mortally wounded and Brig. Gen. John M. Jones was wounded. In Hill's 3rd Corps, in addition to Pender and Pettigrew being killed, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth and Col. Birkett D. Fry (later brigadier general), in temporary brigade command were wounded. In Hill's 3rd Corp, Brig. Gen. Alfred M. Scales and Col. William L. J. Lowrance, in temporary brigade command, were wounded. In the Confederate Cavalry Division, Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton and Brig. Gen. Albert G. Jenkins were wounded.
Union generals killed were John Reynolds, Samuel K. Zook, and Stephen H. Weed, as well as Elon J. Farnsworth, assigned as brigadier general by Maj. Gen. Pleasanton based on his nomination although his promotion was confirmed posthumously, and Strong Vincent, who after being mortally wounded was given a deathbed promotion to brigadier general. Additional senior officer casualties included the wounding of Union Generals Dan Sickles (lost a leg), Francis C. Barlow, Daniel Butterfield, and Winfield Scott Hancock. Five of seven brigade commanders in Reynolds's First Corps were wounded. In addition to Hancock and Brig. Gen. John Gibbon being wounded in the Second Corps, three of ten brigade commanders were killed and three were wounded.
The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three-day battle, according to Busey and Martin.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Union corps !! Casualties (k/w/m)
|-
| I Corps || 6059 (666/3231/2162)
|-
| II Corps || 4369 (797/3194/378)
|-
| III Corps || 4211 (593/3029/589)
|-
| V Corps || 2187 (365/1611/211)
|-
| VI Corps || 242 (27/185/30)
|-
| XI Corps || 3801 (369/1922/1510)
|-
| XII Corps || 1082 (204/812/66)
|-
| Cavalry Corps || 852 (91/354/407)
|-
| Artillery Reserve || 242 (43/187/12)
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Confederate corps !! Casualties (k/w/m)
|-
| First Corps || 7665 (1617/4205/1843)
|-
| Second Corps || 6686 (1301/3629/1756)
|-
| Third Corps || 8495 (1724/4683/2088)
|-
| Cavalry Corps || 380 (66/174/140)
|}
Bruce Catton wrote, "The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe." But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle: Ginnie Wade (also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread. Another notable civilian casualty was John L. Burns, a 69-year-old veteran of the War of 1812 who walked to the front lines on the first day of battle and participated in heavy combat as a volunteer, receiving numerous wounds in the process. Though aged and injured, Burns survived the battle and lived until 1872. Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. More than 3,000 horse carcasses were burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench. Meanwhile, the town of Gettysburg, with its population of just 2,400, found itself tasked with taking care of 14,000 wounded Union troops and an additional 8,000 Confederate prisoners.
Confederates lost over 31–55 battle flags, with the Union possibly having lost slightly fewer than 40. The Confederate battle flags were sent to Washington.
3,000–5,000 horses were killed.Confederate retreat
of the American Civil War, which lasted from July 5, 1863 until July 14, 1863]]
On the morning of July 4, with Lee's army still present, Meade ordered his cavalry to get to the rear of Lee's army. In a heavy rain, the armies stared at one another across the bloody fields, on the same day that, some away, the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Major General Ulysses S. Grant. Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg. The Confederates remained on the battlefield's west side, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized. Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead. A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade.
Late in the rainy afternoon, Lee started moving the non-fighting portion of his army back to Virginia. Cavalry under Brigadier General John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the seventeen-mile long wagon train of supplies and wounded men, using a long route through Cashtown and Greencastle to Williamsport, Maryland. After sunset, the fighting portion of Lee's army began its retreat to Virginia using a more direct (but more mountainous) route that began on the road to Fairfield. Although Lee knew exactly what he needed to do, Meade's situation was different. Meade needed to remain at Gettysburg until he was certain Lee was gone. If Meade left first, he could possibly leave an opening for Lee to get to Washington or Baltimore. In addition, the army that left the battlefield first was often considered the defeated army.
Union cavalry had some minor successes pursuing Lee's army. The first major encounter took place in the mountains at Monterey Pass on July4, where Kilpatrick's cavalry division captured 150 to 300 wagons and took 1,300 to 1,500 prisoners. Beginning July 6, additional cavalry fighting took place closer to the Potomac River in Maryland's Williamsport-Hagerstown area. Lee's army was trapped and delayed from crossing the Potomac River because rainy weather had caused the river to swell, and the pontoon bridge at Falling Waters had been destroyed. downstream.|groupfn}} Meade's infantry did not fully pursue Lee until July7, and despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, was not aggressive enough to destroy Lee's army. A new pontoon bridge was constructed at Falling Waters, and lower water levels allowed the Confederates to begin crossing after dark on July13. Although Meade's infantry had reached the area on July 12, it was his cavalry that attacked the Confederate rear guard on the morning of July14. Union cavalry took 500 prisoners, and Confederate Brigadier General Pettigrew was mortally wounded, but Lee's army completed its Potomac crossing. The campaign continued south of the Potomac until the Battle of Manassas Gap on July23, when Lee escaped and Meade abandoned the pursuit.
Union reaction to the news of the victory
The news of the Union victory electrified the North. A headline in The Philadelphia Inquirer proclaimed, "Victory! Waterloo Eclipsed!" New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote:
Union enthusiasm soon dissipated, however, as the public realized that Lee's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue. Lincoln complained to Gideon Welles, his Secretary of the Navy, that "Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it!" Brigadier General Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as "Chase, Seward and others", disgusted with Meade, "write to me that Lee really won that Battle!"
Effect on the Confederacy
In fact, the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically. During the final hours of the battle, Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk, Virginia, under a flag of truce. Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures. Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee's victorious army was marching toward it from the north. President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens's request to pass through the lines. Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned. Henry Adams, whose father was serving as the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom at the time, wrote, "The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success. It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end."
Compounding the effects of the defeat was the end of the Siege of Vicksburg, which surrendered to Grant's Federal armies in the West on July 4, the day after the Gettysburg battle, costing the Confederacy an additional 30,000 men, along with all their arms and stores.
The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster. The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2–3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled. The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them. The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully. Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year. Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned "rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac". He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, "Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months that that army will be as quiet as a sucking dove." Some Southern publications, such as the Charleston Mercury, were critical of Lee's actions. On August 8, Lee offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it.
Gettysburg Address
Abraham Lincoln arrived at present-day Gettysburg National Cemetery, where he participated in its commemoration and delivered the Gettysburg Address, a 271-word speech that lasted only two minutes but has come to considered one of the most famous speeches in American history A crowd of citizens and soldiers surround Lincoln (with a red arrow pointing to his location in photo).]]
The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, Soldiers' National Cemetery, later renamed Gettysburg National Cemetery, was dedicated. During this ceremony, Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address, a 271-word address that is widely considered one of the most famous and significant speeches in American history.Medal of Honor
There were 72 Medals of Honor awarded for the Gettysburg Campaign, 64 of which were for actions taken during the battle itself. The first recipient was awarded in December 1864, while the most recent was posthumously awarded to Lieutenant Alonzo Cushing in 2014.Historical assessmentDecisive victory controversies The nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy. Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the "turning point", usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day.
It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union, but the term is considered imprecise. It is inarguable that Lee's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met). However, when the more common definition of "decisive victory" is intended—an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict—historians are divided. For example, David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a "strategic loss for the Confederacy" and James M. McPherson wrote that "Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels. But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863."
However, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the "strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited." Steven E. Woodworth wrote that "Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater." Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that "after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task. The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864." Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that "Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion," yet after Gettysburg, "without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia [remained] an extremely formidable force." Ed Bearss wrote, "Lee's invasion of the North had been a costly failure. Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ..." Historian Alan Guelzo notes that Gettysburg and Vicksburg did not end the war and that the war would go on for two more years. He also noted that a little more than a year later Federal armies appeared hopelessly mired in sieges at Petersburg and Atlanta.
Peter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the "horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee's offensive capacity," implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle. Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army's Military Review journal on the definition of "decisive" and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: "For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label 'decisive battle'." The military historian John Keegan agrees. Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed. The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy. If "not exactly a decisive battle", Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant's Overland Campaign.Lee vs. Meade
, the victorious Union army general who led Union troops in repelling Confederate troops, led by Robert E. Lee, in the Battle of Gettysburg]]
Prior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers—although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army—during the Seven Days, the Northern Virginia Campaign (including the Second Battle of Bull Run), Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. Only the Maryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful. Therefore, historians such as Fuller, Glatthaar, and Sears have attempted to explain how Lee's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg. Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee's loss arguably can be attributed to: his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; his failing health; and, the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac.
Throughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1. Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army. War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee "acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable. If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into." Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, "No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public—I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor."
, the Confederate general, whose attempt to penetrate the North was repelled by Union army troops in the Battle of Gettysburg in what proved the bloodiest battle in both the Civil War and any battle in American history]]
The most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee's subordinates. The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings. Two of his corps commanders—Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill—had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders. All four of Lee's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle:
* James Longstreet suffered most severely from the wrath of the Lost Cause authors, not the least because he directly criticized Lee in postbellum writings and became a Republican after the war. His critics accuse him of attacking much later than Lee intended on July 2, squandering a chance to hit the Union Army before its defensive positions had firmed up. They also question his lack of motivation to attack strongly on July 2 and 3 because he had argued that the army should have maneuvered to a place where it would force Meade to attack them. The alternative view is that Lee was in close contact with Longstreet during the battle, agreed to delays on the morning of July 2, and never criticized Longstreet's performance. (There is also considerable speculation about what an attack might have looked like before Dan Sickles moved the III Corps toward the Peach Orchard.)
* J.E.B. Stuart deprived Lee of cavalry intelligence during a good part of the campaign by taking his three best brigades on a path away from the army's. This arguably led to Lee's surprise at Hooker's vigorous pursuit; the engagement on July 1 that escalated into the full battle prematurely; and it also prevented Lee from understanding the full disposition of the enemy on July 2. The disagreements regarding Stuart's culpability for the situation originate in the relatively vague orders issued by Lee, but most modern historians agree that both generals were responsible to some extent for the failure of the cavalry's mission early in the campaign.
* Richard S. Ewell has been universally criticized for failing to seize the high ground on the afternoon of July 1. Once again the disagreement centers on Lee's orders, which provided general guidance for Ewell to act "if practicable". Many historians speculate that Stonewall Jackson, if he had survived Chancellorsville, would have aggressively seized Culp's Hill, rendering Cemetery Hill indefensible, and changing the entire complexion of the battle. A differently worded order from Lee might have made the difference with this subordinate.
* A.P. Hill has received some criticism for his ineffective performance. His actions caused the battle to begin and then escalate on July 1, despite Lee's orders not to bring on a general engagement (although historians point out that Hill kept Lee well informed of his actions during the day). However, Hill's illness minimized his personal involvement in the remainder of the battle, and Lee took the explicit step of temporarily removing troops from Hill's corps and giving them to Longstreet for Pickett's Charge.
In addition to Hill's illness, Lee's performance was affected by heart troubles, which would eventually lead to his death in 1870; he had been diagnosed with pericarditis by his staff physicians in March 1863, though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack. As a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory. Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks.
Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade "would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it." That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg. Stephen Sears wrote, "The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg." Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a "sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in [themselves]. The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle."
Meade had his own detractors as well. Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person. Supporters of his predecessor, Hooker, lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command. Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle. Most politicians, including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half-hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle. A number of Meade's most competent subordinates—Winfield S. Hancock, John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, and Henry J. Hunt, all heroes of the battle—defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience.
Battlefield preservation
Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks. Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields, it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation. Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development.
Some preservation successes have emerged in recent years. Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011, when public pressure forced the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board to reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30, near East Cavalry Field. The American Battlefield Trust, formerly the Civil War Trust, also successfully purchased and transferred at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2011.
Less than half of the over 11,500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far. The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved of the battlefield in more than 40 separate transactions from 1997 to mid-2023. Some of these acres are now among the of the Gettysburg National Military Park. In 2015, the Trust made one of its most important and expensive acquisitions, paying $6 million for a parcel that included the stone house that Confederate General Robert E. Lee used as his headquarters during the battle. The Trust razed a motel, restaurant and other buildings within the parcel to restore Lee's headquarters and the site to their wartime appearance, adding interpretive signs. It opened the site to the public in October 2016.In popular culture, a correspondent from London who was dispatched to cover the Civil War, sketching the Battle of Gettysburg for ''Harper's Weekly'' in July 1863]]
stamp commemorating the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, issued in 1963]]
At the 50th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1913), 50,000 veterans attended according to a 1938 Army Medical report. Historian Carol Reardon writes that attendance included at least 35,000 Union veterans and though estimates of attendees ran as high as 56,000, only a few more than 7,000 Confederate veterans, most from Virginia and North Carolina, attended. Some veterans re-enacted Pickett's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation, a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides. There was a ceremonial mass hand-shake across a stone wall on Cemetery Ridge.
At the 75th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1938), 1,333 Union veterans and 479 Confederate veterans attended.
Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions, held on the battlefield, in 1913, and 1938.
During the Civil War Centennial, the U.S. Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles. The American Civil War Centennial was the official United States commemoration of the American Civil War. Commemoration activities began in 1957, four years before the 100th anniversary of the war's first battle, and ended in 1965 with the 100th anniversary of the surrender at Appomattox. The United States Civil War Centennial Commission and state commissions were established to organize the commemorations. The National Park Service, and other federal agencies that controlled key Civil War battlefields, used the Centennial to successfully lobby Congress for increased funding to re-landscape and interpret these battlefields for the general public. The Post Office issued a series of noncontroversial commemorative stamps to mark the centennial.
The children's novel Window of Time (1991), by Karen Weinberg, tells the story of a boy transported by time travel from the 1980s to the Battle of Gettysburg.
The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film Gettysburg, based on Michael Shaara's 1974 novel The Killer Angels. The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle. The first day focused on Buford's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain's defense at Little Round Top, and the third day on Pickett's Charge.See also
* Gettysburg Cyclorama, a painting by the French artist Paul Philippoteaux depicting Pickett's Charge
* List of costliest American Civil War land battles
* Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863
Notes
CitationsReferences
* Bearss, Edwin C. Fields of Honor: Pivotal Battles of the Civil War. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2006. .
* Bearss, Edwin C. Receding Tide: Vicksburg and Gettysburg: The Campaigns That Changed the Civil War. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2010. .
* Busey, John W., and David G. Martin. Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg, 4th ed. Hightstown, NJ: Longstreet House, 2005. .
* Carmichael, Peter S., ed. Audacity Personified: The Generalship of Robert E. Lee. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004. .
* Catton, Bruce. Glory Road. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1952. .
* Clark, Champ, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. Gettysburg: The Confederate High Tide. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1985. .
* Coddington, Edwin B. The Gettysburg Campaign: A Study in Command. New York: Scribner's, 1968. .
* Cook, Robert J. Troubled Commemoration: The American Civil War Centennial, 1961–1965. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2007. .
* Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. .
* Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
* Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the [https://archive.today/20121215152320/http://www.dean.usma.edu/departments/history/Atlases/AmericanCivilWar/AmericanCivilWar.html West Point website].
* Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 2, Fredericksburg to Meridian. New York: Random House, 1958. .
* Fuller, Major General J. F. C. Grant and Lee: A Study in Personality and Generalship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957. .
* Gallagher, Gary W. Lee and His Army in Confederate History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. .
* Gallagher, Gary W. Lee and His Generals in War and Memory. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998. .
* Gallagher, Gary W., ed. Three Days at Gettysburg: Essays on Confederate and Union Leadership. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999. .
* Glatthaar, Joseph T. ''General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse. New York: Free Press, 2008. .
* Gottfried, Bradley M. Brigades of Gettysburg: The Union and Confederate Brigades at the Battle of Gettysburg. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2002.
* Guelzo, Allen C. Gettysburg: The Last Invasion. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2013. .
* Guelzo, Allen C. Voices from Gettysburg: Letters, Papers, and Memoirs from the Greatest Battle of the Civil War. New York: Citadel Press, 2024.
* Harman, Troy D. Lee's Real Plan at Gettysburg. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003. .
* Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. .
* Hoptak, John David. Confrontation at Gettysburg: A Nation Saved, a Cause Lost. Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2012. .
* Keegan, John. The American Civil War: A Military History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009. .
* Longacre, Edward G. The Cavalry at Gettysburg. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986. .
* Longacre, Edward G. General John Buford: A Military Biography. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1995. .
* McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .
* Martin, David G. Gettysburg July 1. rev. ed. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1996. .
* Murray, Williamson and Wayne Wei-siang Hsieh. "A Savage War:A Military History of the Civil War". Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016. .
* Nye, Wilbur S. Here Come the Rebels! Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1984. . First published in 1965 by Louisiana State University Press.
* Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg – The First Day. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. .
* Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg – The Second Day. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987. .
* Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg: Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993. .
*
* Sauers, Richard A. "Battle of Gettysburg." In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .
* Sears, Stephen W. Gettysburg. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003. .
* Starr, Stephen Z. The Union Cavalry in the Civil War: From Fort Sumter to Gettysburg, 1861–1863. Volume 1. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007. Originally Published in 1979. .
* Stewart, George R. Pickett's Charge: A Microhistory of the Final Attack at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1959. Revised in 1963. .
* Symonds, Craig L. American Heritage History of the Battle of Gettysburg. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. .
* Tagg, Larry. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141022014655/http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/ The Generals of Gettysburg]. Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing, 1998. .
* Trudeau, Noah Andre. Gettysburg: A Testing of Courage. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. .
* Tucker, Glenn. High Tide at Gettysburg. Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1983. . First published 1958 by Bobbs-Merrill Co.
* Walsh, George. Damage Them All You Can: Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. New York: Tom Doherty Associates, 2003. .
* Wert, Jeffry D. Gettysburg: Day Three. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
* White, Ronald C., Jr. The Eloquent President: A Portrait of Lincoln Through His Words. New York: Random House, 2005. .
* Wittenberg, Eric J. The Devil's to Pay: John Buford at Gettysburg: A History and Walking Tour. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2014, 2015, 2018. .
* Wittenberg, Eric J., J. David Petruzzi, and Michael F. Nugent. One Continuous Fight: The Retreat from Gettysburg and the Pursuit of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, July 4–14, 1863. New York: Savas Beatie, 2008. .
* Woodworth, Steven E. Beneath a Northern Sky: A Short History of the Gettysburg Campaign. Wilmington, DE: SR Books (scholarly Resources, Inc.), 2003. .
* Wynstra, Robert J. At the Forefront of Lee's Invasion: Retribution, Plunder and Clashing Cultures on Richard S. Ewell's Road to Gettysburg''. Kent. OH: The Kent State University Press, 2018. .
Memoirs and primary sources
* Paris, Louis-Philippe-Albert d'Orléans. [https://books.google.com/books?id=woP8IV7zHGwC The Battle of Gettysburg: A History of the Civil War in America]. Digital Scanning, Inc., 1999. . First published 1869 by Germer Baillière.
* New York (State), William F. Fox, and Daniel Edgar Sickles. [https://archive.org/details/finalreportongettys01burgrich New York at Gettysburg: Final Report on the Battlefield of Gettysburg]. Albany, NY: J.B. Lyon Company, Printers, 1900. .
* U.S. War Department, [http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/m/moawar/waro.html The War of the Rebellion]: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.
Further reading
* Adkin, Mark. ''The Gettysburg Companion: The Complete Guide to America's Most Famous Battle. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2008. .
* Bachelder, John B. The Bachelder Papers: Gettysburg in Their Own Words. Edited by David L. Ladd and Audrey J. Ladd. 3 vols. Dayton, OH: Morningside Press, 1994. .
* Bachelder, John B. [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3111589 Gettysburg: What to See, and How to See It: Embodying Full Information for Visiting the Field]. Boston: Bachelder, 1873. .
* Ballard, Ted, and Billy Arthur. [http://www.history.army.mil/StaffRide/Gettysburg/gettysburg_2010.pdf Gettysburg Staff Ride Briefing Book] . Carlisle, PA: United States Army Center of Military History, 1999. .
* Boritt, Gabor S., ed. The Gettysburg Nobody Knows. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. .
* Desjardin, Thomas A. These Honored Dead: How the Story of Gettysburg Shaped American Memory. New York: Da Capo Press, 2003. .
* Frassanito, William A. Early Photography at Gettysburg. Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1995. .
* Lyon Fremantle, Arthur J. The Fremantle Diary: A Journal of the Confederacy. Edited by Walter Lord. Short Hills, NJ: Burford Books, 2002. . First published 1954 by Capricorn Books.
* Gottfried, Bradley M. The Maps of Gettysburg: An Atlas of the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3–13, 1863. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. .
* Grimsley, Mark, and Brooks D. Simpson. Gettysburg: A Battlefield Guide. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. .
* Hall, Jeffrey C. The Stand of the U.S. Army at Gettysburg. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. .
* Haskell, Frank Aretas. The Battle of Gettysburg. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2006. .
* Hawthorne, Frederick W. Gettysburg: Stories of Men and Monuments. Gettysburg, PA: Association of Licensed Battlefield Guides, 1988. .
* Huntington, Tom. Pennsylvania Civil War Trails: The Guide to Battle Sites, Monuments, Museums and Towns. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2007. .
* Laino, Philip, Gettysburg Campaign Atlas, 2nd ed. Dayton, OH: Gatehouse Press 2009. .
* McMurry, Richard M. "The Pennsylvania Gambit and the Gettysburg Splash". In The Gettysburg Nobody Knows, edited by Gabor Boritt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. .
* McPherson, James M. Hallowed Ground: A Walk at Gettysburg. New York: Crown Publishers, 2003. .
* Petruzzi, J. David, and Steven Stanley. The Complete Gettysburg Guide. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009. .
* Rhodes, James Ford. "The Battle of Gettysburg." American Historical Review 4#4 1899, pp. 665–677. [https://jstor.org/stable/1833783 online]
* Stackpole, General Edward J. They Met at Gettysburg''. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1956, .
External links
* [https://www.battlefields.org/battlefields/gettysburg.html Battle of Gettysburg]: [https://www.battlefields.org/battlefields/gettysburg/maps/gettysburg-devils-den-and.html Battle Maps], histories, photos, and preservation news (American Battlefield Trust)
* [https://www.battlefields.org/battlefields/gettysburg/maps/gettysburg-animated-map/ Animated map of the Battle of Gettysburg] (American Battlefield Trust)
* [http://www.nps.gov/gett/ Gettysburg National Military Park (National Park Service)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120304063040/http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/gett/gettysburg_seminars/index.htm Papers of the Gettysburg National Military Park seminars]
* [http://www.army.mil/gettysburg U.S. Army's Interactive Battle of Gettysburg with Narratives]
* [http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/gettysburg/ Military History Online: The Battle of Gettysburg]
* [http://www.civilwarhome.com/gettysbu.html Official Records: The Battle of Gettysburg]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040926103045/http://brotherswar.com/ The Brothers War: The Battle of Gettysburg]
* [http://www.gdg.org/ Gettysburg Discussion Group archives]
* [http://www.bklyn-genealogy-info.com/Military/ConfederateGenerals.html List of 53 Confederate generals at Gettysburg]
* [https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Gettysburg Encyclopædia Britannica: Battle of Gettysburg]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110513133710/http://www.nps.gov/history/hps/abpp/battles/pa002.htm National Park Service battle description]
*
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Battle of Gettysburg
Category:Battles of the American Civil War in Pennsylvania
Category:Battles of the Gettysburg campaign
Category:Conflicts in 1863
Battle of Gettysburg
Battle of Gettysburg
Battle of Gettysburg
Battle of Gettysburg
Category:Union victories of the American Civil War
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Budweiser
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<br>St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.
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Budweiser () is an American-style pale lager, a brand of Belgian company AB InBev. Introduced in 1876 by Carl Conrad & Co. of St. Louis, Missouri, Budweiser has become a large selling beer company in the United States. Budweiser is a filtered beer, available on draft and in bottles and cans, made with up to 30% rice in addition to hops and barley malt.
There is an ongoing series of trademark disputes between Anheuser-Busch and the Czech company Budweiser Budvar Brewery over the use of the name. Usually, either Anheuser-Busch or Budweiser Budvar is granted the exclusive use of the Budweiser name in a given market. The Anheuser-Busch lager is available in over 80 countries, but is marketed as "Bud" in areas where Budvar has use of the Budweiser name.
Name origin and dispute
as "Bud" (left). At right is a bottle of Czech Budweiser.]]
The name Budweiser is a German derivative adjective, meaning "of Budweis". Beer has been brewed in Budweis, Bohemia (now České Budějovice, Czech Republic) since it was founded in 1265. In 1876, Adolphus Busch and his friend Carl Conrad developed a "Bohemian-style" lager in the United States, inspired after a trip to Bohemia, and produced it in their brewery in St. Louis, Missouri.
Anheuser–Busch has been involved in multiple trademark disputes with the Budweiser Budvar Brewery of České Budějovice over the trademark rights to the name "Budweiser".
In the European Union, except Ireland, Sweden, Finland and Spain, the American beer may only be marketed as Bud, as the Budweiser trademark name is owned solely by the Czech beer maker Budweiser Budvar. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, both the Budvar and Anheuser–Busch lagers are available under the Budweiser name, though their logos differ.
Marketing
The Budweiser from Budějovice has been called "The Beer of Kings" since the 16th century. Adolphus Busch adapted this slogan to "The King of Beers." This history notwithstanding, Anheuser Busch owns the trademark to these slogans in the United States.
In 1969 AB introduced the Superman-esque advertising character of Bud Man. Bud Man served as one of the inspiration behind several characters including ''The Simpsons's'' Duffman.
From 1987 to 1989, Bud Light ran an advertising campaign centered around canine mascot Spuds MacKenzie.
In 2010, the Bud Light brand paid $1 billion for a six-year licensing agreement with the NFL. Budweiser pays $20 million annually for MLB licensing rights. lizards impersonating the Budweiser frogs, a campaign built around the phrase "Whassup?", and a team of Clydesdale horses commonly known as the Budweiser Clydesdales.
's No. 8 Budweiser-sponsored car in 2007]]
Budweiser also advertises in motorsports, from Bernie Little's Miss Budweiser hydroplane boat to sponsorship of the Budweiser King Top Fuel Dragster driven by Brandon Bernstein. Anheuser-Busch has sponsored the CART championship. It is the "Official Beer of NHRA" and it was the "Official Beer of NASCAR" from 1998 to 2007. It has sponsored motorsport events such as the Daytona Speedweeks, Budweiser Shootout, Budweiser Duel, Budweiser Pole Award, Budweiser 500, Budweiser 400, Budweiser 300, Budweiser 250, Budweiser 200, and Carolina Pride / Budweiser 200. However, starting in 2016, the focus of A-B's NASCAR sponsorship became its Busch brand.
Budweiser has sponsored NASCAR teams such as Junior Johnson, Hendrick Motorsports, DEI, and Stewart-Haas Racing. Sponsored drivers include Dale Earnhardt Jr. (1999–2007), Kasey Kahne (2008–2010), and Kevin Harvick (2011–2015). In IndyCar, Budweiser sponsored Mario Andretti (1983–1984), Bobby Rahal (1985–1988), Scott Pruett (1989–1992), Roberto Guerrero (1993), Scott Goodyear (1994), Paul Tracy (1995), Christian Fittipaldi (1996–1997), and Richie Hearn (1998–1999).
Between 2003 and 2006, Budweiser was a sponsor of the BMW Williams Formula One team.
Anheuser-Busch has placed Budweiser as an official partner and sponsor of Major League Soccer and Los Angeles Galaxy and was the headline sponsor of the British Basketball League in the 1990s. Anheuser-Busch has also placed Budweiser as an official sponsor of the Premier League and the presenting sponsor of the FA Cup.
In the early 20th century, the company commissioned a play-on-words song called "Under the Anheuser Bush," which was recorded by several early phonograph companies.
In 2009, Anheuser-Busch partnered with popular Chinese video-sharing site Tudou.com for a user-generated online video contest. The contest encouraged users to submit ideas that included ants for a Bud TV spot set to run in February 2010 during Chinese New Year.
In 2010, Budweiser produced an online reality TV series centered around the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa called Bud House, following the lives of 32 international soccer fans (one representing each nation in the World Cup) living together in a house in South Africa.
Anheuser-Busch advertises the Budweiser brand heavily, expending $449 million in 2012 in the United States alone. Presenting Budweiser as the most advertised drink brand in America,
On November 5, 2012, Anheuser-Busch asked Paramount Pictures to obscure or remove the Budweiser logo from the film Flight (2012), directed by Robert Zemeckis and starring Denzel Washington.
In an advertisement titled "Brewed the Hard Way" which aired during Super Bowl XLIX, Budweiser touted itself as "Proudly A Macro Beer", distinguishing it from smaller production craft beers.
In 2016, Beer Park by Budweiser opened on the Las Vegas Strip.
On October 7, 2016, the Budweiser Clydesdales made a special appearance on the Danforth Campus at Washington University in St. Louis ahead of the presidential debate. A special batch beer named Lilly's Lager was exclusively brewed for the occasion.
In December 2020, Budweiser sent personalized bottles of beer to every goalkeeper who Lionel Messi had scored against.
Containers and packaging
headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri]]
Containers
Budweiser has been distributed in many sizes and variety of containers. Until the early 1950s, Budweiser was primarily distributed in three packages: kegs, bottles and bottles. Cans were first introduced in 1936. In 1955 August Busch Jr. made a strategic move to expand Budweiser's national brand and distributor presence. Along with this expansion came advances in bottling automation, bottling materials and distribution methods. These advances brought new containers and package designs. Budweiser is distributed in four large container volumes: half-barrel kegs (), quarter-barrel kegs (), 1/6 barrel kegs () and "beer balls". Budweiser produces a variety of cans and bottles ranging from . On August 3, 2011, Anheuser-Busch announced its twelfth can design since 1936, one which emphasizes the bowtie.
Packages are sometimes tailored to local customs and traditions. In St. Mary's County, Maryland, fluid ounce cans are the preferred package.
Cans
In an attempt to re-stimulate interest in their beer after the repeal of Prohibition, Budweiser began canning their beer in 1936. This new packaging led to an increase in sales which lasted until the start of World War II in 1939.
Over the years, Budweiser cans have undergone various design changes in response to market conditions and consumer tastes. Since 1936, 12 major can design changes have occurred, not including the temporary special edition designs.
Budweiser cans have traditionally displayed patriotic American symbols, such as eagles and the colors red, white, and blue. In 2011, there was a branding redesign that eliminated some of the traditional imagery. The new design was largely in response to a large decline in sales threatening Budweiser's status as America's best-selling beer. In order to regain the domestic market share that Budweiser had lost, the company tried to update its appearance by giving the can a more contemporary look. The company hoped that the new design will offset the effects that unemployment had on its sales. Although the more modern design was intended for young male Americans, the new design was also part of an attempt to focus on the international market. It is lagered with beechwood chips in the aging vessel. Because the beechwood chips are boiled in sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) for seven hours beforehand, there is little to no flavor contribution from the wood.
The maturation tanks that Anheuser-Busch uses are horizontal, causing flocculation of yeast to occur much more quickly. Anheuser-Busch refers to this process as a secondary fermentation, with the idea being that the chips give the yeast more surface area to rest on. This is combined with a krausening procedure that re-introduces wort into the chip tank, reactivating the fermentation process.
Placing beechwood chips at the bottom of the tank keeps the yeast in suspension longer, giving it more time to reabsorb and process green beer flavors such as acetaldehyde and diacetyl that Anheuser-Busch believes are off-flavors which detract from overall drinkability.
Budweiser and Bud Light are sometimes advertised as vegan beers, in that their ingredients and conditioning do not use animal by-products. Some people object to the inclusion of genetically engineered rice and animal products used in the brewing process. In July 2006, Anheuser-Busch brewed a version of Budweiser with organic rice for sale in Mexico. It has yet to extend this practice to any other countries.
Budweiser brands
In addition to the regular Budweiser, Anheuser-Busch brews several different beers under the Budweiser brand, including Bud Light, Bud Ice, and Bud Light Lime.
In July 2010, Anheuser-Busch launched Budweiser 66 in the United Kingdom. Budweiser Brew No.66 has 4% alcohol by volume, and is brewed and distributed in the UK by Inbev UK Limited.
In 2020, Budweiser introduced Bud Light Seltzer. In August 2020, Bud Light Seltzers added grapefruit, cranberry and pineapple flavors, to its original offerings of black cherry, mango, lemon lime and strawberry. In October 2020, Bud Light Seltzers added Apple Crisp, Peppermint Pattie, and Gingersnap, with the cans sporting "ugly sweater" designs.
In July 2020, Budweiser introduced Bud Zero, its first alcohol-free low-calorie beer. It has zero sugar, zero alcohol, and 50 calories.
Temporary "America" labeling
On May 10, 2016, Advertising Age reported that the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau had approved new Budweiser labels to be used on 12-ounce cans and bottles from May 23 until the November elections. The name "Budweiser" was changed to "America". Much of the text on the packaging was replaced with patriotic American slogans, such as E pluribus unum and "Liberty & Justice For All".International productionBudweiser is licensed, produced and distributed in Canada by Labatt Brewing Company (also owned by AB InBev). Of the 15 Anheuser-Busch breweries outside of the United States, 14 of them are positioned in China. Budweiser is the fourth leading brand in the Chinese beer market.See also
* Beer Wars (2009), documentary film about the American beer industry
* Ulterior Emotions (2002) – an album released by Anheuser Busch as part of their "Bud Light Institute" campaign
References
External links
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100131003835/http://www.budbelgium.com/ Belgian official Budweiser website] (archived 31 January 2010)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200614235538/http://gogd.tjs-labs.com/gallery-view.php?product=budweiser Collection of mid-twentieth century advertising featuring Budweiser beer] from the TJS Labs Gallery of Graphic Design (archived 14 June 2020)
Category:AB InBev brands
Category:American beer brands
Category:1876 introductions
Category:1876 establishments in the United States
Category:Culture of St. Louis
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Bermuda Triangle
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The Bermuda Triangle, also known as the '''Devil's Triangle', is a loosely defined region in the North Atlantic Ocean, roughly bounded by Florida, Bermuda, and Puerto Rico. Since the mid-20th century, it has been the focus of an urban legend suggesting that many aircraft and ships have disappeared there under mysterious circumstances. However, extensive investigations by reputable sources, including the U.S. government and scientific organizations, have found no evidence of unusual activity, attributing reported incidents to natural phenomena, human error, and misinterpretation.
Two years later, Fate magazine published "Sea Mystery at Our Back Door", a short article by George X. Sand that was the first to lay out the now-familiar triangular area where the losses took place.}} the December 1945 loss of Flight 19, a group of five US Navy torpedo bombers on a training mission; the January 1948 disappearance of Star Tiger, a British South American Airways (BSAA) passenger airplane; the March 1948 disappearance of a fishing skiff with three men, including jockey Albert Snider; the December 1948 disappearance of an Airborne Transport DC-3 charter flight en route from Puerto Rico to Miami; and the January 1949 disappearance of Star Ariel, another BSAA passenger airplane.
Flight 19 was covered again in the April 1962 issue of The American Legion Magazine. In February 1964, Vincent Gaddis wrote an article called "The Deadly Bermuda Triangle" in Argosy saying Flight 19 and other disappearances were part of a pattern of strange events in the region, dating back to at least 1840. The next year, Gaddis expanded this article into a book, Invisible Horizons.
Other writers elaborated on Gaddis' ideas, including John Wallace Spencer (Limbo of the Lost, 1969, repr. 1973); Charles Berlitz (The Bermuda Triangle, 1974); and Richard Winer (''The Devil's Triangle'', 1974). Various of these authors incorporated supernatural elements.Triangle areaSand's article in Fate described the area as "a watery triangle bounded roughly by Florida, Bermuda and Puerto Rico". Some writers gave different boundaries and vertices to the triangle, with the total area varying from . Consequently, the determination of which accidents occurred inside the triangle depends on which writer reported them. argued that many claims of Gaddis and subsequent writers were exaggerated, dubious or unverifiable. Kusche's research revealed a number of inaccuracies and inconsistencies between Berlitz's accounts and statements from eyewitnesses, participants, and others involved in the initial incidents. Kusche noted cases where pertinent information went unreported, such as the disappearance of round-the-world yachtsman Donald Crowhurst, which Berlitz had presented as a mystery, despite clear evidence to the contrary. Another example was the ore-carrier recounted by Berlitz as lost without trace three days out of an Atlantic port when in fact it had been lost three days out of a port with the same name in the Pacific Ocean. Kusche also argued that a large percentage of the incidents that sparked allegations of the Triangle's mysterious influence actually occurred well outside it. Often his research was simple: he would review period newspapers of the dates of reported incidents and find reports on possibly relevant events, like unusual weather, that were never mentioned in the disappearance stories.
Kusche concluded:
* The number of ships and aircraft reported missing in the area was not significantly greater, proportionally speaking, than in any other part of the ocean.
* In an area frequented by tropical cyclones, the number of disappearances that did occur were, for the most part, neither disproportionate, unlikely, nor mysterious.
* Furthermore, Berlitz and other writers often failed to mention such storms and sometimes even represented the disappearance as having happened in calm conditions when meteorological records clearly contradict this.
* The numbers themselves had been exaggerated by sloppy research. A boat's disappearance, for example, would be reported, but its eventual (if belated) return to port may not have been.
* Some alleged disappearances were, in reality, not mysterious. Berlitz found that one plane believed to have disappeared in 1937 had, in fact, crashed off Daytona Beach, Florida, in front of hundreds of witnesses.
* The legend of the Bermuda Triangle is a manufactured mystery, perpetuated by writers who either purposely or unknowingly made use of misconceptions, faulty reasoning, and sensationalism. was being produced by John Simmons of Geofilms for the Equinox series, the marine insurance market Lloyd's of London was asked if an unusually large number of ships had sunk in the Bermuda Triangle area. Lloyd's determined that large numbers of ships had not sunk there. in contrast with one Triangle author's claim that all the bodies had vanished, with the exception of the captain, who was found sitting in his cabin at his desk, clutching a coffee cup.<!-- https://skepticalinquirer.org/s/?_sf_sTaves --> and Barry Singer, have noted how mysteries and the paranormal are very popular and profitable. This has led to the production of vast amounts of material on topics such as the Bermuda Triangle. They were able to show that some of the pro-paranormal material is often misleading or inaccurate, but its producers continue to market it. Accordingly, they have claimed that the market is biased in favor of books, TV specials, and other media that support the Triangle mystery, and against well-researched material if it espouses a skeptical viewpoint.
In a 2013 study, the World Wide Fund for Nature identified the world's 10 most dangerous waters for shipping, but the Bermuda Triangle was not among them.
Benjamin Radford, an author and scientific paranormal investigator, noted in an interview on the Bermuda Triangle that it could be very difficult to locate an aircraft lost at sea due to the vast search area, and although the disappearance might be mysterious, that did not make it paranormal or unexplainable. Radford further noted the importance of double-checking information as the mystery surrounding the Bermuda Triangle had been created by people who had neglected to do so.
NOAA attributes most Bermuda Triangle disappearances to environmental factors such as hurricanes, sudden weather shifts from the Gulf Stream, and hazardous shallow waters. The U.S. Navy dismisses supernatural claims, emphasizing natural causes and human error. Additionally, the U.S. Board on Geographic Names does not list the Bermuda Triangle as an official location, given the lack of evidence distinguishing it from other ocean regions. Hypothetical explanation attempts Persons accepting the Bermuda Triangle as a real phenomenon have offered a number of explanatory approaches.Paranormal explanationsTriangle writers have used a number of supernatural concepts to explain the events. One explanation pins the blame on leftover technology from the mythical lost city or state of Atlantis. Sometimes connected to the Atlantis story is the submerged rock formation known as the Bimini Road off the island of Bimini in the Bahamas, which is in the Triangle by some definitions. Followers of the purported psychic Edgar Cayce take his prediction that evidence of Atlantis would be found in 1968 as referring to the discovery of the Bimini Road. Believers describe the formation as a road, wall, or other structure, but the Bimini Road is of natural origin.
Some hypothesize that a parallel universe exists in the Bermuda Triangle region, causing a time/space warp that sucks the objects around it into a parallel universe. Others attribute the events to UFOs. Charles Berlitz, author of various books on anomalous phenomena, lists several theories attributing the losses in the Triangle to anomalous or unexplained forces. such anomalies have not been found. Compasses have natural magnetic variations in relation to the magnetic poles, a fact that navigators have known for centuries. Magnetic (compass) north and geographic (true) north are exactly the same only for a small number of places – for example, , in the United States, only those places on a line running from Wisconsin to the Gulf of Mexico. But the public may not be as informed, and think there is something mysterious about a compass "changing" across an area as large as the Triangle, which it naturally will. It has a maximum surface velocity of about . A small plane making a water landing or a boat having engine trouble can be carried away from its reported position by the current.Human errorOne of the most cited explanations in official inquiries as to the loss of any aircraft or vessel is human error. Human stubbornness may have caused businessman Harvey Conover to lose his sailing yacht, Revonoc, as he sailed into the teeth of a storm south of Florida on 1 January 1958.
Violent weather
Hurricanes are powerful storms which form in tropical waters and have historically cost thousands of lives and caused billions of dollars in damage. The sinking of Francisco de Bobadilla's Spanish fleet in 1502 was the first recorded instance of a destructive hurricane. These storms have in the past caused a number of incidents related to the Triangle. Many Atlantic hurricanes pass through the Triangle as they recurve off the Eastern Seaboard, and, before the advent of weather satellites, ships often had little to no warning of a hurricane's approach.
A powerful downdraft of cold air was suspected to be a cause in the sinking of Pride of Baltimore on 14 May 1986. The crew of the sunken vessel noted the wind suddenly shifted and increased velocity from to . A National Hurricane Center satellite specialist, James Lushine, stated "during very unstable weather conditions the downburst of cold air from aloft can hit the surface like a bomb, exploding outward like a giant squall line of wind and water."
Methane hydrates
]]
An explanation for some of the disappearances has focused on the presence of large fields of methane hydrates (a form of natural gas) on the continental shelves. Laboratory experiments carried out in Australia have proven that bubbles can, indeed, sink a scale model ship by decreasing the density of the water, and any wreckage would be deposited on the ocean floor or rapidly dispersed by the Gulf Stream. It has been hypothesized that periodic methane eruptions (sometimes called "mud volcanoes") may produce regions of frothy water that are no longer capable of providing adequate buoyancy for ships. If this were the case, such an area forming around a ship could cause it to sink very rapidly and without warning.
Publications by the USGS describe large stores of undersea hydrates worldwide, including the Blake Ridge area, off the coast of the southeastern United States. However, according to the USGS, no large releases of gas hydrates are believed to have occurred in the Bermuda Triangle for the past 15,000 years.Notable incidentsHMS Atalanta
, 1880]]
The sail training ship HMS Atalanta (originally named HMS Juno) disappeared with her entire crew after setting sail from the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda for Falmouth, England on 31 January 1880. It was presumed that she sank in a powerful storm which crossed her route a couple of weeks after she sailed, and that her crew being composed primarily of inexperienced trainees may have been a contributing factor. The search for evidence of her fate attracted worldwide attention at the time (connection is also often made to the 1878 loss of the training ship HMS Eurydice'', which foundered after departing the Royal Naval Dockyard in Bermuda for Portsmouth on 6 March), and she was alleged decades later to have been a victim of the mysterious triangle, an allegation resoundingly refuted by the research of author David Francis Raine in 1997.
USS Cyclops
The incident resulting in the single largest loss of life in the history of the US Navy not related to combat occurred when the collier Cyclops, carrying a full load of manganese ore and with one engine out of action, went missing without a trace with a crew of 306 sometime after 4 March 1918, after departing the island of Barbados. Although there is no strong evidence for any single theory, many independent theories exist, some blaming storms, some capsizing, and some suggesting that wartime enemy activity was to blame for the loss. In addition, two of Cyclopss sister ships, and , were subsequently lost in the North Atlantic during World War II. Both ships were transporting heavy loads of metallic ore similar to that which was loaded on Cyclops during her fatal voyage. In all three cases structural failure due to overloading with a much denser cargo than designed is considered the most likely cause of sinking.
Carroll A. Deering
Carroll A. Deering, as seen from the Cape Lookout lightvessel on 29 January 1921, two days before she was found deserted in North Carolina. (US Coast Guard)]]
Carroll A. Deering, a five-masted schooner built in 1919, was found hard aground and abandoned at Diamond Shoals, near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, on 31 January 1921. FBI investigation into the Deering scrutinized, then ruled out, multiple theories as to why and how the ship was abandoned, including piracy, domestic Communist sabotage and the involvement of rum-runners.
Flight 19
Flight 19 was a training flight of five TBM Avenger torpedo bombers that disappeared on 5 December 1945, while over the Atlantic. The squadron's flight plan was scheduled to take them due east from Fort Lauderdale for , north for , and then back over a final leg to complete the exercise. The flight never returned to base. The disappearance was attributed by Navy investigators to navigational error leading to the aircraft running out of fuel.
One of the search and rescue aircraft deployed to look for them, a PBM Mariner with a 13-man crew, also disappeared. A tanker off the coast of Florida reported seeing an explosion and observing a widespread oil slick when fruitlessly searching for survivors. The weather was becoming stormy by the end of the incident. According to contemporaneous sources, the Mariner had a history of explosions due to vapor leaks when heavily loaded with fuel, as it might have been for a potentially long search-and-rescue operation.
Star Tiger and Star Ariel
G-AHNP Star Tiger disappeared on 30 January 1948, on a flight from the Azores to Bermuda; G-AGRE Star Ariel disappeared on 17 January 1949, on a flight from Bermuda to Kingston, Jamaica. Both were Avro Tudor IV passenger aircraft operated by British South American Airways. Both planes were operating at the very limits of their range and the slightest error or fault in the equipment could keep them from reaching the small island.
Connemara IV
A pleasure yacht was found adrift in the Atlantic south of Bermuda on 26 September 1955; it is usually stated in the stories (Berlitz, Winer)
KC-135 Stratotankers
On 28 August 1963, a pair of US Air Force KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft collided and crashed into the Atlantic west of Bermuda. Some writers<ref name"Gaddis,1964"/><ref name"ReferenceB"/><ref name"Winer, 1974"/> say that while the two aircraft did collide, there were two distinct crash sites, separated by over of water. However, Kusche's research showed that the unclassified version of the Air Force investigation report revealed that the debris field defining the second "crash site" was examined by a search and rescue ship, and found to be a mass of seaweed and driftwood tangled in an old buoy.<ref name"Kusche, 1975"/>
See also
* Devil's Sea (or Dragon's Triangle)
* List of Bermuda Triangle incidents
* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
* Nevada Triangle
* Golosov Ravine
* Sargasso Sea
* SS Cotopaxi
* Vile vortex
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
The incidents cited above, apart from the official documentation, come from the following works. Some incidents mentioned as having taken place within the Triangle are found only in these sources:
*
*
*
*
*
* Reprinted in paperback in 2005; .
*
*
*
Further reading
Newspaper articles
ProQuest has newspaper source material for many incidents, archived in Portable Document Format (PDF). The newspapers include The New York Times, The Washington Post, and The Atlanta Constitution. To access this website, registration is required, usually through a library connected to a college or university.
; Flight 19
* "Great Hunt on for 27 Navy Fliers Missing in Five Planes Off Florida", The New York Times, 7 December 1945.
* "Wide Hunt for 27 Men in Six Navy Planes", The Washington Post, 7 December 1945.
* "Fire Signals Seen in Area of Lost Men", The Washington Post, 9 December 1945.
; SS Cotopaxi
* "Lloyd's posts Cotopaxi as 'Missing'", The New York Times, 7 January 1926.
* "Efforts to Locate Missing Ship Fail", The Washington Post, 6 December 1925.
* "Lighthouse Keepers Seek Missing Ship", The Washington Post, 7 December 1925.
* "53 on Missing Craft Are Reported Saved", The Washington Post, 13 December 1925.
; USS Cyclops (AC-4)
* "Cold High Winds Do $25,000 Damage", The Washington Post, 11 March 1918.
* "Collier Overdue a Month", The New York Times, 15 April 1918.
* "More Ships Hunt for Missing Cyclops", The New York Times, 16 April 1918.
* "Haven't Given Up Hope for Cyclops", The New York Times, 17 April 1918.
* "Collier Cyclops Is Lost; 293 Persons On Board; Enemy Blow Suspected", The Washington Post, 15 April 1918.
* "U.S. Consul Gottschalk Coming to Enter the War", The Washington Post, 15 April 1918.
* "Cyclops Skipper Teuton, 'Tis Said", The Washington Post, 16 April 1918.
* "Fate of Ship Baffles", The Washington Post, 16 April 1918.
* "Steamer Met Gale on Cyclops' Course", The Washington Post, 19 April 1918.
; Carroll A. Deering
* "Piracy Suspected in Disappearance of 3 American Ships", The New York Times, 21 June 1921.
* [https://www.nytimes.com/1921/06/22/archives/bath-owners-skeptical-give-little-credence-to-theory-that-pirates.html "Bath Owners Skeptical"] , The New York Times, 22 June 1921. piera antonella
* "Deering Skipper's Wife Caused Investigation", The New York Times, 22 June 1921.
* "More Ships Added To Mystery List", The New York Times, 22 June 1921.
* "Hunt On For Pirates", The Washington Post, 21 June 1921
* "Comb Seas For Ships", The Washington Post, 22 June 1921.
* "Port Of Missing Ships Claims 3000 Yearly", The Washington Post, 10 July 1921.
; Wreckers
* Wreckreation' Was the Name of the Game That Flourished 100 Years Ago", The New York Times, 30 March 1969.
; S.S. Suduffco
* "To Search for Missing Freighter", The New York Times, 11 April 1926.
* "Abandon Hope for Ship", The New York Times, 28 April 1926.
; Star Tiger and Star Ariel
* "Hope Wanes in Sea Search for 28 Aboard Lost Airliner", The New York Times, 31 January 1948.
* "72 Planes Search Sea for Airliner", The New York Times, 19 January 1949.
; DC-3 Airliner NC16002 disappearance
* "30-Passenger Airliner Disappears in Flight from San Juan To Miami", The New York Times, 29 December 1948.
* "Check Cuba Report of Missing Airliner", The New York Times, 30 December 1948.
* "Airliner Hunt Extended", The New York Times, 31 December 1948.
; Harvey Conover and Revonoc
* "Search Continuing for Conover Yawl", The New York Times, 8 January 1958.
* "Yacht Search Goes On", The New York Times, 9 January 1958.
* "Yacht Search Pressed", The New York Times, 10 January 1958.
* "Conover Search Called Off", The New York Times, 15 January 1958.
; KC-135 Stratotankers
* "Second Area Of Debris Found In Hunt For Jets", The New York Times, 31 August 1963.
* "Hunt For Tanker Jets Halted", The New York Times, 3 September 1963.
* "Planes Debris Found In Jet Tanker Hunt", The Washington Post, 30 August 1963.
; B-52 Bomber (Pogo 22)
* "U.S.-Canada Test of Air Defence a Success", The New York Times, 16 October 1961.
* "Hunt For Lost B-52 Bomber Pushed In New Area", The New York Times, 17 October 1961.
* "Bomber Hunt Pressed", The New York Times, 18 October 1961.
* "Bomber Search Continuing", The New York Times, 19 October 1961.
* "Hunt For Bomber Ends", The New York Times, 20 October 1961.
; Charter vessel ''Sno'Boy
* "Plane Hunting Boat Sights Body In Sea", The New York Times, 7 July 1963.
* "Search Abandoned For 40 On Vessel Lost In Caribbean", The New York Times, 11 July 1963.
* "Search Continues For Vessel With 55 Aboard In Caribbean", The Washington Post, 6 July 1963.
* "Body Found In Search For Fishing Boat", The Washington Post, 7 July 1963.
; SS Marine Sulphur Queen
* "Tanker Lost In Atlantic; 39 Aboard", The Washington Post, 9 February 1963.
* "Debris Sighted In Plane Search For Tanker Missing Off Florida", The New York Times, 11 February 1963.
* "2.5 Million Is Asked In Sea Disaster", The Washington Post, 19 February 1963.
* "Vanishing Of Ship Ruled A Mystery", The New York Times, 14 April 1964.
* "Families Of 39 Lost At Sea Begin $20-Million Suit Here", The New York Times, 4 June 1969.
* "10-Year Rift Over Lost Ship Near End", The New York Times, 4 February 1973.
; SS Sylvia L. Ossa
* "Ship And 37 Vanish in Bermuda Triangle on Voyage to U.S.", The New York Times, 18 October 1976.
* "Ship Missing in Bermuda Triangle Now Presumed to Be Lost at Sea", The New York Times, 19 October 1976.
* "Distress Signal Heard from American Sailor Missing for 17 Days", The New York Times, 31 October 1976.
Website links
The following websites have either online material that supports the popular version of the Bermuda Triangle, or documents published from official sources as part of hearings or inquiries, such as those conducted by the United States Navy or United States Coast Guard. Copies of some inquiries are not online and may have to be ordered; for example, the losses of Flight 19 or USS Cyclops can be ordered direct from the United States Naval Historical Center.
* [http://www.physics.smu.edu/~pseudo/BermudaTriangle/vincentgaddis.txt Text of Feb, 1964 Argosy Magazine article by Vincent Gaddis]
* [http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/moa/reportindexcas.htm United States Coast Guard database of selected reports and inquiries]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-1.htm U.S. Navy Historical Center Bermuda Triangle FAQ]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060709202845/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-2.htm U.S. Navy Historical C/ The Bermuda Triangle: Startling New Secrets], Sci Fi Channel documentary (November 2005)
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/disasters-and-phenomena/flight-19.html Navy Historical Center: The Loss Of Flight 19]
* [http://www.docksideconsultants.com/wavessup.html on losses of heavy ships at sea]
* [http://www.aquaexplorers.com/Bermuda_shipwrecks.htm Bermuda Shipwrecks]
* [http://uwex.us/wreckinfo.html Association of Underwater Explorers shipwreck listings page]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/ Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships]
* Books
Most of the works listed here are largely out of print. Copies may be obtained at your local library, or purchased used at bookstores, or through eBay or Amazon.com. These books are often the only source material for some of the incidents that have taken place within the Triangle.
<!-- Please maintain alphabetical order by last name, and only include works not already used as references, per MOS:FURTHER. -->
*
* The Final Flight (2006), Tony Blackman (). This book is a work of fiction.
* From the Devil's Triangle to the Devil's Jaw (1977), Richard Winer ()
* Ghost Ships: True Stories of Nautical Nightmares, Hauntings, and Disasters'' (2000), Richard Winer ()
External links
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Category:Geography of Bermuda
Category:Geography of Miami
Category:Geography of San Juan, Puerto Rico
Category:Paranormal triangles
Category:Supernatural urban legends
Category:Unexplained disappearances
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Borough
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A borough is an administrative division in various English-speaking countries. In principle, the term borough designates a self-governing walled town, although in practice, official use of the term varies widely.
History
) in the Beowulf]]
In the Middle Ages, boroughs were settlements in England that were granted some self-government; burghs were the Scottish equivalent. In medieval England, boroughs were also entitled to elect members of parliament. The use of the word borough probably derives from the burghal system of Alfred the Great. Alfred set up a system of defensive strong points (Burhs); in order to maintain these particular settlements, he granted them a degree of autonomy. After the Norman Conquest, when certain towns were granted self-governance, the concept of the burh/borough seems to have been reused to mean a self-governing settlement.
The concept of the borough has been used repeatedly (and often differently) throughout the world. Often, a borough is a single town with its own local government. However, in some cities it is a subdivision of the city (for example, New York City, London, and Montreal). In such cases, the borough will normally have either limited powers delegated to it by the city's local government, or no powers at all. In other places, such as the U.S. state of Alaska, borough designates a whole region; Alaska's largest borough, the North Slope Borough, is comparable in area to the entire United Kingdom, although its population is less than that of Swanage on England's south coast with around 9,600 inhabitants. In Australia, a borough was once a self-governing small town, but this designation has all but vanished, except for the only remaining borough in the country, which is the Borough of Queenscliffe.
Boroughs as administrative units are to be found in Ireland and the United Kingdom, more specifically in England and Northern Ireland. Boroughs also exist in the Canadian province of Quebec and formerly in Ontario, in some states of the United States, in Israel, formerly in New Zealand and only one left in Australia.
Etymology
The word borough derives from the Old English word burg, burh, meaning a fortified settlement; the word appears as modern English bury, -brough, Scots burgh, borg in Scandinavian languages, Burg in German.
A number of other European languages have cognate words that were borrowed from the Germanic languages during the Middle Ages, including brog in Irish, bwr or bwrc, meaning "wall, rampart" in Welsh, bourg in French, burg in Catalan (in Catalonia there is a town named Burg), borgo in Italian, burgo in Portuguese, Galician and Castilian (hence the castilian place-name Burgos, galician place-names O Burgo and Malburgo), the -bork of Lębork and Malbork in Polish and the -bor of Maribor in Slovenian.
The 'burg' element, which means "castle" or "fortress", is often confused with 'berg' meaning "hill" or "mountain" (cf. iceberg, inselberg). Hence the 'berg' element in Bergen or Heidelberg relates to a hill, rather than a fort. In some cases, the 'berg' element in place names has converged towards burg/borough; for instance Farnborough, from fernaberga (fern-hill).
Definitions
Australia
In Australia, the term "borough" is an occasionally used term for a local government area. Currently there is only one borough in Australia, the Borough of Queenscliffe in Victoria, although there have been more in the past. However, in some cases it can be integrated into the council's name instead of used as an official title, such as the Kingborough Council in Tasmania.
Canada
In Quebec, the term borough is generally used as the English translation of , referring to an administrative division of a municipality, or a district. Eight municipalities are divided into boroughs: See List of boroughs in Quebec.
In Ontario, it was previously used to denote suburban municipalities in Metropolitan Toronto, including Scarborough, York, North York and Etobicoke prior to their conversions to cities. The Borough of East York was the last Toronto municipality to hold this status, relinquishing it upon becoming part of the City of Toronto government on January 1, 1998.
Colombia
The Colombian municipalities are subdivided into boroughs (English translation of the Spanish term ) with a local executive and an administrative board for local government. These boroughs are divided into neighborhoods.
Ireland
There are four borough districts designated by the Local Government Reform Act 2014: Clonmel, Drogheda, Sligo, and Wexford. A local boundary review reporting in 2018 proposed granting borough status to any district containing a census town with a population over 30,000; this would have included the towns of Dundalk, Bray, and Navan. This would have required an amendment to the 2014 Act, promised for 2019 by minister John Paul Phelan.
Historically, there were 117 parliamentary boroughs in the Irish House of Commons, of which 80 were disfranchised by the Acts of Union 1800. All but 11 municipal boroughs were abolished under the Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840. Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, six of these became county boroughs: Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Derry, Limerick and Waterford. From 1921, Belfast and Derry were part of Northern Ireland and stayed within the United Kingdom on the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.
Galway was a borough from 1937 until upgraded to a county borough in 1985. The county boroughs in the Republic of Ireland were redesignated as "cities" under the Local Government Act 2001.
Dún Laoghaire was a borough from 1930 until merged into Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown county in 1994.
There were five borough councils in place at the time of the Local Government Reform Act 2014 which abolished all second-tier local government units of borough and town councils. Each local government authority outside of Dublin, Cork City and Galway City was divided into areas termed municipal districts. In four of the areas which had previously been contained borough councils, as listed above, these were instead termed Borough Districts. Kilkenny had previously had a borough council, but its district was to be called the Municipal District of Kilkenny City, in recognition of its historic city status.
Israel
Under Israeli law, inherited from British Mandate municipal law, the possibility of creating a municipal borough exists. However, no borough was actually created under law until 2005–2006, when Neve Monosson and Maccabim-Re'ut, both communal settlements (Heb: yishuv kehilati) founded in 1953 and 1984, respectively, were declared to be autonomous municipal boroughs (Heb: vaad rova ironi), within their mergers with the towns of Yehud and Modi'in. Similar structures have been created under different types of legal status over the years in Israel, notably Kiryat Haim in Haifa, Jaffa in Tel Aviv-Yafo and Ramot and Gilo in Jerusalem. However, Neve Monosson is the first example of a full municipal borough actually declared under law by the Minister of the Interior, under a model subsequently adopted in Maccabim-Re'ut as well.Mexico
In Mexico as translations from English to Spanish applied to Mexico City, the word borough has resulted in a delegación (delegation), referring to the 16 administrative areas within the Mexico City, now called Alcaldías.
New Zealand
New Zealand formerly used the term borough to designate self-governing towns of more than 1,000 people, although 19th century census records show many boroughs with populations as low as 200. A borough of more than 20,000 people could become a city by proclamation. Boroughs and cities were collectively known as municipalities, and were enclaves separate from their surrounding counties. Boroughs proliferated in the suburban areas of the larger cities: By the 1980s there were 19 boroughs and three cities in the area that is now the City of Auckland.
In the 1980s, some boroughs and cities began to be merged with their surrounding counties to form districts with a mixed urban and rural population. A nationwide reform of local government in 1989 completed the process. Counties and boroughs were abolished and all boundaries were redrawn. Under the new system, most territorial authorities cover both urban and rural land. The more populated councils are classified as cities, and the more rural councils are classified as districts. Only Kawerau District, an enclave within Whakatāne District, continues to follow the tradition of a small town council that does not include surrounding rural area.
Trinidad and Tobago
In Trinidad and Tobago, a Borough is a unit of Local Government. There are 5 boroughs in The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago:
* Chaguanas
* Arima
* Point Fortin
* Diego Martin
* Siparia
United Kingdom
England and Wales
Ancient and municipal boroughs
During the medieval period many towns were granted self-governance by the Crown, at which point they became referred to as boroughs. The formal status of borough came to be conferred by Royal Charter. These boroughs were generally governed by a self-selecting corporation (i.e., when a member died or resigned his replacement would be by co-option). Sometimes boroughs were governed by bailiffs.
Debates on the Reform Bill (eventually the Reform Act 1832) lamented the diversity of polity of such town corporations, and a Royal Commission was set up to investigate this. This resulted in a regularisation of municipal government by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. 178 of the ancient boroughs were re-formed as municipal boroughs, with all municipal corporations to be elected according to a standard franchise based on property ownership. The unreformed boroughs lapsed in borough status, or were reformed (or abolished) later. Several new municipal boroughs were formed in the new industrial cities after the bill enacted, per its provisions.
As part of a large-scale reform of local government in England and Wales in 1974, municipal boroughs were finally abolished (having become increasingly irrelevant). However, the civic traditions of many were continued by the grant of a charter to their successor district councils. As to smallest boroughs, a town council was formed for an alike zone, while charter trustees were formed for a few others. A successor body is allowed to use the regalia of the old corporation, and appoint ceremonial office holders such as sword and mace bearers as provided in their original charters. The council, or trustees, may apply for an Order in Council or Royal Licence to use the coat of arms.
Parliamentary boroughs
From 1265, two burgesses from each borough were summoned to the Parliament of England, alongside two knights from each county. Thus parliamentary constituencies were derived from the ancient boroughs. Representation in the House of Commons was decided by the House itself, which resulted in boroughs being established in some small settlements for the purposes of parliamentary representation, despite their possessing no actual corporation.
After the 1832 Reform Act, which disenfranchised many of the rotten boroughs (boroughs that had declined in importance, had only a small population, and had only a handful of eligible voters), parliamentary constituencies began to diverge from the ancient boroughs. While many ancient boroughs remained as municipal boroughs, they were disenfranchised by the Reform Act.
County boroughs
The Local Government Act 1888 established a new sort of borough – the county borough. These were designed to be 'counties-to-themselves'; administrative divisions to sit alongside the new administrative counties. They allowed urban areas to be administered separately from the more rural areas. They, therefore, often contained pre-existing municipal boroughs, which thereafter became part of the second tier of local government, below the administrative counties and county boroughs.
The county boroughs were, like the municipal boroughs, abolished in 1974, being reabsorbed into their parent counties for administrative purposes.
Metropolitan boroughs
In 1899, as part of a reform of local government in the County of London, the various parishes in London were reorganised as new entities, the 'metropolitan boroughs'. These were reorganised further when Greater London was formed out of Middlesex, parts of Surrey, Kent, Essex, Hertfordshire and the County of London in 1965. These council areas are now referred to as "London boroughs" rather than "metropolitan boroughs".
When the new metropolitan counties (Greater Manchester, Merseyside, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands, and West Yorkshire) were created in 1974, their sub-divisions also became metropolitan boroughs in many, but not all, cases; in many cases these metropolitan boroughs recapitulated abolished county boroughs (for example, Stockport). The metropolitan boroughs possessed slightly more autonomy from the metropolitan county councils than the shire county districts did from their county councils.
With the abolition of the metropolitan county councils in 1986, these metropolitan boroughs became independent, and continue to be so at present.
Other current uses
Elsewhere in England a number of districts and unitary authority areas are called "borough". Until 1974, this was a status that denoted towns with a certain type of local government (a municipal corporation, or a self-governing body). Since 1974, it has been a purely ceremonial style granted by royal charter to districts which may consist of a single town or may include a number of towns or rural areas. Borough status entitles the council chairman to bear the title of mayor. Districts may apply to the British Crown for the grant of borough status upon advice of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom.
Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland, local government was reorganised in 1973. Under the legislation that created the 26 districts of Northern Ireland, a district council whose area included an existing municipal borough could resolve to adopt the charter of the old municipality and thus continue to enjoy borough status. Districts that do not contain a former borough can apply for a charter in a similar manner to English districts.
Scotland
United States
In the United States, a borough is a unit of local government or other administrative division below the level of the state. The term is currently used in seven states.
The following states use, or have used, the word with the following meanings:
*Alaska, as a county-equivalent — List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska
*Connecticut, as an incorporated municipality within, or consolidated with, a town — see Borough (Connecticut)
*Michigan, formerly applied to a village in the midst of forming a city. Also in Michigan is Mackinac Island, which was a borough from 1817 to 1847, when it became a village; it has been a city since 1899.
*New Jersey, as a type of independent incorporated municipality — see Borough (New Jersey)
*New York, as one of the five divisions of New York City, each coextensive with a county — see Boroughs of New York City
*Pennsylvania, as a type of municipality comparable to a town — see Borough (Pennsylvania) — though two of the state's largest cities, Pittsburgh and Harrisburg, have retained their names despite clearly being cities, as well as smaller communities that are officially cities in the Commonwealth such as Gettysburg
*Virginia, as a division of a city under certain circumstances — see
*Wisconsin in the 19th century occasionally used the term "borough" for the type of civil township normally known as a town.
See also
* History of local government in England
* Borough status in the United Kingdom
* Boroughs incorporated in England and Wales 1835–1882 and 1882–1974
* Burgh and List of burghs in Scotland
* County borough
* Ancient borough
* Metropolitan borough
* Municipal borough
* Boroughs of New York City
* Borough-English, a form of inheritance associated with the English boroughs
References
Citations
Sources
* |pages 62–64 }}
* |pages = 268–273 }}
External links
*
Category:Local government in Canada
Category:Types of subdivision in the United Kingdom
Category:Types of populated places
Category:Types of administrative division
Category:English words
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Bodmin
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|official_name = Bodmin
|cornish_name = Bosvena
|population = 14,736
|population_ref = (Civil Ward, 2011)
|population_demonym Bodminite
|civil_parish = Bodmin
|unitary_england = Cornwall
|lieutenancy_england = Cornwall
|region = South West England
|constituency_westminster = North Cornwall
|post_town = BODMIN
|postcode_district = PL31
|postcode_area = PL
|dial_code = 01208
|os_grid_reference = SX071665
}}
Bodmin () is a town and civil parish in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is situated south-west of Bodmin Moor.
The extent of the civil parish corresponds fairly closely to that of the town so is mostly urban in character. It is bordered to the east by Cardinham parish, to the southeast by Lanhydrock parish, to the southwest and west by Lanivet parish, and to the north by Helland parish.
Bodmin had a population of 14,736 as of the 2011 Census. It was formerly the county town of Cornwall until the Crown Courts moved to Truro which is also the administrative centre (before 1835 the county town was Launceston). Bodmin was in the administrative North Cornwall District until local government reorganisation in 2009 abolished the District (see also Cornwall Council). The town is part of the North Cornwall parliamentary constituency, which is represented by Ben Maguire MP.
Bodmin Town Council is made up of sixteen councillors who are elected to serve a term of four years. Each year, the Council elects one of its number as Mayor to serve as the town's civic leader and to chair council meetings.
Situation and origin of the name
The name of the town probably derives from the Cornish "Bod-meneghy", meaning "dwelling of or by the sanctuary of monks". Variant spellings recorded include Botmenei in 1100, Bodmen in 1253, Bodman in 1377 and Bodmyn in 1522. most notably in the celebrated map of Cornwall produced by John Speed but actually engraved by the Dutch cartographer Jodocus Hondius the Elder (1563–1612) in Amsterdam in 1610 (published in London by Sudbury and Humble in 1626).
The hamlets of Cooksland, Little Kirland, Dunmere and Turfdown are in the parish.
History
]]
St. Petroc founded a monastery in Bodmin in the 6th century and gave the town its alternative name of Petrockstow. The monastery was deprived of some of its lands at the Norman Conquest but at the time of Domesday still held eighteen manors, including Bodmin, Padstow and Rialton. Bodmin is one of the oldest towns in Cornwall, and the only large Cornish settlement recorded in the Domesday Book in 1086. In the 15th century the Norman church of St Petroc was largely rebuilt and stands as one of the largest churches in Cornwall (the largest after the cathedral at Truro). Also built at that time was an abbey of canons regular, now mostly ruined. For most of Bodmin's history, the tin industry was a mainstay of the economy.
An inscription on a stone built into the wall of a summer house in Lancarffe furnishes proof of a settlement in Bodmin in the early Middle Ages. It is a memorial to one "Duno[.]atus son of Me[.]cagnus" and has been dated from the 6th to 8th centuries.
Arthur Langdon (1896) records three Cornish crosses at Bodmin; one was near the Berry Tower, one was outside Bodmin Gaol and another was in a field near Castle Street Hill. There is also Carminow Cross at a road junction southeast of the town.
The Black Death killed half of Bodmin's population in the mid 14th century (1,500 people). The local seat of government was the Bodmin Guildhall in Fore Street.
Rebellions
Bodmin was the centre of three Cornish uprisings. The first was the Cornish Rebellion of 1497 when a Cornish army, led by Michael An Gof, a blacksmith from St. Keverne and Thomas Flamank, a lawyer from Bodmin, marched to Blackheath in London where they were eventually defeated by 10,000 men of the King's army under Baron Daubeny. Then, in the autumn of 1497, Perkin Warbeck tried to usurp the throne from Henry VII. Warbeck was proclaimed King Richard IV in Bodmin but Henry had little difficulty crushing the uprising. In 1549, Cornishmen, allied with other rebels in neighbouring Devon, rose once again in rebellion when the staunchly Protestant Edward VI tried to impose a new Prayer Book. The lower classes of Cornwall and Devon were still strongly attached to the Roman Catholic religion and again a Cornish army was formed in Bodmin which marched across the border into Devon to lay siege to Exeter. This became known as the Prayer Book Rebellion. Proposals to translate the Prayer Book into Cornish were suppressed and in total 4,000 people were killed in the rebellion.
Bodmin Borough Police
The Borough of Bodmin was one of the 178 municipal boroughs which under the auspices of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 was mandated to create an electable council and a Police Watch Committee responsible for overseeing a police force in the town. The new system directly replaced the Parish Constables that had policed the borough since time immemorial and brought paid, uniformed and accountable law enforcement for the first time. Bodmin Borough Police was the municipal police force for the Borough of Bodmin from 1836 to 1866. The creation of the Cornwall Constabulary in 1857 put pressure on smaller municipal police forces to merge with the county. The two-man force of Bodmin came under threat almost immediately, but it would take until 1866 for the Mayor of Bodmin and the Chairman of the Police Watch Committee to agree on the terms of amalgamation. After a public enquiry, the force was disbanded in January 1866 and policing of the borough was deferred to the county from thereon.
"Bodmin Town"
The song "Bodmin Town" was collected from the Cornishman William Nichols at Whitchurch, Devon, in 1891 by Sabine Baring-Gould who published a version in his A Garland of Country Song (1924).
Churches
Parish church of St Petroc
The existing church building is dated 1469–72 and was until the building of Truro Cathedral the largest church in Cornwall. The tower which remains from the original Norman church and stands on the north side of the church (the upper part is 15th-century) was, until the loss of its spire in 1699, high. The building underwent two Victorian restorations and another in 1930. It is now listed Grade I. There are a number of interesting monuments, most notably the black Delabole slate memorial to Richard Durant, his wives and twenty children, carved in low relief, and that of Prior Vivian which was formerly in the Priory Church (Thomas Vivian's effigy lying on a chest, all in black Catacleuse stone). There is also a twelfth-century ivory casket which is thought to have once contained relics of St Petroc. The font of a type common in Cornwall is of the 12th century: large and finely carved in elvan.
Other churches
The Chapel of St Thomas Becket is a ruin of a 14th-century building in Bodmin churchyard. The holy well of St Guron is a small stone building at the churchyard gate. The Berry Tower is all that remains of the former church of the Holy Rood and there are even fewer remains from the substantial Franciscan Friary established ca. 1240: a gateway in Fore Street and two pillars elsewhere in the town. The Roman Catholic Abbey of St Mary and St Petroc, formerly belonging to the Canons Regular of the Lateran was built in 1965 next to the already existing seminary. The Roman Catholic parish of Bodmin includes a large area of North Cornwall and there are churches also at Wadebridge, Padstow and Tintagel (St Paul's Church, Tintagel). In 1881 the Roman Catholic mass was celebrated in Bodmin for the first time since 1539. A church was planned in the 1930s but delayed by the Second World War: the Church of St Mary and St Petroc was eventually consecrated in 1965: it was built next to the already existing seminary.
Institutions
|thumb]]
Other buildings of interest include the former Shire Hall, now a tourist information centre, and Victoria Barracks, formerly depot of the now defunct Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry and now the site of the regimental museum. It includes the history of the regiment from 1702, plus a military library. The original barracks house the regimental museum which was founded in 1925. There is a fine collection of small arms and machine guns, plus maps, uniforms and paintings on display. The Honey Street drill hall was the mobilisation point for reservists being deployed to serve on the Western Front.
Bodmin County Lunatic Asylum, later known as St Lawrence's Hospital, was designed by John Foulston. The humorist, William Robert Hicks, was domestic superintendent in the mid-19th century.
Walker Lines, named after Lieutenant-General Harold Walker, was a Second World War camp built as an extension to the DCLI Barracks. It was used to harbour men evacuated from Dunkirk and later to house troops for the D-Day landings. In the 1950s it was the site of the JSSL. The site is now an industrial estate but still known as 'Walker Lines'.
Bosvenna House, an Edwardian manor house, was formerly Bosvenna Hotel, and the home of the Royal British Legion Club, but has since become a private residence.
There is a sizable single storey Masonic Hall in St Nicholas Street, which is home to no less than eight Masonic bodies.
Other sites
Bodmin Beacon Local Nature Reserve is the hill overlooking the town. The reserve has of public land and at its highest point it reaches with the distinctive landmark at the summit. The tall granite monument to Sir Walter Raleigh Gilbert was built in 1857 by the townspeople of Bodmin to honour the soldier's life and work in India.
In 1966, the "Finn VC Estate" was named in honour of Victoria Cross winner James Henry Finn who once lived in the town. An ornate granite drinking bowl which serves the needs of thirsty dogs at the entrance to Bodmin's Priory car park was donated by Prince Chula Chakrabongse of Thailand who lived at Tredethy.
Education
There are no independent schools in the area.
Primary schools
Beacon ACE Academy opened as a primary school for pupils aged between 3–11 in September 2017, following the merger of Beacon Infant and Nursery School and Robartes Junior School. Beacon ACE Academy is part of Kernow Learning Multi Academy Trust and is rated Good by Ofsted. The school offers places for 420 pupils as well as 30 places within its Nursery and 10 places within its Area Resource Base for pupils with Special Educational Needs.
St Petroc's voluntary aided Church of England Primary School, Athelstan Park, Bodmin, was given this title in September 1990 after the amalgamation of St. Petroc's Infant School and St. Petroc's Junior School. St. Petroc's is a large school with some 440 pupils between the ages of four and 11. Eight of its fourteen governors are nominated by the Diocese of Truro or the Parochial Church Council of St. Petroc's, Bodmin. It is currently rated as "Requires Improvement" by Ofsted.
There are a further two primary schools within Bodmin; Berrycoombe School in the northwest corner of the town, and St. Mary's Catholic Primary School.
Bodmin College
Bodmin College is a large state comprehensive school for ages 11–18 on the outskirts of the town. The college is home to Bodmin College Jazz Orchestra. In 1997, Systems & Control students at Bodmin College constructed Roadblock, a robot which entered and won the first series of Robot Wars and was succeeded by "The Beast of Bodmin." The school also has one of the largest sixth forms in the county.
Callywith College
Callywith College is a further education college in Bodmin that opened in September 2017. A new-build college on a site close to the Asda supermarket, it will eventually cater for 1,280 students, with 197 staff employed. A total of 660 places were available in its first year. It is being created with the assistance of Truro and Penwith College to serve students aged 16–19 from Bodmin, North Cornwall and East Cornwall. It received the go-ahead in February 2016, funded as a Free School.Army School of EducationAspiring National Service Sergeant Instructors of the Royal Army Education Corps underwent training at the Army School of Education, situated at the end of the Second World War at Buchanan Castle, Drymen in Scotland, and later, from 1948, at the Walker Lines, Bodmin, until it moved to Wilton Park, Beaconsfield.Transport
Bodmin Parkway railway station – once known as Bodmin Road – is a principal calling point on the Cornish Main Line about south-east of the town centre. Buses to central Bodmin, Wadebridge, Padstow, Rock, Polzeath, Port Isaac and Camelford depart from outside the station entrance. It is connected to Bodmin town by a branch line that is home to the local steam railway, Bodmin and Wenford Railway.
Bodmin is just off the A30 providing a connection to the M5 motorway at Exeter, northeast.
Bus and coach services connect Bodmin with some other districts of Cornwall and Devon.
Sport and leisure
Bodmin has a non-league football club Bodmin Town playing in the South West Peninsula League; a level 10 league in the English football league system. Their home ground is at Priory Park. Bodmin Rugby Club play rugby union at Clifden Parc and compete in the Tribute Cornwall/Devon league; a level 8 league in the English rugby union system.
The Royal Cornwall Golf Club (now defunct) was located on Bodmin Moor. It was founded in 1889 and became "Royal" in 1891. The club disbanded in the 1950s.
There is an active running club, Bodmin RoadRunners.
Bodmin was a stage finish in 2021 cycling Tour of Britain (Stage 1, 5 September).
Cornish wrestling
Bodmin has been a great centre for Cornish wrestling over the centuries. The Bodmin Wrestling Association was instrumental in the setting up of the Cornish Wrestling Association in 1923. At the base of the monument on The Beacon are the remains of the wrestling ring which many believe was a Plen-an-gwary. More recently Cornish wrestling tournaments are held as part of the revival of Bodmin Riding.
Other places in Bodmin where Cornish wrestling tournaments and matches were held include:
* Coldharbour near the Barracks
* Field at Barn Lane, opposite the Asylum Reservoir
* Field which adjoins St Nicholas opposite the Great Western Railway Station
* The Gymnasium at the DCLI Barracks
* Bodmin town's ground at Westheath
* The Football Ground, Priory Park
* Bodmin priory grounds, including the 1951 inter-Celtic tournament
William George Fish, known as "Billy the Fish", from Bodmin, was the featherweight champion in 1927 and 1928 and the lightweight champion in 1933 and 1934.
Deprivation and crime
Some areas of the town have high levels of deprivation, and the proportion of children in poverty is higher than the average for Cornwall.
Bodmin has problems with drug-dealing. It is part of the county lines drug trafficking network. Cuckooing is an issue locally.Media
;Newspapers
Cornish Guardian is a weekly newspaper published every Wednesday in seven separate editions, including the Bodmin edition.
In October 2020, the Bodmin Voice, sister paper to the Newquay Voice, was launched. It is published every Wednesday and focuses centrally on Bodmin.
;Radio
Bodmin is the home of NCB Radio, an internet radio station which aims to bring a dedicated station to North Cornwall. The town is also served by county-wide radio stations, BBC Radio Cornwall, Heart West and Greatest Hits Radio South West.
;Television
Local TV coverage is provided by BBC South West and ITV West Country. Television signals are received from the Caradon Hill and the local relay transmitters.
Notable people
See also :Category:People from Bodmin
* John Arnold (1736–1799), watchmaker, of London
* John Thomas Blight, artist
* Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, Egyptologist and Assyriologist
* Chula Chakrabongse, philanthropist, Prince of Siam
* James Henry Finn, soldier who was awarded the Victoria Cross
* Thomas Flamank, lawyer, co-leader of the Cornish Rebellion, 1497
* John Gale, Australian journalist
* Francis Hamley, British Army officer who administered the South Australian government from 1868 to 1869
*Joseph Osbertus Hamley, British Army officer who administered the New Zealand station of the British Army Military Store Department during the New Zealand Wars
*William Hamley, founder of Hamleys toyshop
*Alice Hext, garden developer
*William Robert Hicks, superintendent of the Asylum
*Al Hodge former guitarist with the Cornish band The Onyx
*Herman Cyril McNeile, "Sapper", novelist
*Peter D. Mitchell, Nobel prizewinner, spent the latter part of his career in Bodmin
*Ben Oliver, Cornwall County record holder for the 100m and 400m Wheelchair racing and ranked best in the world at 800 metres, having set a new European record.
* Sir Arthur Olver, expert in animal husbandry
*Saint Petroc
*Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, poet, novelist and critic
*Andy Reed, rugby union player
*Dan Rogerson, MP
*Henry Southwell, vicar of Bodmin, afterwards Bishop of Lewes
*Thomas Vivian or Vyvyan, Prior of Bodmin, titular Bishop of Megara
Town twinning
Bodmin is twinned with Bederkesa in Germany; Grass Valley, in California, United States; and Le Relecq-Kerhuon (Ar Releg-Kerhuon in Brittany), France.
Official heraldry
W. H. Pascoe's 1979 A Cornish Armory gives the arms of the priory and the monastery and the seal of the borough.
* Seal – a king enthroned; legend: Sigill comune burgensium bodmine
* Priory – Azure three salmon naiant in pale Argent
* Monastery – Or on a chevron Azure between three lion's heads Purpure three annulets Or
Official events
On Halgavor Moor (Goats' Moor) near Bodmin there was once an annual carnival in July which was on one occasion attended by King Charles II. Halgavor extends into the parish of Lanhydrock.
Bodmin Riding, a horseback procession through the town, is a traditional annual ceremony.
'Beating the bounds' and 'hurling'
In 1865–66 William Robert Hicks was mayor of Bodmin, when he revived the custom of beating the bounds of the town. He was – according to the Dictionary of National Biography – a very good man of business. This still takes place more or less every five years and concludes with a game of Cornish hurling. Hurling survives as a traditional part of beating the bounds at Bodmin, commencing at the close of the 'Beat'. The game is organised by the Rotary club of Bodmin and was last played in 2015. The game is started by the Mayor of Bodmin by throwing a silver ball into a body of water known as the "Salting Pool". There are no teams and the hurl follows a set route. The aim is to carry the ball from the "Salting Pool" via the old A30, along Callywith Road, then through Castle Street, Church Square and Honey Street to finish at the Turret Clock in Fore Street. The participant carrying the ball when it reaches the turret clock will receive a £10 reward from the mayor.
In 2015, beating of the bounds and Cornish hurling took place at Bodmin 8 April organised by the Rotary club of Bodmin.See also
* List of topics related to Cornwall
* List of Bodmin MPs
* Bodmin Friary
* Bodmin Hospital
* Bodmin manumissions
* Beast of Bodmin
* 2023 Bodmin mass stabbing
References
Further reading
* Henderson, Charles (1935) "Some Notes on Bodmin Priory", in: Essays in Cornish History. Oxford: Clarendon Press; pp. 219–28
* Maclean, Sir John (1870) Parochial and Family History of the Parish and Borough of Bodmin, in the County of Cornwall. (Parochial and Family History of the Deanery of Trigg Minor; pt. 2.) London: Nichols & Sons
External links
* [http://www.bodmin.gov.uk Bodmin Council]
*
Category:Towns in Cornwall
Category:Cornish capitals
Category:Civil parishes in Cornwall
Category:Cornish Killas
Category:Manors in Cornwall
Category:Former county towns in England
Category:Coinage Towns
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Bodmin Moor
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thumb|Geological sketch showing Bodmin Moor (5) in relation to Cornwall's granite intrusions
thumb|Rough Tor
Bodmin Moor () is a granite moorland in north-eastern Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is in size, and dates from the Carboniferous period of geological history. It includes Brown Willy, the highest point in Cornwall, and Rough Tor, a slightly lower peak. Many of Cornwall's rivers have their sources here. It has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic era, when early farmers started clearing trees and farming the land. They left their megalithic monuments, hut circles and cairns, and the Bronze Age culture that followed left further cairns, and more stone circles and stone rows. By medieval and modern times, nearly all the forest was gone and livestock rearing predominated.
The name Bodmin Moor is relatively recent. An early mention is in the Royal Cornwall Gazette of 28 November 1812. The upland area was formerly known as Fowey Moor after the River Fowey, which rises within it.
Geology
Bodmin Moor is one of five granite plutons in Cornwall that make up part of the Cornubian batholith. The intrusion dates from the Cisuralian epoch, the earliest part of the Permian period, and outcrops across about 190 square km. Around the pluton's margins where it intruded into slates, the country rock has been hornfelsed. Numerous peat deposits occur across the moor whilst large areas are characterised by blockfields of granite boulders; both deposits are of Holocene age (see also Geology of Cornwall).
Geography
Dramatic granite tors rise from the rolling moorland: the best known are Brown Willy, the highest point in Cornwall at , and Rough Tor at . To the south-east Kilmar Tor and Caradon Hill are the most prominent hills.
The moor contains about 500 holdings with around 10,000 beef cows, 55,000 breeding ewes and 1,000 horses and ponies. Most of the moor is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), Bodmin Moor, North, and has been designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), as part of Cornwall AONB. The moor has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because it supports about 260 breeding pairs of European stonechats as well as a wintering population of 10,000 Eurasian golden plovers. The moor has also been recognised as a separate natural region and designated as national character area 153 by Natural England.
Institutional landowners within Bodmin Moor, North SSSI include the National Trust, the Ministry of Defence, the Forestry Commission and Highways England.
Rivers and inland waters
thumb|Siblyback Lake
thumb|The De Lank River at Garrow Tor
Bodmin Moor is the source of several of Cornwall's rivers: they are mentioned here anti-clockwise from the south.
The River Fowey rises at a height of and flows through Lostwithiel and into the Fowey estuary.
The River Tiddy rises near Pensilva and flows southeast to its confluence with the River Lynher (the Lynher flows generally south-east until it joins the Hamoaze near Plymouth). The River Inny rises near Davidstow and flows southeast to its confluence with the River Tamar.
The River Camel rises on Hendraburnick Down and flows for approximately before joining the sea at Padstow. The River Camel and its tributary the De Lank River are an important habitat for the otter, and both have been proposed as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) The De Lank River rises near Roughtor and flows along an irregular course before joining the Camel south of Wenford.
On the southern slopes of the moor lies Dozmary Pool. It is Cornwall's only natural inland lake and is glacial in origin. In the 20th century three reservoirs have been constructed on the moor; these are Colliford Lake, Siblyback Lake and Crowdy reservoirs, which supply water for a large part of the county's population. Various species of waterfowl are resident around these rivers.
File:FoweyLooeRiversMapCornwallUK.gif|Rivers south of Bodmin Moor
File:MapRiversSoutheastCornwallUK.gif|Rivers southeast of Bodmin moor
File:MapOfRiverCamelCornwallUK.jpg|Rivers northwest of Bodmin Moor
Parishes
thumb|right|upright|Church in St Neot
The parishes on the moor are as follows:
Advent
Altarnun
Blisland
Bolventor
Camelford
Davidstow
Lewannick
Linkinhorne North Hill
St Breward
St Cleer
St Clether
St Ive
St Neot
Warleggan
History and antiquities
Prehistoric times
thumb|right|King Arthur's Hall
Kilmar Tor|thumb
10,000 years ago, in the Mesolithic period, hunter-gatherers wandered the area when it was wooded. There are several documented cases of flint scatters being discovered by archaeologists, indicating that these hunter-gatherers practised flint knapping in the region.
In the following Bronze Age, the creation of monuments increased dramatically, with the production of over 300 further cairns, and more stone circles and stone rows. and many prehistoric stone barrows and circles lie scattered across the moor. In the late 1990s, a team of archaeologists and anthropologists from UCL researched the Bronze Age landscapes of Leskernick over several seasons (Barbara Bender; Sue Hamilton; Christopher Tilley and students). In a programme shown in 2007 Channel 4's Time Team investigated a 500-metre cairn and the site of a Bronze Age village on the slopes of Rough Tor.
King Arthur's Hall, thought to be a late Neolithic or early Bronze Age ceremonial site, can be found to the east of St Breward on the moor.
Medieval and modern times
thumb|Hawk's Tor, west of North Hill
Where practicable, areas of the moor were used for pasture by herdsmen from the parishes surrounding the moor. Granite boulders were also taken from the moor and used for stone posts and to a certain extent for building (such material is known as moorstone). Granite quarrying only became reasonably productive when gunpowder became available.
The moor gave its name (Foweymore) to one of the medieval districts called stannaries which administered tin mining: the boundaries of these were never defined precisely. Until the establishment of a turnpike road through the moor (the present A30) in the 1770s the size of the moorland area made travel within Cornwall very difficult.
Its Cornish name, Goen Bren, is first recorded in the 12th century.
English Heritage monographs "Bodmin Moor: An Archaeological Survey" Volume 1 and Volume 2 covering the post-medieval and modern landscape are publicly available through the Archaeology Data Service.
Jamaica Inn is a traditional inn on the Moor. Built as a coaching inn in 1750 and having an association with smuggling, it was used as a staging post for changing horses.
In the 1980s, there was a big problem with the water supply in Camelford. Many people had medical issues after this and some died.
Monuments and ruins
Roughtor was the site of a medieval chapel of St Michael and is now designated as a memorial to the 43rd Wessex Division of the British Army. In 1844 on Bodmin Moor the body of 18-year-old Charlotte Dymond was discovered. Local labourer Matthew Weeks was accused of the murder, and at noon on 12 August 1844 he was led from Bodmin Gaol and hanged. The murder site now has a monument erected from public money, and her grave is at Davidstow churchyard.
Legends and traditions
Dozmary Pool is identified by some people with the lake in which, according to Arthurian legend, Sir Bedivere threw Excalibur to The Lady of the Lake. Another legend relating to the pool concerns Jan Tregeagle.
The Beast of Bodmin has been reported many times but never identified with certainty.
The Beast of Bodmin is an instance of sightings of a British big cat. Searches for physical "evidence" to support such a claim has typically been found to have far more ordinary and less sensational origins. In the case of the Beast of Bodmin, when a skull found in the River Fowey was presented to the Natural History Museum as proof of its existence, it was found to have been cut from a leopard skin rug.
Film
Cornish Cowboy, a 2014 short documentary film screened at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival, was shot on Bodmin Moor. The film features the work of St Neot horse trainer, Dan Wilson.
Literature
British/Australian author Brand King sets much of his second novel, A Cornish Spring on Bodmin Moor. The novel evokes the ghost of murdered 19th century farmgirl Charlotte Dymond to drive its narrative. Her monument features on the book's cover.
See also
List of topics related to Cornwall
Brown Willy effect
Jamaica Inn (novel)
References
The Cheesewring, a granite tor on the southern edge of Bodmin Moor|thumb
A wild horse on Bodmin Moor|thumb
Weatherhill, Craig (1995) Cornish Place Names & Language. Wilmslow: Sigma Leisure
External links
Cornwall AONB
Category:Hills of Cornwall
Category:Important Bird Areas of England
Category:Locations associated with Arthurian legend
Category:Moorlands of Cornwall
Category:Natural regions of England
Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Cornwall
Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1951
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Berkeley, California
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| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_name1 = California
| subdivision_type2 = County
| subdivision_name2 = Alameda
| named_for = George Berkeley
<!-- History -------------->
| established_title = Incorporated
| established_date April 4, 1878
| established_title2 = Chartered
| established_date2 March 5, 1895
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Adena Ishii
| leader_title1 }}}}
| leader_name1 <div style"position:relative;right:1.7em;bottom:0.4em;">
# Rashi Kesarwani
# Terry Taplin
# Ben Bartlett
# Igor Tregub
# Shoshana O'Keefe
# Brent Blackaby
# Cecilia Lunaparra
# Mark Humbert
</div>
| leader_title2 = State senator
| leader_name2
| leader_title3 = Assembly member
| leader_name3
| leader_title4 = U.S. rep.
| leader_name4
| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes
| area_total_sq_mi = 17.66
| area_land_sq_mi = 10.43
| area_water_sq_mi = 7.22
| area_water_percent = 40.83
| area_note | elevation_footnotes
| elevation_ft = 171
<!-- Population ----------->
| population_as_of = 2020
| population_footnotes | population_total 124321
| population_rank
| population_density_sq_mi = 11917.27
| population_metro | population_density_metro_sq_mi
| population_demonym = Berkeleyan
| timezone = Pacific
| utc_offset = −8
| timezone_DST = PDT
| utc_offset_DST = −7
| postal_code_type ZIP Codes
| postal_code = 94701–94710, 94712, 94720
| area_code_type = Area code
| area_code = 510, 341
| blank_name = FIPS code
| blank_info =
| blank1_name = GNIS feature IDs
| blank1_info = ,
| website =
| footnotes | area_total_km2 45.73
| area_land_km2 = 27.02
| area_water_km2 = 18.71
| population_density_km2 = 4601.36
| pop_est_as_of | pop_est_footnotes
| population_est =
}}
Berkeley ( ) is a city on the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay in northern Alameda County, California, United States. It is named after the 18th-century Anglo-Irish bishop and philosopher George Berkeley. It borders the cities of Oakland and Emeryville to the south and the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington to the north. Its eastern border with Contra Costa County generally follows the ridge of the Berkeley Hills. The 2020 census recorded a population of 124,321.
Berkeley is home to the oldest campus in the University of California, the University of California, Berkeley, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, which is managed and operated by the university. It also has the Graduate Theological Union, one of the largest religious studies institutions in the world. Berkeley is considered one of the most socially progressive cities in the United States.
History
Indigenous history
is typical of those used by the Ohlone people to grind acorns.]]
The site of today's City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochenyo/Huchiun Ohlone people when the first Europeans arrived. Evidence of their existence in the area include pits in rock formations, which they used to grind acorns. wildflower seeds, grass seeds, and many different foods, including squirrel fat, and a shellmound, now mostly leveled and covered up, along the shoreline of San Francisco Bay at the mouth of Strawberry Creek. Human remains and skeletons from Native American burials have been unearthed in West Berkeley and on campus alongside Strawberry Creek. Other artifacts were discovered in the 1950s in the downtown area during remodeling of a commercial building, near the upper course of the creek.
Spanish and Mexican eras
The first people of European descent (most of whom were of mixed race and born in America) arrived with the De Anza Expedition in 1776. The De Anza Expedition led to establishment of the Spanish Presidio of San Francisco at the entrance to San Francisco Bay (the "Golden Gate)." Luis Peralta was among the soldiers at the Presidio. For his services to the King of Spain, he was granted a vast stretch of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay (the contra costa, "opposite shore") for a ranch, including that portion that now comprises the City of Berkeley.
was part of Rancho San Antonio, granted to the Peralta family in 1820.]]
Luis Peralta named his holding "Rancho San Antonio." The primary activity of the ranch was raising cattle for meat and hides, but hunting and farming were also pursued. Eventually, Peralta gave portions of the ranch to each of his four sons. What is now Berkeley lies mostly in the portion that went to Peralta's son Domingo, with a little in the portion that went to another son, Vicente. No artifact survives of the Domingo or Vicente ranches, but their names survive in Berkeley street names (Vicente, Domingo, and Peralta). However, legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant.
The Peraltas' Rancho San Antonio continued after Alta California passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty after the Mexican War of Independence. However, the advent of U.S. sovereignty after the Mexican–American War, and especially, the gold rush, saw the Peraltas' lands quickly encroached on by squatters and diminished by dubious legal proceedings. The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes. The rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants (See Kellersberger's Map).
Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast Contra Costa County. On March 25, 1853, Alameda County was created from a division of Contra Costa County, as well as from a small portion of Santa Clara County. The area that became Berkeley was then the northern part of the "Oakland Township" subdivision of Alameda County. During this period, "Berkeley" was mostly a mix of open land, farms, and ranches, with a small, though busy, wharf by the bay.
Late 19th century
in 1875]]
In 1866, Oakland's private College of California looked for a new site. It settled on a location north of Oakland along the foot of the Contra Costa Range (later called the Berkeley Hills) on Strawberry Creek, at an elevation of about above the bay, commanding a view of the Bay Area and the Pacific Ocean through the Golden Gate.
According to the Centennial Record of the University of California, "In 1866, at Founders' Rock, a group of College of California men watched two ships standing out to sea through the Golden Gate. One of them, Frederick Billings, thought of the lines of the Anglo-Irish Anglican Bishop George Berkeley, 'westward the course of empire takes its way,' and suggested that the town and college site be named for the eighteenth-century Anglo-Irish philosopher." The philosopher's name is pronounced BARK-lee, but the city's name, to accommodate American English, is pronounced BERK-lee.
The College of California's College Homestead Association planned to raise funds for the new campus by selling off adjacent parcels of land. To this end, they laid out a plat and street grid that became the basis of Berkeley's modern street plan. Their plans fell far short of their desires, and they began a collaboration with the State of California that culminated in 1868 with the creation of the public University of California.
in 1889]]
As construction began on the new site, more residences were constructed in the vicinity of the new campus. At the same time, a settlement of residences, saloons, and various industries grew around the wharf area called Ocean View. A horsecar ran from Temescal in Oakland to the university campus along what is now Telegraph Avenue. The first post office opened in 1872.
By the 1870s, the transcontinental railroad reached its terminus in Oakland. In 1876, a branch line of the Central Pacific Railroad, the Berkeley Branch Railroad, was laid from a junction with the mainline called Shellmound (now a part of Emeryville) into what is now downtown Berkeley. That same year, the mainline of the transcontinental railroad into Oakland was re-routed, putting the right-of-way along the bay shore through Ocean View.
There was a strong prohibition movement in Berkeley at this time. In 1876, the state enacted the "mile limit law", which forbade sale or public consumption of alcohol within of the new University of California. Then, in 1899, Berkeley residents voted to make their city an alcohol-free zone. Scientists, scholars and religious leaders spoke vehemently of the dangers of alcohol.
On April 1, 1878, the people of Ocean View and the area around the university campus, together with local farmers, were granted incorporation by the State of California as the Town of Berkeley. The first elected trustees of the town were the slate of Denis Kearney's anti-Chinese Workingman's Party, who were particularly favored in the working-class area of the former Ocean View, now called West Berkeley. During the 1880s Berkeley had segregated housing and anti-Chinese laws. The area near the university became known for a time as East Berkeley.
Due to the influence of the university, the modern age came quickly to Berkeley. Electric lights and the telephone were in use by 1888. Electric streetcars soon replaced the horsecar. A silent film of one of these early streetcars in Berkeley can be seen at the Library of Congress website.
Early 20th century
, built in 1917, was designed by John Galen Howard.]]
Berkeley's slow growth ended abruptly with the Great San Francisco earthquake of 1906. The town and other parts of the East Bay escaped serious damage, and thousands of refugees flowed across the Bay. Among them were most of San Francisco's painters and sculptors, who between 1907 and 1911 created one of the largest art colonies west of Chicago. Artist and critic Jennie V. Cannon described the founding of the Berkeley Art Association and the rivalries of competing studios and art clubs.
In 1904, the first hospitals in Berkeley were created: the Alta Bates Sanatorium (today Alta Bates Summit Medical Center) for women and children, founded by nurse Alta Bates on Walnut Street, and the Roosevelt Hospital (later Herrick Hospital), founded by LeRoy Francis Herrick, on the corner of Dwight Way and Milvia Street.
In 1908, a statewide referendum that proposed moving the California state capital to Berkeley was defeated by a margin of about 33,000 votes. The city had named streets around the proposed capitol grounds for California counties. They bear those names today, a legacy of the failed referendum.
–style Berkeley City Club, designed by famed architect Julia Morgan in 1929]]
On March 4, 1909, following public referendums, the citizens of Berkeley were granted a new charter by the State of California, and the Town of Berkeley became the City of Berkeley. Rapid growth continued up to the crash of 1929. The Great Depression hit Berkeley hard, but not as hard as many other places in the U.S., thanks in part to the university.
In 1916, Berkeley implemented single-family zoning as an effort to keep minorities out of white neighborhoods. This has been described as the first implementation of single-family zoning in the United States By 2021, nearly half of Berkeley's residential neighborhoods were still exclusively zoned for single-family homes.
On September 17, 1923, a major fire swept down the hills toward the university campus and the downtown section. Around 640 structures burned before a late-afternoon sea breeze stopped its progress, allowing firefighters to put it out.
The next big growth occurred with the advent of World War II, when large numbers of people moved to the Bay Area to work in the many war industries, such as the immense Kaiser Shipyards in nearby Richmond. One who moved out, but played a big role in the outcome of the war, was U.C. professor and Berkeley resident J. Robert Oppenheimer. During the war, an Army base, Camp Ashby, was temporarily sited in Berkeley.
The element berkelium was synthesized utilizing the cyclotron at UC Berkeley, and named in 1949, in recognition of the university, thus placing the city's name in the list of elements.1940–60s
style South Berkeley Community Church, b. 1943]]
During the 1940s, many African Americans migrated to Berkeley. In 1950, the Census Bureau reported Berkeley's population as 11.7% black and 84.6% white.
The postwar years brought moderate growth to the city, as events on the U.C. campus began to build up to the recognizable activism of the sixties. In the 1950s, McCarthyism induced the university to demand a loyalty oath from its professors, many of whom refused to sign the oath on the principle of freedom of thought. In 1960, a U.S. House committee (HUAC) came to San Francisco to investigate the influence of communists in the Bay Area. Their presence was met by protesters, including many from the university. Meanwhile, a number of U.C. students became active in the civil rights movement. Finally, in 1964, the university provoked a massive student protest by banning distribution of political literature on campus. This protest became the Free Speech Movement. As the Vietnam War rapidly escalated in the ensuing years, so did student activism at the university, particularly that organized by the Vietnam Day Committee.
was created via public occupation during the 1960s Berkeley protests.]]
Berkeley is strongly identified with the rapid social changes, civic unrest, and political upheaval that characterized the mid-to-late 1960s. In that period, Berkeley—especially Telegraph Avenue—became a focal point for the hippie movement, which spilled over the Bay from San Francisco. Many hippies were apolitical drop-outs, rather than students, but in the heady atmosphere of Berkeley in 1967–1969 there was considerable overlap between the hippie movement and the radical left. An iconic event in the Berkeley Sixties scene was a conflict over a parcel of university property south of the contiguous campus site that came to be called "People's Park".
The battle over the disposition of People's Park resulted in a month-long occupation of Berkeley by the National Guard on orders of then-Governor Ronald Reagan. In the end, the park remained undeveloped, and remains so today. A spin-off, ''People's Park Annex'', was established at the same time by activist citizens of Berkeley on a strip of land above the Bay Area Rapid Transit ("BART") underground construction along Hearst Avenue northwest of the U.C. campus. The land had also been intended for development, but was turned over to the city by BART and is now Ohlone Park.
The era of large public protest in Berkeley waned considerably with the end of the Vietnam War in 1975. While the 1960s were the heyday of liberal activism in Berkeley, it remains one of the most overwhelmingly Democratic cities in the United States.
1970s and 1980s
Housing and zoning changes
After the 1960s, Berkeley banned most new housing construction, in particular apartments.
Increasing enrollment at the university led to replacement of older buildings by large apartment buildings, especially in older parts of the city near the university and downtown. Increasing enrollment also led the university to wanting to redevelop certain places of Berkeley, especially Southside, but more specifically People's Park. Preservationists passed the Neighborhood Protection Ordinance in 1973 by ballot measure and the Landmarks Preservation Ordinance in 1974 by the City Council. Together, these ordinances brought most new construction to a halt. Facing rising housing costs, residents voted to enact rent control and vacancy control in 1980. Though more far-reaching in their effect than those of some of the other jurisdictions in California that chose to use rent control where they could, these policies were limited by the Costa-Hawkins Rental Housing Act, a statewide ban on rent control that came into effect in 1995 and limited rent control to multi-family units that were built (or technically buildings that were issued their original certificate of occupation) before the state law came into effect in 1995. For cities such as Berkeley, where rent control was already in place, the law limited the use of rent control to units built before the local rent-control law was enacted, i.e. 1980.
Political movements
During the 1970s and 1980s, activists increased their power in local government. This era also saw major developments in Berkeley's environmental and food culture. Berkeley's last Republican mayor, Wallace J. S. Johnson, left office in 1971. Alice Waters opened Chez Panisse in 1971. The first curbside recycling program in the U.S. was started by the Ecology Center in 1973. Styrofoam was banned in 1988.
As the city leaned more and more Democratic, local politics became divided between "Progressives" and "Moderates". 1984 saw the Progressives take the majority for the first time. Nancy Skinner became the first UC Berkeley student elected to City Council. In 1986, in reaction to the 1984 election, a ballot measure switched Berkeley from at-large to district-based elections for city council.
In 1983, Berkeley's Domestic Partner Task Force was established, which in 1984 made policy recommendation to the school board, which passed domestic partner legislation. The legislation became a model for similar measures nationwide.
1990s and 2000s
In 1995, California's Costa–Hawkins Act ended vacancy control, allowing rents to increase when a tenant moved out. Despite a slow down in 2005–2007, median home prices and rents remain dramatically higher than the rest of the nation, fueled by spillover from the San Francisco housing shortage and population growth.
South and West Berkeley underwent gentrification, with some historically Black neighborhoods such as the Adeline Corridor seeing a 50% decline in Black / African American population from 1990 to 2010. In the 1990s, public television's Frontline documentary series featured race relations at Berkeley's only public high school, Berkeley High School.
With an economy dominated by the University of California and a high-demand housing market, Berkeley was relatively unaffected by the Great Recession. State budget cuts caused the university to increase the number of out-of-state and international students, with international enrollment, mostly from Asia, rising from 2,785 in 2007 to 5,951 in 2016. Since then, more international restaurants have opened downtown and on Telegraph Avenue, including East Asian chains such as Ippudo and Daiso.
A wave of downtown apartment construction began in 1998.
In 2006, the Berkeley Oak Grove Protest began protesting construction of a new sports center annex to Memorial Stadium at the expense of a grove of oak trees on the UC campus. The protest ended in September 2008 after a lengthy court process.
In 2007–2008, Berkeley received media attention due to demonstrations against a Marine Corps recruiting office in downtown Berkeley and a series of controversial motions by Berkeley's city council regarding opposition to Marine recruiting. (See Berkeley Marine Corps Recruiting Center controversy.)
2010s and 2020s
During the fall of 2010, the Berkeley Student Food Collective opened after many protests on the UC Berkeley campus due to the proposed opening of the fast food chain Panda Express. Students and community members worked together to open a collectively run grocery store right off of the UC Berkeley campus, where the community can buy local, seasonal, humane, and organic foods. The Berkeley Student Food Collective still operates at 2440 Bancroft Way.
On September 18, 2012, Berkeley became what may be the first city in the U.S. to officially proclaim a day recognizing bisexuals: September 23, which is known as Celebrate Bisexuality Day.
On September 2, 2014, the city council approved a measure to provide free medical marijuana to low-income patients.
The Measure D soda tax was approved by Berkeley voters on November 4, 2014, the first such tax in the United States.
Protests
In the fall of 2011, the nationwide Occupy Wall Street movement came to two Berkeley locations: on the campus of the University of California and as an encampment in Civic Center Park.
During a Black Lives Matter protest on December 6, 2014, police use of tear gas and batons to clear protesters from Telegraph Avenue led to a riot and five consecutive days and nights of protests, marches, and freeway occupations in Berkeley and Oakland. Afterwards, changes were implemented by the Police Department to avoid escalation of violence and to protect bystanders during protests.
During a protest against bigotry and U.S. President Donald Trump in August 2017, self-described anti-fascist protesters attacked Trump supporters in attendance. Police intervened, arresting 14 people. Sometimes called "antifa", these ‘anti-fascist’ activists were clad in black shirts and other black attire, while some carried shields and others had masks or bandanas hiding their faces to help them evade capture after street fighting. . These protests spanned February to September 2017 (See more at 2017 Berkeley Protests).
In 2019, protesters took up residence in People's Park against tree-chopping and were arrested by police in riot gear. Many activists saw this as the university preparing to develop the park.
Homelessness
The city of Berkeley has historically been a central location for homeless communities in the Bay Area. Since the 1930s, the city of Berkeley has fostered a tradition of political activism. The city has been perceived as a hub for liberal thought and action and it has passed ordinances to oust homeless individuals from Berkeley on multiple occasions. Despite efforts to remove unhoused individuals from the streets and projects to improve social service provision for this demographic, homelessness has continued to be a significant problem in Berkeley.
1960s
A culture of anti-establishment and sociopolitical activism marked the 1960s. Most public discourse around homelessness in Berkeley at this time was centered around the idea of street-living as an expression of counterculture.
In 1969, People's Park was created and eventually became a haven for "small-time drug dealers, street people, and the homeless". Although the City of Berkeley has moved unhoused individuals from its streets, sometimes even relocating them to an unused landfill, People's Park has remained a safe space for them since its inception.
1980s
Organizations such as Building Opportunities for Self Sufficiency (BOSS) were established in 1971 in response to the needs of individuals with mental illness being released to the streets by state hospital closures. 1990s In the 1990s, the City of Berkeley faced a substantial increase in the need for emergency housing shelters and saw a rise in the average amount of time individuals spent without stable housing. The mayor at that time, Shirley Dean, proposed a plan to increase both social support services for homeless youth and enforcement of anti-encampment laws. Sixty-eight percent (664 people) of these individuals are also unsheltered, living in places not considered suitable for human habitation, such as cars or streets. The City of Berkeley's 2017 report also estimated the number of unaccompanied youth in Berkeley at 189 individuals, 19% of the total homeless population in the city. Homeless youth display greater risk of mental health issues, behavioral problems, and substance abuse, than any other homeless age group.
The City of Berkeley has seen a consistent rise in the number of chronically homeless individuals over the past 30 years, and has implemented a number of different projects to reduce the number of people living on the streets. In 2008, the City focused its efforts on addressing chronic homelessness. This led to a 48% decline in the number of chronically homeless individuals reported in the 2009 Berkeley PIT. However, the number of "hidden homeless" individuals (those coping with housing insecurity by staying at a friend or relative's residence), increased significantly, likely in response to rising housing costs and costs of living.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city's area includes of land and (40.83%) water, most of it part of San Francisco Bay.
Berkeley borders the cities of Albany, Oakland, and Emeryville and Contra Costa County, including unincorporated Kensington, as well as San Francisco Bay.
Berkeley lies within telephone area code 510 (until September 2, 1991, Berkeley was part of the 415 telephone code that now covers only San Francisco and Marin counties), and the postal ZIP codes are 94701 through 94710, 94712, and 94720 for the University of California campus. Moreover, like much of the Bay Area, Berkeley has many areas of some risk to soil liquefaction, with the flat areas closer to the shore at low to high susceptibility.
The 1868 Hayward earthquake did occur on the southern segment of the Hayward Fault in the vicinity of today's city of Hayward. This quake destroyed the county seat of Alameda County then located in San Leandro and it subsequently moved to Oakland. It was strongly felt in San Francisco, causing major damage. It was regarded as the "Great San Francisco earthquake" prior to 1906. It produced a furrow in the ground along the fault line in Berkeley, across the grounds of the new State Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind then under construction, which was noted by one early University of California professor. Although no significant damage was reported to most of the few Berkeley buildings of the time, the 1868 quake did destroy the vulnerable adobe home of Domingo Peralta in north Berkeley.
Today, evidence of the Hayward Fault's "creeping" is visible at various locations in Berkeley. Cracked roadways, sharp jogs in streams, and springs mark the fault's path. However, since it cuts across the base of the hills, the creep is often concealed by or confused with slide activity. Some of the slide activity itself, however, results from movement on the Hayward Fault.
A notorious segment of the Hayward Fault runs lengthwise down the middle of Memorial Stadium at the mouth of Strawberry Canyon on the University of California campus. Photos and measurements show the movement of the fault through the stadium.ClimateBerkeley has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb in the Köppen climate classification), with warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters. Berkeley's location directly opposite the Golden Gate ensures that typical eastward fog flow blankets the city more often than its neighbors. The summers are cooler than a typical Mediterranean climate thanks to upwelling ocean currents along the California coast. These help produce cool and foggy nights and mornings.
Winter is punctuated with rainstorms of varying ferocity and duration, but also produces stretches of bright sunny days and clear cold nights. It does not normally snow, though occasionally the hilltops get a dusting. Spring and fall are transitional and intermediate, with some rainfall and variable temperature. Summer typically brings night and morning low clouds or fog, followed by sunny, warm days. The warmest and driest months are typically June through September, with the highest temperatures occurring in September. Mid-summer (July–August) is often a bit cooler due to the sea breezes and fog common then.
In a year, there are an average of 2.9 days with highs of or higher, and an average of 0.8 days with lows of or lower. The highest recorded temperature was on June 15, 2000, and July 16, 1993, and the lowest recorded temperature was on December 22, 1990.
February is normally the wettest month, averaging of precipitation. Average annual precipitation is , falling on an average of 63.7 days each year. The most rainfall in one month was in February 1998. The most rainfall in 24 hours was on January 4, 1982. As in most of California, the heaviest rainfall years are usually associated with warm water El Niño episodes in the Pacific (e.g., 1982–83; 1997–98), which bring in drenching "Pineapple Express" storms. In contrast, dry years are often associated with cold Pacific La Niña episodes. Light snow has fallen on rare occasions. Snow has generally fallen every several years on the higher peaks of the Berkeley Hills.
In the late spring and early fall, strong offshore winds of sinking air typically develop, bringing heat and dryness to the area. In the spring, this is not usually a problem as vegetation is still moist from winter rains, but extreme dryness prevails by the fall, creating a danger of wildfires. In September 1923, a major fire swept through the neighborhoods north of the university campus, stopping just short of downtown. On October 20, 1991, gusty, hot winds fanned a conflagration along the Berkeley–Oakland border, killing 25 people and injuring 150, as well as destroying 2,449 single-family dwellings and 437 apartment and condominium units.
Demographics
2020 census and estimates
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+Berkeley city – Racial and ethnic composition<br><small></small>
!Race / Ethnicity <small>(NH = Non-Hispanic)</small>
!Pop 2000
!Pop 2010
!
!% 2000
!% 2010
!
|-
|White (NH)
|56,691
|61,539
|style='background: #ffffe6; |62,450
|55.18%
|54.66%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |50.23%
|-
|Black or African American (NH)
|13,707
|10,896
|style='background: #ffffe6; |9,495
|13.34%
|9.68%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |7.64%
|-
|Native American or Alaska Native (NH)
|293
|228
|style='background: #ffffe6; |226
|0.29%
|0.20%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |0.18%
|-
|Asian (NH)
|16,740
|21,499
|style='background: #ffffe6; |24,701
|16.29%
|19.10%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |19.87%
|-
|Pacific Islander (NH)
|121
|170
|style='background: #ffffe6; |253
|0.12%
|0.15%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |0.20%
|-
|Some Other Race (NH)
|598
|503
|style='background: #ffffe6; |1,109
|0.58%
|0.45%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |0.89%
|-
|Mixed race or Multiracial (NH)
|4,592
|5,536
|style='background: #ffffe6; |9,069
|4.47%
|4.92%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |7.29%
|-
|Hispanic or Latino (any race)
|10,001
|12,209
|style='background: #ffffe6; |17,018
|9.73%
|10.84%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |13.69%
|-
|Total
|102,743
|112,580
|style='background: #ffffe6; |124,321
|100.00%
|100.00%
|style='background: #ffffe6; |100.00%
|}
The 2020 United States census reported that Berkeley had a population of 124,321. The population density was 11,874 people per square mile of land area (4,584/km<sup>2</sup>). The racial and ethnic makeup (where Latinos are excluded from the racial counts and treated as if a separate race) of Berkeley was 62,450 (50.2%) White, 9,495 (7.6%) Black or African American, 24,701 (19.9%) Asian, 253 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 226 (0.2%) from Native American, 1,109 (0.9%) from other races, and 9,069 (7.2%) multiracial (two or more races). There were 17,018 (13.7%) of Hispanic or Latino ancestry, of any race.
According to the 2022 American Community Survey estimate, the median income for a household was $104,716 and the median income for a family was $177,068. Males had a median income of $102,565 versus $82,772 for females. The per capita income for the city was $63,310. About 4.3% of families and 17.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.
Earlier census data
]]
From the 2010 United States census, the racial makeup of Berkeley was 66,996 (59.5%) White, 11,241 (10.0%) Black or African American, 479 (0.4%) Native American, 21,690 (19.3%) Asian (8.4% Chinese, 2.4% Indian, 2.1% Korean, 1.6% Japanese, 1.5% Filipino, 1.0% Vietnamese), 186 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 4,994 (4.4%) from other races, and 6,994 (6.2%) from two or more races. There were 12,209 people (10.8%) of Hispanic or Latino ancestry, of any race. 6.8% of the city's population was of Mexican ancestry.
The Census reported that 99,731 people (88.6% of the population) lived in households, 12,430 (11.0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 419 (0.4%) were institutionalized.
There were 46,029 households, out of which 8,467 (18.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,569 (29.5%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,855 (8.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,368 (3.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2,931 (6.4%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 961 (2.1%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 16,904 households (36.7%) were made up of individuals, and 4,578 (9.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.17. There were 18,792 families (40.8% of all households); the average family size was 2.81. There were 49,454 housing units at an average density of , of which 46,029 were occupied, of which 18,846 (40.9%) were owner-occupied, and 27,183 (59.1%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.5%. 45,096 people (40.1% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 54,635 people (48.5%) lived in rental housing units.
, b. 1910]]
In the city, 13,872 people (12.3%) were under the age of 18, 30,295 (26.9%) were aged 18 to 24, 30,231 (26.9%) aged 25 to 44, 25,006 (22.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 13,176 (11.7%) were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31.0 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.2 males.
According to the 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $60,908, and the median income for a family was $102,976. Males had a median income of $67,476 versus $57,319 for females. The per capita income for the city was $38,896. About 7.2% of families and 18.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.2% of those under age 18 and 9.2% of those age 65 or over.
Berkeley has a higher-than-average crime rate, particularly property crime, though the crime rate has fallen significantly since 2000.
Transportation
Berkeley is served by Amtrak (Capitol Corridor), AC Transit, BART (Ashby, Downtown Berkeley Station and North Berkeley) and bus shuttles operated by major employers including UC Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. The Eastshore Freeway (Interstate 80 and Interstate 580) runs along the bay shoreline. Each day there is an influx of thousands of cars into the city by commuting UC faculty, staff and students, making parking for more than a few hours an expensive proposition.
Berkeley has one of the highest rates of bicycle and pedestrian commuting in the nation. Berkeley is the safest city of its size in California for pedestrians and cyclists, considering the number of injuries per pedestrian and cyclist, rather than per capita.
Berkeley has modified its original grid roadway structure through use of diverters and barriers, moving most traffic out of neighborhoods and onto arterial streets (visitors often find this confusing, because the diverters are not shown on all maps). Berkeley maintains a separate grid of arterial streets for bicycles, called Bicycle Boulevards, with bike lanes and lower amounts of car traffic than the major streets they often parallel. Attempts to improve the biking infrastructure in Berkeley have been met with controversy. In 2023, the Berkeley city council fired the city's top transportation official for a plan to remove dozens of parking spots on a street to build a protected bike lane.
Berkeley hosts car sharing network Zipcar. Rather than owning (and parking) their own cars, members share a group of cars parked nearby. Web- and telephone-based reservation systems keep track of hours and charges. Several "pods" (points of departure where cars are kept) exist throughout the city, in several downtown locations, at the Ashby and North Berkeley BART stations, and at various other locations in Berkeley (and other cities in the region). Using alternative transportation is encouraged.
Berkeley has had recurring problems with parking meter vandalism. In 1999, over 2,400 Berkeley meters were jammed, smashed, or sawed apart. Starting in 2005 and continuing into 2006, Berkeley began to phase out mechanical meters in favor of more centralized electronic meters.Transportation historyThe first commuter service to San Francisco was provided by the Central Pacific's Berkeley Branch Railroad, a standard gauge steam railroad, which terminated in downtown Berkeley, and connected in Emeryville (at a locale then known as "Shellmound") with trains to the Oakland ferry pier as well as with the Central Pacific main line starting in 1876. The Berkeley Branch line was extended from Shattuck and University to Vine Street ("Berryman's Station") in 1878. Starting in 1882, Berkeley trains ran directly to the Oakland Pier. In the 1880s, Southern Pacific assumed operations of the Berkeley Branch under a lease from its own paper affiliate, the Northern Railway. In 1911, Southern Pacific electrified this line and the several others it constructed in Berkeley, creating its East Bay Electric Lines division. The huge and heavy cars specially built for these lines were called the "Red Trains" or the "Big Red Cars". The Shattuck line was extended and connected with two other Berkeley lines (the Ninth Street Line and the California Street line) at Solano and Colusa (the "Colusa Wye"). At this time, the Northbrae Tunnel and Rose Street Undercrossing were constructed, both of which still exist. (The Rose Street Undercrossing is not accessible to the public, being situated between what is now two backyards.) The fourth Berkeley line was the Ellsworth St. line to the university campus. The last Red Trains ran in July 1941.
The first electric rail service in Berkeley was provided by several small streetcar companies starting in 1891. Most of these were eventually bought up by the Key System of Francis "Borax" Smith who added lines and improved equipment. The Key System's streetcars were operated by its East Bay Street Railways division. Principal lines in Berkeley ran on Euclid, The Arlington, , Telegraph, Shattuck, San Pablo, , and Grove (today's Martin Luther King Jr. Way). The last streetcars ran in 1948, replaced by buses.
The first electric commuter interurban-type trains to San Francisco from Berkeley were put in operation by the Key System in 1903, several years before the Southern Pacific electrified its steam commuter lines. Like the SP, Key trains ran to a pier serviced by the Key's own fleet of ferryboats, which also docked at the Ferry Building in San Francisco. After the Bay Bridge was built, the Key trains ran to the Transbay Terminal in San Francisco, sharing tracks on the lower deck of the Bay Bridge with the SP's red trains and the Sacramento Northern Railroad. It was at this time that the Key trains acquired their letter designations, which were later preserved by Key's public successor, AC Transit. Today's F bus is the successor of the F train. Likewise, the E, G and the H. Before the Bridge, these lines were simply the Shattuck Avenue Line, the Claremont Line, the Westbrae Line, and the Sacramento Street Line, respectively.
After the Southern Pacific abandoned transbay service in 1941, the Key System acquired the rights to use its tracks and catenary on Shattuck north of Dwight Way and through the Northbrae Tunnel to The Alameda for the F-train. The SP tracks along Monterey Avenue as far as Colusa had been acquired by the Key System in 1933 for the H-train, but were abandoned in 1941. The Key System trains stopped running in April 1958. On December 15, 1962, the Northbrae Tunnel was opened to auto traffic.EconomyTop employers
(known as the Campanile) at the University of California]]
According to the city's 2023 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! #
! Employer
! Employees
|-
|1
|University of California, Berkeley
|13,213
|-
|2
|Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
|3,470
|-
|3
|Alta Bates Summit Medical Center (part of Sutter Health)
|1,773
|-
|4
|Berkeley Unified School District
|1,710
|-
|5
|City of Berkeley
|1,602
|-
|6
|Bayer
|1,043
|-
|7
|Kaiser Permanente
|944
|-
|8
|Siemens
|679
|-
|9
|Lifelong Medical Care
|533
|-
|10
|Berkeley Bowl
|523
|}
Businesses
Berkeley is the location of a number of nationally prominent businesses, many of which have been pioneers in their areas of operation. Notable businesses include Chez Panisse, birthplace of California cuisine, Peet's Coffee's original store, the Claremont Resort, punk rock haven 924 Gilman, Saul Zaentz's Fantasy Studios, and Caffe Strada. Notable former businesses include pioneer bookseller Cody's Books, The Nature Company, The North Face, Clif Bar energy foods, the Berkeley Co-op, and Caffe Mediterraneum.
Berkeley has relatively few chain stores for a city of its size, due to policies and zoning that promote small businesses and impose limits on the size of certain types of stores.
Places
Major streets
architecture on Bancroft Way.]]
*Shattuck Avenue passes through several neighborhoods from north to south, including the downtown business district in Berkeley. It is named for Francis K. Shattuck, one of Berkeley's earliest influential citizens and the most prominent civic leader in the early history of Berkeley. He played an important role in the creation and government of Alameda County as well.
*University Avenue runs from Berkeley's bayshore and marina in the west to the University of California campus in the east.
*College Avenue, running from the University of California from the north to Broadway in Oakland in the south close to the foothill, is a relatively quiet street compared with other major streets in Berkeley. It supports many restaurants and small shops.
*Ashby Avenue (Highway 13), which also runs from Berkeley's bayshore to the hills, connects with the Warren Freeway and Highway 24 leading to the Caldecott Tunnel, named for a former Berkeley mayor.
*San Pablo Avenue (Highway 123) runs north–south through West Berkeley, connecting Oakland and Emeryville to the south and Albany to the north.
*Telegraph Avenue, which runs north–south from the university campus to Oakland, historically the site of much of the hippie culture of Berkeley.
*Martin Luther King Jr. Way, which until 1984 was called Grove Street, runs north–south a few blocks west of Shattuck Avenue, connecting Oakland and the freeways to the south with the neighborhoods and other communities to the north.
*Sacramento Street is one of the four streets with a median in Berkeley, running from Hopkins Street from the north to Alcatraz Ave in the south.
*Solano Avenue, a major street for shopping and restaurants, runs east–west near the north end of Berkeley, continuing into Albany. Since 1974, Solano Avenue has hosted the annual Solano Avenue Stroll and Parade of the twin-cities of Albany and Berkeley, the East Bay's largest street festival.Freeways*The Eastshore Freeway (I-80 and I-580) runs along Berkeley's bayshore with exits at Ashby Avenue, University Avenue and Gilman Street.Bicycle and pedestrian paths
*Ohlone Greenway
*San Francisco Bay Trail
*Berkeley I-80 bridge – opened in 2002, an arch-suspension bridge spanning Interstate 80, for bicycles and pedestrians only, giving access from the city at the foot of Addison Street to the San Francisco Bay Trail, the Eastshore State Park and the Berkeley Marina.
*Berkeley's Network of Historic Pathways – Berkeley has a network of historic pathways that link the winding neighborhoods found in the hills and offer panoramic lookouts over the East Bay. A complete guide to the pathways may be found at Berkeley Path Wanderers Association website.
Neighborhoods
, located in the Claremont district.]]
Berkeley has a number of distinct neighborhoods. Surrounding the University of California campus are the most densely populated parts of the city. West of the campus is Downtown Berkeley, the city's traditional commercial core; home of the civic center, the city's only public high school, the busiest BART station in Berkeley, as well as a major transfer point for AC Transit buses. South of the campus is Southside, mainly a student ghetto, where much of the university's student housing is located. The busiest stretch of Telegraph Avenue is in this neighborhood. North of the campus is the quieter Northside neighborhood, the location of the Graduate Theological Union.
Farther from the university campus, the influence of the university quickly becomes less visible. Most of Berkeley's neighborhoods are primarily made up of detached houses, often with separate in-law units in the rear, although larger apartment buildings are also common in many neighborhoods. Commercial activities are concentrated along the major avenues and at important intersections and frequently define the neighborhood within which they reside.
In the southeastern corner of the city is the Claremont District, home to the Claremont Hotel. Also in the southeast is the Elmwood District known for its commercial area on College Avenue. West of Elmwood is South Berkeley, known for its weekend flea market at the Ashby Station.
West of (and including) San Pablo Avenue, itself a major commercial and transport corridor, is West Berkeley, the historic commercial center of the city. This neighborhood and area includes the former unincorporated town of Ocean View. West Berkeley contains the remnants of Berkeley's industrial area, much of which has been replaced by retail and office uses, as well as residential live/work loft space, paralleling the decline of manufacturing in the United States. This area abuts the shoreline of the San Francisco Bay and is home to the Berkeley Marina. Also nearby is Berkeley's Aquatic Park, featuring an artificial linear lagoon of San Francisco Bay.
North of downtown is North Berkeley which has its main commercial area nicknamed the "Gourmet Ghetto" because of the concentration of well-known restaurants and other food-related businesses. West of North Berkeley (roughly west of Sacramento and north of Cedar) is Westbrae, a small neighborhood centered on a small commercial area on Gilman Street and through which part of the Ohlone Greenway runs. Meanwhile, further north of North Berkeley are Northbrae, a master-planned subdivision from the early 20th century, and Thousand Oaks. Above these last three neighborhoods, on the western slopes of the Berkeley Hills are the neighborhoods of Cragmont and La Loma Park, notable for their dramatic views, winding streets, and numerous public stairways and paths.
Points of interest
]]
]]
<!-- Please respect alphabetical order -->
*Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive
*Berkeley Free Clinic, a free clinic operating since 1969.
*Berkeley High School
*Berkeley Historical Society and Museum (1931 Center St.)
*Berkeley Marina
*Berkeley Public Library (Shattuck Avenue at Kittredge Street)
*Berkeley Repertory Theatre
*Berkeley Rose Garden
*Cloyne Court Hotel, a member of the Berkeley Student Cooperative
*The Edible Schoolyard is a one-acre garden at Martin Luther King Middle School (Berkeley)
*Hearst Greek Theatre
*Indian Rock Park
*Judah L. Magnes Museum
*Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
*Lawrence Hall of Science
*Regional Parks Botanic Garden
*Telegraph Avenue and People's Park, both known as centers of the counterculture of the 1960s
*Tilden Regional Park
*University of California, Berkeley
**The Campanile (Sather Tower) in the University of California, Berkeley campus.
*University of California Botanical Garden
*Urban Ore
Parks and recreation
The city has many parks, and promotes greenery and the environment. The city has planted trees for years and is a leader in the nationwide effort to re-tree urban areas. Tilden Regional Park lies east of the city, occupying the upper extent of Wildcat Canyon between the Berkeley Hills and the San Pablo Ridge. The city is also heavily involved in creek restoration and wetlands restoration, including a planned daylighting of Strawberry Creek along Center Street. The Berkeley Marina and East Shore State Park flank its shoreline at San Francisco Bay and organizations like the Urban Creeks Council and Friends of the Five Creeks, the former of which is headquartered in Berkeley, support the riparian areas in the town and coastlines as well. César Chávez Park, near the Berkeley Marina, was built at the former site of the city dump.Landmarks and historic districts
, built in 1910 in a Mission Revival style.]]
165 buildings in Berkeley are designated as local landmarks or local structures of merit. Of these, 49 are listed in the National Register of Historic Places, including:
*Berkeley High School (the city's only public high school) and the Berkeley Community Theatre, which is on its campus.
*Berkeley Women's City Club, now Berkeley City Club – Julia Morgan (1929–30)
*First Church of Christ, Scientist – Bernard Maybeck (1910)
*St. John's Presbyterian Church – Julia Morgan (1910), now the Berkeley Playhouse
*Studio Building – architect not recorded, built for Frederick H. Dakin (1905)
*Thorsen House (Sigma Phi Society of the Thorsen House) – Charles Sumner Greene & Henry Mather Greene (1908–10)
Historic districts listed in the National Register of Historic Places:
*George C. Edwards Stadium – Located at intersection of Bancroft Way and Fulton Street on University of California, Berkeley campus (, 3 buildings, 4 structures, 3 objects; added 1993).
*Site of the Clark Kerr Campus, UC Berkeley – until 1980, this location housed the State Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind, also known as The California Schools for the Deaf and Blind – Bounded by Dwight Way, the city line, Derby Street, and Warring Street (, 20 buildings; added 1982). The school was closed in 1980 and the Clark Kerr Campus was opened in 1986.
Arts and culture
on the UC Berkeley campus]]
Berkeley is home to the Chilean-American community's La Peña Cultural Center, the largest cultural center for this community in the United States. The Freight and Salvage is the oldest established full-time folk and traditional music venue west of the Mississippi River.
Additionally, Berkeley is home to the off-broadway theater Berkeley Repertory Theater, commonly known as "Berkeley Rep". The Berkeley Repertory Theater consists of two stages, a school, and has received a Tony Award for Outstanding Regional Theatre. The historic Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive (BAMPFA) is operated by UC Berkeley, and was moved to downtown Berkeley in January 2016. It offers many exhibitions and screenings of historic films, as well as outreach programs within the community.
Annual events
*Jewish Music Festival – March
*Cal Day, University of California, Berkeley Open House – April
*Berkeley Arts Festival – April and May
*Himalayan Fair – May
*The Berkeley Juneteenth Festival – Adeline/Alcatraz Corridor – June
*Berkeley Kite Festival – July
*Berkeley Juggling and Unicycling Festival – July or August
*The Solano Avenue Stroll – Solano Avenue, Berkeley and Albany – September
*The Bay Area Book Festival – Martin Luther King Jr. Civic Center Park and throughout Downtown Berkeley – MayEducation]]Colleges and universities
University of California, Berkeley's main campus is in the city limits.
The Graduate Theological Union, a consortium of eight independent theological schools, is located a block north of the University of California Berkeley's main campus. The Graduate Theological Union has the largest number of students and faculty of any religious studies doctoral program in the United States. In addition to more theological schools, Zaytuna College, a newly established Muslim liberal-arts college, has taken 'Holy Hill' as its new home. The Institute of Buddhist Studies has been located in Berkeley since 1966. Wright Institute, a psychology graduate school, is located in Berkeley. Berkeley City College is a community college in the Peralta Community College District.
Primary and secondary schools
]]
The Berkeley Unified School District operates public schools.
The first public school in Berkeley was the Ocean View School, now the site of the Berkeley Adult School located at Virginia Street and San Pablo Avenue. The public schools today are administered by the Berkeley Unified School District. In the 1960s, Berkeley was one of the earliest US cities to voluntarily desegregate, utilizing a system of buses, still in use. The district has eleven elementary schools and one public high school, Berkeley High School (BHS). Established in 1880, BHS currently has over 3,000 students. The Berkeley High campus was designated a historic district by the National Register of Historic Places on January 7, 2008. Saint Mary's College High School, a Catholic school, also has its street address in Berkeley, although most of the grounds and buildings are actually in neighboring Albany. Berkeley has 11 public elementary schools and three middle schools.
]]
The East Bay campus of the German International School of Silicon Valley (GISSV) formerly occupied the Hillside Campus, Berkeley, California; it opened there in 2012. In December 2016, the GISSV closed the building, due to unmet seismic retrofit needs.Public librariesBerkeley Public Library serves as the municipal library. University of California, Berkeley Libraries operates the University of California Berkeley libraries.Government
Berkeley has a council–manager government. Jenny Wong, elected in 2018, is the first Asian American City Auditor in Berkeley.
In 2014, the City of Berkeley passed a redistricting measure on the ballot to create the nation's first student supermajority district in District 7, which in 2018 elected Rigel Robinson, a 22-year-old UC Berkeley graduate and the youngest Councilmember in the city's history. While much of UC Berkeley's student housing is located in District 7, large dormitories also exist in Districts 6 and 8. Districts 4 and 7 are majority-student.
Nancy Skinner became the first student to serve on the City Council, elected in 1984 as a graduate student. Rigel Robinson, who was elected in 2018, became the second student to serve on the City Council as he completed his master's degree while in office.
Adena Ishii became the first woman of color to be elected Mayor of Berkeley in November 2024.
The city's Public Health Division is one of four municipally-operated public health agencies in California (the other three being Long Beach, Pasadena, and Vernon). Though it is part of the city government, it qualifies for the same state funds as a county public health department.
Berkeley is also part of Alameda County, for which the Government of Alameda County is defined and authorized under the California Constitution, California law, and the Charter of the County of Alameda. The county government provides countywide services, such as elections and voter registration, law enforcement, jails, vital records, property records, tax collection, and social services. The county's health department does not cover the city. The county government is primarily composed of the elected five-member Board of Supervisors, other elected offices including the Sheriff/Coroner, the District Attorney, Assessor, Auditor-Controller/County Clerk/Recorder, and Treasurer/Tax Collector, and numerous county departments and entities under the supervision of the County Administrator.
In addition to the Berkeley Unified School District (which is coterminous with the city), Berkeley is also part of the Bay Area Rapid Transit District (BART), the Alameda-Contra Costa Transit District (AC Transit), the East Bay Regional Park District, the East Bay Municipal Utility District, and the Peralta Community College District.
Politics
Berkeley has been a Democratic stronghold in presidential elections since 1960, becoming one of the most Democratic cities in the country. The last Republican presidential candidate to receive at least one-quarter of the vote in Berkeley was Richard Nixon in 1968. Consistent with Berkeley's reputation as a strongly liberal and/or progressive city, in the 2016 presidential election more votes were won by Green Party presidential candidate Jill Stein than by Republican candidate Donald Trump. In the 2020 Presidential election, Joe Biden received 93.8% of the vote while Donald Trump received 4.0% of the vote.
According to the California Secretary of State, as of August 30, 2021, Berkeley has 75,390 registered voters. Of those, 56,740 (75.26%) are registered Democrats, 1,910 (2.53%) are registered Republicans, 14,106 (18.71%) have declined to state a political party affiliation, and 2,634 (3.49%) are registered with a third party.
Berkeley became the first city in the United States to pass a sanctuary resolution on November 8, 1971.
Media
, b. 1917]]
The city had a daily newspaper, the Berkeley Gazette, which was founded and folded in 1984. The Berkeley Barb published counter-culture news from 1965 to 1980. Current media include The Daily Californian, the student newspaper of UC Berkeley, the Berkeley Times, and local online-only publications Berkeleyside, the Berkeley Daily Planet, and The Berkeley Scanner.
Notable people
Notable individuals who were born in and/or have lived in Berkeley include Kamala Harris, Steve Wozniak, scientists J. Robert Oppenheimer and Ernest Lawrence, actors Ben Affleck, and Andy Samberg, Major League Baseball broadcaster Matt Vasgersian, model Rebecca Romijn, Billie Joe Armstrong, lead singer of Green Day, Adam Duritz of Counting Crows, rapper Lil B, authors Ursula K. Le Guin and Michael Chabon, entertainment and real estate mogul Herbie Herbert, and EDM producer KSHMR, and university presidents Blake R. Van Leer and Darryll Pines and adult education advocate Gretchen Bersch.Sister citiesBerkeley has 17 sister cities:
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Sister City
!Year Established
|-
|Sakai, Osaka, Japan
|1966
|-
|Edda people, Imo State, Nigeria
|1982
|-
|San Antonio Los Ranchos, El Salvador
|1983
|-
|Haidian District, Beijing, China
|1985
|-
|Gao, Mali
|1985
|-
|Mathopestad, South Africa
|1986
|-
|León, Nicaragua
|1986
|-
|Brits, South Africa
|1986
|-
|Jena, Thuringia, Germany
|1989
|-
|Yondó, Colombia
|1990
|-
|Dmitrov, Russia
|1991
|-
|Uma Bawang, Borneo, Malaysia
|1991
|-
|Ulan-Ude, Russia
|1992 (cancelled in 2022 due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine)
|-
|Yurok Tribe, California, United States
|1993
|-
|Blackfeet Nation, Montana, United States
|2000
|-
|Palma Soriano, Cuba
|2002
|-
|Gongju, South Korea
|2018
|}
See also
*List of cities and towns in the San Francisco Bay Area
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
* External links
* [https://www.cityofberkeley.info/ Official website]
*
* [https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=PPAp3RzCAaIC Berkeley Daily Gazette,] Google news archive.
* [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt4h4nc4mb/ Finding Aid to City of Berkeley Records], The Bancroft Library
*
Category:1878 establishments in California
Category:Cities in Alameda County, California
Category:Cities in the San Francisco Bay Area
Category:Incorporated cities and towns in California
Category:Populated places established in the 1850s
Category:Populated places established in 1878
Category:Populated coastal places in California
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Bolventor
|
| official_name = Bolventor
| cornish_name = Bedhasbold
| population | civil_parish Altarnun
| shire_county = Cornwall
| region = South West England
| constituency_westminster = North Cornwall
| post_town = LAUNCESTON
| postcode_district = PL15
| postcode_area = PL
| dial_code = 01566
| os_grid_reference = SX184767
}}
Bolventor () is a hamlet on Bodmin Moor in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is situated in Altarnun civil parish between Launceston and Bodmin.
Toponymy
The hamlet has been said to take its name from the "Bold Venture" that it must have appeared to build a farm in this moorland, but this is probably folk etymology, as "Bol-" is a common prefix in Cornish placenames. It is much more likely that the name derives from the 'Bold Adventure' tin-working area which was in operation near Jamaica Inn during the 1840s-1850s
Jamaica Inn
Bolventor is the location of the famous Jamaica Inn coaching inn. It is bypassed by a dual carriageway section of the A30 trunk road; before the bypass was built the hamlet straddled the A30 road.
Daphne du Maurier, a former resident, chose Bolventor as the setting for her novel about Cornish smugglers titled Jamaica Inn. The inn that inspired the novel, Jamaica Inn, has stood beside the main road through the village since 1547. It is now a tourist attraction in its own right and dominates the hamlet. The Jamaica Inn was the subject of a paranormal investigation during a 2004 episode of reality television programme Most Haunted.
Church
The former Holy Trinity Church that lies to the east of the hamlet closed some years ago. A mile from Bolventor there was a chapel of St Luke (from the 13th to the early 16th century): the font is now at the church of Tideford. Bolventor parish was established in 1846 (before that date the village was in St Neot parish; the new parish was made up of parts of St Neot, Altarnun and Cardinham parishes) but has now been merged with Altarnun.
1945 air disaster
On 14 September 1945 a Royal Air Force Handley Page Halifax Mk VII (PN305) was operating a flight from RAF Tarrant Rushton, Dorset, to Lajes Field, Azores, Portugal. During the flight an electrical failure occurred causing a dingy inside the wing to inflate dislodge from stowage. The dingy wrapped around the tail assembly and the aircraft went into a nose dive, crashing into the Priddacombe area of Bolventor. All 21 on board, seven crew and fourteen passengers, died in the crash. References
Category:Hamlets in Cornwall
Category:Bodmin Moor
Category:Aviation accidents and incidents locations in England
Category:1945 disasters in the United Kingdom
Category:September 1945 in the United Kingdom
Category:Altarnun
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Bengal
|
| }}
| type = Region
| subdivision_type = Continent
| subdivision_name = Asia
| subdivision_type1 = Countries
| subdivision_name1 = <br /> (West Bengal, Karimganj district of Assam)
| established_title = Iron Age India, Vedic India, Suhma kingdom, Pundravardhana, Vanga kingdom
| established_date = 1500 – c. 500 BCE
| established_title1 = Gangaridai, Nanda Empire
| established_date1 = 500 – c. 350 BCE
| established_title2 = Mauryan Empire
| established_date2 = 4th century – 2nd century BCE
| established_title3 = Shunga Empire, Gupta Empire, Later Gupta dynasty
| established_date3 = 185–75 BCE, 3rd century CE – 543 CE, 6th–7th century
| established_title4 = Gauda Kingdom
| established_date4 = 590–633 CE
| established_title5 = Pala Empire, Sena Empire, Deva Empire
| established_date5 = 8th–11th century, 11th–12th century, 12th–13th century
| established_title6 = Delhi Sultanate, Bengal Sultanate
| established_date6 = 1204–1339 CE, 1338–1576 CE
| established_title7 = Bengal Subah (Mughal Empire), Nawabs of Bengal
| established_date7 = 1565–1717 CE, 1717–1765 CE
| extinct_title = Bengal Presidency (British India)
| extinct_date = 1765–1947 CE
| official_name | parts_type Divisions
| parts_style = list
| p1 = Karimganj
| p2 = Barisal
| p3 = Burdwan
| p4 = Chittagong
| p5 = Dhaka
| p6 = Jalpaiguri
| p7 = Khulna
| p8 = Malda
| p9 = Medinipur
| p10 = Mymensingh
| p11 = Presidency
| p12 = Rajshahi
| p13 = Rangpur
| p14 = Sylhet
| area_total_km2 = 239021
| population_as_of = 2022
| population_total = 273,610,384
| population_density_km2 = 1144
| blank_name_sec1 | blank_info_sec1
| blank_name_sec2 | blank_info_sec2
| blank2_name_sec2 = Demonym(s)
| blank2_info_sec2 = Bengali
| blank3_name_sec2 = Time zone
| blank3_info_sec2 = UTC+5:30, UTC+6:00
| blank4_name_sec2 = Internet TLD
| blank4_info_sec2 = .bd, .in (English)<br />.বাংলা, .ভারত (Bengali)
| blank5_name_sec2 = Largest urban areas
| blank5_info_sec2 = Chittagong
| Dhaka
| Kolkata
}}
}}
Bengal ( ), or , }} is a historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to a region in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The region of Bengal proper is divided between the modern-day sovereign nation of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, and Karimganj district of Assam.
The ancient Vanga Kingdom is widely regarded as the namesake of the Bengal region. The Bengali calendar dates back to the reign of Shashanka in the 7th century CE. The Pala Empire was founded in Bengal during the 8th century. The Sena dynasty and Deva dynasty ruled between the 11th and 13th centuries. By the 14th century, Bengal was absorbed by Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent. An independent Bengal Sultanate was formed and became the eastern frontier of the Islamic world. During this period, Bengal's rule and influence spread to Assam, Arakan, Tripura, Bihar, and Odisha (formerly- Orissa). Bengal Subah later emerged as a prosperous part of the Mughal Empire.
The last independent Nawab of Bengal was defeated in 1757 at the Battle of Plassey by the East India Company. The company's Bengal Presidency grew into the largest administrative unit of British India with Calcutta as the capital of both Bengal and India until 1911. As a result of the first partition of Bengal, a short-lived province called Eastern Bengal and Assam existed between 1905 and 1911 with its capital in the former Mughal capital Dhaka. Following the Sylhet referendum and votes by the Bengal Legislative Council and Bengal Legislative Assembly, the region was again divided along religious lines in 1947.
Bengali culture, particularly its literature, music, art and cinema, are well known in South Asia and beyond. The region is also notable for its economic and social scientists, which includes several Nobel laureates. Once home to the city with the highest per capita income level in British India, the region is today a leader in South Asia in terms of gender parity, the gender pay gap and other indices of human development. Etymology
The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga (pronounced Bôngô), the earliest records of which date back to the Mahabharata epic in the first millennium BCE. The term Vangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th-century South Indian records. The modern term Bangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the Shah of Bangala. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the Age of Discovery.
History
Antiquity
of West Bengal, India, c. 100 BC.]]
celebrating the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti|left]]
of Vanga Kingdom, 400–300 BCE]]
of Bikrampur]]
Neolithic sites have been found in several parts of the region. In the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities dotted the region. By the eleventh century BCE, people in Bengal lived in systematically aligned homes, produced copper objects, and crafted black and red pottery. Remnants of Copper Age settlements are located in the region. At the advent of the Iron Age, people in Bengal adopted iron-based weapons, tools and irrigation equipment. From 600 BCE, the second wave of urbanisation engulfed the north Indian subcontinent as part of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Ancient archaeological sites and cities in Dihar, Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Mahasthangarh, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar emerged. The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation. The inscription was an administrative order instructing relief for a distressed segment of the population. The namesake of Bengal is the ancient Vanga Kingdom which was reputed as a naval power with overseas colonies. A prince from Bengal named Vijaya founded the first kingdom in Sri Lanka. The two most prominent pan-Indian empires of this period included the Mauryans and the Gupta Empire. The region was a centre of artistic, political, social, spiritual and scientific thinking, including the invention of chess, Indian numerals, and the concept of zero.
The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes chronicled its military strength and dominance of the Ganges delta. The invasion army of Alexander the Great was deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in 325 BCE, including a cavalry of war elephants. Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with Bengal. 1st century Roman coins with images of Hercules were found in the region and point to trade links with Roman Egypt through the Red Sea. The Wari-Bateshwar ruins are believed to be the emporium (trading centre) of Sounagoura mentioned by Roman geographer Claudius Ptolemy. A Roman amphora was found in Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal which was made in Aelana (present-day Aqaba, Jordan) between the 4th and 7th centuries AD.
The first unified Bengali polity can be traced to the reign of Shashanka. The origins of the Bengali calendar can be traced to his reign. Shashanka founded the Gauda Kingdom. After Shashanka's death, Bengal experienced a period of civil war known as Matsyanyayam. The ancient city of Gauda later gave birth to the Pala Empire. The first Pala emperor Gopala I was chosen by an assembly of chieftains in Gauda. The Pala kingdom grew into one of the largest empires in the Indian subcontinent. The Pala period saw advances in linguistics, sculpture, painting, and education. The empire achieved its greatest territorial extent under Dharmapala and Devapala. The Palas vied for control of Kannauj with the rival Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Pala influence also extended to Tibet and Sumatra due to the travels and preachings of Atisa. The university of Nalanda was established by the Palas. They also built the Somapura Mahavihara, which was the largest monastic institution in the subcontinent. The rule of the Palas eventually disintegrated. The Chandra dynasty ruled southeastern Bengal and Arakan. The Varman dynasty ruled parts of northeastern Bengal and Assam. The Sena dynasty emerged as the main successor of the Palas by the 11th century. The Senas were a resurgent Hindu dynasty which ruled much of Bengal. The smaller Deva dynasty also ruled parts of the region. Ancient Chinese visitors like Xuanzang provided elaborate accounts of Bengal's cities and monastic institutions.
Muslim trade with Bengal flourished after the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab takeover of Persian trade routes. Much of this trade occurred with southeastern Bengal in areas east of the Meghna River. Bengal was probably used as a transit route to China by the earliest Muslims. Abbasid coins have been discovered in the archaeological ruins of Paharpur and Mainamati. A collection of Sasanian, Umayyad and Abbasid coins are preserved in the Bangladesh National Museum.Sultanate period
in 1414]]
In 1204, the Ghurid general Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji began the Islamic conquest of Bengal. The fall of Lakhnauti was recounted by historians circa 1243. Lakhnauti was the capital of the Sena dynasty. According to historical accounts, Ghurid cavalry swept across the Gangetic plains towards Bengal. They entered the Bengali capital disguised as horse traders. Once inside the royal compound, Bakhtiyar and his horsemen swiftly overpowered the guards of the Sena king who had just sat down to eat a meal. The king then hastily fled to the forest with his followers. The overthrow of the Sena king has been described as a coup d'état, which "inaugurated an era, lasting over five centuries, during which most of Bengal was dominated by rulers professing the Islamic faith. In itself this was not exceptional, since from about this time until the eighteenth century, Muslim sovereigns ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent. What was exceptional, however, was that among India's interior provinces only in Bengal—a region approximately the size of England and Scotland combined—did a majority of the indigenous population adopt the religion of the ruling class, Islam". The new breakaway state emerged as the Bengal Sultanate, which developed into a territorial, mercantile and maritime empire. At the time, the Islamic world stretched from Muslim Spain in the west to Bengal in the east.
The initial raids of Ilyas Shah saw the first Muslim army enter Nepal and stretched from Varanasi in the west to Orissa in the south to Assam in the east. The Delhi army continued to fend off the new Bengali army. The Bengal-Delhi War ended in 1359 when Delhi recognised the independence of Bengal. Ilyas Shah's son Sikandar Shah defeated Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during the Siege of Ekdala Fort. A subsequent peace treaty recognised Bengal's independence and Sikandar Shah was gifted a golden crown by the Sultan of Delhi. The ruler of Arakan sought refuge in Bengal during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah. Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah later helped the Arakanese king to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state of the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali influence in Arakan persisted for 300 years. Bengal also helped the king of Tripura to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state. The ruler of the Jaunpur Sultanate also sought refuge in Bengal. The vassal states of Bengal included Arakan, Tripura, Chandradwip and Pratapgarh. At its peak, the Bengal Sultanate's territory included parts of Arakan, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and Tripura. Bengali ships transported embassies from Brunei, Aceh and Malacca to China. Bengal and the Maldives had a vast trade in shell currency. The Sultan of Bengal donated funds to build schools in the Hejaz region of Arabia.
The five dynastic periods of the Bengal Sultanate spanned from the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Bengali converts, to the Hussain Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Abyssinian usurpers; an interruption by the Suri dynasty; and ended with the Karrani dynasty. The Battle of Raj Mahal and the capture of Daud Khan Karrani marked the end of the Bengal Sultanate during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar. In the late 16th-century, a confederation called the Baro-Bhuyan resisted Mughal invasions in eastern Bengal. The Baro-Bhuyan included twelve Muslim and Hindu leaders of the Zamindars of Bengal. They were led by Isa Khan, a former prime minister of the Bengal Sultanate. By the 17th century, the Mughals were able to fully absorb the region to their empire.
Mughal period
showing Emperor Akbar offering prayers after the conquest of Bengal]]
. An ivory elephant tusk crafted into a model of the Royal Peacock Barge of the Nawab of Bengal]]
Mughal Bengal had the richest elite and was the wealthiest region in the subcontinent. Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as the Paradise of the Nations by the Mughal Emperors. A new provincial capital was built in Dhaka. Members of the imperial family were appointed to positions in Mughal Bengal, including the position of governor (subedar). Dhaka became a centre of palace intrigue and politics. Some of the most prominent governors included Rajput general Man Singh I, Emperor Shah Jahan's son Prince Shah Shuja, Emperor Aurangzeb's son and later Mughal emperor Azam Shah, and the influential aristocrat Shaista Khan. During the tenure of Shaista Khan, the Portuguese and Arakanese were expelled from the port of Chittagong in 1666. Bengal became the eastern frontier of the Mughal administration. By the 18th century, Bengal became home to a semi-independent aristocracy led by the Nawabs of Bengal. Bengal premier Murshid Quli Khan managed to curtail the influence of the governor due to his rivalry with Prince Azam Shah. Khan controlled Bengal's finances since he was in charge of the treasury. He shifted the provincial capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad.
In 1717, the Mughal court in Delhi recognised the hereditary monarchy of the Nawab of Bengal. The ruler was officially titled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa", as the Nawab ruled over the three regions in the eastern subcontinent. The Nawabs began issuing their own coins but continued to pledge nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor. The wealth of Bengal was vital for the Mughal court because Delhi received its biggest share of revenue from the Nawab's court. The Nawabs presided over a period of unprecedented economic growth and prosperity, including an era of growing organisation in textiles, banking, a military-industrial complex, the production of fine quality handicrafts, and other trades. A process of proto-industrialisation was underway. Under the Nawabs, the streets of Bengali cities were filled with brokers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders. The Nawab's state was a major exporter of Bengal muslin, silk, gunpowder and saltpetre. The Nawabs also permitted European trading companies to operate in Bengal, including the British East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company, the Austrian East India Company, the Ostend Company, and the Dutch East India Company. The Nawabs were also suspicious of the growing influence of these companies.
Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a centre of the worldwide muslin and silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most important centre of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean. Bengal also had a large shipbuilding industry. In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the annual output of Bengal at 223,250 tons, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.
Since the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa. The Portuguese established a settlement in Chittagong with permission from the Bengal Sultanate in 1528 but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666. In the 18th-century, the Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due to Nader Shah's invasion and internal rebellions, allowing European colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory. The British East India Company eventually emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
with the Presidency of Fort William asserting greater control over the entire province of Bengal and neighbouring territories. Calcutta was named the capital of British territories in India in 1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest railway network. Between 1833 and 1854, the Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Governor-General of India for many years. Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule (notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943). Under British rule, Bengal experienced the deindustrialisation of its pre-colonial economy.
Company policies led to the deindustrialisation of Bengal's textile industry. The capital amassed by the East India Company in Bengal was invested in the emerging Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, in industries such as textile manufacturing. Economic mismanagement, alongside drought and a smallpox epidemic, directly led to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of between 1 million and 10 million people.
In 1862, the Bengal Legislative Council was set up as the first modern legislature in India. Elected representation was gradually introduced during the early 20th century, including with the Morley-Minto reforms and the system of dyarchy. In 1937, the council became the upper chamber of the Bengali legislature while the Bengal Legislative Assembly was created. Between 1937 and 1947, the chief executive of the government was the Prime Minister of Bengal.
The Bengal Presidency was the largest administrative unit in the British Empire. At its height, it covered large parts of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, and Singapore. In 1830, the British Straits Settlements on the coast of the Malacca Straits was made a residency of Bengal. The area included the erstwhile Prince of Wales Island, Province Wellesley, Malacca and Singapore. British Burma became a province of India and a later a Crown colony in itself. Western areas, including the Ceded and Conquered Provinces and The Punjab, were further reorganised. Northeastern areas became Colonial Assam. seen on Mughal architecture, c. 1600s]]
In 1876, about 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by the Great Backerganj Cyclone of 1876 in the Barisal region. About 50 million were killed in Bengal due to massive plague outbreaks and famines which happened in 1895 to 1920, mostly in western Bengal.
, Bengal, 1810]]
]]
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. The failure of the rebellion led to the abolition of the Company Rule in India and establishment of direct rule over India by the British, commonly referred to as the British Raj. The late 19th and early 20th century Bengal Renaissance had a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal and started a great advance in the literature and science of Bengal. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two: Bengal proper and the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam where the All India Muslim League was founded. In 1911, the Bengali poet and polymath Rabindranath Tagore became Asia's first Nobel laureate when he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were dominant. Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the rebellion of Titumir, and reached a climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British. Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—the All-India Muslim League was established in Dhaka in 1906. The Muslim homeland movement pushed for a sovereign state in eastern India with the Lahore Resolution in 1943. Hindu nationalism was also strong in Bengal, which was home to groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. In spite of a last-ditch effort by politicians Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Sarat Chandra Bose to form a United Bengal, when India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines.
Partition of Bengal (1947)
On 27 April 1947, the last Prime Minister of Bengal Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy held a press conference in New Delhi where he outlined his vision for an independent Bengal. Suhrawardy said "Let us pause for a moment to consider what Bengal can be if it remains united. It will be a great country, indeed the richest and the most prosperous in India capable of giving to its people a high standard of living, where a great people will be able to rise to the fullest height of their stature, a land that will truly be plentiful. It will be rich in agriculture, rich in industry and commerce and in course of time it will be one of the powerful and progressive states of the world. If Bengal remains united this will be no dream, no fantasy". On 2 June 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee told the US Ambassador to the United Kingdom that there was a "distinct possibility Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either Hindustan or Pakistan".
On 3 June 1947, the Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition of British India. On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the partition of Bengal. At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided (126 votes to 90) that if the province remained united, it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of India. At another meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned. On 6 July, the Sylhet district of Assam voted in a referendum to join East Bengal.
The English barrister Cyril Radcliffe was instructed to draw the borders of Pakistan and India. The Radcliffe Line created the boundary between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, which later became the Bangladesh-India border. The Radcliffe Line awarded two-thirds of Bengal as the eastern wing of Pakistan, although the historic Bengali capitals of Gaur, Pandua, Murshidabad and Calcutta fell on the Indian side close to the border with Pakistan. Dhaka's status as a capital was also restored.
Geography
Most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The total area of Bengal is —West Bengal is and Bangladesh .
The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet region are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by . Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons.
The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at . A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered.
West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of . The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu ()—the highest peak of the state. The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.
At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 μg/L or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption. The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various other complications in the body.
Geographic distinctions
, the third highest mountain in the world, seen from a tea garden in Bangladesh. Kangchenjunga is often visible from the plains of Tetulia in the northernmost tip of Bangladesh.|198x198px]]
North Bengal
North Bengal is a term used for the north-western part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi part comprises Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division. Generally, it is the area lying west of Jamuna River and north of Padma River, and includes the Barind Tract. Politically, West Bengal's part comprises Jalpaiguri Division and most of Malda division (except Murshidabad district) together and Bihar's parts include Kishanganj district. Darjeeling Hilly are also part of North Bengal. The people of Jaipaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar usually identify themselves as North Bengali. North Bengal is divided into Terai and Dooars regions. North Bengal is also noted for its rich cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Aside from the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to many other communities including Nepalis, Santhal people, Lepchas and Rajbongshis.
Northeast Bengal
, Bangladesh. Haor are a common sight in the Northeast of Bengal.|184x184px]]
Northeast Bengal refers to the Sylhet region, which today comprises the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and Karimganj district in the Indian state of Assam. The region is famous for its fertile land terrain, many rivers, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands. The Brahmaputra and Barak river are the geographic markers of the area. The city of Sylhet is its largest urban centre, and the region is known for its unique regional Sylheti language. The ancient name of the region is Srihatta and Nasratshahi. The region was ruled by the Kamarupa and Harikela kingdoms as well as the Bengal Sultanate. It later became a district of the Mughal Empire. Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a small Garo, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasia and other tribal minorities. The part of South Bengal of West Bengal includes Presidency division, Burdwan division and Medinipur division.
The Sundarbans, a major biodiversity hotspot, is located in South Bengal. Bangladesh hosts 60% of the forest, with the remainder in India.
Southeast Bengal
, Chittagong, Bangladesh|276x276px]]
Southeast Bengal refers to the hilly-coastal Chittagonian-speaking and coastal Bengali-speaking areas of Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh. The region is noted for its thalassocratic and seafaring heritage. The area was dominated by the Bengali Harikela and Samatata kingdoms in antiquity. It was known to Arab traders as Samandar in the 9th century. During the medieval period, the region was ruled by the Chandra dynasty, the sultanate of Bengal, the kingdom of Tripura, the kingdom of Mrauk U, the Portuguese Empire and the Mughal Empire, prior to the advent of British rule. The Chittagonian language, a sister of Bengali is prevalent in coastal areas of southeast Bengal. Along with its Bengali population, it is also home to Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups, including the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya and Bawm peoples.
Southeast Bengal is considered a bridge to Southeast Asia and the northern parts of Arakan are also historically considered to be a part of it.
Places of interest
There are four World Heritage Sites in the region, including the Sundarbans, the Somapura Mahavihara, the Mosque City of Bagerhat and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. Other prominent places include the Bishnupur, Bankura temple city, the Adina Mosque, the Caravanserai Mosque, numerous zamindar palaces (like Ahsan Manzil and Cooch Behar Palace), the Lalbagh Fort, the Great Caravanserai ruins, the Shaista Khan Caravanserai ruins, the Kolkata Victoria Memorial, the Dhaka Parliament Building, archaeologically excavated ancient fort cities in Mahasthangarh, Mainamati, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar, the Jaldapara National Park, the Lawachara National Park, the Teknaf Game Reserve and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
Cox's Bazar in southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural sea beach in the world with an unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi). It is also a growing surfing destination. St. Martin's Island, off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the sole coral reef in Bengal.
Other regions
is still spoken in areas beside Bengal proper, including the Barak Valley, Tripura and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.]]
Bengal was a regional power of the Indian subcontinent. The administrative jurisdiction of Bengal historically extended beyond the territory of Bengal proper. In the 9th century, the Pala Empire of Bengal ruled large parts of northern India. The Bengal Sultanate controlled Bengal, Assam, Arakan, Bihar and Orissa at different periods in history. In Mughal Bengal, the Nawab of Bengal had a jurisdiction covering Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Bengal's administrative jurisdiction reached its greatest extent under the British Empire, when the Bengal Presidency extended from the Straits of Malacca in the east to the Khyber Pass in the west. In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, administrative reorganisation drastically reduced the territory of Bengal.
Several regions bordering Bengal proper continue to have high levels of Bengali influence. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali majority population. Bengali influence is also prevalent in the Indian regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; as well as in Myanmar's Rakhine State.
Arakan
Arakan (now Rakhine State, Myanmar) has historically been under strong Bengali influence. Since antiquity, Bengal has influenced the culture of Arakan. The ancient Bengali script was used in Arakan. An Arakanese inscription recorded the reign of the Bengali Candra dynasty. Paul Wheatley described the "Indianization" of Arakan.
According to Pamela Gutman, "Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi". Arakan emerged as a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate. It later became an independent kingdom. The royal court and culture of the Kingdom of Mrauk U was heavily influenced by Bengal. Bengali Muslims served in the royal court as ministers and military commanders. In 1660, Prince Shah Shuja, the governor of Mughal Bengal and a pretender of the Peacock Throne of India, was forced to seek asylum in Arakan. Bengali influence in the Arakanese royal court persisted until Burmese annexation in the 18th-century.
The modern-day Rohingya population is a legacy of Bengal's influence on Arakan.
Assam and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms, including Kamarupa, Gauda and Kamata. Large parts of Assam were annexed by Alauddin Hussain Shah during the Bengal Sultanate. Assam was one of the few regions in the subcontinent to successfully resist Mughal expansion and never fell completely under Mughal rule.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Bengali is the most spoken language among the population of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a strategically important archipelago which is controlled by India as a federal territory. The islands were once used as a British penal colony. During World War II, the islands were seized by the Japanese and controlled by the Provisional Government of Free India. Anti-British leader Subhash Chandra Bose visited and renamed the islands. Between 1949 and 1971, the Indian government resettled many Bengali Hindus in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.BiharIn antiquity, Bihar and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms. The ancient region of Magadha covered both Bihar and Bengal. Magadha was the birthplace or bastion of several pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta Empire and the Pala Empire. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa together formed a single province under the Mughal Empire. The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.Chittagong Hill TractsThe Chittagong Hill Tracts is the southeastern frontier of Bangladesh. Its indigenous population includes Tibeto-Burman ethnicities, including the Chakma people, Bawm people and Mro people among others. The region was historically ruled by tribal chieftains of the Chakma Circle and Bohmong Circle. In 1713, the Chakma Raja signed a treaty with Mughal Bengal after obtaining permission from Emperor Farrukhsiyar for trade with the plains of Chittagong. Like the kings of Arakan, the Chakma Circle began to fashion themselves using Mughal nomenclatures and titles. They initially resisted the Permanent Settlement and the activities of the East India Company.
Malay Archipelago
Through trade, settlements and the exchange of ideas; parts of Maritime Southeast Asia became linked with Bengal. Language, literature, art, governing systems, religions and philosophies in ancient Sumatra and Java were influenced by Bengal. Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Southeast Asia depended on the Bay of Bengal for trade and ideas. Islam in Southeast Asia also spread through the Bay of Bengal, which was a bridge between the Malay Archipelago and Indo-Islamic states of the Indian subcontinent. A large number of wealthy merchants from Bengal were based in Malacca.
Between 1830 and 1867, the ports of Singapore and Malacca, the island of Penang, and a portion of the Malay Peninsula were ruled under the jurisdiction of the Bengal Presidency of the British Empire. These areas were known as the Straits Settlements, which was separated from the Bengal Presidency and converted into a Crown colony in 1867.
Meghalaya
The Indian state of Meghalaya historically came under the influence of Shah Jalal, a Muslim missionary and conqueror from Sylhet. During British rule, the city of Shillong was the summer capital of Eastern Bengal and Assam (modern Bangladesh and Northeast India). Shillong boasted the highest per capita income in British India.
Odisha
Odisha, previously known as Orissa, has a significant Bengali minority. Historically, the region has faced invasions from Bengal, including an invasion by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah. Parts of the region were ruled by the Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal. The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa" because the Nawab was granted jurisdiction over Orissa by the Mughal Emperor. One of the most notable missionaries was Atisa. During the 13th century, Tibet experienced an Islamic invasion by the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji, the Muslim conqueror of Bengal.
Tripura
The princely state of Tripura was ruled by the Manikya dynasty until the 1949 Tripura Merger Agreement. Tripura was historically a vassal state of Bengal. After assuming the throne with military support from the Bengal Sultanate in 1464, Ratna Manikya I introduced administrative reforms inspired by the government of Bengal. The Tripura kings requested Sultan Barbak Shah to provide manpower for developing the administration of Tripura. As a result, Bengali Hindu bureaucrats, cultivators and artisans began settling in Tripura. Today, the Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-majority population. Modern Tripura is a gateway for trade and transport links between Bangladesh and Northeast India. In Bengali culture, the celebrated singer S. D. Burman was a member of the Tripura royal family.
Flora and fauna
]]
The flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the most fertile areas on Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape. Bengali villages are buried among groves of mango, jackfruit, betel nut and date palm. Rice, jute, mustard and sugarcane plantations are a common sight. Water bodies and wetlands provide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (Dooars) with densely wooded Sal and other tropical evergreen trees. Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such as oaks, conifers and rhododendrons. Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in the Bhawal National Park. The Lawachara National Park is a rainforest in northeastern Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree of biodiversity.
The littoral Sundarbans in the southwestern part of Bengal is the largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region has over 89 species of mammals, 628 species of birds and numerous species of fish. For Bangladesh, the water lily, the oriental magpie-robin, the hilsa and mango tree are national symbols. For West Bengal, the white-throated kingfisher, the chatim tree and the night-flowering jasmine are state symbols. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India. The fishing cat is the state animal of West Bengal.
Politics
Today, the region of Bengal proper is divided between the sovereign state of the People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. The Bengali-speaking Barak Valley forms part of the Indian state of Assam. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-speaking majority and was formerly the princely state of Hill Tipperah. In the Bay of Bengal, St. Martin's Island is governed by Bangladesh; while the Andaman and Nicobar Islands has a plurality of Bengali speakers and is governed by India's federal government as a union territory.
Bangladeshi Republic
(the House of Bengal) is the presidential palace of Bangladesh|331x331px]]
The state of Bangladesh is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system, with a written constitution and a President elected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes. The government is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of Parliament in the Jatiyo Sangshad, the national parliament. The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Under the constitution, while recognising Islam as the country's established religion, the constitution grants freedom of religion to non-Muslims.
Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had a presidential system of government. Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocratic caretaker governments on four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008. The Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) are the two most dominant political parties in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh is a member of the UN, WTO, IMF, the World Bank, ADB, OIC, IDB, SAARC, BIMSTEC and the IMCTC. Bangladesh has achieved significant strides in human development compared to its neighbours.
Indian Bengal
, the official seat of the Government of West Bengal|328x328px]]
West Bengal is a constituent state of the Republic of India, with local executives and assemblies- features shared with other states in the Indian federal system. The president of India appoints a governor as the ceremonial representative of the union government. The governor appoints the chief minister on the nomination of the legislative assembly. The chief minister is the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the assembly. President's rule is often imposed in Indian states as a direct intervention of the union government led by the prime minister of India. The Bengali-speaking zone of India carries 48 seats in the lower house of India, Lok Sabha.
Each state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha. Each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, the Rajya Sabha.
The state legislative assemblies also play a key role in electing the ceremonial president of India. The former president of India, Pranab Mukherjee, was a native of West Bengal and a leader of the Indian National Congress. The current leader of opposition of India, Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury is from West Bengal. He has been elected from Baharampur Lok Sabha constituency.
The major political forces in the Bengali-speaking zone of India are the Left Front and the Trinamool Congress, the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party. The Bengali-speaking zone of India is considered stronghold for Communism in India. Bengalis are known not to vote on communal lines but in recent years this conception has how changed. The West Bengal based Trinamool Congress is now the third largest party of India in terms of number of MP or MLA after the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Indian National Congress. Earlier the Communist Party of India (Marxist) held this position. Crossborder relations
India and Bangladesh are the world's first and eighth most populous countries respectively. Bangladesh-India relations began on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in the liberation of Bangladesh, with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan. The two countries had a twenty five-year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996. However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long plagued the relationship. In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond. Commercial, cultural and defence co-operation have expanded since 2010, when Prime Ministers Sheikh Hasina and Manmohan Singh pledged to reinvigorate ties.
The Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission in Kolkata and a consular office in Agartala. India has a High Commission in Dhaka with consulates in Chittagong and Rajshahi. Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong. Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal. India has since fenced the border which has been criticised by Bangladesh. Economy
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The Ganges Delta provided advantages of fertile soil, ample water, and an abundance of fish, wildlife, and fruit. The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to the Delhi Sultanate, which ceased after the creation of the Bengal Sultanate and stopped the outflow of wealth. Ma Huan's travelogue recorded a booming shipbuilding industry and significant international trade in Bengal.
In 1338, Ibn Battuta noticed that the silver taka was the most popular currency in the region instead of the Islamic dinar. In 1415, members of Admiral Zheng He's entourage also noticed the dominance of the taka. The currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty for the Sultan of Bengal. The Sultanate of Bengal established an estimated 27 mints in provincial capitals across the kingdom. These provincial capitals were known as Mint Towns. These Mint Towns formed an integral aspect of governance and administration in Bengal.
The taka continued to be issued in Mughal Bengal, which inherited the sultanate's legacy. As Bengal became more prosperous and integrated into the world economy under Mughal rule, the taka replaced shell currency in rural areas and became the standardised legal tender. It was also used in commerce with the Dutch East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company and the British East India Company. Under Mughal rule, Bengal was the centre of the worldwide muslin trade. The muslin trade in Bengal was patronised by the Mughal imperial court. Muslin from Bengal was worn by aristocratic ladies in courts as far away as Europe, Persia and Central Asia. The treasury of the Nawab of Bengal was the biggest source of revenue for the imperial Mughal court in Delhi. Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250tons annually, which was higher than the volume of shipbuilding in the nineteen colonies of North America between 1769 and 1771.
The partition of India changed the economic geography of the region. Calcutta in West Bengal inherited a thriving industrial base from the colonial period, particularly in terms of jute processing. East Pakistan soon developed its industrial base, including the world's largest jute mill. In 1972, the newly independent government of Bangladesh nationalised 580 industrial plants. These industries were later privatised in the late 1970s as Bangladesh moved towards a market-oriented economy. Liberal reforms in 1991 paved the way for a major expansion of Bangladesh's private sector industry, including in telecoms, natural gas, textiles, pharmaceuticals, ceramics, steel and shipbuilding. In 2022, Bangladesh was the second largest economy in South Asia after India.
The region is one of the largest rice producing areas in the world, with West Bengal being India's largest rice producer and Bangladesh being the world's fourth largest rice producer. Three Bengali economists have been Nobel laureates, including Amartya Sen and Abhijit Banerjee who won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics and Muhammad Yunus who won the Nobel Peace Prize.
{| class"wikitable" border"1"
! Bengal
! Real Economy (Nominal <br /> GDP Per Capita) in 2023-2024)
! Nominal Economy <br /> (Nominal GDP in 2023-2024)
! Population <br /> (2021)
|-
| ''Bangladesh's Dhaka (Dhaka Municipal Corporation Area)
| $5,000
| $70 Billion
| 1.4 crore
|-
| West Bengal's Kolkata District (Kolkata Municipal Corporation Area)''
| $4,400
| $20 Billion
| 45 lakh
|-
| Bangladesh (East Bengal)
| $2,700
| $460 Billion
| 17 crore
|-
| India's West Bengal
| $2,400
| $240 Billion
| 10 crore
|-
|}
Stock markets
*Dhaka Stock Exchange
*Chittagong Stock Exchange
*Calcutta Stock Exchange
Ports and harbours
*Port of Chittagong
*Port of Kolkata
*Port of Mongla
*Port of Haldia
*Port of Payra
*Port of Pangaon
*Port of Farakka
*Port of Narayanganj
*Port of Ashuganj
*Port of Barisal
*Matarbari Port
*Land port of Benapole-Petrapole
Chambers of commerce
*Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry
*Bengal National Chamber of Commerce & Industry
*Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FBCCI)
*Chittagong Chamber of Commerce & Industry
*Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry (DCCI)
*Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI)
Intra-Bengal trade
Bangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an estimated US$16 billion. Most of this trade relationship is centred on some of the world's busiest land ports on the Bangladesh-India border. The Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative seeks to boost trade through a Regional Motor Vehicles Agreement.
Demographics
The Bengal region is one of the most densely populated areas in the world. With a population of 300 million, Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs.
According to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 149,772,364; however, CIA's The World Factbook gives 163,654,860 as its population in a July 2013 estimate. According to the provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census, West Bengal has a population of 91,347,736. "So, the Bengal region, , has at least 241.1 million people. This figures give a population density of 1003.9/km<sup>2</sup>; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world.
Bengali is the main language spoken in Bengal. Many phonological, lexical, and structural differences from the standard variety occur in peripheral varieties of Bengali across the region. Other regional languages closely related to Bengali include Sylheti, Chittagonian, Chakma, Rangpuri/Rajbangshi, Hajong, Rohingya, and Tangchangya.
According to the 2011 Indian census, 18% of the Bengali-speakers are bilingual of whom half can speak Hindi, and 5% are trilingual.
In general, Bengalis are followers of Islam, Hinduism, Christianity and Buddhism with a significant number are Irreligious.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Population trends for major religious groups in the Bengal region (West Bengal and Bangladesh) under the British India (1881-1941)
|- style="text-align: left;"
! Religious<br />group
! Population <br />% 1881
! Population <br />% 1891
! Population <br />% 1901
! Population <br />% 1911
! Population <br />% 1921
! Population <br />% 1931
! Population <br />% 1941
|-
! style="background: green; color: white;"| Islam
| 50.16% || 50.7% || 51.58% || 52.74% || 53.99% || 54.87% || 54.73%
|-
! style="background: Orange; color: white;"| Hinduism
| 48.45% || 47.27% || 46.60% || 44.80% || 43.27% || 43.04% || 41.55%
|-
! style="background: DodgerBlue; color: white;"| Christianity
| 0.2% || – || – || – || – || – || –
|-
! style="background: Yellow; color: white;"| Buddhism
| 0.69% || – || – || – || – || – || –
|-
! style="background: Silver;"| Other religions
| 0.5% || – || – || – || – || –
||-
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Bengal region religious diversity as per 2011 census
|-
! Religion
! Population
|-
| Muslims ()
| 159,274,952
|-
| Hindus ()
| 86,138,190
|-
| Christians ()
| 1,718,887
|-
| Buddhists ()
| 1,278,871
|-
| Other or no religion
| 1,707,917
|-
| Total
| 250,118,816
|}
In addition, several minority ethnolinguistic groups are native to the region. These include speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Bishnupriya Manipuri, Oraon Sadri, various Bihari languages), Tibeto-Burman languages (e.g., A'Tong, Chak, Koch, Garo, Megam, Meitei (officially called "Manipuri"), Mizo, Mru, Pangkhua, Rakhine/Marma, Kok Borok, Riang, Tippera, Usoi, various Chin languages), Austroasiatic languages (e.g., Khasi, Koda, Mundari, Pnar, Santali, War), and Dravidian languages (e.g., Kurukh, Sauria Paharia). and 70.2 for West Bengal. In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate, The level of poverty in West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9%
West Bengal has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India. West Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.
Major cities
The Bengal region is home to the some of major urban areas of the world, Dhaka is the 4th largest urban areas of the world. Kolkata is 17th largest urban area.
{| class="sortable wikitable"
|+ List of million plus urban areas of Bengal
|-
! Rank
! City
! Country
! data-sort-type="numeric" | Population (2024)
! Image
|-
| align="center" | 1 || Dhaka ||
| data-sort-value"1" | 23,936,000
| ]]
|-
| align="center" | 2 || Kolkata ||
| data-sort-value"2" | 15,571,000
| ]]
|-
| align="center" | 3 || Chittagong ||
| data-sort-value"3" | 5,514,000
| ]]
|-
| align="center" | 4 || Asansol ||
| data-sort-value"4" | 1,534,000
| ]]
|-
| align="center" | 5 || Siliguri ||
| data-sort-value"5" | 1,159,000
| ]]
|-
| align="center" | 6 || Khulna ||
| data-sort-value"6" | 1,005,000 (2016)
| ]]
|}
Culture
Language
]]
The Bengali language developed between the 7th and 10th centuries from Apabhraṃśa and Magadhi Prakrit. It is written using the indigenous Bengali alphabet, a descendant of the ancient Brahmi script. Bengali is the 5th most spoken language in the world. It is an eastern Indo-Aryan language and one of the easternmost branches of the Indo-European language family. It is part of the Bengali-Assamese languages. Bengali has greatly influenced other languages in the region, including Odia, Assamese, Chakma, Nepali and Rohingya. It is the sole state language of Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India. It is also the seventh most spoken language by total number of speakers in the world.
Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to regional identity. The 1952 Bengali Language Movement in East Pakistan is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day, as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity.
Currency
In both Bangladesh and West Bengal, currency is commonly denominated as taka. The Bangladesh taka is an official standard bearer of this tradition, while the Indian rupee is also written as taka in Bengali script on all of its banknotes. The history of the taka dates back centuries. Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin currencies in the first millennium BCE. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1329. Bengal became the stronghold of the taka. The silver currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty of the Sultanate of Bengal. It was traded on the Silk Road and replicated in Nepal and China's Tibetan protectorate. The Pakistani rupee was scripted in Bengali as taka on its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971.
Literature
, known as the Bengali Shakespeare, being hosted at the Parliament of Iran in the 1930s]]
Bengali literature has a rich heritage. It has a history stretching back to the 3rd century BCE, when the main language was Sanskrit written in the brahmi script. The Bengali language and script evolved from Magadhi Prakrit. Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the Chôrjapôdô, Mangalkavya, Shreekrishna Kirtana, Maimansingha Gitika or Thakurmar Jhuli. Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g. Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g. Alaol). During the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Satyendranath Dutta, Begum Rokeya and Jibanananda Das. In the 20th century, prominent modern Bengali writers included Syed Mujtaba Ali, Jasimuddin, Manik Bandopadhyay, Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Buddhadeb Bose, Sunil Gangopadhyay and Humayun Ahmed.
Prominent contemporary Bengali writers in English include Amitav Ghosh, Tahmima Anam, Jhumpa Lahiri and Zia Haider Rahman among others.
Personification
The Bangamata is a female personification of Bengal which was created during the Bengali Renaissance and later adopted by the Bengali nationalists. Hindu nationalists adopted a modified Bharat Mata as a national personification of India. The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the end of life. In Amar Sonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh, Rabindranath Tagore has used the word "Maa" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e. Bengal. Art
The Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a high point of classical Asian art. It included sculptures and paintings.
Islamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics and saris, notably the Jamdani, which received warrants from the Mughal court. The Bengal School of painting flourished in Kolkata and Shantiniketan in the British Raj during the early 20th century. Its practitioners were among the harbingers of modern painting in India. Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modern Bangladeshi art. The country has a thriving and internationally acclaimed contemporary art scene. Architecture
s originated from Bengali architecture]]
Classical Bengali architecture features terracotta buildings. Ancient Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for example, the Somapura Mahavihara). During the sultanate period, a distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the region. Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets. Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia at
Adina. Bengali vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of the bungalow.
The Bengal region also has a rich heritage of Indo-Saracenic architecture, including numerous zamindar palaces and mansions. The most prominent example of this style is the Victoria Memorial, Kolkata.
In the 1950s, Muzharul Islam pioneered the modernist terracotta style of architecture in South Asia. This was followed by the design of the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the renowned American architect Louis Kahn in the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage of Bengali architecture and geography.
Sciences
at Sears Tower in the United States]]
The Gupta dynasty, which is believed to have originated in North Bengal, pioneered the invention of chess, the concept of zero, the theory of Earth orbiting the Sun, the study of solar and lunar eclipses and the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama.
The educational reforms during the British Raj gave birth to many distinguished scientists in Bengal. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent. IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science. He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive a US patent, in 1904. In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka, Satyendra Nath Bose well known for his works in quantum mechanics, provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate. Meghnad Saha was the first scientist to relate a star's spectrum to its temperature, developing thermal ionization equations (notably the Saha ionization equation) that have been foundational in the fields of astrophysics and astrochemistry. Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri was a physicist, known for his research in general relativity and cosmology. His most significant contribution is the eponymous Raychaudhuri equation, which demonstrates that singularities arise inevitably in general relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems.
In the United States, the Bangladeshi-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan emerged as the "father of tubular designs" in skyscraper construction. Ashoke Sen is an Indian theoretical physicist whose main area of work is string theory. He was among the first recipients of the Fundamental Physics Prize "for opening the path to the realisation that all string theories are different limits of the same underlying theory".
Music
musician. The Baul ballads of Bangladesh are classified by UNESCO as humanity's intangible cultural heritage]]
The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music. The 19th century mystic poet Lalon Shah is the most celebrated practitioner of the tradition. Other folk music forms include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Hason Raja is a renowned folk poet of the Sylhet region. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. The region also has a rich heritage in North Indian classical music.
Cuisine
Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent. Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying that "fish and rice make a Bengali". Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes Hilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including Rôshogolla, Chômchôm, and several kinds of Pithe. The old city of Dhaka is noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, including biryani, bakarkhani and kebab dishes. Boats
]]
There are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the 700 rivers of the Bengal delta, the vast floodplain and many oxbow lakes. They vary in design and size. The boats include the dinghy and sampan among others. Country boats are a central element of Bengali culture and have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era. The country has a long shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries. Wooden boats are made of timber such as Jarul (dipterocarpus turbinatus), sal (shorea robusta), sundari (heritiera fomes), and Burma teak (tectons grandis). Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for the Mughal and Ottoman navies. The British Royal Navy later utilised Bengali shipyards in the 19th century, including for the Battle of Trafalgar. Attire Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi , often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the panjabi with dhoti or pyjama, often on religious occasions. The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.
Festivals
parade during the Bengali New Year in Bangladesh]]
For Bengali Muslims, the major religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Mawlid, Muharram, and Shab-e-Barat. For Bengali Hindus, the major religious festivals include Durga Puja, Kali Puja, Janmashtami and Rath Yatra. In honour of Bengali Buddhists and Bengali Christians, both Buddha's Birthday and Christmas are public holidays in the region. The Bengali New Year is the main secular festival of Bengali culture celebrated by people regardless of religious and social backgrounds. The biggest congregation in Bengal is the Bishwa ijtema, which is also the world's second largest Islamic congregation. Other Bengali festivals include the first day of spring and the Nabanna harvest festival in autumn.
Media
Bangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately owned press, with the largest circulated Bengali language newspapers in the world. English-language titles are popular in the urban readership. West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005, of which 430 were in Bengali.
See also
* Greater Bangladesh
* Bangladeshi diaspora
* List of Bengalis
* Zerat
Notes
References
External links
Category:Regions of Asia
Category:Geography of South Asia
Category:Geography of Bangladesh
B
Category:Regions of India
Category:Historical Indian regions
Category:Subdivisions of British India
Category:Historical regions
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Bucket argument
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Isaac Newton's rotating bucket argument (also known as '''Newton's bucket') is a thought experiment that was designed to demonstrate that true rotational motion cannot be defined as the relative rotation of the body with respect to the immediately surrounding bodies. It is one of five arguments from the "properties, causes, and effects" of "true motion and rest" that support his contention that, in general, true motion and rest cannot be defined as special instances of motion or rest relative to other bodies, but instead can be defined only by reference to absolute space. Alternatively, these experiments provide an operational definition of what is meant by "absolute rotation", and do not pretend to address the question of "rotation relative to what''?" General relativity dispenses with absolute space and with physics whose cause is external to the system, with the concept of geodesics of spacetime.
Background
These arguments, and a discussion of the distinctions between absolute and relative time, space, place and motion, appear in a scholium at the end of Definitions sections in Book I of Newton's work, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687) (not to be confused with General Scholium at the end of Book III), which established the foundations of classical mechanics and introduced his law of universal gravitation, which yielded the first quantitatively adequate dynamical explanation of planetary motion.
Despite their embrace of the principle of rectilinear inertia and the recognition of the kinematical relativity of apparent motion (which underlies whether the Ptolemaic or the Copernican system is correct), natural philosophers of the seventeenth century continued to consider true motion and rest as physically separate descriptors of an individual body. The dominant view Newton opposed was devised by René Descartes, and was supported (in part) by Gottfried Leibniz. It held that empty space is a metaphysical impossibility because space is nothing other than the extension of matter, or, in other words, that when one speaks of the space between things one is actually making reference to the relationship that exists between those things and not to some entity that stands between them. Concordant with the above understanding, any assertion about the motion of a body boils down to a description over time in which the body under consideration is at t<sub>1</sub> found in the vicinity of one group of "landmark" bodies and at some t<sub>2</sub> is found in the vicinity of some other "landmark" body or bodies.
Descartes recognized that there would be a real difference, however, between a situation in which a body with movable parts and originally at rest with respect to a surrounding ring was itself accelerated to a certain angular velocity with respect to the ring, and another situation in which the surrounding ring were given a contrary acceleration with respect to the central object. With sole regard to the central object and the surrounding ring, the motions would be indistinguishable from each other assuming that both the central object and the surrounding ring were absolutely rigid objects. However, if neither the central object nor the surrounding ring were absolutely rigid then the parts of one or both of them would tend to fly out from the axis of rotation.
For contingent reasons having to do with the Inquisition, Descartes spoke of motion as both absolute and relative.
By the late 19th century, the contention that all motion is relative was re-introduced, notably by Ernst Mach (1883).
The argument
Newton discusses a bucket () filled with water hung by a cord. If the cord is twisted up tightly on itself and then the bucket is released, it begins to spin rapidly, not only with respect to the experimenter, but also in relation to the water it contains. (This situation would correspond to diagram B above.)
Although the relative motion at this stage is the greatest, the surface of the water remains flat, indicating that the parts of the water have no tendency to recede from the axis of relative motion, despite proximity to the pail. Eventually, as the cord continues to unwind, the surface of the water assumes a concave shape as it acquires the motion of the bucket spinning relative to the experimenter. This concave shape shows that the water is rotating, despite the fact that the water is at rest relative to the pail. In other words, it is not the relative motion of the pail and water that causes concavity of the water, contrary to the idea that motions can only be relative, and that there is no absolute motion. (This situation would correspond to diagram D.) Possibly the concavity of the water shows rotation relative to something else: say absolute space? Newton says: "One can find out and measure the true and absolute circular motion of the water".
In the 1846 Andrew Motte translation of Newton's words:
The argument that the motion is absolute, not relative, is incomplete, as it limits the participants relevant to the experiment to only the pail and the water, a limitation that has not been established. In fact, the concavity of the water clearly involves gravitational attraction, and by implication the Earth also is a participant. Here is a critique due to Mach arguing that only relative motion is established:
The degree in which Mach's hypothesis is integrated in general relativity is discussed in the article Mach's principle; it is generally held that general relativity is not entirely Machian.
All observers agree that the surface of rotating water is curved. However, the explanation of this curvature involves centrifugal force for all observers with the exception of a truly stationary observer, who finds the curvature is consistent with the rate of rotation of the water as they observe it, with no need for an additional centrifugal force. Thus, a stationary frame can be identified, and it is not necessary to ask "Stationary with respect to what?":
A supplementary thought experiment with the same objective of determining the occurrence of absolute rotation also was proposed by Newton: the example of observing two identical spheres in rotation about their center of gravity and tied together by a string. Occurrence of tension in the string is indicative of absolute rotation; see Rotating spheres.
Detailed analysis
liquids rotating around a vertical axis is an upward-opening circular paraboloid.]]
The historic interest of the rotating bucket experiment is its usefulness in suggesting one can detect absolute rotation by observation of the shape of the surface of the water. However, one might question just how rotation brings about this change. Below are two approaches to understanding the concavity of the surface of rotating water in a bucket.
Newton's laws of motion
The shape of the surface of a rotating liquid in a bucket can be determined using Newton's laws for the various forces on an element of the surface. For example, see Knudsen and Hjorth. The analysis begins with the free body diagram in the co-rotating frame where the water appears stationary. The height of the water h h(r) is a function of the radial distance r from the axis of rotation Ω, and the aim is to determine this function. An element of water volume on the surface is shown to be subject to three forces: the vertical force due to gravity F<sub>g</sub>, the horizontal, radially outward centrifugal force F<sub>Cfgl</sub>, and the force normal to the surface of the water F<sub>n</sub> due to the rest of the water surrounding the selected element of surface. The force due to surrounding water is known to be normal to the surface of the water because a liquid in equilibrium cannot support shear stresses. To quote Anthony and Brackett:
Moreover, because the element of water does not move, the sum of all three forces must be zero. To sum to zero, the force of the water must point oppositely to the sum of the centrifugal and gravity forces, which means the surface of the water must adjust so its normal points in this direction. (A very similar problem is the design of a banked turn, where the slope of the turn is set so a car will not slide off the road. The analogy in the case of rotating bucket is that the element of water surface will "slide" up or down the surface unless the normal to the surface aligns with the vector resultant formed by the vector addition F<sub>g</sub> + F<sub>Cfgl</sub>.)
As r increases, the centrifugal force increases according to the relation (the equations are written per unit mass):
:<math>F_{\mathrm{Cfgl}} = m \Omega^2 r \ , </math>
where Ω is the constant rate of rotation of the water. The gravitational force is unchanged at
:<math>F_{\mathrm{g}} = mg \ , </math>
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. These two forces add to make a resultant at an angle φ from the vertical given by
:<math>\tan \varphi \frac{F_{\mathrm{Cfgl}}}{F_{\mathrm{g}}} \frac {\Omega^2 r}{g} \ ,</math>
which clearly becomes larger as r increases. To ensure that this resultant is normal to the surface of the water, and therefore can be effectively nulled by the force of the water beneath, the normal to the surface must have the same angle, that is,
:<math>\tan \varphi = \frac{\mathrm{d}h}{\mathrm{d}r} \ , </math>
leading to the ordinary differential equation for the shape of the surface:
:<math>\frac{\mathrm{d}h}{\mathrm{d}r} = \frac {\Omega^2 r}{g} \ ,</math>
or, integrating:
:<math> h(r) =h(0) + \frac{1}{2g} \left( \Omega r \right)^2 \ ,</math>
where h(0) is the height of the water at r 0. In other words, the surface of the water is parabolic in its dependence upon the radius.Potential energy
The shape of the water's surface can be found in a different, very intuitive way using the interesting idea of the potential energy associated with the centrifugal force in the co-rotating frame.
In a reference frame uniformly rotating at angular rate Ω, the fictitious centrifugal force is conservative and has a potential energy of the form:
:<math>{U}_{\mathrm{Cfgl}} = -\frac{1}{2} m \Omega^2 r^2 \ ,</math>
where r is the radius from the axis of rotation. This result can be verified by taking the gradient of the potential to obtain the radially outward force:
:<math> F_{\mathrm{Cfgl}} -\frac{\partial}{\partial r} {U}_{\mathrm{Cfgl}} </math> <math> m \Omega^2 r \ . </math>
The meaning of the potential energy (stored work) is that movement of a test body from a larger radius to a smaller radius involves doing work against the centrifugal force and thus gaining potential energy. But this test body at the smaller radius where its elevation is lower has now lost equivalent gravitational potential energy.
Potential energy therefore explains the concavity of the water surface in a rotating bucket. Notice that at equilibrium the surface adopts a shape such that an element of volume at any location on its surface has the same potential energy as at any other. That being so, no element of water on the surface has any incentive to move position, because all positions are equivalent in energy. That is, equilibrium is attained. On the other hand, were surface regions with lower energy available, the water occupying surface locations of higher potential energy would move to occupy these positions of lower energy, inasmuch as there is no barrier to lateral movement in an ideal liquid.
We might imagine deliberately upsetting this equilibrium situation by somehow momentarily altering the surface shape of the water to make it different from an equal-energy surface. This change in shape would not be stable, and the water would not stay in our artificially contrived shape, but engage in a transient exploration of many shapes until non-ideal frictional forces introduced by sloshing, either against the sides of the bucket or by the non-ideal nature of the liquid, killed the oscillations and the water settled down to the equilibrium shape.
To see the principle of an equal-energy surface at work, imagine gradually increasing the rate of rotation of the bucket from zero. The water surface is flat at first, and clearly a surface of equal potential energy because all points on the surface are at the same height in the gravitational field acting upon the water. At some small angular rate of rotation, however, an element of surface water can achieve lower potential energy by moving outward under the influence of the centrifugal force; think of an object moving with the force of gravity closer to the Earth's center: the object lowers its potential energy by complying with a force. Because water is incompressible and must remain within the confines of the bucket, this outward movement increases the depth of water at the larger radius, increasing the height of the surface at larger radius, and lowering it at smaller radius. The surface of the water becomes slightly concave, with the consequence that the potential energy of the water at the greater radius is increased by the work done against gravity to achieve the greater height. As the height of water increases, movement toward the periphery becomes no longer advantageous, because the reduction in potential energy from working with the centrifugal force is balanced against the increase in energy working against gravity. Thus, at a given angular rate of rotation, a concave surface represents the stable situation, and the more rapid the rotation, the more concave this surface. If rotation is arrested, the energy stored in fashioning the concave surface must be dissipated, for example through friction, before an equilibrium flat surface is restored.
To implement a surface of constant potential energy quantitatively, let the height of the water be <math>h(r)\,</math>: then the potential energy per unit mass contributed by gravity is <math>g h(r) \ </math> and the total potential energy per unit mass on the surface is
:<math>{U} = {U}_0 + gh(r) - \frac{1}{2}\Omega^2 r^2\,</math>
with <math>{U}_0</math> the background energy level independent of r. In a static situation (no motion of the fluid in the rotating frame), this energy is constant independent of position r. Requiring the energy to be constant, we obtain the parabolic form:
:<math>h(r) = \frac{\Omega^2}{2g}r^2 + h(0) \ , </math>
where h(0) is the height at r = 0 (the axis). See Figures 1 and 2.
The principle of operation of the centrifuge also can be simply understood in terms of this expression for the potential energy, which shows that it is favorable energetically when the volume far from the axis of rotation is occupied by the heavier substance.
See also
*Centrifugal force
*Inertial frame of reference
*Mach's principle
*Philosophy of space and time: Absolutism vs. relationalism
*Rotating reference frame
*Rotating spheres
*Rotational gravity
*Sagnac effect
References
Further reading
*
* The isotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation is another indicator that the universe does not rotate. See:
**
**
** External links
*[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/ Newton's Views on Space, Time, and Motion] from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article by Robert Rynasiewicz. At the end of this article, loss of fine distinctions in the translations as compared to the original Latin text is discussed.
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/leib-met.htm Life and Philosophy of Leibniz] see section on Space, Time and Indiscernibles for Leibniz arguing against the idea of space acting as a causal agent.
*[https://www.geogebra.org/m/mhhsqnpb Newton's Bucket] An interactive applet illustrating the water shape, and an attached PDF file with a mathematical derivation of a more complete water-shape model than is given in this article.
Category:Classical mechanics
Category:Isaac Newton
Category:Thought experiments in physics
Category:Rotation
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Roman Breviary
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).]]
The Roman Breviary (Latin: Breviarium Romanum) is a breviary of the Roman Rite in the Catholic Church. A liturgical book, it contains public or canonical prayers, hymns, the Psalms, readings, and notations for everyday use, especially by bishops, priests, and deacons in the Divine Office (i.e., at the canonical hours, the Christians' daily prayer).
The volume containing the daily hours of Catholic prayer was published as the Breviarium Romanum (Roman Breviary) from its editio princeps in 1568 under Pope Pius V until the reforms of Paul VI (1974), when replaced by the Liturgy of the Hours.
In the course of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, Pope Pius V (r. 1566–1572) imposed the use of the Roman Breviary, mainly based on the Breviarium secundum usum Romanae Curiae, on the Latin Church of the Catholic Church. Exceptions are the Benedictines and Dominicans, who have breviaries of their own,Historypersonal breviary, which she took with her to the scaffold, is preserved in the National Library of Russia of St. Petersburg]]Early history
The canonical hours of the Breviary owe their remote origin to the Old Covenant when God commanded the Aaronic priests to offer morning and evening sacrifices. Other inspiration may have come from David's words in the Psalms "Seven times a day I praise you" (Ps. 119:164), as well as, "the just man meditates on the law day and night" (Ps. 1:2). Regarding Daniel "Three times daily he was kneeling and offering prayers and thanks to his God" (Dan. 6:10).
In the early days of Christian worship the Sacred Scriptures furnished all that was thought necessary, containing as it did the books from which the lessons were read and the psalms that were recited. The first step in the evolution of the Breviary was the separation of the Psalter into a choir-book. At first the president of the local church (bishop) or the leader of the choir chose a particular psalm as he thought appropriate. From about the 4th century certain psalms began to be grouped together, a process that was furthered by the monastic practice of daily reciting the 150 psalms. This took so much time that the monks began to spread it over a week, dividing each day into hours, and allotting to each hour its portion of the Psalter. St Benedict in the 6th century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not certainly, on the basis of an older Roman division which, though not so skilful, is the one in general use. Gradually there were added to these psalter choir-books additions in the form of antiphons, responses, collects or short prayers, for the use of those not skilful at improvisation and metrical compositions. Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives the following list of books necessary for the right conduct of the canonical office: the Antiphonarium, the Old and New Testaments, the Passionarius (liber) and the Legendarius (dealing respectively with martyrs and saints), the Homiliarius (homilies on the Gospels), the Sermologus (collection of sermons) and the works of the Fathers, besides the Psalterium and the Collectarium. To overcome the inconvenience of using such a library the Breviary came into existence and use. Already in the 9th century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in a Breviarium Psalterii made an abridgment of the Psalter for the laity, giving a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a similar service by including a prayer for each day and some other prayers, but no lessons or homilies.
In his apostolic letter Summorum Pontificum, Pope Benedict XVI allowed clerics to fulfill their obligation of prayer using the 1962 edition of the Roman Breviary in lieu of the Liturgy of the Hours.
Contents of the Roman Breviary
At the beginning stands the usual introductory matter, such as the tables for determining the date of Easter, the calendar, and the general rubrics. The Breviary itself is divided into four seasonal parts—winter, spring, summer, autumn—and comprises under each part: Several editions of the Pius X Breviary were produced during the twentieth century, including a notable edition prepared with the assistance of the sisters of Stanbrook Abbey in the 1950s. Two editions in English and Latin were produced in the following decade, which conformed to the rubrics of 1960, published by Liturgical Press and Benziger in the United States. These used the Pius XII psalter. Baronius Press's revised edition of the Liturgical Press edition uses the older Gallican psalter of St. Jerome. This edition was published and released in 2012 for pre-orders only. In 2013, the publication has resumed printing and is available on Baronius' website.
Under Pope Benedict XVI's motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, Catholic bishops, priests, and deacons are again permitted to use the 1961 edition of the Roman Breviary, promulgated by Pope John XXIII to satisfy their obligation to recite the Divine Office every day.
Online resources
In 2008, a website containing the Divine Office (both Ordinary and Extraordinary) in various languages, i-breviary, was launched, which combines the modern and ancient breviaries with the latest computer technology.
Editions
*1482. Breviarium Romanum. Albi, Johann Neumeister.
*1494. Breviarium Romanum, Lyon, Perrinus Lathomi, Bonifacius Johannis & Johannes de Villa Veteri.
*1502, Breviarium secundum comunem usus Romanum, Paris, Thielman Kerver.
*1508. Breviarium secundum consuetudinem Romanam. Paris, Jean Philippe Jean Botcholdic, Gherard Berneuelt.
*1509. Brevarium secundum ritum sacronsancte Romane ecclesie, Lyon, Ettienne Baland, Martin Boillon
*1534. Breviarium Romanum, Paris, Yolande Bonhomme.
*1535. Quignonius Breviary
*:1535. Breviarium Romanum Ex Decreto Sancrosancti Concilii Tridentini Restitutum ... editum et recognitum iuxta editionem venetiis
*:1536. Breviarium Romanum, nuper reformatum, in quo sacræ Scripturæ libri, probatæque Sanctorum historiæ eleganter beneque dispositæ leguntur; studio & labore Francisci Quignonii, Card. de licentia & facultate Pauli III. Pont. Max., Paris: Galliot du Pré, Jean Kerbriant, Jean Petit
*:1537. Breviarium Romanum nuper reformatum, Paris, Yolande Bonhomme.
*::[https://books.google.com/books?id=3A0NAAAAIAAJ The second recension of the Quignon breviary] (ed. 1908)
*1570. Pian Breviary (Pius V, Council of Trent)
*:1570. Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, Pii V pontificis maximi jussu editum [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10147678?page=5 Rome, Paulus Manutius]; Antwerp, Christophe Plantin.
*1629. Urban VIII
*:1698. Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, et Clementis VIII et Urbani VIII auctoritate recognitum, cum officiis sanctorum, novissime per Summos Pontifices usque ad hanc diem concessis; in quatuor Anni Tempora divisum.
*::[https://books.google.com/books?idNklmAAAAcAAJ pars Autumnalis (1697)][https://books.google.com/books?idrvU-AAAAcAAJ (1698)]
*::[https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3ohKfbpmsYC pars Autumnalis (1719)].
*1740.Breviarium Romanum cum Psalterium, proprio,& Officiis Sanctorum ad usum cleri Basilicae Vaticanae
*:[https://books.google.com/books?id=5M0HAAAAQAAJ pars Autumnalis (1740)]
*:[https://books.google.com/books?id=hM0HAAAAQAAJ pars Aestiva (1740)]
*1757. Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, et Clementis VIII et Urbani VIII auctoritate recognitum, novis Officiis ex Indulto Apostolico huc usque concessis auctum
*:[https://books.google.com/books?id=aT9PAAAAcAAJ pars Aestivus (1757)]
*1799. Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, et Clementis VIII et Urbani VIII auctoritate recognitum, com officiis sanctorum, novissime per Summos Pontifices usque ad hanc diem concessis, in quatuor Anni Tempora divisum
*:[https://books.google.com/books?id=gYIPAAAAIAAJ pars Verna]
*:[https://books.google.com/books?id=GokPAAAAIAAJ pars Autumnalis]
*:[https://books.google.com/books?id=8L8PAAAAIAAJ pars Hiemalis]
*1828.
*:[https://books.google.com/books?id=LHndj67Yb14C pars Autumnalis (1828)]
*:[https://books.google.com/books?id=LHndj67Yb14C pars Aestiva (1828)]
*1861.
*:[https://books.google.com/books?id=fiYBAAAAQAAJ pars Autumnalis (1861)]
*1888.
*:[https://archive.org/details/p2breviariumroma00cathuoft pars Verna (1888)]
*1908: Reform of the Roman Breviary by Pope Pius X
*:[https://archive.org/details/theromanbreviary01unknuoft The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Winter (part 1)]
*:[https://archive.org/details/theromanbreviary02unknuoft The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Spring (part 2)]
*:[https://archive.org/details/romanbreviary03unknuoft The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Summer (part 3)]
*:[https://archive.org/details/romanbreviary04unknuoft The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Autumn/Fall (part 4)]
*:[http://www.traditio.com/off.htm Canonical Hours according to the 1911 Breviarium Romanum without the festal propers of Common of the Saints (traditio.com)]
*1960 (Vatican II).
*:The Roman Breviary in English and Latin: A Bilingual Edition of the Breviarium Romanum with Rubrics in English Only, Baronius Press (2011), 3 vols.
*:[https://divinumofficium.com/www/horas/Help/Rubrics/Breviary%201960.html divinumofficinum.com]
*1974:
*:[http://www.universalis.com/ Universalis Online Breviary]
<!--
Breviaries according Pre-Tridentine usages outside of Rome (pre-Vatican II)
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=iNw-AAAAYAAJ Breviarium Ordinis fratrum beatissimae Virginis Mariae de monte Carmelo, Pars Heimalis(Carmelite Breviary)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=68w-AAAAYAAJ Breviarium Ordinis fratrum beatissimae Virginis Mariae de monte Carmelo, Pars Aestiva (Carmelite Breviary)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=7qspAAAAYAAJ Breviarium Cisterciense Reformatum (The Cistercian Breviary)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=gxoUAAAAQAAJ Breviarium monasticum juxta regulam s. patris Benedicti, ad usum, Pars Verna (The Monastic Breviary according to the Benedictine Usage)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=1RoUAAAAQAAJ Breviarium monasticum juxta regulam s. patris Benedicti, ad usum, Pars Autumnalis]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=8RoUAAAAQAAJ Breviarium monasticum juxta regulam s. patris Benedicti, ad usum, Pars Hyemalis]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=shoUAAAAQAAJ Breviarium monasticum juxta regulam s. patris Benedicti, ad usum, Pars Aestiva]
*[https://archive.org/details/breviariumaberdo00cath Breviarium Aberdonense (The Aberdeen Breviary)]
*[https://archive.org/details/colbertinebrevia43cathuoft The Colbertine Breviary]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ng4NAAAAIAAJ The Hereford Breviary]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=VMHtp2su3c8C Breviarium ad usum insignis ecclesiae Sarum (The Sarum Breviary)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=WPq4pfjoSZsC Breviarium ad usum insignis Ecclesie Eboracensis (The York Breviary)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=yusCAAAAQAAJ Breviary offices from lauds to compline inclusive, tr. from the Sarum book supplemented by Gallican and Monastic Uses]
*[https://books.google.com/books?qbreviarium&as_brr1&lr&saN&start=40 Breviaries according the diocesan usages of France including that of Nantes, Orleans, Rheims, etc.]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=i5sEAAAAQAAJ Breviarium Parisiense, Pars Verna (The Paris Breviary)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=cTIo-5WSylgC Breviarium Gothicum (The Mozarabic Breviary part 1)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=tRCtEGo_VvsC Breviarium Gothicum (The Mozarabic Breviary part 2)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=HCcBAAAAQAAJ Breviarium Sacrum Ordinum Cartusiensis (The Carthusian Breviary)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=hM8HAAAAQAAJ Breviarium Ambrosianum]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=p8YHAAAAQAAJ Breviarium juxta ritum sacri Ordinis prædicatorum (Dominican Breviary)]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=L9oGAAAAQAAJ Breviarium canonicorum regularium Ordinis Præmonstratensis. Pars hyemalis (Praemonstratensian Breviary)]
-->
See also
* Book of Hours
* Canonical Hours
* Horologion
* Latin psalters
* Little Office of Our Lady
* Liturgical books of the Roman Rite
* Liturgy of the Hours
<!--desiderata
Breviary of Cluny;
Brigittine Breviary;
Breviary of St. Bernard;
Durham Breviary;
Hereford Breviary;
Breviary of Rouen;
Sarum Breviary;
-->
References
External links
*[http://www.gregorianbooks.com/gregorian/www/www.kellerbook.com/SCHEMA~1.HTM Psalter Schemas (Catholic), from 1900-Present]
*[http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-DD-00005-00005/1 14th century breviary made in Paris for Marie de Saint Pol, Countess of Pembroke, Cambridge University Library]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110218052112/http://cdi.uvm.edu/collections/getCollection.xql?pidmanuscripts&titleMedieval%20and%20Renaissance%20Manuscripts 14th century breviary written in Gothic Textualis script, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries]
Category:Catholic breviaries
Category:Roman Rite liturgical books
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Breviary
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Boomer (disambiguation)
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A boomer, or baby boomer, is a child born between 1946 and 1964.
Boomer may refer to:
People
Boomers (Oklahoma settlers), two groups of settlers
Boomer (surname)
Boomer (nickname)
Places
Boomer Township, Pottawattamie County, Iowa
Boomer Township, Wilkes County, North Carolina
Boomer, Missouri
Boomer, West Virginia, a census-designated place
Boomer Lake, an artificial reservoir in Stillwater, Oklahoma
Boomer Island (Tasmania), Australia
Animals
An adult male kangaroo, nicknamed "boomer" in Australia
An alternate name for the mountain beaver
A colloquial name for the American red squirrel
The greater prairie chicken, a type of grouse native to North America
Marc Maron's cat
Characters
Comics
Owen Mercer, the current Captain Boomerang in the DC Comics universe, nicknamed "Boomer"
Rotor Walrus, a character from Sonic the Hedgehog, nicknamed "Boomer" in early issues
Tabitha Smith, a Marvel Comics comic book superhero, formerly called Boomer
Boomer, a canine character, Poncho's best friend, in Pooch Café
Video games
Boomers, a faction of xenophobic people in Fallout: New Vegas
The Boomer, a recurring Special Infected in the Left 4 Dead series
Boomers, heavily armored soldiers of the locust horde in the Gears of War series
Boomer, a character in the Skylanders video game, known for wielding explosives enthusiastically
Boomer, a playable clown character in the Ballz fighting game
Boomer, a character that appeared in Super Mario RPG
Boomer, a pixl in the game Super Paper Mario
Boomer, a canine side-kick in Far Cry 5
Boomer, a Bot in Rocket League
Television
Lieutenant Boomer, a character in the 1978 television series Battlestar Galactica
Sharon Valerii, a character in the 2004 television series Battlestar Galactica, call-sign "Boomer"
Dr. Jack "Boomer" Morrison, a character on the U.S. television show St. Elsewhere
Boomer, an anthropomorphic tug boat from the 1989 TV series, Tugs
Boomer (Bubblegum Crisis), a fictional synthetic life form in the anime series Bubblegum Crisis
Boomer, the blond member of the Rowdyruff Boys, a trio of villains in the animated series The Powerpuff Girls
Boomer Bledsoe, a member of Roger Klotz' gang in the animated series Doug
Boomer, the title character, a dog, in the 1980 TV series Here's Boomer
Boomer Parker, one of the twin protagonists of the American sitcom Pair of Kings
Boomer, one of the main protagonists in the TV series Redakai: Conquer the Kairu
Sue "Boomer" Jenkins, a character in the Australian drama series Wentworth
Boomers (TV series), a 2014 BBC One television comedy series
Others
Boomer, a woodpecker in the 1981 animated Disney film The Fox and the Hound
Captain Boomer, a British whaling ship captain who appears briefly in Herman Melville's Moby-Dick
Boomer, the redhead tomboy in Burger King Kids Club advertising
Boomer, a monument statue by western artist Harold T. Holden, located in Enid, Oklahoma, dedicated in 1987
Boomers, a tentative title for the role-playing game Rifts
Coach Boomer, aka Sonic Boom; the coach in the 2005 film Sky High
Boomer Badger, character from the National Wildlife Federation's Ranger Rick magazine
A main character from Wonder Park
Sports
Teams
Australia men's national basketball team, officially nicknamed "Australian Boomers"
Bulleen Boomers, a basketball club based in Bulleen, a north-eastern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Calgary Boomers, a former professional soccer team in Canada
Melbourne Boomers, an Australian women's basketball club
Schaumburg Boomers, a Frontier League baseball team based in Schaumburg, Illinois
Mascots
Boomer (mascot), the mascot of the NBA's Indiana Pacers
Boomer, mascot of the Missouri State University Bears
Boomer, mascot of the Port Vale F.C., an association football (soccer) club
Boomer Baller, mascot of the Kannapolis Cannon Ballers minor league baseball team
Boomer the Bear, mascot of the Western Hockey League's Spokane Chiefs
Boomer the Bulldog, mascot for Dean College's sports teams
Boomer and Sooner, mascots for the University of Oklahoma's sports teams
Buzz and Boomer, mascots of the Canadian Football League's Winnipeg Blue Bombers
In the military
A ballistic missile submarine in American naval slang
VT-27, a US Navy training squadron nicknamed the "Boomers"
Other uses
The Boomers (band), a Canadian rock band from Ontario
Boomers! Parks, a theme park / family entertainment center chain
Boomer, a freeware pharmacokinetic modeling software
See also
Boom (disambiguation)
Boom Boom (disambiguation)
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B. F. Skinner
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| birth_date
| birth_name = Burrhus Frederic Skinner
| birth_place = Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, U.S.
| death_date
| death_place = Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.
| field = Psychology, linguistics, philosophy
| work_institutions = University of Minnesota<br/>Indiana University<br/>Harvard University
| alma_mater = Hamilton College (AB)<br/>Harvard University (PhD)
| known_for = Behavior analysis<br />Operant conditioning<br />Radical behaviorism<br />Verbal Behavior (1957)
| prizes = National Medal of Science (1968)
| signature = BF Skinner signature.svg
| spouse
| children = Julie and Deborah
}}
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, inventor, and social philosopher. He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.
Skinner developed behavior analysis, especially the philosophy of radical behaviorism, and founded the experimental analysis of behavior, a school of experimental research psychology. He also used operant conditioning to strengthen behavior, considering the rate of response to be the most effective measure of response strength. To study operant conditioning, he invented the operant conditioning chamber (aka the Skinner box), and to measure rate he invented the cumulative recorder. Using these tools, he and Charles Ferster produced Skinner's most influential experimental work, outlined in their 1957 book Schedules of Reinforcement.
Skinner was a prolific author, publishing 21 books and 180 articles. He imagined the application of his ideas to the design of a human community in his 1948 utopian novel, Walden Two,
Skinner, John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov, are considered to be the pioneers of modern behaviorism. Accordingly, a June 2002 survey listed Skinner as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century. Early life Skinner was born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, to Grace and William Skinner, the latter of whom was a lawyer. Skinner became an atheist after a Christian teacher tried to assuage his fear of the hell that his grandmother described. His brother Edward, two and a half years younger, died at age 16 of a cerebral hemorrhage.
Skinner's closest friend as a young boy was Raphael Miller, whom he called Doc because his father was a doctor. Doc and Skinner became friends due to their parents' religiousness and both had an interest in contraptions and gadgets. They had set up a telegraph line between their houses to send messages to each other, although they had to call each other on the telephone due to the confusing messages sent back and forth. During one summer, Doc and Skinner started an elderberry business to gather berries and sell them door to door. They found that when they picked the ripe berries, the unripe ones came off the branches too, so they built a device that was able to separate them. The device was a bent piece of metal to form a trough. They would pour water down the trough into a bucket, and the ripe berries would sink into the bucket and the unripe ones would be pushed over the edge to be thrown away. Education Skinner attended Hamilton College in Clinton, New York, with the intention of becoming a writer. He found himself at a social disadvantage at the college because of his intellectual attitude. He was a member of Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity. In 1945, he moved to Indiana University, where he was chair of the psychology department from 1946 to 1947, before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in 1948. He remained at Harvard for the rest of his life. In 1973, Skinner was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II.
Personal life
In 1936, Skinner married Yvonne "Eve" Blue. The couple had two daughters, Julie (later Vargas) and Deborah (later Buzan; married Barry Buzan). Yvonne died in 1997, and is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Contributions to psychology
Behaviorism
Skinner referred to his approach to the study of behavior as radical behaviorism, which originated in the early 1900s as a reaction to depth psychology and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally. This philosophy of behavioral science assumes that behavior is a consequence of environmental histories of reinforcement (see applied behavior analysis). In his words:
2. Control of operant behavior
The second question, "how is operant behavior controlled?" arises because, to begin with, the behavior is "emitted" without reference to any particular stimulus. Skinner answered this question by saying that a stimulus comes to control an operant if it is present when the response is reinforced and absent when it is not. For example, if lever-pressing only brings food when a light is on, a rat, or a child, will learn to press the lever only when the light is on. Skinner summarized this relationship by saying that a discriminative stimulus (e.g. light or sound) sets the occasion for the reinforcement (food) of the operant (lever-press). This three-term contingency (stimulus-response-reinforcer) is one of Skinner's most important concepts, and sets his theory apart from theories that use only pair-wise associations. Complex behavior often appears suddenly in its final form, as when a person first finds his way to the elevator by following instructions given at the front desk. To account for such behavior, Skinner introduced the concept of rule-governed behavior. First, relatively simple behaviors come under the control of verbal stimuli: the child learns to "jump," "open the book," and so on. After a large number of responses come under such verbal control, a sequence of verbal stimuli can evoke an almost unlimited variety of complex responses. Extinction is the absence of a rewarding stimulus, which weakens behavior.
Writing in 1981, Skinner pointed out that Darwinian natural selection is, like reinforced behavior, "selection by consequences". Though, as he said, natural selection has now "made its case," he regretted that essentially the same process, "reinforcement", was less widely accepted as underlying human behavior. Schedules of reinforcement
Skinner recognized that behavior is typically reinforced more than once, and, together with Charles Ferster, he did an extensive analysis of the various ways in which reinforcements could be arranged over time, calling it the schedules of reinforcement.
* Interval schedule: based on the time intervals between reinforcements.Verbal Behavior
Verbal Behavior}}
Challenged by Alfred North Whitehead during a casual discussion while at Harvard to provide an account of a randomly provided piece of verbal behavior, Skinner set about attempting to extend his then-new functional, inductive approach to the complexity of human verbal behavior. Developed over two decades, his work appeared in the book Verbal Behavior. Although Noam Chomsky was highly critical of Verbal Behavior, he conceded that Skinner's "S-R psychology" was worth a review. Behavior analysts reject Chomsky's appraisal of Skinner's work as merely "stimulus-response psychology," and some have argued that this mischaracterization highlights a poor understanding of Skinner's work and the field of behavior analysis as a whole.
Verbal Behavior had an uncharacteristically cool reception, partly as a result of Chomsky's review, partly because of Skinner's failure to address or rebut any of Chomsky's criticisms. Skinner's peers may have been slow to adopt the ideas presented in Verbal Behavior because of the absence of experimental evidence—unlike the empirical density that marked Skinner's experimental work.Scientific inventions Operant conditioning chamber
An operant conditioning chamber (also known as a "Skinner box") is a laboratory apparatus used in the experimental analysis of animal behavior. It was invented by Skinner while he was a graduate student at Harvard University. As used by Skinner, the box had a lever (for rats), or a disk in one wall (for pigeons). A press on this "manipulandum" could deliver food to the animal through an opening in the wall, and responses reinforced in this way increased in frequency. By controlling this reinforcement together with discriminative stimuli such as lights and tones, or punishments such as electric shocks, experimenters have used the operant box to study a wide variety of topics, including schedules of reinforcement, discriminative control, delayed response ("memory"), punishment, and so on. By channeling research in these directions, the operant conditioning chamber has had a huge influence on course of research in animal learning and its applications. It enabled great progress on problems that could be studied by measuring the rate, probability, or force of a simple, repeatable response. However, it discouraged the study of behavioral processes not easily conceptualized in such terms—spatial learning, in particular, which is now studied in quite different ways, for example, by the use of the water maze. Skinner's major experimental exploration of response rates, presented in his book with Charles Ferster, Schedules of Reinforcement, is full of cumulative records produced by this device. Though this was the main goal, it also was designed to reduce laundry, diaper rash, and cradle cap, while still allowing the baby to be more mobile and comfortable. Reportedly it had some success in these goals as it was advertised commercially with an estimate of 300 children who were raised in the air crib. Psychology Today tracked down 50 children and ran a short piece on the effects of the air crib. The reports came back positive and that these children and parents enjoyed using the crib (Epstein, 2005). One of these air cribs resides in the gallery at the Center for the History of Psychology in Akron, Ohio (Faye, 2010). A picture published with the article showed the Skinners' daughter, Deborah, peering out of the crib with her hands and face pressed upon the glass. Skinner also used the term "experiment" when describing the crib, and this association with laboratory animal experimentation discouraged the crib's commercial success, although several companies attempted to produce and sell it.
In 2004, therapist Lauren Slater repeated a claim that Skinner may have used his baby daughter in some of his experiments. His outraged daughter publicly accused Slater of not making a good-faith effort to check her facts before publishing. Debora was quoted by the Guardian saying "According to ''Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century'', my father, who was a psychologist based at Harvard from the 1950s to the 90s, "used his infant daughter, Deborah, to prove his theories by putting her for a few hours a day in a laboratory box . . . in which all her needs were controlled and shaped". But it's not true. My father did nothing of the sort."
Teaching machine
]]
The teaching machine was a mechanical device whose purpose was to administer a curriculum of programmed learning. The machine embodies key elements of Skinner's theory of learning and had important implications for education in general and classroom instruction in particular.
In one incarnation, the machine was a box that housed a list of questions that could be viewed one at a time through a small window. (see picture.) There was also a mechanism through which the learner could respond to each question. Upon delivering a correct answer, the learner would be rewarded.
Skinner advocated the use of teaching machines for a broad range of students (e.g., preschool aged to adult) and instructional purposes (e.g., reading and music). For example, one machine that he envisioned could teach rhythm. He wrote:The instructional potential of the teaching machine stemmed from several factors: it provided automatic, immediate and regular reinforcement without the use of aversive control; the material presented was coherent, yet varied and novel; the pace of learning could be adjusted to suit the individual. As a result, students were interested, attentive, and learned efficiently by producing the desired behavior, "learning by doing."
Teaching machines, though perhaps rudimentary, were not rigid instruments of instruction. They could be adjusted and improved based upon the students' performance. For example, if a student made many incorrect responses, the machine could be reprogrammed to provide less advanced prompts or questions—the idea being that students acquire behaviors most efficiently if they make few errors. Multiple-choice formats were not well-suited for teaching machines because they tended to increase student mistakes, and the contingencies of reinforcement were relatively uncontrolled.
Not only useful in teaching explicit skills, machines could also promote the development of a repertoire of behaviors that Skinner called self-management. Effective self-management means attending to stimuli appropriate to a task, avoiding distractions, reducing the opportunity of reward for competing behaviors, and so on. For example, machines encourage students to pay attention before receiving a reward. Skinner contrasted this with the common classroom practice of initially capturing students' attention (e.g., with a lively video) and delivering a reward (e.g., entertainment) before the students have actually performed any relevant behavior. This practice fails to reinforce correct behavior and actually counters the development of self-management.
Skinner pioneered the use of teaching machines in the classroom, especially at the primary level. Today computers run software that performs similar teaching tasks, and there has been a resurgence of interest in the topic related to the development of adaptive learning systems.
Pigeon-guided missile
During World War II, the US Navy required a weapon effective against surface ships, such as the German Bismarck class battleships. Although missile and TV technology existed, the size of the primitive guidance systems available rendered automatic guidance impractical. To solve this problem, Skinner initiated Project Pigeon, which was intended to provide a simple and effective guidance system. Skinner trained pigeons through operant conditioning to peck a camera obscura screen showing incoming targets on individual screens (Schultz-Figueroa, 2019). This system divided the nose cone of a missile into three compartments, with a pigeon placed in each. Within the ship, the three lenses projected an image of distant objects onto a screen in front of each bird. Thus, when the missile was launched from an aircraft within sight of an enemy ship, an image of the ship would appear on the screen. The screen was hinged, which connected the screens to the bomb's guidance system. This was done through four small rubber pneumatic tubes that were attached to each side of the frame, which directed a constant airflow to a pneumatic pickup system that controlled the thrusters of the bomb. Resulting in the missile being guided towards the targeted ship, through just the peck coming from the pigeon (Schultz-Figueroa, 2019). This device can be thought of as an auditory version of the Rorschach inkblots.
Influence on teaching
Along with psychology, education has also been influenced by Skinner's views, which are extensively presented in his book The Technology of Teaching, as well as reflected in Fred S. Keller's Personalized System of Instruction and Ogden R. Lindsley's Precision Teaching.
Skinner argued that education has two major purposes:
# to teach repertoires of both verbal and nonverbal behavior; and
# to interest students in learning.
He recommended bringing students' behavior under appropriate control by providing reinforcement only in the presence of stimuli relevant to the learning task. Because he believed that human behavior can be affected by small consequences, something as simple as "the opportunity to move forward after completing one stage of an activity" can be an effective reinforcer. <!-- What is this a citation from? --> Skinner was convinced that, to learn, a student must engage in behavior, and not just passively receive information.
Because teachers are primarily responsible for modifying student behavior, Skinner argued that teachers must learn effective ways of teaching. In The Technology of Teaching (1968), Skinner has a chapter on why teachers fail: He says that teachers have not been given an in-depth understanding of teaching and learning. Without knowing the science underpinning teaching, teachers fall back on procedures that work poorly or not at all, such as:
*using aversive techniques (which produce escape and avoidance and undesirable emotional effects);
* relying on telling and explaining ("Unfortunately, a student does not learn simply when he is shown or told."); The former describes a fictional "experimental community" in 1940s United States. The productivity and happiness of citizens in this community is far greater than in the outside world because the residents practice scientific social planning and use operant conditioning in raising their children.
Walden Two, like Thoreau's Walden, champions a lifestyle that does not support war, or foster competition and social strife. It encourages a lifestyle of minimal consumption, rich social relationships, personal happiness, satisfying work, and leisure. In 1967, Kat Kinkade and others founded the Twin Oaks Community, using Walden Two as a blueprint. The community still exists and continues to use the Planner-Manager system and other aspects of the community described in Skinner's book, though behavior modification is not a community practice.
In Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner suggests that a technology of behavior could help to make a better society. We would, however, have to accept that an autonomous agent is not the driving force of our actions. Skinner offers alternatives to punishment, and challenges his readers to use science and modern technology to construct a better society.
Political views
Skinner's political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and human science of behavioral control – a technology of human behavior – could help with problems as yet unsolved and often aggravated by advances in technology such as the atomic bomb. Indeed, one of Skinner's goals was to prevent humanity from destroying itself. He saw political activity as the use of aversive or non-aversive means to control a population. Skinner favored the use of positive reinforcement as a means of control, citing Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel Emile: or, On Education as an example of literature that "did not fear the power of positive reinforcement.") Skinner's utopia is both a thought experiment and a rhetorical piece. In Walden Two, Skinner answers the problem that exists in many utopian novels – "What is the Good Life?" The book's answer is a life of friendship, health, art, a healthy balance between work and leisure, a minimum of unpleasantness, and a feeling that one has made worthwhile contributions to a society in which resources are ensured, in part, by minimizing consumption.
Skinner described his novel as "my New Atlantis", in reference to Bacon's utopia.
Superstition' in the Pigeon" experiment
One of Skinner's experiments examined the formation of superstition in one of his favorite experimental animals, the pigeon. Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon "at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the bird's behavior." He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery of the food with whatever chance actions they had been performing as it was delivered, and that they subsequently continued to perform these same actions.
Criticism
Noam Chomsky
American linguist Noam Chomsky published a review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior in the linguistics journal Language in 1959. Chomsky argued that Skinner's attempt to use behaviorism to explain human language amounted to little more than word games. Conditioned responses could not account for a child's ability to create or understand an infinite variety of novel sentences. Chomsky's review has been credited with launching the cognitive revolution in psychology and other disciplines<!-- -->. Skinner, who rarely responded directly to critics, never formally replied to Chomsky's critique, but endorsed Kenneth MacCorquodale's 1972 reply.
Many academics in the 1960s believed that Skinner's silence on the question meant Chomsky's criticism had been justified. But MacCorquodale wrote that Chomsky's criticism did not focus on Skinner's Verbal Behavior, but rather attacked a confusion of ideas from behavioral psychology. MacCorquodale also regretted Chomsky's aggressive tone.
Chomsky also reviewed Skinner's Beyond Freedom and Dignity, using the same basic motives as his Verbal Behavior review. Among Chomsky's criticisms were that Skinner's laboratory work could not be extended to humans, that when it was extended to humans it represented "scientistic" behavior attempting to emulate science but which was not scientific, that Skinner was not a scientist because he rejected the hypothetico-deductive model of theory testing, and that Skinner had no science of behavior.
Psychodynamic psychology
Skinner has been repeatedly criticized for his supposed animosity towards Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis, and psychodynamic psychology. Some have argued, however, that Skinner shared several of Freud's assumptions, and that he was influenced by Freudian points of view in more than one field, among them the analysis of defense mechanisms, such as repression. To study such phenomena, Skinner even designed his own projective test, the "verbal summator" described above.
J. E. R. Staddon
As understood by Skinner, ascribing dignity to individuals involves giving them credit for their actions. To say "Skinner is brilliant" means that Skinner is an originating force. If Skinner's determinist theory is right, he is merely the focus of his environment. He is not an originating force and he had no choice in saying the things he said or doing the things he did. Skinner's environment and genetics both allowed and compelled him to write his book. Similarly, the environment and genetic potentials of the advocates of freedom and dignity cause them to resist the reality that their own activities are deterministically grounded. J. E. R. Staddon has argued the compatibilist position; Skinner's determinism is not in any way contradictory to traditional notions of reward and punishment, as he believed.
Professional career
Roles
*1936–1937 Instructor, University of Minnesota
*1937–1939 Assistant Professor, University of Minnesota
*1939–1945 Associate Professor, University of Minnesota
*1945–1948 Professor and chair, Indiana University
*1947–1948 William James Lecturer, Harvard University
*1948–1958 Professor, Harvard University
*1958–1974 Professor of Psychology, Harvard University
*1949–1950 President, Midwestern Psychological Association
*1954–1955 President, Eastern Psychological Association
*1966–1967 President, Pavlovian Society of North America
*1974–1990 Professor of Psychology and Social Relations Emeritus, Harvard University
Awards
*1926 AB, Hamilton College
*1930 MA, Harvard University
*1930–1931 Thayer Fellowship
*1931 PhD, Harvard University
*1931–1932 Walker Fellowship
*1931–1933 National Research Council Fellowship
*1933–1936 Junior Fellowship, Harvard Society of Fellows
*1942 Guggenheim Fellowship (postponed until 1944–1945)
*1942 Howard Crosby Warren Medal, Society of Experimental Psychologists
*1958 Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award, American Psychological Association
*1958–1974 Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology, Harvard University
*1964–1974 Career Award, National Institute of Mental Health
*1966 Edward Lee Thorndike Award, American Psychological Association
*1968 National Medal of Science, National Science Foundation
*1969 Overseas Fellow in Churchill College, Cambridge
*1971 Gold Medal Award, American Psychological Foundation
*1971 Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., Foundation for Mental Retardation International award
*1972 Humanist of the Year, American Humanist Association
*1972 Creative Leadership in Education Award, New York University
*1972 Career Contribution Award, Massachusetts Psychological Association
*1978 Distinguished Contributions to Educational Research Award and Development, American Educational Research Association
*1978 National Association for Retarded Citizens Award
*1985 Award for Excellence in Psychiatry, Albert Einstein School of Medicine
*1985 President's Award, New York Academy of Science
*1990 William James Fellow Award, American Psychological Society
*1990 Lifetime Achievement Award, American Psychological Association
*1991 Outstanding Member and Distinguished Professional Achievement Award, Society for Performance Improvement
*1997 Scholar Hall of Fame Award, Academy of Resource and Development
*2011 Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Pantheon of Skeptics—Inducted
*2024 Ig Nobel Peace Prize for his work on the pigeon-guided bomb project. Honorary degrees
Skinner received honorary degrees from:
*Alfred University
*Ball State University
*Dickinson College
*Hamilton College
*Harvard University
*Hobart and William Smith Colleges
*Johns Hopkins University
*Keio University
*Long Island University C. W. Post Campus
*McGill University
*North Carolina State University
*Ohio Wesleyan University
*Ripon College
*Rockford College
*Tufts University
*University of Chicago
*University of Exeter
*University of Missouri
*University of North Texas
*Western Michigan University
*University of Maryland, Baltimore County.
Honorary societies
Skinner was inducted to the following honorary societies:
* PSI CHI International Honor Society in Psychology
* American Philosophical Society
* American Academy of Arts and Sciences
* United States National Academy of Sciences
Bibliography
*1938. The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis, 1938. <small>, .</small>
*1948. Walden Two. <small></small> (revised 1976 ed.).
*1953. Science and Human Behavior. <small>.</small>
*1957. Schedules of Reinforcement, with C. B. Ferster. <small>.</small>
*1957. Verbal Behavior. <small>.</small>
*1961. The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self Instruction, with James G. Holland. <small>.</small>
*1968.The Technology of Teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. <small>.</small>
*1969. Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis. <small>.</small>
*1971. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. <small>.</small>
*1974. About Behaviorism. <small>.</small>
*1976. Particulars of My Life: Part One of an Autobiography. <small>.</small>
*1978. Reflections on Behaviorism and Society. <small>.</small>
*1979. The Shaping of a Behaviorist: Part Two of an Autobiography. <small>.</small>
*1980. Notebooks, edited by Robert Epstein. <small>.</small>
*1982. Skinner for the Classroom, edited by R. Epstein. <small>.</small>
*1983. Enjoy Old Age: A Program of Self-Management, with M. E. Vaughan. <small>.</small>
*1983. A Matter of Consequences: Part Three of an Autobiography. <small>, .</small>
*1987. Upon Further Reflection. <small>.</small>
*1989. Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior. <small>.</small>
*Cumulative Record: A Selection of Papers, 1959, 1961, 1972 and 1999 as Cumulative Record: Definitive Edition. <small> (paperback)</small>
**Includes reprint: Skinner, B. F. 1945. "Baby in a Box." ''Ladies' Home Journal''. — Skinner's original, personal account of the much-misrepresented "Baby in a box" device.
See also
* Applied behavior analysis
* Back to Freedom and Dignity
References
Notes
Citations Further reading
* Chiesa, M. (2004). Radical Behaviorism: The Philosophy and the Science.
*Epstein, Robert (1997). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20051009231832/http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/articles/1997/jaba-30-03-0545.pdf Skinner as self-manager]." Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 30:545–69. Retrieved 2 June 2005 – via ENVMED.rochester.edu
*
* Sundberg, M. L. (2008) The VB-MAPP: The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program
* Basil-Curzon, L. (2004) Teaching in Further Education: A outline of Principles and Practice
* Hardin, C.J. (2004) Effective Classroom Management
* Kaufhold, J. A. (2002) The Psychology of Learning and the Art of Teaching
* Bjork, D. W. (1993) B. F. Skinner: A Life
* Dews, P. B., ed. (1970) Festschrift For B. F. Skinner.New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
* Evans, R. I. (1968) B. F. Skinner: the man and his ideas
* Nye, Robert D. (1979) What Is B. F. Skinner Really Saying? Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
* Rutherford, A. (2009) ''Beyond the box: B. F. Skinner's technology of behavior from laboratory to life, 1950s–1970s.. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
* Sagal, P. T. (1981) Skinner's Philosophy. Washington, DC: University Press of America.
* Smith, D. L. (2002). On Prediction and Control. B. F. Skinner and the Technological Ideal of Science. In W. E. Pickren & D. A. Dewsbury, (Eds.), Evolving Perspectives on the History of Psychology'', Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
* Swirski, Peter (2011) "How I Stopped Worrying and Loved Engineering or Communal Life, Adaptations, and B.F. Skinner's Walden Two". American Utopia and Social Engineering in Literature, Social Thought, and Political History. New York, Routledge.
* Wiener, D. N. (1996) B. F. Skinner: benign anarchist
* Wolfgang, C.H. and Glickman, Carl D. (1986) Solving Discipline Problems Allyn and Bacon, Inc
External links
*[http://www.bfskinner.org/ B. F. Skinner Foundation homepage]
*[http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/50391.html National Academy of Sciences biography]
*
*
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/healthmindandbody/story/0,6000,1168052,00.html I was not a lab rat], response by Skinner's daughter about the "baby box"
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070722073626/http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/society/seab_audio.html Audio Recordings] Society for Experimental Analysis of Behavior
*
*[http://www.roamingthemind.com/the-minotaur-of-the-behaviorist-maze-surviving-stanfords-learning-house-in-the-1970s Reprint] of "the Minotaur of the Behaviorist Maze: Surviving Stanford's Learning House in the 1970s: Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 51, Number 3, July 2011. 266–272.
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Bill
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Bill(s) may refer to:
Common meanings
Banknote, paper cash (especially in the United States)
Bill (law), a proposed law put before a legislature
Invoice, commercial document issued by a seller to a buyer
Bill, a bird or animal's beak
Places
Bill, Wyoming, an unincorporated community, United States
People and fictional characters
Bill (given name), a list of people and fictional characters
Bill (surname)
Bill (footballer, born 1953), Brazilian football forward Oswaldo Faria
Bill (footballer, born 1978), Togolese football forward Alessandro Faria
Bill (footballer, born 1984), Brazilian football forward Rosimar Amâncio
Bill (footballer, born 1999), Brazilian forward Fabricio Rodrigues da Silva Ferreira
Arts, media, and entertainment
Characters
Bill, the villain of the Kill Bill films
Bill, one of the protagonists of the Bill & Ted films
A lizard in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
A locomotive in The Railway Series and Thomas & Friends
A candy store owner in the 1971 film, Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory
Bill the Cat, a Bloom County character
Bill Cipher, a demon in Gravity Falls
Bill the Pony and his previous owner Bill Ferny in the novel The Lord of the Rings
Bill Potts (Doctor Who), a female companion of the twelfth Doctor in Doctor Who
Bill Sikes, the antagonist from Oliver Twist
Mr. Bill, a claymation character on Saturday Night Live
Sour Bill, in Wreck-It Ralph
Bill Kerman, in the computer game Kerbal Space Program
Films
Bill (1981 film), a 1981 TV film starring Mickey Rooney
Bill: On His Own, 1983 sequel to the 1981 film
Bill (2015 film), an adventure-comedy film about Shakespeare from the cast of Horrible Histories
Bill, the Galactic Hero (film), 2014 science student fiction film based on the 1965 Harry Harrison novel
Meet Bill, a 2007 comedy film formerly known as Bill
The Bill, a long-running British police TV drama series
Music
Albums
Bill (Bill Cosby album), 1973
Bill (Bill Anderson album), 1973
Bill (Tripping Daisy album), 1992
Bill, 2021 album by William Shatner
Songs
"Bill" (song), a song from the 1927 musical Show Boat
"Bill", a 1996 song by Peggy Scott-Adams
Printed media
Bill, the Galactic Hero, a 1965 science fiction novel by American writer Harry Harrison
Bill, the Galactic Hero on the Planet of Bottled Brains, a 1990 novel by Harry Harrison and Robert Sheckley
"Bill, the Ventriloquial Rooster", an 1898 sketch story by Australian writer Henry Lawson
"The Bill" (short story), a 2013 short story by Hungarian writer László Krasznahorkai
Television
The Bill, a British police procedural television series
The Bill (Inside No. 9), an episode of the British television series Inside No. 9.
Weapons
Bill (weapon), a weapon similar to a halberd
BILL Anti-tank guided weapon, a Swedish anti-tank weapon
BILL 2 Anti-tank guided weapon, a Swedish anti-tank weapon
Other uses
Bill (United States Congress)
Bill the Goat, the mascot of the US Naval Academy
The Bill (band)
Tropical Storm Bill, a list of storms
See also
Bills (disambiguation)
Little Bill (disambiguation)
Bil (disambiguation)
Bill of rights
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Bill Macy
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| death_date =
| birth_place = Revere, Massachusetts, U.S.
| occupation = Actor
| death_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| years_active = 1958–2011
| spouse =
}}
Wolf Martin Garber (May 18, 1922 – October 17, 2019), known professionally as Bill Macy, was an American television, film and stage actor known for his role in the CBS television series Maude (1972–1978).
Early life
Bill Macy was born Wolf Martin Garber on May 18, 1922, in Revere, Massachusetts, the son of Mollie (née Friedopfer; 1889–1986) and Michael Garber (1884–1974), a manufacturer.
He was raised Jewish in the East Flatbush section of New York, New York. After graduating from Samuel J. Tilden High School he served in the United States Army from 1942 to 1946 with the 594th Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment, stationed in the Philippines, New Guinea and Japan.
He worked as a cab driver for a decade before being cast as Walter Matthau's understudy in Once More, with Feeling on Broadway in 1958. He portrayed a cab driver on the soap opera The Edge of Night in 1966.
Macy was an original cast member of the 1969–1972 Off-Broadway sensation Oh! Calcutta!, performing in the show from 1969 to 1971. He later appeared in the 1972 movie version of the musical. Of appearing fully nude with the rest of the cast in the stage show, he said, "The nudity didn't bother me. I'm from Brooklyn."
In 1975, Macy and Samantha Harper Macy appeared on the game show Tattletales.
In 1986, Macy was a guest on the fourth episode of L.A. Law, playing an older man whose young wife wants a music career. Also that year he guest starred in an episode of Highway to Heaven, called Cindy. Macy appeared in the television movie Perry Mason: The Case of the Murdered Madam (1987) as banker Richard Wilson. He appeared on The Facts of Life in a 1988 episode. He occasionally appeared on Seinfeld as one of the residents of the Florida retirement community where Jerry Seinfeld's parents lived. Macy made a guest appearance as a patient on Chicago Hope and as an aging gambler on the series Las Vegas. Macy's last television role occurred in a 2010 episode of Jada Pinkett Smith's series Hawthorne.
Personal life
Macy met his future wife, Samantha Harper, on the set of Oh! Calcutta! in 1969. They married in 1975. Filmography {| class"wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
| 1967|| The Producers || Jury Foreman || Uncredited
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| 1972|| Oh! Calcutta! || Monte / Mute Physician ||
|-
| 1977|| The Late Show || Charlie Hatter ||
|-
| 1979|| The Jerk || Stan Fox ||
|-
| 1980|| Serial || Sam ||
|-
| 1982|| My Favorite Year || Sy Benson ||
|-
| 1985|| Movers & Shakers || Sid Spokane ||
|-
| 1985|| Bad Medicine || Dr. Gerald Marx ||
|-
| 1988|| The Law & Harry McGraw || Marvin Gershowitz || Episode: "Waiting Game"
|-
| 1990|| Sibling Rivalry || Pat ||
|-
| 1991|| The Doctor || Al Cade ||
|-
| 1992|| Me Myself & I || Sydney ||
|-
| 1999|| Analyze This || Dr. Isaac Sobel ||
|-
| 2004|| Surviving Christmas || Doo-Dah ||
|-
| 2006|| The Holiday || Ernie ||
|-
| 2007|| Mr. Woodcock || Mr. Woodcock's Dad ||
|}
References
External links
*
*
*
*
Category:1922 births
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Category:American male film actors
Category:American male television actors
Category:People from Revere, Massachusetts
Category:American male musical theatre actors
Category:American television personalities
Category:Place of death missing
Category:Jewish American male actors
Category:Male actors from Massachusetts
Category:20th-century American male actors
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Bob Knight
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}}
| birth_place = Massillon, Ohio, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.
| alma_mater | player_years1 1959–1962
| player_team1 = Ohio State
| player_positions = Forward
| coach_years1 = 1962–1963
| coach_team1 = Cuyahoga Falls HS (assistant)
| coach_years2 = 1963–1965
| coach_team2 = Army (assistant)
| coach_years3 = 1965–1971
| coach_team3 = Army
| coach_years4 = 1971–2000
| coach_team4 = Indiana
| coach_years6 = 2001–2008
| coach_team6 = Texas Tech
| overall_record = 902–371 ()
| bowl_record | championships As player:
As head coach:
| awards = As head coach:
| coaching_records | BASKHOF_year 1991
| CBBASKHOF_year = 2006
| medaltemplates = }}
}}
Robert Montgomery Knight (October 25, 1940 – November 1, 2023) was an American men's college basketball coach. Nicknamed "the General", he won 902 NCAA Division I men's basketball games, a record at the time of his retirement and sixth all-time record at the time of his death.
Knight was the head coach of the Army Black Knights (1965–1971), the Indiana Hoosiers (1971–2000), and the Texas Tech Red Raiders (2001–2008). While at Army, he led the Black Knights to four post-season tournament appearances in six seasons, winning two-thirds of his games along the way. After taking the job at Indiana, his teams won three NCAA championships, one National Invitation Tournament (NIT) championship, and 11 Big Ten Conference championships. He later worked as a men's college basketball studio analyst at ESPN.
Knight sparked controversy with his outspoken nature and his volatility. He once threw a chair across the court during a game and was once arrested following a physical confrontation with a police officer. He was accused of choking an Indiana player during practice in an incident that was recorded on video,
Knight was one of college basketball's most successful and innovative coaches, having popularized the motion offense. He received national coach of the year honors four times and Big Ten Coach of the Year honors eight times. He was also successful on the international stage, winning gold medals at both the 1979 Pan American Games and the 1984 Summer Olympics with the U.S. men's national team. He is one of only three basketball coaches to win an NCAA title, an NIT title, and an Olympic gold medal. He was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1991.
Early life and college career
Knight was born on October 25, 1940, in the town of Massillon, Ohio, and grew up in Orrville, Ohio. His father Pat worked for the railroad and his mother Hazel was a school teacher. He began playing organized basketball at Orrville High School.
Knight continued at Ohio State in 1958 when he played for Basketball Hall of Fame coach Fred Taylor. Despite being a star player in high school, he played a reserve role as a forward on the 1960 Ohio State Buckeyes team that won the NCAA championship and featured future Hall of Fame players John Havlicek and Jerry Lucas. Knight was also a member of the 1961 and 1962 Buckeyes teams that lost in the finals to the Cincinnati Bearcats.
Due in part to the star power of those Ohio State teams, Knight usually received scant playing time, but that did not prevent him from making an impact. In the 1961 NCAA championship game, Knight came off the bench with 1:41 on the clock and Cincinnati leading Ohio State, 61–59. In the words of then–Ohio State assistant coach Frank Truitt:
<blockquote>Knight got the ball in the left front court and faked a drive into the middle. Then [he] crossed over like he worked on it all his life and drove right in and laid it up. That tied the game for us, and Knight ran clear across the floor like a 100-yard dash sprinter and ran right at me and said, "See there, coach, I should have been in that game a long time ago!"</blockquote>
To which Truitt replied, "Sit down, you hot dog. You're lucky you're even on the floor."
In addition to lettering in basketball at Ohio State, it has been claimed that Knight also lettered in football and baseball; however, the official list of Ohio State football letter earners does not include Knight. Knight graduated with a degree in history and government in 1962.
After graduating from Ohio State University in 1962, he coached junior varsity basketball at Cuyahoga Falls High School in Ohio for one year. Knight then enlisted in the U.S. Army and served on active duty from June 1963 to June 1965 and in the U.S. Army Reserves from June 1965 to May 1969. He conducted initial training at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri and was transferred to West Point, New York, in September 1963. In six seasons as a head coach at West Point, Knight won 102 games, with his first coming against Worcester Polytechnic Institute. He led Army to four NITs, advancing to the semifinals three times. Mike Silliman was another of Knight's players at Army, and Knight was quoted as saying that Silliman was the best player that he had coached.
and Knight during his tenure at Army]]
During his tenure at Army, Knight gained a reputation for having an explosive temper. After Army's 66–60 loss to BYU and Hall of Fame coach Stan Watts in the semifinals of the 1966 NIT, Knight completely lost control, kicking lockers and verbally blasting the officials. Embarrassed, he later went to Watts' hotel room and apologized. Watts forgave him, and is quoted as saying, "I want you to know that you're going to be one of the bright young coaches in the country, and it's just a matter of time before you win a national championship."
Knight was one of seven candidates vying to fill the Wisconsin men's basketball head coaching vacancy after John Erickson resigned to become the Milwaukee Bucks' first-ever general manager on April 3, 1968. Knight was offered the position but requested more time to think it over. By the time he had returned to West Point, news that he was to become the Badgers' new coach was prematurely leaked to the local media.IndianaIn 1971, Indiana University Bloomington hired Knight as head coach. During his 29 years at the school, the Hoosiers won 662 games, including 22 seasons of 20 or more wins, while losing 239, a .735 winning percentage. In 24 NCAA tournament appearances at Indiana, Hoosier teams under Knight won 42 of 63 games (.667), winning titles in 1976, 1981, and 1987, while losing in the semifinals in 1973 and 1992.
1970s
at the White House]]
In 1972–73, Knight's second year as coach, Indiana won the Big Ten championship and reached the Final Four, losing to UCLA, which was on its way to its seventh consecutive national title. The following season, in 1973–74, Indiana once again captured a Big Ten title.
In the two following seasons, 1974–75 and 1975–76, the Hoosiers were undefeated in the regular season and won 37 consecutive Big Ten games, including two more Big Ten championships. In 1974–75, the Hoosiers swept the entire Big Ten by an average of 22.8 points per game. However, in an 83–82 win against Purdue they lost consensus All-American forward Scott May to a broken left arm. With May's injury limiting him to seven minutes of play, the No. 1 Hoosiers lost to Kentucky 92–90 in the Mideast Regional. Despite the loss, the Hoosiers were so dominant that four starters—Scott May, Steve Green, Kent Benson, and Quinn Buckner—would make the five-man All-Big Ten team. Immediately after the game, Knight lamented that "it should have been two." The 1976 Hoosiers remain the last undefeated NCAA Division I men's basketball team. Through these two seasons, Knight's teams were undefeated in the regular season, including a perfect 37–0 record in Big Ten games on their way to their third and fourth conference titles in a row.
Throughout the 1970s, however, Knight was beginning to be involved in several controversies. 1960 Olympic gold medalist Douglas Blubaugh was head wrestling coach at IU from 1973 to 1984. Early in his tenure while he jogged in the practice facility during basketball practice, Knight yelled at him to leave, using more than one expletive. Blubaugh pinned Knight to a wall, and told him never to repeat the performance, and Knight never did.
On December 7, 1974, Indiana defeated Kentucky 98–74. Near the end of the game, Knight went to the Kentucky bench where the official was standing to complain about a call. Before he left, Knight hit Kentucky coach Joe B. Hall in the back of the head. Kentucky assistant coach Lynn Nance, a former FBI agent, had to be restrained by Hall from hitting Knight. Hall later said, "It publicly humiliated me." Knight blamed the furor on Hall, stating, "If it was meant to be malicious, I'd have blasted the fucker into the seats."
Years after the incident, it was reported that Knight choked and punched Indiana University's longtime sports information director, Kit Klingelhoffer, over a news release that upset the coach. The following season, in 1980–81, Thomas and the Hoosiers once again won a conference title and won the 1981 NCAA tournament, Knight's second national title.
In 1982–83, with the strong play of Uwe Blab and All-Americans Ted Kitchel and Randy Wittman, the No. 1 ranked Hoosiers were favorites to win another national championship.
In the 1985–86 season, the Hoosiers were profiled in a bestselling book A Season on the Brink. The following season, in 1986–87, the Hoosiers were led by All-American Steve Alford and captured a share of the Big Ten title.
In the 1988–89 season, the Hoosiers were led by All-American Jay Edwards and won a Big Ten championship.
Knight was involved in several controversies in the 1980s as well. In a game between Indiana and Purdue in Bloomington on January 31, 1981, Isiah Thomas allegedly hit Purdue guard Roosevelt Barnes in what some critics described as a "sucker punch". Video replay later shown by Knight showed Barnes had thrown the first punch, and that Thomas was merely reacting to this.
When the two schools played their second game of the season at Purdue on February 7, 1981, Knight claimed a number of derisive chants were directed at him, his wife, and Indiana University. In response, Knight invited Purdue athletic director George King on his weekly television show to discuss the matter, but King declined. Therefore, in place of King, Knight brought onto the show a "jackass" (male donkey) wearing a Purdue hat as a representative of Purdue.
On February 23, 1985, during a Purdue–Indiana game in Bloomington, five minutes into the game a scramble for a loose ball resulted in a foul call on Indiana's Marty Simmons. Immediately after the resumption of play, a foul was called on Indiana's Daryl Thomas. Knight, irate, insisted the first of the two calls should have been for a jump ball and ultimately received a technical foul. Purdue's Steve Reid stepped to the free throw line to shoot the resulting free throws, but before he could, Knight grabbed a red plastic chair from Indiana's bench and threw it across the floor toward the basket in front of Reid. Knight was charged with a second and third technical foul and was ejected from the game.
He apologized for his actions the next day and was given a one-game suspension and two years' probation from the Big Ten. In later years, Knight would occasionally joke about the chair-throwing incident by saying that he saw an old lady standing on the opposite sideline and threw her the chair so she could sit down.
Former Indiana basketball player Todd Jadlow has written a book alleging that from 1985 to 1989, Knight punched him in the face, broke a clipboard over the top of his head, and squeezed his testicles and the testicles of other Hoosiers, among other abuses.
In an April 1988 interview with Connie Chung, when discussing an Indiana basketball game in which he felt the referees were making poor calls against the Hoosiers, Knight said, "I think that if rape is inevitable, relax and enjoy it." In response, women's groups nationwide were outraged by Knight's comments.
1990–2000
From 1990–91 through 1992–93, the Hoosiers posted 87 victories, the most by any Big Ten team in a three-year span, breaking the mark of 86 set by Knight's Indiana teams of 1974–76. During the 1992–93 season, the 31–4 Hoosiers finished the season at the top of the AP Poll, but were defeated by Kansas in the Elite Eight.
Throughout the mid and late 1990s Knight continued to experience success with continual NCAA tournament appearances and a minimum of 19 wins each season. However, 1993 would be Knight's last conference championship and 1994 would be his last trip to the Sweet Sixteen.
Throughout the 1990s Knight was yet again involved in several controversies:
* At a practice leading up to an Indiana–Purdue game in West Lafayette in 1991, Knight yelled expletives and threats that were designed to motivate his Indiana team. In one portion he exclaimed he was "fucking tired of losing to Purdue." The speech was secretly taped and has since gone viral, receiving over 1.84 million views on YouTube alone. Although it is still not known who taped the speech, many former players suspect it was team manager Lawrence Frank. Players who were present were unable to remember the specific speech because such expletive-filled outbursts by Knight were so frequent.
* In March 1992 prior to the NCAA regional finals, controversy erupted after Knight playfully mock whipped Indiana players Calbert Cheaney and Pat Graham during practice. The bullwhip had been given to Knight as a gift from his team. Several black leaders complained at the racial connotations of the act, given that Cheaney was a black student.
* In January 1993, Knight mentioned the recruiting of Ivan Renko, a fictitious Yugoslavian player he had created. Knight created Renko in an attempt to expose disreputable basketball recruiting experts. Even though Renko was completely fictitious, several recruiting services started listing him as a prospect with in-depth descriptions of his potential and game style. Some of the more reputable recruiting gurus claimed to have never heard of Renko, whereas some other "experts" even claimed to possess or to see film of him actually playing basketball.
* Knight was recorded berating an NCAA volunteer at a March 1995 post-game press conference following a 65–60 loss to Missouri in the first round of the NCAA tournament held in Boise, Idaho. The volunteer informed the press that Knight would not be attending the press conference, when Knight was actually running a few minutes late and had planned on attending per NCAA rules.
* Neil Reed and former Indiana player Richard Mandeville alleged in a CNN interview that Knight once showed players his own feces. According to Mandeville, Knight said, "This is how you guys are playing."
* On February 19, 2000, Clarence Doninger, Knight's boss, alleged that he had been physically threatened by Knight during a confrontation after a game. Knight denied the claims in the story. However, less than a month later, the network aired a tape of an Indiana practice from 1997 that appeared to show Knight placing his hand on the neck of Reed.
In response, Indiana University president Myles Brand announced that he had adopted a "zero tolerance" policy with regard to Knight's behavior. Later in the year, in September 2000, Indiana freshman Kent Harvey (not a basketball player) reportedly said, "Hey, Knight, what's up?" to Knight. According to Harvey, Knight then grabbed him by the arm and lectured him for not showing him respect, insisting that Harvey address him as either "Mr. Knight" or "Coach Knight" instead of simply "Knight." On September 13, Knight said goodbye to a crowd of some 6,000 supporters in Dunn Meadow at Indiana University. He asked that they not hold a grudge against Harvey and that they continue to support the basketball team. Knight's firing made national headlines, including the cover of Sports Illustrated and around-the-clock coverage on ESPN, as well as mentions on CNN and CBS.
Two days after Knight was fired from Indiana University, Jeremy Schaap of ESPN interviewed him and discussed his time at Indiana. Towards the end of the interview, Knight talked about his son, Pat, who had also been dismissed by the university, wanting an opportunity to be a head coach. Schaap, thinking that Knight was finished, attempted to move on to another subject, but Knight insisted on continuing about his son. Schaap repeatedly tried to ask another question when Knight shifted the conversation to Schaap's style of interviewing, notably chastising him about interruptions. Knight then commented (referring to Schaap's father, Dick Schaap), "You've got a long way to go to be as good as your dad."
In a March 2017 interview on The Dan Patrick Show, Knight stated that he had no interest in ever returning to Indiana.
Knight ultimately returned to Assembly Hall at halftime of Indiana's game against Purdue on February 8, 2020, and received a rousing standing ovation. It was the first Indiana game attended by Knight since his dismissal by the school 20 years prior.
Texas Tech
Following his dismissal from Indiana, Knight took a season off while on the lookout for coaching vacancies. He accepted the head coaching position at Texas Tech University, although his hiring was opposed by a faculty group led by Walter Schaller, associate professor of philosophy. When he was introduced at the press conference, Knight quipped, "This is without question the most comfortable red sweater I've had on in six years."
Knight quickly improved the program, which had not been to an NCAA tournament since 1996. The best performance by the Red Raiders under Knight came in 2005 when they advanced as far as the Sweet Sixteen. In both 2006 and 2007 under Knight, Texas Tech defeated two Top 10-ranked teams in consecutive weeks. During Knight's first six years at Texas Tech, the Red Raiders won 126 games.
During Knight's coaching at Texas Tech, Knight was also involved in several controversies. In March 2006, a student's heckling at Baylor University resulted in Knight having to be restrained by a police officer. The incident was not severe enough to warrant any action from the Big 12 Conference.
On November 13, 2006, Knight was shown allegedly hitting player Michael Prince under the chin to get him to make eye contact. Although Knight did not comment on the incident afterwards, Prince, his parents, and Texas Tech athletic director Gerald Myers insisted that Knight did nothing wrong and that he merely lifted Prince's chin and told him, "Hold your head up and don't worry about mistakes. Just play the game." Prince commented, "He was trying to teach me and I had my head down so he raised my chin up. He was telling me to go out there and don't be afraid to make mistakes. He said I was being too hard on myself." ESPN analyst Fran Fraschilla defended Knight by saying "That's coaching!"
On October 21, 2007, James Simpson of Lubbock, Texas, accused Knight of firing a shotgun in his direction after he yelled at Knight and another man for hunting too close to his home. Knight denied the allegations; however, an argument between the two men was recorded via camera phone and aired later on television.
Knight won his 900th game in his coaching career on January 16, 2008, in a 68–58 win against Texas A&M, but not before arguing with referees during the match.
Retirement
On February 4, 2008, Knight announced his retirement. His son Pat Knight, the head coach designate since 2005, was immediately named as his successor at Texas Tech. The younger Knight had said that after many years of coaching, his father was exhausted and ready to retire. Just after achieving his 900th win, Knight handed the job over to Pat in the mid-season in part to allow him to get acquainted with coaching the team earlier, instead of having him wait until October, the start of the next season. Knight continued to live in Lubbock after he retired.United States national team1979 Pan American GamesIn 1978, Knight was named the head coach of the United States men's national team for the 1979 Pan American Games in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The team, which included players such as Isiah Thomas and Ralph Sampson, trained together for more than 50 days and played in a tournament in Italy before arriving in Puerto Rico. During the games, Knight led the United States to a 9–0 record, with an average victory of 21.2 points, and gold medal. including by the president of the Basketball Federation of Puerto Rico, Arturo C. Gallardo, in a lengthy article in the New York Times. During the first game, with the United States leading by 35 points, he was ejected for arguing with referees and in another incident during a practice session, Knight was accused of assaulting the policeman guarding the gymnasium and was arrested. Knight was later charged with assault and summoned to appear before a judge but left the island before trial was held and refused to return with Indiana officials further rejecting Puerto Rican's extradition requests. He was later tried in absentia, found guilty and sentenced to a six-month prison term and a 500 dollar fine. Following a United States Supreme Court ruling in 1987 that overturned a law which gave state governors the power to reject extradition requests and opened up the possibility of his extradition to Puerto Rico, Knight wrote a letter to the Puerto Rico Olympic Committee, Germán Rieckehoff, apologizing for the incident. Rieckehoff "urged the Commonwealth not to consider any further legal action against Knight".1984 Summer OlympicsDespite the controversies, Knight was selected in 1982 to coach the U.S. national team at the 1984 Summer Olympic Games. He held a 72 player tryout camp in April 1984 before settling on the 12 man roster which included Michael Jordan, Patrick Ewing, Chris Mullin and Knight's Indiana player and protégé Steve Alford.
Worries that his behavior would again cause embarrassment during the games turned out to be unfounded and, despite rants and raves at officials, Knight was considered to be on his best behavior. He led the United States to victory in all eight games and to a gold medal. Doing so, Knight joined Pete Newell and Dean Smith as the only three coaches to win an NCAA title, NIT title, and Olympic gold.Life after coachingIn 2008, ESPN hired Knight as a studio analyst and occasional color commentator. In November 2012, he called an Indiana men's basketball game for the first time, something he had previously refused to do. Then-men's basketball coach Tom Crean reached out to Knight in an attempt to get him to visit the school again. On April 2, 2015, ESPN announced that it would not renew its contract with Knight.
On February 27, 2019, Don Fischer, an IU radio announcer since 1974, said during an interview that Knight was in ill health. He continued by saying Knight's health "has declined" but did not offer any specifics.
On April 4, 2019, Knight made his first public appearance after Fischer made his comments. He appeared with longtime friend and journalist Bob Hammel and spoke about different aspects of his career. During the presentation, Knight seemed to struggle with his memory: he re-introduced his wife to the audience after doing so only 10 minutes earlier, he mistakenly said that former IU basketball player Landon Turner had died, and, after telling a story about Michael Jordan, he later told the same story, replacing Jordan with former IU basketball player Damon Bailey.
Knight and his wife resided in Lubbock, Texas, even after his retirement. On July 10, 2019, the Indiana Daily Student, IU's campus newspaper, reported that Knight and his wife had purchased a home in Bloomington for $572,500, suggesting that Knight had decided to return to Bloomington to live.Coaching philosophyKnight was an innovator of the motion offense, which he perfected and popularized. The system emphasizes post players setting screens and perimeter players passing the ball until a teammate becomes open for an uncontested jump shot or lay-up. This required players to be unselfish, disciplined, and effective in setting and using screens to get open.
Knight's motion offense did not take shape until he began coaching at Indiana. Prior to that, at Army, he ran a "reverse action" offense that involved reversing the ball from one side of the floor to the other and screening along with it. After being exposed to the Princeton offense, Knight instilled more cutting with the offense he employed, which evolved into the motion offense that he ran for most of his career.
Knight was well known for the extreme preparation he put into each game and practice. He was often quoted as saying, "Most people have the will to win, few have the will to prepare to win." Often during practice, Knight would instruct his players to a certain spot on the floor and give them options of what to do based on how the defense might react.
Knight's coaching also included a firm emphasis on academics. All but four of his four-year players completed their degrees, or nearly 98 percent. Nearly 80 percent of his players graduated; this figure was much higher than the national average of 42 percent for Division 1 schools.
Legacy
Accomplishments
Knight's all time coaching record is 902–371. His 902 wins in NCAA Division I men's college basketball games is fourth all-time to Knight's former player and former Duke head coach Mike Krzyzewski, Syracuse head coach Jim Boeheim, and North Carolina head Coach Roy Williams. It was later surpassed by Boeheim on January 2, 2013, and by Williams on March 11, 2021. Knight is the youngest coach to reach 200, 300, and 400 wins, as well as among the youngest to reach other milestones of 500, 600, 700, and 800 wins.
Texas Tech's participation in the 2007 NCAA tournament gave Knight more NCAA tournament appearances than any other coach. Knight is also one of only three people, along with Smith and Joe B. Hall, who have both played on and coached an NCAA Tournament championship basketball team. and Big Ten Coach of the Year eight times (1973, 1975, 1976, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1992, 1993). Knight was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1991. Knight was also inducted into the Army Sports Hall of Fame (Class of 2008) and the Indiana Hoosiers athletics Hall of Fame (Class of 2009).
Three banners were hung at Simon Skjodt Assembly Hall as a result of the three national championship wins led by Knight.
Coaching tree
A number of Knight's assistant coaches, players, and managers have gone on to be coaches. In the college ranks, this includes Hall of Fame Duke coach Mike Krzyzewski, Steve Alford, Murry Bartow, Dan Dakich, Bob Donewald, Marty Simmons, Jim Crews, Chris Beard, and Dusty May. Among NBA coaches, they include Randy Wittman, Mike Woodson, Keith Smart, Isiah Thomas, and Lawrence Frank.In the mediaBooks about KnightIn 1986, author John Feinstein published A Season on the Brink, which detailed the 1985–86 season of the Indiana Hoosiers. Granted almost unprecedented access to the Indiana basketball program, as well as insights into Knight's private life, the book quickly became a major bestseller and spawned a new genre, as a legion of imitators wrote works covering a single year of a sports franchise. In the book Feinstein depicts a coach who is quick with a violent temper, but also one who never cheats and strictly follows all of the NCAA's rules.
Two years later, author Joan Mellen penned the book Bob Knight: His Own Man (), in part to rebut Feinstein's A Season on the Brink. Mellen deals with seemingly all the causes celebres in Knight's career and presents the view that he is more sinned against than sinning.
In 1990, Robert P. Sulek wrote Hoosier Honor: Bob Knight and Academic Success at Indiana University which discusses the academic side of the basketball program. The book details all of the players that have played for Knight and what degree they earned.
A number of close associates and friends of Knight have also written books about him. Former player and current Nevada Wolf Pack head basketball coach Steve Alford wrote Playing for Knight: My Six Seasons with Bobby Knight, published in 1990. Former player Kirk Haston wrote Days of Knight: How the General Changed My Life, published in 2016.
Knight's autobiography, written with longtime friend and sports journalist Bob Hammel, was titled Knight: My Story and published in 2003. Three years later Steve Delsohn and Mark Heisler wrote Bob Knight: An Unauthorized Biography.
In 2013, Knight and Bob Hammel published The Power of Negative Thinking: An Unconventional Approach to Achieving Positive Results. Knight discussed his approach to preparing for a game by anticipating all of the things that could go wrong and trying to prevent it or having a plan to deal with it. In the book Knight also shared one of his favorite sayings, "Victory favors the team making the fewest mistakes."
In 2017, sports reporter Terry Hutchens published Following the General: Why Three Coaches Have Been Unable to Return Indiana Basketball to Greatness which discussed Knight's coaching legacy with Indiana and how none of the coaches following him have been able to reach his level of success.
Film and television
Knight appeared or was featured in numerous films and television productions. In 1994 a feature film titled Blue Chips featured a character named Pete Bell, a volatile but honest college basketball coach under pressure to win who decides to blatantly violate NCAA rules to field a competitive team after a sub-par season. It starred Nick Nolte as Bell and NBA star Shaquille O'Neal as Neon Bodeaux, a once-in-a-lifetime player that boosters woo to his school with gifts and other perks. Knight himself appears in the film and coaches against Nolte in the film's climactic game. In the film Knight is played by Brian Dennehy. ESPN also featured Knight in a reality show titled Knight School, which followed a handful of Texas Tech students as they competed for the right to join the basketball team as a non-scholarship player.
Knight made a cameo appearance as himself in the 2003 film Anger Management. In 2008, Knight appeared in a commercial as part of Volkswagen's Das Auto series where Max, a 1964 black Beetle, interviews famous people. When Knight talked about Volkswagen winning the best resale value award in 2008, Max replied, "At least one of us is winning a title this year." This prompted Knight to throw his chair off the stage and walk out saying, "I may not be retired."
Knight also made an appearance in a TV commercial for Guitar Hero: Metallica and Risky Business with fellow coaches Mike Krzyzewski, Rick Pitino, and Roy Williams.
In 2009, Knight produced three instructional coaching DVD libraries—on motion offense, man-to-man defense, and instilling mental toughness—with Championship Productions.Personal life and death
while coaching at Texas Tech]]
Knight married the former Nancy Falk on April 17, 1963. They had two sons, Tim and Pat. The couple divorced in 1985. Pat Knight coached Texas Tech after his father's retirement before he moved to Lamar. He also raised nearly $5 million for the Indiana University library system by championing a library fund to support the library's activities. The fund was ultimately named in his honor.
When Knight came to Texas Tech in 2001, he gave $10,000 to the library, while his wife gave $25,000, donations which included the first gifts to the Coach Knight Library Fund which has now collected over $300,000. Later, in 2005, Knight donated an additional $40,000 to the library. On November 29, 2007, the Texas Tech library honored this with A Legacy of Giving: The Bob Knight Exhibit.
On April 18, 2011, video surfaced showing Knight responding to a question concerning John Calipari and Kentucky's men's basketball team by stating that in the previous season, Kentucky made an Elite Eight appearance with "five players who had not attended a single class that semester." These claims were later disproven by the university and the players in question, including Patrick Patterson, who graduated in three years, and John Wall, who finished the semester with a 3.5 GPA. Knight later apologized for his comments stating, "My overall point is that 'one-and-dones' are not healthy for college basketball. I should not have made it personal to Kentucky and its players and I apologize."
Knight supported Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign, and later made an appearance at his rally in Indianapolis for the 2018 midterms. At the rally, Knight called Trump "a great defender of the United States of America".
Knight died in Bloomington, Indiana, on November 1, 2023, at age 83.
Career playing statistics
College
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:95%; text-align:right;"
|-
!Year
!Team
!GP
!FG%
!FT%
!RPG
!PPG
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |1959–60
| style="text-align:left;" |Ohio State
|21
|.405
|.630
|2.0
|3.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |1960–61
| style="text-align:left;" |Ohio State
|28
|.397
|.577
|2.8
|4.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |1961–62
| style="text-align:left;" |Ohio State
|25
|.393
|.818
|1.5
|3.2
|-
| colspan"2" style"text-align:center;" |Career
|74
|.398
|.641
|2.1
|3.8
|-
| colspan"7" style"text-align: center;" | Source:
|}
Head coaching record
)
| confrecord =
}}
)
| confrecord = 353–151 ()
}}
)
| confrecord = 53–49 ()
}}(*)<small> Indicates record/standing at time<br>of resignation from Texas Tech</small>
)<br/><br/>Sources:
}}
See also
* List of college men's basketball career coaching wins leaders
* List of NCAA Division I Men's Final Four appearances by coach
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160507013214/http://www.texastech.com/sports/m-baskbl/mtt/knight_bob00.html Texas Tech profile]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20000611213328/http://www.indiana.edu/~athlweb/graphic/sports/m-bkball/mbkcbio.html Indiana profile]
*
*
* [http://www.bobknight.com BobKnight.com]
}}
Category:1940 births
Category:2023 deaths
Category:American men's basketball players
Category:Army Black Knights men's basketball coaches
Category:Basketball coaches from Ohio
Category:Basketball players from Ohio
Category:College basketball announcers in the United States
Category:College basketball controversies in the United States
Category:College men's basketball head coaches in the United States
Category:Forwards (basketball)
Category:High school basketball coaches in Ohio
Category:Indiana Hoosiers men's basketball coaches
Category:Indiana Republicans
Category:Military personnel from Ohio
Category:Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
Category:Ohio State Buckeyes men's basketball players
Category:Olympic coaches for the United States
Category:People from Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio
Category:People from Orrville, Ohio
Category:Sportspeople from Wayne County, Ohio
Category:Sportspeople from Massillon, Ohio
Category:Texas Tech Red Raiders basketball coaches
Category:United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
Category:United States Army soldiers
Category:United States men's national basketball team coaches
Category:National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
Category:20th-century American sportsmen
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Knight
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Black metal
|
Black Metal (Venom album)|and|Black Metal (Dean Blunt album)Black Metal (Dean Blunt album)|other uses|Black Metal (disambiguation)}}
| cultural_origins = Early to mid-1980s,
| derivatives Dungeon synth
| subgenres = * Ambient black metal
* folk black metal
* industrial black metal
* post-black metal (blackgaze)
* psychedelic black metal
* raw black metal
* symphonic black metal
| fusiongenres = * Black 'n' roll
* black-doom (depressive suicidal black metal)
* blackened crust (red and anarchist black metal)
* blackened death-doom
* blackened death metal (melodic black-death
* war metal)
* blackened grindcore
* blackened thrash metal
* pagan metal
* Viking metal
| local_scenes = * Les Légions Noires
* Early Norwegian scene
| regional_scenes = * France
* Finland
* Greece
* Norway
* Poland
* United States
* Sweden
| other_topics = * Shrieking
* National Socialist black metal
* unblack metal
}}
Black metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music. Common traits include fast tempos, a shrieking vocal style, heavily distorted guitars played with tremolo picking, raw (lo-fi) recording, unconventional song structures, and an emphasis on atmosphere. Artists often appear in corpse paint and adopt pseudonyms.
Venom initiated the genre's first wave, with their second album Black Metal (1982) giving it its name. In the subsequent years, the style was expanded by Bathory, Mercyful Fate, Hellhammer and Celtic Frost. By 1987, this wave had largely declined, however influential works continued to be released by Parabellum, Blasphemy, Sarcófago, Tormentor, Samael and Rotting Christ. A second wave arose in the early 1990s, spearheaded by bands in the early Norwegian black metal scene scene, such as Mayhem, Darkthrone, Burzum, Immortal, Emperor, Satyricon and Gorgoroth. This wave developed other scenes at the same time in Finland (Beherit, Archgoat, Impaled Nazarene); Sweden (Dissection, Abruptum, Marduk, Nifelheim); the United States (Profanatica, Demoncy, Grand Belial's Key, Judas Iscariot); France (Mütiilation, Vlad Tepes); as well as leading to the formation of influential bands in other countries including Sigh and Cradle of Filth.
Initially a synonym for "Satanic metal", black metal has often sparked controversy, due to the actions and ideologies associated with the genre. Some artists express misanthropic views, and others advocate various forms of extreme anti-Christian sentiment, Satanism, or ethnic paganism. In the 1990s, members of the scene were responsible for a spate of church burnings and murders. There is also a neo-Nazi movement within black metal, although it has been shunned by many prominent artists. Generally, black metal strives to remain an underground phenomenon.
Characteristics
Although contemporary black metal typically refers to the Norwegian style with shrieking vocals and raw production, the term has traditionally been applied to bands with widely differing sounds, such as Death SS, Mercyful Fate, Mayhem, Blasphemy, and the Greek and Finnish bands that emerged around the same time as the Norwegian scene. Guitarists often use dissonance—along with specific scales, intervals and chord progressions—to create a sense of dread. The tritone, or flat-fifth, is often used. Guitar solos and low guitar tunings are rare in black metal. Some newer black metal bands began raising their production quality and introducing additional instruments such as synthesizers and even orchestras.
The drumming is usually fast and relies on double-bass and blast beats to maintain tempos that can sometimes approach 300 beats per minute. These fast tempos require great skill and physical stamina, typified by black metal drummers Frost (Kjetil-Vidar Haraldstad) and Hellhammer (Jan Axel Blomberg). Even still, authenticity is still prioritized over technique. "This professionalism has to go," insists well-respected drummer and metal historian Fenriz (Gylve Fenris Nagell) of Darkthrone. "I want to de-learn playing drums, I want to play primitive and simple, I don't want to play like a drum solo all the time and make these complicated riffs".
Black metal songs often stray from conventional song structure and often lack clear verse-chorus sections. Instead, many black metal songs contain lengthy and repetitive instrumental sections. The Greek style—established by Rotting Christ, Necromantia and Varathron—has more death metal traits than Norwegian black metal.]]
Vocals and lyrics
Traditional black metal bands tend to favor raspy, high-pitched vocals which include techniques such as shrieking, screaming, and snarling,
Manish Agarwal of Time Out describes the lyrical content of black metal as "sacrilegious bile." Typically, lyrics within the genre decry Christianity and the other institutional religions, Satanic lyrics are common, and many see them as essential to black metal. For Satanist black metal artists, "Black metal songs are meant to be like Calvinist sermons; deadly serious attempts to unite the true believers". Misanthropy, global catastrophe, war, death and rebirth are also common themes. Black metal also has a fascination with the distant past. Many bands write about the mythology and folklore of their homelands and promote a revival of pre-Christian, pagan traditions. A significant number of bands write lyrics only in their native language and a few (e.g. Arckanum and early Ulver) have lyrics in archaic languages. Some doom metal-influenced artists' lyrics focus on depression, nihilism, introspection, self-harm and suicide.
Imagery and performances
Many bands choose not to play live. Many of those who do play live maintain that their performances "are not for entertainment or spectacle. Sincerity, authenticity and extremity are valued above all else". Some bands consider their concerts to be rituals and often make use of stage props and theatrics. Bands such as Mayhem, Gorgoroth, and Watain are noted for their controversial shows, which have featured impaled animal heads, mock crucifixions, medieval weaponry and band members doused in animal blood. A few vocalists, such as Dead, Maniac and Kvarforth, are known for cutting themselves while singing onstage.
Black metal artists often appear dressed in black with combat boots, bullet belts, spiked wristbands However, the most widely-known trait is their use of corpse paint—black and white face paint sometimes mixed with real or fake blood, which is used to create a corpse-like or demonic appearance.
The imagery of black metal reflects its lyrics and ideology. In the early 1990s, most pioneering black metal artists had minimalist album covers featuring xeroxed black-and-white pictures and/or writing.
In the late 1970s, the form of rough and aggressive heavy metal played by the British band Motörhead gained popularity.
The use of corpse paint in the black metal imagery was mainly influenced by the American 1970s rock band Kiss. The band introduced many tropes that became ubiquitous in the genre, such as blasphemous lyrics and imagery, as well as stage names, costumes and face paint meant to strike fear. During this first wave of bands, distinct borders of the genre had not been set, instead, black metal bands existed in a broader extreme metal umbrella alongside the earliest groups in death metal, grindcore and thrash metal.
Hellhammer, from Switzerland, "made truly raw and brutal music" with Satanic lyrics, and became an important influence on later black metal; "Their simple yet effective riffs and fast guitar sound were groundbreaking, anticipating the later trademark sound of early Swedish death metal". whose music "explored more orchestral and experimental territories. The lyrics also became more personal, with topics about inner feelings and majestic stories. But for a couple of years, Celtic Frost was one of the world's most extreme and original metal bands, with a huge impact on the mid-1990s black metal scene".
The Danish band Mercyful Fate influenced the Norwegian scene with their imagery and lyrics. Frontman King Diamond, who wore ghoulish black-and-white facepaint on stage, may be one of the inspirators of what became known as 'corpse paint'. Other artists that were a part of this wave included Germany's Kreator, Sodom and Destruction (from Germany), Italy's Bulldozer and Death SS, and Colombia's Parabellum.
In 1987, in the fifth issue of his Slayer fanzine, Jon 'Metalion' Kristiansen wrote that "the latest fad of black/Satanic bands seems to be over", citing United States bands Incubus<!-- Do not link to Opprobrium or the alternative rock band here, this is another band. --> and Morbid Angel, as well as Sabbat from Great Britain<!-- Do not change this; this is about the English band in their early days, not the Japanese one --> as some of the few continuing the genre. However, black metal continued in the underground, with scenes developing in Brazil with Sepultura, Vulcano, Holocausto and Sarcófago, Czechoslovakia with Root, Törr and Master's Hammer, and Sweden with Grotesque, Merciless, Mefisto, Tiamat and Morbid. Sarcófago's debut album I.N.R.I. (1987), was widely influential on subsequent acts in the genre, especially the second wave Norwegian scene BrooklynVegan writer Kim Kelly calling it "a gigantic influence on black metal's sound, aesthetics, and attitude." Furthermore, during this time other influential records in the genre were released by Von (from the United States), Rotting Christ (from Greece), Tormentor (from Hungary), Kat (from Poland), and Blasphemy (from Canada). It was only during this post–1987 era of bands that the various extreme metal styles began to develop definitions distinct from one another, and the borders of what now consistues black metal were drawn.Norwegian scene
During , a number of Norwegian artists began performing and releasing a new kind of black metal music; this included Mayhem, Darkthrone, Burzum, Immortal, Emperor, Satyricon, Enslaved, Thorns, and Gorgoroth. They developed the style of their 1980s forebears into a distinct genre. This was partly thanks to a new kind of guitar playing developed by Snorre 'Blackthorn' Ruch and Øystein 'Euronymous' Aarseth. and noted that "those kinds of riffs became the new order for a lot of bands in the '90s".
The wearing of corpse paint became standard, and was a way for many black metal artists to distinguish themselves from other metal bands of the era. Fellow musicians described Dead as odd, introverted and depressed. Mayhem's drummer, Hellhammer, said that Dead was the first to wear the distinctive corpse paint that became widespread in the scene. He was found with slit wrists and a shotgun wound to the head. Dead's suicide note began with "Excuse all the blood", and apologized for firing the weapon indoors.
Two other members of the early Norwegian scene later committed suicide: Erik 'Grim' Brødreskift (of Immortal, Borknagar, Gorgoroth) in 1999 and Espen 'Storm' Andersen (of Strid) in 2001.
Helvete and Deathlike Silence
During May–June 1991, Euronymous of Mayhem opened an independent record shop named "Helvete" (Norwegian for "Hell") at Schweigaards gate 56 in Oslo. It quickly became the focal point of Norway's emerging black metal scene and a meeting place for many of its musicians; especially the members of Mayhem, Burzum, Emperor and Thorns.<!-- Please add a picture of one of the churches burning, if possible --><!-- A photograph of MZ.412's Burning the Temple of God (not all pressings), Absurd's Facta Loquuntur (1999 picture LP and maybe other pressings), Lord Belial's Purify Sweden or of the Lords of Chaos book cover should do. The destroyed church on Burzum's Aske is also worth being depicted. -->]]
In 1992, members of the Norwegian black metal scene began a wave of arson attacks on Christian churches. By 1996, there had been at least 50 such attacks in Norway.<!-- Please do not remove these tags -->
Murder of Euronymous
In early 1993, animosity arose between Euronymous and Vikernes. On the night of 10 August 1993, Varg Vikernes (of Burzum) and Snorre 'Blackthorn' Ruch (of Thorns) drove from Bergen to Euronymous's apartment in Oslo. When they arrived a confrontation began and Vikernes stabbed Euronymous to death. His body was found outside the apartment with 23 cut wounds—two to the head, five to the neck, and sixteen to the back.
It has been speculated that the murder was the result of either a power struggle, a financial dispute over Burzum records or an attempt at outdoing a stabbing in Lillehammer the year before by Faust. Vikernes denies all of these, claiming that he attacked Euronymous in self-defense. He says that Euronymous had plotted to stun him with an electroshock weapon, tie him up and torture him to death while videotaping the event. Vikernes claims he intended to hand Euronymous the signed contract that night and "tell him to fuck off", but that Euronymous panicked and attacked him first.
Vikernes was arrested on 19 August 1993, in Bergen. Many other members of the scene were taken in for questioning around the same time. Some of them confessed to their crimes and implicated others. In May 1994, Vikernes was sentenced to 21 years in prison (Norway's maximum penalty) for the murder of Euronymous, the arson of four churches, and for possession of 150 kg of explosives. However, he only confessed to the latter. Two churches were burnt the day he was sentenced, "presumably as a statement of symbolic support". Vikernes smiled when his verdict was read and the picture was widely reprinted in the news media. Blackthorn was sentenced to eight years in prison for being an accomplice to the murder. That month saw the release of Mayhem's album De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas, which featured Euronymous on guitar and Vikernes on bass guitar. Vikernes was released on parole in 2009. Outside of Norway
from Belgium]]
Japanese band Sigh formed in 1990 and was in regular contact with key members of the Norwegian scene. Their debut album, Scorn Defeat, became "a cult classic in the black metal world".
In 1990 and 1991, Northern European metal acts began to release music influenced by these bands or the older ones from the first wave. In Sweden, this included Dissection, Abruptum, Marduk, and Nifelheim. Bands such as Demoncy and Profanatica emerged during this time in the United States, when death metal was more popular among extreme metal fans. The Norwegian band Mayhem's concert in Leipzig with Eminenz and Manos in 1990, later released as Live in Leipzig, was said to have had a strong influence on the East German scene and is even called the unofficial beginning of German black metal.
Black metal scenes also emerged on the European mainland during the early 1990s, inspired by the Norwegian scene or the older bands, or both. In Poland, a scene was spearheaded by Graveland and Behemoth.<!-- These bands became enemies later, Darken gathering an arising NSBM scene around himself and Graveland. Patterson wrote about this. --> In France, a close-knit group of musicians known as Les Légions Noires emerged; this included artists such as Mütiilation, Vlad Tepes, Belketre and Torgeist. In Belgium, there were acts such as Ancient Rites and Enthroned. Bands such as Black Funeral, Grand Belial's Key and Judas Iscariot emerged during this time in the United States. Black Funeral, from Houston, formed in 1993, was associated with black magic and Satanism.
in 2005]]
A notable black metal group in England was Cradle of Filth, who released three demos in a black/death metal style with symphonic flourishes, followed by the album The Principle of Evil Made Flesh, which featured a then-unusual hybrid style of black and gothic metal. The band then abandoned black metal for gothic metal, becoming one of the most successful extreme metal bands to date. John Serba of AllMusic commented that their first album "made waves in the early black metal scene, putting Cradle of Filth on the tips of metalheads' tongues, whether in praise of the band's brazen attempts to break the black metal mold or in derision for its 'commercialization' of an underground phenomenon that was proud of its grimy heritage". Some black metal fans did not consider Cradle of Filth to be black metal. When asked if he considers Cradle of Filth a black metal band, vocalist Dani Filth said he considers them black metal in terms of philosophy and atmosphere, but not in other ways. Another English band called Necropolis never released any music, but "began a desecratory assault against churches and cemeteries in their area" and "almost caused Black Metal to be banned in Britain as a result". Dayal Patterson says successful acts like Cradle of Filth "provoked an even greater extremity [of negative opinion] from the underground" scene due to concerns about "selling out".
The controversy surrounding the Thuringian<!-- You may also write "East German" or whatever.--> band Absurd drew attention to the German black metal scene. In 1993, the members murdered a boy from their school, Sandro Beyer. A photo of Beyer's gravestone is on the cover of one of their demos, Thuringian Pagan Madness, along with pro-Nazi statements. It was recorded in prison and released in Poland by Graveland drummer Capricornus. The band's early music was more influenced by Oi! and Rock Against Communism (RAC) than by black metal, and described as being "more akin to '60s garage punk than some of the […] Black Metal of their contemporaries". Alexander von Meilenwald from German band Nagelfar considers Ungod's 1993 debut Circle of the Seven Infernal Pacts, Desaster's 1994 demo Lost in the Ages, Tha-Norr's 1995 album Wolfenzeitalter, Lunar Aurora's 1996 debut Weltengänger and Katharsis's 2000 debut 666 to be the most important recordings for the German scene.]]
In the beginning of the second wave, the different scenes developed their own styles; as Alan 'Nemtheanga' Averill says, "you had the Greek sound and the Finnish sound, and the Norwegian sound, and there was German bands and Swiss bands and that kind of thing." Newer black metal bands also began raising their production quality and introducing additional instruments such as synthesizers and even full-symphony orchestras. By the late 1990s, the underground concluded that several of the Norwegian pioneers—like Emperor, Immortal, In 1997, he and another MLO member were arrested and charged with shooting dead a 37-year-old man. It was said he was killed "out of anger" because he had "harassed" the two men. Nödtveidt received a 10-year sentence. As the victim was a homosexual immigrant, Dissection was accused of being a Nazi band, but Nödtveidt denied this and dismissed racism and nationalism.
The Swedish band Shining, founded in 1996, began writing music almost exclusively about depression and suicide, musically inspired by Strid and by Burzum's albums Hvis lyset tar oss and Filosofem. Vocalist Niklas Kvarforth wanted to "force-feed" his listeners "with self-destructive and suicidal imagery and lyrics." However, he stopped using the term in 2001 because it had begun to be used by a slew of other bands, whom he felt had misinterpreted his vision the new band of Nefandus member Belfagor, put this scene "into a new light." Kvarforth said, "It seems like people actually [got] afraid again." He started calling Dissection "the sonic propaganda unit of the MLO" and released a third full-length album, Reinkaos. The lyrics contain magical formulae from the Liber Azerate and are based on the organization's teachings. After the album's release and a few concerts, Nödtveidt said that he had "reached the limitations of music as a tool for expressing what I want to express, for myself and the handful of others that I care about" and disbanded Dissection
A part of the underground scene adopted a Jungian interpretation of the church burnings and other acts of the early scene as the re-emergence of ancient archetypes, which Kadmon of Allerseelen and the authors of Lords of Chaos had implied in their writings. They mixed this interpretation with Paganism and Nationalism. although Vikernes had disassociated himself from black metal Many French bands, like Deathspell Omega and Aosoth, have an avantgarde approach and a disharmonic sound that is representative of that scene.
The early American black metal bands remained underground. Some of them—like Grand Belial's Key and Judas Iscariot—joined an international NSBM organization called the Pagan Front, although Judas Iscariot's sole member Akhenaten left the organization. Other bands like Averse Sefira never had any link with Nazism. while Demoncy were accused of ripping off Gorgoroth riffs. There also emerged bands like Xasthur and Leviathan Nachtmystium, Wolves in the Throne Room and Liturgy (the style of whom frontwoman Hunter Hunt-Hendrix describes as 'transcendental black metal'). These bands eschew black metal's traditional lyrical content for "something more Whitman-esque" and the post-rock and shoegazing influences some of them have adopted.
In Australia, a scene led by bands like Deströyer 666, Vomitor, Hobbs' Angel of Death, Nocturnal Graves and Gospel of the Horns arose. This scene's typical style is a mixture of old school black metal and raw thrash metal influenced by old Celtic Frost, Bathory, Venom, and Sodom but also with its own elements.
Melechesh was formed in Jerusalem in 1993, "the first overtly anti-Christian band to exist in one of the holiest cities in the world". Melechesh began as a straightforward black metal act with their first foray into folk metal occurring on their 1996 EP The Siege of Lachish. Their subsequent albums straddled black, death, and thrash metal. Another band, Arallu, was formed in the late 1990s and has relationships with Melechesh and Salem. Melechesh and Arallu perform a style they call "Mesopotamian Black Metal", a blend of black metal and Mesopotamian folk music. released their debut EP Jihad Against Islam in 2011 through French label Legion of Death. Metal news website Metalluminati suggests that their claims of being based in Iraq are a hoax. These bands, along with Tadnees (from Saudi Arabia), Halla (from Iran), False Allah (from Bahrain), and Mosque of Satan (from Lebanon), style themselves as the "Arabic Anti-Islamic Legion". Another Lebanese band, Ayat, drew much attention with their debut album Six Years of Dormant Hatred, released through North American label Moribund Records in 2008. Stylistic divisions Regarding the sound of black metal, there are two conflicting groups within the genre: "those that stay true to the genre's roots, and those that introduce progressive elements". Snorre Ruch of Thorns, on the other hand, has said that modern black metal is "too narrow" and believes that this was "not the idea at the beginning".
Since the 1990s, different styles of black metal have emerged and some have melded Norwegian-style black metal with other genres:
Ambient black metal
Ambient black metal is a style of black metal that relies on heavy incorporation of atmospheric, sometimes dreamy textures, and is therefore less aggressive. It often features synthesizers or classical instrumentation, typically for melody or ethereal "shimmering" over the wall of sound provided by the guitars. The music is usually slow to mid paced with rare blast beat usage, without any abrupt changes and generally features slowly developing, sometimes repetitive melodies and riffs, which separate it from other black metal styles. Subject matter usually concerns nature, folklore, mythology, and personal introspection. Artists include Summoning, Agalloch and Wolves in the Throne Room. Black-doom bands maintain the Satanic ideology associated with black metal, while melding it with moodier themes more related to doom metal, like depression, nihilism and nature. Examples of black-doom bands include Barathrum, Forgotten Tomb, Deinonychus, Shining, Nortt, Bethlehem, early Katatonia, Tiamat, with lyrics revolving around themes such as depression, self-harm, misanthropy, suicide and death. Leviathan, and I Shalt Become. Kvelertak, Vreid, and Khold. Bands such as Satyricon, Nachtmystium, Nidingr, Craft,
Blackened crust
Crust punk groups, such as Antisect, Sacrilege and Anti System took some influence from early black metal bands like Venom, Hellhammer, and Celtic Frost, while Amebix's lead vocalist and guitarist sent his band's early demo tape to Cronos of Venom, who replied by saying "We'll rip you off." Similarly, Bathory was initially inspired by crust punk as well as heavy metal.<!-- This is dubious, whom does he mention? Quorthon mentioned GBH as an influence, i. e. hardcore, not crust. --> Crust punk was affected by a second wave of black metal in the 1990s, with some bands emphasizing these black metal elements. Iskra are probably the most obvious example of second wave black metal-influenced crust punk; Iskra coined their own phrase "blackened crust" to describe their new style. The Japanese group Gallhammer also fused crust punk with black metal while the English band Fukpig has been said to have elements of crust punk, black metal, and grindcore. North Carolina's Young and in the Way have been playing blackened crust since their formation in 2009. In addition, Norwegian band Darkthrone have incorporated crust punk traits in their more recent material. As Daniel Ekeroth wrote in 2008,
Many "red and anarchist black metal" (RABM) artists are influenced by crust punk or have a background in that scene.
Blackened death-doom
Blackened death-doom is a genre that combines the slow tempos and monolithic drumming of doom metal, the complex and loud riffage of death metal and the shrieking vocals of black metal. Examples of blackened death-doom bands include Morast, Dragged into Sunlight, Hands of Thieves, and Soulburn. Kim Kelly, journalist from Vice, has called Faustcoven as "one of the finest bands to ever successfully meld black, death, and doom metal into a cohesive, legible whole." Blackened death metal bands are also more likely to wear corpse paint and suits of armour, than bands from other styles of death metal. Lower range guitar tunings, death growls and abrupt tempo changes are common in the genre. Examples of blackened death metal bands are Belphegor, Behemoth, Akercocke, and Sacramentum.
Melodic black-death
Melodic black-death Some bands who have played this style include Dissection, Sacramentum, Dawn, and Cardinal Sin.<!---The Metal Injection source references to this list as a list of bands playing this style. Also don't add unreliable sources for listings. --->
War metal
War metal described by Rock Hard journalist Wolf-Rüdiger Mühlmann as "rabid"Blackened grindcoreBlackened grindcore is a fusion genre that combines elements of black metal and grindcore. Notable bands include Anaal Nathrakh and early Rotting Christ.Blackened thrash metalBlackened thrash metal, also known as black-thrash, is a fusion genre that combines elements of black metal and thrash metal. Being considered one of the first fusions of extreme metal, Notable bands include Aura Noir, Witchery, Black Fast, Sathanas, and Deströyer 666. and Viking metal bands giving thematic focus on Norse mythology, Norse paganism, and the Viking Age, more influenced by Nordic folk music. While not focused on Satanism, the bands' use of ancient folklore and mythologies still express anti-Christian views, with folk black metal doing it as part of a "rebellion to the status quo", that developed concurrently along with the rise of folk metal in Europe in the 1990s, Primordial, In the Woods..., and Bathory, to whose albums Blood Fire Death (1988) and Hammerheart (1990) the origin of Viking metal can be traced.<!-- Someone add Enslaved please! They are the most important Viking band besides Bathory! Patterson should fit the bill, and there was something in Lords of Chaos, too. -->Industrial black metalIndustrial black metal is a style of black metal that incorporates elements of industrial music. Mysticum, formed in 1991, was the first of these groups. DHG (Dødheimsgard), Thorns from Norway and Blut Aus Nord, N.K.V.D. and Blacklodge from France, have been acclaimed for their incorporation of industrial elements. Other industrial black metal musicians include Samael, The Axis of Perdition, Aborym, and ...And Oceans. In addition, The Kovenant, Mortiis and Ulver emerged from the Norwegian black metal scene, but later chose to experiment with industrial music.
Post-black metal
Post-black metal is an umbrella term for genres that experiment beyond black metal's conventions and broaden their sounds, evolving past the genre's limits. Notable bands include Myrkur, Alcest, Bosse-de-Nage, and Wildernessking.Blackgaze
Blackgaze incorporates common black metal and post-black metal elements such as blast beat drumming and high-pitched screamed vocals with the melodic and heavily distorted guitar styles typically associated with shoegazing. It is associated with bands such as Deafheaven, Alcest, Vaura, Bosse-de-Nage, and Fen. Notable acts include Oranssi Pazuzu, Nachtmystium,
Raw black metal
Raw black metal is a subgenre that seeks to amplify the primitive qualities of the second wave of black metal, by giving priority to its lo-fi production values. To achieve this, bands under this style usually emphasize the usage of higher-pitches in their guitar sound and vocals, while employing techniques such as tremolo picking and blast beats more often. with other notable bands including Gorgoroth
Symphonic black metal
Symphonic black metal is a style of black metal that incorporates symphonic and orchestral elements. This may include the usage of instruments found in symphony orchestras (piano, violin, cello, flute and keyboards), "clean" or operatic vocals and guitars with less distortion.
Notable bands include Emperor, Troll, Dimmu Borgir and Bal Sagoth.
Ideology
is a common symbol associated with black metal imagery, usually used to signify opposition to Christianity.]]
Unlike other metal genres, black metal is associated with an ideology and ethos. It is fiercely opposed to Christianity Aaron Weaver from Wolves in the Throne Room said: "I think that black metal is an artistic movement that is critiquing modernity on a fundamental level, saying that the modern world view is missing something". As part of this, some parts of the scene glorify nature and have a fascination with the distant past. Black metal has been likened to Romanticism and there is an undercurrent of romantic nationalism in the genre. Sam Dunn noted that "unlike any other heavy metal scene, the culture and the place is incorporated into the music and imagery". Unlike other kinds of metal, black metal has numerous one-man bands. However, it is argued that followers of Euronymous were anti-individualistic, and that "Black Metal is characterized by a conflict between radical individualism and group identity and by an attempt to accept both polarities simultaneously".
In his master's thesis, Benjamin Hedge Olson wrote that some artists can be seen as transcendentalists. Dissatisfied with a "world that they feel is devoid of spiritual and cultural significance", they try to leave or "transcend" their "mundane physical forms" and become one with the divine. This is done through their concerts, which he describes as "musical rituals" that involve self-mortification and taking on an alternative, "spiritual persona" (for example, by the wearing of costume and face paint).
Generally, black metal strives to remain an underground phenomenon. Satanism
is commonly used by bands in the genre]]
Black metal was originally a term for extreme metal bands with Satanic lyrics and imagery.
However, most of the 'first wave' bands (including Venom, who coined the term 'black metal') were not Satanists; rather, they used Satanic themes to provoke controversy or gain attention. One of the few exceptions was Mercyful Fate singer and Church of Satan member King Diamond, whom Michael Moynihan calls "one of the only performers of the '80s Satanic metal who was more than just a poseur using a devilish image for shock value".
In the early 1990s, many Norwegian black-metallers presented themselves as genuine Devil worshippers. Mayhem's Euronymous was the key figure behind this. They attacked the Church of Satan for its "freedom and life-loving" views; the theistic Satanism they espoused was an inversion of Christianity. Benjamin Hedge Olson wrote that they "transform[ed] Venom's quasi-Satanic stage theatrics into a form of cultural expression unique from other forms of metal or Satanism" and "abandoned the mundane identities and ambitions of other forms of metal in favor of religious and ideological fanaticism". Some prominent scene members—such as Euronymous and Faust This view is still held by many artists—such as Infernus, Arioch, Nornagest and Erik Danielsson. Some bands, like the reformed Dissection insist that all members must be of the same Satanic belief, whereas Michael Ford of Black Funeral believe black metal must be Satanic but not all band members need to be Satanists. Others—such as Jan Axel Blomberg, Sigurd Wongraven—believe that black metal does not need to be Satanic. An article in Metalion's Slayer fanzine attacked musicians that "care more about their guitars than the actual essence onto which the whole concept was and is based upon", and insisted that "the music itself doesn't come as the first priority". Bands with a similar style but with Pagan lyrics tend to be referred to as 'Pagan Metal' by many 'purist' black-metallers.
Others shun Satanism, seeing it as Christian or "Judeo-Christian" in origin, and regard Satanists as perpetuating the "Judeo-Christian" worldview. Quorthon of Bathory said he used 'Satan' to provoke and attack Christianity. However, with his third and fourth albums, Under the Sign of the Black Mark and Blood Fire Death, he began "attacking Christianity from a different angle", realizing that Satanism is a "Christian product". said: "We use the word 'Satanist' because it is Christian world and we have to speak their language ... When I use the word 'Satan', it means the natural order, the will of a man, the will to grow, the will to become the superman". Varg Vikernes called himself a Satanist in early interviews but "now downplays his former interest in Satanism", saying he was using Satan as a symbol for Odin as the 'adversary' of the Christian God. He saw Satanism as "an introduction to more indigenous heathen beliefs". Some bands such as Carach Angren and Enslaved do not have Satanic lyrics.<!-- These should not be lumped together. Pagan metal like Enslaved and In the Woods... on the one hand and Immortal singing about Blashyrkh on the other, none of whom use the black metal term for their music, are two completely different things.--> Christianity
.]]
'Unblack metal' (or 'Christian black metal') promotes Christianity through its lyrics and imagery. The first unblack metal record, Hellig Usvart (1994) by Australian artist Horde, was a provocative parody of Norwegian black metal. It sparked controversy, and death threats were issued against Horde. Norwegian Christian metal band Crush Evil adopted a black metal style in the late 1990s and were renamed Antestor.
Many black-metallers see "Christian black metal" as an oxymoron and Antestor called theirs "sorrow metal". Horde's Jayson Sherlock later said "I will never understand why Christians think they can play Black Metal. I really don't think they understand what true Black Metal is". However, current unblack metal bands such as Crimson Moonlight feel that black metal has changed from an ideological movement to a purely musical genre, and thus call their music 'black metal'.
Environmentalism
Black metal has a long tradition of environmentalism.
Politics
A wide range of political views are found in the black metal scene. Black metal is generally not political music and the vast majority of bands do not express their political views. The genre is seen more as "fantastical escapism". Artists usually see themselves as merely depicting the "macabre nature of the world" as opposed to what they see as the "preachiness" of genres like hardcore punk. Ihsahn of Emperor explained: "I see it much more as an atmospheric and emotional thing rather than a political one. Hardcore bands can deal with political things; black metal is something else".
However, some black metal artists promote political ideologies. National Socialist black metal (NSBM) promotes neo-Nazi or far-right politics through its lyrics and imagery. It is "distinguished only by ideology, not musical character". Artists typically meld neo-Nazism with ethnic European paganism; however, a few meld these beliefs with Satanism or occultism. Some commentators see it as a natural development of the "black metal worldview". Members of the early Norwegian scene flirted with Nazi themes, but this was largely for shock value and to provoke. Varg Vikernes—who now refers to his ideology as 'Odalism'—is credited with popularizing such views within the scene. Some bands blend Nazism and Satanism by voicing support for fascist satanist groups like the Order of Nine Angles. Bands that have featured ONA ideology and symbolism in their albums include Hvile I Kaos, Altar of Perversion, Aosoth and Spear of Longinus.
NSBM artists are a small minority within the genre. Dark Funeral, Richard Lederer, Michael Ford, and Arkhon Infaustus. creating a movement known as "Red and anarchist black metal" (RABM). Many artists have a background in anarchist crust punk.
* Norsk Black Metal (2003) was aired on Norwegian TV by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK).
* ''Metal: A Headbanger's Journey (2005) touches on black metal in the early 1990s, and includes an extensive 25-minute feature on the DVD release.
* True Norwegian Black Metal (2007) is a five-part feature from VICE. It explores some of the aspects of the lifestyle, beliefs and controversies surrounding former Gorgoroth vocalist Gaahl.
* Black Metal: A Documentary (2007), produced by Bill Zebub, explores the world of black metal from the point of view of the artists. There is no narrator and no one outside of black metal takes part in any interview or storytelling.
* Pure Fucking Mayhem (2009) tells the story of the black metal band Mayhem and the tragedies surrounding them.
* Murder Music: A History of Black Metal (2007)
*The Misanthrope (2007) written and directed by Ted "Nocturno Culto" Skjellum from extreme metal duo Darkthrone.
* Once Upon a Time in Norway (2008)
* Black Metal Satanica (2008)
* Until the Light Takes Us'' (2009) explores black metal's origins and subculture, featuring exclusive interviews and including rare footage from the Black Circle's early days.
* Loputon Gehennan Liekki (Eternal Flame of Gehenna)(2011) Finnish black metal documentary
* Out of the Black – A Black Metal Documentary (2012), an examination of the musical and social origins of black metal while exploring the full spectrum of the religious ideology within the scene. Also examines black metal in America and the multiple differences between the American and the Scandinavian scene.
* One Man Metal (2012) explores the lifestyle and thoughts of the members of the three one-man bands Xasthur, Leviathan and Striborg.
* Attention! Black Metal (2012)
* Helvete: Historien om norsk black metal (2020). The history of Norwegian black metal from the early eighties through musical innovation, image building, murder, suicide and church burnings, and international recognition. With more focus on the history of the music and people involved, rather than just the scandals.
References in media
* A black metal mockumentary Legalize Murder was released in 2006.
* Parabellum – The Devil was born in Medellín [English Subtitles] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kUgTN7bfPqk Parabellum – El Diablo Nació En Medellín [English Subtitles]] (2016)
* The cartoon show Metalocalypse is about an extreme metal band called Dethklok, with many references to leading black metal artists on the names of various businesses, such as Fintroll's convenience store, Dimmu Burger, Gorgoroth's electric wheelchair store, Carpathian Forest High School, Marduk's Putt & Stuff, Burzum's hot-dogs and Behemoth studios (the man who owns Behemoth studios is also named Mr. Grishnackh). In the episode "Dethdad", Dethklok travels to Norway to both visit Toki's dying father and the original black metal record store, much to the dismay of the band members when they find out the store does not sell any of their music, described by the owner as being "too digital".
* A Norwegian commercial for a laundry detergent once depicted black metal musicians as part of the advertisement.
* Black metal bands such as 1349, Emperor, Behemoth, Dimmu Borgir, Enslaved and Satyricon have had their videos make appearances on MTV's Headbangers Ball.
* Comedian Brian Posehn made a visual reference to Norwegian black metal bands in the music video for his comedy song "Metal by Numbers".
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UO1rYr4BXAI A KFC commercial] screened in Canada (2008) and Australia (2010) featuring a fictional black metal band called Hellvetica. Onstage, the band's singer does a fire-eating trick. Once backstage, he takes a bite of the spicy KFC chicken and declares, "Oh man, that is hot".
* The twenty-first episode of the fourth season of Bones, "Mayhem on a Cross", featured the discovery of a human skeleton at a black metal concert in Norway.
* There are many references to black/extreme metal bands (Bathory, Marduk, Cradle of Filth and Dimmu Borgir) in Åke Edwardson's 1999 crime novel Sun and Shadow (Sol och skugga). The plot involves the music of a fictional Canadian black metal band called Sacrament. As part of the inquiry, Inspector Winter tries to distinguish between black and death metal artists.
*In the UK show The Inbetweeners during some scenes in the sixth form common room, a Mayhem poster for the album Ordo ad Chao can be seen.
* A recurring theme in The IT Crowd (seasons 1 and 2) is the conversion of a character (Richmond) from executive to pariah through his exposure to Cradle of Filth.
*A black metal act is used to advertise "ZYX Sitruuna", a Finnish remedy for throat pain.
*Jonas Åkerlund's 2018 horror-thriller film, Lords of Chaos, based on the 1998 non-fiction book of the same name, centres around a series of crimes that occurred in Oslo, Norway in the early 1990s surrounding the black metal bands Mayhem and Burzum.
See also
* List of black metal bands
* Shrieking
External links
References
Sources
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Category:Culture of Europe
Category:20th-century music genres
Category:1980s in music
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Category:Extreme metal
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Bin Laden (disambiguation)
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Osama bin Laden (1957–2011) was a Saudi-born terrorist and the co-founder of al-Qaeda.
bin Laden or Bin Laden may also refer to:
People
Abdallah bin Laden (born 1976), Saudi businessman and son of Osama bin Laden
Ashin Wirathu, Burmese Buddhist monk labeled "Burmese Bin Laden" for religious intolerance towards Muslims
Bakr bin Laden, Saudi businessman and half-brother of Osama bin Laden
Hamza bin Laden (1989 – 2019), Saudi al-Qaeda figure and son of Osama bin Laden
MC Bin Laden (born 1994), Brazilian singer and songwriter
Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden (1908–1967), Saudi businessman who amassed the bin Laden family fortune, father of Osama bin Laden
Omar bin Laden (born 1981), Saudi son of Osama bin Laden
Saad bin Laden (1979–2009), Saudi al-Qaeda figure and son of Osama bin Laden
Salem bin Laden (1946–1988), Saudi former head of the bin Laden family and brother of Osama bin Laden
Tarek bin Laden (born 1947), Saudi businessman and half-brother of Osama bin Laden
Wafah Dufour (née bin Laden, born 1975), American model and niece of Osama bin Laden
Yeslam bin Ladin (born 1950), Swiss businessman and the half-brother of Al-Qaeda leader
Tom Adam alias Bin Laden, former Central African warlord
Osama Vinladen (pronounced Binladen) a Peruvian footballer.
Other uses
Osama bin Laden (elephant), an elephant that killed at least 27 people in India from 2004 to 2006
"Bin Laden" (song), a 2005 hip hop song by Immortal Technique and Mos Def
bin Laden, a nickname for the 500 euro note
Tere Bin Laden, a 2010 Indian satirical film about the terrorist
Tere Bin Laden: Dead or Alive, a 2016 sequel
Category:Arabic-language surnames
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bin_Laden_(disambiguation)
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Blizzard Entertainment
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| type = Subsidiary
| industry = Video games
| founded = <!-- Incorporation date: January 3, 1991 -->
| founders () to keep the name. Not wanting to pay that sum, the executives decided to change the studio's name to "Ogre Studios" by April 1994. Warcraft was released in November 1994, and within a year, helped to establish Blizzard among other development studios like Westwood. Blizzard, at this point numbering about 200 employees, became part of the Vivendi Games group of Vivendi.
In 1996, Blizzard Entertainment acquired Condor Games of San Mateo, California, which had been working on the action role-playing game (ARPG) Diablo for Blizzard at the time, and was led by David Brevik and brothers Max and Erick Schaefer. Condor was renamed Blizzard North, with Blizzard's existing Irvine studios colloquially referred as Blizzard South. Diablo was released at the very start of 1997 alongside Battle.net, a matchmaking service for the game. Blizzard North developed the sequel Diablo II (2000), and its expansion pack Lord of Destruction (2001).
Following the success of Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness, Blizzard began development on a science-fiction themed RTS StarCraft and released the title in March 1998. The title was the top-selling PC game for the year, and led to further growth of the Battle.net service and the use of the game for esports.
Blizzard started to work on a sequel to the Warcraft II in early 1998, which was announced as a "role-playing strategy" game. Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos, the third title set in the Warcraft fictional universe, was released in July 2002. Warcraft III has inspired many future games, having the influence on real-time strategy and multiplayer online battle arena genre. Many of the characters, locations and concepts introduced in Warcraft III and its expansion went on to play major roles in numerous future Blizzard's titles.
In 2002, Blizzard was able to reacquire rights for three of its earlier Silicon & Synapse titles, The Lost Vikings, ''Rock n' Roll Racing and Blackthorne, from Interplay Entertainment and re-release them for the Game Boy Advance handheld console.
Around 2003, Blizzard North was working on Diablo III as well as planned science-fiction-based version dubbed Starblo''. Amid rumors that Vivendi was looking to sell its gaming division around 2003, Blizzard North's leadership, consisting of Brevik, the Schaefers, and Bill Roper, asked Blizzard to provide their studio protections from the potential sale, or else they would resign. After several rounds of tense communications, the four gave their resignations to Blizzard's management on June 30, 2003. As part of this, a significant portion of Blizzard North's staff were laid off, additional work on Starblo was terminated and the remaining team focused Diablo III. Blizzard's management made the decision August 2005 to consolidate Blizzard North into Blizzard Entertainment, relocating staff to the main Blizzard offices in Irvine. By December 2004, the game was the fastest-selling PC game in the United States, and by March 2005, had reached 1.5 million subscribers worldwide. Blizzard partnered with Chinese publisher The9 to publish and distribute World of Warcraft in China, as foreign companies could not directly publish into the country themselves. World of Warcraft launched in China in June 2005. By the end of 2007, World of Warcraft was considered a global phenomenon, having reached over 9 million subscribers In April 2008, World of Warcraft was estimated to hold 62 percent of the MMORPG subscription market.
With the success of World of Warcraft, Blizzard Entertainment organized the first BlizzCon fan convention in October 2005 held at the Anaheim Convention Center. The inaugural event drew about 6,000 people and became an annual event which Blizzard uses to announce new games, expansions, and content for its properties. Blizzard's new base was completed by March 2008; the city named the primary street on this campus as 1 Blizzard Way to honor the company. The campus includes a twelve-foot tall bronze statue of a Warcraft orc riding a wolf, with plaques surrounding it representing the eight company values by that point, "Gameplay First", "Commit to Quality", "Play Nice; Play Fair", "Embrace Your Inner Geek", "Learn & Grow", "Every Voice Matters", "Think Globally", and "Lead Responsibly".
Blizzard established a distribution agreement with the Chinese company NetEase in August 2008 to publish Blizzard's games in China. The deal focused on StarCraft II which was gaining popularity as an esport within southeast Asia, as well as for other Blizzard games with the exception of World of Warcraft, still being handled by The9. The two companies established the Shanghai EaseNet Network Technology for managing the games within China. Blizzard and The9 prepared to launch the World of Warcraft expansion Wrath of the Lich King, but the expansion came under scrutiny by China's content regulation board, the General Administration of Press and Publication, which rejected publication of it within China in March 2009, even with preliminary modifications made by The9 to clear it. Rumors of Blizzard's dissatisfaction with The9 from this and other previous complications with World of Warcraft came to a head when, in April 2009, Blizzard announced it was terminating its contract with The9, and transferred operation of World of Warcraft in China to NetEase.
They released an improved version of Battle.net (Battle.net 2.0) in March 2009 which included improved matchmaking, storefront features, and better support for all of Blizzard's existing titles particularly World of Warcraft.
Having peaked at 12 million monthly subscriptions in 2010, World of Warcraft subscriptions sunk to 6.8 million in 2014, the lowest number since the end of 2006, prior to The Burning Crusade expansion. However, World of Warcraft is still the world's most-subscribed MMORPG, and holds the Guinness World Record for the most popular MMORPG by subscribers. In 2008, Blizzard was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for the creation of World of Warcraft. Mike Morhaime accepted the award.
Following the merger, Blizzard found it was relying on its well-established properties, but at the same time, the industry was experiencing a shift towards indie games. Blizzard established a few small teams within the company to work on developing new concepts based on the indie development approach that it could potentially use. One of these teams quickly came onto the idea of a collectible card game based on the Warcraft narrative universe, which ultimately became Hearthstone, released as a free-to-play title in March 2014. Hearthstone reached over 25 million players by the end of 2014, and exceeded 100 million players by 2018.
Another small internal team began work around 2008 on a new intellectual property known as Titan, a more contemporary or near-future MMORPG that would have co-existed alongside World of Warcraft. The project gained more visibility in 2010 as a result of some information leaks. Blizzard continued to speak on Titans development over the next few years, with over 100 people within Blizzard working on the project. However, Titans development was troubled, and, internally, in May 2013, Blizzard cancelled the project (publicly reporting this in 2014), and reassigned most of the staff but left about 40 people, led by Jeff Kaplan, to either come up with a fresh idea within a few weeks or have their team reassigned to Blizzard's other departments. The small team came upon the idea of a team-based multiplayer shooter game, reusing many of the assets from Titan but set in a new near-future narrative. The new project was greenlit by Blizzard and became known as Overwatch, which was released in May 2016. Overwatch became the fourth main intellectual property of Blizzard, following Warcraft, StarCraft, and Diablo.
In addition to Hearthstone and Overwatch, Blizzard Entertainment continued to produce sequels and expansions to its established properties during this period, including StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty (2010) and Diablo III (2012). Their major crossover title, Heroes of the Storm, was released as a MOBA game in 2015. The game featured various characters from Blizzard's franchises as playable heroes, as well as different battlegrounds based on Warcraft, Diablo, StarCraft, and Overwatch universes. In the late 2010s, Blizzard released StarCraft: Remastered (2017) and Warcraft III: Reforged (2020), remastered versions of the original StarCraft and Warcraft III, respectively.
The May 2016 release of Overwatch was highly successful, and was the highest-selling game on PC for 2016. Several traditional esport events had been established within the year of Overwatch release, such as the Overwatch World Cup, but Blizzard continued to expand this and announced the first esports professional league, the Overwatch League at the 2016 BlizzCon event. The company purchased a studio at The Burbank Studios in Burbank, California, that it converted into a dedicated esports venue, Blizzard Arena, to be used for the Overwatch League and other events. The inaugural season of the Overwatch League launched on January 10, 2018, with 12 global teams playing. By the second season in 2019 it had expanded the League to 20 teams, and with its third season in 2020, it will have these teams traveling across the globe in a transitional home/away-style format.
In 2012, Blizzard Entertainment had 4,700 employees, with offices across 11 cities including Austin, Texas, and countries around the globe. , the company's headquarters in Irvine, California had 2,622 employees. Change of leadership (2018–2022) By 2018, a rift had developed between Kotick and Morhaime on how Blizzard should continue developing its games, with Morhaime wanting to allow the developers the freedom to experiment while Kotick was focused on generating profit. Morhaime had considered resigning in 2017 but Kotick convinced him to stay on. Morhaime announced his plans to step down as the company president and CEO On October 3, 2018, while remaining an advisor to the company. Morhaime stated publicly that he felt it was time for someone else to lead Blizzard, but those close to him said he had become tired of the conflicts with Kotick.
In February 2019, Kotick announced a company-wide layoff of 8% of Activision Blizzard staff, around 800 total positions, due to lower revenues in 2018; this included a significant portion of Blizzard Entertainment, which had been since as having bloated head count over the years. Blizzard was planning for the announcement of Diablo IV and Overwatch 2 at the 2019 Blizzcon, and to keep the company focused, two other projects, codenamed Ares and Orion, were cancelled. Michael Chu, lead writer on many of Blizzard's franchises including Diablo, Warcraft, and Overwatch, announced he was leaving the company after 20 years in March 2020.
On January 22, 2021, Activision transferred Vicarious Visions over to Blizzard Entertainment, stating that the Vicarious Visions team had better opportunity for long-term support for Blizzard. Vicarious had been working with Blizzard for about two years prior to this announcement on the planned remaster of Diablo II, Diablo II: Resurrected, and according to Brack, it made sense to incorporate Vicarious into Blizzard for ongoing support of the game and for other Diablo games including Diablo IV. Vicarious was completely merged into Blizzard by April 12, 2022, thereby being renamed Blizzard Albany.
In celebration of the company's 30th anniversary, Blizzard Entertainment released a compilation called Blizzard Arcade Collection in February 2021, for various video game platforms. The collection includes their three classic video games: The Lost Vikings, ''Rock n' Roll Racing, and Blackthorne,'' each of which containing additional upgrades and numerous modern features. The lawsuit drew a large response from employees and groups outside of Activision Blizzard. In the wake of these events, Brack, one of the few individuals directly named in the suit, announced he was leaving Blizzard to "pursue new opportunities", and will be replaced by co-leads Jen Oneal, the lead of Vicarious Visions and the first woman in a leadership role for the company, and Mike Ybarra, a Blizzard executive vice president. Oneal announced in November 2021 that she would be leaving the company by the end of 2021, leaving Ybarra as the sole leader of Blizzard.
As a result of the California lawsuit and of delays and release issues with their more recent games, Activision Blizzard's stock faced severe pressure. Subsequently, Microsoft seized the opportunity to become one of the largest video game companies in the world and announced its intent to acquire Activision Blizzard and its subsidiaries, including Blizzard, for in January 2022. This exchange marks the largest acquisition in tech history, surpassing the $67 billion Dell-EMC merger from 2016. The deal closed on October 13, 2023, and Activision Blizzard moved into the Microsoft Gaming division.
Blizzard acquired Proletariat, the developers of Spellbreak, in June 2022 as to help support World of Warcraft. The 100-employee studio remained in Boston but will shutter Spellbreak as they move onto Warcraft. Challenges with NetEase and Microsoft acquisition (2022–present) Ahead of their license renewal in January 2023, Blizzard (via Activision Blizzard) and NetEase stated in November 2022 that they had been unable to come to an agreement on the renewal terms for their license, and thus most Blizzard games will cease operations in China in January 2023 until the situation can be resolved. According to a report by The New York Times, several factors influenced Activision Blizzard's decision to terminate the agreement, which included stronger demands made by the Chinese government to know of Activision Blizzard's internal business matters, NetEase's desire to license the games directly rather than run the license through a joint venture, and Activision Blizzard's concerns that NetEase was trying to start their own ventures, including the payment towards Bungie in 2018. NetEase was further concerned about the impact of the pending acquisition of Activision Blizzard by Microsoft. Activision Blizzard stated they were looking to other Chinese firms as replacements for NetEase as to restore their games in China. By April 2024, Blizzard, with Microsoft's help, and NetEase had agreed to new publishing terms, with plans to bring back Blizzard's games to China by mid-2024, maintaining all prior game ownership from the original publishing deal. Under this new deal, NetEase also will be able to bring games to the Xbox platform.
Following completion of the acquisition, Microsoft announced it was laying off 1,900 staff from Microsoft Gaming on January 25, 2024. Alongside this, Blizzard President Mike Ybarra and Chief Design Officer Allen Adham announced they would be leaving the company. Further, the planned survival game from Blizzard was canceled. On January 29, 2024, Johanna Faries, the former general manager of the Call of Duty series, was named Blizzard Entertainment's new president, taking office on February 5.
Following the unionization success of Raven Software's Game Workers Alliance (GWA) union for quality assurance (QA) testers, the 20-member QA team of Blizzard Albany announced a unionization drive in July 2022 as GWA Albany. The vote passed (14–0).
On July 24, 2024, 500 artists, designers, engineers, producers, and quality assurance testers who work on World of Warcraft voted to unionize under the Communications Workers of America. The same day, 60 QA testers at Blizzard's Austin office, who work on various games including Diablo IV and Hearthstone, also voted to unionize and formed the union "Texas Blizzard QA United-CWA". Games
Blizzard Entertainment has developed 19 games since the inception of the company in 1991.
Main franchises
The majority of the games Blizzard published are in the Warcraft, Diablo, and StarCraft series. Since the release of Warcraft: Orcs & Humans (1994), Diablo (1997), and StarCraft (1998), the focus has been almost exclusively on those three franchises. Overwatch (2016) became an exception years later, bringing the number of main franchises to four. Each franchise is supported by other media based around its intellectual property such as novels, collectible card games, comics and video shorts. Blizzard announced in 2006 that they would be producing a Warcraft live-action film. The movie was directed by Duncan Jones, financed and produced by Legendary Pictures, Atlas Entertainment, and others, and distributed by Universal Pictures. It was released in June 2016. On October 4, 2022, Overwatch servers were officially shut off at the same time Overwatch 2's went up.
Spin-offs
Blizzard has released two spin-offs to the main franchises: Hearthstone (2014), which is set in the existing Warcraft lore, and Heroes of the Storm (2015), which features playable characters from all four of Blizzard's franchises.
Remasters
In 2015, Blizzard Entertainment formed "Classic Games division", a team focused on updating and remastering some of their older titles, with an initially announced focus on StarCraft: Remastered (2017), Warcraft III: Reforged (2020), and Diablo II: Resurrected (2021). Re-released games In February 2021, Blizzard Entertainment released a compilation called Blizzard Arcade Collection for Microsoft Windows, Xbox One, PlayStation 4, and Nintendo Switch. The collection includes five Blizzard's classic video games: The Lost Vikings, ''Rock n' Roll Racing, Blackthorne, The Lost Vikings 2 and RPM Racing'', with the last two games added in April 2021. Some of the modern features include 16:9 resolution, 4-player split-screen, rewinding and saving of game progress, watching replays, and adding graphic filters to change the look of player's game. Additionally, it contains upgrades for each game such as enhanced local multiplayer for The Lost Vikings, new songs and artist performances for ''Rock n' Roll Racing, as well as a new level map for Blackthorne. A digital museum, which is included in the collection, features game art, unused content, and interviews. Shattered Nations, a turn-based strategy game cancelled around 1996, and StarCraft: Ghost, an action game aimed for release on consoles, co-developed with Nihilistic Software, which was "Postponed indefinitely" on March 24, 2006, after being in development hell for much of its lifespan.
Work on a project called Nomad started around 1998 after the release of Starcraft, with development led by Duane Stinnett. Nomad was inspired by the tabletop role playing game Necromunda that was played in a post-apocalyptic setting. The project had vague goals, and around that time, many of the staff of Blizzard began playing MMORPGs EverQuest and Ultima Online. Nomad was cancelled in 1999 as Blizzard shifted to making their own MMORPG, World of Warcraft.
In the wake of the 2018 layoffs, two projects were cancelled: One was codenamed Orion, an asynchronous card game for mobile devices designed by Hearthstone developers. While the game was considered fun to play when players were engaged in real time, the asynchronous aspect diluted the enjoyment of the. The second, codenamed Ares, was a first-person shooter within the Starcraft'' universe inspired by Electronic Arts' Battlefield series that had been in development for three years. The company also has a history of declining to set release dates, choosing to instead take as much time as needed, generally saying a given product is "done when it's done."
Pax Imperia II was originally announced as a title to be published by Blizzard. Blizzard eventually dropped Pax Imperia II, though, when it decided it might be in conflict with their other space strategy project, which became known as StarCraft. THQ eventually contracted with Heliotrope and released the game in 1997 as Pax Imperia: Eminent Domain.
The company announced in January 2022 that it was near release of another new intellectual property, named Odyssey according to Bloomberg News, a survival game that had been at work at the studio for nearly six years before its cancellation in 2024. Ports The company, known at the time as the Silicon & Synapse, initially concentrated on porting other studios' games to computer platforms, developing 8 ports between 1992 and 1993.
Company structure
As with most studios with multiple franchises, Blizzard Entertainment has organized different departments to oversee these franchises. Formally, since around the time of World of Warcraft in 2004, these have been denoted through simply numerical designations. The original three teams were:
* Team 1 manages the StarCraft property. Team 1 also included the Classics Team to work on remastering Blizzard's earlier properties for modern computers, which have included StarCraft: Remastered, Warcraft III: Reforged and Diablo II: Resurrected. The Classic Games team was disbanded around August 2020, about eight months after Warcraft III: Reforged was released; according to Jason Schreier of Bloomberg News, this was due to Activision Blizzard driving Blizzard away from remastering its old properties, which figured into the launch issues with Warcraft III: Reforged.
* Team 2 continues to manage and create content for World of Warcraft.
Technology
Battle.net 2.0
Blizzard Entertainment released its revamped Battle.net service in 2009. The platform provides online gaming, digital distribution, digital rights management, and social networking service. Battle.net allows people who have purchased Blizzard products to download digital copies of games they have purchased, without needing any physical media.
On November 11, 2009, Blizzard required all World of Warcraft accounts to switch over to Battle.net accounts. This transition means that all current Blizzard titles can be accessed, downloaded, and played with a singular Battle.net login.
Battle.net 2.0 is the platform for matchmaking service for Blizzard games, which offers players a host of additional features. Players are able to track their friend's achievements, view match history, avatars, etc. Players are able to unlock a wide range of achievements for Blizzard games.
The service provides the user with community features such as friends lists and groups, and allows players to chat simultaneously with players from other Blizzard games using VoIP and instant messaging. For example, players no longer need to create multiple user names or accounts for most Blizzard products. To enable cross-game communication, players need to become either Battletag or Real ID friends. Warden client Blizzard Entertainment has made use of a special form of software known as the 'Warden Client'. The Warden client is known to be used with Blizzard's online games such as Diablo and World of Warcraft, and the Terms of Service contain a clause consenting to the Warden software's RAM scans while a Blizzard game is running.
The Warden client scans a small portion of the code segment of running processes in order to determine whether any third-party programs are running. The goal of this is to detect and address players who may be attempting to run unsigned code or third party programs in the game. This determination of third party programs is made by hashing the scanned strings and comparing the hashed value to a list of hashes assumed to correspond to banned third party programs. The Warden's reliability in correctly discerning legitimate versus illegitimate actions was called into question when a large-scale incident happened. This incident banned many Linux users after an update to Warden caused it to incorrectly detect Cedega as a cheat program. Blizzard issued a statement claiming they had correctly identified and restored all accounts and credited them with 20 days' play. Warden scans all processes running on a computer, not just the game, and could possibly run across what would be considered private information and other personally identifiable information. It is because of these peripheral scans that Warden has been accused of being spyware and has run afoul of controversy among privacy advocates. Controversies and legal disputes Blizzard Entertainment, Inc. v. Valve Corporation Shortly after Valve filed its trademark for "Dota" to secure the franchising rights for Dota 2, DotA-Allstars, LLC, run by former contributors to the game's predecessor, Defense of the Ancients, filed an opposing trademark in August 2010. DotA All-Stars, LLC was sold to Blizzard Entertainment in 2011. After the opposition was over-ruled in Valve's favor, Blizzard filed an opposition against Valve in November 2011, citing their license agreement with developers, as well as their ownership of DotA-Allstars, LLC. Blizzard conceded their case in May 2012, however, giving Valve undisputed commercial rights to Dota name, while Blizzard would rename their StarCraft II: Heart of the Swarm mod "Blizzard All-Stars", which would eventually become the stand-alone game, Heroes of the Storm.
California Department of Fair Employment and Housing v. Activision Blizzard
Following a two-year investigation, the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing (DFEH) filed a lawsuit against Activision Blizzard in July 2021 for gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment, principally within the Blizzard Entertainment workplace. The DFEH alleges that female employees were subjected to constant sexual harassment, unequal pay, retaliation, as well as discrimination based on pregnancy. The suit also described a "pervasive frat boy workplace culture" at Blizzard that included objectification of women's bodies and jokes about rape. Activision Blizzard's statement described the suit as meritless, contending that action had been taken in any instances of misconduct. The company also objected to the DFEH not approaching them prior to filing. The lawsuit prompted an employee walkout, as well as leading J Allen Brack, and head of human resources, Jesse Meschuk, to step down. Amidst the lawsuit, Morhaime, Brack's predecessor, posted a statement to Twitter writing that he was “ashamed.” Because of these allegations, Blizzard changed names that referenced employees in multiple of its franchises, including Overwatch and World of Warcraft. Founder Electronics infringement lawsuit On August 14, 2007, Beijing University Founder Electronics Co., Ltd. sued Blizzard Entertainment Limited for copyright infringement claiming 100 million yuan in damages. The lawsuit alleged the Chinese edition of World of Warcraft reproduced a number of Chinese typefaces made by Founder Electronics without permission. FreeCraft
On June 20, 2003, Blizzard issued a cease and desist letter to the developers of an open-source clone of the Warcraft engine called FreeCraft, claiming trademark infringement. This hobby project had the same gameplay and characters as Warcraft II, but came with different graphics and music.
As well as a similar name, FreeCraft enabled players to use Warcraft II graphics, provided they had the Warcraft II CD. The programmers of the clone shut down their site without challenge. Soon after that the developers regrouped to continue the work by the name of Stratagus.
Hearthstone ban and Hong Kong protests
During an October 2019 Hearthstone Grandmasters streaming event in Taiwan, one player Ng Wai Chung, going by his online alias "Blitzchung" used an interview period to show support for the protestors in the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests. Shortly afterwards, on October 7, 2019, Blitzchung was disqualified from the current tournament and forfeited his winnings to date, and banned for a one-year period. The two shoutcasters engaged in the interview were also penalized with similar bans. Blizzard justified the ban as from its Grandmasters tournament rules that prevents players from anything that "brings [themselves] into public disrepute, offends a portion or group of the public, or otherwise damages [Blizzard's] image".
Blizzard's response led to several protests from current Hearthstone players, other video game players, and criticism from Blizzard's employees, fearing that Blizzard was giving into the censorship of the Chinese government. Protests were held, including through the 2019 BlizzCon in early November, to urge Blizzard to reverse their bans. The situation also drew the attention of several U.S. lawmakers, fearing that Blizzard, as a U.S. company, was letting China dictate how it handled speech and also urged the bans to be reversed.
Blizzard CEO J. Allen Brack wrote an open letter on October 11, 2019, apologizing for the way Blizzard handled the situation, and reduced the bans for both Blitzchung and the casters to six months. Brack reiterated that while they support free speech and their decision was in no way tied to the Chinese government, they want players and casters to avoid speaking beyond the tournament and the games in such interviews.
King's "Diversity Tool" controversy
On May 12, 2022, Blizzard Entertainment released a blog post about the Diversity Space Tool, developed by a team at King – a mobile business unit at Activision Blizzard – alongside the MIT Game Lab. Jacqueline Chomatas, King's globalization project manager, described the tool as a "measurement device" to analyze how diverse the characters are "when compared to the 'norm'". The post showed example images of the tool being used on Overwatch's cast, with graphs showing breakdowns of the character attributes, and stated that "The Overwatch 2 team at Blizzard has also had a chance to experiment with the tool, with equally enthusiastic first impressions." Blizzard shared the intent to release the tool during the summer and fall of 2022, with the goal of "making the tool available to the industry as a whole". The blog post originally suggested that the tool was used in an active development, mainly for Overwatch, which led some Blizzard employees working on the game to publicly deny the tool was used in Overwatch development and to criticize the tool further. Later, the post was deleted altogether.
MDY Industries, LLC v. Blizzard Entertainment, Inc.
On July 14, 2008, the United States District Court for the District of Arizona ruled on the case MDY Industries, LLC v. Blizzard Entertainment, Inc.. The Court found that MDY was liable for copyright infringement since users of its Glider bot program were breaking the End User License Agreement and Terms of Use for World of Warcraft. MDY Industries appealed the judgment of the district court, and a judgment was delivered by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals on December 14, 2010, in which the summary judgment against MDY for contributory copyright infringement was reversed. Nevertheless, they ruled that the bot violated the DMCA and the case was sent back to the district court for review in light of this decision.
MDY v. Blizzards decision did affirm a prior Ninth Circuit ruling in Vernor v. Autodesk, Inc. that software licenses, such as the one used by Blizzard for WoW, were enforceable and enshrined the principle that video games could be sold as licenses to players rather than purchased. This ruling, though limited to the states of the Ninth Circuit, has been used by the industry to continue to sell games as licenses to users. Privacy controversy and Real ID On July 6, 2010, Blizzard Entertainment announced that they were changing the way their forums worked to require that users identify themselves with their real name. The reaction from the community was overwhelmingly negative with multiple game magazines calling the change "foolhardy" and an "epic fail". It resulted in a significant user response on the Blizzard forums, including one thread on the issue reaching over 11,000 replies. This included personal details of a Blizzard employee who gave his real name "to show it wasn't a big deal". Shortly after revealing his real name, forum users posted personal information including his phone number, picture, age, home address, family members, and favorite TV shows and films. But others were worried that Blizzard was opening their fans up to real-life dangers such as stalking, harassment, and employment issues, since a simple Internet search by someone's employer can reveal their online activities.
Blizzard initially responded to some of the concerns by saying that the changes would not be retroactive to previous posts, that parents could set up the system so that minors cannot post, and that posting to the forums is optional. The idea behind this plan was to allow players who had a relationship outside of the games to find each other more easily across all the Blizzard game titles. StarCraft privacy and other lawsuits In 1998, Donald P. Driscoll, an Albany, California, attorney filed a suit on behalf of Intervention, Inc., a California consumer group, against Blizzard Entertainment for "unlawful business practices" for the action of collecting data from a user's computer without their permission.
On May 19, 2014, Blizzard Entertainment filed a lawsuit in federal court in California, alleging that the unidentified programmers were involved in creation of software that hacks StarCraft II. Most of the alleged charges are related to copyright infringement.
Back in May 2010, MBCPlus Media, which operates the network MBCGame (Korean television stations that are broadcasting tournaments built around StarCraft), was sued by Blizzard for broadcasting StarCraft tournaments without the company's consent, insisting that StarCraft is not a public domain offering, as Blizzard has invested significant money and resources to create the StarCraft game.
World of Warcraft private server complications
On December 5, 2008, Blizzard Entertainment issued a cease and desist letter to many administrators of high population World of Warcraft private servers (essentially slightly altered hosting servers of the actual World of Warcraft game, that players do not have to pay for). Blizzard used the Digital Millennium Copyright Act to influence many private servers to fully shut down and cease to exist. Related companies Over the years, some former Blizzard Entertainment employees have moved on and established gaming companies of their own. Several of these occurred following the merger between Activision Holdings and Blizzard's parent company at the time, Vivendi Games in 2008, and more recently as Activision Blizzard has directed Blizzard away from properties like Warcraft and StarCraft that are not seen as financial boons to the larger company. These employees left to form their smaller studios to give themselves the creative freedom that they were lacking at Blizzard. Collectively these studios are known as "Blizzard 2.0".
* ArenaNet, creators of the Guild Wars franchise.
* Bonfire Studios, founded by Rob Pardo.
* Carbine Studios, now defunct as of September 2018, after releasing a massively multiplayer title WildStar.
* Castaway Entertainment, now defunct, after working on a game similar to the Diablo series, Djinn.
* Dreamhaven, founded by Michael Morhaime.
* Fantastic Pixel Castle, founded by Greg Street, working on a new combat-focused MMO, codenamed "Ghost."
* Flagship Studios, now defunct, creators of Hellgate: London, also worked on Mythos.
* Frost Giant Studios, founded by Tim Morten and Tim Campbell, currently developing real-time strategy game Stormgate.
* Hyboreal Games, founded by Michio Okamura.
* Magic Soup Games, founded by J. Allen Brack and Jen Oneal.
* Ready at Dawn Studios, creators of The Order: 1886, Daxter, God of War: Chains of Olympus and an Ōkami port for the Wii.
* Red 5 Studios, now defunct, creators of Firefall, a free to play game MMOG.
* Runic Games, now defunct, founded by Travis Baldree, Erich Schaefer, and Max Schaefer; creators of Torchlight.
* Second Dinner, founded by Ben Brode, creators of Marvel Snap.
* Uncapped Games, founded by David Kim and Jason Hughes.
Notes
References
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Further reading
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External links
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}}
Category:Companies based in Irvine, California
Category:Former Vivendi subsidiaries
Category:Video game companies established in 1991
Category:Video game companies of the United States
Category:Video game development companies
Category:Video game publishers
Category:Spike Video Game Award winners
Category:Video game controversies
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Robert Bellarmine
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| birth_place = Montepulciano, Grand Duchy of Tuscany
| death_date
| death_place = Rome, Papal States
| buried | residence
| parents | occupation
| profession <!-- or | previous_post -->
| alma_mater | motto
| signature | signature_alt
| coat_of_arms = Coat of arms cardinal Roberto Bellarmino.svg
| coat_of_arms_alt = <!---------- Sainthood ---------->
| feast_day = 17 September; 13 May (General Roman Calendar, 1932–1969)
| venerated = Catholic Church
| beatified_date = 13 May 1923
| beatified_place = Rome, Kingdom of Italy
| beatified_by = Pius XI
| canonized_date = 29 June 1930
| canonized_place = Rome, Vatican City
| canonized_by = Pius XI
| shrine = Chiesa di Sant'Ignazio, Rome, Italy
| attributes | saint_title Confessor and Doctor of the Church
| patronage = Bellarmine University, Bellarmine Preparatory School, Fairfield University, Bellarmine College Preparatory, St. Robert's School, Darjeeling, canonists, canon lawyers, catechists, catechumens, Archdiocese of Cincinnati, St. Robert Catholic High School
<!---------- Other ---------->
| other =
}}
Robert Bellarmine (; ; 4 October 1542 – 17 September 1621) was an Italian Jesuit and a cardinal of the Catholic Church. He was canonized a saint in 1930 and named Doctor of the Church, one of only 37. He was one of the most important figures in the Counter-Reformation.
Bellarmine was a professor of theology and later rector of the Roman College, and in 1602 became Archbishop of Capua. He supported the reform decrees of the Council of Trent. He is also widely remembered for his role in the Giordano Bruno affair, the Galileo affair, and the trial of Friar Fulgenzio Manfredi.
Early life
Robert Bellarmine was born in Montepulciano, the son of noble, albeit impoverished, parents, Vincenzo Bellarmino and his wife Cinzia Cervini, who was the sister of Pope Marcellus II. As a boy he knew Virgil by heart and composed a number of poems in Italian and Latin. One of his hymns, on Mary Magdalene, is included in the Roman Breviary.
Bellarmine entered the Roman Jesuit novitiate in 1560, remaining in Rome for three years. He was then sent to a Jesuit house at Mondovì, in Piedmont, where he learned Greek. While at Mondovì, he came to the attention of Francesco Adorno, the local Jesuit provincial superior, who sent him to the University of Padua.CareerBellarmine's systematic studies of theology began at Padua in 1567 and 1568, where his teachers were adherents of Thomism. In 1569, he was sent to finish his studies at the University of Leuven in Brabant. There he was ordained and obtained a reputation both as a professor and as a preacher. He was the first Jesuit to teach at the university, where the subject of his course was the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas. He was involved in a controversy with Michael Baius on the subject of Grace and free will, and wrote a Hebrew grammar. His residency in Leuven lasted seven years. In poor health, in 1576 he made a journey to Italy. Here he remained, commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII to lecture on polemical theology in the new Roman College, now known as the Pontifical Gregorian University. Later, he would promote the cause of the beatification of Aloysius Gonzaga, who had been a student at the college during Bellarmine's tenure.New duties after 1589
Until 1589, Bellarmine was occupied as professor of theology. After the murder in that year of Henry III of France, Pope Sixtus V sent Enrico Caetani as legate to Paris to negotiate with the Catholic League of France, and chose Bellarmine to accompany him as theologian. He was in the city during its siege by Henry of Navarre.
Upon the death of Pope Sixtus V in 1590, the Count of Olivares wrote to Philip II of Spain, "Bellarmine ... would not do for a Pope, for he is mindful only of the interests of the Church and is unresponsive to the reasons of princes."
In 1602 he was made archbishop of Capua. He had written against pluralism and non-residence of bishops within their dioceses. As bishop he put into effect the reforming decrees of the Council of Trent. He received some votes in the 1605 conclaves which elected Pope Leo XI, Pope Paul V, and in 1621 when Pope Gregory XV was elected, but his being a Jesuit counted against him in the judgement of many of the cardinals.The Galileo case
In 1616, on the orders of Paul V, Bellarmine summoned Galileo, notified him of a forthcoming decree of the Congregation of the Index condemning the Copernican doctrine of the mobility of the Earth and the immobility of the Sun, and ordered him to abandon it. Galileo agreed to do so.
When Galileo later complained of rumours to the effect that he had been forced to abjure and do penance, Bellarmine wrote out a certificate denying the rumours, stating that Galileo had merely been notified of the decree and informed that, as a consequence of it, the Copernican doctrine could not be "defended or held". Unlike the previously mentioned formal injunction (see earlier footnote), this certificate would have allowed Galileo to continue using and teaching the mathematical content of Copernicus's theory as a purely theoretical device for predicting the apparent motions of the planets.
According to some of his letters, Cardinal Bellarmine believed that a demonstration for heliocentrism could not be found because it would contradict the unanimous consent of the Fathers' scriptural exegesis, to which the Council of Trent, in 1546, defined all Catholics must adhere. In other passages, Bellarmine argued that he did not support the heliocentric model for the lack of evidence of the time ("I will not believe that there is such a demonstration, until it is shown to me").
Bellarmine wrote to heliocentrist Paolo Antonio Foscarini in 1615:
According to Pierre Duhem and Karl Popper "in one respect, at least, Bellarmine had shown himself a better scientist than Galileo by disallowing the possibility of a "strict proof" of the earth's motion, on the grounds that an astronomical theory merely "saves the appearances" without necessarily revealing what "really happens." Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn, in his book, The Copernican Revolution, after commenting on Cesare Cremonini, who refused to look through Galileo's telescope, wrote:
Death
Robert Bellarmine retired to Sant'Andrea degli Scozzesi, the Jesuit college of Saint Andrew in Rome. He died on 17 September 1621, aged 78. He was buried in the Church of St. Ignatius in Rome.
Works
Bellarmine's books bear the stamp of their period; the effort for literary elegance (so-called "maraviglia") had given place to a desire to pile up as much material as possible, to embrace the whole field of human knowledge, and incorporate it into theology. His controversial works provoked many replies, and were studied for some decades after his death. At Leuven he made extensive studies in the Church Fathers and scholastic theologians, which gave him the material for his book De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis (Rome, 1613). It was later revised and enlarged by Sirmond, Labbeus, and Casimir Oudin. Bellarmine wrote the preface to the new Sixto-Clementine Vulgate.
Dogmatics
From his research grew Disputationes de controversiis christianae fidei (also called Controversiae), first published at Ingolstadt in 1581–1593. This major work was the earliest attempt to systematize the various religious disputes between Catholics and Protestants. Bellarmine reviewed the issues and devoted eleven years to it while at the Roman College. In August 1590, Pope Sixtus V decided to place the first volume of the Disputationes on the Index because Bellarmine argued in it that the Pope is not the temporal ruler of the whole world and that temporal rulers do not derive their authority to rule from God but from the consent of the governed. However, Sixtus died before the revised Index was published, and the next Pope, Urban VII, removed the book from the Index during his brief twelve-day reign.
In 1597-98 he published a Catechism in two versions ( and ) which has been translated to 60 languages and was the official teaching of the Catholic Church for centuries.
Venetian Interdict
Under Pope Paul V (reigned 1605–1621), a major conflict arose between Venice and the Papacy. Paolo Sarpi, as spokesman for the Republic of Venice, protested against the papal interdict, and reasserted the principles of the Council of Constance and of the Council of Basel, denying the pope's authority in secular matters. Bellarmine wrote three rejoinders to the Venetian theologians, and may have warned Sarpi of an impending murderous attack, when in September 1607, an unfrocked friar and brigand by the name of Rotilio Orlandini planned to kill Sarpi for the sum of 8,000 crowns. Orlandini's plot was discovered, and when he and his accomplices crossed from Papal into Venetian territory they were arrested.
Allegiance oath controversy and papal authority
Bellarmine also became involved in controversy with King James I of England. From a point of principle for English Catholics, this debate drew in figures from much of Western Europe. It raised the profile of both protagonists, King James as a champion of his own restricted Calvinist Protestantism, and Bellarmine for Tridentine Catholicism.Devotional worksDuring his retirement, he wrote several short books intended to help ordinary people in their spiritual life: De ascensione mentis in Deum per scalas rerum creatorum opusculum (''The Mind's Ascent to God by the Ladder of Created Things; 1614) which was translated into English as Jacob's Ladder'' (1638) without acknowledgement by , The Art of Dying Well (1619) (in Latin, English translation under this title by Edward Coffin), and The Seven Words on the Cross.Canonization and final resting placeRobert Bellarmine was canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1930; the following year he was declared a Doctor of the Church. His remains, in a cardinal's red robes, are displayed behind glass under a side altar in the Church of Saint Ignatius, the chapel of the Roman College, next to the body of his student Aloysius Gonzaga, as he himself had wished. In the General Roman Calendar Saint Robert Bellarmine's feast day is on 17 September, the day of his death; but some continue to use pre-1969 calendars, in which for 37 years his feast day was on 13 May. The rank assigned to his feast has been "double" (1932–1959), "third-class feast" (1960–1968), and since the 1969 revision "memorial".
Notes
References
Sources
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* Further reading
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* Butler, Alban (1866). [http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/bellarmine.pdf May XIII. St. Robert Bellarmine, Archbishop of Capua and Cardinal, Doctor of the Church, A.D. 1621]. In [http://www.bartleby.com/210/ The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints]. Dublin: James Duffy. PDF File. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605061248/http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/bellarmine.pdf Archived] from the original on 2011-06-05.
*
* (1839 edition)
* Rager, John C. (1930). [https://web.archive.org/web/20140711211920/http://catholiceducation.org/articles/politics/pg0003.html Catholic Sources and the Declaration of Independence]. The Catholic Mind, XXVIII, no. 13. Contains notable quotations by St. Robert Bellarmine and St. Thomas Aquinas in reference to the Declaration of Independence. Archived from [http://catholiceducation.org/articles/politics/pg0003.html the original] on 2014-07-11
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* Bauer, Stefan (2006). ''The Censorship and Fortuna of Platina's Lives of the Popes in the Sixteenth Century''. .
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External links
Works of Bellarmine
* [https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2022/03/03/robert-bellarmine-opera-omnia-volumes-at-google-books/ Opera Omnia] - Google Books links to the 1870-74 reprint of his collected works in Latin.
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* Bellarmine, Robert (1614). [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_YX6E6R32EpwC A Shorte Catechisme of Card.<sup>all</sup> Bellarmine Illustrated with the Images]. On Google Books.
* Bellarmine, Robert (n. d.). [http://www.cmri.org/02-bellarmine-roman-pontiff.html On the Roman Pontiff. An Extract from St. Robert Bellarmine, De Romano Pontifice, lib. II, cap. 30]. Translated by Jim Larraby. With Introductory Remarks by John Lane. [https://archive.today/20181206161549/http://www.cmri.org/02-bellarmine-roman-pontiff.html Archived] from the original on 2018-12-06.
* Bellarmine, Robert (n.d.). De Romano Pontifice, On the Roman Pontiff, 2 vol., 2015–2016, Mediatrix Press. [https://novusordowatch.org/de-romano-pontifice-book2-chapter30/ Extract of Book II, Chapter 30 (published online with permission)]; [https://novusordowatch.org/de-romano-pontifice-book4-chapters6-7/ extract of Book IV, Chapters 6 & 7 (published online with permission)].
* Bellarmine, Robert (1705). Steps of Ascension to God. Second Edition. London: W. Freeman. On Internet Archive.
* Bellarmine, Robert (1753). [https://books.google.com/books?idkbs-xzAKadgC&pgPA5 Vita ven. Roberti cardinalis Bellarmini quam ipsemet scripsit rogatu familiaris sui p. Eudæmon Johannis Cretensis eruta ex scriniis Societatis] [autobiography] (in Latin). On Google Books. In [https://jesuitonlinelibrary.bc.edu/?ad&dwlet19600201-01&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN------- English in Woodstock Letters, Volume LXXXIX, Number 1, 1 February 1960, on the Jesuit Online Library] (in Italian here, in French [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k932002v/f87.image here])
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* Bellarmine, Robert (1847). [http://goodcatholicbooks.org/pdf/bellarmine_art-of-dying-well.pdf The Art of Dying Well]. Translated by John Dalton. London: Richardson and Son. PDF File. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081218182421/http://goodcatholicbooks.org/pdf/bellarmine_art-of-dying-well.pdf Archived] from the original on 2008-12-18.
* Bellarmine, Robert (2008). The Art of Dying Well. Read by Maureen O'Brien. Audiobook. On Internet Archive.
* Bellarmine, Robert (n.d.). The Eternal Happiness of the Saints. London: Richardson and Son. On Internet Archive
* Bellarmine, Robert (n.d.). [http://www.traditionalcatholicpriest.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Cardinal-Belarmine-Eternal-Happiness-of-the-Saints.pdf The Eternal Happiness of the Saints]. London: Richardson and Son. PDF File. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150908155449/http://www.traditionalcatholicpriest.com:80/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Cardinal-Belarmine-Eternal-Happiness-of-the-Saints.pdf Archived] from the original on 2015-09-08.
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Works about Bellarmine
* CERL-Thesaurus on [https://web.archive.org/web/20120317111653/http://thesaurus.cerl.org/record/cnp01259823 Robert Bellarmin (1542–1621)]
}}
Category:1542 births
Category:1621 deaths
Category:People from Montepulciano
Category:17th-century Italian Roman Catholic archbishops
Category:Archbishops of Capua
Category:Cervini family
Category:Bishops in Tuscany
Category:17th-century Italian cardinals
Category:16th-century Italian Jesuits
Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints
Category:16th-century Italian Roman Catholic theologians
Category:Doctors of the Church
Category:Early modern Christian devotional writers
Category:Pontifical Gregorian University alumni
Category:University of Padua alumni
Category:Old University of Leuven alumni
Category:Academic staff of the Old University of Leuven
Category:Burials at Sant'Ignazio, Rome
Category:17th-century Italian Jesuits
Category:Jesuit saints
Category:Jesuit cardinals
Category:Jesuit archbishops
Category:Inquisitors
Category:17th-century Italian Roman Catholic theologians
Category:Italian librarians
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Bildungsroman
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In literary criticism, a bildungsroman () is a literary genre that focuses on the psychological and moral growth and change of the protagonist from childhood to adulthood (coming of age).}} The term comes from the German words ('formation') and ('novel').
Origin
The term was coined in 1819 by philologist Johann Karl Simon Morgenstern in his university lectures, and was later famously reprised by Wilhelm Dilthey, who legitimized it in 1870 and popularized it in 1905. The genre is further characterized by a number of formal, topical, and thematic features. The term coming-of-age novel is sometimes used interchangeably with bildungsroman, but its use is usually wider and less technical.
The birth of the bildungsroman is normally dated to the publication of ''Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship'' by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1795–96, or, sometimes, to Christoph Martin Wieland's of 1767. Although the bildungsroman arose in Germany, it has had extensive influence first in Europe and later throughout the world. Thomas Carlyle's English translation of Goethe's novel (1824) and his own Sartor Resartus (1833–34), the first English bildungsroman, inspired many British novelists. In the 20th century, it spread to <!-- Britain, --> France and several other countries around the globe.
Barbara Whitman noted that the Iliad might be the first bildungsroman. It is not just "the story of the Trojan War. The Trojan War is in effect the backdrop for the story of Achilles' development. At the beginning Achilles is still a rash youth, making rash decisions which cost dearly to himself and all around him. (...) The story reaches its conclusion when Achilles has reached maturity and allows King Priam to recover Hector's body".
The genre translates fairly directly into the cinematic form, the coming-of-age film.
Plot outline
A bildungsroman is a growing up or "coming of age" of a generally naive person who goes in search of answers to life's questions with the expectation that these will result in gaining experience of the world. The genre evolved from folklore tales of a dunce or youngest child going out in the world to seek their fortune. Usually in the beginning of the story, there is an emotional loss which makes the protagonist leave on their journey. In a bildungsroman, the goal is maturity, and the protagonist achieves it gradually and with difficulty. The genre often features a main conflict between the main character and society. Typically, the values of society are gradually accepted by the protagonist, and they are ultimately accepted into society—the protagonist's mistakes and disappointments are over. In some works, the protagonist is able to reach out and help others after having achieved maturity.
Franco Moretti "argues that the main conflict in the bildungsroman is the myth of modernity with its overvaluation of youth and progress as it clashes with the static teleological vision of happiness and reconciliation found in the endings of Goethe's Wilhelm Meister and even Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice".
There are many variations and subgenres of bildungsroman that focus on the growth of an individual. An Entwicklungsroman ('development novel') is a story of general growth rather than self-cultivation. An Erziehungsroman ("education novel") focuses on training and formal schooling, while a Künstlerroman ("artist novel") is about the development of an artist and shows a growth of the self. Furthermore, some memoirs and published journals can be regarded as bildungsroman although claiming to be predominantly factual (e.g. The Dharma Bums by Jack Kerouac or The Motorcycle Diaries by Ernesto "Che" Guevara). The term is also more loosely used to describe coming-of-age films and related works in other genres.Examples
<!--NOTES:
If you wish to add new entries, please insert them into this list in CHRONOLOGICAL order, thanks!
Please provide references that the work is classified as a bildungsroman. Unreferenced text may be deleted at any time.
-->
Precursors* by Ibn Tufail (12th century)
* Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach (13th century).
* Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (14th century).
16th century
* (first edition 1554)
17th century
* by Baltasar Gracián (first edition 1651). Usually considered the pioneering work in its modern form.
18th century
* Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure (Fanny Hill) by John Cleland (1748)
* The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling by Henry Fielding (1749)
* The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman by Laurence Sterne (1759)
* by Christoph Martin Wieland (1767)—often considered the first "true" bildungsroman19th century* The Betrothed by Alessandro Manzoni (1827)
* The Red and the Black by Stendhal (1830)
* Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlyle (1833–34)
* Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë (1847)
* (unfinished) by Fyodor Dostoevsky (1849)
* David Copperfield by Charles Dickens (1850)
* Green Henry by Gottfried Keller (1855)
* The Morgesons by Elizabeth Stoddard (1862)
* Great Expectations by Charles Dickens (1861)
* Little Women by Louisa May Alcott (1869)
* Sentimental Education by Gustave Flaubert (1869)
* The Adolescent by Fyodor Dostoevsky (1875)
* The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain (1884)
* What Maisie Knew by Henry James (1897)
20th century
* Kim by Rudyard Kipling (1901)
* Beneath the Wheel by Hermann Hesse, 1906
* Martin Eden by Jack London (1909)
* The Book of Khalid'' by Ameen Rihani (1911)
* Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence (1913)
* A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce (1916)
* This Side of Paradise by F. Scott Fitzgerald (1920)
* The Magic Mountain by Thomas Mann (1924)
* by Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay (1929)
* Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston (1937)
* The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger (1951)
* Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison, (1952)
* Children of Violence by Doris Lessing (1952–1969)
* In the Castle of My Skin by George Lamming (1953)
* A Separate Peace by John Knowles (1956)
* Goodbye, Columbus by Philip Roth (1959)
* To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee (1960)
* The Emperor of Ice-Cream by Brian Moore (1965)
* Dune by Frank Herbert (1965)
* The Outsiders by S. E. Hinton (1967)
* A Wizard of Earthsea by Ursula K. Le Guin (1968)
* Bright Lights, Big City by Jay McInerney (1984)<!-- why is this ref pertinent to McInerney's earlier book? -->
* How to Kill a Bull by Anna-Leena Härkönen (1984)
* ''Ender's Game by Orson Scott Card (1985)
* Norwegian Wood by Haruki Murakami (1987)
* English Music by Peter Ackroyd (1992)
* Harry Potter by J. K. Rowling (1997–2007)
* The Perks of Being a Wallflower by Stephen Chbosky (1999)
* Naruto by Masashi Kishimoto (1999)
* Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi (2000)21st century<!--NOTES:
If you wish to add new entries, please insert them into this list in CHRONOLOGICAL order, thanks!
Please provide references that the work is classified as a bildungsroman. Unreferenced text may be deleted at any time.
-->
* The Secret Life of Bees by Sue Monk Kidd (2002)
* The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini (2003)
* The Fortress of Solitude by Jonathan Lethem (2003)
* Never Let Me Go by Kazuo Ishiguro (2005)
* Black Swan Green by David Mitchell (2006)
* Goodnight Punpun by Inio Asano (2007–2013)
* Indignation by Philip Roth (2008)
* Sputnik Caledonia by Andrew Crumey (2008)
* Neapolitan Novels by Elena Ferrante (2011–2014)
* Zuleikha by Guzel Yakhina (2015)
* Washington Black by Esi Edugyan (2018)
* Boy Swallows Universe by Trent Dalton (2018)
See also
* Bildung
* Künstlerroman
* Mirrors for princes
* Roman à clef
Notes
References
Bibliography
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Further reading
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* <br/>Revised edition, with bibliographic updates by Charles Bane and Sean M. Flory (Scarecrow Press, 2006).
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External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200201003235/http://bildungsromanproject.com/ The Bildungsroman Project] - academic digital humanities project featuring user-submitted articles on genre exemplars and contemporary personal narratives, edited by English literature professor [https://web.archive.org/web/20160530020534/http://www.leeuniversity.edu/academics/arts-sciences/language-literature/faculty/katherine-carlson.aspx Katherine Carlson]
Category:Film genres
Category:Literary genres
Category:1810s neologisms
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Bachelor
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A bachelor is a man who is not and never has been married.
Etymology
A bachelor is first attested as the 12th-century bacheler: a knight bachelor, a knight too young or poor to gather vassals under his own banner. The proposed Medieval Latin * ("vassal", "field hand") is only attested late enough that it may have derived from the vernacular languages, Alternatively, it has been derived from Latin ("a stick"), in reference to the wooden sticks used by knights in training.HistoryFrom the 14th century, the term "bachelor" was also used for a junior member of a guild (otherwise known as "yeomen") or university and then for low-level ecclesiastics, as young monks and recently appointed canons. the 1785 Tax on Servants, and the 1798 Income Tax. The study concluded that there is only a 1-in-6 chance that men older than 40 will leave the single life, and that after the age 45, the odds fall to 1-in-20.
Bachelorette
The term bachelorette is sometimes used to refer to a woman who has never been married.
The traditional female equivalent to bachelor is spinster, which is considered pejorative and implies unattractiveness (i.e. old maid, cat lady).See also
* Bachelor pad
* Men Going Their Own Way
* Singleton (lifestyle)
References
External links
* Cole, David. "[http://www.d.umn.edu/~dcole/bachelor.htm Note on Analyticity and the Definability of 'Bachelor'."] Philosophy Department of the University of Minnesota Duluth. 1 February 1999.
Category:Marriage
Category:Terms for men
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor
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Background radiation
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Background radiation is a measure of the level of ionizing radiation present in the environment at a particular location which is due to deliberate introduction of radiation sources.
Background radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial. These include both cosmic radiation and environmental radioactivity from naturally occurring radioactive materials (such as radon and radium), as well as man-made medical X-rays, fallout from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents.
Definition
Background radiation is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as "Dose or the dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified. A distinction is thus made between the dose which is already in a location, which is defined here as being "background", and the dose due to a deliberately introduced and specified source. This is important where radiation measurements are taken of a specified radiation source, where the existing background may affect this measurement. An example would be measurement of radioactive contamination in a gamma radiation background, which could increase the total reading above that expected from the contamination alone.
However, if no radiation source is specified as being of concern, then the total radiation dose measurement at a location is generally called the background radiation, and this is usually the case where an ambient dose rate is measured for environmental purposes.
Background dose rate examples
Background radiation varies with location and time, and the following table gives examples:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|- style="background:#ececec;"
|+ Average annual human exposure to ionizing radiation in millisieverts (mSv) per year
|-
! Radiation source !! World
! US
! Japan
! Remark
|-
| Inhalation of air || 1.26 || 2.28 || 0.40 || <small>mainly from radon, depends on indoor accumulation</small>
|-
| Ingestion of food & water || 0.29 || 0.28 || 0.40 || <small>(potassium-40, carbon-14, etc.)</small>
|-
| Terrestrial background radiation from ground || 0.48 || 0.21 || 0.40 || <small>depends on soil and building material</small>
|-
| Cosmic radiation from space || 0.39 || 0.33 || 0.30 || <small>depends on altitude</small>
|- style="border-bottom: 3px solid grey;"
| sub total (natural) || 2.40 || 3.10 || 1.50 || <small>sizeable population groups receive 10–20 mSv</small>
|-
| Medical || 0.60 || 3.00 || 2.30 || <small>worldwide figure excludes radiotherapy; <br />US figure is mostly CT scans and nuclear medicine.</small>
|-
| Consumer items || – || 0.13 || || <small>cigarettes, air travel, building materials, etc.</small>
|-
| Atmospheric nuclear testing || 0.005 || – || 0.01 || <small>peak of 0.11 mSv in 1963 and declining since; higher near sites</small>
|-
| Occupational exposure || 0.005 || 0.005 || 0.01 || <small>worldwide average to workers only is 0.7 mSv, mostly due to radon in mines;
The International Atomic Energy Agency states:
:"Exposure to radiation from natural sources is an inescapable feature of everyday life in both working and public environments. This exposure is in most cases of little or no concern to society, but in certain situations the introduction of health protection measures needs to be considered, for example when working with uranium and thorium ores and other Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM). These situations have become the focus of greater attention by the Agency in recent years."
Terrestrial sources
Terrestrial background radiation, for the purpose of the table above, only includes sources that remain external to the body. The major radionuclides of concern are potassium, uranium and thorium and their decay products, some of which, like radium and radon are intensely radioactive but occur in low concentrations. Most of these sources have been decreasing, due to radioactive decay since the formation of the Earth, because there is no significant amount currently transported to the Earth. Thus, the present activity on Earth from uranium-238 is only half as much as it originally was because of its 4.5 billion year half-life, and potassium-40 (half-life 1.25 billion years) is only at about 8% of original activity. But during the time that humans have existed the amount of radiation has decreased very little.
Many shorter half-life (and thus more intensely radioactive) isotopes have not decayed out of the terrestrial environment because of their on-going natural production. Examples of these are radium-226 (decay product of thorium-230 in decay chain of uranium-238) and radon-222 (a decay product of radium-226 in said chain).
Thorium and uranium (and their daughters) primarily undergo alpha and beta decay, and are not easily detectable. However, many of their daughter products are strong gamma emitters. Thorium-232 is detectable via a 239 keV peak from lead-212, 511, 583 and 2614 keV from thallium-208, and 911 and 969 keV from actinium-228. Uranium-238 manifests as 609, 1120, and 1764 keV peaks of bismuth-214 (cf. the same peak for atmospheric radon). Potassium-40 is detectable directly via its 1461 keV gamma peak. Radon is a decay product of uranium, which is relatively common in the Earth's crust, but more concentrated in ore-bearing rocks scattered around the world. Radon seeps out of these ores into the atmosphere or into ground water or infiltrates into buildings. It can be inhaled into the lungs, along with its decay products, where they will reside for a period of time after exposure.
Although radon is naturally occurring, exposure can be enhanced or diminished by human activity, notably house construction. A poorly sealed dwelling floor, or poor basement ventilation, in an otherwise well insulated house can result in the accumulation of radon within the dwelling, exposing its residents to high concentrations. The widespread construction of well insulated and sealed homes in the northern industrialized world has led to radon becoming the primary source of background radiation in some localities in northern North America and Europe. Basement sealing and suction ventilation reduce exposure. Some building materials, for example lightweight concrete with alum shale, phosphogypsum and Italian tuff, may emanate radon if they contain radium and are porous to gas.<!--Radon may also dissolve in groundwater and be ingested, producing a dose to the stomach and the foetus. But this section is about air, inhalation only--> However, the discussion about the opposite experimental results is still going on.
About 100,000 Bq/m<sup>3</sup> of radon was found in Stanley Watras's basement in 1984. He and his neighbours in Boyertown, Pennsylvania, United States may hold the record for the most radioactive dwellings in the world. International radiation protection organizations estimate that a committed dose may be calculated by multiplying the equilibrium equivalent concentration (EEC) of radon by a factor of 8 to 9 and the EEC of thoron by a factor of 40 .Cosmic radiation
The Earth and all living things on it are constantly bombarded by radiation from outer space. This radiation primarily consists of positively charged ions from protons to iron and larger nuclei derived from outside the Solar System. This radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an air shower of secondary radiation, including X-rays, muons, protons, alpha particles, pions, electrons, and neutrons. The immediate dose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, and this dose varies in different parts of the world based largely on the geomagnetic field and altitude. For example, the city of Denver in the United States (at 1650 meters elevation) receives a cosmic ray dose roughly twice that of a location at sea level. This radiation is much more intense in the upper troposphere, around 10 km altitude, and is thus of particular concern for airline crews and frequent passengers, who spend many hours per year in this environment. During their flights airline crews typically get an additional occupational dose between per year and 2.19 mSv/year, according to various studies.
Similarly, cosmic rays cause higher background exposure in astronauts than in humans on the surface of Earth. Astronauts in low orbits, such as in the International Space Station or the Space Shuttle, are partially shielded by the magnetic field of the Earth, but also suffer from the Van Allen radiation belt which accumulates cosmic rays and results from the Earth's magnetic field. Outside low Earth orbit, as experienced by the Apollo astronauts who traveled to the Moon, this background radiation is much more intense, and represents a considerable obstacle to potential future long term human exploration of the Moon or Mars.
Cosmic rays also cause elemental transmutation in the atmosphere, in which secondary radiation generated by the cosmic rays combines with atomic nuclei in the atmosphere to generate different nuclides. Many so-called cosmogenic nuclides can be produced, but probably the most notable is carbon-14, which is produced by interactions with nitrogen atoms. These cosmogenic nuclides eventually reach the Earth's surface and can be incorporated into living organisms. The production of these nuclides varies slightly with short-term variations in solar cosmic ray flux, but is considered practically constant over long scales of thousands to millions of years. The constant production, incorporation into organisms and relatively short half-life of carbon-14 are the principles used in radiocarbon dating of ancient biological materials, such as wooden artifacts or human remains.
The cosmic radiation at sea level usually manifests as 511 keV gamma rays from annihilation of positrons created by nuclear reactions of high energy particles and gamma rays. At higher altitudes there is also the contribution of continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum. (half-life 5,730 years). Excluding internal contamination by external radioactive material, these two are the largest components of internal radiation exposure from biologically functional components of the human body. About 4,000 nuclei of <sup>40</sup>K decay per second, and a similar number of <sup>14</sup>C. The energy of beta particles produced by <sup>40</sup>K is about 10 times that from the beta particles from <sup>14</sup>C decay.
<sup>14</sup>C is present in the human body at a level of about 3700 Bq (0.1 μCi) with a biological half-life of 40 days. This means there are about 3700 beta particles per second produced by the decay of <sup>14</sup>C. However, a <sup>14</sup>C atom is in the genetic information of about half the cells, while potassium is not a component of DNA. The decay of a <sup>14</sup>C atom inside DNA in one person happens about 50 times per second, changing a carbon atom to one of nitrogen.
The global average internal dose from radionuclides other than radon and its decay products is 0.29 mSv/a, of which 0.17 mSv/a comes from <sup>40</sup>K, 0.12 mSv/a comes from the uranium and thorium series, and 12 μSv/a comes from <sup>14</sup>C. In the world in general, exceptionally high natural background locales include Ramsar in Iran, Guarapari in Brazil, Karunagappalli in India, Arkaroola in Australia and Yangjiang in China.
The highest level of purely natural radiation ever recorded on the Earth's surface was 90 μGy/h on a Brazilian black beach (areia preta in Portuguese) composed of monazite. This rate would convert to 0.8 Gy/a for year-round continuous exposure, but in fact the levels vary seasonally and are much lower in the nearest residences. The record measurement has not been duplicated and is omitted from UNSCEAR's latest reports. Nearby tourist beaches in Guarapari and Cumuruxatiba were later evaluated at 14 and 15 μGy/h. Note that the values quoted here are in Grays. To convert to Sieverts (Sv) a radiation weighting factor is required; these weighting factors vary from 1 (beta & gamma) to 20 (alpha particles).
The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in Ramsar, primarily due to the use of local naturally radioactive limestone as a building material. The 1000 most exposed residents receive an average external effective radiation dose of per year, six times the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. This unique case is over 80 times higher than the world average natural human exposure to radiation.
Epidemiological studies are underway to identify health effects associated with the high radiation levels in Ramsar. It is much too early to draw unambiguous statistically significant conclusions. However, the recent statistical analyses discussed that there is no correlation between the risk of negative health effects and elevated level of natural background radiation.PhotoelectricBackground radiation doses in the immediate vicinity of particles of high atomic number materials, within the human body, have a small enhancement due to the photoelectric effect.
Neutron background
Most of the natural neutron background is a product of cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere. The neutron energy peaks at around 1 MeV and rapidly drops above. At sea level, the production of neutrons is about 20 neutrons per second per kilogram of material interacting with the cosmic rays (or, about 100–300 neutrons per square meter per second). The flux is dependent on geomagnetic latitude, with a maximum near the magnetic poles. At solar minimums, due to lower solar magnetic field shielding, the flux is about twice as high vs the solar maximum. It also dramatically increases during solar flares. In the vicinity of larger heavier objects, e.g. buildings or ships, the neutron flux measures higher; this is known as "cosmic ray induced neutron signature", or "ship effect" as it was first detected with ships at sea. and Austria. The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of <sup>14</sup>C in the Northern Hemisphere.]]
Frequent above-ground nuclear explosions between the 1940s and 1960s scattered a substantial amount of radioactive contamination. Some of this contamination is local, rendering the immediate surroundings highly radioactive, while some of it is carried longer distances as nuclear fallout; some of this material is dispersed worldwide. The increase in background radiation due to these tests peaked in 1963 at about 0.15 mSv per year worldwide, or about 7% of average background dose from all sources. The Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963 prohibited above-ground tests, thus by the year 2000 the worldwide dose from these tests has decreased to only 0.005 mSv per year.
This global fallout has caused up to 2.4 million deaths by 2020.
Occupational exposure
The International Commission on Radiological Protection recommends limiting occupational radiation exposure to 50 mSv (5 rem) per year, and 100 mSv (10 rem) in 5 years.
However, background radiation for occupational doses includes radiation that is not measured by radiation dose instruments in potential occupational exposure conditions. This includes both offsite "natural background radiation" and any medical radiation doses. This value is not typically measured or known from surveys, such that variations in the total dose to individual workers is not known. This can be a significant confounding factor in assessing radiation exposure effects in a population of workers who may have significantly different natural background and medical radiation doses. This is most significant when the occupational doses are very low.
At an IAEA conference in 2002, it was recommended that occupational doses below 1–2 mSv per year do not warrant regulatory scrutiny.
Nuclear accidents
Under normal circumstances, nuclear reactors release small amounts of radioactive gases, which cause small radiation exposures to the public. Events classified on the International Nuclear Event Scale as incidents typically do not release any additional radioactive substances into the environment. Large releases of radioactivity from nuclear reactors are extremely rare. To the present day, there were two major civilian accidents – the Chernobyl accident and the Fukushima I nuclear accidents – which caused substantial contamination. The Chernobyl accident was the only one to cause immediate deaths.
Total doses from the Chernobyl accident ranged from 10 to 50 mSv over 20 years for the inhabitants of the affected areas, with most of the dose received in the first years after the disaster, and over 100 mSv for liquidators. There were 28 deaths from acute radiation syndrome.
Total doses from the Fukushima I accidents were between 1 and 15 mSv for the inhabitants of the affected areas. Thyroid doses for children were below 50 mSv. 167 cleanup workers received doses above 100 mSv, with 6 of them receiving more than 250 mSv (the Japanese exposure limit for emergency response workers).
The average dose from the Three Mile Island accident was 0.01 mSv.
Non-civilian: In addition to the civilian accidents described above, several accidents at early nuclear weapons facilities – such as the Windscale fire, the contamination of the Techa River by the nuclear waste from the Mayak compound, and the Kyshtym disaster at the same compound – released substantial radioactivity into the environment. The Windscale fire resulted in thyroid doses of 5–20 mSv for adults and 10–60 mSv for children. The doses from the accidents at Mayak are unknown.Nuclear fuel cycleThe Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the United States Environmental Protection Agency, and other U.S. and international agencies, require that licensees limit radiation exposure to individual members of the public to 1 mSv (100 mrem) per year. Energy sources Per UNECE life-cycle assessment, nearly all sources of energy result in some level of occupational and public exposure to radionuclides as result of their manufacturing or operations. The following table uses man·Sievert/GW-annum:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Source
!Public
!Occupational
|-
|Nuclear power
|0.43
|4.5
|-
|Coal (modern)
|0.7
|11
|-
|Coal (older)
|1.4
|11
|-
|Natural gas
|0.1
|0.02
|-
|Oil
|0.0003
|0.15
|-
|Geothermal
|1–20
|0.05
|-
|Solar power
|
|0.8
|-
|Wind power
|
|0.1
|-
|Biomass
|
|0.01
|}
Coal burning
Coal plants emit radiation in the form of radioactive fly ash which is inhaled and ingested by neighbours, and incorporated into crops. A 1978 paper from Oak Ridge National Laboratory estimated that coal-fired power plants of that time may contribute a whole-body committed dose of 19 μSv/a to their immediate neighbours in a radius of 500 m. The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation's 1988 report estimated the committed dose 1 km away to be 20 μSv/a for older plants or 1 μSv/a for newer plants with improved fly ash capture, but was unable to confirm these numbers by test. When coal is burned, uranium, thorium and all the uranium daughters accumulated by disintegration – radium, radon, polonium – are released. Radioactive materials previously buried underground in coal deposits are released as fly ash or, if fly ash is captured, may be incorporated into concrete manufactured with fly ash.Other sources of dose uptakeMedicalThe global average human exposure to artificial radiation is 0.6 mSv/a, primarily from medical imaging. This medical component can range much higher, with an average of 3 mSv per year across the USA population. A dental x-ray delivers a dose of 5 to 10 μSv. A CT scan delivers an effective dose to the whole body ranging from 1 to 20 mSv (100 to 2000 mrem). The average American receives about 3 mSv of diagnostic medical dose per year; countries with the lowest levels of health care receive almost none. Radiation treatment for various diseases also accounts for some dose, both in individuals and in those around them.
Consumer items
Cigarettes contain polonium-210, originating from the decay products of radon, which stick to tobacco leaves. Heavy smoking results in a radiation dose of 160 mSv/year to localized spots at the bifurcations of segmental bronchi in the lungs from the decay of polonium-210. This dose is not readily comparable to the radiation protection limits, since the latter deal with whole body doses, while the dose from smoking is delivered to a very small portion of the body.
Radiation metrology
In a radiation metrology laboratory, background radiation refers to the measured value from any incidental sources that affect an instrument when a specific radiation source sample is being measured. This background contribution, which is established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from the rate measured when the sample is being measured.
This is in accordance with the International Atomic Energy Agency definition of background as being "Dose or dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified.<ref name="IAEA Safety Glossary 2007"/>
The same issue occurs with radiation protection instruments, where a reading from an instrument may be affected by the background radiation. An example of this is a scintillation detector used for surface contamination monitoring. In an elevated gamma background the scintillator material will be affected by the background gamma, which will add to the reading obtained from any contamination which is being monitored. In extreme cases it will make the instrument unusable as the background swamps the lower level of radiation from the contamination. In such instruments the background can be continually monitored in the "Ready" state, and subtracted from any reading obtained when being used in "Measuring" mode.
Regular Radiation measurement is carried out at multiple levels. Government agencies compile radiation readings as part of environmental monitoring mandates, often making the readings available to the public and sometimes in near-real-time. Collaborative groups and private individuals may also make real-time readings available to the public. Instruments used for radiation measurement include the Geiger–Müller tube and the Scintillation detector. The former is usually more compact and affordable and reacts to several radiation types, while the latter is more complex and can detect specific radiation energies and types. Readings indicate radiation levels from all sources including background, and real-time readings are in general unvalidated, but correlation between independent detectors increases confidence in measured levels.
List of near-real-time government radiation measurement sites, employing multiple instrument types:
* Europe and Canada: European Radiological Data Exchange Platform (EURDEP) [https://remap.jrc.ec.europa.eu/GammaDoseRates.aspx Simple map of Gamma Dose Rates]
* USA: EPA Radnet [https://www.epa.gov/radnet/near-real-time-and-laboratory-data-state near-real-time and laboratory data by state]
List of international near-real-time collaborative/private measurement sites, employing primarily Geiger-Muller detectors:
* GMC map: http://www.gmcmap.com/ (mix of old-data detector stations and some near-real-time ones)
* Netc: http://www.netc.com/
* Radmon: http://www.radmon.org/
* Radiation Network: http://radiationnetwork.com/
* Radioactive@Home: http://radioactiveathome.org/map/
* Safecast: [http://safecast.org/tilemap/?y0&x0&z=3 http://safecast.org/tilemap] (the green circles are real-time detectors)
* uRad Monitor: http://www.uradmonitor.com/
See also
* Background radiation equivalent time (BRET)
* Banana equivalent dose
* Environmental radioactivity
* Flight-time equivalent dose
* Noise (electronics)
* Low-background steel
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110521023544/http://www.rerf.or.jp/glossary_e/backgrou.htm Background radiation description] from the Radiation Effects Research Foundation
* [http://www.hps.org/publicinformation/ate/cat10.html Environmental and Background Radiation FAQ] from the Health Physics Society
* [http://www.ans.org/pi/resources/dosechart/ Radiation Dose Chart] from the American Nuclear Society
* [https://www.epa.gov/radiation/calculate-your-radiation-dose Radiation Dose Calculator] from the United States Environmental Protection Agency
Category:Cosmic rays
Category:Ionizing radiation
Category:Radioactivity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_radiation
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Balmoral
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Balmoral may refer to:
Places
Australia
Balmoral, New South Wales, a locality of Sydney
Balmoral, New South Wales (Lake Macquarie)
Balmoral, New South Wales (Southern Highlands)
Balmoral, Queensland
Balmoral Ridge, Queensland
Balmoral, Victoria
Belgium
Balmoral, a hamlet near the town of Spa, Belgium
Canada
Balmoral, British Columbia
Balmoral, New Brunswick
Balmoral Parish, New Brunswick
Balmoral Mills, Nova Scotia
Balmoral, Ontario, a community in Haldimand County
Balmoral Grist Mill Museum, Balmoral Mills, Nova Scotia
Balmoral, Manitoba
New Zealand
Balmoral, New Zealand, a suburb of Auckland
Northern Ireland
Balmoral (District Electoral Area), an area in south Belfast
Balmoral railway station, Belfast
Balmoral Golf Club, Belfast
The Balmoral Show, an agricultural show that takes place annually near Belfast
Balmoral Park, Lisburn, the new location of the Balmoral Show
Scotland
Balmoral, a suburb of Galashiels
Balmoral Castle, a residence of King Charles III in Aberdeenshire, Scotland
The Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh
South Africa
Balmoral, Mpumalanga, a village and colliery near Witbank
United States
Balmoral, Louisiana
Balmoral, Maryland
Balmoral, Tennessee
Balmoral, Wisconsin
Balmoral Park, Illinois, horse racing track in Crete, Illinois
Lakewood Balmoral Historic District, Chicago, Illinois
Clothing
Balmoral bonnet, an unbrimmed cap common in Highland dress
Balmoral (shoe), a type of men's dress shoe
Balmoral tartan pattern worn by the British Royal Family
Education
Balmoral Hall School, Winnipeg, Canada
Balmoral High School (Belfast, Northern Ireland)
Balmoral Jr Secondary School, North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Balmoral School, Auckland, New Zealand
Balmoral State High School, Queensland, Australia
Food
Balmoral Chicken
Ships
, a passenger ship used for pleasure cruises in the UK
, a cruise ship owned and operated by Fred. Olsen Cruise Lines
Theater
Balmoral (play), a 1987 play by Michael Frayn
See also
Balmoral Reef Plate, small tectonic plate in the Pacific Ocean north of Fiji
Battle of Coral–Balmoral, a series of actions in May and June 1968 during the Vietnam War
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Bannock
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Bannock may mean:
Bannock (British and Irish food), a kind of bread, cooked on a stone or griddle served mainly in Scotland but consumed throughout the British Isles
Bannock (Indigenous American food), various types of bread, usually prepared by pan-frying also known as a native delicacy
Bannock people, a Native American people of what is now southeastern Oregon and western Idaho
Bannock County, Idaho
Bannock Mountain, a summit in Washington state, US
Bannock, Ohio
Bannock Pass, between Idaho and Montana
Russell Bannock (1919–2020), Canadian World War II flying ace and test pilot
See also
Bannack, Montana, town named after the tribe, today a ghost town
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bannock
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Banquo
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Lord Banquo , the Thane of Lochaber, is a semi-historical character in William Shakespeare's 1606 play Macbeth. In the play, he is at first an ally of Macbeth (both are generals in the King's army) and they meet the Three Witches together. After prophesying that Macbeth will become king, the witches tell Banquo that he will not be king himself, but that his descendants will be. Later, Macbeth in his lust for power sees Banquo as a threat and has him murdered by three hired assassins; Banquo's son, Fleance, escapes. Banquo's ghost returns in a later scene, causing Macbeth to react with alarm in public during a feast.
Shakespeare borrowed the character Banquo from Holinshed's Chronicles, a history of Britain published by Raphael Holinshed in 1587. In Chronicles, Banquo is an accomplice to Macbeth in the murder of the king, rather than a loyal subject of the king who is seen as an enemy by Macbeth. Shakespeare may have changed this aspect of his character to please King James, who was thought at the time to be a descendant of the real Banquo. Critics often interpret Banquo's role in the play as being a foil to Macbeth, resisting evil whereas Macbeth embraces it. Sometimes, however, his motives are unclear, and some critics question his purity. He does nothing to accuse Macbeth of murdering the king, even though he has reason to believe Macbeth is responsible.
Sources
alt=Two men on horseback meet three women. All are in Elizabethan dress.|right|thumb|Macbeth and Banquo meeting the witches in a woodcut from Holinshed's Chronicles
Shakespeare often used Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, commonly known as Holinshed's Chronicles, as a source for his plays, and in Macbeth, he borrows from several of the tales in that work. Holinshed portrays Banquo as a historical figure, who is an accomplice in the murder by Mac Bethad mac Findlaích (Macbeth) of Donnchad mac Crínáin (King Duncan) and plays an important part in ensuring that Macbeth, not Máel Coluim mac Donnchada (Malcolm), takes the throne in the coup that follows. Holinshed in turn used an earlier work, the Scotorum Historiae (1526–7) by Hector Boece, as his source. Boece's work is the first known record of Banquo and his son Fleance (spelled Banquho and Fleancho in the Latin), and scholars such as David Bevington generally consider them fictional characters invented by Boece. In Shakespeare's day, however, they were considered historical figures of great repute, and the king, James I, based his claim to the throne in part on a descent from Banquo.
Within the literature there exists various claims surrounding Thane Banquo's ancestry. According to the 17th century historian Frederic van Bossen, Thane Banquo (which he wrote as Banqwho and sometimes as Banchou) was the son of Dunclina, the daughter of Albanach ap Crinan, the thane of the Isles, and her husband Kenneth. Kenneth was the son of Fferqwhart, who was the son of son of Murdoch the Thane of "Lochabar", the son of Prince Dorus, who was the son of a King named Erlus, whose kingdom was not identified. According to Frederic van Bossen, Banquo married his 4th cousin Mauldvina the daughter of Thalus the Thane of Atholl, and together they were the parents of Fleance, a daughter called Castisa who married Frederic the Lord of Cromartie, and a number of other sons who were murdered by King Macbeth.
It is known that the House of Stuart descends from Walter fitz Alan, Steward of Scotland, and in some studies he is believed to have been the grandson of Fleance and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn's daughter, Nesta ferch Gruffydd. However, in Frederic van Bossen's handwritten notes, which were created from numerous resources he collected in his travels through Europe, Fleance's wife is identified as Nesta's sister, Marjoretta the daughter of "griffin ap Livlein". In reality, Walter fitz Alan was the son of Alan fitz Flaad, a Breton knight.
Unlike his sources, Shakespeare gives Banquo no role in the King's murder, making it a deed committed solely by Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth. Why Shakespeare's Banquo is so different from the character described by Holinshed and Boece is not known, though critics have proposed several possible explanations. First among them is the risk associated with portraying the king's ancestor as a murderer and conspirator in the plot to overthrow a rightful king, as well as the author's desire to flatter a powerful patron. But Shakespeare may also simply have altered Banquo's character because there was no dramatic need for another accomplice to the murder. There was, however, a need to provide a dramatic contrast to Macbeth; a role that many scholars argue is filled by Banquo.
Banquo's role in the coup that follows the murder is harder to explain. Banquo's loyalty to Macbeth, rather than Malcolm, after Duncan's death makes him a passive accomplice in the coup: Malcolm, as Prince of Cumberland, is the rightful heir to the throne and Macbeth a usurper. Daniel Amneus argued that Macbeth as it survives is a revision of an earlier play, in which Duncan granted Macbeth not only the title of Thane of Cawdor, but the "greater honor" of Prince of Cumberland (i.e. heir to the throne of Scotland). Banquo's silence may be a survival from the posited earlier play, in which Macbeth was the legitimate successor to Duncan.
Role in the play
alt=Dark painting showing two figures encountering witch-like creatures.|thumb|upright|Macbeth and Banquo with the Witches by Henry Fuseli
Banquo is in a third of the play's scenes, as both a human and a ghost. As significant as he is to the plot, he has fewer lines than the relatively insignificant Ross, a Scottish nobleman who survives the play. In the second scene of the play, a wounded soldier describes the manner in which Macbeth, Thane of Glamis, and Banquo, Thane of Lochaber, resisted invading forces, fighting side by side. In the next scene, Banquo and Macbeth, returning from the battle together, encounter the Three Witches, who predict that Macbeth will become Thane of Cawdor, and then king. Banquo, sceptical of the witches, challenges them to predict his own future, and they foretell that Banquo will never himself take the throne, but will beget a line of kings. Banquo remains sceptical after the encounter, wondering aloud if evil can ever speak the truth. He warns Macbeth that evil will offer men a small, hopeful truth only to catch them in a deadly trap.
When Macbeth kills the king and takes the throne, Banquo—the only one aware of this encounter with the witches—reserves judgment for God. He is unsure whether Macbeth committed regicide to gain the throne, but muses in a soliloquy that "I fear / Thou play'dst most foully for 't". He offers his respects to the new King Macbeth and pledges loyalty. Later, worried that Banquo's descendants and not his own will rule Scotland, Macbeth sends two men, and then a Third Murderer, to kill Banquo and his son Fleance. During the melee, Banquo holds off the assailants so that Fleance can escape, but is himself killed. The ghost of Banquo later returns to haunt Macbeth at the banquet in Act Three, Scene Four. A terrified Macbeth sees him, while the apparition is invisible to his guests. He appears again to Macbeth in a vision granted by the Three Witches, wherein Macbeth sees a long line of kings descended from Banquo.
Analysis
Foil to Macbeth
alt=Painting showing men meeting three figures emerging from a cave.|thumb|Macbeth and Banquo Meeting the Three Witches by John Wootton
Many scholars see Banquo as a foil and a contrast to Macbeth. Macbeth, for example, eagerly accepts the Three Witches' prophecy as true and seeks to help it along. Banquo, on the other hand, doubts the prophecies and the intentions of these seemingly evil creatures. Whereas Macbeth places his hope in the prediction that he will be king, Banquo argues that evil only offers gifts that lead to destruction. Banquo steadily resists the temptations of evil within the play, praying to heaven for help, while Macbeth seeks darkness, and prays that evil powers will aid him. This is visible in act two; after Banquo sees Duncan to bed, he says: "There's husbandry in heaven, / Their candles are all out". This premonition of the coming darkness in association with Macbeth's murders is repeated just before Banquo is killed: "it will be rain to-night", Banquo tells his son Fleance.
Banquo's status as a contrast to Macbeth makes for some tense moments in the play. In act two, scene one, Banquo meets his son Fleance and asks him to take both his sword and his dagger ("Hold, take my sword ... Take thee that too" On Macbeth's approach, he demands the sword returned to him quickly. Scholars have interpreted this to mean that Banquo has been dreaming of murdering the king as Macbeth's accomplice to take the throne for his own family, as the Three Witches prophesied to him. In this reading, his good nature is so revolted by these thoughts that he gives his sword and dagger to Fleance to be sure they do not come true, but is so nervous at Macbeth's approach that he demands them back. Other scholars have responded that Banquo's dreams have less to do with killing the king and more to do with Macbeth. They argue that Banquo is merely setting aside his sword for the night. Then, when Macbeth approaches, Banquo, having had dreams about Macbeth's deeds, takes back his sword as a precaution in this case.
Macbeth eventually sees that Banquo can no longer be trusted to aid him in his evil, and considers his friend a threat to his newly acquired throne; thus, he has him murdered.
Ghost scenes
When Macbeth returns to the witches later in the play, they show him an apparition of the murdered Banquo, along with eight of his descendants. The scene carries deep significance: King James, on the throne when Macbeth was written, was believed to be separated from Banquo by nine generations. What Shakespeare writes here thus amounts to a strong support of James' right to the throne by lineage, and for audiences of Shakespeare's day, a very real fulfilment of the witches' prophecy to Banquo that his sons would take the throne. This apparition is also deeply unsettling to Macbeth, who not only wants the throne for himself, but also desires to father a line of kings.
Banquo's other appearance as a ghost during the banquet scene serves as an indicator of Macbeth's conscience returning to plague his thoughts. Banquo's triumph over death appears symbolically, insofar as he literally takes Macbeth's seat during the feast. Shocked, Macbeth uses words appropriate to the metaphor of usurpation, describing Banquo as "crowned" with wounds. The spirit drains Macbeth's manhood along with the blood from his cheeks; as soon as Banquo's form vanishes, Macbeth announces: "Why, so; being gone, / I am a man again."
Like the vision of Banquo's lineage, the banquet scene has also been the subject of criticism. Critics have questioned whether not one, but perhaps two ghosts appear in this scene: Banquo and Duncan. Scholars arguing that Duncan attends the banquet state that Macbeth's lines to the Ghost could apply equally well to the slain king. "Thou canst not say I did it", for example, can mean that Macbeth is not the man who actually killed Banquo, or it can mean that Duncan, who was asleep when Macbeth killed him, cannot claim to have seen his killer. To add to the confusion, some lines Macbeth directs to the ghost, such as "Thy bones are marrowless", cannot rightly be said of Banquo, who has only recently died.
Scholars debate whether Macbeth's vision of Banquo is real or a hallucination. Macbeth had already seen a hallucination before murdering Duncan: a knife hovering in the air. Several performances of the play have even ignored the stage direction to have the Ghost of Banquo enter at all, heightening the sense that Macbeth is growing mad, since the audience cannot see what he claims to see. Scholars opposing this view claim that while the dagger is unusual, ghosts of murdered victims are more believable, having a basis in the audience's superstitions. Spirits in other Shakespeare plays—notably Hamlet and Midsummer Night's Dream—exist in ambiguous forms, occasionally even calling into question their own presence.
The concept of a character being confronted at a triumphant feast with a reminder of their downfall is not unique to Shakespeare and may originate from Belshazzar's feast, as portrayed in the Bible. The term 'ghost at the feast' has entered popular culture, and is often used as a metaphor for a subject a person would rather avoid considering, or (considering the general plot of Macbeth) a reminder of a person's unpleasant past or likely future.
Performances and interpretations
left|300px|thumb|Canada Lee as Banquo in the Federal Theatre Project production of Macbeth (1936)
Banquo's role, especially in the banquet ghost scene, has been subject to a variety of mediums and interpretations. Shakespeare's text states: "Enter Ghost of Banquo, and sits in Macbeth's place." Several television versions have altered this slightly, having Banquo appear suddenly in the chair, rather than walking onstage and into it. Special effects and camera tricks also allow producers to make the ghost disappear and reappear, highlighting the fact that only Macbeth can see it.
Stage directors, unaided by post-production effects and camera tricks, have used other methods to depict the ghost. In the late 19th century, elaborate productions of the play staged by Henry Irving employed a wide variety of approaches for this task. In 1877 a green silhouette was used to create a ghostlike image; ten years later a trick chair was used to allow an actor to appear in the middle of the scene, and then again from the midst of the audience. In 1895 a shaft of blue light served to indicate the presence of Banquo's spirit. In 1933 a Russian director Theodore Komisarjevsky staged a modern retelling of the play (Banquo and Macbeth were told of their future through palmistry); he used Macbeth's shadow as the ghost. In 1936, Orson Welles directed the Federal Theatre Project production of the play, with an African-American cast that included Canada Lee in the role of Banquo. Polanski's version also emphasises Banquo's objection to Macbeth's ascendency by showing him remaining silent as the other thanes around him hail Macbeth as king. In the 1990 film Men of Respect, a reimagining of Macbeth as taking place among a New York Mafia crime family, the character of Banquo is named "Bankie Como" and played by American actor Dennis Farina.
See also
List of ghosts
References
Category:Literary characters introduced in 1603
Category:Characters in Macbeth
Category:Fictional generals
Category:Fictional ghosts
Category:Fictional Scottish people
Category:Fictional swordfighters in literature
Category:Male Shakespearean characters
Category:Fictional lords and ladies
Category:Fictional murdered people
Category:Fictional war veterans
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British Army
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| type = Army
| role = Land warfare
| size =
Formation
Oliver Cromwell]]
Until the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–1653), neither England nor Scotland had had a standing army with professional officers and career corporals and sergeants. England relied on militia organised by local officials or private forces mobilised by the nobility, or on hired mercenaries from Europe. From the later Middle Ages until the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, when a foreign expeditionary force was needed, such as the one that Henry V of England took to France and that fought at the Battle of Agincourt (1415), the army, a professional one, was raised for the duration of the expedition.
During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, the members of the English Long Parliament realised that the use of county militia organised into regional associations (such as the Eastern Association), often commanded by local members of Parliament (both from the House of Commons and the House of Lords), while more than able to hold their own in the regions which Parliamentarians ('Roundheads") controlled, were unlikely to win the war. So Parliament initiated two actions. The Self-denying Ordinance forbade members of Parliament (with the notable exception of Oliver Cromwell, then a member of parliament and future Lord Protector) from serving as officers in the Parliamentary armies. This created a distinction between the civilians in Parliament, who tended to be Presbyterian and conciliatory to the Royalists ("Cavaliers") in nature, and a corps of professional officers, who tended to be Independent (Congregational) in theology. The second action was legislation for the creation of a Parliamentary-funded army, commanded by Lord General Thomas Fairfax, which became known as the New Model Army (originally phrased "new-modelled Army").
While this proved to be a war-winning formula, the New Model Army, being organised and politically active, went on to dominate the politics of the Interregnum and by 1660 was widely disliked. The New Model Army was paid off and disbanded at the later Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 with the accession of King Charles II. For many decades the alleged excesses of the New Model Army under the Protectorate / Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell were used as propaganda (and still feature in Irish folklore) and the Whig Party element recoiled from allowing a standing army to continue with the agreed-upon rights and privileges under the return of a king. The militia acts of 1661 and 1662 prevented local authorities from calling up militia and oppressing their own local opponents. Calling up the militia was possible only if the king and local elites agreed to do so.
King Charles II and his "Cavalier" / Royalist supporters favoured a new army under royal control, and immediately after the Restoration of 1660 to 1661 began working on its establishment. The first English Army regiments, including elements of the disbanded New Model Army, were formed between November 1660 and January 1661 and became a standing military force for England (financed by Parliament). The Royal Scots and Irish Armies were financed by the parliaments of Scotland and Ireland. Parliamentary control was established by the Bill of Rights 1689 and Claim of Right Act 1689, although the monarch continued to influence aspects of army administration until at least the end of the 19th century.
After the Restoration, King Charles II pulled together four regiments of infantry and cavalry, calling them his guards, at a cost of £122,000 from his general budget. This became the foundation of the permanent English Army. By 1685, it had grown to number 7,500 soldiers in marching regiments, and 1,400 men permanently stationed in garrisons. A Monmouth Rebellion in 1685 allowed successor King James II to raise the forces to 20,000 men. There were 37,000 in 1678, when England played a role in the closing stage of the cross-channel Franco-Dutch War. After Protestant dual Monarchs William III, formerly William of the Dutch House of Orange, and his wife Mary II's joint accession to the throne after a short constitutional crisis with Parliament sending Mary's father, predecessor King James II, (who remained a Catholic) during his brief controversial reign, off the throne and into exile. England then involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance on the Continent, primarily to prevent a possible French Catholic monarch organizing invasion restoring the exiled James II (Queen Mary's father and still a Roman Catholic). Later in 1689, William III to solidify his and Mary's hold on the monarchy, expanded the new English army to 74,000, and then a few years later to 94,000 in 1694. Parliament was very nervous and reduced the cadre to 70,000 in 1697. Scotland and Ireland had theoretically separate military establishments, but they were unofficially merged with the English Crown force.
, was one of the first generals in the new British Army and fought in the War of the Spanish Succession. He was a noted ancestor of Sir Winston S. Churchill, later famous Prime Minister during World War II.]]
By the time of the 1707 Acts of Union, many regiments of the English and Scottish armies were combined under one operational command and stationed in the Netherlands for the War of the Spanish Succession. Although all the regiments were now part of the new British military establishment, they remained under the old operational-command structure and retained much of the institutional ethos, customs and traditions of the standing armies created shortly after the Restoration of the Monarchy 47 years earlier. The order of seniority of the most-senior British Army line regiments is based on that of the earlier English army. Although technically the Scots Royal Regiment of Foot was raised in 1633 and is the oldest Regiment of the Line, Scottish and Irish regiments were only allowed to take a rank in the English army on the date of their arrival in England (or the date when they were first placed on the English establishment). In 1694, a board of general officers was convened to decide the rank of English, Irish and Scots regiments serving in the Netherlands; the regiment which became known as the Scots Greys were designated the 4th Dragoons because there were three English regiments raised prior to 1688 when the Scots Greys were first placed in the English establishment. In 1713, when a new board of general officers was convened to decide the rank of several regiments, the seniority of the Scots Greys was reassessed and based on their June 1685 entry into England. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, and the Scots Greys eventually received the British Army rank of 2nd Dragoons. British Empire (1707–1914)
After 1707, British continental policy was to contain expansion by competing powers such as France and Spain. Although Spain was the dominant global power during the previous two centuries and the chief threat to England's early trans-Atlantic colonial ambitions, its influence was now waning. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the later Napoleonic Wars. British soldiers captured strategically important sites and territories, with the army involved in wars to secure the empire's borders, internal safety and support friendly governments and princes. Among these actions were the French and Indian War / Seven Years' War, the American Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars, the First and Second Opium Wars, the Boxer Rebellion, the New Zealand Wars, the Australian frontier wars, the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the first and second Boer Wars, the Fenian raids, the Irish War of Independence, interventions in Afghanistan (intended to maintain a buffer state between British India and the Russian Empire) and the Crimean War (to keep the Russian Empire to the north on the Black Sea at a safe distance by aiding the Ottoman Empire). Like the English Army, the British Army fought the kingdoms of Spain, France (including the First French Empire) and the Netherlands (Dutch Republic) for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial and colonial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the French and Indian War (North American theatre) of the parallel Seven Years' War The British Army was defeated in the American Revolutionary War, losing the Thirteen Colonies but retaining The Canadas and The Maritimes as in British North America, including Bermuda (originally part of the Colony of Virginia, and which had been originally strongly sympathetic to the American colonial rebels early in the war).
Halifax, Nova Scotia and Bermuda were to become Imperial fortresses (although Bermuda, being safer from attack over water and impervious to attack overland, quickly became the most important in British North America), along with Malta and Gibraltar, providing bases in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea for Royal Navy squadrons to control the oceans and trade routes, and heavily garrisoned by the British Army both for defence of the bases and to provide mobile military forces to work with the Navy in amphibious operations throughout their regions.
and Field Marshal von Blücher's triumph over Napoleon Bonaparte at the Battle of Waterloo]]
The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars, participating in a number of campaigns in Europe (including continuous deployment in the Peninsular War), the Caribbean, North Africa and North America. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world; at its peak in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian armies under the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal von Blücher finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815.
The English were involved politically and militarily in Ireland. The campaign of English republican Protector Oliver Cromwell involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns (most notably Drogheda and Wexford) which supported the Royalists during the English Civil War. The English Army (and the subsequent British Army) remained in Ireland primarily to suppress Irish revolts or disorder. In addition to its conflict with Irish nationalists, it was faced with the prospect of battling Anglo-Irish and Ulster Scots in Ireland who were angered by unfavourable taxation of Irish produce imported into Britain. With other Irish groups, they raised a volunteer army and threatened to emulate the American colonists if their conditions were not met. Learning from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution. The British Army fought Irish rebels—Protestant and Catholic—primarily in Ulster and Leinster (Wolfe Tone's United Irishmen) in the 1798 rebellion.
, a small British force repelled an attack by overwhelming Zulu forces; eleven Victoria Crosses were awarded for its defence.]]
In addition to battling the armies of other European empires (and its former colonies, the United States, in the War of 1812), the British Army fought the Chinese in the First and Second Opium Wars
Inspired by the successes of the Prussian Army (which relied on short-term conscription of all eligible young men to maintain a large reserve of recently discharged soldiers, ready to be recalled on the outbreak of war to immediately bring the small peacetime regular army up to strength), the Regular Reserve of the British Army was originally created in 1859 by Secretary of State for War Sidney Herbert, and re-organised under the Reserve Force Act 1867. Prior to this, a soldier was generally enlisted into the British Army for a 21-year engagement, following which (should he survive so long) he was discharged as a Pensioner. Pensioners were sometimes still employed on garrison duties, as were younger soldiers no longer deemed fit for expeditionary service who were generally organised in invalid units or returned to the regimental depot for home service. The cost of paying pensioners, and the obligation the government was under to continue to employ invalids as well as soldiers deemed by their commanding officers as detriments to their units were motivations to change this system. The long period of engagement also discouraged many potential recruits. The long service enlistments were consequently replaced with short service enlistments, with undesirable soldiers not permitted to re-engage on the completion of their first engagement. The size of the army also fluctuated greatly, increasing in war time, and drastically shrinking with peace. Battalions posted on garrison duty overseas were allowed an increase on their normal peacetime establishment, which resulted in their having surplus men on their return to a Home station. Consequently, soldiers engaging on short term enlistments were enabled to serve several years with the colours and the remainder in the Regular Reserve, remaining liable for recall to the colours if required. Among the other benefits, this thereby enabled the British Army to have a ready pool of recently trained men to draw upon in an emergency. The name of the Regular Reserve (which for a time was divided into a First Class and a Second Class) has resulted in confusion with the Reserve Forces, which were the pre-existing part-time, local-service home-defence forces that were auxiliary to the British Army (or Regular Force), but not originally part of it: the Yeomanry, Militia (or Constitutional Force) and Volunteer Force. These were consequently also referred to as Auxiliary Forces or Local Forces.
The late-19th-century Cardwell and Childers Reforms gave the army its modern shape and redefined its regimental system. The 1907 Haldane Reforms created the Territorial Force as the army's volunteer reserve component, merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia and Yeomanry.
World Wars (1914–1945)
; the guidance wheels behind the main body were later scrapped as unnecessary. Armoured vehicles of the era required considerable infantry and artillery support. (Photo by Ernest Brooks)]]
(part of the 46th (Highland) Brigade), advance through Normandy during Operation Epsom on 26 June 1944]]
Great Britain was challenged by other powers, primarily the German Empire and Nazi Germany, during the 20th century. A century earlier it vied with Napoleonic France for global pre-eminence, and Hanoverian Britain's natural allies were the kingdoms and principalities of northern Germany. By the middle of the 19th century, Britain and France were allies in preventing Russia's appropriation of the Ottoman Empire, although the fear of French invasion led shortly afterwards to the creation of the Volunteer Force. By the first decade of the 20th century, the United Kingdom was allied with France (by the Entente Cordiale) and Russia (which had a secret agreement with France for mutual support in a war against the Prussian-led German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire).
When the First World War broke out in August 1914 the British Army sent the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), consisting mainly of regular army troops, to France and Belgium. The fighting bogged down into static trench warfare for the remainder of the war. In 1915 the army created the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force to invade the Ottoman Empire via Gallipoli, an unsuccessful attempt to capture Constantinople and secure a sea route to Russia.
The First World War was the most devastating in British military history, with nearly 800,000 men killed and over two million wounded. Early in the war, the BEF was virtually destroyed and was replaced first by volunteers and then by a conscript force. Major battles included those at the Somme and Passchendaele. Advances in technology saw the advent of the tank (and the creation of the Royal Tank Regiment) and advances in aircraft design (and the creation of the Royal Flying Corps) which would be decisive in future battles. Trench warfare dominated Western Front strategy for most of the war, and the use of chemical weapons (disabling and poison gases) added to the devastation.
The Second World War broke out in September 1939 with the Soviet and German Army's invasion of Poland. British assurances to the Poles led the British Empire to declare war on Germany. As in the First World War, a relatively small BEF was sent to France
After the British Army recovered from its earlier defeats, it defeated the Germans and Italians at the Second Battle of El Alamein in North Africa in 1942–1943 and helped drive them from Africa. It then fought through Italy and, with the help of American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand, Indian and Free French forces, was the principal organiser and participant in the D-Day invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944; nearly half the Allied soldiers were British. In the Far East, the British Army rallied against the Japanese in the Burma Campaign and regained the British Far Eastern colonial possessions. Postcolonial era (1945–2000) After the Second World War the British Army was significantly reduced in size, although National Service continued until 1960. This period saw decolonisation begin with the partition and independence of India and Pakistan, followed by the independence of British colonies in Africa and Asia.
The Corps Warrant, which is the official list of which bodies of the British Military (not to be confused with naval) Forces were to be considered Corps of the British Army for the purposes of the Army Act, the Reserve Forces Act, 1882, and the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act, 1907, had not been updated since 1926 (Army Order 49 of 1926), although amendments had been made up to and including Army Order 67 of 1950. A new Corps Warrant was declared in 1951.
Although the British Army was a major participant in Korea in the early 1950s during this period Britain's role in world events was reduced and the army was downsized. The British Army of the Rhine, consisting of I (BR) Corps, remained in Germany as a bulwark against Soviet invasion. The Cold War continued, with significant technological advances in warfare, and the army saw the introduction of new weapons systems. Despite the decline of the British Empire, the army was engaged in Aden, Indonesia, Cyprus, In 1982, the British Army and the Royal Marines helped liberate the Falkland Islands during the conflict with Argentina after that country's invasion of the British territory.
In the three decades following 1969, the army was heavily deployed in Northern Ireland's Operation Banner to support the Royal Ulster Constabulary (later the Police Service of Northern Ireland) in their conflict with republican paramilitary groups. The locally recruited Ulster Defence Regiment was formed, becoming home-service battalions of the Royal Irish Regiment in 1992 before it was disbanded in 2006. Over 700 soldiers were killed during the Troubles. Following the 1994–1996 IRA ceasefires and since 1997, demilitarisation has been part of the peace process and the military presence has been reduced. On 25 June 2007 the 2nd Battalion of the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment left the army complex in Bessbrook, County Armagh, ending the longest operation in British Army history. Persian Gulf War
" in 1991.]]
The British Army contributed 50,000 troops to the coalition which fought Iraq in the Persian Gulf War, and British forces controlled Kuwait after its liberation. Forty-seven British military personnel died during the war.
Balkan conflicts
The army was deployed to former Yugoslavia in 1992. Initially part of the United Nations Protection Force, in 1995 its command was transferred to the Implementation Force (IFOR) and then to the Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR); the commitment rose to over 10,000 troops. In 1999, British forces under SFOR command were sent to Kosovo and the contingent increased to 19,000 troops. Between early 1993 and June 2010, 72 British military personnel died during operations in the former Yugoslavian countries of Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia. The Troubles Although there have been permanent garrisons in Northern Ireland throughout its history, the British Army was deployed as a peacekeeping force from 1969 to 2007 in Operation Banner. Initially, this was (in the wake of unionist attacks on nationalist communities in Derry and Belfast) to prevent further loyalist attacks on Catholic communities; it developed into support of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and its successor, the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) against the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). Under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, there was a gradual reduction in the number of soldiers deployed. In 2005, after the PIRA declared a ceasefire, the British Army dismantled posts, withdrew many troops and restored troop levels to those of a peacetime garrison.
Operation Banner ended at midnight on 31 July 2007 after about 38 years of continuous deployment, the longest in British Army history. According to an internal document released in 2007, the British Army had failed to defeat the IRA but made it impossible for them to win by violence. Operation Helvetic replaced Operation Banner in 2007, maintaining fewer service personnel in a more-benign environment. Of the 300,000 troops who served in Northern Ireland since 1969, there were 763 British military personnel killed and 306 killed by the British military, mostly civilians. An estimated 100 soldiers committed suicide during Operation Banner or soon afterwards and a similar number died in accidents. A total of 6,116 were wounded.
Sierra Leone
The British Army deployed to Sierra Leone for Operation Palliser in 1999, under United Nations resolutions, to aid the government in quelling violent uprisings by militiamen. British troops also provided support during the 2014 West African Ebola virus epidemic.
Recent history (2000–present)
War in Afghanistan
in Helmand Province]]
In November 2001, as part of Operation Enduring Freedom with the United States, the United Kingdom deployed forces in Afghanistan to topple the Taliban in Operation Herrick. The 3rd Division were sent to Kabul to assist in the liberation of the capital and defeat Taliban forces in the mountains. In 2006 the British Army began concentrating on fighting Taliban forces and bringing security to Helmand Province, with about 9,500 British troops (including marines, airmen and sailors) deployed at its peak—the second-largest force after that of the US. In December 2012 Prime Minister David Cameron announced that the combat mission would end in 2014, and troop numbers gradually fell as the Afghan National Army took over the brunt of the fighting. Between 2001 and 26 April 2014 a total of 453 British military personnel died in Afghan operations. Operation Herrick ended with the handover of Camp Bastion on 26 October 2014, but the British Army maintained a deployment in Afghanistan as part of Operation Toral.
Following an announcement by the US Government of the end of their operations in the Afghanistan, the Ministry of Defence announced in April 2021 that British forces would withdraw from the country by 11 September 2021. It was later reported that all UK troops would be out by early July. Following the collapse of the Afghan Army, and the completion of the withdrawal of civilians, all British troops had left by the end of August 2021. Iraq War
battlegroup engage Iraqi positions with an 81mm mortar south of Basra]]
In 2003, the United Kingdom was a major contributor to the invasion of Iraq, sending a force of over 46,000 military personnel. The British Army controlled southern Iraq, and maintained a peace-keeping presence in Basra. All British troops were withdrawn from Iraq by 30 April 2009, after the Iraqi government refused to extend their mandate. One hundred and seventy-nine British military personnel died in Iraqi operations.
Recent military aid
The British Army maintains a standing liability to support the civil authorities in certain circumstances, usually in either niche capabilities (e.g. explosive ordnance removal) or in general support of the civil authorities when their capacity is exceeded. In recent years this has been seen as army personnel supporting the civil authorities in the face of the 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth outbreak, the 2002 firefighters strike, widespread flooding in 2005, 2007, 2009, 2013 and 2014, Operation Temperer following the Manchester Arena bombing in 2017 and, most recently, Operation Rescript during the COVID-19 pandemic. Baltic States Since 2016, the British Army has maintained a presence in the Baltic States in support of the NATO Enhanced Forward Presence strategy which responded to the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea. The British Army leads a multinational armoured battlegroup in Estonia under Operation Cabrit and contributes troops to another military battle group in Poland. As part of the NATO plans, Britain has committed a full mechanized infantry brigade to be on a high state of readiness to defend Estonia. Ukraine Between 2015 and 2022, the British Army deployed Short Term Training Teams (STTTs) to Ukraine under Operation Orbital to help train the Armed Forces of Ukraine against further Russian aggression. This operation was succeeded by Operation Interflex in July 2022. Modern army Personnel
Trooping the Colour in 2013]]
The British Army has been a volunteer force since national service ended during the 1960s. All former Regular Army personnel may also be recalled to duty in exceptional circumstances during the 6-year period following completion of their Regular service, which creates an additional force known as the Regular Reserve.
The table below illustrates British Army personnel figures from 1710 to 2025.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right;"
! colspan"10" |British Army strength
| rowspan="99" |
! colspan="2" |<br />
| rowspan="99" |
! colspan="4" |<br />
|-
! Year
! Regular Army
! Year
! Regular Army
! Year
! Regular Army
!Army Reserve
!Total
|-
| 1710
| 68,000
| 1820
| 93,000
| 1930
|188,000
|
| —
|-
| 1720
| 20,000
| 1830
| 89,000
| 1945
|2,930,000
|
| 3,120,000
|-
| 1730
| 17,000
| 1838
| 89,000
| 1950
| 364,000
| 83,000
| 447,000
|-
| 1740
| 46,000
| 1840
| 94,000
| 1960
| 258,000
| 120,000
| 387,000
|-
| 1750
| 79,000
| 1850
| 99,000
| 1970
| 174,000
| 80,000
| 256,000
|-
| 1760
| 65,000
| 1860
| 236,000
| 1980
| 159,000
| 63,000
| 222,000
|-
| 1770
| 24,000
| 1870
| 185,000
| 1990
| 153,000
| 73,000
| 226,000
|-
| 1780
| 35,000
| 1880
| 165,000
| 2000
| 110,000
| 45,000
| 155,000
|-
| 1790
| 53,000
| 1890
| 210,000
| 2010
| 109,000
| 29,000
| 142,000
|-
| 1800
| 200,000 The weapon can be enhanced further utilising the Picatinny rail with attachments such as the L17A2 under-barrel grenade launcher. In 2023, the Army Special Operations Brigade, which includes the Ranger Regiment, began using the L403A1, an AR-pattern rifle also used by the Royal Marines.
Some soldiers are equipped with the 7.62mm L129A1 sharpshooter rifle, which in 2018 formally replaced the L86A2 Light Support Weapon. Support fire is provided by the L7 general-purpose machine gun (GPMG), and indirect fire is provided by L16 81mm mortars. Sniper rifles include the L118A1 7.62 mm, L115A3 and the AW50F, all manufactured by Accuracy International. The British Army utilises the Glock 17 as its side arm.
Armour
The army's main battle tank is the Challenger 2, which is being upgraded to Challenger 3. It is supported by the Warrior tracked armoured vehicle as the primary infantry fighting vehicle, (which will soon be replaced by the Boxer 8x8 armoured fighting vehicle) and the Bulldog armoured personnel carrier. Light armoured units often utilise the Supacat "Jackal" MWMIK and Coyote tactical support vehicle for reconnaissance and fire support.
Artillery
The army has three main artillery systems: the M270 multiple launch rocket system (MLRS), the AS-90 and the L118 light gun. The MLRS, first used in Operation Granby, has an standard range, or with the PrSM, up to 500 km. The AS-90 is a 155 mm self-propelled armoured gun with a range. The L118 light gun is a 105 mm towed gun, which is typically towed by a Pinzgauer all-terrain vehicle. To identify artillery targets, the army operates the TAIPAN artillery detection radar and utilises artillery sound ranging. For air defence it uses the new Sky Sabre system, which in 2021 replaced the Rapier. It also deploys the Very Short-Range Air Defence (VSHORAD) Starstreak HVM (high-velocity missile) launched by a single soldier or from a Stormer HVM vehicle-mounted launcher.
Protected mobility
Where armour is not required or mobility and speed are favoured the British Army utilises protected patrol vehicles, such as the Panther variant of the Iveco LMV, the Foxhound, and variants of the Cougar family (such as the Ridgeback, Husky and Mastiff). For day-to-day utility work the army commonly uses the Land Rover Wolf, which is based on the Land Rover Defender.
Engineers, utility and signals
Specialist engineering vehicles include bomb-disposal robots such as the T7 Multi-Mission Robotic System and the modern variants of the Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers, including the Titan bridge-layer, Trojan armoured engineer vehicle, Terrier armoured digger. Day-to-day utility work uses a series of support vehicles, including six-, nine- and fifteen-tonne MAN trucks, Oshkosh heavy-equipment transporters (HET), close-support tankers, quad bikes and ambulances. Tactical communication uses the Bowman radio system, and operational or strategic communication is controlled by the Royal Corps of Signals.
Aviation
The Army Air Corps (AAC) provides direct aviation support, with the Royal Air Force providing support helicopters. The primary attack helicopter is the Boeing AH-64E Apache which replaced the AgustaWestland Apache AH-1 in the anti-tank, anti-air defence, and anti-armour role. The AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat is a dedicated intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISTAR) helicopter. The Eurocopter AS 365N Dauphin is used for special operations aviation, primarily counter terrorism operations, within the UK. The army operates two unmanned aerial vehicles in a surveillance role: the small Lockheed Martin Desert Hawk III and the larger Thales Watchkeeper WK450, which will be retired from service in March 2025.
<gallery class"center" widths"200" heights="150">
File:MCV-80.jpg|alt=Tank with painted camouflage|Warrior IFV
File:AS90 Self Propelled Gun - Tankfest 2009.jpg|alt=Self-propelled artillery gun|AS-90
File:GUNNERS ON TARGET FOR EXERCISE STEEL SABRE IN NORTHUMBERLAND MOD 45159595.jpg|alt=Rocket launcher|Guided multiple launch rocket system (GMLRS)
File:Challenger 2 MBT in Estonia-902250.jpeg|Challenger 2
File:AH64E Bourget 2019.jpg|Apache AH64-E
File:New SA80 A3 Assault Rifle MOD 45163883.jpg|L85A3 (SA80A3)
</gallery>
Current deployments
Low-intensity operations
{| class"wikitable" style"margin:auto; width:100%;"
|-
! style="text-align:center; width:10%;" |Location
! style="text-align:center; width:5%;" |Date
! style="text-align:center; width:85%;" |Details
|-
! Iraq
| Since 2014
| Operation Shader: The UK has a leading role in the 67-member Global Coalition committed to defeating ISIL. The coalition includes Iraq, European nations and the US. British soldiers are not in a combat role in Iraq but are on the ground with coalition partners providing training and equipment to Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) and Kurdish Security Forces (KSF). There were approximately 400 military personnel in Iraq in 2020.
|-
! Cyprus
| Since 1964
| Operation Tosca: There were 275 troops deployed as part of the UNFICYP in 2016.
|-
! Estonia
| Since 2017
|NATO Enhanced Forward Presence: The British Army deploys approximately 900 troops to Estonia and 150 to Poland as part of its commitment to NATO.
|-
!Africa
|Since 2019
|The British Army maintains several short-term military training teams to help build the capacity of national military forces, ensuring a number of states across Africa can respond appropriately and proportionally to the security threats they face, including terrorism, the illegal wildlife trade, violations of human rights and emerging humanitarian crises.
|}
Permanent overseas postings
{| class"wikitable" style"margin:auto; width:100%;"
|-
! style="text-align:center; width:10%;" |Location
! style="text-align:center; width:5%;" |Date
! style="text-align:center; width:85%;" |Details
|-
! Belize
| 1949
| British Army Training and Support Unit Belize: The British Army has maintained a presence in Belize since its independence. Currently the British Army Training Support Unit in Belize enables close country and tropical environment training to troops from the UK and international partners.
|-
! Bermuda
| 1701
| Royal Bermuda Regiment: Colonial Militia and volunteers existed from 1612 to 1816. The regular English Army, then British Army, Bermuda Garrison was first established by an Independent Company in 1701. Volunteers were recruited into the regular army and the Board of Ordnance Military Corps for part-time, local-service from the 1830s to the 1850s due to the lack of a Militia. The British Government considered Bermuda as an Imperial fortress, rather than a colony. After the French Revolution, the Governor of Bermuda was normally a military officer (usually a Lieutenant-General or Major-General of the Royal Artillery or Royal Engineers) in charge of all military forces in Bermuda, with the Bermuda Garrison falling under the Nova Scotia Command. From 1868, the Bermuda Garrison became the independent Bermuda Command, with Governors being Generals, Lieutenant-Generals or Major Generals occupying the role of Commander-in-Chief or General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C). Locally recruited reserve units, the Royal Artillery-badged Bermuda Militia Artillery (BMA) and Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps (BVRC) were raised again from 1894, later joined by the Royal Engineers-badged Bermuda Volunteer Engineers (1931–1946), General Service Corps-badged Bermuda Militia Infantry (1939–1946), and a Home Guard (1942–1946). After the Royal Naval Dockyard was redesignated a naval base in 1951, the army garrison was closed in 1957, leaving only the part-time BMA (re-tasked as infantry in 1953, though still badged and uniformed as Royal Artillery) and BVRC (renamed Bermuda Rifles in 1949). The Bermuda Command Headquarters and all regular army personnel other than members of the Permanent Staff of the local Territorials and the Aide-de-Camp to the Governor of Bermuda (today normally a Captain from the Royal Bermuda Regiment employed full-time for the duration of the appointment) were withdrawn. Home defence has been provided by the Royal Bermuda Regiment since formed by the 1965 amalgamation of the BMA and Bermuda Rifles.
|-
! Brunei
| 1962
| British Forces Brunei: One battalion of the Royal Gurkha Rifles, British Garrison, Training Team Brunei (TTB). A Gurkha battalion has been maintained in Brunei since the Brunei Revolt in 1962 at the request of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin III. Training Team Brunei (TTB) is the Army's jungle-warfare school, and a small number of garrison troops support the battalion. 7 Flight AAC formerly provided helicopter support to the Gurkha battalion and TTB but its role has since been assumed by No. 230 Squadron RAF.
|-
! Canada
| 1972
| British Army Training Unit Suffield: A training centre in Alberta prairie for the use of British Army and Canadian Forces under agreement with the government of Canada. British forces conduct regular, major armoured training exercises every year, with helicopter support provided by 29 (BATUS) Flight AAC.
|-
! Cyprus
| 1960
| 2 resident infantry battalions, Royal Engineers and Joint Service Signals Unit at Ayios Nikolaos as part of British Forces Cyprus. The UK retains two Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus after the rest of the island's independence, which are forward bases for deployments to the Middle East. Principal facilities are Alexander Barracks at Dhekelia and Salamanca Barracks at Episkopi.
|-
! Falkland Islands
| 1982
| Part of British Forces South Atlantic Islands: After the 1982 conflict, the UK established a garrison on the Falkland Islands, consisting of naval, land and air elements. The British Army contribution consists of an infantry company group, a Royal Artillery Battery and an Engineer Squadron.
|-
! Gibraltar
| 1704
| Part of British Forces Gibraltar: The Army has had a presence in Gibraltar for more than 300 years. The people of Gibraltar took up arms as the Gibraltar Volunteer Corps from 1915 to 1920 and again as the Gibraltar Defence Force shortly before the outbreak of WW2. This force later became the Royal Gibraltar Regiment, which remains as the only formed Army unit in Gibraltar.
|-
! Kenya
| 2010
| British Army Training Unit Kenya: The army has a training centre in Kenya. BATUK is a permanent training support unit based mainly in Nanyuki, 200 km north of Nairobi. BATUK provides demanding training to exercising units preparing to deploy on operations or assume high-readiness tasks. BATUK consists of around 100 permanent staff and reinforcing short tour cohort of another 280 personnel. Under an agreement with the Kenyan Government, up to six infantry battalions per year carry out eight-week exercises in Kenya.
|-
! Oman
| 2019
| Omani-British Joint Training Area: A training area for combined arms battlegroup training, jointly maintained with the Royal Army of Oman.
|}
Structure
Army Headquarters is located in Andover, Hampshire, and is responsible for providing forces at operational readiness for employment by the Permanent Joint Headquarters. These two Commands serve distinct purposes and are divided into a structure of divisions and brigades, which themselves consist of a complex mix of smaller units such as Battalions. British Army units are either full-time 'Regular' units, or part-time Army Reserve units.
Allied Rapid Reaction Corps
Led by a British Army three-star general, one of NATO's High Readiness (Land) Forces based in Gloucestershire, UK, with the following British units under its command:
* 1st Signal Brigade
* 104th Theatre Sustainment Brigade
* 7th Air Defence Group
* 8th Engineer Brigade
Field Army
Led by Commander Field Army, the Field Army is responsible for generating and preparing forces for current and contingency operations. The Field Army comprises:
* Army Personnel Services Group, which supports personnel administration
* Regional Command, which enables the delivery of a secure home front that sustains the Army, notably helping to coordinate the British Army's support to the civil authorities, overseeing the British Army's Welfare Service, and delivering the British Army's civil engagement mission.
* Standing Joint Command, which coordinates defence's contribution to UK resilience operations in support of other government departments.
Special Forces
]]
The British Army contributes two of the three special forces formations to the United Kingdom Special Forces directorate: the Special Air Service (SAS) and Special Reconnaissance Regiment (SRR). The SAS consists of one regular and two reserve regiments. The regular regiment, 22 SAS, has its headquarters at Stirling Lines, Credenhill, Herefordshire. It consists of 5 squadrons (A, B, D, G and Reserve) and a training wing. 22 SAS is supported by 2 reserve regiments, 21 SAS and 23 SAS, which collectively form the Special Air Service (Reserve) (SAS [R]), who in 2020 were transferred back under the command of Director of Special Forces after previously being under the command of the 1st Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade. The SRR, formed in 2005, performs close reconnaissance and special surveillance tasks.
Colonial units
The British Army historically included many units from what are now separate Commonwealth realms. When the English Empire was established in North America (including Bermuda), and the West Indies in the early 17th century there was no standing English Army, only the Militia, Yeomanry, and Royal bodyguards, of which the Militia, as the primary home-defence force, was immediately extended to the colonies. Colonial militias defended colonies single-handedly at first against indigenous peoples and European competitors. Once the standing English Army, later the British Army, came into existence and began to garrison the colonies, the colonial militias fought side by side with it in a number of wars, including the Seven Years' War. Some of the colonial militias rebelled during the American War of Independence. The militia fought alongside the regular British Army (and native allies) in defending British North America from their former countrymen during the War of 1812.
at USMC Camp Lejeune in 2018]]
Locally raised units in strategically located Imperial fortress colonies (including: Nova Scotia before the Canadian Confederation; Bermuda – which was treated as part of The Maritimes under the Commander-in-Chief at Nova Scotia until Canadian Confederation; Gibraltar; and Malta) and the Channel Islands were generally maintained from army funds and more fully integrated into the British Army as evident from their placements in British Army lists, unlike units such as the King's African Rifles.
The larger colonies (Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, etc.) mostly achieved Commonwealth Dominion status before or after the First World War and were granted full legislative independence in 1931. While remaining within the British Empire, this placed their governments on a par with the British government, and hence their military units comprised separate armies (e.g. the Australian Army), although Canada retained the term "militia" for its military forces until the Second World War. From the 1940s, these dominions and many colonies chose full independence, usually becoming Commonwealth realms (as member states of the Commonwealth are known today).
Units raised in self-governing and Crown colonies (those without local elected Legislatures, as was the case with British Hong Kong) that are part of the British realm remain under British Government control. As the territorial governments are delegated responsibility only for internal government, the UK Government, as the government of the Sovereign state, retains responsibility for national security and the defence of the fourteen remaining British Overseas Territories, of which six have locally raised regiments:
* Royal Bermuda Regiment
* Royal Gibraltar Regiment
* Falkland Islands Defence Force
* Royal Montserrat Defence Force
* Cayman Islands Regiment
* Turks and Caicos Islands Regiment
<gallery class"center" widths"200px" heights="150px">
File:Falklandsdf.jpg|alt=Line of soldiers near water|Falkland Islands Defence Force on parade in June 2013
File:Detachment of Falkland Islands Defence Force.jpg|alt=Soldiers marching down a street in black uniforms|Detachment of the Falkland Islands Defence Force in ceremonial dress
File:US President JF Kennedy inspects Bermuda Rifles 1961.jpg|John Fitzgerald Kennedy, escorted by Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Bermuda, Major-General Sir JA Gascoigne, KCMG, KCVO, CB, DSO, DL, and Major JA Marsh, DSO, the Officer Commanding the Bermuda Militia Artillery, inspects a Bermuda Rifles guard in 1961, four years before the units amalgamated
File:RSM of the Bermuda Regiment 1992.jpg|WO1 Herman Eve, RSM of the Royal Bermuda Regiment in 1992
File:Bermuda Regiment Band.png|Bandsmen of the Royal Bermuda Regiment
File:Bermuda Regiment PNCO Cadre Promotion Parade.jpg|alt=Soldiers in white-and-black dress uniforms|Royal Bermuda Regiment on parade
File:Changing of the Guard duo - Royal Gibraltar Regiment.jpg|alt=Two soldiers in red dress uniforms|Changing of the guard, Royal Gibraltar Regiment (2012)
File:Royal Gibraltar Regiment.jpg|alt=Four soldiers marching in red-and-blue dress uniforms|Royal Gibraltar Regiment in London, April 2012
</gallery>
Levels of Command
The structure of the British Army beneath the level of Divisions and Brigades is also hierarchical and command is based on rank. The table below details how many units within the British Army are structured, although there can be considerable variation between individual units:
Recruitment
, with Lord Kitchener]]
The British Army primarily recruits from within the United Kingdom, but accept applications from all British citizens. It also accepts applications from Irish citizens and Commonwealth citizens, with certain restrictions. Since 2018 the British Army has been an equal-opportunity employer (with some legal exceptions due to medical standards), and does not discriminate based on race, religion or sexual orientation. Applicants for the Regular Army must be a minimum age of 16, although soldiers under 18 may not serve in operations, and the maximum age is 36. Applicants for the Army Reserve must be a minimum of 17 years and 9 months, and a maximum age of 43. Different age limits apply for Officers and those in some specialist roles. Applicants must also meet several other requirements, notably regarding medical health, physical fitness, past-criminal convictions, education, and regarding any tattoos and piercings.
Oath of allegiance
All soldiers and commissioned officers must take an oath of allegiance upon joining the Army, a process known as attestation. Those who wish to swear by God use the following words:}}
Others replace the words "swear by Almighty God" with "solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm".
Soldiers under the age of 17 and six months will complete Phase 1 training at the Army Foundation College. Infantry Soldiers will complete combined Phase 1 & 2 training at the Infantry Training Centre, Catterick, whilst all other Soldiers will attend Phase 1 training at the Army Training Centre Pirbright or Army Training Regiment, Winchester, and then complete Phase 2 training at different locations depending on their specialism. before also completing their Phase 2 training at multiple different locations. Traditionally most British Army units had a set of flags, known as the colours—normally a Regimental Colour and a King's Colour (the Union Jack). Historically these were carried into battle as a rallying point for the soldiers and were closely guarded. In modern units the colours are often prominently displayed, decorated with battle honours, and act as a focal point for Regimental pride. A soldier re-joining a regiment (upon recall from the reserve) is described as re-called to the Colours.
<gallery class"center" widths"200px" heights="150px">
File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|alt=Union Jack|Official Army flag
File:Flag of the British Army.svg|alt=The British Lion, the crown and crossed swords on a red background|Non-ceremonial army flag; "Army", in gold letters, sometimes appears below the badge.
File:British Army Ensign01.svg|alt=Flag with Union Jack and crossed swords on a blue background|Ensign for general use by the Royal Logistic Corps
File:British Army Ensign00.svg|alt=Same as previous flag, with the British lion and the crown|Ensign flown by the Royal Logistic Corps from vessels commanded by commissioned officers
File:Royal Engineers Ensign.png|alt=Union Jack and stylised, winged hand on a blue background|Ensign of the Corps of Royal Engineers
</gallery>
Ranks and insignia
Most ranks across the British Army are known by the same name regardless of which Regiment they are in. However, the Household Cavalry call many ranks by different names, the Royal Artillery refer to Corporals as Bombardiers, the Rifles spell Sergeant as Serjeant, and Private soldiers are known by a wide variety of titles; notably trooper, gunner, guardsman, kingsman, sapper, signaller, fusilier, craftsman and rifleman dependant on the Regiment they belong to. These names do not affect a soldier's pay or role.
Reserve forces
The oldest of the Reserve Forces was the Militia Force (also referred to as the Constitutional Force), which (in the Kingdom of England, prior to 1707) was originally the main military defensive force (until the 1645 creation of the New Model Army, there otherwise were originally only Royal bodyguards, including the Yeomen Warders and the Yeomen of the Guard, with armies raised only temporarily for expeditions overseas), made up of civilians embodied for annual training or emergencies, which had used various schemes of compulsory service during different periods of its long existence. From the 1850s it recruited volunteers who engaged for terms of service. The Militia was originally an all-infantry force, though Militia coastal artillery, field artillery, and engineers units were introduced from the 1850s.
Volunteer Force units were also frequently raised during wartime and disbanded upon peace. This was re-established as a permanent (i.e., in war and peace) part of the Reserve Forces in 1859. It differed from the Militia in a number of ways, most particularly in that volunteers did not commit to a term service, and were able to resign with fourteen days notice (except while embodied). As volunteer soldiers were originally expected to fund the cost of their own equipment, few tended to come from the labouring class among whom the Militia primarily recruited.
The Yeomanry Force was made up of mounted units, organised similarly to the Volunteer Force, first raised during the two decades of war with France that followed the French Revolution. As with the Volunteers, members of the Yeomanry were expected to foot much of the cost of their own equipment, including their horses, and the make-up of the units tended to be from more affluent classes.
Although Militia regiments were linked with British Army regiments during the course of the Napoleonic Wars to feed volunteers for service abroad into the regular army, and volunteers from the Reserve Forces served abroad either individually or in contingents, service companies, or battalions in a succession of conflicts from the Crimean War to the Second Boer War, personnel did not normally move between forces unless re-attested as a member of the new force, and units did not normally move from the Reserve Forces to become part of the Regular Forces, or vice versa. There were exceptions, however, as with the New Brunswick Regiment of Fencible Infantry, raised in 1803, which became the 104th (New Brunswick) Regiment of Foot when it was transferred to the British Army on 13 September 1810.
Another type of reserve force was created during the period between the French Revolution and the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Called Fencibles, these were disbanded after the Napoleonic Wars and not raised again, although the Royal Malta Fencible Regiment, later the Royal Malta Fencible Artillery, existed from 1815 until the 1880s when it became the Royal Malta Artillery, and the Royal New Zealand Fencible Corps was formed in 1846.
The Reserve Forces were raised locally (in Britain, under the control of Lords-Lieutenant of counties, and, in British colonies, under the colonial governors, and members originally were obliged to serve only within their locality (which, in the United Kingdom, originally meant within the county or other recruitment area, but was extended to anywhere in Britain, though not overseas). They have consequently also been referred to as Local Forces. As they were (and in some cases are) considered separate forces from the British Army, though still within the British military, they have also been known as Auxiliary Forces. The Militia and Volunteer units of a colony were generally considered to be separate forces from the Home Militia Force and Volunteer Force in the United Kingdom, and from the Militia Forces and Volunteer Forces of other colonies. Where a colony had more than one Militia or Volunteer unit, they would be grouped as a Militia or Volunteer Force for that colony, such as the Jamaica Volunteer Defence Force. Officers of the Reserve Forces could not sit on Courts Martial of regular forces personnel. The Mutiny Act did not apply to members of the Reserve Forces. The Reserve Forces within the British Isles were increasingly integrated with the British Army through a succession of reforms (beginning with the Cardwell Reforms) of the British military forces over the last two decades of the Nineteenth Century and the early years of the Twentieth Century, whereby the Reserve Forces units mostly lost their own identities and became numbered Militia or Volunteer battalions of regular British Army corps or regiments.
In 1908, the Yeomanry and Volunteer Force were merged to create the Territorial Force (changed to Territorial Army after the First World War), with terms of service similar to the army and Militia, and the Militia was renamed the Special Reserve, After the First World War the Special Reserve was renamed the Militia, again, but permanently suspended (although a handful of Militia units survived in the United Kingdom, its colonies, and the Crown Dependencies). Although the Territorial Force was nominally still a separate force from the British Army, by the end of the century, at the latest, any unit wholly or partly funded from Army Funds was considered part of the British Army. Outside the United Kingdom-proper, this was generally only the case for those units in the Channel Islands or the Imperial fortress colonies (Nova Scotia, before Canadian confederation; Bermuda; Gibraltar; and Malta).
The Bermuda Militia Artillery, Bermuda Militia Infantry, Bermuda Volunteer Engineers, and the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps,
In October 2012 the Ministry of Defence announced that the Territorial Army was to be renamed the Army Reserve. Uniforms
The British Army uniform has sixteen categories, ranging from ceremonial uniforms to combat dress to evening wear. No. 8 Dress, the day-to-day uniform, is known as "Personal Clothing System – Combat Uniform" (PCS-CU) and consists of a Multi-Terrain Pattern (MTP) windproof smock, a lightweight jacket and trousers with ancillary items such as thermals and waterproofs. The army has introduced tactical recognition flashes (TRFs); worn on the right arm of a combat uniform, the insignia denotes the wearer's regiment or corps. In addition to working dress, the army has a number of parade uniforms for ceremonial and non-ceremonial occasions. The most-commonly-seen uniforms are No. 1 Dress (full ceremonial, seen at formal occasions such as at the changing of the guard at Buckingham Palace) and No. 2 Dress (Service Dress), a brown khaki uniform worn for non-ceremonial parades.
Working headdress is typically a beret, whose colour indicates its wearer's type of regiment. Beret colours are:
* Khaki—Foot Guards, Honourable Artillery Company, Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, Royal Anglian Regiment, Royal Welsh, Royal Yorkshire Regiment
* Light grey—Royal Scots Dragoon Guards
* Brown—King's Royal Hussars, Royal Wessex Yeomanry
* Black—Royal Tank Regiment
* Dark (rifle) green—Royal Dragoon Guards, The Rifles, Royal Gurkha Rifles, Small Arms School Corps
* Maroon—Parachute Regiment
* Beige—Special Air Service
* Sky blue—Army Air Corps
* Cypress green—Intelligence Corps
* Scarlet—Royal Military Police
* Green—Adjutant General's Corps
* Navy blue—All other units, such as the Household Cavalry, Light Dragoons, Queen's Dragoon Guards, Royal Yeomanry, and the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers
* Emerald grey—Special Reconnaissance Regiment
* Gun-metal grey—The Ranger Regiment See also
* Army 2020 Refine
* Army Cadet Force
* Army Reserve (United Kingdom)
* British Army order of precedence
* British campaign medals
* Corps Warrant
* List of British Army installations
* List of British Army regiments and corps
* List of equipment of the British Army
* List of military weapons of the United Kingdom
* List of roles in the British Army
* List of wars involving England
* List of wars involving Scotland
* List of wars involving the United Kingdom
* Military bands of the United Kingdom
* Military history of the United Kingdom
* Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
* Red coat (military uniform)
* Royal Air Force
* Royal Navy
* "Rule, Britannia!"
* Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015
* Tommy Atkins
* Uniforms of the British Army
* United Kingdom Special Forces
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
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*
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*
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* French, David. Army, Empire, and Cold War: The British Army and Military Policy, 1945–1971 (2012)
*
*
*
*
* Linch, Kevin, and Matthew Lord, eds. Redcoats to Tommies: The Experience of the British Soldier from the Eighteenth Century (Boydell Press, 2021) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59250 Online review of this book.]
*
*
*
*
*
*
* |authorOED staff |chapterRupert, n. |dateJune 2013 |titleOxford English Dictionary |editionOnline |publisherOxford University Press |url http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/269065?redirectedFrom=rupert }}
* |authorOED staff |chapterTaffy, n.2 |dateJune 2013 |titleOxford English Dictionary |editionOnline |publisherOxford University Press |url http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/197006?rskey1LEQ6y&result2&isAdvanced=false }}
*
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* External links
*
Category:1707 establishments in Great Britain
Army
Category:Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
Category:Military of the United Kingdom
Category:Organizations established in 1707
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army
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Bruin
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Bruin, (from Dutch for "brown"), is an English folk term for brown bear.
Bruin, Bruins or BRUIN may also refer to:
Places
Lake Bruin, ox-bow lake of the Mississippi River located in northeastern Louisiana
Lake Bruin State Park
Bruin, Kentucky, United States
Bruin, Pennsylvania, United States
Bruin's Slave Jail, building in Alexandria, Virginia
Sports team nicknames and mascots
Ayr Bruins, a defunct Scottish ice hockey team
Bellevue University, Bellevue, Nebraska
Belmont University, Nashville, Tennessee
Bob Jones University, Greenville, South Carolina
Boston Bruins, an American NHL hockey team
UCLA Bruins, a collegiate sports team located in Los Angeles, California
Chilliwack Bruins, a former Canadian major junior ice hockey team in Chilliwack, British Columbia
George Fox University, Newberg, Oregon
Kellogg Community College, Battle Creek, Michigan
New Westminster Bruins, a former Canadian major junior ice hockey team in New Westminster, British Columbia
Piedmont International University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
Providence Bruins, an American AHL hockey team in Providence, Rhode Island
Salt Lake Community College, Salt Lake County, Utah
Sheridan College, Brampton, Ontario
Other uses
Bruin (surname)
Oud bruin, Belgian beer
Heineken Oud Bruin, Dutch beer
Yamaha Bruin 350, utility all-terrain vehicle
Brown University Interactive Language, a programming language
Rasmus Klump, a comic strip published as Bruin
Bruin, a brown bear in the Reynard cycle fables
See also
List of Bruin mascots
Ursidae
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruin
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4890
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Bayesian probability
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Bayesian probability ( or )}} is an interpretation of the concept of probability, in which, instead of frequency or propensity of some phenomenon, probability is interpreted as reasonable expectation representing a state of knowledge or as quantification of a personal belief.
The Bayesian interpretation of probability can be seen as an extension of propositional logic that enables reasoning with hypotheses; that is, with propositions whose truth or falsity is unknown. In the Bayesian view, a probability is assigned to a hypothesis, whereas under frequentist inference, a hypothesis is typically tested without being assigned a probability.
Bayesian probability belongs to the category of evidential probabilities; to evaluate the probability of a hypothesis, the Bayesian probabilist specifies a prior probability. This, in turn, is then updated to a posterior probability in the light of new, relevant data (evidence). The Bayesian interpretation provides a standard set of procedures and formulae to perform this calculation.
The term Bayesian derives from the 18th-century mathematician and theologian Thomas Bayes, who provided the first mathematical treatment of a non-trivial problem of statistical data analysis using what is now known as Bayesian inference. Mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace pioneered and popularized what is now called Bayesian probability. For subjectivists, probability corresponds to a personal belief. In that special case, the prior and posterior distributions were beta distributions and the data came from Bernoulli trials. It was Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who introduced a general version of the theorem and used it to approach problems in celestial mechanics, medical statistics, reliability, and jurisprudence. Early Bayesian inference, which used uniform priors following Laplace's principle of insufficient reason, was called "inverse probability" (because it infers backwards from observations to parameters, or from effects to causes). After the 1920s, "inverse probability" was largely supplanted by a collection of methods that came to be called frequentist statistics. In the objectivist stream, the statistical analysis depends on only the model assumed and the data analysed. No subjective decisions need to be involved. In contrast, "subjectivist" statisticians deny the possibility of fully objective analysis for the general case.
In the 1980s, there was a dramatic growth in research and applications of Bayesian methods, mostly attributed to the discovery of Markov chain Monte Carlo methods and the consequent removal of many of the computational problems, and to an increasing interest in nonstandard, complex applications. While frequentist statistics remains strong (as demonstrated by the fact that much of undergraduate teaching is based on it ), Bayesian methods are widely accepted and used, e.g., in the field of machine learning.JustificationThe use of Bayesian probabilities as the basis of Bayesian inference has been supported by several arguments, such as Cox axioms, the Dutch book argument, arguments based on decision theory and de Finetti's theorem.Axiomatic approachRichard T. Cox showed that Bayesian updating follows from several axioms, including two functional equations and a hypothesis of differentiability. The assumption of differentiability or even continuity is controversial; Halpern found a counterexample based on his observation that the Boolean algebra of statements may be finite. Other axiomatizations have been suggested by various authors with the purpose of making the theory more rigorous.Dutch book approach
Bruno de Finetti proposed the Dutch book argument based on betting. A clever bookmaker makes a Dutch book by setting the odds and bets to ensure that the bookmaker profits—at the expense of the gamblers—regardless of the outcome of the event (a horse race, for example) on which the gamblers bet. It is associated with probabilities implied by the odds not being coherent.
However, Ian Hacking noted that traditional Dutch book arguments did not specify Bayesian updating: they left open the possibility that non-Bayesian updating rules could avoid Dutch books. For example, Hacking writes "And neither the Dutch book argument, nor any other in the personalist arsenal of proofs of the probability axioms, entails the dynamic assumption. Not one entails Bayesianism. So the personalist requires the dynamic assumption to be Bayesian. It is true that in consistency a personalist could abandon the Bayesian model of learning from experience. Salt could lose its savour."
In fact, there are non-Bayesian updating rules that also avoid Dutch books (as discussed in the literature on "probability kinematics" following the publication of Richard C. Jeffrey's rule, which is itself regarded as Bayesian). The additional hypotheses sufficient to (uniquely) specify Bayesian updating are substantial and not universally seen as satisfactory.
Decision theory approach
A decision-theoretic justification of the use of Bayesian inference (and hence of Bayesian probabilities) was given by Abraham Wald, who proved that every admissible statistical procedure is either a Bayesian procedure or a limit of Bayesian procedures. Conversely, every Bayesian procedure is admissible.
Personal probabilities and objective methods for constructing priors
Following the work on expected utility theory of Ramsey and von Neumann, decision-theorists have accounted for rational behavior using a probability distribution for the agent. Johann Pfanzagl completed the Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by providing an axiomatization of subjective probability and utility, a task left uncompleted by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern: their original theory supposed that all the agents had the same probability distribution, as a convenience. Pfanzagl's axiomatization was endorsed by Oskar Morgenstern: "Von Neumann and I have anticipated ... [the question whether probabilities] might, perhaps more typically, be subjective and have stated specifically that in the latter case axioms could be found from which could derive the desired numerical utility together with a number for the probabilities (cf. p. 19 of The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior). We did not carry this out; it was demonstrated by Pfanzagl ... with all the necessary rigor".
Ramsey and Savage noted that the individual agent's probability distribution could be objectively studied in experiments. Procedures for testing hypotheses about probabilities (using finite samples) are due to Ramsey (1931) and de Finetti (1931, 1937, 1964, 1970). Both Bruno de Finetti and Frank P. Ramsey acknowledge their debts to pragmatic philosophy, particularly (for Ramsey) to Charles S. Peirce.
This work demonstrates that Bayesian-probability propositions can be falsified, and so meet an empirical criterion of Charles S. Peirce, whose work inspired Ramsey. (This falsifiability-criterion was popularized by Karl Popper.)
Modern work on the experimental evaluation of personal probabilities uses the randomization, blinding, and Boolean-decision procedures of the Peirce-Jastrow experiment. Since individuals act according to different probability judgments, these agents' probabilities are "personal" (but amenable to objective study).
Personal probabilities are problematic for science and for some applications where decision-makers lack the knowledge or time to specify an informed probability-distribution (on which they are prepared to act). To meet the needs of science and of human limitations, Bayesian statisticians have developed "objective" methods for specifying prior probabilities.
Indeed, some Bayesians have argued the prior state of knowledge defines the (unique) prior probability-distribution for "regular" statistical problems; cf. well-posed problems. Finding the right method for constructing such "objective" priors (for appropriate classes of regular problems) has been the quest of statistical theorists from Laplace to John Maynard Keynes, Harold Jeffreys, and Edwin Thompson Jaynes. These theorists and their successors have suggested several methods for constructing "objective" priors (Unfortunately, it is not always clear how to assess the relative "objectivity" of the priors proposed under these methods):
* Maximum entropy
* Transformation group analysis
* Reference analysis
Each of these methods contributes useful priors for "regular" one-parameter problems, and each prior can handle some challenging statistical models (with "irregularity" or several parameters). Each of these methods has been useful in Bayesian practice. Indeed, methods for constructing "objective" (alternatively, "default" or "ignorance") priors have been developed by avowed subjective (or "personal") Bayesians like James Berger (Duke University) and José-Miguel Bernardo (Universitat de València), simply because such priors are needed for Bayesian practice, particularly in science. The quest for "the universal method for constructing priors" continues to attract statistical theorists.<ref name="refa" />
Thus, the Bayesian statistician needs either to use informed priors (using relevant expertise or previous data) or to choose among the competing methods for constructing "objective" priors.
See also
* An Essay Towards Solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances
* Bayesian epistemology
* Bertrand paradox—a paradox in classical probability
* Credal network
* Credence (statistics)
* De Finetti's game—a procedure for evaluating someone's subjective probability
* Evidence under Bayes' theorem
* Monty Hall problem
* QBism—an interpretation of quantum mechanics based on subjective Bayesian probability
* Reference class problem
References
Bibliography
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* (translation of de Finetti, 1931)
* (translation of de Finetti, 1937, above)
* , , two volumes.
* Goertz, Gary and James Mahoney. 2012. A Tale of Two Cultures: Qualitative and Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences. Princeton University Press.
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:(Partly reprinted in )
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Probability
Category:Justification (epistemology)
Category:Probability interpretations
Category:Philosophy of mathematics
Category:Philosophy of science
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_probability
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2025-04-05T18:27:00.547099
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Bert Bell
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| birth_place = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
| alma_mater = University of Pennsylvania
| spouse | children
| relatives | module ) <br> Head coach
* Pittsburgh Steelers () <br> Head coach
| pastexecutive =
* Philadelphia Eagles () <br> Owner
* Philadelphia Eagles () <br> Owner, president & general manager
* Pittsburgh Steelers () <br> Co-owner
| highlights =
* Philadelphia Eagles Hall of Fame
| overall_record
| branch =
| serviceyears = 1917–1918
| rank = First Sergeant
| unit = Mobile Hospital Unit
| battles =
* World War I
** Western Front
}}
| pfrcoach = BellBe0
| pfrexec = BellBe0
| HOF = bert-bell
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| module2 =
}}
De Benneville "Bert" Bell (February 25, 1895 – October 11, 1959) was an American professional football executive and coach. He was the fifth chief executive and second commissioner of the National Football League (NFL) from 1946 until his death in 1959. As commissioner, he introduced competitive parity into the NFL to improve the league's commercial viability and promote its popularity.
Whereas Bell had become the chief executive in a sport that was largely seen as second-rate and heading a league still plagued by franchise instability, by his death the NFL was a financially sound sports enterprise and seriously challenging Major League Baseball for preeminence among sports attractions in the United States. Bell was posthumously inducted into the charter class of the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
Bell played football at the University of Pennsylvania, where as quarterback, he led his team to an appearance in the 1917 Rose Bowl. After being drafted into the US Army during World War I, he returned to complete his collegiate career at Penn and went on to become an assistant football coach with the Quakers in the 1920s. During the Great Depression, he was an assistant coach for the Temple Owls and a co-founder and co-owner of the Philadelphia Eagles.
With the Eagles, Bell led the way in cooperating with the other NFL owners to establish the NFL draft in order to afford the weakest teams the first opportunity to sign the best available players. He subsequently became sole proprietor of the Eagles, but the franchise suffered financially. Eventually, he sold the team and bought a share in the Pittsburgh Steelers. During World War II, Bell argued against the league suspending operations until the war's conclusion.
After the war, he was elected NFL commissioner and sold his ownership in the Steelers. As commissioner, he implemented a proactive anti-gambling policy, negotiated a merger with the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), and unilaterally crafted the entire league schedule with an emphasis on enhancing the dramatic effect of late-season matches. During the Golden Age of Television, he tailored the game's rules to strengthen its appeal to mass media and enforced a policy of blacking out local broadcasts of home contests to safeguard ticket receipts. Amid criticism from franchise owners and under pressure from Congress, he unilaterally recognized the NFLPA and facilitated in the development of the first pension plan for the players. He survived to oversee the "Greatest Game Ever Played" and to envision what the league would become in the future.
As commissioner, Bell oversaw the integration of the NFL. Although Fritz Pollard was the first African American to play in the NFL, appearing with three teams from 1922 to 1926, a “gentleman’s agreement” among the owners kept the sport segregated for another 20 years. In 1946, four black players began playing in the NFL.Early life (1895–1932)Bell was born De Benneville Bell, on February 25, 1895, in Philadelphia to John C. Bell and Fleurette de Benneville Myers. His father was an attorney who served a term as the Pennsylvania Attorney General. His older brother, John C. Jr., was born in 1892. and his mother's lineage predated the American Revolutionary War. His father, a Quaker of the University of Pennsylvania (class of 1884) during the early days of American football, accompanied him to his first football game when Bell was six years old. Thereafter, Bell regularly engaged in football games with childhood friends.
In 1904, Bell matriculated at the Episcopal Academy, the Delancey School from 1909 to 1911 and then the Haverford School until 1914. At Haverford, Bell captained the school's football, basketball, and baseball teams, and "was awarded The Yale Cup <nowiki>[for being]</nowiki> 'The pupil who has done the most to promote athletics in the school.'" Although he excelled at baseball, his devotion was to football. His father, who was named a trustee at Penn in 1911, said of Bell's plans for college, "Bert will go to Penn or he will go to hell." In a rare accomplishment for a sophomore, he was named the starting quarterback by Penn coach George H. Brooke. After the team's 3–0 start, Bell temporarily shared possession of his quarterbacking duties until he subsequently reclaimed them later in the season, as Penn finished with a record of 3–5–2.
Prior to Penn's 1916 season, Bell's mother died while he was en route to her bedside. He started the first game for the Quakers under new coach Bob Folwell, but mixed results left him platooned for the rest of the season. Bell had the best offensive gain for Penn during their 0–14 loss to Oregon, a 20-yard run, but was replaced late in the game at quarterback after throwing an interception. In the 1917 season, Bell led Penn to a 9–2 record. As a result of his unit participating in hazardous duty, it received a congratulatory letter for bravery from General John J. Pershing, After the war, Bell returned to the United States in March 1919. His collegiate days ended with his having been a borderline All-American, but this period of his life had proven that he "possessed the qualities of a leader."
Early career (1920–1932)
Bell assembled the Stanley Professionals in Chicago in 1920, but he disbanded it prior to playing any games because of negative publicity received by Chicago due to the Black Sox Scandal. He joined John Heisman's staff at Penn as an assistant coach in 1920, where he remained for several years. At Penn, he was well regarded as a football coach, and after its 1924 season, he drew offers for, but declined, head-coaching assignments at other universities. and frequenting Saratoga Race Course, where he counted as friends Tim Mara, Art Rooney, and George Preston Marshall. In 1928, Bell tendered his resignation at Penn in protest over the emphasis on in-season scrimmages during practices by Lud Wray, a fellow assistant coach. Bell's resignation was accommodated prior to the start of the 1929 season. His father bailed him out of his deprivation, and he returned to working at the Ritz. In 1932, Marshall tried to coax Bell into buying the rights to an NFL franchise, but Bell disparaged the league and ridiculed the idea. When Pop Warner was hired to coach Temple for the 1933 season, Warner chose to hire his own assistants, and Bell was let go by Temple.NFL careerPhiladelphia Eagles (1933–1940)By early 1933, Bell's opinion on the NFL had changed, and he wanted to become an owner of a team based in Philadelphia. After being advised by the NFL that a prerequisite to a franchise being rendered in Philadelphia was that the Pennsylvania Blue Laws would have to be mollified, he was the force majeure in lobbying to getting the laws deprecated. and he procured the rights to a franchise in Philadelphia,
After the inaugural 1933 Philadelphia Eagles season, Bell married Upton at St. Madeleine Sophie Roman Catholic Church in Philadelphia. Days later, his suggestion to bestow the winner of the NFL championship game with the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy was affirmed. In 1934, the Eagles finished with a 4–7 record, The Eagles' inability to seriously challenge other teams made it difficult to sell tickets, and his failure to sign a talented college prospect led him to adduce that the only way to bring stability to the league was to institute a draft to ensure the weakest teams had an advantage in signing the preeminent players. In 1935, his proposal for a draft was accepted, and in February 1936, the first draft kicked off, at which he acted as Master of Ceremonies. Later that month, his first child, Bert Jr., was born.
In the Eagles' first three years, the partners exhausted $85,000 (), and at a public auction, Bell became sole owner of the Eagles with a bid of $4,500 (). Austerity measures forced him to supplant Wray as head coach of the Eagles, wherein Bell led the Eagles to a 1–11 finish, their worst record ever. In December, an application for a franchise in Los Angeles was obstructed by Bell and Pittsburgh Steelers owner Rooney as they deemed it too far of a distance to travel for games. During the Eagles' 2–8–1 1937 season, his second child, John "Upton", was born. In the Eagles' first profitable season, 1938, they posted a 5–6 record. The Eagles finished 1–9–1 in 1939 and 1–10 in 1940.
Pittsburgh Steelers (1940–1945)
In December 1940, Bell conciliated the sale of Rooney's Steelers to Alexis Thompson, and then Rooney acquired half of Bell's interest in the Eagles. In a series of events known as the Pennsylvania Polka, Ostensibly, Rooney had provided assistance to Bell by rewarding him with a 20% commission on the sale of the Steelers. Bell became the Steelers head coach and Rooney became the general manager.
During the training camp of Pittsburgh's inaugural season with the nickname Steelers, Bell was buoyant with optimism about the team's prospect, but he became crestfallen after Rooney denigrated the squad and flippantly remarked that they looked like the "[s]ame old Steelers" (SOS). After losing the first two games of the 1941 season, Rooney compelled Bell to resign as head coach. Bell's coaching career ended with a 10–46–2 record, his 0.179 winning percentage is second-lowest in NFL history to only Phil Handler's 0.105 for coaches with at least five seasons. And at 36 games under .500 he held the record for futility until John McKay passed him in 1983 and Marion Campbell passed him in 1988. His first daughter and last child, Jane Upton, was born several months after the season's conclusion.
By 1943, 40% of the NFL rosters had been drafted into the United States Armed Forces for World War II. The resulting difficulty in fielding a full-strength squad led some owners to recommend the league should shut down until the war ended. Bell auspiciously argued against this as he feared they might not be able to resume operations easily after the war, and since Major League Baseball was continuing unabated, then they should also.
Throughout Bell's affiliation with the Steelers, he suffered monetarily and Rooney bought an increasing allotment of the franchise from him. Compounding Bell's problems, Arch Ward organized the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) in 1944 to displace the NFL's sovereignty in professional football. Ward's AAFC promptly began luring players to join the league, which resulted in salaries being driven up drastically. In Bill Dudley's contract proceedings with the Steelers, he attributed Bell's anxiety during the negotiations to the rivalry from the AAFC. Furthermore, by the end of 1945, the Steelers were in their most economically perilous situation in its history.
NFL commissioner (1946–1959)
Election, Hapes-Filchock, and the NFL schedule (1946–1948)
Elmer Layden was appointed the first NFL commissioner in 1941, but Ward appeared as dictating his hiring. Layden tendered his resignation for personal reasons January 1946. Bell, who was not well respected in Pittsburgh, was elected to replace him. He received a three-year contract at $20,000 per year (), and transacted a sale of his stake in the Steelers to Rooney, albeit for a price Bell did not construe was full-value. He was then immediately placed at the center of a controversy wherein the owners denied Dan Reeves permission to relocate the Cleveland Rams to Los Angeles. Bell moderated a settlement, and, as a result, the Los Angeles Rams were formed.
The drawing up of a regular-season schedule had been a perennial source of contention among the NFL owners since the league's inception. The crux of the problem was the scheduling of games meant weighing the interest of owners who, early in the season, wanted their franchises to confront teams that drew the largest crowds, versus owners who wanted to play the weaker franchises to pad their team's win–loss record. The resultant impasse coerced the owners, in 1946, to confer upon Bell the sole discretion in developing the league's schedule. He utilized this responsibility to, early in the season, pit the weaker teams against other weak teams, and the strong teams against other strong teams. His goal was to augment game attendances by keeping the difference in team standings to a minimum as deep into the season as possible. Filchock was sanctioned by Bell to play in the game but Hapes was suspended. At the next NFL owners' meeting, Bell was worried the repercussions from this event would lead to his firing. However, he was pleasantly surprised to learn that his contract would be elevated to five years at $30,000 per year. Reinvigorated with renewed support, he persuaded the owners to allow him to put sudden-death overtime into the playoffs.
Subsequently, he wrote an anti-gambling resolution into the league constitution, which empowered him with the ability to permanently ban any NFL associated personnel for betting on a game or for withholding information on a game being possibly fixed. Furthermore, to obstruct gamblers from getting inside information, he secreted the names of officials he would assign to games, Eventually, he lobbied to get every state in the US to criminalize the fixing of sporting events and put employees on the payroll of the NFL to investigate potential betting scams.AAFC–NFL merger (1948–1950)
The NFL's struggle against the AAFC generated stress on wages, attendance, marketing, and by 1949, it had prevented the NFL for showing a profit for three consecutive years. Bell and representatives from both leagues met to attempt a merger, but their efforts were fruitless. In an unrelated matter, he apprised the owners that attendance records had shown televising games locally had a negative impact on the sale of home tickets. Nevertheless, he actualized the NFL's first television contract—the 1949 championship game. Simultaneously, he dealt with a lawsuit from Bill Radovich, who had been blacklisted for leaving the Lions and gaining employment with the AAFC. Bell and the owners were advised by John C. Jr. that this lawsuit was potentially not winnable, and the ramifications from the outcome of the case weighed heavily on Bell.
One of the primary impediments in an AAFC–NFL merger was the supposed violation of "territorial rights" claimed by Marshall. Eventually, Bell gathered enough support to effectuate a compromise with the AAFC. In late 1949, the leagues merged, as three AAFC teams (the Cleveland Browns, San Francisco 49ers, and Baltimore Colts) joined the NFL; a fourth AAFC team (Los Angeles Dons) merged with the Los Angeles Rams, and the other AAFC teams disbanded. Seeking to capitalize on the publicity of the residual AAFC–NFL rivalry, he utilized "exquisite dramatic" and business sense and allocated the 1950 opening game to a contest between the 1949 champion Eagles versus the perennial AAFC champion Browns. Feeling financially secure after the merger, he purchased his first home for himself and his family in Narberth, Pennsylvania. Consequently, the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) opened an investigation into a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act. Rams attendance for 1950 dropped off by 50%, and this signaled a potential financial disaster. In 1951, he licensed the DuMont Television Network to air the championship games for the next five years, and he stipulated that teams were free to develop their own television contracts independently.
However, preceding the 1951 season, he reimposed the blackout rule on all teams in the league. The DOJ filed suit over this and Bell publicly retorted, "You can't give fans a game for free on TV and also expect them to go to the ballpark"; nevertheless, the suit was ordered to trial for January 1952. After the 1951 season ended, he gained unilateral control over the setting of a television strategy for the NFL. He negotiated a deal with DuMont, which granted it the rights to nationally broadcast one regular-season game every week,<!--need to get bloody this is the 2 tv authors that support this citation--> and he directed that the income from this contract was to be shared equally between all the teams. In the DOJ's case, the judge ruled that the blackout policy was legal, but both Bell, and the franchises collectively, were enjoined from negotiating a TV contract; Bell was ecstatic. Later that year, Bell forced one of the owners of the Cleveland Browns to sell all of his shares in the team after Bell determined the owner had bet on Browns' football games. Although he hated to fly, at some indeterminate point, he visited the training camps of every team and lectured on the danger gamblers posed to the league.
Bell authorized a Pro Bowl to be held at the end of each season in order to showcase the talents of the best players. But in the early 1950s, on the field activities sometimes denigrated to borderline assault and battery with teams' star players being viciously targeted by opposing players. He answered charges the league was too savage by saying, "'I have never seen a maliciously dirty football player in my life and I don't believe there are any.'" Nevertheless, he ordered broadcasts to follow a strict rule of conduct whereby TV announcers would not be permitted to criticize the game, and neither fights, nor injuries, could be televised by virtue in his belief that announcers were "'salesman for professional football <nowiki>[and]</nowiki> we do not want kids believing that engaging in fights is the way to play football.'"
Bell was criticized for censoring TV broadcasts, a charge he dismissed as not pertinent because he believed he was not impeding the print media but only advertising a product. After CBS and NBC gained the rights to broadcast the games in 1956, he advised the franchises to avoid criticizing the games or the officials, and forewarned that TV would give "'us our greatest opportunity to sell the <nowiki>NFL</nowiki> and everyone must present to the public the greatest games ... combined with the finest sportsmanship.'" This relationship with television was the beginning of the NFL's rise to becoming America's most popular sport.
Compromise with the NFLPA (1956–1957)
In Radovich v. National Football League, the Supreme Court ruled in Radovich's favor and declared the NFL was subject to antitrust laws, and the implication was that the legality of the draft and reserve clause were dubious. Bell pressed a case in the media that the NFL should be exempted from antitrust regulations and proffered the league was a sport and not a business. He invited an investigation from Congress with respect to the court's ruling. The House Judiciary committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler—who believed the draft was illegal and should be abolished, convened in July 1957 to discuss the ramifications of the Radovich decision. Red Grange and Bell testified at the committee's solicitation and argued the draft was essential to the sport's success. Representatives of the NFLPA contradicted these statements and said the draft and the reserve clause were anti-labor, and it seemed as if Congress was going to accept their position. Faced with Congressional opposition, Bell formally recognized the NFLPA and declared he would negotiate with its representatives. At the next owners' meeting, Rooney admonished they either had to recognize the NFLPA or remove Bell as commissioner. In order to do this, they had to agree in a vote that required a super-majority. Bell unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the owners to permit the NFLPA to act as a bargaining agent for the players. However, he did reach a compromise with the owners to get them to acquiesce to some of the NFLPA's requests for salary standards and health benefits. and Bell mandated officials call a few TV timeouts during each game — a change which triggered criticism from sportswriters. The 1958 championship game became the first NFL championship game decided in overtime, and it was considered to be the greatest football game ever played. The game further increased football's marketability to television advertising, and the drama associated with overtime was the catalyst. Years later, after witnessing Bell openly crying after the game, Raymond Berry attributed it to Bell's realization of the impact the game would have on the prevalence of the sport.
The death of Mara in February unsettled Bell and he experienced a heart attack later that month. He converted to Catholicism that summer<!--1959--> because of the lifelong urging of his wife, a practicing Catholic. Bell was advised by his doctor to avoid going to football games, to which he quipped, "I'd rather die watching football than in my bed with my boots off." The Eagles held complimentary box seats for him and guests to watch the game, but he preferred to buy his own tickets and sit with the other fans. League Treasurer Austin Gunsel was named interim NFL commissioner for the rest of the season.
Afterwards, he was remembered as "a man of buoyant joviality, <nowiki> with a rough and ready wit,</nowiki> laughter and genuine humility and honesty, clearly innocent of pretense and <nowiki>[pretension]</nowiki>." His funeral was held at Narberth's St. Margaret Roman Catholic Church and Monsignor Cornelius P. Brennan delivered the eulogy, as close friends and admirers attended the mass. Dominic Olejniczak and all the extant owners of the NFL franchises were pallbearers. Bell was interred at Calvary Cemetery in West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, northwest of Philadelphia.
Bell had named Baltimore Colts owner Carroll Rosenbloom as his executor. Bell had been Rosenbloom's backfield coach at Penn in the early 1950s, and later had convinced Rosenbloom to purchase the Colts after becoming commissioner. Rosenbloom owned the Colts in 1958 when they won the greatest game ever played, and brought greater national attention to the NFL. After Bell's death, Rosenbloom hired Bell's sons Upton and Bert Jr. to work for the Colts.
Legacy and honors
<!--FIX: get online source 9/7/1963-->Bell was inducted into the Professional Football Hall of Fame,<!--/FIX--> the Penn Athletics Hall of Fame, the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame, and Haverford's Athletic Hall of Fame. has presented the best NFL player of the year with the Bert Bell Award since 1959. The Bert Bell Benefit Bowl was exhibited in his honor from 1960 through 1969. The historical maker to Bell in Narberth, Pennsylvania is within blocks of his family's home at 323 Haverford Avenue. he was proactive in ensuring games were not tampered with by gamblers, and he created the foundation of the contemporary NFL anti-gambling policy.
Bell was criticized as being too strict with his refusal to let sold-out games to be televised locally. Nevertheless, his balancing of television broadcasts against protecting game attendance made the NFL the "healthiest professional sport in America", He had understood that the league needed a cooperative television contract with revenue-sharing, but he failed to overcome the obstacles to achieve it. He was portrayed by sportswriters as ensuring the owners treated the players fairly, and his decision to recognize the NFLPA in the face of adversity from owners was a "master stroke" in thwarting Congressional intervention. however, the first players' pension plan – the Bert Bell National Football League Retirement Plan – was approved in 1962.
Bell's implementation of the draft did not show immediate results, but it was "the single greatest contributor to the <nowiki>[league]'s</nowiki> prosperity" in its first eighty-four years. His original version of the draft was later ruled unconstitutional, but his anchoring of the success of the league to competitive balance has been "hailed by contemporaries and sports historians".
Bell's belief in the efficacy of parity for the financial health of the league is best summarized by his most famous quotation, made to the press in November 1952 to explain an uptick in stadium attendance:
:"The teams are so closely matched that on any given Sunday, any one team can beat any other team. Professional football has come down to the point where the psychological edge is the determining factor. Physically these teams are even, so it depends on the mental outlook of the squads to determine the winner. It's this factor that has made the game close and is bringing fans out to the ball parks."
Head coaching record
NFL
{| class"wikitable" style"font-size: 95%; text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan"2"|Team !! rowspan"2"|Year !! colspan"5"|Regular season !! colspan"4"|Postseason
|-
!Won !!Lost!!Ties!!Win %!!Finish!!Won!!Lost!!Win %!!Result
|-
!PHI||1936
||1||11||0||||5th in NFL Eastern|| – || – || – || –
|-
!PHI||1937
||2||8||1||||5th in NFL Eastern|| – || – || – || –
|-
!PHI||1938
||5||6||0||||4th in NFL Eastern|| – || – || – || –
|-
!PHI||1939
||1||9||1||||5th in NFL Eastern|| – || – || – || –
|-
!PHI||1940
||1||10||0||||5th in NFL Eastern|| – || – || – || –
|-
! colspan="2"| PHI Total || 10 || 44 || 2 || |||| – || – || – || –
|-
!PIT||1941
||0||2||0||||5th in NFL Eastern|| – || – || – || –
|-
! colspan="2"| PIT Total || 0 || 2 || – || |||| – || – || – || –
|-
! colspan="2"| Total || 10 || 46 || 2 || |||| – || – || – || –
|}
Published works
* Bell, Bert, "The Money Game." Liberty Magazine, XIII (November 28, 1936), pp. 59–60.
* Bell, Bert, "Offensive Football." Popular Football, (Winter 1941), p. 111.
* Bell, Bert, "This is Commissioner Bell Speaking." Pro Football Illustrated, XII (1952), pp. 60–63.
* Bell, Bert; with Martin, Paul, "Do the Gamblers Make a Sucker Out of You?." Saturday Evening Post, CCXXI (November 6, 1948), p. 28.
* Bell, Bert; with Pollock, Ed, "Let's Throw Out the Extra Point." Sport, XV (October 1953), p. 24–25.
* Bell, Bert (1957). The Story of Professional Football in Summary. Bala Cynwyd, PA: National Football League.
References
Bibliography
Primary materials
* Lyons, Robert S. (2010). On Any Given Sunday, A Life of Bert Bell. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Secondary materials
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130904205327/http://www.audiobookscorner.com/Title.aspx?titleId10459&srchvince+lombardi When Pride Still Mattered, A Life of Vince Lombardi], by David Maraniss, 1999,
* [https://web.lexis-nexis.com/congcomp/getdoc?HEARING-ID=HRG-1957-HJH-0006 Organized Professional Team Sports: Part 1. United States House Committee on the Judiciary I, Subcommittee on Antitrust (1957).]
* [https://web.lexis-nexis.com/congcomp/getdoc?HEARING-ID=HRG-1957-HJH-0012 Organized Professional Team Sports: Part 3. United States House Committee on the Judiciary III, Subcommittee on Antitrust (1957).]
*
* Algeo, Matthew (2006). Last Team Standing. Philadelphia: Da Capo Press.
* Berry, Robert C.; with Gould, William B. and Staudohar, Paul D. (1986). Labor Relations in Professional Sports. Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub. Co.
* Brown, Paul; with Clary, Jack (1979). PB, the Paul Brown Story. New York: Atheneum.
* Carroll, Bob; with Gershman, Michael, Neft, David, and Thorn, John (1999). Total Football:The Official Encyclopedia of the National Football League. New York: HarperCollins.
* Carroll, John M. (1999). Red Grange and the Rise of Modern Football. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
* Claassen, Harold (Spike) (1963). The History of Professional Football. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
* Coenen, Craig R. (2005). From Sandlots to the Super Bowl: The National Football League, 1920–1967. Knoxville, TN: The University of Tennessee Press.
* Daley, Arthur (1963). ''Pro Football's Hall of Fame. New York: Grosset and Dunlap.
* Danzig, Allison (1956). The History of American Football: Its Great Teams, Players, and Coaches. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
* Davis, Jeff (2005). Papa Bear, The Life and Legacy of George Halas. New York: McGraw-Hill
* DeVito, Carlo (2006). Wellington: the Maras, the Giants, and the City of New York. Chicago: Triumph Books.
* Didinger, Ray; with Lyons, Robert S. (2005). The Eagles Encyclopedia. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
* Gifford, Frank; with Richmond, Peter (2008). The Glory Game: How the 1958 NFL Championship Changed Football Forever. New York: HarperCollins.
* Herskowitz, Mickey (1990). The Golden Age of Pro Football. Dallas: Taylor Publishing Company.
* Hession, Joseph (1987). The Rams: Five Decades of Football. San Francisco: Foghorn Press.
* Hibner, John Charles (1993). The Rose Bowl, 1902–1929. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers.
* King, Joe (1958). Inside Pro Football. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
* Layden, Elmer; with Snyder, Ed (1969). It Was a Different Game: The Elmer Layden Story. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall, Inc.
* LaBlanc, Michael L.; with Ruby, Mary K. (1994). Professional Sports Team Histories: Football. Detroit: Gale Research Inc.
* Levy, Alan H. (2003). Tackling Jim Crow, Racial Segregation in Professional Football. Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Co., Inc.
* Littlewood, Thomas B. (1990). Arch: A Promoter, not a Poet: The Story of Arch Ward. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
*
* MacCambridge, Michael (2005). America's Game. New York: Anchor Books.
* MacCambridge, Michael (2009). ESPN College Football Encyclopedia: The Complete History of the Game. New York: ESPN Books, Inc.
* Marquis, Albert Nelson (1934). Who's Who in America: A Biographical Dictionary of Notable Living Men and Women of the United States, Vol., 18, 1934–1935, Two Years. Chicago: The A. N. Marquis Company.
* Maule, Tex (1964). The Game; The Official Picture History of the National Football League. New York: Random House
* Oriard, Michael (2007). Brand NFL: Making and Selling America's Favorite Sport. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
* Patton, Phil (1984). Razzle-Dazzle: The Curious Marriage of Television and Professional Football. Garden City, NY: The Dial Press.
* Paul, William Henry (1974). The Gray-Flannel Pigskin: Movers and Shakers of Pro Football. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
* Pervin, Lawrence A. (2009). Football's New York Giants. Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, Inc.
* Peterson, Robert W. (1997). Pigskin: The Early Years of Pro Football. New York: Oxford University Press.
* Piascik, Andy (2007). The Best Show in Football: The 1946–1955 Cleveland Browns. Lanham, MD: Taylor Trade Publishing.
* Powers, Ron (1984). Supertube: The Rise of Television Sports. New York: Coward-McCann.
* Rader, Benjamin G. (1984). In its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports. New York: The Free Press.
* Rathet, Mike; with Smith, Don R. (1984). Their Deeds and Dogged Faith. New York: Balsam Press.
* Ratterman, George; with Deindorfer, Robert G. (1962). Confessions of a Gypsy Quarterback; Inside the Wacky World of Pro Football. New York: Coward-McCann, Inc.
* Riger, Robert; with Maule, Tex (1960). The Pros. New York: Simon and Schuster.
* Rooney, Dan; with Halaas, David F. and Masich, Andrew E. (2007). My 75 Years with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the NFL. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.
* Rothe, Anna; with Prodrick, Elizabeth (1951). "Bert Bell" in Current Biography: Who's News and Why 1950. New York: The H.W. Wilson Company.
* Ruck, Rob; with Patterson, Maggie Jones and Weber, Michael P. (2010). Rooney: A Sporting Life. Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press.
* Smith, Myron J. Jr. (1993). Professional Football: The Official Pro Football Hall of Fame Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
* Staudohar, Paul D. (1986). The Sports Industry and Collective Bargaining. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
* Sullivan, George (1968). Pro Football's All Time Greats''. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
* Summerall, Pat; with Levin, Michael (2010). Giants: What I Learned about Life from Vince Lombardi and Tom Landry. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
* Umphlett, Wiley Lee (1992). Creating the Big Game: John W. Heisman and the Invention of American Football. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
* Westcott, Rich (2001). A Century of Philadelphia Sports. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
* Whittingham, Richard (2002). What a Game They Played: An Inside Look at the Golden Era of Pro Football. Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, Inc.
* Williams, Pete (2006). ''The Draft: A Year Inside the NFL's Search for Talent''. New York: St. Martin's Press.
* Willis, Chris (2010). The Man Who Built the National Football League: Joe F. Carr. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc.
* Yost, Mark (2006). Tailgating, Sacks and Salary Caps. Chicago: Kaplan Publishing.
Further reading
* Lower Merion Historical Society (2000). The first 300 : the amazing and rich history of Lower Merion. Ardmore, Pa. : The Society
External links
*
*
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bert_Bell
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2025-04-05T18:27:00.583561
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Bob Costas
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| birth_name = Robert Quinlan Costas
| birth_place = New York City, U.S.
| education = Syracuse University<br />(did not graduate)
| occupation = Sportscaster
| years_active = 1973–present
| spouse =
*
}}
| children = 2
}}
Robert Quinlan Costas (born March 22, 1952) is an American sportscaster who is known for his long tenure with NBC Sports, from 1980 through 2019. He has received 28 Emmy awards for his work and was the prime-time host of 12 Olympic Games from 1988 until 2016. He is currently employed by Warner Bros. Discovery, where he does play-by-play and studio work for MLB on TBS and commentary on CNN. He is also employed by MLB Network, where he does play-by-play and once hosted an interview show called Studio 42 with Bob Costas.Early life and educationCostas is the son of a Greek father, John George Costas, and an Irish mother, Jayne Costas (née Quinlan). He grew up in Commack, New York, and attended Commack High School South.
He attended the S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University, but dropped out in 1974. Costas got his first radio experience as a freshman at WAER, a student run radio station.
Broadcasting career
Early career
While studying communications in college, Costas began his professional career in 1973, at WSYR-TV (now WSTM-TV) and WSYR-FM radio in Syracuse. He called for the minor league Syracuse Blazers of the Eastern Hockey League.
After leaving school in 1974, he joined KMOX radio in St. Louis. He covered games of the American Basketball Association (ABA). Costas would call Missouri Tigers basketball and co-host KMOX's Open Line call-in program. He did play-by-play for Chicago Bulls broadcasts on WGN-TV during the 1979–1980 NBA season.NBC SportsIn 1980, Costas was hired by NBC. Don Ohlmeyer, who at the time ran NBC's sports division, told 28-year-old Costas he looked like a 14-year-old.
For many years, Costas hosted NBC's National Football League (NFL) coverage and National Basketball Association (NBA) coverage. He also did play-by-play for NBA and Major League Baseball (MLB) coverage. With the introduction of the NBC Sports Network, Costas also became the host of the new monthly interview program Costas Tonight.BoxingOn March 30, 2015, it was announced that Costas would join forces with Marv Albert (blow-by-blow) and Al Michaels (host) on the April 11, 2015, edition of NBC's primetime PBC on NBC boxing series. Costas was added to serve as a special contributor for the event from Barclays Center in Brooklyn. He would narrate and write a feature on the storied history of boxing in New York City.GolfCostas hosted NBC's coverage of the U.S. Open golf tournament from 2003 to 2014.Major League BaseballFor baseball telecasts, Costas teamed with Sal Bando (1982), Tony Kubek (from 1983 to 1989), and Joe Morgan and Bob Uecker (from 1994 to 2000). One of his most memorable broadcasts occurred on June 23, 1984 (in what would go down in baseball lore as "The Sandberg Game"). Costas, along with Tony Kubek, was calling the Saturday baseball Game of the Week from Chicago's Wrigley Field. The game between the Chicago Cubs and St. Louis Cardinals in particular was cited for putting Ryne Sandberg (as well as the 1984 Cubs in general, who would go on to make their first postseason appearance since 1945) "on the map". In the ninth inning, the Cubs, trailing 9–8, faced the premier relief pitcher of the time, Bruce Sutter. Sandberg, then not known for his power, slugged a home run to left field against the Cardinals' ace closer. When Sandberg hit that second home run, Costas said, "Do you believe it?!" The Cardinals' Willie McGee also hit for the cycle in the same game.
While hosting Game 4 of the 1988 World Series between the Los Angeles Dodgers and Oakland Athletics on NBC, Costas angered many members of the Dodgers (especially the team's manager, Tommy Lasorda) by commenting before the start of the game that the Dodgers quite possibly were about to put up the weakest-hitting lineup in World Series history. That comment ironically fired up the Dodgers' competitive spirit, to the point where a chant of "Kill Costas!" began among the clubhouse, while the Dodgers eventually rolled to a 4–1 series victory.
Besides calling the 1989 American League Championship Series for NBC, Costas also filled in for a suddenly ill Vin Scully, who had come down with laryngitis, for Game2 of the 1989 National League Championship Series alongside Tom Seaver. Game2 of the NLCS took place on Thursday, October 5, which was an off day for the ALCS. NBC then decided to fly Costas from Toronto to Chicago to substitute for Scully on Thursday night. Afterward, Costas flew back to Toronto, where he resumed work on the ALCS the next night.
Costas anchored NBC's pre- and post-game shows for NFL broadcasts and the pre and post-game shows for numerous World Series and Major League Baseball All-Star Games during the 1980s (the first being for the 1982 World Series). Costas did not get a shot at doing play-by-play (as the games on NBC were previously called by Vin Scully) for an All-Star Game until 1994 and a World Series until 1995 (when NBC split the coverage with ABC under "The Baseball Network" umbrella), when NBC regained Major League Baseball rights after a four-year hiatus (when the broadcast network television contract moved over to CBS, exclusively). It was not until 1997 when Costas finally got to do play-by-play for a World Series from start to finish. Costas ended up winning a Sports Emmy Award for Outstanding Sports Personality, Play-by-Play.
In 1999, Costas teamed with his then-NBC colleague Joe Morgan to call two weekday night telecasts for ESPN. The first was on Wednesday, August 25 with the Detroit Tigers playing against the Seattle Mariners.
On August 3, 2019, Costas alongside Paul O'Neill and David Cone called both games of a double-header between the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox for the YES Network. Costas was filling in for Michael Kay, who was recovering from vocal cord surgery.
On August 20, 2021, reports emerged that TBS was nearing an agreement with Costas to host their coverage of that year's NLCS
On October 31, 2024, Costas announced that he was officially retiring from Major League Baseball play-by-play calling after 44 years. This means that his final Major League Baseball broadcast as a play-by-play announcer was Game 4 of the 2024 American League Division Series between the New York Yankees and Kansas City Royals, airing on TBS.
NASCAR
In November 2017, it was announced that Costas would co-anchor alongside Krista Voda on NBC's pre-race coverage leading into the NASCAR Cup Series finale from Homestead. In addition to hosting pre-race coverage, Costas would conduct a live interview with incoming NBC broadcaster Dale Earnhardt Jr., who was running his final race.
National Basketball Association
Costas served as NBC's lead play-by-play announcer for their National Basketball Association (NBA) broadcasts from 1997-2000. In that time frame, Costas called three NBA Finals including the 1998 installment (which set an all-time ratings record for the NBA) between the Chicago Bulls and Utah Jazz. Costas was paired with Isiah Thomas and Doug Collins on NBC's NBA telecast. Following the 2000 NBA Finals, he was replaced by Marv Albert as the lead play-by-play announcer, who incidentally, the man he directly replaced on the NBA on NBC in the first place.
Costas had previously presided as host of NBC's pre-game show, NBA Showtime, while also providing play-by-play as a fill-in when necessary. Costas later co-anchored (with Hannah Storm) NBC's NBA Finals coverage in 2002, which was their last to-date (before the NBA's network television contract moved to ABC).
Professional football
Costas began as a play-by-play announcer, working with analyst Bob Trumpy. In 1984, he would replace Len Berman as studio host. Among his NFL colleagues was O.J. Simpson, who had called 30 Rockefeller Plaza asking to speak to Costas during Simpson's infamous police chase through the freeways of Los Angeles. However, Costas was several blocks away at Madison Square Garden covering Game 5 of the 1994 NBA Finals. Costas learned of the attempted contact when visiting Simpson in prison later that year. Costas remained NFL studio host until 1992, when he was replaced by Jim Lampley.
NBC Sports allowed Costas to opt out from having to cover the XFL. He publicly denigrated the league throughout its existence and remains a vocal critic of the XFL and its premise.
In 2006, Costas returned to NFL studio hosting duties for NBC's new Sunday Night Football, hosting its pre-game show Football Night in America.
Costas is nicknamed "Rapping Roberto" by New York City's Daily News sports media columnist Bob Raissman. Al Michaels also called him "Rapping Roberto" during the telecast between the Indianapolis Colts and the New York Giants on September 10, 2006, in response to Costas calling him "Alfalfa".Olympics (1988–2016)Costas has frontlined many Olympics broadcasts for NBC. They include Seoul in 1988, Barcelona in 1992, Atlanta in 1996, Sydney in 2000, Salt Lake City in 2002, Athens in 2004, Torino in 2006, Beijing in 2008, Vancouver in 2010, London in 2012, Sochi in 2014 and Rio in 2016. He discusses his work on the Olympic telecasts extensively in a book by Andrew Billings entitled Olympic Media: Inside the Biggest Show on Television. A personal influence on Costas has been legendary ABC Sports broadcaster Jim McKay, who hosted many Olympics for ABC from the 1960s to the 1980s.
During the 1992 Barcelona and 1996 Atlanta Opening Ceremonies, Costas's remarks on China's teams' possible drug use caused an uproar among the American Chinese and international communities. Thousands of dollars were raised to purchase ads in The Washington Post and Sunday The New York Times, featuring an image of the head of a statue of Apollo and reading: "Costas Poisoned Olympic Spirit, Public Protests NBC". However, Costas's comments were made subsequent to the suspension of Chinese coach Zhou Ming after seven of his swimmers were caught using steroids in 1994. Further evidence of Chinese athletes' drug use came in 1997 when Australian authorities confiscated 13 vials of Somatropin, a human growth hormone, from the bag of Chinese swimmer Yuan Yuan upon her arrival for the 1997 World Swimming Championships. At the World Championships, four Chinese swimmers tested positive for the banned substance Triamterene, a diuretic used to dilute urine samples to mask the presence of anabolic steroids. Including these failed drug tests, 27 Chinese swimmers were caught using performance-enhancing drugs from 1990 through 1997; more than the rest of the world combined.
Along with co-host Meredith Vieira and Matt Lauer, Costas's commentary of the 2012 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremonies came under fierce criticism, with Costas being described as making "a series of jingoistic remarks, including a joke about dictator Idi Amin when Uganda's team appeared" and the combined commentary as being "ignorant" and "banal".
Following the Olympics, Costas appeared on Conan O'Brien's talk show and jokingly criticized his employer for its decision to air a preview of the upcoming series Animal Practice over a performance by The Who during the London closing ceremonies. "So here is the balance NBC has to consider: The Who, 'Animal Practice'. Roger Daltrey, Pete Townshend—monkey in a lab coat. I'm sure you'd be the first to attest, Conan, that when it comes to the tough calls, NBC usually gets 'em right," Costas said, alluding at the end to O'Brien's involvement in the 2010 Tonight Show conflict.
An eye infection Costas had at the start of the 2014 Winter Olympics forced him, on February 11, 2014, to cede his Olympic hosting duties to Matt Lauer (four nights) and Meredith Vieira (two nights), the first time Costas had not done so at all since the 1998 Winter Olympics (as the rights were not held by NBC).Thoroughbred racingFrom 2001 until 2018, Costas co-hosted the Kentucky Derby. In 2009, he hosted Bravo's coverage of the 2009 Kentucky Oaks. After Costas officially departed from NBC Sports, his role on NBC's thoroughbred racing coverage was essentially filled-in by Rebecca Lowe, beginning with the 2019 Kentucky Derby.Departure from NBC SportsOn February 9, 2017, Costas announced during Today that he had begun the process of stepping down from his main on-air roles at NBC Sports, announcing in particular that he would cede his role as primetime host for NBC's Olympics coverage to Mike Tirico (who joined the network from ESPN in 2016), and that he would host Super Bowl LII as his final Super Bowl.
USA Today reported that he would similarly step down from Football Night in America in favor of Tirico. Costas explained that he was not outright retiring and expected to take on a role at NBC Sports similar to that of Tom Brokaw, being an occasional special correspondent to the division. He explained that his decision "opens up more time to do the things that I feel I'm most connected to; there will still be events, features, and interviews where I can make a significant contribution at NBC, but it will also leave more time for baseball (on MLB Network), and then, at some point down the road, I'll have a chance to do more of the long-form programming I enjoy." Costas told USA Today his gradual retirement was planned in advance, and that he did not want to announce it during the 2016 Summer Olympics or the NFL season because it would be too disruptive, and joked: "I'm glad that Sochi wasn't the last one. You wouldn't want your pink-eye Olympics to be your last Olympics."
Costas's final major on-air broadcast for NBC was hosting the 2018 Belmont Stakes, where Justify won the Triple Crown.
On January 15, 2019, it was announced that Costas had officially departed from NBC Sports after 40 years.Talk show hostingCostas hosted the syndicated radio program Costas Coast to Coast from 1986 to 1996, which was revived as Costas on the Radio. Costas on the Radio, which ended its three-year run on May 31, 2009, aired on 200 stations nationwide each weekend and syndicated by the Clear Channel–owned Premiere Radio Networks. During that period, Costas also served as the imaging voice of Clear Channel–owned KLOU in St. Louis, Missouri, during that station's period as "My 103.3". Like Later, Costas's radio shows have focused on a wide variety of topics and have not been limited to sports discussion.
Later with Bob Costas aired on NBC from 1988 to 1994. Costas decided to leave Later after six seasons, having grown tired of the commute to New York City from his home in St. Louis and wishing to lighten his workload in order to spend more time with his family. He also turned down an offer from David Letterman, who moved to CBS in 1995, to follow him there and become the first host of The Late Late Show, which was being developed by Letterman's company to air at 12:30 after the Late Show with David Letterman.
In June 2005, Costas was named by CNN president Jonathan Klein as a regular substitute anchor for Larry King's Larry King Live for one year. Costas, as well as Klein, made clear that Costas was not trying out for King's position on a permanent basis. Nancy Grace was also named a regular substitute host for the show. On August 18, 2005, Costas refused to host a Larry King Live broadcast where the subject was missing teenager Natalee Holloway. Costas said that because there were no new developments in the story, he felt it had no news value, and he was uncomfortable with television's drift in the direction of tabloid-type stories.
Beginning in October 2011, Costas was a correspondent for Rock Center with Brian Williams. He gained acclaim for his November 2011 live interview of former Pennsylvania State University assistant coach Jerry Sandusky concerning charges of sexual abuse of minors, in which Sandusky called in to deny the charges.
Costas hosted a monthly talk show Costas Tonight on NBC Sports Network.HBO Sports
In 2001, Costas was hired by HBO to host a 12-week series called On the Record with Bob Costas.
In 2002, Costas began a stint as co-host of HBO's long-running series Inside the NFL. Costas remained host of Inside the NFL through the end of the 2007 NFL season. He hosted the show with Cris Collinsworth and former NFL legends Dan Marino and Cris Carter. The program aired each week during the NFL season.
Costas left HBO to sign with MLB Network in February 2009.
On April 23, 2021, it was announced that Costas would be returning to HBO to host a quarter-yearly interview show called Back on the Record.
MLB Network
At the channel's launch on January 1, 2009, Costas hosted the premiere episode of All Time Games, a presentation of the recently discovered kinescope of Game5 of the 1956 World Series. During the episode, he held a forum with Don Larsen, who pitched MLB's only postseason perfect game during that game, and Yogi Berra, who caught the game.
Costas joined the network full-time on February 3, 2009. He hosted a regular interview show titled MLB Network Studio 42 with Bob Costas as well as special programming and provides play-by-play for select live baseball game telecasts. In 2017, Costas called Game1 of the American League Division Series between the Boston Red Sox and the Houston Astros on MLB Network. The Astros went on to win 8–2. Costas and his color commentator Jim Kaat received criticism for their "bantering about minutia" and misidentification of plays. Costas also went on to become an internet meme after using the term the "sacks were juiced" to describe the bases being loaded.NFL NetworkAs aforementioned, Costas hosted Thursday Night Football on NBC and NFL Network in 2016, having returned to broadcasting after a brief absence. He was replaced by Liam McHugh in 2017.CNN and TNT SportsIn July 2020, it was announced that Costas would join CNN as a contributor. According to CNN, Costas would provide commentary "on a wide range of sports-related issues as the industry adapts to new challenges posed by the coronavirus and the frequent intersection of sports with larger societal issues." Costas, who would continue working on MLB Network, said of joining CNN: “CNN’s willingness to devote time and attention to sports related topics, makes it a good fit for me.”
On August 20, 2021, Andrew Marchand of the New York Post reported that TBS — a sister property via CNN parent WarnerMedia — was nearing an agreement with Costas which would have him hosting the network's National League Championship Series coverage. On October 7, 2021, Turner Sports announced that Costas would be joining TBS for their postseason baseball coverage starting on October 16. This marked the first time since the 2000 ALCS on NBC that Costas provided play-by-play for a postseason baseball series in its entirety.
Costas provided the play-by-play commentary on TBS for the 2024 American League Division Series between the New York Yankees and Kansas City Royals, receiving criticism for his monotonic delivery and perceived lack of interest in the events on the field.Other appearancesCostas provided significant contributions to the Ken Burns, PBS miniseries Baseball as well as its follow-up The 10th Inning. He also appears in another PBS film, A Time for Champions, produced by St. Louis's Nine Network of Public Media.
Notable calls
June 23, 1984: Costas called NBC's Game of the Week with Tony Kubek, where Ryne Sandberg hit two separate home runs in the 9th and 10th innings against Bruce Sutter to tie the game. This game is known as "The Sandberg Game".
Costas's call of the first home run:
<blockquote>
Into left center field, and deep. This is a tie ball game!
</blockquote>
Costas's call of the second home run:
<blockquote>
Costas: 1–1 pitch. [Sandberg swings]<br />
Kubek: OHHH BOY!<br />
Costas: [Over Kubek] And he hits it to deep left center! Look out! '''Do you believe it, it's gone! We will go to the 11th, tied at 11.
</blockquote>
October 28, 1995:''' Costas called Game 6 of the 1995 World Series, where the Atlanta Braves finally won their first ever World Series championship since moving to Atlanta in 1966.
<blockquote>
Left-center field, Grissom on the run. The team of the '90s has its World Championship!
</blockquote>
October 26, 1997: Costas called Game 7 of the 1997 World Series, where Édgar Rentería hit a walk off single to give the Florida Marlins their first World Series championship. Costas's call:
<blockquote>
The 0–1 pitch. A liner, off Nagy's glove, into center field! The Florida Marlins, have won the World Series!
</blockquote>
June 14, 1998: Costas called Game 6 of the 1998 NBA Finals, Michael Jordan and Phil Jackson's final game with the Chicago Bulls where Jordan hit a 20-foot jumpshot to put the Bulls up 87–86 with 5.2 seconds remaining. The Bulls would win the game by that score, giving them their sixth championship and third consecutive. Costas's call:
<blockquote>
Jordan with 43. Malone is doubled. They swat at him and steal it! Here comes Chicago. 17 seconds. 17 seconds, from Game 7, or from championship #6. Jordan, open, CHICAGO WITH THE LEAD! Timeout Utah, 5.2 seconds left. Michael Jordan, running on fumes, with 45 points.
</blockquote>
June 4, 2000: Costas called Game 7 of the 2000 Western Conference Finals for NBC's NBA coverage. Kobe Bryant threw an alley oop pass to Shaquille O'Neal to give the Lakers a six-point lead with 41.3 seconds remaining. Costas's call of the play:
<blockquote>
Portland has three timeouts left, the Lakers have two. Bryant... TO SHAQ!
</blockquote>
September 25, 2014: Costas called Derek Jeter's final game at Yankee Stadium for MLB Network, where he hit an RBI single to win the game. Costas's call:
<blockquote>
'''A base hit to right! Here comes Richardson, they're waving him home! The throw, it's close but he scores! On a walk off hit by Derek Jeter!'''
</blockquote>
Interests
Love of baseball
Costas is a devoted baseball fan. He's been suggested as a potential commissioner and wrote ''Fair Ball: A Fan's Case for Baseball'' in 2000. For his 40th birthday, then Oakland Athletics manager Tony La Russa allowed Costas to manage the club during a spring training game. The first time Costas visited baseball legend Stan Musial's St. Louis eatery, he left a $3.31 tip on a ten dollar tab in homage to Musial's lifetime batting average (.331). Costas delivered the eulogy at Mickey Mantle's funeral. In eulogizing Mantle, Costas described the baseball legend as "a fragile hero to whom we had an emotional attachment so strong and lasting that it defied logic". Costas has even carried a 1958 Mickey Mantle baseball card in his wallet. Costas also delivered the eulogy for Musial after his death in early 2013.
Costas was outspoken about his disdain for Major League Baseball instituting a playoff wild card. Costas believed it diminishes the significance and drama of winning a divisional championship. He prefers a system in which winning the wild card puts a team at some sort of disadvantage, as opposed to an equal level with teams who outplayed them over a 162-game season. Or, as explained in his book Fair Ball, have only the three division winners in each league go to the postseason, with the team with the best record receiving a bye to the League Championship Series. Once, on the air on HBO's Inside the NFL, he mentioned that the NFL regular season counted for something, but baseball's was beginning to lose significance. With the advent of the second wild card, Costas has said he feels the format has improved, since there is now a greater premium placed on finishing first. He has suggested a further tweak: Make the wild card round a best two of three, instead of a single game, with all three games, if necessary, on the homefield of the wild card of the better record.
He also has disdained the Designated Hitter rule, saying baseball would be a better game without it.
Costas serves as a member of the advisory board of the Baseball Assistance Team, a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization dedicated to helping former Major League, Minor League, and Negro league players through financial and medical difficulties.
Political views
Costas considers himself left of center but has said that he has voted for Republican candidates at times as well. On May 26, 2007, Costas discussed the presidency of George W. Bush on his radio show, stating he liked Bush personally, and had been optimistic about his presidency, but said the course of the Iraq War, and other mis-steps have led him to conclude Bush's presidency had "tragically failed" and considered it "overwhelmingly evident, even if you're a conservative Republican, if you're honest about it, this is a failed administration." The following summer, Costas interviewed Bush during the president's appearance at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.ControversiesFastest man in the worldOn August 1, 1996, the night of Michael Johnson's 200 m Olympic win, Costas stated on-air during Olympics coverage of the 1996 Olympics that Johnson's gold-medal performance in the 200 m (19.32 seconds) was faster than Donovan Bailey's 100 m performance (9.84 seconds) five days earlier in that 19.32 divided by two is 9.66. Bailey later dismissed Costas' comments as "a person who knew nothing about track talking about it with a lot of people listening"; nonetheless, the sportscaster's remarks touched a nerve.
The unofficial "world's fastest man" title typically goes to the Olympic 100 metre champion. In other words, the second 100 metres is run with a "flying start", without the slow acceleration phase of the first 100 metres and without the greater than 0.10 s reaction time of the start.
Critics interpreted his remarks as support for gun control. Many (including former Republican presidential candidates Mike Huckabee and Herman Cain) However, reporter Erik Wemple of The Washington Post praised Costas for speaking out for gun control on the broadcast, commenting that the incident's connection to the NFL provided him with an obligation to acknowledge the incident during the halftime show, stating that "the things that [NFL players] do affect the public beyond whether their teams cover the point spread. And few cases better exemplify that dynamic as powerfully as the Belcher incident."
During the following week, Costas defended his remarks in an appearance on MSNBC's program ''The Last Word with Lawrence O'Donnell'', where he said the remarks were related to the country's gun culture, and not about gun control as critics had inferred. Costas did suggest that more regulation be placed on America's gun culture:
<blockquote>Now, do I believe that we need more comprehensive and more sensible gun control legislation? Yes I do. That doesn't mean repeal the Second Amendment. That doesn't mean a prohibition on someone having a gun to protect their home and their family. It means sensible and more comprehensive gun control legislation. But even if you had that, you would still have the problem of what Jason Whitlock wrote about, and what I agree with. And that is a gun culture in this country. Other conservative media commentators, including Bill O'Reilly and Bernard Goldberg, defended Costas's remarks as factually correct and pointed out that Costas had also voiced considerable criticism of both Russia and Putin while broadcasting from Sochi. During an interview on Fox News, Goldberg said "...the idea that Costas somehow portrayed Vladimir Putin as a benign figure is ridiculous." Costas defended himself on O'Reilly's broadcast on March 3, reiterating that he criticized Putin immediately preceding and following the statements that were questioned. O'Reilly then aired a portion of an Olympic commentary in which Costas was pointedly critical of the Russian leader. Costas also indicated that Senator John McCain, who had been among those who had initially criticized Costas, had called Costas to apologize after hearing the full segment in context.Football's futureWhile visiting the University of Maryland in November 2017 for a roundtable discussion on various sports topics, Costas said the sport of football was in a decline, with evidence mounting that the repetition of concussions "destroys people's brains" and he would not allow a son with athletic talent to play it. Costas had been scheduled to work Super Bowl LII, his eighth as a host (despite stepping down from Football Night in America in favor of his successor Mike Tirico, Costas was to return while Tirico prepped to lead NBC's coverage of the 2018 Winter Olympics, set to begin a few days later). However, the network announced shortly before the game that Liam McHugh would instead join Dan Patrick as a co-host, leading to speculation that NBC removed Costas from the NFL's biggest game over his comments. Costas originally denied such, saying it made more sense for McHugh, who had been hosting Thursday night games on NBC, to serve in that capacity. However, he later admitted in an interview with ESPN's Outside the Lines that the comments were indeed the basis of his removal, ultimately resulting in his departure from the network after forty years.
Personal life
Costas was married from 1983 to 2001 to Carole "Randy" Randall Krummenacher. They had two children, son Keith (born 1986) and daughter Taylor (born 1989). Costas once jokingly promised Minnesota Twins center fielder Kirby Puckett that, if he was batting over .350 by the time his child was born, he would name the baby Kirby. Kirby was hitting better than .350, but Bob's son initially was not given a first (or second) name of Kirby. After Puckett reminded Costas of the agreement, the birth certificate was changed to "Keith Michael Kirby Costas".
]]
On March 12, 2004, Costas married his second wife, Jill Sutton. Costas and his wife now reside primarily in Newport Beach, California. Although Costas was born and raised in the New York area, he has often said he thinks of St. Louis as his hometown.
Costas's children have also won Sports Emmys: Keith has won two as an associate producer on MLB Network's MLB Tonight, and Taylor as an associate producer on NBC's coverage of the 2012 Summer Olympics.
*1999 Curt Gowdy Media Award – Basketball Hall of Fame
*2000 TV Guide Award for Favorite Sportscaster.
*2001 George Arents Award from Syracuse University (Excellence in Sports Broadcasting)
*2004 Dick Schaap Award for Outstanding Journalism
*NSMA Hall of Fame inductee (class of 2012).
*2012 Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism.
*2013 S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications Marty Glickman Award for Leadership in Sports Media.
*2015 WAER Hall of Fame inductee
*2017 Ford C. Frick Award – National Baseball Hall of Fame.
*2018 Sports Broadcasting Hall of Fame inductee
*2019 Suffolk Sports Hall of Fame inductee He also appeared as himself in the 2001 movie Pootie Tang, where he remarks that he saw "the longest damn clip ever".
Costas's voice appeared in the 2011 documentary film Legendary: When Baseball Came to the Bluegrass, which detailed the humble beginnings of the Lexington Legends, a minor league baseball team located in Lexington, Kentucky.
In 2021, Costas played himself in Here Today directed by Billy Crystal.Popular culture
Costas has been alluded to several times in popular music. The songs "Mafioso" by Mac Dre, "We Major" by Domo Genesis and "The Last Huzzah" by Mr. Muthafuckin' eXquire, all refer to Costas. He was also mentioned in a Ludacris song after Costas mentioned the rapper on the late night talk show Last Call with Carson Daly.
In June 2013, Costas provided the voice of God in the Monty Python musical Spamalot at The Muny Repertory in St. Louis.
Television guest roles
Apart from his normal sportscasting duties, Costas has also presented periodic sports blooper reels, and announced dogsled and elevator races, on Late Night with David Letterman.
In 1985, Costas appeared on The War to Settle the Score, a pre-WrestleMania program that the World Wrestling Federation aired on MTV.
In 1993, Costas hosted the "pregame" show for the final episode of Cheers. Costas once appeared on the television program NewsRadio as himself. He hosted an award show and later had some humorous encounters with the crew of WNYX. He also had a recurring guest role as himself on the HBO series Arli$$.
Costas has been impersonated several times by Darrell Hammond on Saturday Night Live. Costas was "supposed" to appear in the fourth-season premiere of Celebrity Deathmatch (ironically titled "Where is Bob Costas?") as a guest-commentator, but about halfway through the episode it was revealed that John Tesh had killed him before the show to take his place. This was likely in response for Tesh not being invited back to NBC for its gymnastics coverage at the 2000 Olympics.
In 1999, Costas appeared as a guest on Space Ghost Coast to Coast during its sixth season.
On June 13, 2008, Costas appeared on MSNBC's commercial-free special coverage of Remembering Tim Russert (1950–2008).
On January 30, 2009, Costas guest-starred as himself on the television series Monk in an episode titled "Mr. Monk Makes the Playoffs"'. He mentions to Captain Stottlemeyer about how Adrian Monk once helped him out of a problem several years ago with regards to a demented cat salesman. He apparently sold Costas a cat that allegedly tried to kill him with a squeeze toy. (In fact when he signs off he says, "The cat was definitely trying to kill me.")
Costas guest-voiced as himself in 2010 Simpsons episode, "Boy Meets Curl", when Homer and Marge make the U.S. Olympic curling team. Costas also guest-voiced as himself on the Family Guy episode "Turban Cowboy" in an interview with Peter after he wins the Boston Marathon by hitting everyone with his car.
On February 11, 2010, Stephen Colbert jokingly expressed his desire to stab Costas with an ice pick at the upcoming 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver so Colbert could take over as host. Costas later made a cameo appearance on the February 25, 2010, edition of Colbert's show.
In January 2013, Costas appeared as himself in the Go On episode "Win at All Costas" with Matthew Perry, wherein Ryan King auditions with him for a TV show.
Real footage of Costas from NBC's pregame show before Game5 of the 1994 NBA Finals was used in the second episode of The People v. O.J. Simpson: American Crime Story.
Costas appeared on the September 22, 2017, episode of Real Time with Bill Maher to discuss issues such as concussions and the role of political activism in professional sports (namely by Colin Kaepernick).Video gamesIn 2002, Costas was the play-by-play announcer, alongside Harold Reynolds, for Triple Play 2002 during the ballgame for PlayStation 2 and Xbox.Career timeline
*1974–1976: Spirits of St. Louis Play-by-play, KMOX radio
*1976–1981: Missouri Tigers men's basketball Play-by-play, KMOX radio
*1976–1979: NFL on CBS Play-by-play
*1979–1980: Chicago Bulls Play-by-play, WGN-TV
*1980–2018: NBC Sports Play-by-play & studio host
*1980–1983: NFL on NBC Play-by-play
*1983–1989: MLB on NBC #2 play-by-play
*1984–1992, 2006–2016: NFL on NBC Studio Host
*1988–1994: Later Host
*2008–2012: NHL Winter Classic Host
*2009–present: MLB Network Studio 42 with Bob Costas Host (2009–2014), Thursday Night Baseball Play-by-play
*2016: NBC/NFL Network Host, Thursday Night Football
*2017–present: MLB Network play-by-play, MLB Postseason
*2020–present: CNN Sports contributor
*2021–present: TBS baseball studio host, 2021 NLCS
See also
*New Yorkers in journalism
Notes
References
External links
*
*
*
*[https://baseballhall.org/discover/awards/ford-c-frick/bob-costas Bob Costas] Ford C. Frick Award biography at the National Baseball Hall of Fame
*[https://news.syr.edu/blog/2023/03/21/hall-of-fame-sportscaster-bob-costas-74-reflects-on-career-baseball-and-his-love-of-syracuse-university-on-the-cuse-conversations-podcast/ Costas on the ‘’Cuse Conversations’ Podcast]
Category:1952 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century American journalists
Category:21st-century American journalists
Category:20th-century American writers
Category:21st-century American writers
Category:Writers from Queens, New York
Category:People from Commack, New York
Category:Radio personalities from New York (state)
Category:Sportswriters from New York (state)
Category:American male journalists
Category:American Basketball Association announcers
Category:American horse racing announcers
Category:American sports radio personalities
Category:American talk radio hosts
Category:American television sports anchors
Category:American television talk show hosts
Category:American writers of Greek descent
Category:American people of Irish descent
Category:Chicago Bulls announcers
Category:College basketball announcers in the United States
Category:College football announcers
Category:Figure skating commentators
Category:American golf commentators
Category:Late night television talk show hosts
Category:Major League Baseball broadcasters
Category:Missouri Tigers men's basketball announcers
Category:MLB Network personalities
Category:Motorsport announcers
Category:NBA broadcasters
Category:NFL announcers
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Category:St. Louis Cardinals (football) announcers
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Category:S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications alumni
Category:Spirits of St. Louis
Category:Ford C. Frick Award recipients
Category:Sports Emmy Award winners
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Bamberg
|
</small>
|image_photo =
|image_caption = Top: Skyline with old town hall () to the right Middle: Michaelsberg Abbey Bottom: Bamberg Cathedral
|type=Town
|image_flag=Flagge Bamberg.svg
|image_coa=DEU Bamberg COA.svg
|coordinates
|state=Bavaria
|region=Upper Franconia
|district = urban
|elevation=262
|Gemeindeschlüssel=09461000
|area=54.62
|postal_code=96047, 96049, 96050, 96051, 96052
|area_code=0951
|licence=BA
|mayor=Andreas Starke
|leader_term=2020–26
|Bürgermeistertitel=Lord Mayor
|party=SPD
|website=
}}
Bamberg (, , ; East Franconian: Bambärch) is a town in Upper Franconia district in Bavaria, Germany, on the river Regnitz close to its confluence with the river Main. Bamberg had 79,000 inhabitants in 2022. The town dates back to the 9th century, when its name was derived from the nearby castle. Cited as one of Germany's most beautiful towns, with medieval streets and buildings, the old town of Bamberg with around 2,400 timber houses has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993.
From the 10th century onwards, Bamberg became a key link with the Western Slavic peoples, notably those of Poland and Pomerania. It experienced a period of great prosperity from the 12th century onwards, during which time it was briefly the centre of the Holy Roman Empire. Emperor Henry II was buried in the old town, alongside his wife Kunigunde. The town's architecture from this period strongly influenced that in Northern Germany and Hungary. From the middle of the 13th century onwards, the bishops were princes of the Empire The area was Christianized chiefly by the monks of the Benedictine Fulda Abbey, and the land was under the spiritual authority of the Diocese of Würzburg. In 1007, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II made Bamberg a family inheritance, the seat of a separate diocese. The Emperor's purpose in this was to make the Diocese of Würzburg less unwieldy in size and to give Christianity a firmer footing in the districts of Franconia, east of Bamberg.
In 1008, after long negotiations with the Bishops of Würzburg and Eichstätt, who were to cede portions of their dioceses, the boundaries of the new diocese were defined, and Pope John XVIII granted the papal confirmation in the same year. Henry II ordered the building of a new cathedral, which was consecrated on 6 May 1012. The church was enriched with gifts from the pope, and Henry had it dedicated in honor of him. In 1017, Henry founded Michaelsberg Abbey on the Michaelsberg ("Mount St Michael"), near Bamberg, a Benedictine abbey for the training of the clergy. The emperor and his wife, Kunigunde, gave large temporal possessions to the new diocese, and it received many privileges out of which grew the secular power of the bishop. Pope Benedict VIII visited Bamberg in 1020 to meet Henry II for discussions concerning the Holy Roman Empire. While he was there he placed the diocese in direct dependence on the Holy See. He also personally consecrated some of Bamberg's churches. For a short time Bamberg was the centre of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry and Kunigunde were both buried in the cathedral.
'', 1493]]
]]
, one of Bamberg's breweries and taverns]]
From the middle of the 13th century onwards, the bishops were princes of the Empire The famous Drudenhaus (witch prison), built in 1627, is no longer standing today; however, detailed accounts of some cases, such as that of Johannes Junius, remain.
In 1647, the University of Bamberg was founded as .
Bambrzy () are German Poles who are descended from settlers from the Bamberg area who settled in villages around Poznań in the years 1719–1753. In 1759, the possessions and jurisdictions of the diocese situated in Austria were sold to that state. When the secularization of church lands took place (1802) the diocese covered and had a population of 207,000. Bamberg thus lost its independence in 1802, becoming part of Bavaria in 1803. The free state of Bavaria and the Federal Republic of Germany gave protections to Bamberg, though the city does handle its own management of properties.
Bamberg was first connected to the German rail system in 1844, which has been an important part of its infrastructure ever since. After a communist uprising took control over Bavaria in the years following World War I, the state government fled to Bamberg and stayed there for almost two years before the Bavarian capital of Munich was retaken by Freikorps units (see Bavarian Soviet Republic). The first republican constitution of Bavaria was passed in Bamberg, becoming known as the Bamberger Verfassung (Bamberg Constitution).
In February 1926 Bamberg served as the venue for the Bamberg Conference, convened by Adolf Hitler in his attempt to foster unity and to stifle dissent within the then-young Nazi party. Bamberg was chosen for its location in Upper Franconia, reasonably close to the residences of the members of the dissident northern Nazi faction but still within Bavaria.
During the Bombing of Bamberg, the city was hit a total of nine times by Allied warplanes between 1944 and 1945. While Bamberg was not attacked as badly as nearby Nuremberg, 4.4% of the city ended up being destroyed and 378 civilians died. The biggest and deadliest bombing run happened on February 22 1945. In the afternoon, American planes attacked the Bamberg railway station and surroundings with bombs. Because of poor visibility, the bombs were also dropped over residential houses, killing a total of 216 civilians and causing many houses between Oberer Stephansberg and Oberer Kaulberg to be damaged or destroyed as a result. The inner city was also hit, particularly in the Obstmarkt, Lange Straße, Grüner Markt and Keßlerstraße. Three significant landmarks in the city were hit: the Erlöserkirche or Church of the Redeemer at the Kunigundendamm which was almost completely destroyed (only the tower remained), the historic Altane on the Grüner Markt and the Alte Maut or Old Toll. A follow-up attack was planned for February 23, but ultimately cancelled due to bad weather. After that, low-flying Allied aircraft continued to attack Bamberg, threatening large gatherings of people and sometimes also dropping leaflets mocking National Socialism and its propaganda. Another 67 people died as a result of these attacks. The city fell with little resistance to American troops on the 14th of April, despite the use of explosives on all of the bridges to the city by the retreating German forces. After the war had ended, reconstruction efforts began.Historical population{|class"wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Population
|-
|1818
|17,000
|-
|1885
|31,521
|-
|1905
|45,308
|}
{|class"wikitable" style"float:right;"
|+Largest groups of foreign residents
|-
! scope="col" | Nationality
! scope="col" | Population (2013)
|-
|||1,076
|-
|||359
|-
|||232
|-
|||119
|-
|||115
|-
|}
Geography
Bamberg is located in Franconia, north of Nuremberg by railway and east of Würzburg, also by rail. It is situated on the Regnitz river, before it flows into the Main river.
Its geography is shaped by the Regnitz and by the foothills of the Steigerwald, part of the German uplands. From northeast to southwest, the town is divided into first the Regnitz plain, then one large and several small islands formed by two arms of the Regnitz (), and finally the part of town on the hills, the "Hill Town" ().
The seven hills of Bamberg
Bamberg extends over seven hills, each crowned by a church. This has led to Bamberg being called the "Franconian Rome"—although a running joke among Bamberg's tour guides is to refer to Rome instead as the "Italian Bamberg". The hills are Cathedral Hill, Michaelsberg, Kaulberg/Obere Pfarre, Stefansberg, Jakobsberg, Altenburger Hill and Abtsberg.ClimateClimate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is "Cfb" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate), with a certain continental influence as indicated by average winter nighttime temperatures well below zero.
Economy
Bamberg is considered an important economic center and is one of the 15 strongest economic regions in Bavaria compared to the other 95 districts and independent cities. Central locations for industry, manufacturing and trade can be found in the north and east of the city. In the north, around the Bamberg harbor, there is a large industrial area that partly extends into the Hallstadt urban area. Bosch operates its largest plant in Germany in the east and is also the city's most important employer.
Relevant economic sectors in Bamberg are the automotive supply industry, electrical engineering and the food industry. The traditional industry of market gardening with large inner-city cultivation areas, which has characterized the city since its beginnings, is still present. Due to its UNESCO World Heritage status and the more than 800,000 overnight guests a year in the city alone, tourism, hotels and gastronomy also play a central role in the city's economy. Key economic figures
In the 2010s, Bamberg's gross domestic product increased by a total of 17.7%. The city of Bamberg generated €5.1 billion in 2021 (€66,543 per capita).
{| class="wikitable"
|+Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in Bamberg
!2010
!2011
!2012
!2013
!2014
!2015
!2016
!2017
!2018
!2019
!2020
!2021
|-
|52.403
|54.083
|53.694
|56.029
|56.320
|58.070
|60.349
|62.917
|64.083
|64.040
|63.650
|66.543
|}
In the 2016 Future Atlas, Bamberg was ranked 32nd out of 402 districts, municipal associations and independent cities in Germany, making it one of the places with "very high future prospects".
The number of business registrations in the city of Bamberg remains at a high level. In the independent city of Bamberg, the number of business registrations in 2023 was 682, compared to 655 registrations the year before. In 2021, 702 new companies were registered with the city of Bamberg. The number of businesses in the city of Bamberg for 2023 is 2,624 companies. 87 of these businesses employ more than 100 people. Of these, almost half (969) are craft businesses.
Labour market and employment figures
As the population in the city has grown, the number of employees has also risen continuously in recent years: Industry and manufacturing Important sectors of the manufacturing industry in Bamberg are drive technologies and electrical engineering. Bosch has been operating a production facility in Bamberg with over 6000 employees since 1939. The company produces energy, mobility and drive systems, in particular spark plugs for the automotive industry. Due to its dependence on the combustion engine, the company announced in 2019 that it would be switching to fuel cells,[145] although around 1000 jobs are to be transferred to other locations from 2026. Coburg-based automotive supplier Brose has had an administration building with 600 employees on Berliner Ring since 2016. Together with the plant in Hallstadt, the region is the company's second-largest location with more than 2,000 employees.
Another important company is Wieland Electric in the field of electrical engineering. The company was founded in Bamberg in 1910 and is considered a pioneer in electrical connection technology and is still the world market leader for pluggable installation technology in the building sector.
Rudolf Zimmermann Bamberg (RZB), with over 800 employees worldwide, produces lights and lighting systems near the port of Bamberg. Over 70 companies are located on the 100 hectares of the port. In 2023, over 416,000 tons of goods were loaded at the port, especially foodstuffs and bulk goods. In addition, over 700 river cruise ships docked here. The Bamberg asphalt mixing plant and a Schwenk concrete plant are also located in the immediate vicinity.
Bamberg is also home to numerous small and medium-sized companies in other sectors. One special feature here is the centuries-old tradition of instrument making. Organ building, which is currently being continued by master craftsman Thomas Eichfelder, is particularly noteworthy, as is the construction of violins, clarinets and other woodwind instruments.
Tourism and retail
Bamberg's city centre is characterized by a diverse retail sector, partly due to tourism. This generated a turnover of 682 million euros in 2023. In the 2018 shopping mile ranking by real estate company Jones Lang LaSalle (JLL), Bamberg was ranked first in Germany for cities with fewer than 100,000 inhabitants. With an average of 5,155 visitors per hour, the Grüner Markt was the 52nd most popular shopping street in Germany. In 2023, the Grüner Markt had almost 8.5 million passers-by, an increase of 130,000 visitors compared to the previous year.
Bamberg recorded 807,294 overnight stays in 2023, an increase of 11% compared to 2022. 85% of overnight guests came from Germany, 15% from abroad. The proportion of travelers from abroad rose particularly sharply in 2023 at 22%. The most important tourist countries of origin are the US, the Netherlands, Poland and Austria. Tourism generates around 330 million euros in gross revenue in Bamberg every year - in the hospitality, retail and service sectors. This results in an income of 153 million euros.
Some of the main sights are:
* Bamberg Cathedral (1237), with the tombs of Emperor Henry II and Pope Clement II
* , residence of the bishops in the 16th and 17th centuries
* , residence of the bishops after the 17th century
* Bamberg State Library in the New Residence
* Old town hall (1386), built in the middle of the Regnitz river, accessible by two bridges
* ("Little Venice"), a colony of fishermen's houses from the 19th century along one bank of the river Regnitz
* Michaelsberg Abbey, built in the 12th century on one of Bamberg's "Seven Hills." The former Benedictine abbey, which once housed a brewery, is now home to the Franconian Brewery Museum.
* , castle, former residence of the bishops
; Cathedral:
Bamberg Cathedral is a late Romanesque building with four towers. It was founded in 1004 by Emperor Henry II, finished in 1012 and in the 13th century received its present late-Romanesque form.
The cathedral is long, wide, high, and the four towers are each about high. It contains many historic works of art, such as the marble tomb of the founder and his wife, considered one of the greatest works of the sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider, and carved between 1499 and 1513. Another treasure of the cathedral is an equestrian statue known as the Bamberg Horseman ().
; :
]]
The is located on the highest of Bamberg's seven hills. It was mentioned for the first time in 1109. Between 1251 and 1553 it was the residence of Bamberg's bishops. Destroyed in 1553 by Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, it was used after scant repairs only as a prison, and increasingly fell into decay.
In 1801, A. F. Marcus bought the castle and completely repaired it. His friend, the famous German writer E.T.A. Hoffmann, who was very impressed by the building, lived there for a while. The next owner, Anton von Greifenstein, in 1818 founded an association to preserve the castle. This society still maintains the entire property today. The Altenburg today houses a restaurant.
; Other sights:
Other churches are the , an 11th-century Romanesque basilica; the ; the or (1320–1387), which has now been restored to its original pure Gothic style. The , 12th century Romanesque (restored), on the Michaelsberg, was formerly the church of the Benedictine Michaelsberg Abbey secularized in 1803 and now contains the , or almshouse, and the museum and municipal art collections.
Of the bridges connecting the sections of the lower town the was completed in 1455. Halfway across this, on an island, is the or town hall (rebuilt 1744–1756). The lyceum, formerly a Jesuit college, contains a natural history museum. The old palace () was built in 1591 on the site of an old residence of the counts of Babenberg. Monuments include the Maximilian fountain (1880), with statues of King Maximilian I of Bavaria, the emperor Henry II and his wife, Conrad III and Saint Otto, bishop of Bamberg.
Beer
Bamberg is known for its smoked Rauchbier and is home to 11 breweries, including Brauerei Fässla, Brauerei Greifenklau, Brauerei Heller-Trum (Schlenkerla), Brauerei Kaiserdom, Keesmann Bräu, Klosterbräu, Mahrs Bräu, Brauerei Spezial, Gasthausbrauerei Ambräusianum, Kron Prinz, and Weyermann Röstmalzbierbrauerei. Weyermann Specialty Malting, founded in Bamberg in 1879, supplies breweries around the world. Every August there is a five-day , a kirmess celebrated with beers. The Franconia region surrounding Bamberg is home to more than 200 breweries. In October and early November many of the 70 breweries in and around Bamberg celebrate Bockbieranstiche with special releases of Bock beer.
Education
The University of Bamberg, named Otto-Friedrich University, offers higher education in the areas of social science, business studies and the humanities, and is attended by more than 12,000 students. The University of Applied Sciences Bamberg offers higher education in the areas of public health. Bamberg is also home to eight secondary schools (gymnasiums):
* Clavius-Gymnasium
* Dientzenhofer-Gymnasium
* Eichendorff-Gymnasium
* E.T.A. Hoffmann-Gymnasium
* Franz-Ludwig-Gymnasium
* Kaiser-Heinrich-Gymnasium
* Maria-Ward-Gymnasium
* Theresianum
There are also numerous other institutes for primary, secondary, technical, vocational and adult education.
Infrastructure
Transport
Railway
The InterCityExpress main line No. 28 (Munich – Nuremberg – Leipzig – Berlin / – Hamburg) and the main line No. 18 (Munich – Nuremberg – Halle – Berlin / – Hamburg) run on the Nuremberg–Bamberg and the Bamberg–Hof lines through the Bamberg station. It takes less than two hours to Munich on the train and with the Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway through the Thuringian mountains finished in 2017 less than three hours to Berlin. Two intercity trains of line no. 17 (Vienna – Warnemünde) and line no. 61 (Leipzig – Nuremberg – Karlsruhe) also run through Bamberg.
East-west connections are poorer. Bamberg is connected to other towns in eastern Upper Franconia such as Bayreuth, Coburg, and Kronach via the Bamberg–Hof line with trains usually running at least every hour. Connections on the Würzburg–Bamberg line to the west are hourly regional trains to Würzburg, which is fully connected to the ICE network. Tourists arriving at Frankfurt International Airport can take advantage of the new direct connection from Frankfurt's main station.MotorwaysBamberg is not near any of the major (i.e. single-digit) autobahns. But it is nevertheless well connected to the network in all directions: the A70 from Schweinfurt (connecting to the A7 there) to Bayreuth (connecting to the A9) runs along the northern edge of the town. The A73 on the eastern side of town connects Bamberg to Nuremberg (connecting to the A9) and Thuringia, ending at Suhl.
Air transport
Bamberg is served by Bamberg-Breitenau Airfield. Mostly public aircraft operate there. It used to be a military airport. (IATA-Code: ZCD, ICAO-Code: EDQA) It is also possible to charter public flights to and from this airport.
Most international tourists who travel by plane arrive at Frankfurt International Airport or Munich Airport. The nearest major airport is Nuremberg Airport which can be reached within 45mins by car or one hour by train and subway.Water transportBoth the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and its predecessor, the Ludwig Canal, begin near Bamberg. The Ludwig Canal was opened in 1846 but closed in 1950 after damage during the second world war. With the completion of the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal in 1992, uninterrupted water transport was again made possible between the North Sea and the Black Sea.Local public transport
Local public transport within Bamberg relies exclusively on buses. More than 20 routes connect the outlying quarters and some villages in the vicinity to the central bus station. In addition, there are several "Night Lines" (the last of these, though, tend to run around midnight) and some park-and-ride lines from parking lots on the periphery to the town centre.
A short-lived tram system existed in the 1920s.
Military bases
Bamberg was an important base for the Bavarian, German, and then American military stationed at Warner Barracks. Warner Barracks was closed in the fall of 2014, with the last battalion leaving being the 54th Engineer Battalion, and the grounds returned to the German government. In 2016, a large part of the facility was taken over by the German Federal Police for training purposes. Muna Kasserne was a small base occupied by the 504th Maintenance Company, 71st Maintenance Bn. It was part of Warner Barracks although located separately.
Governance
Bamberg is an urban district, or kreisfreie Stadt. Its town council (Stadtrat) and its mayor (Oberbürgermeister) are elected every six years, though not in the same year. Thus, the last municipal election for the town council was in 2014, for the mayor in 2012. As an exception to the six-year term, the term starting in 2012 will take eight years to synchronize the elections with those in the rest of Bavaria.
As of the elections of 16 March 2014, the 44 member strong town council comprises 12 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 8 Green councillors, 4 councillors of the Bamberger Bürger-Block and 4 of the Freie Wähler (Free Voters), both local political movements. These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group. In addition, there are 3 councillors of the Bamberger Unabhängige Bürger and the 1 councillor each of the Bamberger Realisten, the FDP and the Bamberger Linke Liste.
The previous council, elected on 2 March 2008, was composed of 15 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 7 Green councillors, 5 councillors of the Bamberger Bürger-Block and 3 of the Freie Wähler (Free Voters), both local political movements. These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group. In addition, there were 2 councillors of the Bamberger Realisten and one of the FDP and the Republikaner, making them ineligible for caucus status.Mayors since 1945{|class"wikitable"
|-
!Years
!Mayor
!Party
|-
|1945–1958
|Luitpold Weegmann
|CSU
|-
|1958–1982
|Theodor Mathieu
|CSU
|-
|1982–1994
|Paul Röhner
|CSU
|-
|1994–2006
|Herbert Lauer
|Independent
|-
|2006–present
|Andreas Starke
|SPD
|}
Twin towns – sister cities
Bamberg is twinned with:
* Bedford, England, United Kingdom
* Esztergom, Hungary
* Feldkirchen in Kärnten, Austria
* Prague 1, Czech Republic
* Rodez, France
* Villach, Austria
People
A–K
* Annette von Aretin (1920–2006), first television announcer of the Bayerischer Rundfunk
* Carl Adam Bader (1789 in Bamberg; † 1870 in Berlin), tenor
*Lisa Badum
*Dorothee Bär (born 1978), Member of Parliament (CSU), State Secretary of the Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure
* Wilhelm Batz (1916–1988), Luftwaffe, ace
* Louis-Alexandre Berthier (1753–1815), Chief of Staff to Napoleon Bonaparte
* Theodor Boveri (1862–1915), biologist and cytogeneticist
* Joachim Camerarius (1500–1574), humanist, polymath and poet
* Claudia Ciesla (born 1987), Polish-German actress
* Pope Clement II (died 1047), bishop of Bamberg from 1040 to 1046
* Christopher Clavius (1538–1612), mathematician, astronomer and Jesuit
* Conrad III of Germany (1093–1152), king of Germany
* Cunigunde of Luxembourg (c. 975–1040), empress consort, regent of the Holy Roman Empire and wife of Henry II
* Stefan Dassler (1962-2023), non-fiction author
* Günther Denzler (born 1948), former district administrator of Bamberg (CSU)
* Karlheinz Deschner (1924–2014), writer and critic of religion and the church
* Gottfried Diener (1907–1987), philologist and Goethe researcher
* Ignaz Dollinger (1770–1841), physician
* Ignaz von Dollinger (1799–1890), important Catholic theologian and church historian
* Curt Echtermeyer, also known as Curt Bruckner (1896–1971), painter
* Erich Ebermayer (1900–1970), writer
* Hans Ehard (1887–1980), lawyer and politician
* Günter Faltin (born 1944), university teacher
* Heinrich Finck (1444–1527), conductor and composer
* Klaus-Dieter Fritsche (born 1953), jurist and politician (CSU),
* Karl von Gareis (1844–1923), a lawyer and author, member of the Reichstag
* Nora-Eugenie Gomringer (born 1980), poet and writer
* Thomas Gottschalk (born 1950), moderator, TV presenter, actor
* Lukas Görtler (born 1994), football player
* Hans Grassmann (born 1960), physicist and author
* Joseph Heller (1798–1849), collector, today Helleriana in Bamberg State Library
* Karl Höller (1907–1987), composer
* Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), German philosopher
* Henry II (973–1024), Holy Roman Emperor
* E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776–1822), German author and composer
* Joachim Jung (born 1951), artist
* Harry Koch (born 1969), football player
* Lorenz Krapp (1882–1947), lawyer, poet and politician (BVP, CSU)
* Dieter Kunzelmann (born 1939), communard and left-wing activist
* Paul Lautensack (1478–1558), painter and organist
L–Z
* Paul Maar (born 1937), German writer and illustrator
* Emil Marschalk von Ostheim (1841–1903), historian and collector
* Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria (1808–1888), promoter of Bavarian folk music in the 19th century
* Willy Messerschmitt (1898–1978), German aircraft designer, Flugzeugbau Messerschmitt GmbH
* Wolf-Dieter Montag (1924–2018), German physician, sports medicine specialist, mountain rescue doctor, and international sports administrator
* Christina Morhaubt, convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to death by burning in 1627 during the Bamberg witch trials
* Martin Münz (1785–1848), anatomist and professor
* Ida Noddack-Tacke, (1896–1978), chemist and physicist; she discovered element 75, rhenium
* Christopher Park (born 1987), pianist
* Bernd Redmann (born 1965), composer and musicologist
* Mike Rose (1932–2006), painter, set designer and writer
* Gerd Schaller (born 1965), conductor
* Rainer Schaller (born 1969), entrepreneur and founder of McFit Fitness GmbH
* Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (1907–1944), German officer who attempted to assassinate German dictator Adolf Hitler in the 20 July Plot
* Berthold Maria Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (born 1934), former General of the Bundeswehr
*Franz-Ludwig Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (born 1938), former Bavarian European parliament member
* Ritter Josef von Schmitt (1838–1907), German noble, Court President for the Kingdom of Bavaria, advisor to Prince Luitpold of Bavaria, Privy councilor and an Honorary Citizen of the city of Bamberg.
* Gottfried von Schmitt (1827–1908), German noble, member of Supreme court and member of Upper Council of Bavaria.
* Josef Schmitt (1875–1944), German noble and Privy councillor.
* Gottfried Schmitt (1865–1919), German politician
* Josh Shipp (born 1986), professional basketball player for Brose Baskets Bamberg
* Tom Schütz (born 1988), football player
* Sven Schultze (born 1978), basketball player
* Karsten Tadda (born 1988), basketball player
* Karl Borromäus Thumann (1820–1874), German theologian
* Oscar Wassermann (1869–1934), German banker
* Andrew Wooten (born 1989), German-American soccer player
* Karl Friedrich Gottlob Wetzel (1779–1819), writer and illustrator Fränkischer Merkur
Gallery
<gallery>
Image:BambergAltesRathaus.jpg|Old town hall
Image:Bamberg-altes-rathaus.jpg|Old town hall with both bridges
Image:Bamberg Klein-Venedig I.jpg|Close-up of "Little Venice"
Image:Bamberg Klein Venedig.jpg|"Little Venice"
Image:Pfarrkirche St. Martin.jpg|St Martin and Green Market
Image:Bamberg Neue Residenz.jpg|Neue Residenz (the "New Residence" of the prince-bishops)
Image:Rose Garden 2.JPG|The Rose Garden at the Neue Residenz
Image:Bamberg-NeueResidenz1-Asio.JPG|Rose Garden detail
Image:Bamberg-Jakobskirche.JPG|Church of St Jacob
Image:Bamberg Rooftops.JPG|Bamberg rooftops from the Rose Garden
File:Musikpavillon Hain Bamberg.JPG|Music pavilion in park Hain, Bamberg
</gallery>
See also
* Bamberg (potato) (named after the town)
* Bamberg Symphony Orchestra
* Rintfleisch-Pogrom
* Franconia
References
*
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid188&letterB "Bamberg"] at the Jewish Encyclopedia
External links
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/624 Town of Bamberg: UNESCO Official Website]
*
* [https://welterbe.bamberg.de/en/ Bamberg World Heritage Office]
* [https://www.bamberg.info/ Official tourist website]
* [https://www.schlenkerla.de/indexe.html Schlenkerla Brewery website]
* [https://bamberger-bier.de/ Bamberg beer, official website]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MMO3fvIQx8 Bamberg Tourist Guide - Youtube video]
Category:Bamberg
Category:World Heritage Sites in Germany
Category:Urban districts of Bavaria
Category:Upper Franconia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberg
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Black cow
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Black cow or Black Cow can refer to:
A root beer float
Black Cow Vodka, a brand of vodka made from whey, a byproduct of cheesemaking
"Black Cow", a song on Steely Dan's 1977 album Aja
See also
Black Bull (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_cow
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Bloody Mary
|
Bloody Mary most commonly refers to:
Bloody Mary (cocktail), made with tomato juice, vodka, and other flavorings
Bloody Mary (folklore), a ghost who appears in a mirror when her name is repeatedly chanted
Mary I of England (1516–1558; ), Queen of England, called so by her Protestant opponents
Bloody Mary may also refer to:
Film
Bloody Mary (2006 film), an American horror film
Bloody Mary (2022 film), an Indian crime film
Literature
Bloody Mary (comics), various characters
Bloody Mary (South Pacific), a character in Tales of the South Pacific by James Michener
Music
"Bloody Mary", a song from the 1949 musical South Pacific
"Bloody Mary", a 1978 song by Whitesnake from Snakebite
"Bloody Mary (A Note on Apathy)", a 2000 song by Five for Fighting from America Town
"Bloody Mary", a 2008 song by The Alice Rose
"Bloody Mary" (song), a 2011 song by Lady Gaga from the album Born this Way
"Bloody Mary (Nerve Endings)", a 2012 song by Silversun Pickups from the album Neck of the Woods
Television
"Bloody Mary" (South Park), an episode of South Park
"Bloody Mary" (Supernatural), an episode of Supernatural
Other uses
Bloody Mary (rapper) (), member of the rap group Bloods & Crips
Typhoon Mary (1960), a Category 1-equivalent typhoon nicknamed Bloody Mary by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center
See also
Bloody (disambiguation)
Mary (disambiguation)
Agent 077: Mission Bloody Mary, a 1965 adventure film
Dead Mary, a 2007 horror film
Mary, Bloody Mary, a 1999 young adult novel
Mary, Mary, Bloody Mary, a 1974 horror film
The Bloody Mary Show, a British comedy web series
The Legend of Bloody Mary, a 2008 horror film
"Un Blodymary", a 2006 song by Las Ketchup
Urban Legends: Bloody Mary, a 2005 horror film
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody_Mary
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Bill Mumy
|
| birth_place = San Gabriel, California, U.S.
| years_active = 1960−present
| occupation =
| awards Inkpot Award (2015)
| spouse =
| children = 2, including Liliana
| website =
}}
Charles William Mumy Jr. (; born February 1, 1954) is an American actor, writer, producer, and musician. He came to prominence in the 1960s as a child actor whose work included television appearances on Bewitched, I Dream of Jeannie, The Twilight Zone, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, and a role in the film Dear Brigitte, followed by a three-season role as Will Robinson in the 1960s sci-fi series Lost in Space. Mumy later appeared as lonely teenager Sterling North in the film Rascal (1969) and Teft in the film Bless the Beasts and Children (1971).
In the 1990s, Mumy performed the role of Lennier in all five seasons of the sci-fi TV series Babylon 5 and narrated the Emmy Award–winning series Biography.
Mumy is also known for his musical career as a guitarist, singer, songwriter, and composer. He is an Emmy nominee for original music in Adventures in Wonderland (1992). As a musician Mumy performs as a solo artist, an occasional guest performer, and formerly as half of the duo Barnes & Barnes before classmate/bandmate Robert Haimer died in 2023. From 1988 through the 90s he performed at San Diego Comic-Con and other comics-related events as part of the band Seduction of the Innocent (named after the titular book by Fredric Wertham). The band released one CD, The Golden Age.
Early life and career
Mumy was born in San Gabriel, California, to Charles William Mumy, a cattle rancher, and Muriel Gertrude Mumy (). He began his professional career at age seven and has worked on more than four hundred television episodes, eighteen films, various commercials, and scores of voice-over projects. He has also worked as a musician, songwriter, recording artist, and writer.Television and film career
Among Mumy's earliest television roles was six-year-old Willy in the "Donald's Friend" (1960) episode of the NBC-TV family drama series National Velvet, starring Lori Martin. He starred in three episodes of CBS-TV's original Twilight Zone: "It's a Good Life" (S3 E8 November 1961), as six-year-old Anthony, who terrorizes his town with psychic powers (a role he later reprised along with his daughter Liliana in the "It's Still a Good Life" episode of the second revival series); "In Praise of Pip" (September 1963), as a vision of Jack Klugman's long-neglected dying son; and "Long Distance Call" (March 1961) as Billy Bayles, who talks to his dead grandmother through a toy telephone.
In 1961, Mumy was cast on CBS-TV's Alfred Hitchcock Presents series in "The Door Without a Key", featuring John Larch, who played his father in "It's a Good Life". The same year, Mumy starred as little Jackie in the episode "Bang! You're Dead", featuring Marta Kristen, who later played his sister Judy on Lost in Space. Mumy was cast as Mark Murdock in the "Keep an Eye on Santa Claus" (1962) episode of the ABC-TV drama series Going My Way, starring Gene Kelly. His fellow guest stars were Cloris Leachman (who played his mother in "It's a Good Life"), Steve Brodie, and Frank McHugh.
At age eight, Mumy appeared in Jack Palance's ABC-TV circus drama The Greatest Show on Earth (1963); he was cast as Miles, a parentless boy, in the Perry Mason episode "The Case of the Shifty Shoebox" (1963), and he portrayed Freddy in the "End of an Image" (1963) episode of NBC-TV's modern Western series Empire, starring Richard Egan.
In 1964, he was cast as Richard Kimble's nephew in ABC-TV's The Fugitive episode, "Home Is the Hunted"; as Barry in the NBC-TV medical drama The Eleventh Hour episode "Sunday Father"; as himself three times in the ABC sitcom The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet; in the Disney film For the Love of Willadena; and as a troubled orphan taken in by the Stephenses in the Bewitched fantasy sitcom episode "A Vision of Sugarplums" (December 1964), on ABC-TV.
Mumy was reportedly the first choice to portray Eddie Munster in the 1964 CBS situation comedy The Munsters, but his parents objected to the extensive makeup requirements. The role instead went to Butch Patrick. Mumy appeared in one episode as a friend of Eddie.
Mumy guest starred in an episode of NBC-TV's I Dream of Jeannie, "Whatever Became of Baby Custer?" (1965). That same year, he also appeared in an episode of Bewitched titled "Junior Executive" (1965), in which he played a young Darrin Stephens.
in Dear Brigitte, 1965]]
Mumy starred in Dear Brigitte (1965), a film adaptation of the novel Erasmus with Freckles, as Erasmus Leaf, a child mathematical genius who develops a crush on Brigitte Bardot (played by herself in the film). His parents, played by James Stewart and Glynis Johns, attempt to manage his obsession.Lost in Space and beyondFrom 1965 to 1968, Mumy portrayed Will Robinson in Lost in Space, the recipient of numerous warnings (including "Danger, Will Robinson") from the show's robot character, voiced by Dick Tufeld.
Mumy was later cast in Bless the Beasts and Children (1971) as Teft, a leader in a group of misfit teenage boys resolved to save a herd of bison from hunters. He also played a musician friend of Cliff DeYoung's character in the television film Sunshine (1973), later reprising the role in Sunshine Christmas and in the TV series Sunshine. In 1974, Mumy played Nick Butler in the pilot episode of NBC's The Rockford Files and made an appearance in a later episode in season 1 as a sidewalk artist. In 1988, he played Ben Matlock's genius nephew, Dr. Irwin Bruckner, on Matlock.
In 1996, Mumy was a writer and co-creator of Space Cases, a Nickelodeon television show with themes similar to those of Lost in Space. Between 1994 and 1998, he played the ambassadorial aide Lennier in the syndicated science fiction series Babylon 5. In November 1998, he played Kellin, a Starfleet officer, in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "The Siege of AR-558", in which he assists in defeating a Jem'Hadar detachment. To Mumy's delight, his character was human this time due to makeup time and his distaste as being known as an "alien actor"; while playing Lennier in Babylon 5, he was required to wear prosthetic makeup. Mumy later appeared in a 2006 episode of Crossing Jordan and in the Syfy original film A.I. Assault.
In 2018, Mumy appeared in the pilot episode of the Netflix remake series Lost in Space. His character's name is Dr. Z. Smith, in homage to the character played by Jonathan Harris in the 1965 television series.
Voice acting career
Mumy has narrated over 50 episodes of the Arts & Entertainment Network's Biography series, as well as hosted and narrated several other documentaries and specials for A&E, Animal Planet, The Sci-Fi Channel, and E!. He has also worked on animated shows such as Ren and Stimpy, Scooby-Doo, Batman: The Animated Series, Steven Spielberg's Animaniacs, Bravest Warriors, The Oz Kids and Disney's Buzz Lightyear of Star Command and Doc McStuffins.
Mumy's work also includes voice overs in national commercials for Bud Ice, Farmers Insurance, Ford, Blockbuster, Twix, Oscar Mayer and McDonald's.
Music
Mumy is an accomplished musician who plays the banjo, bass, guitar, harmonica, keyboards, mandolin, and percussion. His various musical credits include songs he has written and recorded with America, performed on tour with Shaun Cassidy, and played with Rick Springfield's band in the film Hard to Hold. He created the band The Be Five with other Babylon 5 actors.
He and Marta Kristen performed "Sloop John B" in the Lost in Space S3E14 episode Castles In Space.[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y9TqwD0Ia_g]
Mumy has released a number of solo CDs, including Dying to Be Heard, In the Current, ''Pandora's Box, After Dreams Come True, Los Angeles Times and Ghosts, as well as nine albums with music partner Robert Haimer as Barnes and Barnes. Their most famous hit is the song "Fish Heads", which Rolling Stone named one of the top 100 videos of all time. He also performs with the Jenerators, a blues-rock band based in Los Angeles featuring Tom Hebenstreit on vocals, electric guitars, and keyboards; Mumy on vocals, acoustic and electric guitars, harmonica, keyboards and percussion; Gary Stockdale on vocals and bass; Miguel Ferrer on vocals, percussion and drums; David Jolliffe on guitar, percussion and vocals; and Chris Ross on drums and percussion. Additionally, Mumy released a Byrds tribute song, "When Roger Was Jim" (2012). In 2017, along with John Cowsill (The Cowsills) and Vicki Peterson (The Bangles) he founded the Action Skulls. Their first CD, Angels Hear, which also included posthumous contributions from the bassist Rick Rosas, was released on September 27, 2017.
Mumy produces and hosts The Real Good Radio Hour, a weekly series on KSAV Internet Radio focusing on various styles of music and the artists who pioneered them.
Lost in Space activities in later years
In 1996, Mumy and his Lost in Space costar Jonathan Harris were reunited at a Walt Disney convention in Orlando, Florida. Mumy worked again with Harris on the retrospective special Lost In Space: Forever (1998), where they reprised their roles in a scene written by Mumy (Harris rewrote his own lines). This occurred the year after the rest of the cast (including both Mumy and Harris) stated in a TV Guide article that the Sci Fi Channel planned to do a Lost in Space marathon while promoting a new film. Harris was to appear in the planned television film Lost in Space: The Journey Home'', but died before production was scheduled to start, in 2002, and it was subsequently cancelled. Mumy read the eulogy at Harris' funeral and was asked to narrate an account of his longtime friend's life on A&E Biography that year.
In a 2010 interview on Blog Talk Radio's Lessons Learned, Rick Tocquigny was asked if Mumy was a Jonathan Harris fan before they appeared together on Lost in Space. Tocquigny said that at age five, Mumy was too young to watch his mentor's show The Third Man, which would have been aired late at night, but he was old enough to see The Bill Dana Show.
On June 14, 2006, Mumy got to work with Harris one last time, though posthumously. Years before Harris died, he recorded voice work for the animated short The Bolt Who Screwed Christmas, narrating the film and playing the part of The Bolt. As a tribute to Harris, writer-director John Wardlaw added a scene that reunited Lost in Space cast members Mumy, Marta Kristen, and Angela Cartwright as the animated Ratchett family.
Mumy appears in two episodes of the 2018 series Lost in Space on Netflix. He plays the role of Dr. Smith, whose identity is stolen by June Harris, the villain.
Mumy attends Lost in Space reunions and shows, and co-authored a 2015 book, Lost (and Found) in Space with Angela Cartwright. He and Cartwright co-authored the 2021 book, Lost (and Found) in Space 2: Blast Off into the Expanded Edition.
Other work
Mumy and co-author Peter David published a short story, "The Black '59" (1992), in the anthology Shock Rock, edited by F. Paul Wilson.
He has also written a number of comics. With his friend, the late Miguel Ferrer, Mumy created Comet Man and Trypto the Acid Dog. They also co-wrote the Marvel Graphic Novel The Dreamwalker.
Personal life
Mumy married Eileen Joy Davis on October 9, 1986.
Television and filmography
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header"
! Year
! Film/Television
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 1960 || data-sort-value="Tom Ewell Show, The" | The Tom Ewell Show|| Jeffrey Nelson || Season 1 Episode 5: "Tom Puts the Girls to Work"
|-
| 1961 || data-sort-value="Twilight Zone, The" | The Twilight Zone|| Billy Bayles || Season 2 Episode 22: "Long Distance Call"
|-
| 1961 || data-sort-value="Twilight Zone, The" | The Twilight Zone|| Anthony Fremont || Season 3 Episode 8: "It's a Good Life"
|-
| 1961 || Alfred Hitchcock Presents|| Jackie Chester || Season 7 Episode 2: "Bang, You're Dead"
|-
| 1962 || Alfred Hitchcock Presents|| Mickey Hollins || Season 7 Episode 15: "The Door Without a Key"
|-
| 1962 || data-sort-value="Alfred Hitchcock Hour, The" | The Alfred Hitchcock Hour|| Tony Mitchell || Season 1 Episode 8: "House Guest"
|-
| 1962 || ''Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color || Petey Loomis || Episode: "Sammy, the Way-Out Seal"
|-
| 1962 || data-sort-value="Jack Benny Program, The" | The Jack Benny Program|| 34-Lb Boy || Season 13 Episode 12: "Jack and the Crying Cab Driver"
|-
| 1962 || Wagon Train|| Toddy || Season 6 Episode 15: "The Sam Darland Story"
|-
| 1963 || data-sort-value="Twilight Zone, The" | The Twilight Zone|| young Pip Phillips || Season 5 Episode 1: "In Praise of Pip"
|-
| 1963 || data-sort-value="Child Is Waiting, A" | A Child Is Waiting''|| Boy counting Jean's pearls ||
|-
| 1963 || data-sort-value="Ticklish Affair, A" | A Ticklish Affair|| Alex Martin ||
|-
| 1963 || Palm Springs Weekend|| 'Boom Boom' Yates ||
|-
| 1963 || Perry Mason || Miles Jefferson || Season 7 Episode 2: "The Case of the Shifty Shoebox"
|-
| 1964 || Bewitched|| Michael (Orphan Boy) || Season 1 Episode 15: "A Vision of Sugar Plumbs"
|-
| 1964 || data-sort-value="Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, The" | The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet|| Billy || Season 13 Episode 2: "Rick's Old Printing Press"
|-
| 1964 || data-sort-value="Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, The" | The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet|| Billy || Season 13 Episode 7: "The Pennies"
|-
| 1964 || data-sort-value="Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, The" | The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet|| Billy || Season 13 Episode 8: "The Ballerina"
|-
| 1965 || Bewitched|| Darrin || Season 2 Episode 10: "Junior Executive"
|-
| 1965 || data-sort-value="Virginian, The" | The Virginian|| Willy || Season 3 Episode 28: "Old Cowboy"
|-
| 1965 || Dear Brigitte|| Erasmus 'Ras' Leaf ||
|-
| 1965 || I Dream of Jeannie|| Custer || Season 1 Episode 11: "Whatever Became of Baby Custer?"
|-
| 1965 || data-sort-value="Munsters, The" | The Munsters|| Googie Miller || Season 1 Episode 25: "Come Back Little Googie"
|-
| 1965–68 || Lost in Space|| Will Robinson || 84 episodes
|-
| 1968 || Wild in the Streets|| Boy || Uncredited
|-
| 1969 || Rascal|| Sterling North ||
|-
| 1969 || Lancer|| Andy Cutler || Season 2 Episode 3: "The Kid"
|-
| 1970 || Here Come the Brides|| Simon Bill || Season 2 Episode 15: "Break the Bank of Tacoma"
|-
| 1971 || Bless the Beasts and Children|| Teft ||
|-
| 1973 || Papillon|| Lariot ||
|-
| 1974 || data-sort-value="Rockford Files, The" | The Rockford Files|| Nick Butler || Season 1 Episode: "Backlash of the Hunter" (pilot)
|-
| 1975 || data-sort-value="Rockford Files, The" | The Rockford Files|| Trask || Season 1 Episode 14: "Aura Lee, Farewell"
|-
| 1975 || Sunshine|| Weaver || 15 episodes
|-
| 1983 || Twilight Zone: The Movie|| Tim (Segment #3) ||
|-
| 1984 || Hard to Hold|| Keyboard Player ||
|-
| 1988 || Matlock || Dr. Irwin Bruckner || Season 2 Episode 20: "The Genius"
|-
| 1990 || Captain America|| Young General Fleming ||
|-
| 1991 || data-sort-value="Flash, The" | The Flash|| Roger Braintree || Season 1 Episode 19: "Good Night, Central City"
|-
| 1991 || Superboy|| Tommy Puck || Season 4 Episode 1: "A Change of Heart, Part 1"
|-
| 1991 || Superboy|| Tommy Puck || Season 4 Episode 2: "A Change of Heart, Part 2"
|-
| 1992 || Superboy|| Tommy Puck || Season 4 Episode 19: "Obituary for a Super Hero"
|-
| 1992 || Double Trouble|| Bob ||
|-
| 1993 || Ultraman: The Ultimate Hero|| Fenton || Season 1 Episode 5: "Monstrous Meltdown"
|-
| 1994 || Animaniacs|| The Farmer || Voice, Season 1 Episode 62: "Witch One"
|-
| 1994 || data-sort-value="Ren & Stimpy Show, The" | The Ren & Stimpy Show|| Dr. Brainchild || Voice, Season 4 Episode 3: "Blazing Entrails"
|-
| 1994–98 || Babylon 5|| Lennier || 109 episodes
|-
| 1995 || Batman: The Animated Series|| Warren Lawford / Fox|| Voice, Season 4 Episode 1: "The Terrible Trio"<ref name"btva" />
|-
| 2024 || Space Command Redemption || Greg Mazzey ||
|}
Books
*
*
*
References
Bibliography
* Dye, David (1988). Child and Youth Actors: Filmographies of Their Entire Careers, 1914–1985. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. p. 166. . .
* Holmstrom, John (1996). The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995. Wilby, Norfolk, UK: Michael Russell. p. 303-304. . .
External links
*
*
*
*
* [https://archive.org/details/BillMumyInterviewsOnOutsightRadioHours Bill Mumy interview on Outsight Radio Hours]
*
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* [https://www.facebook.com/bill.mumy Facebook site (official)]
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House of Bonaparte
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1814; 1815; 18521870)|King of Italy<br/>(18051814)|King of Spain<br/>(18081813)|King of Holland<br/>(18061810)|King of Naples and Sicily<br/>(18061808)|King of Westphalia<br/>(18071813)|Prince of Elba<br/>(18141815)|Co-Prince of Andorra<br/>(18061814; 1815; 18521870)|Grand Duke of Berg and Cleves<br/>(18091813)|Prince of Lucca and Piombino<br/>(18041814)}}
* Prince of Canino and Musignano
* Prince of Montfort
* Duke of Guastalla
* Count of Meudon
* Count of Moncalieri
* Prince of Parma
* Prince-President of France
* Noble Patrician of Tuscany
* Duke of Reichstadt
* King of Rome
* Count of Saint-Leu
* Countess of Lipona
* Grand Constable of France
* Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine
| styles = Imperial Majesty (France)<br/>Majesty (other Crowns)
| founded
| founder = Napoleon Bonaparte
| final ruler = Napoleon III
| current head =
| dissolution | deposition France:<br/>1814 (1st)<br/>1815 (2nd)<br/>1870 (3rd)<br/>Italy:<br/>1814<br/>Spain:<br/>1813<br/>Westphalia:<br/>1813<br/>Elba:<br/>1815
| cadet branches =
| notes =
}}
The House of Bonaparte (originally Buonaparte)<br>Italian and Corsican: Casa di Buonaparte}} is a former imperial and royal European dynasty of French and Italian origin. It was founded in 1804 by Napoleon I, the son of Corsican nobleman Carlo Buonaparte and Letizia Buonaparte (née Ramolino). Napoleon was a French military leader who rose to power during the French Revolution and who, in 1804, transformed the French First Republic into the First French Empire, five years after his ''coup d'état of November 1799 (18 Brumaire). Napoleon and the Grande Armée'' had to fight against every major European power (except for the ones he was allied with, including Denmark-Norway) and dominated continental Europe through a series of military victories during the Napoleonic Wars. He installed members of his family on the thrones of client states, expanding the power of the dynasty.
The House of Bonaparte formed the Imperial House of France during the French Empire, together with some non-Bonaparte family members. In addition to holding the title of Emperor of the French, the Bonaparte dynasty held various other titles and territories during the Napoleonic Wars, including the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of the Spain and the Indies, the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Kingdom of Holland, and the Kingdom of Naples. The dynasty held power for around a decade until the Napoleonic Wars began to take their toll. Making very powerful enemies, such as Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia, as well as royalist (particularly Bourbon) restorational movements in France, Spain, the Two Sicilies, and Sardinia, the dynasty eventually collapsed due to the final defeat of Napoleon I at the Battle of Waterloo and the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty by the Congress of Vienna.
During the reign of Napoleon I, the Imperial Family consisted of the Emperor's immediate relations – his wife, son, siblings, and some other close relatives, namely his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, his uncle Joseph Fesch, and his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais.
Between 1852 and 1870, there was a Second French Empire, when a member of the Bonaparte dynasty again ruled France: Napoleon III, the youngest son of Louis Bonaparte. However, during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the dynasty was again ousted from the Imperial Throne. Since that time, there has been a series of pretenders. Supporters of the Bonaparte family's claim to the throne of France are known as Bonapartists. Current head Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon has a Bourbon mother.
Italian origins
The Bonaparte (originally ) family were patricians in the Italian towns of Sarzana, San Miniato, and Florence. The name derives from Italian: buona ("good") and parte ("part" or "side"). In Italian, the phrase "buona parte" is used to identify a fraction of considerable, but undefined, size in a .
Gianfaldo Buonaparte was the first known Buonaparte at Sarzana around 1200. His descendant Giovanni Buonaparte in 1397 married Isabella Calandrini, a cousin of later cardinal Filippo Calandrini. Giovanni became mayor of Sarzana and was named commissioner of the Lunigiana by Giovanni Maria Visconti in 1408. His daughter, Agnella Berni, was the great-grandmother of Italian poet Francesco Berni and their great-grandson Francesco Buonaparte was an equestrian mercenary at the service of the Genoese Bank of Saint George. In 1490, Francesco Buonaparte went to the island of Corsica, which was controlled by the bank. In 1493, he married the daughter of Guido da Castelletto, representative of the Bank of Saint George in Ajaccio, Corsica. Most of their descendants during subsequent generations were members of the Ajaccio town council. Napoleon's father, Carlo Buonaparte, received a patent of nobility from the King of France in 1771. Two of Jacopo's nephews, Pier Antonio Buonaparte and Giovanni Buonaparte, however, took part in the 1527 Medici rebellion, after which they were banished from Florence and later were restored by Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence. Jacopo's brother Benedetto Buonaparte maintained political neutrality. The San Miniato branch extinguished with Jacopo in 1550. The last member of the Florence family was a canon named Gregorio Bonaparte, who died in 1803, leaving Napoleon as heir.
A Buonaparte tomb lies in the Church of San Francesco in San Miniato. A second tomb, the Chapelle Impériale, was built by Napoleon III in Ajaccio 1857.
<gallery>
Blason fam fr Bonaparte ornamented.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of Sarzana
Coat of arms of th Bonaparte family in San Miniato.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of San Miniato
Blason fam it Firenze Santa Maria Novella.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of Florence
</gallery>
Imperial House of France
, Napoleon II, Napoleon III, and Louis-Napoléon]]
In 1793 Corsica formally seceded from France and sought protection from the British government, prompting Pasquale Paoli to compel the Bonapartes to relocate to the mainland. Napoleon I is the most prominent name associated with the Bonaparte family because he conquered much of Europe during the early 19th century. Due to his indisputable popularity in France both among the people and in the army, he staged the Coup of 18 Brumaire and overthrew the Directory with the help of his brother Lucien Bonaparte, president of the Council of Five Hundred. Napoleon then oversaw the creation of a new Constitution that made him the First Consul of France on 10 November 1799. On 2 December 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French and ruled from 1804 to 1814, and again in 1815 during the Hundred Days after his return from Elba.
Following his conquest of most of Western Europe, Napoleon I made his elder brother Joseph first King of Naples and then of Spain, his younger brother Louis King of Holland (subsequently forcing his abdication in 1810 after his failure to subordinate Dutch interests to those of France), and his youngest brother Jérôme as King of Westphalia, a short-lived realm created from several states of northwestern Germany.
Napoleon's son Napoléon François Charles Joseph was made King of Rome and was later styled as Napoleon II by loyalists of the dynasty, though he only ruled for two weeks after his father's abdication.
Louis-Napoléon, son of Louis, was President of France and then Emperor of the French from 1852 to 1870, reigning as Napoleon III. His son, Napoléon, Prince Imperial, died fighting the Zulus in Natal, today the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal. With his death, the family lost much of its remaining political appeal, though claimants continue to assert their right to the imperial title. A political movement for Corsican independence surfaced in the 1990s which included a Bonapartist restoration in its programme.Crowns held by the familyEmperors of the French
* Napoleon I (1804–1814, 1815), also King of Italy (1805–1814) and Emperor in Elba (1814–1815) and Co-Prince of Andorra (1804–1814, 1815)
* Napoleon II (1815), styled as King of Rome from birth, but never reigned and also Duke of Reichstadt 1818–1832, but never visited the town
* Napoleon III (1852–1870), also Co-Prince of Andorra (1852–1870)
Kings of Holland
* Louis I (1806–1810)
* Louis II (1810), also Grand Duke of Berg (1809–1813)
King of Naples
* Joseph I (1806–1808)
King of Westphalia
* Jérôme Napoleon I (1807–1813)
King of Spain
* Joseph I (1808–1813)
Grand Duchess of Tuscany
* Elisa Bonaparte (1809–1814), also Princess of Lucca and Piombino (1805–1814)
Princess and Duchess of Guastalla
* Pauline Bonaparte (1806)
Heads of the House of Bonaparte (since 1852)
* Napoléon III (1852–1873)
* Napoléon IV Eugène (1873–1879), son of Napoléon III
* Napoléon V Victor (1879–1926), grandson of Napoléon I's youngest brother, Jérôme
* Napoléon VI Louis (1926–1997), son of Napoléon V Victor
* Disputed since 1997:
** Napoléon VII Charles (1997–present), son of Napoléon VI Louis
** Napoléon VII Jean-Christophe (1997–present), grandson of Napoléon VI Louis
Family tree
Family tree list
Note: Bold for common names<br>Carlo-Maria (Ajaccio, 1746–Montpellier, 1785) married Maria Letizia Ramolino (Ajaccio, 1750–Rome, 1836) in 1764. He was a minor official in the local courts. They had eight children:
# Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte (Corte, 1768–Florence, 1844), King of Naples, then King of Spain, married Julie Clary
## Julie Joséphine Bonaparte (1796–1796)
## Zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte (1801–1854)
## Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte (1802–1839)
# Napoléon (I) Bonaparte (1769–1821) Emperor of the French: Married (i) Joséphine de Beauharnais; no issue. Adopted Eugène and Hortense de Beauharnais. Married (ii) Marie Louise of Austria;
## Napoléon (II) François Joseph Charles Bonaparte (1811–1832), Prince Imperial, King of Rome, Prince of Parma, son of Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria (of the Habsburg dynasty), Empress consort, then Duchess of Parma
# Lucien Bonaparte (1775–1840) Roman Prince of Canino and Musignano
## 3 daughters with first wife, Christine Boyer:
### Charlotte Philistine Bonaparte (1795–1865), married Prince Mario Gabrielli
### Victoire Gertrude Bonaparte (1797–1797)
### Christine Charlotte Alexandrine Egypta Bonaparte (1798–1847), married Count Arvid Posse, then married Lord Dudley Stuart
## 10 children with second wife, Alexandrine de Bleschamp:
### Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte (1803–1857), ornithologist and politician, married Princess Zénaïde Bonaparte (1801–1854)
#### Joseph Lucien Charles Napoléon Bonaparte (1824–1865)
#### Alexandrine Gertrude Zénaïde Bonaparte (1826–1828)
#### Lucien Louis Joseph Napoléon (Cardinal) Bonaparte (1828–1895)
#### Julie Charlotte Pauline Zénaïde Laetitia Désirée Bartholomée Bonaparte (1830–1900)
#### Charlotte Honorine Joséphine Pauline Bonaparte (1832–1901)
#### Léonie Stéphanie Elise Bonaparte (1833–1839)
#### Marie Désirée Eugénie Joséphine Philomène Bonaparte (1835–1890)
#### Augusta Amélie Maximilienne Jacqueline Bonaparte (1836–1900)
#### Napoléon Charles Grégoire Jacques Philippe Bonaparte (1839–1899)
##### Zénaïde Victoire Eugénie Bonaparte (1860–1862)
##### Marie Léonie Eugénie Mathilde Jeanne Julie Zénaïde Bonaparte (1870–1947)
##### Eugénie Laetitia Barbe Caroline Lucienne Marie Jeanne Bonaparte (1872–1949)
#### Bathilde Aloïse Léonie Bonaparte (1840–1861)
#### Albertine Marie Thérèse Bonaparte (1842–1842)
#### Charles Albert Edmond Bonaparte (1843–1847)
### Laetitia Christine Bonaparte (1804–1871)
### Joseph Lucien Bonaparte (1806–1807)
### Jeanne Adélaïde Bonaparte (1807–1829)
### Paul Marie Bonaparte (1808–1827)
### Louis Lucien Bonaparte (1813–1891)
### Pierre Napoléon Bonaparte (1815–1881), married Éléonore-Justine Ruflin
#### Roland Bonaparte (1858–1924), married Marie-Félix Blanc
##### Princess Marie Bonaparte (1882–1962), married Prince George of Greece
#### Princess Jeanne Bonaparte (1861–1910)
### Antoine Lucien Bonaparte (1816–1877)
### Alexandrine Marie Bonaparte (1818–1874)
### Constance Marie Bonaparte (1823–1876)
# Maria-Anna Elisa Bonaparte (1777–1820), Grand-Duchess of Tuscany, married Felice Baciocchi, Prince of Lucca
## Marie-Laetitia Bonaparte Baciocchi
# Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (1778–1846), King of Holland, married Hortense de Beauharnais, Napoleon's stepdaughter
## Napoléon Charles Bonaparte (1802–1807)
## Napoléon Louis Bonaparte (1804–1831)
## Charles Louis Napoléon (III) Bonaparte (1808–1873) Emperor of the French, married Maria Eugenia Ignacia Augustina Palafox de Guzmán Portocarrero y Kirkpatrick
### Napoléon Eugène Louis John Joseph Bonaparte, Prince Imperial (1856–1879)
# Maria Paola or Marie Pauline Bonaparte (1780–1825) Princess and Duchess of Guastalla, married in 1797 to French General Charles Leclerc and later married Camillo Borghese, 6th Prince of Sulmona.
# Maria Annunziata Caroline Bonaparte (1782–1839) married Joachim Murat, Marshal of the Empire, Grand Duke of Berg, then King of Naples
## Prince Achille Murat (1801–1847), married Catherine Willis Gray (1803–1867), great-grandniece of George Washington
## Prince Napoléon Lucien Charles Murat (1803–1878), married Caroline Georgina Fraser (1810–1879)
### 5 Children, including:
#### Joachim Joseph Napoléon Murat, 4th Prince Murat (1834–1901), Major-General of the French Army, married firstly Malcy Louise Caroline Berthier de Wagram (1832–1884) and had issue, and secondly Lydia Hervey, without issue
#### Prince Louis Napoléon Murat (1851–1912), married in Odesa, Eudoxia Mikhailovna Somova (1850–1924), had issue now extinct in male line
# Jérôme-Napoléon Bonaparte (1784–1860), King of Westphalia
## 1 child from first marriage, to Betsy Patterson of Baltimore:
### Jérôme Napoléon Bonaparte (1805–1870), married Susan May Williams and had 2 sons:
#### Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II (1830–1893), married Caroline Le Roy Appleton Edgar
##### Louise-Eugénie Bonaparte (1873–1923), married in 1896 Count Adam Carl von Moltke-Huitfeld (1864–1944); numerous descendants
##### Jerome Napoléon Charles Bonaparte III (1878–1945), married Blanche Pierce Stenbeigh, no issue
#### Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1851–1921), United States Secretary of the Navy and United States Attorney General, married Ellen Channing Day, no issue
## 3 children from second marriage, to Princess Catharina of Württemberg:
### Jérôme Napoléon Charles Bonaparte I (1814–1847), unmarried and childless
### Mathilde Laetitia Wilhelmine Bonaparte (1820–1904), married Anatoly Nikolaievich Demidov, 1st Prince of San Donato: no issue
### Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1822–1891), called Plon-Plon, married Princess Marie Clothilde of Savoy daughter of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy
#### Napoléon Victor Jérôme Frédéric Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1862–1926), married Princess Clémentine of Belgium
##### Marie Clotilde Eugénie Alberte Laetitia Geneviève Bonaparte (1912–1996), married Count Serge de Witt
##### Louis Jérôme Victor Emmanuel Léopold Marie Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1914–1997), married Alix de Foresta
###### Charles Marie Jérôme Victor Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (born 1950)
####### Two children from first marriage, to Princess Béatrice of Bourbon-Two Sicilies:
######## Caroline Marie Constance Bonaparte (Princess Caroline Napoléon) (born 1980)
######## Jean-Christophe Louis Ferdinand Albéric Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (born 1986), married Countess Olympia von und zu Arco-Zinneberg
######### Louis Charles Riprand Victor Jérôme Marie Napoléon (born 2022)
####### 1 child and 1 adopted child from second marriage, to Jeanne-Françoise Valliccioni:
######## Sophie Catherine Bonaparte (born 1992)
######## Anh Laëtitia Bonaparte (born 1998, adopted)
###### Catherine Elisabeth Albérique Marie Bonaparte (born 1950)
###### Laure Clémentine Geneviève Bonaparte (born 1952)
###### Jérôme Xavier Marie Joseph Victor Bonaparte (Prince Jérôme Napoléon) (born 1957), married in 2013 with Licia Innocenti
#### Napoléon Louis Joseph Jérôme Bonaparte (1864–1932) Russian general, unmarried and childless
#### Marie Laetitia Eugénie Catherine Adélaïde Bonaparte (1866–1926), married Prince Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta
Family tree of Bonaparte
Male-line family tree
*Charles Buonaparte, 1746–1785
** Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples, then King of Spain, 1768–1844
** Napoleon Bonaparte, 1769–1821, Emperor of the French
***Napoleon II, 1811–1832, Prince Imperial, King of Rome
**Lucien Bonaparte, 1775–1840, Prince of Canino and Musignano
***Charles Lucien Bonaparte, 2nd Prince of Canino and Musignano, 1803–1857
****Joseph Lucien Bonaparte, 3rd Prince of Canino and Musignano, 1824–1865
****Lucien Bonaparte (cardinal), 4th Prince of Canino and Musignano, 1828–1895
****Napoleon Charles Bonaparte, 5th Prince of Canino and Musignano, 1839–1899
***Paul Mary Bonaparte, 1808–1827
***Louis Lucien Bonaparte, 1813–1891
***Peter Napoléon Bonaparte, 1815–1881
****Roland Bonaparte, 1858–1924
***Anthony Lucien Bonaparte, 1816–1877
** Louis Bonaparte, 1778–1846, King of Holland
***Napoléon Louis Bonaparte, 1804–1831
*** Napoleon III, 1808–1873, Emperor of the French
****Louis-Napoléon, Prince Imperial, 1856–1879
** Jérôme Bonaparte, 1784–1860, King of Westphalia
***Jérôme Napoléon Bonaparte, 1805–1870
****Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II, 1830–1893
*****Jerome Napoléon Charles Bonaparte III, 1878–1945
*****Charles Joseph Bonaparte, 1851–1921
***Jérôme Napoléon Charles Bonaparte I, 1814–1847
***Prince Napoléon-Jérôme Bonaparte, 1822–1891
****Victor, Prince Napoléon, 1862–1926
*****Louis, Prince Napoléon, 1914–1997
******Charles, Prince Napoléon, b. 1950
*******Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon, b. 1986
********Louis Charles Napoléon, b. 2022
******Jérôme Xavier, b. 1957
****Louis Bonaparte, 1864–1932
Bonaparte coat of arms
The arms of the Bonaparte family were: Gules two bends sinister between two mullets or. In 1804, Napoleon I changed the arms to Azure an imperial eagle or. The change applied to all members of his family except for his brother Lucien and his nephew, the son from Jérôme's first marriage.
<gallery>
File:Blason fam fr Bonaparte ornamented.svg|Arms of Charles-Maria Buonaparte
File:Coat of Arms of Lucien Bonaparte, Roman Prince of Canino.svg|Arms of Lucien Bonaparte, Prince of Canino and Musignano
File:Grandes Armes Impériales (1804-1815)2.svg|Arms of Napoleon I and Napoleon II, as Emperor of the French
File:Great Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic).svg|Arms of Napoleon I and Napoleon II, as Kings of Italy
File:Grand Coat of Arms of Napoelon Bonaparte as King of Elbe.svg|Arms of Napoleon I, as Sovereign of Elba
File:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Naples.svg|Arms of Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Naples
File:Grand Coat of Arms of Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain.svg|Arms of Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain
File:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Holland (1808).svg|Arms of Louis I and Louis II, as King of Holland
File:Coat of arms of Napoleon Bonaparte Louis Grand Duke of Cleves and Berg.svg|Arms of Napoléon-Louis Bonaparte (Louis II), as Grand Duke of Berg
File:Grandes Armes Jérôme Bonaparte (1784-1860) 2.svg|Arms of Jérôme Bonaparte, as King of Westphalia
File:Coat of Arms Second French Empire (1852–1870)-2.svg|Arms of Napoleon III, as Emperor of the French
</gallery>
DNA research
According to studies by G. Lucotte and his coauthors based on DNA research since 2011, Napoleon Bonaparte belonged to Y-DNA (direct male ancestry) haplogroup E1b1b1c1* (E-M34*). This 15000-year-old haplogroup has its highest concentration in Ethiopia and in the Near East (Jordan, Yemen). According to the authors of the study, "Probably Napoléon also knew his remote oriental patrilineal origins, because Francesco Buonaparte (the Giovanni son), who was a mercenary under the orders of the Genoa Republic in Ajaccio in 1490, was nicknamed The Maure of Sarzane." The latest study identifies the common Bonaparte DNA markers from Carlo (Charles) Bonaparte to 3 living descendants. There are at the moment no relatives in the database older than that, which means they are very rare in Europe.Living membersCharles, Prince Napoléon (born 1950, great-great-grandson of Jérôme Bonaparte by his second marriage), and his son Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon (born 1986 and appointed heir in the will of his grandfather Louis, Prince Napoléon)currently dispute the headship of the Bonaparte family. The only other male members of the family are Charles's recently married (2013) brother, Prince Jérôme Napoléon (born 1957) and Jean-Christophe's son, Prince Louis Napoléon (born 2022). There are no other legitimate descendants in the male line from Napoleon I or from his brothers.
There are, however, numerous descendants of Napoleon's illegitimate, unacknowledged son, Count Alexandre Colonna-Walewski (1810–1868), born from Napoleon I's union with Marie, Countess Walewski. A descendant of Napoleon's sister Caroline Bonaparte was actor René Auberjonois. Recent DNA-matches with living descendants of Jérôme and Count Walewski have confirmed the existence of descendants of Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, namely the Clovis family.
<gallery>
File:Le duc de Reichstadt.jpg|Napoleon II - Napoleon I's only legitimate child
File:Charles, comte Léon.jpg|Charles, Count Léon (1806–1881), son of Napoleon I
File:Aleksander Colonna-Walewski.jpg|Count Alexandre Colonna-Walewski, Napoleon I's unacknowledged son
File:King Jerome Bonaparte.jpg|Jérôme Bonaparte, founder of the surviving legitimate Bonapartist line of succession
</gallery>
See also
* Bonapartism
* Bonapartists (political party)
* Succession to the former French throne (Bonapartist)
Footnotes
References
External links
*
* [https://archive.today/20100430021711/http://www.archiviodistato.firenze.it/ceramellipapiani/servlet/action?navigateDettagli&idFam1278 The coat of arms of the Tuscan branch of Bonaparte family in State Archives of Florence]
*
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Beta sheet
|
thumb|Three-dimensional structure of parts of a beta sheet in green fluorescent protein
The beta sheet (β-sheet, also β-pleated sheet) is a common motif of the regular protein secondary structure. Beta sheets consist of beta strands (β-strands) connected laterally by at least two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated sheet. A β-strand is a stretch of polypeptide chain typically 3 to 10 amino acids long with backbone in an extended conformation. The supramolecular association of β-sheets has been implicated in the formation of the fibrils and protein aggregates observed in amyloidosis, Alzheimer's disease and other proteinopathies.
History
thumb|right|500px| An example of a 4-stranded antiparallel β-sheet fragment from a crystal structure of the enzyme catalase (PDB file 1GWE at 0.88 Å resolution). a) Front view, showing the antiparallel hydrogen bonds (dotted) between peptide NH and CO groups on adjacent strands. Arrows indicate chain direction, and electron density contours outline the non-hydrogen atoms. Oxygen atoms are red balls, nitrogen atoms are blue, and hydrogen atoms are omitted for simplicity; sidechains are shown only out to the first sidechain carbon atom (green). b) Edge-on view of the central two β-strands in a, showing the righthanded twist and the pleat of Cαs and sidechains that alternately stick out in opposite directions from the sheet.
The first β-sheet structure was proposed by William Astbury in the 1930s. He proposed the idea of hydrogen bonding between the peptide bonds of parallel or antiparallel extended β-strands. However, Astbury did not have the necessary data on the bond geometry of the amino acids in order to build accurate models, especially since he did not then know that the peptide bond was planar. A refined version was proposed by Linus Pauling and Robert Corey in 1951. Their model incorporated the planarity of the peptide bond which they previously explained as resulting from keto-enol tautomerization.
Structure and orientation
Geometry
The majority of β-strands are arranged adjacent to other strands and form an extensive hydrogen bond network with their neighbors in which the N−H groups in the backbone of one strand establish hydrogen bonds with the C=O groups in the backbone of the adjacent strands. In the fully extended β-strand, successive side chains point straight up and straight down in an alternating pattern. Adjacent β-strands in a β-sheet are aligned so that their Cα atoms are adjacent and their side chains point in the same direction. The "pleated" appearance of β-strands arises from tetrahedral chemical bonding at the Cα atom; for example, if a side chain points straight up, then the bonds to the C′ must point slightly downwards, since its bond angle is approximately 109.5°. The pleating causes the distance between C and C to be approximately , rather than the expected from two fully extended trans peptides. The "sideways" distance between adjacent Cα atoms in hydrogen-bonded β-strands is roughly .
thumb|left|200px| Ramachandran (φ, ψ) plot of about 100,000 high-resolution data points, showing the broad, favorable region around the conformation typical for β-sheet amino acid residues.
However, β-strands are rarely perfectly extended; rather, they exhibit a twist. The energetically preferred dihedral angles near (φ, ψ) (–135°, 135°) (broadly, the upper left region of the Ramachandran plot) diverge significantly from the fully extended conformation (φ, ψ) (–180°, 180°). The twist is often associated with alternating fluctuations in the dihedral angles to prevent the individual β-strands in a larger sheet from splaying apart. A good example of a strongly twisted β-hairpin can be seen in the protein BPTI.
The side chains point outwards from the folds of the pleats, roughly perpendicularly to the plane of the sheet; successive amino acid residues point outwards on alternating faces of the sheet.
Hydrogen bonding patterns
Because peptide chains have a directionality conferred by their N-terminus and C-terminus, β-strands too can be said to be directional. They are usually represented in protein topology diagrams by an arrow pointing toward the C-terminus. Adjacent β-strands can form hydrogen bonds in antiparallel, parallel, or mixed arrangements.
In an antiparallel arrangement, the successive β-strands alternate directions so that the N-terminus of one strand is adjacent to the C-terminus of the next. This is the arrangement that produces the strongest inter-strand stability because it allows the inter-strand hydrogen bonds between carbonyls and amines to be planar, which is their preferred orientation. The peptide backbone dihedral angles (φ, ψ) are about (–140°, 135°) in antiparallel sheets. In this case, if two atoms C and C are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β-strands, then they form two mutual backbone hydrogen bonds to each other's flanking peptide groups; this is known as a close pair of hydrogen bonds.
In a parallel arrangement, all of the N-termini of successive strands are oriented in the same direction; this orientation may be slightly less stable because it introduces nonplanarity in the inter-strand hydrogen bonding pattern. The dihedral angles (φ, ψ) are about (–120°, 115°) in parallel sheets. It is rare to find less than five interacting parallel strands in a motif, suggesting that a smaller number of strands may be unstable, however it is also fundamentally more difficult for parallel β-sheets to form because strands with N and C termini aligned necessarily must be very distant in sequence . There is also evidence that parallel β-sheet may be more stable since small amyloidogenic sequences appear to generally aggregate into β-sheet fibrils composed of primarily parallel β-sheet strands, where one would expect anti-parallel fibrils if anti-parallel were more stable.
In parallel β-sheet structure, if two atoms C and C are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β-strands, then they do not hydrogen bond to each other; rather, one residue forms hydrogen bonds to the residues that flank the other (but not vice versa). For example, residue i may form hydrogen bonds to residues j − 1 and j + 1; this is known as a wide pair of hydrogen bonds. By contrast, residue j may hydrogen-bond to different residues altogether, or to none at all.
The hydrogen bond arrangement in parallel beta sheet resembles that in an amide ring motif with 11 atoms.
Finally, an individual strand may exhibit a mixed bonding pattern, with a parallel strand on one side and an antiparallel strand on the other. Such arrangements are less common than a random distribution of orientations would suggest, suggesting that this pattern is less stable than the anti-parallel arrangement, however bioinformatic analysis always struggles with extracting structural thermodynamics since there are always numerous other structural features present in whole proteins. Also proteins are inherently constrained by folding kinetics as well as folding thermodynamics, so one must always be careful in concluding stability from bioinformatic analysis.
The hydrogen bonding of β-strands need not be perfect, but can exhibit localized disruptions known as β-bulges.
The hydrogen bonds lie roughly in the plane of the sheet, with the peptide carbonyl groups pointing in alternating directions with successive residues; for comparison, successive carbonyls point in the same direction in the alpha helix.
Amino acid propensities
Large aromatic residues (tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan) and β-branched amino acids (threonine, valine, isoleucine) are favored to be found in β-strands in the middle of β-sheets. Different types of residues (such as proline) are likely to be found in the edge strands in β-sheets, presumably to avoid the "edge-to-edge" association between proteins that might lead to aggregation and amyloid formation.
Common structural motifs
thumb|right|upright=0.6|The β-hairpin motif
left|thumb|The Greek-key motif
β-hairpin motif
A very simple structural motif involving β-sheets is the β-hairpin, in which two antiparallel strands are linked by a short loop of two to five residues, of which one is frequently a glycine or a proline, both of which can assume the dihedral-angle conformations required for a tight turn or a β-bulge loop. Individual strands can also be linked in more elaborate ways with longer loops that may contain α-helices.
Greek key motif
The Greek key motif consists of four adjacent antiparallel strands and their linking loops. It consists of three antiparallel strands connected by hairpins, while the fourth is adjacent to the first and linked to the third by a longer loop. This type of structure forms easily during the protein folding process. It was named after a pattern common to Greek ornamental artwork (see meander).
β-α-β motif
Due to the chirality of their component amino acids, all strands exhibit right-handed twist evident in most higher-order β-sheet structures. In particular, the linking loop between two parallel strands almost always has a right-handed crossover chirality, which is strongly favored by the inherent twist of the sheet. This linking loop frequently contains a helical region, in which case it is called a β-α-β motif. A closely related motif called a β-α-β-α motif forms the basic component of the most commonly observed protein tertiary structure, the TIM barrel.
left|thumb|300px| The β-meander motif from Outer surface protein A (OspA). The image above shows a variant of OspA (OspA+3bh) that contains a central, extended β-meander β-sheet featuring three additional copies (in red) of the core OspA β-hairpin (in grey) that have been duplicated and reinserted into the parent OspA β-sheet.
right|thumb|Psi-loop motif from Carboxypeptidase A
β-meander motif
A simple supersecondary protein topology composed of two or more consecutive antiparallel β-strands linked together by hairpin loops. This motif is common in β-sheets and can be found in several structural architectures including β-barrels and β-propellers.
The vast majority of β-meander regions in proteins are found packed against other motifs or sections of the polypeptide chain, forming portions of the hydrophobic core that canonically drives formation of the folded structure. However, several notable exceptions include the Outer Surface Protein A (OspA) variants which contain single-layer β-sheets in the absence of a traditional hydrophobic core. These β-rich proteins feature an extended single-layer β-meander β-sheets that are primarily stabilized via inter-β-strand interactions and hydrophobic interactions present in the turn regions connecting individual strands.
Psi-loop motif
The psi-loop (Ψ-loop) motif consists of two antiparallel strands with one strand in between that is connected to both by hydrogen bonds. There are four possible strand topologies for single Ψ-loops. This motif is rare as the process resulting in its formation seems unlikely to occur during protein folding. The Ψ-loop was first identified in the aspartic protease family. All-β domains may form β-barrels, β-sandwiches, β-prisms, β-propellers, and β-helices.
Structural topology
The topology of a β-sheet describes the order of hydrogen-bonded β-strands along the backbone. For example, the flavodoxin fold has a five-stranded, parallel β-sheet with topology 21345; thus, the edge strands are β-strand 2 and β-strand 5 along the backbone. Spelled out explicitly, β-strand 2 is H-bonded to β-strand 1, which is H-bonded to β-strand 3, which is H-bonded to β-strand 4, which is H-bonded to β-strand 5, the other edge strand. In the same system, the Greek key motif described above has a 4123 topology. The secondary structure of a β-sheet can be described roughly by giving the number of strands, their topology, and whether their hydrogen bonds are parallel or antiparallel.
β-sheets can be open, meaning that they have two edge strands (as in the flavodoxin fold or the immunoglobulin fold) or they can be closed β-barrels (such as the TIM barrel). β-Barrels are often described by their stagger or shear. Some open β-sheets are very curved and fold over on themselves (as in the SH3 domain) or form horseshoe shapes (as in the ribonuclease inhibitor). Open β-sheets can assemble face-to-face (such as the β-propeller domain or immunoglobulin fold) or edge-to-edge, forming one big β-sheet.
Dynamic features
β-pleated sheet structures are made from extended β-strand polypeptide chains, with strands linked to their neighbours by hydrogen bonds. Due to this extended backbone conformation, β-sheets resist stretching. β-sheets in proteins may carry out low-frequency accordion-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy and analyzed with the quasi-continuum model.
Parallel β-helices
thumb|right| End-view of a 3-sided, left handed β-helix ()
A β-helix is formed from repeating structural units consisting of two or three short β-strands linked by short loops. These units "stack" atop one another in a helical fashion so that successive repetitions of the same strand hydrogen-bond with each other in a parallel orientation. See the β-helix article for further information.
In lefthanded β-helices, the strands themselves are quite straight and untwisted; the resulting helical surfaces are nearly flat, forming a regular triangular prism shape, as shown for the 1QRE archaeal carbonic anhydrase at right. Other examples are the lipid A synthesis enzyme LpxA and insect antifreeze proteins with a regular array of Thr sidechains on one face that mimic the structure of ice.
thumb|right| End-view of a 3-sided, right-handed β-helix ()
Righthanded β-helices, typified by the pectate lyase enzyme shown at left or P22 phage tailspike protein, have a less regular cross-section, longer and indented on one of the sides; of the three linker loops, one is consistently just two residues long and the others are variable, often elaborated to form a binding or active site.
A two-sided β-helix (right-handed) is found in some bacterial metalloproteases; its two loops are each six residues long and bind stabilizing calcium ions to maintain the integrity of the structure, using the backbone and the Asp side chain oxygens of a GGXGXD sequence motif. This fold is called a β-roll in the SCOP classification.
In pathology
Some proteins that are disordered or helical as monomers, such as amyloid β (see amyloid plaque) can form β-sheet-rich oligomeric structures associated with pathological states. The amyloid β protein's oligomeric form is implicated as a cause of Alzheimer's. Its structure has yet to be determined in full, but recent data suggest that it may resemble an unusual two-strand β-helix.
The side chains from the amino acid residues found in a β-sheet structure may also be arranged such that many of the adjacent sidechains on one side of the sheet are hydrophobic, while many of those adjacent to each other on the alternate side of the sheet are polar or charged (hydrophilic), which can be useful if the sheet is to form a boundary between polar/watery and nonpolar/greasy environments.
See also
Collagen helix
Foldamers
Folding (chemistry)
Tertiary structure
α-helix
Structural motif
References
Further reading
External links
Anatomy & Taxonomy of Protein Structures -survey
NetSurfP - Secondary Structure and Surface Accessibility predictor
Category:Protein structural motifs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_sheet
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Beryl
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<!--Except for access and archive dates-->
| IMAsymbolBrl
| molweight = 537.50 g/mol
| strunz = 9.CJ.05
| system = Hexagonal
| class = Dihexagonal dipyramidal (6/mmm)<br />H-M symbol: (6/m 2/m 2/m)
| symmetry = P6/mcc
| unit cell a 9.21 Å, c 9.19 Å; Z 2
| color = Green, blue, yellow, colorless, pink, and others
| habit = Prismatic to tabular crystals; radial, columnar; granular to compact massive
| twinning = Rare
| cleavage = Imperfect on {0001}
| fracture = Conchoidal to irregular
| tenacity = Brittle
| mohs = 7.5–8.0
| luster = Vitreous to resinous
| polish | opticalprop Uniaxial (−)
| refractive n<sub>ω</sub> 1.564–1.595<br /> n<sub>ε</sub> = 1.568–1.602
| birefringence δ 0.0040–0.0070
| dispersion | pleochroism Weak to distinct
| fluorescence= None (some fracture-filling materials used to improve emerald's clarity do fluoresce, but the stone itself does not). Morganite has weak violet fluorescence.
| absorption | streak White
| gravity = 2.63–2.92
| density | melt
| fusibility | diagnostic
| solubility | diaphaneity Transparent to translucent
| other | references
}}
Beryl ( ) is a mineral composed of beryllium aluminium silicate with the chemical formula Be<sub>3</sub>Al<sub>2</sub>Si<sub>6</sub>O<sub>18</sub>. Well-known varieties of beryl include emerald and aquamarine. Naturally occurring hexagonal crystals of beryl can be up to several meters in size, but terminated crystals are relatively rare. Pure beryl is colorless, but it is frequently tinted by impurities; possible colors are green, blue, yellow, pink, and red (the rarest). It is an ore source of beryllium.
Etymology
The word beryl – – is borrowed, via and , from Ancient Greek βήρυλλος bḗryllos, which referred to various blue-green stones, that are arranged in columns along the axis and as parallel layers perpendicular to the axis, forming channels along the axis.
Human health impact
Beryl is a beryllium compound that is a known carcinogen with acute toxic effects leading to pneumonitis when inhaled. Care must thus be used when mining, handling, and refining these gems.VarietiesAquamarine and maxixe
Aquamarine (from , "sea water") is a blue or cyan variety of beryl. It occurs at most localities which yield ordinary beryl. The gem-gravel placer deposits of Sri Lanka contain aquamarine. Green-yellow beryl, such as that occurring in Brazil, is sometimes called chrysolite aquamarine. The deep blue version of aquamarine is called maxixe (pronounced mah-she-she). Its color results from a radiation-induced color center.
The pale blue color of aquamarine is attributed to Fe<sup>2+</sup>. Fe<sup>3+</sup> ions produce golden-yellow color, and when both Fe<sup>2+</sup> and Fe<sup>3+</sup> are present, the color is a darker blue as in maxixe. Decoloration of maxixe by light or heat thus may be due to the charge transfer between Fe<sup>3+</sup> and Fe<sup>2+</sup>.
In the United States, aquamarines can be found at the summit of Mount Antero in the Sawatch Range in central Colorado, and in the New England and North Carolina pegmatites. Aquamarines are also present in the state of Wyoming, aquamarine has been discovered in the Big Horn Mountains, near Powder River Pass. Another location within the United States is the Sawtooth Range near Stanley, Idaho, although the minerals are within a wilderness area which prevents collecting. In Brazil, there are mines in the states of Minas Gerais, The mines of Colombia, Skardu Pakistan, Madagascar, Russia, Malawi, Tanzania, and Kenya also produce aquamarine.
Emerald
Emerald is green beryl, colored by around 2% chromium and sometimes vanadium. Most emeralds are highly included, so their brittleness (resistance to breakage) is classified as generally poor.
The modern English word "emerald" comes via Middle English emeraude, imported from modern French via Old French ésmeraude and Medieval Latin , from Latin , from Greek }} smaragdos meaning 'green gem'.}} (smaragdos) is used in the Semitic languages as אזמרגד, izmargad, as a loan-word meaning a precious emerald-colored stone. Greek smaragdos was used to translate the native Hebrew word , bareket, for one of the twelve listed stones in the Hoshen pectoral pendant of the Kohen HaGadol. The word bareket is also used to mean "lightning flash". It may be related to Akkadian baraqtu, which means "emerald". In turn the semetic language words are possibly related to the Sanskrit word marakata, meaning "green".
}}
Emeralds in antiquity were mined by the Egyptians and in what is now Austria, as well as Swat in contemporary Pakistan. A rare type of emerald known as a trapiche emerald is occasionally found in the mines of Colombia. A trapiche emerald exhibits a "star" pattern; it has raylike spokes of dark carbon impurities that give the emerald a six-pointed radial pattern. It is named for the trapiche, a grinding wheel used to process sugarcane in the region. Colombian emeralds are generally the most prized due to their transparency and fire. Some of the rarest emeralds come from the two main emerald belts in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes: Muzo and Coscuez west of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, and Chivor and Somondoco to the east. Fine emeralds are also found in other countries, such as Zambia, Brazil, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan and Russia. In the US, emeralds can be found in Hiddenite, North Carolina. In 1998, emeralds were discovered in Yukon.
Emerald is a rare and valuable gemstone and, as such, it has provided the incentive for developing synthetic emeralds. Both hydrothermal and flux-growth synthetics have been produced. The first commercially successful emerald synthesis process was that of Carroll Chatham. The other large producer of flux emeralds was Pierre Gilson Sr., which has been on the market since 1964. Gilson's emeralds are usually grown on natural colorless beryl seeds which become coated on both sides. Growth occurs at the rate of per month, a typical seven-month growth run producing emerald crystals of 7 mm of thickness. The green color of emeralds is widely attributed to presence of Cr<sup>3+</sup> ions.
Golden beryl and heliodor
Golden beryl can range in colors from pale yellow to a brilliant gold. Unlike emerald, golden beryl generally has very few flaws. The term "golden beryl" is sometimes synonymous with heliodor (from Greek hēlios – ἥλιος "sun" + dōron – δῶρον "gift") but golden beryl refers to pure yellow or golden yellow shades, while heliodor refers to the greenish-yellow shades. The golden yellow color is attributed to Fe<sup>3+</sup> ions.
Goshenite
Colorless beryl is called goshenite. The name originates from Goshen, Massachusetts, where it was originally discovered. In the past, goshenite was used for manufacturing eyeglasses and lenses owing to its transparency. Nowadays, it is most commonly used for gemstone purposes.
The gem value of goshenite is relatively low. However, goshenite can be colored yellow, green, pink, blue and in intermediate colors by irradiating it with high-energy particles. The resulting color depends on the content of Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Fe, and Co impurities. Red "bixbite" beryl formerly was marketed as "red" or "scarlet emerald", but these terms involving "Emerald" terminology are now prohibited in the US.
Red beryl is very rare and has only been reported from a handful of North American locations: Wah Wah Mountains, Beaver County, Utah; Paramount Canyon, Round Mountain, Juab County, Utah; and Sierra County, New Mexico, although this locality does not often produce gem-grade stones. Red beryl has been known to be confused with pezzottaite, a caesium analog of beryl, found in Madagascar and, more recently, Afghanistan; cut gems of the two varieties can be distinguished by their difference in refractive index, and the rough crystals easily by their differing crystal systems (pezzottaite trigonal, red beryl hexagonal). Synthetic red beryl is also produced. Like emerald and unlike most other varieties of beryl, the red ones are usually highly included.
While gem beryls are ordinarily found in pegmatites and certain metamorphic stones, red beryl occurs in topaz-bearing rhyolites. It is formed by crystallizing under low pressure and high temperature from a pneumatolytic phase along fractures or within near-surface miarolitic cavities of the rhyolite. Associated minerals include bixbyite, quartz, orthoclase, topaz, spessartine, pseudobrookite and hematite.
See also
*
*
* List of emeralds by size
Footnotes
References
Further reading
*
External links
*
*
*
Category:Hexagonal minerals
Category:Minerals in space group 192
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryl
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Basel
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|imagepath_flag = Flag of Canton of Basel.svg
|imagepath_coa = Wappen Basel-Stadt matt.svg
|pixel_coa |canton Basel-Stadt
|iso-code-region = CH-BS
|district |coordinates
|postal_code = 4000
|municipality_code = 2701
|area = 22.75
|elevation = 261
|elevation_description = Barfüsserkirche
|highest = Wasserturm Bruderholz
|highest_m = 366
|lowest = Rhine shore, national border at Kleinhüningen
|lowest_m = 244.75
|population = 777,595 (city municipality), 830,000 (metropolitan area)
|mayor_asof = January 2024
|mayor_party = The Centre
|mayor_title |list_of_mayors List of presidents of the Executive Council of Basel
|executive_name = Regierungsrat
|executive_number_of_members = 7
|parliament_name = Grosser Rat
|parliament_number_of_members = 100
|places |demonyms , ,
|neighboring_municipalities= Allschwil (BL), Hégenheim (FR-68), Binningen (BL), Birsfelden (BL), Bottmingen (BL), Huningue (FR-68), Münchenstein (BL), Muttenz (BL), Reinach (BL), Riehen (BS), Saint-Louis (FR-68), Weil am Rhein (DE-BW)
|website = www.bs.ch
}}
Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle, is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the River Rhine (at the transition from the High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's third-most-populous city (after Zurich and Geneva), with 177,595 inhabitants within the city municipality limits. The official language of Basel is Swiss Standard German and the main spoken language is the local Basel German dialect.
Basel is commonly considered to be the cultural capital of Switzerland and the city is famous for its many museums, including the Kunstmuseum, which is the first collection of art accessible to the public in the world (1661) and the largest museum of art in Switzerland, the Fondation Beyeler (located in Riehen), the Museum Tinguely and the Museum of Contemporary Art, which is the first public museum of contemporary art in Europe. Forty museums are spread throughout the city-canton, making Basel one of the largest cultural centres in relation to its size and population in Europe. It is the hometown of the Art Basel, world's most prestigious and influential international art fair, showcasing modern and contemporary works from leading galleries and attracting top collectors, artists, and enthusiasts globally.
The University of Basel, Switzerland's oldest university (founded in 1460), and the city's centuries-long commitment to humanism, have made Basel a safe haven at times of political unrest in other parts of Europe for such notable people as Erasmus of Rotterdam, the Holbein family, Friedrich Nietzsche, Carl Jung, and in the 20th century also Hermann Hesse and Karl Jaspers.
Basel was the seat of a Prince-Bishopric starting in the 11th century, and joined the Swiss Confederacy in 1501. The city has been a commercial hub and an important cultural centre since the Renaissance, and has emerged as a centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries in the 20th century. In 1897, Basel was chosen by Theodor Herzl as the location for the first World Zionist Congress, and altogether the congress was held there ten times over a time span of 50 years, more than in any other location. The city is also home to the world headquarters of the Bank for International Settlements. The name of the city is internationally known through institutions like the Basel Accords, Art Basel and FC Basel.
Basel is Switzerland's main centre for the pharmaceutical industry, hosting both Novartis and Roche. In 1938, the world-renowned chemist Albert Hofmann discovered LSD in Basel, where he spent most of his life. Other influential and renowned figures such as Roger Federer, Paracelsus, Matthäus Merian, Michel von Tell or Stephan Remmler are closely associated with the city or were born there. In 1734, the so-called 'Basel Problem' was solved in the city, which is regarded as one of the most important achievements in mathematics.
Basel was ranked the tenth most liveable city in the world by Mercer in 2019. Name
The name of Basel is first recorded as Basilia in the 3rd century (237/8), at the time referring to the Roman castle. This name is mostly interpreted as deriving from the personal name Basilius, from a toponym villa Basilia ("estate of Basilius") or similar.
Another suggestion derives it from a name Basilia attested in northern France as a development of basilica, the term for a public or church building (as in Bazeilles), but all of these names reference early church buildings of the 4th or 5th century and cannot be adduced for the 3rd-century attestation of Basilia.
By popular etymology, or simple assonance, the basilisk becomes closely associated with the city, used as heraldic supporter from 1448, represented on coins minted by the city, and frequently found in ornaments.
The Middle French form was adopted into English, but this form has fallen gradually out of use although it continues to be used in some sections of British English including the BBC. Currently, the spelling Basel is most often used, to match the official German spelling. In French was still in use in the 18th century, but was gradually replaced by the modern French spelling . In Icelandic, the city is recorded as in the 12th-century itinerary Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan. History Early history
in Augusta Raurica, one of the most important Roman archaeological sites in Switzerland]]
There are traces of a settlement at the nearby Rhine knee from the early La Tène period (5th century BC). In the 2nd century BC, there was a village of the Raurici at the site of Basel-Gasfabrik (to the northwest of the Old City, and likely identical with the town of Arialbinnum that was mentioned on the Tabula Peutingeriana). The unfortified settlement was abandoned in the 1st century BC in favour of an oppidum on the site of Basel Minster, probably in reaction to the Roman invasion of Gaul.
In Roman Gaul, Augusta Raurica was established some from Basel as the regional administrative centre, while a castrum (fortified camp) was built on the site of the Celtic oppidum. In AD 83, the area was incorporated into the Roman province of Germania Superior. The Roman Senator Munatius Plancus is known as the traditional founder of Basel since the Renaissance. Roman control over the area deteriorated in the 3rd century, and Basel became an outpost of the Provincia Maxima Sequanorum formed by Diocletian. Basilia is first named by the Ammianus Marcellinus in his Res Gestae
Basel at this time was part of the Archdiocese of Besançon. A separate bishopric of Basel, replacing the ancient bishopric of Augusta Raurica, was established in the 8th century. Under bishop Haito (r. 806–823), the first cathedral was built on the site of the Roman castle (replaced by a Romanesque structure consecrated in 1019).
At the partition of the Carolingian Empire through the Treaty of Verdun in 843, Basel was first given to West Francia and became its German exclave.
In 1019, the construction of the cathedral of Basel (known locally as the Münster) began under Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor.
In the 11th to 12th century, Basel gradually acquired the characteristics of a medieval city.
The main market place is first mentioned in 1091. The first city walls were constructed around 1100 (with improvements made in the mid-13th and in the late 14th century). A city council of nobles and burghers is recorded for 1185, and the first mayor, Heinrich Steinlin of Murbach, for 1253. The first bridge across the Rhine was built in 1225 under bishop Heinrich von Thun (at the location of the modern Middle Bridge), and from this time the settlement of Kleinbasel gradually formed around the bridgehead on the far river bank. The bridge was largely funded by Basel's Jewish community who had settled there a century earlier. For many centuries to come Basel possessed the only permanent bridge over the river "between Lake Constance and the sea". The first city guild were the furriers, established in 1226. A total of about fifteen guilds were established in the course of the 13th century, reflecting the increasing economic prosperity of the city. This staff (known as Baselstab) became a symbol representing the Basel diocese, depicted in bishops' seals of the late medieval period. It is represented in a heraldic context in the early 14th century, not yet as a heraldic charge but as a kind of heraldic achievement flanked by the heraldic shields of the bishop. The staff is also represented in the bishops's seals of the period. The use of the Baselstab in black as the coat of arms of the city was introduced in 1385. From this time, the Baselstab in red represented the bishop, and the same charge in black represented the city. The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is In Silber ein schwarzer Baselstab (Argent, a staff of Basel sable). In 1400, Basel was able to purchase the towns of Liestal, Homburg and Waldenburg with its surrounding territory.
]]
In 1412 (or earlier), the well-known Gasthof zum Goldenen Sternen was established. Basel became the focal point of western Christendom during the 15th century Council of Basel (1431–1449), including the 1439 election of antipope Felix V. In 1459, Pope Pius II endowed the University of Basel, where such notables as Erasmus of Rotterdam and Paracelsus later taught. At the same time the new craft of printing was introduced to Basel by apprentices of Johann Gutenberg. In 1461, the land around Farnsburg became a part of Basel. In 1495, Basel was incorporated into the Upper Rhenish Imperial Circle; the Bishop of Basel was added to the Bench of the Ecclesiastical Princes of the Imperial Diet. In 1500 the construction of the Basel Münster was finished.
As a member state in the Swiss Confederacy
, oriented with SW at the top and NE at the bottom]]
The city had remained neutral through the Swabian War of 1499 despite being plundered by soldiers on both sides. The Treaty of Basel ended the war and granted the Swiss confederates exemptions from the emperor Maximillian's taxes and jurisdictions, separating Switzerland de facto from the Holy Roman Empire.
On 9 June 1501, Basel joined the Swiss Confederation as its eleventh canton. It was the only canton that was asked to join, not the other way round. Basel had a strategic location, good relations with Strasbourg and Mulhouse, and control of the corn imports from Alsace, whereas the Swiss lands were becoming overpopulated and had few resources. A provision of the Charter accepting Basel required that in conflicts among the other cantons it was to stay neutral and offer its services for mediation.
In 1503, the new bishop Christoph von Utenheim refused to give Basel a new constitution; whereupon, to show its power, the city began to build a new city hall.
In 1544, Johann von Brugge, a rich Dutch Protestant refugee, was given citizenship and lived respectably until his death in 1556, then buried with honors. His body was exhumed and burnt at the stake in 1559 after it was discovered that he was the Anabaptist David Joris.
There are indications Joachim Meyer, author of the influential 16th-century martial arts text Kunst des Fechten ("The Art of Fencing"), came from Basel. In 1661 the Amerbaschsches Kabinett, a vast collection of exotic artifacts, coins, medals and books was purchased by Basel. It was to become to the first public museum of art. Its collection became the core of the later Basel Museum of Art.
The Bernoulli family, which included important 17th- and 18th-century mathematicians such as Jakob Bernoulli, Johann Bernoulli and Daniel Bernoulli, were from Basel. The 18th-century mathematician Leonhard Euler was born in Basel and studied under Johann Bernoulli.
Modern history
In 1792, the Republic of Rauracia, a revolutionary French client republic, was created. It lasted until 1793. After three years of political agitation and a short civil war in 1833 the disadvantaged countryside seceded from the Canton of Basel, forming the half canton of Basel-Landschaft. Between 1861 and 1878 the city walls were slighted.
On 3 July 1874, Switzerland's first zoo, the Zoo Basel, opened its doors in the south of the city towards Binningen.
in Basel, 1897 (Stadtcasino)]]
In 1897 the first World Zionist Congress was held in Basel. Altogether the World Zionist Congress was held in Basel ten times, more than in any other city in the world.
On 16 November 1938, the psychedelic drug LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at Sandoz Laboratories in Basel.
In 1967, the population of Basel voted in favor of buying three works of art by painter Pablo Picasso which were at risk of being sold and taken out of the local museum of art, due to a financial crisis on the part of the owner's family. Therefore, Basel became the first city in the world where the population of a political community democratically decided to acquire works of art for a public institution. Pablo Picasso was so moved by the gesture that he subsequently gifted the city with an additional three paintings. Basel as a historical, international meeting place Basel has often been the site of peace negotiations and other international meetings. The Treaty of Basel (1499) ended the Swabian War. Two years later Basel joined the Swiss Confederation. The Peace of Basel in 1795 between the French Republic and Prussia and Spain ended the First Coalition against France during the French Revolutionary Wars. In more recent times, the World Zionist Organization held its first congress in Basel from 29 August through 31 August 1897. Because of the Balkan Wars, the (Socialist) Second International held an extraordinary congress at Basel in 1912. In 1989, the Basel Convention was opened for signature with the aim of preventing the export of hazardous waste from wealthy to developing nations for disposal. Geography and climate Location Basel is located in Northwestern Switzerland and is commonly considered to be the capital of that region. It is close to the point where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, and Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany. , the Swiss Basel agglomeration was the third-largest in Switzerland, with a population of 541,000 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland (municipal count as of 2018). The metropolitan area, called the Trinational Eurodistrict of Basel (TEB), consists of 62 suburban communes including municipalities in neighboring countries, and counted 829,000 inhabitants in 2007.
Topography
Basel has an area, , of . Of this area, or 4.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 3.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 86.4% is settled (buildings or roads), or 6.1% is either rivers or lakes.
Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 10.2% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 40.7% and transportation infrastructure made up 24.0%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 2.7% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 8.9%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 2.5% is used for growing crops and 1.3% is pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water. although with notable continental influences due to its relatively far inland position with cool to cold, overcast winters and warm to hot, humid summers.
The city averages 118.2 days of rain or snow annually and on average receives of precipitation. The wettest month is May during which time Basel receives an average of of rain. The month with the most days of precipitation is also May, with an average of 11.7 days. The driest month of the year is February with an average of of precipitation over 8.4 days.
Politics
The city of Basel functions as the capital of the Swiss half-canton of Basel-Stadt.
Canton
The canton Basel-Stadt consists of three municipalities: Riehen, Bettingen, and the city Basel itself. The political structure and agencies of the city and the canton are identical.
City
Quarters
The city itself has 19 quarters:
* Grossbasel (Greater Basel):
:1 Altstadt Grossbasel
:2 Vorstädte
:3 Am Ring
:4 Breite
:5 St. Alban
:6 Gundeldingen
:7 Bruderholz
:8 Bachletten
:9 Gotthelf
:10 Iselin
:11 St. Johann
* Kleinbasel (Lesser Basel):
:12 Altstadt Kleinbasel
:13 Clara
:14 Wettstein
:15 Hirzbrunnen
:16 Rosental
:17 Matthäus
:18 Klybeck
:19 Kleinhüningen
Government
The city's and canton's executive, the Executive Council (Regierungsrat), consists of seven members for a mandate period of 4 years. They are elected by any inhabitant valid to vote on the same day as the parliament, but by means of a system of Majorz, and operates as a collegiate authority. The president () is elected as such by a public election, while the heads of the other departments are appointed by the collegiate. The current president is Beat Jans. The executive body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall () on the central Marktplatz. The building was built in 1504–14.
, Basel's Executive Council is made up of three representatives of the SP (Social Democratic Party) including the president, two LDP (Liberal-Demokratische Partei of Basel), and one member each of Green Liberals (glp), and CVP (Christian Democratic Party). The last election was held on 25 October and 29 November 2020 and four new members have been elected. || |bordersilver}} SP || President's Office (Präsidialdepartement (PD), 2021) || 2020
|-
|Tanja Soland|| |border=silver}} SP || Finance (Finanzdepartement (FD))|| 2019
|-
| Stephanie Eymann|| LDP || Justice and Security (Justiz- und Sicherheitsdepartement (JSD), 2021) || 2020
|-
| Kaspar Sutter|| |border=silver}} SP || Economics, Social Services, and Environment (Departement für Wirtschaft, Soziales und Umwelt (WSU), 2021) || 2020
|-
| Conradin Cramer || LDP || Education (Erziehungsdepartement (ED), 2017) || 2016
|-
| Esther Keller|| |border=silver}} glp || Construction and Transportation (Bau- und Verkehrsdepartement (BVD), 2021) || 2020
|-
| Lukas Engelberger|| |border=silver}} CVP || Health (Gesundheitsdepartement (GD), June 2014) || June 2014
|}
Barbara Schüpbach-Guggenbühlis is State Chronicler (Staatsschreiberin) since 2009, and Marco Greiner is Head of Communication (Regierungssprecher) and Vice State Chronicler (Vizestaatsschreiber) since 2007 for the Executive Council.
Parliament
| label2 =GAB
| value2 =18
| color2 =
| label3 =glp
| value3 =8
| color3 =
| label4 =CVP
| value4 =7
| color4 =
| label5 =EVP
| value5 =3
| color5 =
| label6 =LDP
| value6 =14
| color6 =#3265FF
| label7 =FDP
| value7 =7
| color7 =
| label8 =SVP
| value8 =11
| color8 =
| label9 =AB
| value9 =1
| color9 =Grey
| label10 =VA
| value10 =1
| color10 =Grey
}}
The city's and canton's parliament, the Grand Council of Basel-Stadt (Grosser Rat), consists of 100 seats, with members (called in German: Grossrat/Grossrätin) elected every 4 years. The sessions of the Grand Council are public. Unlike the members of the Executive Council, the members of the Grand Council are not politicians by profession, but they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Basel allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the parliament. The delegates are elected by means of a system of Proporz. The legislative body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall (Rathaus).
The last election was held on 25 October 2020 for the mandate period (Legislatur) of 2021–2025. , the Grand Council consist of 30 (−5) members of the Social Democratic Party (SP), 18 (+5) Grün-Alternatives Bündnis (GAB) (a collaboration of the Green Party (GPS), its junior party, and Basels starke Alternative (BastA!)), 14 (−1) Liberal-Demokratische Partei (LDP), 11 (−4) members of the Swiss People's Party (SVP), 8 (+5) Green Liberal Party (glp), 7 (−3) The Liberals (FDP), 7 (-) Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP), 3 (+2) Evangelical People's Party (EVP), and one each representative of the Aktive Bettingen (AB) and Volks-Aktion gegen zuviele Ausländer und Asylanten in unserer Heimat (VA).
The left parties missed an absolute majority by two seats.
Federal elections
National Council
In the 2019 federal election the most popular party was the Social Democratic Party (SP) which received two seats with 34% (−1) of the votes. The next five most popular parties were the Green Party (GPS) (19.4%, +7.3), the LPS (14.5%, +3.6) and the FDP (5.8, −3.5), which are chained together at 20.3%, (+0.1), the SVP (11.3%, -5.5), and the Green Liberal Party (GLP) (5%, +0.6), CVP (4.1%, -1.9). In the federal election, a total of 44,628 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 49.4%.
On 18 October 2015, in the federal election the most popular party was the Social Democratic Party (SP) which received two seats with 35% of the votes. The next three most popular parties were the FDP (20.2%), the SVP (16.8%), and the Green Party (GPS) (12.2%), each with one seat. In the federal election, a total of 57,304 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 50.4%.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ National Councillors (Nationalrat/ -rätin) of Basel-Town 2019–2023
! Councillor !! Party !! part of the National Council since || no. of votes
|-
| Beat Jans || |border=silver}} SP || 2010 || 21,869
|-
| Mustafa Atici || |bordersilver}} SP || 2019 || 18,210
|-
| Sibel Arslan || |border=silver}} GPS || 2015 || 13,582
|-
| Christoph Eymann|| |border=silver}} LDP || 2015 (1991–2001) || 13,220
|-
| Katja Christ || |border=silver}} GLP || 2019 || 13,816
|}
Council of States
On 20 October 2019, in the federal election Eva Herzog, member of the Social Democratic Party |bordersilver}} (SP), was elected for the first time as a State Councillor () in the first round as single representative of the canton of Basel-Town and successor of Anita Fetz in the national Council of States () with an absolute majority of 37'210 votes.
On 18 October 2015, in the federal election State Councillor () Anita Fetz, member of the Social Democratic Party |bordersilver}} (SP), was re-elected in the first round as single representative of the canton of Basel-Town in the national Council of States () with an absolute majority of 35'842 votes. She has been a member of it since 2003.
International relations
Twin towns, sister cities and partner regions
Basel has two sister cities and a twinning among two states:
* US state of Massachusetts, since 2002
Demographics
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Largest groups of foreign residents 2021
|-
!Nationality || Number || % total<br />(foreigners)
|-
|||| 16,562 || 8.2 (22.3)
|-
|||| 8,671 || 4.3 (11.7)
|-
|||| 5,741 || 2.8 (7.7)
|-
|||| 4,176 || 2.0 (5.6)
|-
|||| 3,390 || 1.7 (4.6)
|-
|||| 2,393 || 1.2 (3.2)
|-
|||| 2,186 || 1.1 (2.9)
|-
|||| 2,132 || 1.1 (2.7)
|-
|||| 2,095 || 1.0 (2.8)
|-
|||| 1,797 || 0.9 (2.4)
|-
|||| 1,661 || 0.8 (2.2)
|-
|||| 1,629 || 0.8 (2.2)
|-
|||| 1,273 || 0.6 (1.7)
|-
|}
The canton of Basel (slightly more than the city itself) has a population () of 201,971, of whom 36.9% are resident foreign nationals.
Over the 10 years of 1999–2009 the population has changed at a rate of −0.3%. It has changed at a rate of 3.2% due to migration and at a rate of −3% due to births and deaths.
Of the population in the municipality 58,560 or about 35.2% were born in Basel and lived there in 2000. There were 1,396 or 0.8% who were born in the same canton, while 44,874 or 26.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 53,774 or 32.3% were born outside of Switzerland.
, there were 70,502 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 70,517 married individuals, 12,435 widows or widowers, and 13,104 individuals who are divorced.
the average number of residents per living room was 0.59 which is about equal to the cantonal average of 0.58 per room. About 10.5% of the total households were owner occupied, or in other words did not pay rent (though they may have a mortgage or a rent-to-own agreement).
there were 96,640 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 35,958. There were 11,957 single room apartments and 9,702 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 84,675 apartments (87.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 7,916 apartments (8.2%) were seasonally occupied and 4,049 apartments (4.2%) were empty. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.74%.<small>)</small>
! Population density <br />(people/km2)
|-
| Altstadt Grossbasel (historic city) || style"text-align:right;"| 37.63 || style"text-align:right;"| 2,044 || style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Vorstädte (historical suburbs) || style"text-align:right;"| 89.66 || style"text-align:right;"| 4,638|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Am Ring || style"text-align:right;"| 90.98 || style"text-align:right;"| 10,512|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Breite || style"text-align:right;"|68.39 || style"text-align:right;"| 8,655|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| St. Alban || style"text-align:right;"| 294.46 || style"text-align:right;"| 10,681|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Gundeldingen || style"text-align:right;"|123.19 || style"text-align:right;"| 18,621|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Bruderholz || style"text-align:right;"|259.61 || style"text-align:right;"| 9,006|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Bachletten || style"text-align:right;"|151.39 || style"text-align:right;"| 13,330|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Gotthelf || style"text-align:right;"|46.62 || style"text-align:right;"| 6,784|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Iselin || style"text-align:right;"|109.82 || style"text-align:right;"| 16,181|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| St. Johann || style"text-align:right;"|223.90 || style"text-align:right;"| 18,560|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Altstadt Kleinbasel (historic city) || style"text-align:right;"| 24.21 || style"text-align:right;"| 2,276|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Clara || style"text-align:right;"| 23.66 || style"text-align:right;"| 4,043|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Wettstein || style"text-align:right;"| 75.44 || style"text-align:right;"| 5,386|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Hirzbrunnen || style"text-align:right;"| 305.32 || style"text-align:right;"| 8,676|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Rosental || style"text-align:right;"| 64.33 || style"text-align:right;"| 5,180|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Mattäus || style"text-align:right;"| 59.14 || style"text-align:right;"| 16,056|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Klybeck || style"text-align:right;"| 91.19 || style"text-align:right;"| 7,234|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| Kleinhüningen || style"text-align:right;"| 136.11 || style"text-align:right;"| 2,772|| style"text-align:right;"|
|-
| City of Basel || style"text-align:right;"| 2275.05 || style"text-align:right;"| <small></small> || style"text-align:right;"||22.7|km2|dispnum}}
|-
| Bettingen || style"text-align:right;"| 222.69 || style"text-align:right;"| <small></small> || style"text-align:right;"||2.2|km2|dispnum}}
|-
| Riehen || style"text-align:right;"| 1086.10 || style"text-align:right;"| <small></small> || style"text-align:right;"||10.8|km2|dispnum}}
|-
|Canton of Basel-Stadt || style"text-align:right;"| 3583.84 || style"text-align:right;"| <small></small> || style"text-align:right;"||35.8|km2|dispnum}}
|}
Transport
Basel's airport, EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg, is set up for airfreight; heavy goods reach the city and the heart of continental Europe from the North Sea by ship along the Rhine. Port Basel has Switzerland's only cargo port, through which goods pass along the navigable stretches of the Rhine and connect to ocean-going ships at the port of Rotterdam. Air transport EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg is operated jointly by two countries, France and Switzerland, although the airport is located completely on French soil. The airport itself is split into two architecturally independent sectors, one half serving the French side and the other half serving the Swiss side; prior to Schengen there was an immigration inspection point at the middle of the airport so that people could "emigrate" to the other side of the airport. Railways
, 1907]]
Basel has long held an important place as a rail hub. Three railway stations—those of the Swiss, French and German networks—lie within the city (although the Swiss (Basel SBB) and French (Bâle SNCF) stations are actually in the same complex, separated by Customs and Immigration facilities). Basel Badischer Bahnhof is on the opposite side of the city. Basel's local rail services are supplied by the Basel Regional S-Bahn. The largest goods railway complex of the country is located just outside the city, spanning the municipalities of Muttenz and Pratteln. The new highspeed ICE railway line from Karlsruhe to Basel was completed in 2008 while phase I of the TGV Rhin-Rhône line, opened in December 2011, has reduced travel time from Basel to Paris to about 3 hours.
Roads
Basel is located on the A3 motorway.
Within the city limits, five bridges connect Greater and Lesser Basel (downstream):
* Schwarzwaldbrücke (built 1972)
* Wettsteinbrücke (current structure built 1998, original bridge built 1879)
* Mittlere Rheinbrücke (current structure built 1905, original bridge built 1225 as the first bridge to cross the Rhine)
* Johanniterbrücke (built 1967)
* Dreirosenbrücke (built 2004, original bridge built 1935)
Ferries
A somewhat anachronistic yet still widely used system of reaction ferry boats links the two shores. There are four ferries, each situated approximately midway between two bridges. Each is attached by a cable to a block that rides along another cable spanning the river at a height of . To cross the river, the ferryman orients the boat around 45° from the current so that the current pushes the boat across the river. This form of transportation is therefore completely hydraulically driven, requiring no outside energy source.
[https://web.archive.org/web/20110706231810/http://www.faehri.ch/ Home/Aktuell – Fähri Verein Basel]
Public transport
Basel has an extensive public transportation network serving the city and connecting to surrounding suburbs, including a large tram network. Today, Basel has the largest tramway in terms of kilometers of rail tracks in Switzerland. Historically, only Geneva had a larger one at some point. It has numerous road and rail crossings between Switzerland and the other two countries. With Switzerland joining the Schengen Area on 12 December 2008, immigration checks were no longer carried out at the crossings. However, Switzerland did not join the European Union Customs Union (though it did join the EU Single Market) and customs checks are still conducted at or near the crossings.
France-Switzerland (from east to west)
* Road crossings (with French road name continuation)
** Kohlenstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Huningue). This crossing replaces the former crossing Hüningerstrasse further east.
** Elsässerstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Saint-Louis)
** Autobahn A3 (A35 autoroute, Saint-Louis), crossing Mulhouse, Colmar and Strasbourg.
** EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg – pedestrian walkway between the French and Swiss sections on Level 3 (departures) of airport.
** Burgfelderstrasse (Rue du 1er Mars, Saint Louis)
* Railway crossing
** Basel SBB railway station
Germany-Switzerland (clockwise, from north to south)
* Road crossings (with German road name continuation)
** Hiltalingerstrasse (Zollstraße, Weil am Rhein). Tram 8 goes along this road to Weil am Rhein. The extension opened in 2014; it used to end before the border.
** Autobahn A2 (Autobahn A5, Weil am Rhein)
** Freiburgerstrasse (Baslerstraße, Weil am Rhein)
** Weilstrasse, Riehen (Haupstraße, Weil am Rhein)
** Lörracherstrasse, Riehen (Baslerstraße, Stetten, Lörrach)
** Inzlingerstrasse, Riehen (Riehenstraße, Inzlingen)
** Grenzacherstrasse (Hörnle, Grenzach-Wyhlen)
* Railway crossing
** Between Basel SBB and Basel Badischer Bahnhof – Basel Badischer Bahnhof, and all other railway property and stations on the right bank of the Rhine belong to DB and are classed as German customs territory. Immigration and customs checks are conducted at the platform exit tunnel for passengers leaving trains here.
Additionally there are many footpaths and cycle tracks crossing the border between Basel and Germany.
Health
As the biggest town in the Northwest of Switzerland numerous public and private health centres are located in Basel. Among others the Universitätsspital Basel and the Universitätskinderspital Basel. Private health centres include the Bethesda Spital and the Merian Iselin Klinik. Additionally the Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute is located in Basel too.
Energy
Basel is at the forefront of a national vision to more than halve energy use in Switzerland by 2050. To research, develop and commercialise the technologies and techniques required for the country to become a 2000 Watt society, a number of projects have been set up since 2001 in the Basel metropolitan area. These include demonstration buildings constructed to Minergie or Passivhaus standards, electricity generation from renewable energy sources, and vehicles using natural gas, hydrogen and biogas.
A building construction law was passed in 2002 also which stated that all new flat roofs must be greened leading to Basel becoming the world's leading green roof city. This was driven by an energy saving programme.
A hot dry rock geothermal energy project was cancelled in 2009 since it caused induced seismicity in Basel.
Economy
Campus Basel]]
The city of Basel, located in the north west of Switzerland, is one of the most dynamic economic regions of Switzerland.
, Basel had an unemployment rate of 3.7%. , 19.3% of the working population was employed in the secondary sector and 80.6% was employed in the tertiary sector. There were 82,449 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which women made up 46.2% of the workforce.
the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 130,988. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 13, of which 10 were in agriculture and 4 were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 33,171 of which 24,848 or (74.9%) were in manufacturing, 10 were in mining and 7,313 (22.0%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 97,804. In the tertiary sector; 12,880 or 13.2% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 11,959 or 12.2% were in the movement and storage of goods, 6,120 or 6.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 4,186 or 4.3% were in the information industry, 10,752 or 11.0% were the insurance or financial industry, 13,695 or 14.0% were technical professionals or scientists, 6,983 or 7.1% were in education and 16,060 or 16.4% were in health care.
, there were 121,842 workers who commuted into the municipality and 19,263 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 6.3 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 23.9% of the workforce coming into Basel are coming from outside Switzerland, while 1.0% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 49.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 18.7% used a private car. Syngenta, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Clariant, Hoffmann-La Roche,
* The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) is located within the city and is the central banker's bank.
:According to the BIS, "The choice of Switzerland for the seat of the BIS was a compromise by those countries that established the BIS: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. When consensus could not be reached on locating the Bank in London, Brussels or Amsterdam, the choice fell on Switzerland. An independent, neutral country, Switzerland offered the BIS less exposure to undue influence from any of the major powers. Within Switzerland, Basel was chosen largely because of its location, with excellent railway connections in all directions, especially important at a time when most international travel was by train."
:Created in May 1930, the BIS is owned by its member central banks. No agent of the Swiss public authorities may enter the premises without the express consent of the bank. The bank exercises supervision and police power over its premises. The BIS enjoys immunity from criminal and administrative jurisdiction.
:The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision usually meets at the BIS premises in Basel. It produces recommendations such as the Basel Accords (Basel I, Basel II and Basel III), based on consensus among its members which are central banks and banking supervisors.
* Basel also hosts the headquarters of the Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation, which is active in the field of sustainable infrastructure (financing).
Air
Swiss International Air Lines, the national airline of Switzerland, is headquartered on the grounds of EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin, France, near Basel. Prior to the formation of Swiss International Air Lines, the regional airline Crossair was headquartered near Basel.
Media
Basler Zeitung ("BaZ") and bz Basel are the local newspapers. The local TV station is called Telebasel. The German-speaking Swiss Radio and Television SRF company, part of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation SRG SSR, holds offices in Basel as well. The academic publishers Birkhäuser, Karger and MDPI are based in Basel.
Trade fairs
Important trade shows include Art Basel, the world's most important fair for modern and contemporary art, Baselworld (watches and jewelry, now discontinued), Swissbau (construction and real estate) and Igeho (hotels, catering, take-away, care). The Swiss Sample Fair ("Schweizer Mustermesse") was the largest and oldest consumer fair in Switzerland. It was held from 2007 to 2019 and took place in Kleinbasel on the right bank of the Rhine.
Education
Besides Humanism the city of Basel has also been well known for its achievements in the field of mathematics. Among others, the mathematician Leonhard Euler and the Bernoulli family have done research and been teaching at the local institutions for centuries. In 1910 the Swiss Mathematical Society was founded in the city and in the mid-twentieth century the Russian mathematician Alexander Ostrowski taught at the local university. In 2000 about 57,864 or (34.7%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 27,603 or (16.6%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a ). Of the 27,603 who completed tertiary schooling, 44.4% were Swiss men, 31.1% were Swiss women, 13.9% were non-Swiss men and 10.6% were non-Swiss women.
In 2007, the ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich) established the Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE) in Basel. The creation of the D-BSSE was driven by a Swiss-wide research initiative SystemsX, and was jointly supported by funding from the ETH Zürich, the Swiss Government, the Swiss University Conference (SUC) and private industry.
Basel also hosts several academies of the Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz|Fachhochschule NW (FHNW): the FHNW Academy of Art and Design, FHNW Academy of Music, and the FHNW School of Business.
Basel is renowned for various scientific societies, such as the Entomological Society of Basel (Entomologische Gesellschaft Basel, EGB), which celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2005.
Volksschule
In 2005 16,939 pupils and students attended the Volksschule (the obligatory school time, including Kindergarten (127), primary schools (Primarschule, 25), and lower secondary schools (Sekundarschule, 10), of which 94% visited public schools and 39.5% were foreign nationals. In 2010 already 51.1% of all pupils spoke another language than German as their first language. In 2009 3.1% of the pupils visited special classes for pupils with particular needs. The average amount of study in primary school in Basel is 816 teaching hours per year. Upper secondary school In 2010 65% of the youth finished their upper secondary education with a vocational training and education, 18% finished their upper secondary education with a Federal Matura at one of the five gymnasiums, 5% completed a Fachmaturität at the FMS, 5% completed a Berufsmaturität synchronously to their vocational training, and 7% other kind of upper secondary maturity. 14.1% of all students at public gymnasiums were foreign nationals. The Maturity quota in 2010 was on a record high at 28.8% (32.8 female, 24.9% male).
International schools
As a city with a percentage of foreigners of more than thirty-five per cent and as one of the most important centres in the chemical and pharmaceutical field in the world, Basel counts several international schools including: Academia International School, École Française de Bâle, Freies Gymnasium Basel (private), Gymnasium am Münsterplatz (public), Schweizerisch-italienische Primarschule Sandro Pertini, International School Basel, BLIS Baselland International School. and SIS Swiss International School.
Libraries
Basel is home to at least 65 libraries. Some of the largest include; the Universitätsbibliothek Basel (main university library), the special libraries of the University of Basel, the Allgemein Bibliotheken der Gesellschaft für Gutes und Gemeinnütziges (GGG) Basel, the Library of the Pädagogische Hochschule, the Library of the Hochschule für Soziale Arbeit and the Library of the Hochschule für Wirtschaft. There was a combined total () of 8,443,643 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year a total of 1,722,802 items were loaned out. Culture Main sights The red sandstone Münster, one of the foremost late-Romanesque/early Gothic buildings in the Upper Rhine, was badly damaged in the great earthquake of 1356, rebuilt in the 14th and 15th century, extensively reconstructed in the mid-19th century and further restored in the late 20th century. A memorial to Erasmus lies inside the Münster. The City Hall from the 16th century is located on the Market Square and is decorated with fine murals on the outer walls and on the walls of the inner court.
Basel is also host to an array of buildings by internationally renowned architects. These include the Beyeler Foundation by Renzo Piano, or the Vitra complex in nearby Weil am Rhein, composed of buildings by architects such as Zaha Hadid (fire station), Frank Gehry (Design Museum), Álvaro Siza Vieira (factory building), and Tadao Ando (conference centre). Basel also features buildings by Mario Botta (Jean Tinguely Museum and Bank of International settlements) and Herzog & de Meuron (whose architectural practice is in Basel, and who are best known as the architects of Tate Modern in London and the Bird's Nest in Beijing, the Olympia stadium, which was designed for use throughout the 2008 Summer Olympics and Paralympics). The city received the Wakker Prize in 1996.
Heritage sites
Basel features a great number of heritage sites of national significance.
These include the entire Old Town of Basel as well as the following buildings and collections: <!-- updated to 2009 listing -->
;Churches and monasteries :Old Catholic Prediger Kirche (church), Bischofshof with Collegiate church at Rittergasse 1, Domhof at Münsterplatz 10–12, former Carthusian House of St Margarethental, Catholic Church of St Antonius, Lohnhof (former Augustinians Collegiate Church), Mission 21, Archive of the Evangelisches Missionswerk Basel, Münster of Basel (cathedral), Reformed Elisabethenkirche (church), Reformed Johanneskirche (church), Reformed Leonhardskirche (church, former Augustinians Abbey), Reformed Martinskirche (church), Reformed Pauluskirche (church), Reformed Peterskirche (church), Reformed St. Albankirche (church) with cloister and cemetery, Reformed Theodorskirche (church), Synagoge at Eulerstrasse 2
;Secular buildings:
Badischer Bahnhof (German Baden's railway station) with fountain, Bank for International Settlements, Blaues Haus (Reichensteinerhof) at Rheinsprung 16, Bruderholzschule (school house) at Fritz-Hauser-Strasse 20, Brunschwiler Haus at Hebelstrasse 15, Bahnhof Basel SBB (Swiss railway station), Bürgerspital (hospital), Café Spitz (Merianflügel), Coop Schweiz company's central archive, Depot of the Archäologischen Bodenforschung des Kanton Basel-Stadt, former Gallizian Paper Mill and Swiss Museum of Paper, former Klingental-Kaserne (casern) with Klingentaler Kirche (church), Fasnachtsbrunnen (fountain), Feuerschützenhaus (guild house of the riflemen) at Schützenmattstrasse 56, Fischmarktbrunnen (fountain), Geltenzunft at Marktplatz 13, Gymnasium am Kohlenberg (St Leonhard) (school), Hauptpost (main post office), Haus zum Raben at Aeschenvorstadt 15, Hohenfirstenhof at Rittergasse 19, Holsteinerhof at Hebelstrasse 30, Markgräflerhof a former palace of the margraves of Baden-Durlach, Mittlere Rhein Brücke (Central Rhine Bridge), Stadtcasino (music hall) at Steinenberg 14, Ramsteinerhof at Rittergasse 7 and 9, Rathaus (town hall), Rundhof building of the Schweizerischen Mustermesse, Safranzunft at Gerbergasse 11, Sandgrube at Riehenstrasse 154, Schlösschen (Manor house) Gundeldingen, Schönes Haus and Schöner Hof at Nadelberg 6, Wasgenring school house, Seidenhof with painting of Rudolf von Habsburg, Spalenhof at Spalenberg 12, Spiesshof at Heuberg 7, city walls, Townhouse (former post office) at Stadthausgasse 13 / Totengässlein 6, Weisses Haus at Martinsgasse 3, ''Wildt'sches Haus at Petersplatz 13, Haus zum Neuen Singer at Speiserstrasse 98, Wolfgottesacker at Münchensteinerstrasse 99, Zerkindenhof at Nadelberg 10.
;Archaeological sites: The Celtic Settlement at Gasfabrik, Münsterhügel and Altstadt (historical city, late La Tène and medieval settlement).
;Museums, archives and collections: Basel calls itself the Cultural Capital of Switzerland.
Among others, there is the Anatomical Museum of the University Basel, Berri-Villen and Museum of Ancient Art Basel and Ludwig Collection, Former Franciscan Barefoot Order Church and Basel Historical Museum, Company Archive of Novartis, Haus zum Kirschgarten which is part of the Basel Historical Museum, Historic Archive Roche and Industrial Complex Hoffmann-La Roche, Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel, Karl Barth-Archive, Kleines Klingental'' (Lower Klingen Valley) with Museum Klingental, Art Museum of Basel, hosting the world's oldest art collection accessible to the public, Natural History Museum of Basel and the Museum of Cultures Basel, Museum of Modern Art Basel with the E. Hoffmann collection, Museum Jean Tinguely Basel, Music Museum, Pharmacy Historical Museum of the University of Basel, Poster Collection of the School for Design (Schule für Gestaltung), Swiss Business Archives, Sculpture Hall, Sports Museum of Switzerland, Archives of the Canton of Basel-Stadt, UBS AG Corporate Archives, University Library with manuscripts and music collection, Zoological Garden (Zoologischer Garten). presents a busy schedule of plays in addition to being home to the city's opera and ballet companies. Basel is home to the largest orchestra in Switzerland, the Sinfonieorchester Basel. It is also the home of the Basel Sinfonietta and the Kammerorchester Basel, which recorded the complete symphonies of Ludwig van Beethoven for the Sony label, led by its music director Giovanni Antonini. The Schola Cantorum and the Basler Kammerorchester were both founded by the conductor Paul Sacher, who went on to commission works by many leading composers. The Paul Sacher Foundation, opened in 1986, houses a major collection of manuscripts, including the entire Igor Stravinsky archive.
The baroque orchestras La Cetra and Capriccio Basel are also based in Basel.
In May 2004, the fifth European Festival of Youth Choirs (Europäisches Jugendchorfestival, or EJCF) opened; this Basel tradition started in 1992. Host of the festival is the local Basel Boys Choir.
In 1997, Basel contended to become the "European Capital of Culture", though the honor went to Thessaloniki.
In 2025, Basel will host the Eurovision Song Contest at St. Jakobshalle, becoming the third Swiss city to host the competition after Lugano in 1956 and Lausanne in 1989. Museums <!-- This section is linked from List of museums -->
, oldest public museum of art in Europe]]
The Basel museums cover a broad and diverse spectrum of collections with a marked concentration in the fine arts. They house numerous holdings of international significance. The over three dozen institutions yield an extraordinarily high density of museums compared to other cities of similar size and draw over one million visitors annually.
Constituting an essential component of Basel culture and cultural policy, the museums are the result of closely interwoven private and public collecting activities and promotion of arts and culture going back to the 16th century. The public museum collection was first created back in 1661 and represents the oldest public collection in continuous existence in Europe. Since the late 1980s, various private collections have been made accessible to the public in new purpose-built structures that have been recognized as acclaimed examples of avant-garde museum architecture.
by Renzo Piano, located in Riehen]]
* Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig Ancient cultures of the Mediterranean museum
* Augusta Raurica Roman open-air museum
* Basel Paper Mill ()
* Beyeler Foundation (Foundation Beyeler)
* Botanical Garden Basel
* Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel ()
* Dollhouse Museum () a museum housing the largest teddy bear collection in Europe.
* Foundation Fernet Branca () in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin near Basel. Modern art collection.
* Historical Museum Basel ()
* Kunsthalle Basel Modern and contemporary art museum
* Kunstmuseum Basel Upper Rhenish and Flemish paintings, drawings from 1400 to 1600 and 19th- to 21st-century art
* Monteverdi Automuseum
* Museum of Cultures Basel () Large collections on European and non-European cultural life
* Museum of Contemporary Art Art from the 1960s up to the present
* Music Museum () of the Basel Historic Museum
* Natural History Museum of Basel ()
* Pharmazie-Historisches Museum der Universität Basel
* Schaulager Modern and contemporary art museum
* Swiss Architecture Museum ()
* Tinguely Museum Life and work of the major Swiss iron sculptor Jean Tinguely
* Jewish Museum of Switzerland Events
The city of Basel is a centre for numerous fairs and events all year round. One of the most important fairs for contemporary art worldwide is the Art Basel which was founded in 1970 by Ernst Beyeler and takes place in June each year. Baselworld, the watch and jewellery show (Uhren- und Schmuckmesse) one of the biggest fairs of its kind in Europe is held every year as well, and attracts a great number of tourists and dealers to the city. Live marketing company and fair organizer MCH Group has its head office in Basel.
The carnival of the city of Basel (Basler Fasnacht) is a major cultural event in the year. The carnival is the biggest in Switzerland and attracts large crowds every year, despite the fact that it starts at exactly four o'clock in the morning (Morgestraich) on a winter Monday. The Fasnacht asserts Basel's Protestant history by commencing the revelry five days after Ash Wednesday and continuing exactly 72 hours. Almost all study and work in the old city cease. Dozens of fife and drum clubs parade in medieval guild tradition with fantastical masks and illuminated lanterns.
Basel Tattoo, founded in 2006 by the local Top Secret Drum Corps, has grown to be the world's second largest military tattoo in terms of performers and budget after the Edinburgh Military Tattoo. The Basel Tattoo annual parade, with an estimated 125,000 visitors, is considered the largest event in Basel. The event is now sponsored by the Swiss Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport (DDPS), making it the official military tattoo of Switzerland.
The city will host the Eurovision Song Contest 2025 at the St. Jakobshalle arena.[https://eurovision.tv/story/basel-will-host-eurovision-song-contest-2025?fbclidPAZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAaZfEUAWmVmvPxRsaO4wjO6Cc3cE-k_HcKCvbjMXP1OzIVtqiXOGAAMLCt4_aem_m89G9CucLjoWT42R8-xOVQ] Cuisine There are a number of culinary specialties originating in Basel, including Basler Läckerli cookies and Mässmogge candies. Being located in the meeting place between Switzerland, France and Germany the culinary landscape as a whole is very varied and diverse, making it a city with a great number of restaurants of all sorts. Zoo
House at Zoo Basel]]
Zoo Basel is, with over 1.7 million visitors per year, the most visited tourist attraction in Basel and the second most visited tourist attraction in Switzerland.
Established in 1874, Zoo Basel is the oldest zoo in Switzerland and, by number of animals, the largest. Through its history, Zoo Basel has had several breeding successes, such as the first worldwide Indian rhinoceros birth and Greater flamingo hatch in a zoo. These and other achievements led Forbes Travel to rank Zoo Basel as one of the fifteen best zoos in the world in 2008.
Despite its international fame, Basel's population remains attached to Zoo Basel, which is entirely surrounded by the city of Basel. Evidence of this is the millions of donations money each year, as well as Zoo Basel's unofficial name: locals lovingly call "their" zoo "Zolli" by which is it known throughout Basel and most of Switzerland.
Sport
]]
Amongst its major sports venues, Basel features a large football stadium that has been awarded four stars by UEFA, a modern ice hockey arena, and a sports hall.
The football club FC Basel is successful and in recognition of this the city was one of the Swiss venues for the 2008 European Championships, along with Geneva, Zürich and Bern. The championships were jointly hosted by Switzerland and Austria. BSC Old Boys and Concordia Basel are the other football teams in Basel.
Among the most popular sports in Switzerland is ice hockey. Basel is home to EHC Basel, who play in the MySports League, the third tier of the Swiss ice hockey league system. They play their home games in the 6,700-seater St. Jakob Arena. The team previously played in the National League and the Swiss League, but filed for bankruptcy after the 2013–14 Swiss League season.
Basketball has a very small but faithful fan base. The top division, called the SBL, is a semi-professional league and has one team from the Basel region, the "Birstal Starwings". One player from Switzerland is currently active in the NBA, Clint Capela. As in most European countries, but unlike the U.S., Switzerland has a club-based rather than a school-based competition system. The Starwings Basel are the only first division basketball team in German-speaking Switzerland.
A large indoor tennis event takes place in Basel every October. Some of the best ATP-professionals play every year at the Swiss Indoors, previously including Switzerland's biggest sporting hero Roger Federer, a Basel native who describes the city as "one of the most beautiful cities in the world".
In July 2022, the women's water polo players of the WSV Basel secured their 11th national championship title.
Basel GAA, a Gaelic games club, is also located in Basel. Basel Dragons AFC have been playing Australian Football in the AFL Switzerland league since 2019.
The annual Basel Rhine Swim draws several thousand visitors to the city to swim in or float on the Rhine.
The headquarters of the IHF (International Handball Federation) is located in Basel.
Notable people
, 1873]]
]]
]]
]]
Notable people who were born or grew up in Basel:
* Gaspard Bauhin (1560–1624), botanist and anatomist
* Matthäus Merian the Elder (1593–1650), engraver
* Johannes Buxtorf II (1599–1664), Protestant Christian Hebraist
* Johannes Jakob Buxtorf (1645–1705), professor of Hebrew
* Jacob Bernoulli (1654–1705), mathematician
* Johann Bernoulli (1667–1748), mathematician
* Johann Jakob Wettstein (1693–1754), theologian and New Testament critic
* Maximilian Ulysses Browne (1705–1757), Austrian field marshal
* Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), mathematician, physicist and astronomer
* Johann Peter Hebel (1760–1826), German short story writer, poet and Lutheran theologian
* Johann Jakob Herzog (1805–1882), Swiss-German Protestant theologian
* Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897), historian of art and culture
* Arnold Böcklin (1827–1901), symbolist painter
* Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895), physician and biologist, the first scientist to isolate nucleic acid
* Karl Barth (1886–1968), Swiss Reformed theologian, best known for his involvement with the Confessing Church and Christian resistance to Hitler
* Richard J. Baer (1892–1940), physicist
* Véronique Filozof (1904-1977), painter
* Clara Thalmann (1908–1987), journalist, athlete, and militiawoman
* Harry Goldschmidt (1910–1986), musicologist
* Rudy Burckhardt (1914–1999), American filmmaker and photographer
*Avraham Yaakov Finkel (1926–2016), author
*Arthur Cohn (born 1927), film producer and multiple Academy Award winner
* Marion Wiesel (born Mary Renate Erster; 1931–2025), Austrian-American Holocaust survivor, humanitarian, and translator
* Christa de Carouge (1936–2018), fashion designer
* Peter Zumthor (born 1943), architect
* Margrith von Felten (born 1944), politician and lawyer
* Heidi Köpfer (born 1954), choreographer, dancer and video artist
* Carlo Strenger (1958–2019), Swiss-Israeli psychologist, philosopher, existential psychoanalyst, and public intellectual
* Christina Surer (born 1974), racing driver
* Antoine Konrad (born 1975), DJ and record producer, known as DJ Antoine
* Martina Gmür (born 1979), visual artist
* Roger Federer (born 1981), professional tennis player
* Granit Xhaka (born 1992), professional footballer with 100 caps with Switzerland
* Fina Girard (born 2001), politician and youth climate activist Picture gallery <gallery widths"133" heights="145">
File:St. Albantor.jpg|St. Alban Gate
File:Rathaus (2122646923).jpg|Rathaus, Basel's Town Hall
File:RFHS-3033.jpg|Protestant Cathedral
File:11-11-24-basel-by-ralfr-035.jpg|University of Basel (est. in 1460) and Martinskirche
File:Basel 2006 840.JPG|Gemsberg
File:Basel, Barfüsserplatz IMG 1501 2022-05-15 09.05.jpg|Barfüsserplatz
File:R0014737A.jpg|Münsterplatz
File:Basel, de Basler Münster KGS1597 met de Wettsteinbrükce op de voorgrond IMG 1537 2022-05-15 10.17.jpg|Wettsteinbrücke
File:BIZ Basel.jpg|Global seat of the Bank for International Settlements
File:Haus zum Kirschgarten 2008-03-30.jpg|Haus zum Kirschgarten
File:Basel - Spalentor.jpg|Spalentor
File:Basel (9486189627) (3).jpg|People swimming in the Rhine
File:Freie Strasse (Basel, Schweiz), August 2023.png|Freie Strasse
File:St. Jakobs-Denkmal von Ferdinand Schlöth (1818–1891). Schlacht von 1844 bei St. Jakob an der Birs (1).jpg|Helvetia statue
File:Häuserzeile, Lange Gasse (Basel, Schweiz).png|Townhouses (early 21st century)
File:Villa, Gellertstrasse 25.jpg|Urban mansion (early 20th century)
</gallery>
Notes and references
Notes
References Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
*
*[http://www.basel.com/ Official tourism site]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080505033615/http://www.museenbasel.ch/en/index.php Overview of museums in Basel or basel museums] (archived 5 May 2008)
<!--City proper category-->
<!--Canton category-->
Category:Cultural property of national significance in Basel-Stadt
<!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
Category:Municipalities of Basel-Stadt
Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland
Category:Cities in Switzerland
Category:Populated places on the Rhine
Category:Port cities and towns in Switzerland
Category:Free imperial cities
Category:Germany–Switzerland border crossings
Category:France–Switzerland border crossings
Category:Border tripoints
Category:Turkish communities outside Turkey
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Black Russian
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The Black Russian is a cocktail of vodka and coffee liqueur. It contains 50 ml vodka and 20 ml coffee liqueur, per IBA specified ingredients.
The drink is made by pouring the vodka and coffee liqueur over ice cubes or cracked ice in an old-fashioned glass and stirring. The Black Russian is often garnished with a lemon slice and a Luxardo maraschino cherry on a stick.
History
The Black Russian cocktail first appeared in 1949 and is ascribed to Gustave Tops, a Belgian barman, who created it at the Hotel Metropole in Brussels in honor of Perle Mesta, then United States Ambassador to Luxembourg. The cocktail owes its name to the use of vodka, a typical Russian spirit, and the blackness of the coffee liqueur.
Variations
Dirty Black Russian, Tall Black Russian, Australian Black Russian or Colorado Bulldog: served in a highball glass and topped up with cola.
Black Magic: served with a dash of lemon juice and a lemon twist to garnish.
Irish Russian or Smooth Black Russian: served with a head of Guinness.
Brown Russian: served in a highball glass and topped with ginger ale.
Belarusian or white Russian: served with milk or cream.
Mind Eraser: topped up with sparkling water.
Paralyzer: Made with cola and milk in addition to vodka and coffee liqueur.
Cultural impact
The cocktail is mentioned by the Italian judicial and criminal witness Alberto Biggiogero during testimony in the trial concerning the death of Giuseppe Uva, a case covered by the television program Un giorno in pretura.
In the film The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear, the protagonist Frank Drebin (played by Leslie Nielsen) orders the famous drink in one scene.
See also
List of cocktails
References
Category:Cocktails with vodka
Category:Cocktails with coffee liqueur
Category:Coffee culture
Category:Coffee drinks
Category:Alcoholic coffee drinks
Category:Two-ingredient cocktails
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BRP
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BRP can mean:
Basic Role-Playing game system
Biometric Residence permit, a type of card in lieu of visa which allows a non-British citizen to work & reside in the UK.
Blue Ridge Parkway
Bombardier Recreational Products, Canadian company
Bombo Radyo Philippines, Philippine radio network
Brief reactive psychosis
BRINP2-related peptide, a peptide that helps people to lose weight
British Racing Partnership, former British motor racing team
Bathroom privileges
Bronx River Parkway in New York
Brotherhood of Russian Truth (Bratstvo Russkoy Pravdy), former Russian emigrant organization
Barko/Bapor ng Republika ng Pilipinas (ship/steamship of the Republic of the Philippines), Philippine Coast Guard, Philippine Navy, and other government-owned ship name prefix
"B.R.P.", song by Victor Jara on album El derecho de vivir en paz
Brioche-purl stitch, in brioche knitting
Birpara, a town in West Bengal, India
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4915
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Bunnies & Burrows
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|genre= Role-playing game, Animal fantasy
|system= Original
|players|footnotes
}}
Bunnies & Burrows (B&B) is a role-playing game (RPG) inspired by the 1972 novel Watership Down. Published by Fantasy Games Unlimited in 1976, the game is centered on intelligent rabbits. It introduced several innovations to role-playing game design, being the first game to encourage players to have non-humanoid roles, and the first to have detailed martial arts and skill systems. Fantasy Games Unlimited published a similar second edition in 1982. Frog God Games published a revised third edition in 2019 from the original authors. The game was also modified and published by Steve Jackson Games as an official GURPS supplement in 1992.
As rabbits, player characters are faced with dangers mirroring those in the real world. The only true "monsters" in the game are humans, but there are many predators and natural hazards. The characters' position in the food chain promotes an emphasis on role-playing and problem solving over combat.
History
Originally published by Fantasy Games Unlimited in 1976, only two years after the first role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons was published; and the players were given the opportunity to take on the role of rabbits.
It was the first role-playing game to allow for animal characters, and the first to have rules for martial arts. It detailed how to combine the world of Bunnies & Burrows with other fantasy worlds. This was followed by the mini-adventure "The Jackrabbits' Lair", written by Daniel J. Maxfield, in Pegasus, a magazine published by Judges Guild.
A second edition of Bunnies & Burrows'' was printed in 1982 by Fantasy Games Unlimited, although the continuing popularity of the first edition is evidenced by how it was still being actively played in 2008.
During a rise of "retro" games in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Steve Jackson Games entered negotiations with Dennis Sustare and Scott Robinson, the current owners of the Bunnies & Burrows copyright, to publish an official GURPS supplement. In 1988, O'Sullivan wrote an unofficial conversion of Bunnies & Burrows to GURPS while the negotiations continued. under their "Rules for Free Fan-Supplements and Articles".
In 2019, Frog God Games released a 3rd edition of the game after a successful Kickstarter campaign.
Gameplay
Books
*Bunnies & Burrows (1976), Fantasy Games Unlimited
*Bunnies & Burrows (Second edition) (1982), Fantasy Games Unlimited
*Bunnies & Burrows (Third edition) (2019), Frog God Games
Articles
*''Different Worlds Present the World of Druid's Valley: A Bunnies & Burrows Campaign (B. Dennis Sustare, 1979). Different Worlds, Chaosium
*The Jackrabbits' Lair'' (Daniel J. Maxfield). Pegasus, Judges Guild
References
Category:Fantasy role-playing games
Category:Watership Down
Category:Fantasy Games Unlimited games
Category:Rabbits and hares in popular culture
Category:Role-playing games introduced in 1976
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunnies_&_Burrows
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Bundaberg Rum
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| discontinued | colour Dark and White
| flavour | variants
| related | website http://www.bundabergrum.com.au
| image_size = 200px
| caption = :Bundaberg Rum Reserve
}}
Bundaberg Rum, colloquially known as Bundy, is a dark rum owned by Diageo. It is produced in Bundaberg East, Queensland, Australia, by the Bundaberg Distilling Company. In 2010, the Bundaberg Distilling Company was inducted into the Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame.
History
Bundaberg Rum originated because the local sugar mills had a problem with what to do with the waste molasses after the sugar was extracted. Molasses was heavy and difficult to transport, and the costs of converting it to stock feed were rarely worth the effort. Sugar men first began to think of the profits that could be made from distilling. The key meeting was held at the Royal Hotel on 1 August 1885. W. M. C. Hickson served as the chairman, and other notables in attendance included all the big sugar mill owners of that time: W. G. Farquhar, F. L. Nott, T. Austin, J. Gale, S. McDougall, T. Penny, S. H. Bravo and A. H. Young. All became the first directors of the company, which started with a capital of £5,000 converted into $9,725.18.
The Bundaberg Distilling Company began its operations in 1888, and Bundaberg rum was first produced in 1889. Production ceased from 1907 to 1914, and from 1936 to 1939, after fires, the second of which caused rum from the factory to spill into the nearby Burnett River. Many fish were killed due to the liquor runoff into the river.
Christsen Pty Ltd operated their own Bundaberg Rum bottling plant in Bourbong Street, Bundaberg, at the rear of their large grocery and hardware business in the centre of town. The spirit was sold at UP and OP strength from their business.
In 1961, the company introduced the polar bear as its unusual choice of mascot, to imply that the rum could ward off the coldest chill.
In 2000, the Bundaberg Rum company and the distillery were sold to British company Diageo. In 2014, a decision by Diageo to relocate the bottling operations of Bundaberg Rum to the western Sydney suburb of Huntingwood resulted in job losses in Bundaberg. The decision drew criticism from various levels of Queensland politics. The Premier, Campbell Newman, said it was a disappointing move, particularly for a region that had suffered devastating floods in recent years. Bundaberg mayor, Mal Forman, was also disappointed and concerned about the tourism impact.
A Diageo spokeswoman later clarified the situation, saying some premium products, such as the Master Distillers Collection, would continue to be bottled in Bundaberg. "This was not a decision we have taken lightly, however it is a necessary one to ensure the longer term sustainability of the distillery. We remain absolutely committed to Bundaberg and the distillery and will continue to invest and focus on our core business of distilling, maturing and blending great quality rum in Bundaberg as we have done for the last 125 years."
In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Bundaberg Rum Distillery was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "location". The State Library of Queensland holds correspondence and financial records from the Bundaberg Distilling Co. Ltd. Records for years 1907 to 1946.
Variant flavours
* Bundaberg Rum UP 37%
* Bundaberg Rum Original 100 Proof 50%
* Bundaberg Rum Overproof 57.7%
* Bundaberg Red 37%
* Bundaberg Red 100 Proof 50%
* Bundaberg Five 37%
* Bundaberg Select Vat Aged 6 Years 37%
* Bundaberg Mutiny Spiced Rum 37%
* Master Distillers' Collection Small Batch 40%
* Master Distillers' Collection Small Batch – Vintage Barrel 40%
* Master Distillers Collection 280 40%
* Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel – Distilled 2004 – Black Glass 40%
* Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel – Distilled 2004 – Clear Glass 40%
* Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel – Distilled 2005 – Clear Glass 40%
* Master Distillers Collection Blenders Edition 2014 40%
* Master Distillers Collection Blenders Edition 2015 40%
* Bundaberg Tropics – Pineapple & Coconut 23.5%
* Bundaberg Royal Liqueur 20%
* Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Banana and Toffee 20%
* Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Coffee and Chocolate 20%
* Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Salted Caramel 20%
* Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Vanilla Spiced 20%
* Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Xmas Puding with Brandy 20%
* Bundaberg Royal Rum Ball 20%
* Bundy Wings Heritage Label Original 37%Sponsorship
Holden Commodore VE of Fabian Coulthard at the 2011 Clipsal 500 Adelaide]]
Bundaberg Rum is a major sponsor of the Australian Wallabies rugby union team and also sponsors the Bundaberg Rum Rugby Series. Bundaberg is also a sponsor of the NSW Waratahs. Bundaberg Rum sponsored the rugby league ANZAC Test till 2009. Bundaberg Rum signed a 5-year deal with the NRL to be the official dark rum of the NRL. They are also the naming-rights sponsor of NRL Friday Night Football.
From 2009 until 2011, Bundaberg Rum sponsored V8 Supercar team Walkinshaw Racing.
Recognition
Bundaberg Rum has been distinguished with numerous awards. In 2011, Bundaberg Rum's Master Distillers' Collective rum was launched, with the first three releases, the 10 Year Old, Port Barrel and Golden Reserve, winning awards in the global stage.AdvertisingBundaberg Rum has also been criticised for targeting its advertising towards young people and boys, through television commercials during NRL broadcasts, and other promotions. A series of advertisements featuring the Bundaberg Rum bear, a polar bear known as Bundy R. Bear, were produced by advertising agency Leo Burnett to align the product 'with a larrikin approach to Australian mateship'. The Bundaberg Rum bear first appeared in 1961. It was designed to soften rum's aggressive image and broaden its appeal from the traditional older male drinker to a more sociable audience. The advertisements have been cited as a favourite among Australia's youth.See also
*Bundaberg Brewed Drinks
*Alcohol Advertising
*ANZAC Test
*Beenleigh Rum
*List of rum producers
*1936 Bundaberg distillery fire
References
External links
* [http://www.bundabergrum.com.au/ Bundaberg Rum] – official website
* [http://www.diageo.com/ Diageo] – parent company
Category:Diageo brands
Category:Rum produced in Australia
Category:Distilleries in Australia
Category:Australian brands
Category:Bundaberg East, Queensland
Category:Food and drink companies established in 1888
Category:1888 establishments in Australia
Category:Australian companies established in 1888
Category:Products introduced in 1889
Category:Companies based in Queensland
Category:Tourist attractions in Bundaberg
Category:Culture of Queensland
Category:Queensland cuisine
Category:Q150 Icons
Category:Dark rums
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Ben Nevis
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| photo = BenNevis2005.jpg
| photo_caption = Ben Nevis from Banavie. The summit is beyond and to the left of the apparent highest point.
| photo_size = 300
| elevation_m = 1,345
| elevation_ref
| prominence_m = 1,345
| isolation
| prominence_ref = <br/><small>Ranked 1st in British Isles</small>
| parent_peak = none – Highest peak on island of Great Britain
| listing =
| location = Lochaber, Highland, Scotland
| range = Grampian Mountains
| map = Scotland
| map_caption = Location within Scotland
| label_position = right
| coordinates
| coordinates_ref | grid_ref_UK NN166712
| topo OS Landranger 41, Explorer 392
| first_ascent 19 August 1771, by James Robertson
| easiest_route = Pony track and mountain path
}}
Ben Nevis ( ; , ) is the highest mountain in Scotland, the United Kingdom, and the British Isles. Ben Nevis stands at the western end of the Grampian Mountains in the Highland region of Lochaber, close to the town of Fort William.
The mountain is a popular destination, attracting an estimated 150,000 visitors a year, The mountain has hosted a foot race since 1898. The cliffs of the north face are among the highest in Scotland, providing classic scrambles and rock climbs of all difficulties for climbers and mountaineers. They are also the principal locations in Scotland for ice climbing. The cliffs of the north face can be viewed from the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut, a private alpine hut.
The summit is The summit is a stony plateau (a felsenmeer). It features a number of monuments and the ruins of an observatory which was continuously staffed between 1883 and 1904. The meteorological data collected during this period is still important for understanding Scottish mountain weather. C. T. R. Wilson was inspired to invent the cloud chamber after a period spent working at the observatory.
Ben Nevis is the namesake for a distillery at its base, a packet ship, a mountain in Svalbard, a mountain in Hong Kong, and a cartoon character.
Etymology
The name comes from the Gaelic , meaning "mountain of the Nevis" (referring to the river that skirts the base of the mountain). W. F. H. Nicolaisen, however, favoured a derivation from the Indo-European root *nebh-, which is connected with water and clouds, giving a meaning of "the moist one" or "the misty one".
As with many Scottish mountains, Ben Nevis is often referred to locally simply as "the Ben".
Geography
Ben Nevis forms a massif with its neighbours to the northeast, , to which it is linked by the Arête, and . All four are Munros.
}}]]
The western and southern flanks of Ben Nevis rise in about above the River Nevis flowing down Glen Nevis – the longest and steepest hill slope in Britain – with the result that the mountain presents an aspect of massive bulk on this side. To the north, by contrast, cliffs drop some to ().
In addition to the main summit, Ben Nevis has two subsidiary "tops" listed in Munro's Tables, both of which are called ("red hill"). The higher of these, at , is to the northwest, and is often mistaken for Ben Nevis itself in views from the Fort William area. The other () juts out into Glen Nevis on the mountain's southwestern side. A lower hill, (), is further west, forming a saddle with Ben Nevis which contains a small loch, . The tourist path from Glen Nevis skirts the side of this hill before ascending Ben Nevis's broad western flank. Summit The summit of Ben Nevis comprises a large stony plateau of about . The summit is an example of a felsenmeer, a surface covered by rocks that are not exposed by mass wasting. The highest point is marked with a large, solidly built cairn atop which sits an Ordnance Survey trig point. The summit is the highest ground in any direction for before the Scandinavian Mountains in western Norway are reached.
The Peace Memorial, on the summit, is a cairn which was erected on V J Day, 15 August 1945, by the Young Men's Class of Vicar Street Methodist Church, Dudley, led by Bert Bissell, "to the glory of God and in memory of the fallen of all races". They carried the materials, including a 2cwt memorial stone, to the summit. The inscription declares it to be "Britain's highest war memorial". A second plaque was added in 1965, brought by helicopter: "A tribute to the fallen of all nations from the youth associated with the World Federation of United Nations Associations and the International Student Movement of the United Nations." It is variously known as the Ben Nevis War Memorial, Ben Nevis Peace Memorial, or The Fort William-Dudley Memorial and Peace Cairn A 2006 proposal to move the cairn to the foot of the Ben, was opposed by people in both Fort William and Dudley.
The view from the UK's highest point is extensive. Under ideal conditions, it can extend to over , including such mountains as the Torridon Hills, Morven in Caithness, Lochnagar, Ben Lomond, Barra Head and to Knocklayd in County Antrim, Northern Ireland.
In 2016, the height of Ben Nevis was officially remeasured to be 1344.527m by Ordnance Survey. The height of Ben Nevis will therefore be shown on new Ordnance Survey maps as instead of the now obsolete value of . The average winter temperature was around , In an average year the summit sees 261 gales, in Inverness and in London. Rainfall on Ben Nevis is about twice as high in the winter as it is in the spring and summer. Snow can be found on the mountain for approximately 7 months out of the year.
Geology
Ben Nevis is all that remains of a Devonian volcano that met a cataclysmic end in the Carboniferous period around 350 million years ago. Evidence near the summit shows light-coloured granite (which had cooled in subterranean chambers several kilometres beneath the surface) lies among dark basaltic lavas (that form only on the surface). The two lying side by side is evidence the huge volcano collapsed in on itself creating an explosion comparable to Thera (2nd millennium BC) or Krakatoa (1883).
The mountain is now all that remains of the imploded inner dome of the volcano.
Its form has been extensively shaped by glaciation.
Research has shown igneous rock from the Devonian period (around 400 million years ago) intrudes into the surrounding metamorphic schists; the intrusions take the form of a series of concentric ring dikes. The innermost of these, known as the Inner Granite, constitutes the southern bulk of the mountain above , and also the neighbouring ridge of ; forms part of the Outer Granite, which is redder in colour. The summit dome itself, together with the steep northern cliffs, is composed of andesite and basaltic lavas. History The first recorded ascent of Ben Nevis was made on 17 August 1771 by James Robertson, an Edinburgh botanist, who was in the region to collect botanical specimens. Another early ascent was in 1774 by John Williams, who provided the first account of the mountain's geological structure. John Keats climbed the mountain in 1818, comparing the ascent to "mounting ten St. Pauls without the convenience of a staircase". The following year William MacGillivray, who was later to become a distinguished naturalist, reached the summit only to find "fragments of earthen and glass ware, chicken bones, corks, and bits of paper". It was not until 1847 that Ben Nevis was confirmed by the Ordnance Survey as the highest mountain in Britain and Ireland, ahead of its rival Ben Macdui.
A meteorological observatory on the summit was first proposed by the Scottish Meteorological Society (SMS) in the late-1870s, at a time when similar observatories were being built around the world to study the weather at high altitude. The building was staffed full-time until 1904, when it was closed due to inadequate funding. The twenty years worth of readings still provide the most comprehensive set of data on mountain weather in Great Britain.
.]]
The ruins of the observatory can still be seen on the summit. An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for the benefit of those caught out by bad weather.
The first path to the summit was built at the same time as the observatory and was designed to allow ponies to carry up supplies, with a maximum gradient of one in five. A statue of Alexander and the car was unveiled in Fort William in 2018.
In 2000, the Ben Nevis Estate, comprising all of the south side of the mountain including the summit, was bought by the Scottish conservation charity the John Muir Trust.
On 17 May 2006, a piano that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the John Muir Trust, which owns much of the mountain. The piano is believed to have been carried up for charity by removal men from Dundee over 20 years earlier.
Outdoor recreation
Hiking and climbing
Ben Nevis is a popular hiking destination, with 150,000 people a year visiting the peak.
The 1883 Pony Track to the summit (also known as the Ben Path, the Mountain Path or the Tourist Route) remains the simplest and most popular route of ascent. It begins at Achintee on the east side of Glen Nevis about from Fort William town centre, at around above sea level. Bridges from the Visitor Centre and the youth hostel now allow access from the west side of Glen Nevis. The path climbs steeply to the saddle by Lochan Meall an t-Suidhe (colloquially known as the 'Halfway Lochan') at 570 m, then ascends the remaining up the stony west flank of Ben Nevis in a series of zig-zags.
A route popular with experienced hillwalkers starts at Torlundy, a few miles north-east of Fort William on the A82 road, and follows the path alongside the . It can also be reached from Glen Nevis by following the Pony Track as far as , then descending slightly to the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut (known as the CIC Hut), a private mountain hut above sea level, owned by the Scottish Mountaineering Club In common with other approaches on this side of the mountain, it has the advantage of giving an extensive view of the cliffs of the north face, which are hidden from the Pony Track. (It was not climbed from bottom to top in entirety for another two years). The Scottish Mountaineering Club's Charles Inglis Clark hut was built below the north face in Coire Leis in 1929. Because of its remote location, it is said to be the only genuine alpine hut in Britain. the closest ridge to the summit, is "technically the hardest of the Nevis ridges in summer and winter". Between the Tower and Observatory Ridges are the Tower and Gardyloo Gullies; the latter takes its name from the cry of (French for "watch out for the water") formerly used in Scottish cities as a warning when householders threw their waste out of a tenement window into the street. The gully's top wall was the refuse pit for the summit observatory.
can be discerned in the background.]]
Many seminal lines were recorded before the First World War by pioneering Scottish climbers like J. N. Collie, Willie Naismith, Harold Raeburn, and William and Jane Inglis Clark. Other classic routes were put up by G. Graham Macphee, Dr James H. B. Bell and others between the Wars; these include Bell's "Long Climb", at reputedly the longest sustained climb on the British mainland. In summer 1943 conscientious objector Brian Kellett made a phenomenal seventy-four repeat climbs and seventeen first ascents including fourteen solos,
The north face is also one of Scotland's foremost venues for winter mountaineering and ice climbing and holds snow until quite late in the year; in a good year, routes may remain in winter condition until mid-spring. Most of the possible rock routes are also suitable as winter climbs, including the four main ridges; Tower Ridge, for example, is grade IV on the Scottish winter grade, having been upgraded in 2009 by the Scottish Mountaineering Club after requests by the local Mountain Rescue Team, there being numerous benightments and incidents every winter season.
In February 1960 James R. Marshall and Robin Clark Smith recorded six major new ice routes in only eight days including Orion Direct (V,5 400m); this winter version of Bell's Long Climb was "the climax of a magnificent week's climbing by Smith and Marshall, and the highpoint of the step-cutting era".
The following years saw several improvements on Swan's record, but the first competitive race was held on 3 June 1898 under Scottish Amateur Athletic Association rules. Ten competitors ran the course, which started at the Lochiel Arms Hotel in Banavie and was thus longer than the route from Fort William; the winner was 21-year-old Hugh Kennedy, a gamekeeper at Tor Castle, who finished (coincidentally with Swan's original run) in 2 hours 41 minutes. It starts and finishes at the Claggan Park football ground on the outskirts of Fort William, and is long with of ascent. Due to the seriousness of the mountain environment, entry is restricted to those who have completed three hill races, and runners must carry waterproofs, a hat, gloves and a whistle; anyone who has not reached the summit after two hours is turned back. As of 2018, the record for the men's race has stood unbroken since 1984, when Kenny Stuart of Keswick Athletic Club won with a time of 1:25:34. The record for the women's race of 1:43:01 was set in 2018 by Victoria Wilkinson.
towards the summit]]
In 2018 Jöttnar pro team member Tim Howell BASE jumped off Ben Nevis which was covered by BBC Scotland.
On 6 May 2019, a team of highliners completed a crossing above the Gardyloo Gully, a new altitude record for the UK. Also in May 2019, a team of 12, led by Dundee artist Douglas Roulston carried a tall statue of the DC Thomson character Oor Wullie to the top of the mountain. The statue, which had been painted by Roulston with a 360-degree scene of the view from the summit was later sold at the Oor Wullie Big Bucket Trail charity auction to raise money for a number of Scottish children's charities.
Ben Nevis is one of the three mountains climbed in the National Three Peaks Challenge, where participants aim to climb Ben Nevis, Scafell Pike and Snowdon, often within 24 hours and using motor transport between them. The total height climbed is and the distance walked , with about of driving. It has been estimated that some 30,000 people attempt the challenge each year, often as part of organised groups, and the impact on the local areas has been criticised. Various records have been set for the challenge, including James Forrest's fastest self-supported completion in 16 days, 13 hours, 59 mins in 2021 and Imogen Boddy's fastest female completion on foot, with support, in 6 days 5 hours 43 mins, in 2024. In 2022 the Nevis Landscape Trust introduced a registration system for charity events on Ben Nevis.
Safety
Ben Nevis's popularity, climate and complex topography contribute to a high number of mountain rescue incidents. In 1999 there were 41 rescues and four fatalities on the mountain.
Two avalanches occurred on Ben Nevis in 2009 and 2016, causing the deaths of two people on each occasion. In another two avalanches that occurred in 1970 and 2019, three people died on each occasion. A climber died in an avalanche on the north face of the mountain in 2022.
Navigation
, accurate navigation is critical.]]
Some incidents arise over difficulties in navigating to or from the summit,
In the late 1990s, Lochaber Mountain Rescue Team erected two posts on the summit plateau to assist walkers attempting the descent in foggy conditions. These posts were subsequently cut down by climbers, sparking controversy in mountaineering circles on the ethics of such additions. Critics argued that cairns and posts are an unnecessary man-made intrusion into the natural landscape, which create a false sense of security and could lessen mountaineers' sense of responsibility for their own safety. Subsequently, the John Muir Trust cleared a number of smaller informal cairns in 2016 which had been erected by visitors, which were seen as dangerous as they could confuse walkers using them for navigation.In popular cultureThe Ben Nevis Distillery is a single malt whisky distillery at the foot of the mountain, near Victoria Bridge to the north of Fort William. Founded in 1825 by John McDonald (known as "Long John"), it is one of the oldest licensed distilleries in Scotland, and is a popular visitor attraction in Fort William. The water used to make the whisky comes from the , the stream that flows from Ben Nevis's northern corrie. "Ben Nevis" 80/‒ organic ale is, by contrast, brewed in Bridge of Allan near Stirling.
Ben Nevis was the name of a White Star Line packet ship which in 1854 carried the group of immigrants who were to become the Wends of Texas. At least another eight vessels have carried the name since then.
A mountain in Svalbard is also named Ben Nevis, after the Scottish peak. It is high and is south of the head of Raudfjorden, Albert I Land, in the northwestern part of the island of Spitsbergen. Hung Fa Chai, a hill in Northeast New Territories of Hong Kong was given the name Ben Nevis by British surveyors in 1901.
Wee Ben Nevis was a character appearing in The Beano comic for a few years from 1974, drawn by Vic Neill, in a feature described by Auberon Waugh as having "strong undertones of Scottish Nationalism by its untrue suggestion that Scotsmen have superhuman strength despite their diminutive stature".
See also
* Holme Fen – The lowest point in the United Kingdom.
* Mountains and hills of Scotland
* National Three Peaks Challenge
* Northwest Spitsbergen National Park Norway - includes a mountain called Ben Nevis. Its height is and it is located at Northwest Spitsbergen National Park
* The Remarkables, New Zealand – mountain range containing a peak also called Ben Nevis
* Scottish Highlands
* Scafell Pike
* Snowdon
Notes
Bibliography
*
*
*
* }}
*
*
External links
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/151524482@N05/sets/72157719746596654/ Ben Nevis Photo Tour] – 57 images from the Car Park to the Summit and Back via the Tourist Trail
* [https://www.nevispartnership.co.uk/ Nevis Partnership] – Environmental and visitor management in the Nevis area
* Computer generated digital panoramas from Ben Nevis: [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/GRW/NEVIS-North.gif North] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/GRW/NEVIS-South.gif South] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html index]
* [https://aboutfortwilliam.com/webcams/ben-nevis-and-fort-william Ben Nevis Webcam]
*[https://360munros.co.uk/ben-nevis 360munros.co.uk] - Ben Nevis 360° Virtual Tours
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090913010643/http://www.smc.org.uk/Munros/MunrosTable.php Ben Nevis]. Munros Table. Scottish Mountaineering Club.
Category:Climbing areas of Scotland
Category:Devonian volcanism
Category:Highest points of countries
Category:Highest points of historic Scottish counties
Category:Lochaber
Category:Munros
Category:Marilyns of Scotland
Category:Mountains and hills of Highland (council area)
Category:Mountaineering deaths
Category:Mountaineering disasters
Category:Mountains and hills of the Central Highlands
Category:National scenic areas of Scotland
Category:One-thousanders of Scotland
Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in North Lochaber
Category:Special Areas of Conservation in Scotland
Category:Volcanism of Scotland
Category:Ring dikes
Category:Extreme points of the United Kingdom
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Bipolar I disorder
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Bipolar I disorder (BD-I; pronounced "type one bipolar disorder") is a type of bipolar spectrum disorder characterized by the occurrence of at least one manic episode, with or without mixed or psychotic features. Most people also, at other times, have one or more depressive episodes. Typically, these manic episodes can last at least 7 days for most of each day to the extent that the individual may need medical attention, while the depressive episodes last at least 2 weeks.
It is a type of bipolar disorder and conforms to the classic concept of manic-depressive illness, which can include psychosis during mood episodes.
Diagnosis
The essential feature of bipolar I disorder is a clinical course characterized by the occurrence of one or more manic episodes or mixed episodes. Often, individuals have had one or more major depressive episodes. One episode of mania is sufficient to make the diagnosis of bipolar disorder; the person may or may not have a history of major depressive disorder. Diagnosis for bipolar II disorder does not include a full manic episode; instead, it requires the occurrence of both a hypomanic episode and a major depressive episode.
Bipolar I disorder often coexists with other disorders including PTSD, substance use disorders, and a variety of mood disorders. Studies suggest that psychiatric comorbidities correlate with further impairment of day-to-day life. Up to 40% of people with bipolar disorder also present with PTSD, with higher rates occurring in women and individuals with bipolar I disorder.
Medical assessment
Regular medical assessments are performed to rule-out secondary causes of mania and depression. Drug screening includes recreational drugs, particularly synthetic cannabinoids, and exposure to toxins.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV-TR)
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dx code #
! Disorder
! Description
|-
| 296.0x
| Bipolar I disorder
| Single manic episode
|-
| 296.40
| Bipolar I disorder
| Most recent episode hypomanic
|-
| 296.4x
| Bipolar I disorder
| Most recent episode manic
|-
| 296.5x
| Bipolar I disorder
| Most recent episode depressed
|-
| 296.6x
| Bipolar I disorder
| Most recent episode mixed
|-
| 296.7
| Bipolar I disorder
| Most recent episode unspecified
|}
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5)
In May 2013, American Psychiatric Association released the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). There are several proposed revisions to occur in the diagnostic criteria of Bipolar I Disorder and its subtypes. For Bipolar I Disorder 296.40 (most recent episode hypomanic) and 296.4x (most recent episode manic), the proposed revision includes the following specifiers: with psychotic features, with mixed features, with catatonic features, with rapid cycling, with anxiety (mild to severe), with suicide risk severity, with seasonal pattern, and with postpartum onset. Bipolar I Disorder 296.5x (most recent episode depressed) will include all of the above specifiers plus the following: with melancholic features and with atypical features.
There have also been proposed revisions to criterion B of the diagnostic criteria for a Hypomanic Episode, which is used to diagnose For Bipolar I Disorder 296.40, Most Recent Episode Hypomanic. Criterion B lists "inflated self-esteem, flight of ideas, distractibility, and decreased need for sleep" as symptoms of a Hypomanic Episode. This has been confusing in the field of child psychiatry because these symptoms closely overlap with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
# Lithium is the mainstay in the management of bipolar disorder but it has a narrow therapeutic range and typically requires monitoring
# Anticonvulsants, such as valproate, carbamazepine, or lamotrigine
# Atypical antipsychotics, such as quetiapine, risperidone, olanzapine, or aripiprazole
# Electroconvulsive therapy, a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in anesthetized patients for therapeutic effect
Antidepressant-induced mania occurs in 20–40% of people with bipolar disorder. Mood stabilizers, especially lithium, may protect against this effect, but some research contradicts this.
A frequent problem in these individuals is non-adherence to pharmacological treatment; long-acting injectable antipsychotics may contribute to solving this issue in some patients.
A review of validated treatment guidelines for bipolar disorder by international bodies was published in 2020.PrognosisBipolar I usually has a poor prognosis, which is associated with substance abuse, psychotic features, depressive symptoms, and inter-episode depression. A manic episode can be so severe that it requires hospitalization. An estimated 63% of all BP-I related mania results in hospitalization. The natural course of BP-I, if left untreated, leads to episodes becoming more frequent or severe over time. But with proper treatment, individuals with BP-I can lead a healthy lifestyle.EducationPsychosocial interventions can be used for managing acute depressive episodes and for maintenance treatment to aid in relapse prevention.
Information on the condition, importance of regular sleep patterns, routines and eating habits and the importance of compliance with medication as prescribed. Behavior modification through counseling can have positive influence to help reduce the effects of risky behavior during the manic phase. Additionally, the lifetime prevalence for bipolar I disorder is estimated to be 1%. See also
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description WP:SEEALSO -->
* List of people with bipolar disorder
* Outline of bipolar disorder
* Bipolar disorder
* Bipolar disorders research
* Bipolar II disorder
* Cyclothymia
* Bipolar NOS
* Borderline personality disorder
* Creativity and bipolar disorder
* Detailed listing of DSM-IV-TR bipolar disorder diagnostics codes
* Emotional dysregulation
* International Society for Bipolar Disorders
* Kleine–Levin syndrome
* Major depressive disorder
* Racing thoughts
* Seasonal affective disorder
<!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order -->
References
| ICD10 =
| ICD9 =
| ICDO | OMIM
| MedlinePlus | eMedicineSubj
| eMedicineTopic | MeshID
}}
Category:Bipolar spectrum
Category:Depression (mood)
Category:Mood disorders
Category:Psychotherapy
Category:Psychiatry
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Bacardi
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}}
Bacardi Limited ( , , ) is the largest privately held, family-owned spirits company in the world. Originally known for its Bacardí brand of white rum, it now has a portfolio of more than 200 brands and labels. Founded in Cuba in 1862 by the Spanish businessman Facundo Bacardí Massó, Bacardi Limited has been family-owned for seven generations, and employs more than 8,000 people with sales in approximately 170 countries. Bacardi Limited is the group of companies as a whole and includes Bacardi International Limited.
Bacardi Limited is headquartered in Hamilton, Bermuda, and has a board of directors led by the original founder's great-great-grandson, Facundo L. Bacardí, the board's chairman. The company’s Cathedral of Rum in Puerto Rico, the largest rum distillery in the world, produces 85% of Bacardi rum worldwide, while the remaining 15% originates from distilleries in Mexico and India.
History
Early history
]]
Facundo Bacardí Massó, a Spanish wine merchant, was born in Sitges, Catalonia, Spain, on October 16, 1814, and immigrated to Santiago, Cuba, in 1830. At the time, rum was cheaply made and not considered a refined drink, and rarely sold in upmarket taverns or purchased by the growing emerging middle class on the island. Facundo began attempting to "tame" rum by isolating a proprietary strain of yeast harvested from local sugar cane still used in Bacardí production today. This yeast gives Bacardí rum its flavour profile. After experimenting with several techniques for close to ten years, Facundo pioneered charcoal rum filtration, which removed impurities from his rum. Facundo then created two separate distillates that he could blend together, balancing a variety of flavors: Aguardiente (a robust, flavorful distillate) and Redestillado (a refined, delicate distillate). Once Facundo achieved the perfect balance of flavors by marrying the two distillates together, he purposefully aged the rum in white oak barrels to develop subtle flavors and characteristics while mellowing out those that were unwanted. The final product was the first clear, light-bodied, and mixable "white" rum in the world.
Moving from the experimental stage to a more commercial endeavour as local sales began to grow, Facundo and his brother José purchased a Santiago de Cuba distillery on October 16, 1862, which housed a still made of copper and cast iron. In the rafters of this building lived fruit bats – the inspiration for the Bacardi bat logo. It was the idea of Doña Amalia, Facundo's wife, to adopt the bat to the rum bottle when she recognized its symbolism of family unity, good health, and good fortune to her husband's homeland of Spain. This logo was pragmatic considering the high illiteracy rate in the 19th century, enabling customers to easily identify the product.
The 1880s and 1890s were turbulent times for Cuba and the company. Emilio Bacardí, Don Facundo's eldest son, known for his forward thinking in both his professional and personal life and a passionate advocate for Cuban Independence was imprisoned twice for having fought in the rebel army against Spain in the Cuban War of Independence.
Emilio's brothers, Facundo and José, and their brother-in-law Enrique 'Henri' Schueg, remained in Cuba with the difficult task of sustaining the company during a period of war. With Don Facundo's passing in 1886, Doña Amalia sought refuge by exile in Kingston, Jamaica. At the end of the Cuban War of Independence during the US occupation of Cuba, "The Original Cuba Libre" and the Daiquiri cocktails were both created, with the then Cuban based Bacardí rum. In 1899, Emilio Bacardí became the first democratically elected mayor of Santiago, appointed US General Leonard Wood.
During his time in public office, Emilio established schools and hospitals, completed municipal projects such as the famous Padre Pico Street and the Bacardi Dam, financed the creation of parks, and decorated the city of Santiago with monuments and sculptures. In Santiago, his brother Facundo M. Bacardí continued to manage the company along with Schueg, who began the company's international expansion by opening bottling plants in Barcelona (1910) and New York City (1916). in Havana was constructed in 1930 but abandoned when the company fled Cuba following the Cuban Revolution in 1959]]In 1922, the family completed the expansion and renovation of the original distillery in Santiago, increasing the site's rum production capacity. In 1930 Schueg oversaw the construction and opening of Edificio Bacardí in Havana, regarded as one of the finest Art Deco buildings in Latin America, as the third generation of the Bacardí family entered the business. In 1927, Bacardi ventured outside the realm of spirits for the first time, with the introduction of an authentic Cuban Malt beer: Hatuey beer.
Bacardi's success in transitioning into an international brand and company was due mostly to Schueg, who branded Cuba as "The home of rum", and Bacardí as "The king of rums and the rum of Kings". Expansion began overseas, first to Mexico in 1931, where architects Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe and Felix Candela designed office buildings and a bottling plant in Mexico City during the 1950s. The building complex was added to the tentative list of UNESCO's World Heritage Site list on 20 November 2001. In 1936, Bacardi began producing rum on U.S. territory in Puerto Rico after Prohibition which enabled the company to sell rum tariff-free in the United States. The company later expanded to the United States in 1944 with the opening of Bacardi Imports, Inc. in Manhattan, New York City.
During World War II, the company was led by Schueg's son-in-law, José "Pepin" Bosch. Pepin founded Bacardi Imports in New York City and became Cuba's Minister of the Treasury in 1949.
Cuban Revolution
During the Cuban Revolution in 1959, the Bacardí family (and hence the company) supported and aided the rebels. However, after the triumph of the revolutionaries, and turn to communism, the family maintained a fierce opposition to Fidel Castro's policies in Cuba in the 1960s. In his book, Bacardi and the Long Fight for Cuba, Tom Gjelten describes how the Bacardí family and the company left Cuba in exile after the Cuban government confiscated the company's Cuban assets without compensation on 14 October 1960, particularly nationalizing and banning all private property on the island as well as all bank accounts. However, due to concerns over the previous Cuban leader, Fulgencio Batista, the company had started foreign branches a few years before the revolution; the company moved the ownership of its trademarks, assets and proprietary formulas out of the country to the Bahamas prior to the revolution and already produced Bacardí rum at other distillery sites in Puerto Rico and Mexico. This helped the company survive after the Cuban government confiscated all Bacardí assets without compensation.
In 1965, over 100 years after the company was established in Cuba, Bacardi established new roots and found a new home with global headquarters in Hamilton, Bermuda. In February 2019, Bacardi's CEO, Mahesh Madhavan, stated that Bacardí's global headquarters would remain in Bermuda for the next "500 years" and that "Bermuda is our home now."
In 1999, Otto Reich, a lobbyist in Washington on behalf of Bacardí, drafted section 211 of the Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Appropriations Act, FY1999, a bill that became known as the Bacardi Act. Section 211 denied trademark protection to products of Cuban businesses expropriated after the Cuban revolution, a provision sought by Bacardí. The act was aimed primarily at the Havana Club brand in the US. The brand was created by the José Arechabala S.A. and nationalised without compensation in the Cuban revolution, the Arechabala family left Cuba and stopped producing rum. They, therefore, allowed the US trademark registration for "Havana Club" to lapse in 1973. Taking advantage of the lapse, the Cuban government registered the mark in the US in 1976. This new law was drafted to invalidate the trademark registration. Section 211 has been challenged unsuccessfully by the Cuban government and the European Union in US courts. It was ruled illegal by the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001 and 2002. The US Congress has yet to re-examine the matter. The Cuban government assigned the brand to Pernod Ricard in 1993.
Bacardi rekindled the story of the Arechabala family and Havana Club in the United States when it launched the AMPARO Experience in 2018, an immersive play experience based in Miami, the city with the highest population of Cuban exiles. AMPARO "is the story of the family's entire history being erased and their heritage 'stolen'" according to playwright Vanessa Garcia.
Bacardi in the United States
" at the Bacardi distillery in Cataño, Puerto Rico, near San Juan]]
. In 2006, the company moved to Coral Gables, Florida.]]
In 1964, Bacardi opened new US offices in Miami, Florida. Exiled Cuban architect Enrique Gutierrez created a hurricane-proof building using a system of steel cables and pulleys that allowed the building to move slightly in the event of a strong shock. The steel cables are anchored into the bedrock and extend through marble-covered shafts up to the top floor, where they are led over large pulleys. Outside, on both sides of the eight-story building, more than 28,000 tiles painted and fired by Brazilian artist Francisco Brennand, depicting abstract blue flowers, were placed on the walls according to the artist's exact specifications.
In 1973, the company commissioned the square building in the plaza. Architect Ignacio Carrera-Justiz used cantilevered construction, a style invented by Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright observed how well trees with taproots withstood hurricane-force winds. The building, raised off the ground around a central core, features four massive walls made of sections of inch-thick hammered glass mural tapestries designed and manufactured in France. The striking design of the annex, affectionately known as the 'Jewel Box' building, came from a painting by German artist Johannes M. Dietz.
In 2006, Bacardi USA leased a 15-story headquarters complex in Coral Gables, Florida. At the time, Bacardi had employees in seven buildings across Miami-Dade County.
Bacardi vacated its former headquarters buildings on Biscayne Boulevard in Midtown Miami. The building currently serves as the headquarters of the National YoungArts Foundation. Miami citizens began a campaign to label the buildings as "historic". The Bacardi Buildings Complex has been a locally protected historic resource since Oct. 6, 2009, when it was designated by unanimous decision by the Historic and Environmental Preservation Board.
In 2007 Chad Oppenheim, the head of Oppenheim Architecture + Design, described the Bacardi buildings as "elegant, with a Modernist [look combined with] a local flavour". In April 2009, University of Miami professor of architecture Allan Schulman said "Miami's brand is its identity as a tropical city. The Bacardi buildings are exactly the sort that resonate with our consciousness of what Miami is about."
The American headquarters is in Coral Gables, Florida.Bacardi and Cuba today
in Cataño, Puerto Rico]]
Bacardi drinks are not easily found in Cuba today. The main brand of rum in Cuba is Havana Club, produced by a company that was confiscated and nationalized by the government following the revolution. Bacardi later bought the brand from the original owners, the Arechabala family. In partnership with the French company Pernod Ricard, the Cuban government sells its Havana Club products internationally, except in the United States and its territories. Bacardi created the Real Havana Club rum based on the original recipe from the Arechabala family, manufactures it in Puerto Rico, and sells it in the United States. Bacardi continues to fight in the courts, attempting to legalize their Havana Club trademark outside the United States. Acquisitions
Bacardi Limited has made numerous acquisitions to diversify away from the eponymous Bacardí rum brand.
In 1993, Bacardi merged with Martini & Rossi, the Italian producer of Martini vermouth and sparkling wines, creating the Bacardi-Martini group. Other associated brands include the Real Havana Club, Drambuie Scotch whisky liqueur, DiSaronno Amaretto, Eristoff vodka, Cazadores Tequila, B&B and Bénédictine liqueurs.
In 1998, Bacardi company acquired John Dewar & Sons, Ltd and Bombay Sapphire from Diageo for $2 billion.
In 2004, Bacardi purchased Grey Goose, a French-made vodka, from Sidney Frank for $2 billion.
In 2006 Bacardi purchased New Zealand vodka brand 42 Below.
In 2018, Bacardi purchased tequila manufacturer Patrón Spirits Company for $5.1 billion.
In 2023, Bacardi acquired the super-premium mezcal brand, Ilegal Mezcal.
In December 2023, Bacardi took majority control of Irish whiskey producer Teeling.
Brands
Bacardi beverage brands include:
Beer: Hatuey
Cachaça: Leblon
Cognac: Baron Otard, D'ussé
Gin: Bombay Sapphire, Bosford Rose, Oxley
Liqueur: Bénédictine, Cedlila, Get, Martini Spirito, Patrón Citrónge, St-Germain
Mezcal: Illegal
Rum: Bacardí, Banks, Castillo, Facundo, Havana Club (USA only), Pyrat, Santa Teresa, Single Cane Estate
Sparkling wine: Martini Alta Langa, Martini Asti, Martini Grandi Augur, Martini Magici Istanti, Martini Prosecco, Martini Riserva di Montellera. Martini Rosé
Tequila: Camino Real, Cazadores, Corzo, Patrón
Vermouth: Martini, Noilly Prat
Vodka: Eristoff, Grey Goose, Russian Prince, Ultimat Vodka, 42 Below
American whiskey: Angel's Envy, Stillhouse
Irish whiskey: Teeling
Scotch whisky:
Single malt Scotch whisky: Aberfeldy, Aultmore, Craigellachie, Deveron, Royal Brackla
Blended Scotch whisky: Dewar's, William Lawson's
Main brand
* Bacardi Superior
* Bacardi 8
* Bacardi Gran Reserva
* Bacardi Dark Rum
* Bacardi White Rum
* Bacardi Spiced Rum
* Bacardi Gold Rum
* Bacardi 151
* Bacardi Gold
* Bacardi Mojito
* Bacardi Breezers
* Bacardi Apple
* Bacardi Lemon
* Bacardi Carta Blanca
Awards
Bacardí rums have been entered for a number of international spirit ratings awards. Several Bacardí spirits have performed notably well. In 2020, Bacardí Superior, Bacardí Gold, Bacardí Black, Bacardí Añejo Cuatro were each awarded a gold medal by the International Quality Institute Monde Selection. In addition, both Bacardí Reserva Ocho and Bacardí Gran Reserva Diez were awarded the top honor of Grand Gold quality award.Hemingway connection
Ernest Hemingway lived in Cuba from 1939 until shortly after the Cuban Revolution. He lived at Finca Vigía, in the small town of San Francisco de Paula, located very close to Bacardi's Modelo Brewery for Hatuey Beer in Cotorro, Havana.
In 1954, Compañía Ron Bacardi S.A. threw Hemingway a party when he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature – soon after the publication of his novel The Old Man and the Sea (1952) – in which he honored the company by mentioning its Hatuey beer. Hemingway also mentioned Bacardí and Hatuey in his novels To Have and Have Not (1937) and For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940). Guillermo Cabrera Infante wrote an account of the festivities for the periodical Ciclón, titled "El Viejo y la Marca" ("The Old Man and the Brand", a play on "El Viejo y el Mar", the book's Spanish title). In his account he described how "on one side there was a wooden stage with two streamers – Hatuey beer and Bacardi rum – on each end and a Cuban flag in the middle. Next to the stage was a bar, at which people crowded, ordering daiquiris and beer, all free." A sign at the event read "Bacardi rum welcomes the author of The Old Man and the Sea".
In his article "The Old Man and the Daiquiri", Wayne Curtis writes about how Hemingway's "home bar also held a bottle of Bacardí rum". Hemingway wrote in Islands in the Stream, "...this frozen daiquirí, so well beaten as it is, looks like the sea where the wave falls away from the bow of a ship when she is doing thirty knots." Mishaps Death of Day Davis On August 16, 2012 temporary worker Lawrence Daquan "Day" Davis was crushed to death when a faulty palletizer he was cleaning was activated. It was his first day on the job at the Jacksonville, Florida Bacardi Bottling facility. An Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) investigation found 12 safety violations, and Bacardi was fined $192,000, but reached an agreement where it paid $110,000.
Russian invasion of Ukraine
In March 2022, after Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Bacardi announced that it would halt all exports to Russia and freeze investment and advertising programs. From June 2022 through June 2023, the company imported $169 million worth of products and tripled its profits, When this gained international media attention, the pledge disappeared from their company website. On August 10, 2023, Ukrainian authorities added Bacardi to their list of International Sponsors of War.See also* Lubee Bat Conservancy, an organization in Gainesville, Florida, founded by Facundo's great-grandson LuisReferencesExternal links
*
* [https://maps.google.com/maps?fq&hlen&qCata%C3%B1o+puerto+rico&ieUTF8&om1&z17&ll18.457486,-66.141118&spn0.007429,0.010858&tk&iwlocaddr Map of Distillery in Puerto Rico] from Google Maps
Category:Bacardi brands
Category:Rums
Category:Distilleries
Category:Alcoholic drink companies
Category:Food and drink companies established in 1862
Category:Food and drink companies of Bermuda
Category:Privately held companies of Bermuda
Category:1862 establishments in Cuba
Category:Food and drink companies of Cuba
Category:Sugar industry of British Overseas Territories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacardi
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4922
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Black and Tans
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thumb|250px|A member of the Auxiliary Division of the RIC in Dublin, smoking and carrying a Lewis gun, February 1921
The Black and Tans () were constables recruited into the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) as reinforcements during the Irish War of Independence. Recruitment began in Great Britain in January 1920, and about 10,000 men enlisted during the conflict. The majority were unemployed former British soldiers from England, Scotland and Wales who had fought in the First World War. Some sources count Irish recruits to the RIC from 1920 as "Black and Tans." At the time, "Black and Tans" was sometimes used for both groups. Another force, the Ulster Special Constabulary (commonly called the "B-Specials"), was founded in 1920 to reinforce the RIC in Northern Ireland.
The British administration in Ireland promoted the idea of bolstering the RIC with British recruits. They were to help the overstretched RIC maintain control and suppress the Irish Republican Army (IRA), although they were less well trained in ordinary police methods. The nickname "Black and Tans" arose from the colours of the improvised uniforms they initially wore, a mixture of dark green RIC (which appeared black) and khaki British Army. They served in all parts of Ireland, but most were sent to southern and western regions where fighting was heaviest. By 1921, for example the Black and Tans made up almost half of the RIC in County Tipperary.
Name
The nickname "Black and Tans" arose from the improvised uniforms they initially wore. Due to a shortage of RIC uniforms, the new recruits were issued with a mixture of dark RIC tunics and caps, and khaki army trousers. Christopher O'Sullivan wrote in the Limerick Echo on 25 March 1920 that, meeting a group of recruits on a train at Limerick Junction, the attire of one reminded him of the Scarteen Hunt, whose "Black and Tans" nickname derived from the colours of its Kerry Beagles. Ennis comedian Mike Nono elaborated the joke in Limerick's Theatre Royal, and the nickname soon took hold, persisting even after the men received full RIC uniforms. However, historians agree that they were not a separate reserve force but "recruits to the regular RIC" and "enlisted as regular constabulary". Canadian historian D. M. Leeson and Irish historian Seán William Gannon have not found the name in any historical documents.
Definition
As "Black and Tans" was not the official name of any RIC formation, there is some disagreement over which RIC men it should apply to. Some historians, such as David Leeson, Tom Toomey and Jim Herlihy, define "Black and Tans" as only those RIC recruits from Britain during the War of Independence. Leeson argues that British-recruited police received less training, which took place at Gormanston Camp rather than the RIC depot in Phoenix Park.
Foundation
The early 20th century in Ireland was dominated by Irish nationalists' pursuit of Home Rule from the United Kingdom. The issue of Home Rule was shelved with the outbreak of World War I, and in 1916 Irish republicans staged the Easter Rising against British rule in an attempt to establish an independent republic. Growing support amongst the Irish populace for the republican Sinn Féin party saw it win a majority of Irish seats in the 1918 general election. On 21 January 1919, Sinn Féin followed through on its manifesto and founded an independent Irish parliament (Dáil Éireann), which then declared an independent Irish Republic. The Dáil called on the public to boycott the RIC, while the Irish Republican Army (IRA) began attacking police barracks and ambushing police patrols. In September 1919 David Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister, outlawed the Dáil and augmented the British Army presence in Ireland.
After the First World War, there were many unemployed ex-servicemen in Britain. British Unionist leader Walter Long had suggested recruiting these men into the RIC in a May 1919 letter to John French, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. The idea was promoted by French as well as by Frederick Shaw, Commander of the British Army in Ireland. The RIC's Inspector General, Joseph Byrne, was against it. He resisted the militarisation of the police and believed ex-soldiers could not be controlled by police discipline. In December 1919, Byrne was replaced by his deputy T. J. Smith, an Orangeman. On 27 December, Smith issued an order authorising recruitment in Britain.
Recruits
About 10,000 were recruited between January 1920 and the end of the conflict. About 100 were recruited each month from January to June 1920. The recruitment rate rose from July, when the RIC was given a large pay raise. The RIC began losing men at a high rate in the summer of 1920, due to the IRA campaign. On an average week, about 100 men resigned or retired while only 76 recruits enlisted to replace them. More police were needed, but enough replacements could not be found in Ireland; on average, the RIC recruited only seven Irishmen per week. The intake of British recruits steadily rose and then surged from late September, following the widely publicised Sack of Balbriggan.
The vast majority of Black and Tans were unemployed First World War veterans in their twenties, most of whom joined for economic reasons. According to historian David Leeson, "The typical Black and Tan was in his early twenties and relatively short in stature. He was an unmarried Protestant from London or the Home Counties who had fought in the British Army [...] He was a working-class man with few skills".
According to Jim Herlihy, author of The Royal Irish Constabulary – A Short History and Genealogical Guide, 10,936 Black and Tans were recruited; the vast majority were born in Britain, while 883 (8%) were "Irish-born". By 1921, Black and Tans made up nearly half of all RIC constables in County Tipperary, for example. They also undertook guard, escort and crowd control duties. While some Irish constables got along well with the Black and Tans, "it seems that many Irish police did not like their new British colleagues" and saw them as "rough". Differing discipline, dialect and ignorance of "local knowledge" contributed to an estrangement between the Black and Tans and the greater police force which at times rose to violent infighting. from Forfar in Scotland, was the first Black and Tan to die in the conflict. He was killed during an IRA attack on the RIC barracks in Rathmore, County Kerry, on 11 July 1920.
The Black and Tans soon gained a reputation for brutality. In the summer of 1920, Black and Tans began responding to IRA attacks by carrying out arbitrary reprisals against civilians, especially republicans. This usually involved the burning of homes, businesses, meeting halls and farms. Some buildings were also attacked with gunfire and grenades, and businesses were looted. Reprisals on property "were often accompanied by beatings and killings". Many villages suffered mass reprisals, including the Sack of Balbriggan (20 September), Kilkee (26 September), Trim (27 September), Tubbercurry (30 September) and Granard (31 October). Following the Rineen ambush (22 September) in which six RIC men were killed, police burned many houses in the surrounding villages of Milltown Malbay, Lahinch and Ennistymon, and killed five civilians. In early November, Black and Tans "besieged" Tralee in revenge for the IRA abduction and killing of two local RIC men. They closed all the businesses in the town, let no food in for a week and shot dead three local civilians. On 14 November, Black and Tans were suspected of abducting and murdering a Roman Catholic priest, Father Michael Griffin, in Galway. His body was found in a bog in Barna a week later. From October 1920 to July 1921, the Galway region was "remarkable in many ways", most notably the level of police brutality towards suspected IRA members, which was far above the norm in the rest of Ireland. In December 1920, the government officially approved certain reprisals against property. There were an estimated 150 official reprisals over the next six months. Taken together with an increased emphasis on discipline in the RIC, this helped to curb the atrocities the Black and Tans committed for the remainder of the war, if only because reprisals were now directed from above rather than being the result of a spontaneous desire for revenge.
Many of the activities popularly attributed to the Black and Tans may have been committed by the Auxiliary Division or 'old' RIC constables. For instance, Tomás Mac Curtain, the Mayor of Cork, was killed in his home on the night of 19 March 1920, when few Black and Tans were stationed in the city. The coroner's inquest found that Mac Curtain had been murdered by unknown members of the RIC, and named District Inspector Oswald Swanzy as the responsible officer. The RIC transferred Swanzy from Cork to Lisburn, County Antrim for his own safety, but he was killed by the IRA on 22 August 1920. The Burning of Cork city on 11 December 1920 was carried out by K Company of the Auxiliary Division, in reprisal for an IRA ambush at Dillon's Cross. The shooting dead by Crown forces of 13 civilians at Croke Park on Bloody Sunday, in retaliation for the killing of British intelligence officers was carried out by a mixed force of military, Auxiliaries and RIC, though it is not clear who initiated the shooting. In the aftermath, "The army blamed the Auxiliaries and the Auxiliaries blamed the regular police".
Reaction
The actions of the Black and Tans alienated public opinion in both Ireland and Great Britain. Their violent tactics encouraged the Irish public to increase their covert support of the IRA, while the British public pressed for a move towards a peaceful resolution.
In January 1921, the British Labour Commission produced a report on the situation in Ireland which was highly critical of the government's security policy. It said the government, in forming the Black and Tans, had "liberated forces which it is not at present able to dominate". Sir John Simon MP, another future Foreign Secretary, was also horrified at the tactics being used. Lionel Curtis, writing in the imperialist journal The Round Table, wrote: "If the British Commonwealth can only be preserved by such means, it would become a negation of the principle for which it has stood". The King, senior Anglican bishops, MPs from the Liberal and Labour parties, Oswald Mosley, Jan Smuts, the Trades Union Congress and parts of the press were increasingly critical of the actions of the Black and Tans. Mahatma Gandhi said of the British peace offer: "It is not fear of losing more lives that has compelled a reluctant offer from England but it is the shame of any further imposition of agony upon a people that loves liberty above everything else".
Disbandment
More than a third left the service before they were disbanded along with the rest of the RIC in 1922, an extremely high wastage rate, and well over half received government pensions. Over 500 members of the RIC died in the conflict and more than 600 were wounded. Some sources have stated that 525 police were killed in the conflict, including 152 Black and Tans and 44 Auxiliaries. and 12 members of the Dublin Metropolitan Police.
Many Black and Tans were left unemployed after the RIC was disbanded and about 3,000 were in need of financial assistance after their employment in Ireland was terminated. About 250 Black and Tans and Auxiliaries, among over 1,300 former RIC personnel, joined the Royal Ulster Constabulary. Another 700 joined the Palestine Police Force which was led by former British Chief of Police in Ireland, Henry Hugh Tudor. Others were resettled in Canada or elsewhere by the RIC Resettlement branch.
Legacy
Due to the enduring historical memory of the Black and Tans' violence, historian David Leeson describes them as "the most notorious police in the history of the British Isles".
In 2020, Justice Minister Charlie Flanagan proposed a commemoration ceremony for those who had served in the Royal Irish Constabulary. This resulted in widespread criticism due to the Black and Tans being members of the RIC; many officials announced that they would not appear and refused to participate. Flanagan decided to cancel the ceremony due to the controversy.
References
External links
BBC News Northern Ireland 1917–20 The Road to Partition posted March 18, 1999
"The Black & Tans and Auxiliaries in Ireland, 1920–1921: Their Origins, Roles and Legacy", by John Ainsworth, 2001
D. M. Leeson: Black and Tans and Auxiliaries, in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Account of the Burning of Abbeydorney, Co. Kerry
British Security Policy in Ireland, 1920–1921 Ainsworth, John S. (2001) Australian Journal of Irish Studies, 1. pp. 176–190
Black & Tans in Galway (first hand account and photos)
Sean Broderick and the Black & Tans (first hand account and photos from Galway)
Father Michael Griffin (first hand account and photos from Galway)
Category:Irish War of Independence
Category:Royal Irish Constabulary
Category:Paramilitary organisations based in Ireland
Category:Paramilitary police
Category:Political repression in the United Kingdom
Category:1919 establishments in Ireland
Category:1919 establishments in the United Kingdom
Category:1922 disestablishments in Ireland
Category:1922 establishments in the United Kingdom
Category:Reprisals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_and_Tans
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4924
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Bunsen burner
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| inventor = <!--Robert Wilhelm Bunsen- No!See article-->
| manufacturer | model
| related =
}}
A Bunsen burner, named after Robert Bunsen, is a kind of ambient air gas burner used as laboratory equipment; it produces a single open gas flame, and is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion.
The gas can be natural gas (which is mainly methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, butane, a mixture or, as Bunsen himself used, coal gas. Combustion temperature achieved depends in part on the adiabatic flame temperature of the chosen fuel mixture.
History
In 1852, the University of Heidelberg hired Bunsen and promised him a new laboratory building. The city of Heidelberg had begun to install coal-gas street lighting, and the university laid gas lines to the new laboratory.
The designers of the building intended to use the gas not just for lighting, but also as fuel for burners for laboratory operations. For any burner lamp, it was desirable to maximize the temperature of its flame, and minimize its luminosity (which represented lost heating energy). Bunsen sought to improve existing laboratory burner lamps as regards economy, simplicity, and flame temperature, and adapt them to coal-gas fuel.
While the building was under construction in late 1854, Bunsen suggested certain design principles to the university's mechanic, Peter Desaga, and asked him to construct a prototype. Similar principles had been used in an earlier burner design by Michael Faraday, and in a device patented in 1856 by gas engineer R. W. Elsner. The Bunsen/Desaga design generated a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion. Desaga created adjustable slits for air at the bottom of the cylindrical burner, with the flame issuing at the top. When the building opened early in 1855, Desaga had made 50 burners for Bunsen's students. Two years later Bunsen published a description, and many of his colleagues soon adopted the design. Bunsen burners are now used in laboratories around the world.
Operation
The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a flammable gas such as natural gas (which is principally methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a mixture of both.
The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the laboratory bench with rubber tubing. Most laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a central gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen, and steam nozzles. The gas then flows up through the base through a small hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward. There are open slots in the side of the tube bottom to admit air into the stream using the Venturi effect, and the gas burns at the top of the tube once ignited by a flame or spark. The most common methods of lighting the burner are using a match or a spark lighter.
The amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the combustion reaction. Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well mixed with air provides oxygen in a stoichiometric amount and thus a complete and hotter reaction. The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the slot openings at the base of the barrel, similar in function to the choke in a carburettor.
]]
If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result. If the holes are closed, the gas will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion, that is, only after it has exited the tube at the top. This reduced mixing produces an incomplete reaction, producing a cooler but brighter yellow, which is often called the "safety flame" or "luminous flame". The yellow flame is luminous due to small soot particles in the flame, which are heated to incandescence. The yellow flame is considered "dirty" because it leaves a layer of carbon on whatever it is heating. When the burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame, it can be nearly invisible against some backgrounds. The hottest part of the flame is the tip of the inner flame, while the coolest is the whole inner flame. Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the tube by opening the needle valve will increase the size of the flame. However, unless the airflow is adjusted as well, the flame temperature will decrease because an increased amount of gas is now mixed with the same amount of air, starving the flame of oxygen.
Generally, the burner is placed underneath a laboratory tripod, which supports a beaker or other container. The burner will often be placed on a suitable heatproof mat to protect the laboratory bench surface.
A Bunsen burner is also used in microbiology laboratories to sterilise pieces of equipment and to produce an updraft that forces airborne contaminants away from the working area.Variants
Other burners based on the same principle exist. The most important alternatives to the Bunsen burner are:
* Teclu burner – The lower part of its tube is conical, with a round screw nut below its base. The gap, set by the distance between the nut and the end of the tube, regulates the influx of the air in a way similar to the open slots of the Bunsen burner. The Teclu burner provides better mixing of air and fuel and can achieve higher flame temperatures than the Bunsen burner.
* Meker burner – The lower part of its tube has more openings with larger total cross-section, admitting more air and facilitating better mixing of air and gas. The tube is wider and its top is covered with a wire grid. The grid separates the flame into an array of smaller flames with a common external envelope, and also prevents flashback to the bottom of the tube, which is a risk at high air-to-fuel ratios and limits the maximum rate of air intake in a conventional Bunsen burner. Flame temperatures of up to are achievable if properly used. The flame also burns without noise, unlike the Bunsen or Teclu burners.
* Tirrill burner – The base of the burner has a needle valve which allows the regulation of gas intake directly from the burner, rather than from the gas source. Maximum temperature of flame can reach 1560 °C.
See also
* Alcohol burner
* Heating mantle
* Meker-Fisher burner
References
External links
*
*
Category:Burners
Category:Combustion engineering
Category:German inventions
Category:Laboratory equipment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunsen_burner
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2025-04-05T18:27:01.050323
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4925
|
Blue whale
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| status = EN
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref
| status2 = CITES_A1
| status2_system = CITES
| status2_ref
| image = Anim1754 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg
| image_caption =
| image2 = blue whale size.svg
| image2_caption =
| genus = Balaenoptera
| species = musculus
| authority = (Linnaeus, 1758)
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision =
* B. m. brevicauda <small>Ichihara, 1966</small>
* ?B. m. indica <small>Blyth, 1859</small>
* B. m. intermedia <small>Burmeister, 1871</small>
* B. m. musculus <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small>
| range_map = Cypron-Range Balaenoptera musculus.svg
| range_map_caption = Blue whale range (in blue)
| synonyms =
* Balaena musculus
* Balaenoptera gibbar <small>Scoresby 1820</small>
* Pterobalaena gigas <small>Van Beneden 1861</small>
* Physalus latirostris <small>Flower 1864</small>
* Sibbaldius borealis <small>Gray 1866</small>
* Flowerius gigas <small>Lilljeborg 1867</small>
* Sibbaldius sulfureus <small>Cope 1869</small>
* Balaenoptera sibbaldii <small>Sars 1875</small>
}}
The blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is a marine mammal and a baleen whale. Reaching a maximum confirmed length of and weighing up to , it is the largest animal known ever to have existed. pregnant female whale caught off Iceland in 1986 found that it had a blue whale mother and a fin whale father, while its fetus was sired by a blue whale.
In 2024, a genome analysis of North Atlantic blue whales found evidence that approximately 3.5% of the blue whales' genome was derived from hybridization with fin whales. Gene flow was found to be unidirectional from fin whales to blue whales. Comparison with Antarctic blue whales showed that this hybridization began after the separation of the northern and southern populations. Despite their smaller size, fin whales have similar cruising and sprinting speeds to blue whales, which would allow fin males to complete courtship chases with blue females.
There is a reference to a humpback–blue whale hybrid in the South Pacific, attributed to marine biologist Michael Poole.Subspecies and stocksAt least four subspecies of blue whale are traditionally recognized, some of which are divided into population stocks or "management units". They have a worldwide distribution, but are mostly absent from the Arctic Ocean and the Mediterranean, Okhotsk, and Bering Sea. Chilean blue whales might overlap in the Eastern Tropical Pacific with Antarctica blue whales and Eastern North Pacific blue whales. Chilean blue whales are genetically differentiated from Antarctica blue whales such that interbreeding is unlikely. However, the genetic distinction is less between them and the Eastern North Pacific blue whale, hence there might be gene flow between the Southern and Northern Hemispheres. A 2019 study by Luis Pastene, Jorge Acevedo and Trevor Branch provided new morphometric data from a survey of 60 Chilean blue whales, hoping to address the debate about the possible distinction of this population from others in the Southern Hemisphere. Data from this study, based on whales collected in the 1965/1966 whaling season, shows that both the maximum and mean body length of Chilean blue whales lies between these values in pygmy and Antarctic blue whales. Data also indicates a potential difference in snout-eye measurements between the three, and a significant difference in fluke-anus length between the Chilean population and pygmy blue whales. This further confirms Chilean blue whales as a separate population, and implies that they do not fall under the same subspecies as the pygmy blue whale (B. m. brevicauda).
A 2024 genomic study of the global blue whale population found support for the subspecific status of Antarctic and Indo-western Pacific blue whales but not eastern Pacific blue whales. The study found "...divergence between the eastern North and eastern South Pacific, and among the eastern Indian Ocean, the western South Pacific and the northern Indian Ocean." and "no divergence within the Antarctic".
Description
, showing the blowhole]]
The blue whale is a slender-bodied cetacean with a broad U-shaped head; thin, elongated flippers; a small sickle-shaped dorsal fin located close to the tail, and a large tail stock at the root of the wide and thin flukes. The upper jaw is lined with 70–395 black baleen plates. The throat region has 60–88 grooves which allows the skin to expand during feeding. It has two blowholes that can squirt up in the air. The mottling patterns near the dorsal fin vary between individuals. The underbelly has lighter pigmentation and can appear yellowish due to diatoms in the water, The male blue whale has the largest penis in the animal kingdom, at around long and wide.
Size
measuring ]]
The blue whale is the largest animal known ever to have existed. Some studies have estimated that certain shastasaurid ichthyosaurs and the ancient whale Perucetus could have rivalled the blue whale in size, with Perucetus also being heavier than the blue whale with a mean weight of . These estimates are based on fragmentary remains, and the proposed size for the latter has been disputed in 2024. Other studies estimate that on land, large sauropods like Bruhathkayosaurus (mean weight: 110–170 tons) and Maraapunisaurus (mean weight: 80–120 tons) would have easily rivalled the blue whale, with the former even exceeding the blue whale based on its most liberal estimations (240 tons), although these estimates are based on even more fragmentary specimens that had disintegrated by the time those estimates were made.
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) whaling database reports 88 individuals longer than , including one of . The Discovery Committee reported lengths up to . The longest scientifically measured individual blue whale was from rostrum tip to tail notch. Female blue whales are larger than males. Hydrodynamic models suggest a blue whale could not exceed because of metabolic and energy constraints.
The average length of sexually mature female blue whales is for Eastern North Pacific blue whales, for central and western North Pacific blue whales, for North Atlantic blue whales, for Antarctic blue whales, for Chilean blue whales, and for pygmy blue whales.
In the Northern Hemisphere, males weigh an average and females . Eastern North Pacific blue whale males average and females . Antarctic males average and females . Pygmy blue whale males average to . The weight of the heart of a stranded North Atlantic blue whale was , the largest known in any animal. The record-holder blue whale was recorded at , with estimates of up to .
In 2024, Motani and Pyenson calculated the body mass of blue whales at different lengths, compiling records of their sizes from previous academic literatures and using regression analyses and volumetric analyses. A long individual was estimated to weigh approximately , while a long individual was estimated to weigh approximately . Considering that the largest blue whale was indeed long, they estimated that a blue whale of such length would have weighed approximately . Life span Blue whales live around 80–90 years or more. The oldest blue whale found was determined, using this method, to be 110 years old. The maximum age of a pygmy blue whale determined this way is 73 years. In addition, female blue whales develop scars or corpora albicantia on their ovaries every time they ovulate. In a female pygmy blue whale, one corpus albicans is formed on average every 2.6 years. The animals appear to use memory to locate the best feeding areas. There is evidence of alternative strategies, such as year-round residency, and partial (where only some individuals migrate) or age/sex-based migration. Some whales have been recorded feeding in breeding grounds. Blue whale typically swim at but may swim faster at during encounters with boats, predators or other individuals. Their massive size limits their ability to breach.
The greatest dive depth reported from tagged blue whales was . however, the longest dive measured was 15.2 minutes. A blue whale's heart rate can drop to 2 beats per minute (bpm) at deep depths, but upon surfacing, can rise to 37 bpm, which is close to its peak heart rate.Diet and feedingThe blue whale's diet consists almost exclusively of krill. They squeeze the water out through their baleen plates with pressure from the throat pouch and tongue, and swallow the remaining krill. Blue whales have been recorded making 180° rolls during lunge-feeding, possibly allowing them to search the prey field and find the densest patches.
While pursuing krill patches, blue whales maximize their calorie intake by increasing the number of lunges while selecting the thickest patches. This provides them enough energy for everyday activities while storing additional energy necessary for migration and reproduction. Due to their size, blue whales have larger energetic demands than most animals resulting in their need for this specific feeding habit. Blue whales have to engulf densities greater than 100 krill/m<sup>3</sup> to maintain the cost of lunge feeding. They can consume from one mouthful of krill, which can provide up to 240 times more energy than used in a single lunge. On average, an blue whale eats each day. In California, they feed mostly on Thysanoessa spinifera, but also less commonly on North pacific krill (Euphausia pacifica). Research of the Eastern North Pacific population shows that when diving to feed on krill, the whales reach an average depth of 201 meters, with dives lasting 9.8 minutes on average. Different whale species select different feeding spaces and times as well as different prey species. In the Southern Ocean, baleen whales appear to feed on Antarctic krill of different sizes, which may lessen competition between them.
Blue whale feeding habits may differ due to situational disturbances, like environmental shifts or human interference. This can cause a change in diet due to stress response. Due to these changing situations, there was a study performed on blue whales measuring cortisol levels and comparing them with the levels of stressed individuals, it gave a closer look to the reasoning behind their diet and behavioral changes.Reproduction and birthThe age of sexual maturity for blue whales is thought to be 5–15 years. In the Northern Hemisphere, the length at which they reach maturity is for females and for males. In the Southern Hemisphere, the length of maturity is and for females and males respectively. Male pygmy blue whales average at sexual maturity. Female pygmy blue whales are in length Since corpora are added every ~2.5 years after sexual maturity, physical maturity is assumed to occur at 35 years. Little is known about mating behavior, or breeding and birthing areas. A male blue whale typically trails a female and will fight off potential rivals. The species mates from fall to winter. amounting to 60% of their overall body weight throughout summer foraging periods. Gestation may last 10–12 months with calves being long and weighing at birth. The first video of a calf thought to be nursing was filmed in New Zealand in 2016. Calves may be weaned when they reach 6–8 months old at a length of .
Vocalizations
Blue whales produce some of the loudest and lowest frequency vocalizations in the animal kingdom, The fundamental frequency for blue whale vocalizations ranges from 8 to 25 Hz. Blue whale songs vary between populations.
Vocalizations produced by the Eastern North Pacific population have been well studied. This population produces pulsed calls ("A") and tonal calls ("B"), upswept tones that precede type B calls ("C") and separate downswept tones ("D"). A and B calls are often produced in repeated co-occurring sequences and sung only by males, suggesting a reproductive function. D calls may have multiple functions. They are produced by both sexes during social interactions while feeding. and by males when competing for mates. A blue whale call recorded off Madagascar, a two-unit phrase, consists of 5–7 pulses with a center frequency of 35.1 ± 0.7 Hz lasting 4.4 ± 0.5 seconds proceeding a 35 ± 0 Hz tone that is 10.9 ± 1.1 seconds long.
There is evidence that some blue whale songs have temporally declined in tonal frequency. The vocalization of blue whales in the Eastern North Pacific decreased in tonal frequency by 31% from the early 1960s to the early 21st century. Off southeastern Australia, 3.7% of blue whales photographed had rake marks and 42.1% of photographed pygmy blue whales off Western Australia had rake marks. Documented predation by orcas has been rare. A blue whale mother and calf were first observed being chased at high speeds by orcas off southeastern Australia. The first documented attack occurred in 1977 off southwestern Baja California, Mexico, but the injured whale escaped after five hours. Four more blue whales were documented as being chased by a group of orcas between 1982 and 2003. The first documented predation event by orcas occurred in September 2003, when a group of orcas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific was encountered feeding on a recently killed blue whale calf. In March 2014, a commercial whale watch boat operator recorded an incident involving a group of orcas harassing a blue whale in Monterey Bay. The blue whale defended itself by slapping its tail. A similar incident was recorded by a drone in Monterey Bay in May 2017. The first direct observations of orca predation occurred off the south coast of Western Australia, two in 2019 and one more in 2021. The first victim was estimated to be .
In Antarctic waters, blue whales accumulate diatoms of the species Cocconeis ceticola and the genera Navicola, which are normally removed when the whales enter warmer waters. Other external parasites include barnacles such as Coronula diadema, Coronula reginae, and Cryptolepas rhachianecti, which latch on their skin deep enough to leave behind a pit if removed. Whale lice species make their home in cracks of the skin and are relatively harmless. The copepod species Pennella balaenopterae digs in and attaches itself to the blubber to feed on. Intestinal parasites include the trematode genera Ogmogaster and Lecithodesmus; the tapeworm genera Priapocephalus, Phyllobotrium, Tetrabothrius, Diphyllobotrium, and Diplogonoporus; and the thorny-headed worm genus Bolbosoma. In the North Atlantic, blue whales also contain the protozoans Entamoeba, Giardia and Balantidium.
Conservation
The global blue whale population is estimated to be 5,000–15,000 mature individuals and 10,000–25,000 total as of 2018. By comparison, there were at least 140,000 mature whales in 1926. There are an estimated total of 1,000–3,000 whales in the North Atlantic, 3,000–5,000 in the North Pacific, and 5,000–8,000 in the Antarctic. There are possibly 1,000–3,000 whales in the eastern South Pacific while the pygmy blue whale may number 2,000–5,000 individuals. The protected status of North Atlantic blue whales was not recognized by Iceland until 1960. In the United States, the species is protected under the Endangered Species Act. and the IUCN Red List. and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. Although, for some populations, there is not enough information on current abundance trends (e.g., pygmy blue whales), others are critically endangered (e.g., Antarctic blue whales).
Threats
platform]]
In 2017, DNA evidence was used to identify whale bones at Icelandic archaeological sites. Of the 124 bones analyzed more than 50% were from blue whales and some dated as far back as 900 CE. This, and other evidence, suggests that Icelanders were hunting whales as early as the 9th century, just as the settlement of Iceland began. Thus Icelanders would have been among the earliest known humans to hunt the blue whale.
Blue whales were initially difficult to hunt because of their size and speed. Blue whale whaling peaked between 1930 and 1931 with 30,000 animals taken. Harvesting of the species was particularly high in the Antarctic, with 350,000–360,000 whales taken in the first half of the 20th century. In addition, 11,000 North Atlantic whales (mostly around Iceland) and 9,500 North Pacific whales were killed during the same period. However, the Soviet Union continued to illegally hunt blue whales and other species up until the 1970s.
Ship strikes are a significant mortality factor for blue whales, especially off the U.S. West Coast. A total of 17 blue whales were killed or suspected to have been killed by ships between 1998 and 2019 off the U.S. West Coast. Lethal ship strikes are also a problem in Sri Lankan waters, where their habitat intersects with one of the world's most active shipping routes. Here, strikes caused the deaths of eleven blue whales in 2010 and 2012, and at least two in 2014. Ship-strike mortality claimed the lives of two blue whales off southern Chile in the 2010s. Possible measures for reducing future ship strikes include better predictive models of whale distribution, changes in shipping lanes, vessel speed reductions, and seasonal and dynamic management of shipping lanes. Few cases of blue whale entanglement in commercial fishing gear have been documented. The first report in the U.S. occurred off California in 2015, reportedly some type of deep-water trap/pot fishery. Three more entanglement cases were reported in 2016. In Sri Lanka, a blue whale was documented with a net wrapped through its mouth, along the sides of its body, and wound around its tail.
Increasing man-made underwater noise impacts blue whales. They may be exposed to noise from commercial shipping and seismic surveys as a part of oil and gas exploration. Blue whales in the Southern California Bight decreased calling in the presence of mid-frequency active (MFA) sonar. Exposure to simulated MFA sonar was found to interrupt blue whale deep-dive feeding, but no changes in behavior were observed in individuals feeding at shallower depths. The responses also depended on the animal's behavioral state, its (horizontal) distance from the sound source and the availability of prey.
The potential impacts of pollutants on blue whales is unknown. However, because blue whales feed low on the food chain, there is a lesser chance for bioaccumulation of organic chemical contaminants. Analysis of the earwax of a male blue whale killed by a collision with a ship off the coast of California showed contaminants like pesticides, flame retardants, and mercury. Reconstructed persistent organic pollutant (POP) profiles suggested that a substantial maternal transfer occurred during gestation and/or lactation. Male blue whales in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, were found to have higher concentrations of PCBs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), metabolites, and several other organochlorine compounds relative to females, reflecting maternal transfer of these persistent contaminants from females into young.
See also
* Largest organisms
* List of cetaceans
* List of largest mammals
* List of whale vocalizations
Note
References
Further reading
*
*
* [http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/bluewhale.htm NOAA Fisheries, Office of Protected Resources] Blue whale biology & status
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150226002906/http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/listen-to-project-sounds/blue-whale Blue whale vocalizations] – Cornell Lab of Ornithology—Bioacoustics Research Program (archived 26 February 2015)
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/species/Blue_Whale Blue whale video clips and news from the BBC – BBC Wildlife Finder]
* [http://voicesinthesea.ucsd.edu/species/baleenWhales/blue.html Voices in the Sea – Sounds of the Blue Whale]
* [https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/blue-whale NOAA Stock Assessments]
* [http://www.bbcamerica.com/shows/the-hunt/video-extras/life-of-a-hunter-blue-whale Life of a Hunter: Blue Whale] – BBC America
* [http://www.bbcamerica.com/shows/the-hunt/season-1/episode-07-living-with-predators Living With Predators] – BBC America
Category:Balaenoptera
Category:Mammals described in 1758
Category:Conservation-reliant species
Category:Cosmopolitan mammals
Category:Biological records
Category:ESA endangered species
Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
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Bolsheviks
|
| founder = Vladimir Lenin
| dissolved | headquarters
| leader_name = Vladimir Lenin
| key_people | native name Большевики
| image = Presidium of the 9th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks).jpg
| image_size = 260px
| caption = Bolshevik Party meeting, 1920: sitting (from left to right) are Yenukidze, Kalinin, Bukharin, Tomsky, Lashevich, Kamenev, Preobrazhensky, Serebryakov, Lenin, and Rykov in front
| formerly | successor Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)
| products = Pravda (newspaper)
| parent_organization = Russian Social Democratic Labour Party
}}
The Bolsheviks (, ; from большинство, , 'majority'), led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks), "minority", which comes from mén'she'' (), "less".}} at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The Bolshevik party, formally established in 1912, seized power in Russia in the October Revolution of 1917, and was later renamed the Russian Communist Party, All-Union Communist Party, and ultimately the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Its ideology, based on Leninist and later Marxist–Leninist principles, became known as Bolshevism.
The origin of the RSDLP split was Lenin's support for a smaller party of professional revolutionaries, as opposed to the Menshevik desire for a broad party membership. The influence of the factions fluctuated in the years up to 1912, when the RSDLP formally split in two. The political philosophy of the Bolsheviks was based on the Leninist principles of vanguardism and democratic centralism. Lenin was also more willing to use illegal means such as robbery to fund the party's activities. Influenced by the experience of World War I, by 1917 he had concluded that the chain of world capitalism could "break at its weakest link" in Russia before it had reached the level of the advanced countries, contrary to theorists such as Georgi Plekhanov. Lenin had also come to view poorer peasants as potential allies of the relatively small Russian proletariat.
After the February Revolution of 1917, Lenin returned to Russia and issued his April Theses, which called for "no support for the Provisional Government" and "all power to the soviets". During the summer of 1917, which saw events including the July Days and Kornilov affair, large numbers of radicalized workers joined the Bolsheviks, which planned the October Revolution that overthrew the government. The Bolsheviks initially governed in coalition with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, but increasingly centralized power and suppressed opposition during the Russian Civil War, and after 1921 became the sole legal party in Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union. Under Joseph Stalin's leadership, Bolshevism became linked to his policies of "socialism in one country", rapid industrialization, collectivized agriculture, and centralized state control.
History of the split
Vladimir Lenin's ideology in What Is to Be Done?
, 1920]]
Lenin's political pamphlet What Is to Be Done?, written in 1901, helped to precipitate the Bolsheviks' split from the Mensheviks. In Germany, the book was published in 1902, but in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by a strong, professional leadership with deep dedication to Marxist theoretical principles and an organization that spanned through the whole of Russia, abandoning what Lenin called "artisanal work" towards a more organized revolutionary work. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the Russian autocracy, this strong leadership would relinquish power and allow a Socialist party to fully develop within the principles of democratic centralism. Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain influence over the fight of the workers, then that fight would steer away from the party's objective and carry on under the influence of opposing beliefs or even away from revolution entirely.
The pamphlet also showed that Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia was in line with Marxist theory. For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist ideal of social classes ceasing to be and for the eventual "withering away of the state". Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society. This pamphlet also showed that Lenin opposed another group of reformers, known as "Economists", who were for economic reform while leaving the government relatively unchanged and who, in Lenin's view, failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.Second Party CongressAt the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP, which was held in Brussels and then London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the party membership rules. Lenin, who was supported by Georgy Plekhanov, wanted to limit membership to those who supported the party full-time and worked in complete obedience to the elected party leadership. Martov wanted to extend membership to anyone "who recognises the Party Programme and supports it by material means and by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations." Lenin believed his plan would develop a core group of professional revolutionaries who would devote their full time and energy towards developing the party into an organization capable of leading a successful proletarian revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.
The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism. Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but he argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers, and other fellow travellers. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party. At first, the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from Iskra or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed. The differences grew and the split became irreparable.
Internal unrest also arose over the political structure that was best suited for Soviet power. As discussed in What Is To Be Done?, Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from once close allies, including Martov, Plekhanov, Vera Zasulich, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod. Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization, whereas Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the socialist mode of production path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as "softs" while Lenin supporters became known as "hards".
Some of the factionalism could be attributed to Lenin's steadfast belief in his own opinion and what was described by Plekhanov as Lenin's inability to "bear opinions which were contrary to his own" and loyalty to his own self-envisioned utopia. Lenin was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow-minded and unable to accept criticism that he believed that anyone who did not follow him was his enemy. Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre.Etymology of Bolshevik and MenshevikThe two factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) were originally known as hard (Lenin supporters) and soft (Martov supporters). In the 2nd Congress vote, Lenin's faction won votes on the majority of important issues, and soon came to be known as Bolsheviks, from the Russian bolshinstvo, 'majority'. Likewise, Martov's group came to be known as Mensheviks, from menshinstvo, 'minority'. However, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership, and neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. In the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.
Starting in 1907, English-language articles sometimes used the term Maximalist for "Bolshevik" and Minimalist for "Menshevik", which proved to be confusing as there was also a "Maximalist" faction within the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1904–1906 (which, after 1906, formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.
The Bolsheviks ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks, or Reds, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the 1917 Russian Revolution, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922.
Demographics of the two factions
The average party member was very young: in 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20 years of age; 37% were 20–24 years of age; and 16% were 25–29 years of age. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897). Twenty-two percent of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population) and 38% were uprooted peasants; compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish; compared to 34% and 20% for the Mensheviks. Total Bolshevik membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906, and 46,100 by 1907; compared to 8,400, 18,000 and 38,200 for the Mensheviks. By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 100,000 members.
Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–05)
Between 1903 and 1904, the two factions were in a state of flux, with many members changing sides. Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, who at first allied himself with Lenin and the Bolsheviks, had parted ways with them by 1904. Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described "non-factional social democrat" until August 1917, when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks, as their positions resembled his and he came to believe that Lenin was correct on the issue of the party.
All but one member of the RSDLP Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new committee, was won over by the Bolsheviks. The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the 3rd Party Congress. The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus finalized.
The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. However, the less significant Moscow Soviet was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These Soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.
Mensheviks (1906–07)
As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the 4th Congress of the RSDLP held in April 1906 at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget, in Stockholm. When the Mensheviks made an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.
However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the 5th Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.
Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10)
Tensions had existed between Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov from as early as 1904. Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov after Valentinov had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism. Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov, on Zarya, Lenin had come to agree with the Valentinov's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism.
With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma. Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and others argued for participating in the Duma while Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky, and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as "recallists" (Russian: otzovists). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP Central Committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as "ultimatists" and was generally allied with the recallists.
With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled Materialism and Empirio-criticism (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism. In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as Proletarian Universities at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine Proletary. However, this proposal was not adopted and Lenin tried to expel Bogdanov from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.Final attempt at party unity (1910)
With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, the two factions were tempted to try to reunite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists, and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea; but under pressure from conciliatory Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin, they were willing to give it a try.
One of the underlying reasons that prevented any reunification of the party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks and helped prevent their uniting.
Lenin was firmly opposed to any reunification but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached a tentative agreement, and one of its provisions was to make Trotsky's Vienna-based Pravda, a party-financed central organ. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law who was with the Bolsheviks, was added to the editorial board; but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.
Forming a separate party (1912)
, Vladimir Lenin, and Lev Kamenev]]
The factions permanently broke relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) – or RSDLP(b). Unofficially, the party has been referred to as the Bolshevik Party. Throughout the 20th century, the party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925. From 1925 to 1952, the name was All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and from 1952 to 1991, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
As the party split became permanent, further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to more drastic measures since he required a higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which, in 1907, resulted in the party getting over 250,000 roubles, which is the equivalent of about $125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practised his beliefs, expressed in his writings, that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire lives to the cause. As compensation, he rewarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionaries stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in an attempt to expand their operations. Both factions received funds through donations from wealthy supporters.
took place in November 1917 in which the Bolsheviks came second with 23.9% of the vote and dissolved the Assembly in January 1918]]
Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near. Joseph Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War. This desire for war was fuelled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support, Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect. Despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland, the Bolsheviks were in the minority in calling for a ceasefire by the Imperial Russian Army in World War I.
Although the Bolshevik leadership had decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana agent), voted on 15 December 1912 to break from the Menshevik faction within the Duma. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed, and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.
One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was how ferocious and tenacious the Bolshevik party was in order to achieve its goals, although Lenin was open minded to retreating from political ideals if he saw the guarantee of long-term gains benefiting the party. This practice was seen in the party's trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution and granting them temporary concessions.
Bolshevik figures such as Anatoly Lunacharsky, Moisei Uritsky and Dmitry Manuilsky considered that Lenin's influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky's, not to Lenin's plan.
In 1918, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) at Lenin's suggestion. In 1925, this was changed to All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). At the 19th Party Congress in 1952 the Party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at Stalin's suggestion.
Non-Russian/Soviet political groups having used the name "Bolshevik"
* Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party
* Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party
* India: Bolshevik Party of India
* India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma
* India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)
* Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party
* Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei
* South Africa: Bolsheviks Party of South Africa
* Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party
* Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)
Derogatory usage of "Bolshevik"
, 1919|272x272px]]
Bolo was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern.
During the Cold War in the United Kingdom, trade union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as Bolshies. The usage is roughly equivalent to the term "commie", "Red", or "pinko" in the United States during the same period. The term Bolshie later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent.See also
*Bolshevism
* Left Socialist-Revolutionaries
* Leninism
* Marxism–Leninism
* Old Bolshevik
* Rabochaya Molva
* Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)
* Trotskyism
Notes
References
Sources
* .
* .
* .
External links
* .
* .
* .
by Bertrand Russell, November 1920.
* .
* .
Category:Defunct communist parties in Russia
Category:Political parties established in 1903
Category:Political parties of the Russian Revolution
Category:Political party factions in Russia
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Battle of Świecino
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Teutonic Order
| combatant2 Polish Crown<br/> Prussian Confederation
| commander1 = Fritz Raweneck<br>Kaspar Nostyc<br />Kaspar von Warnsdorf<br />Fritz Hohennest<br />Stefan Schönaich
| commander2 = Piotr Dunin<br />Maciej Hagen <br />Johann Maydenburg<br />
| strength1 = 2,700
| strength2 = 2,000
| casualties1 = Over 1,000 killed <br> 50 captured
| casualties2 = ~250
}}
The Battle of Świecino (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the Battle of Żarnowiec or in German Die Schlacht bei Schwetz, took place on September 17, 1462, during the Thirteen Years' War. The Polish forces, commanded by Piotr Dunin and consisting of some 2,000 mercenaries and Poles, decisively defeated the 2,700-man army of the Teutonic Knights, commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Commander of the Order Kaspar Nostitz (Nostyc). Auxiliary forces sent by Duke Eric II of Pomerania, temporary ally of the Teutonic Knights, did not enter the battle.
Polish forces
The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk). This army included 1,000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1,000 of infantry. 1,000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by the Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk).
Teutonic forces
Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostitz, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy, and Stara Kiszewa. This army totalled 1,000 cavalry and 400 infantry. Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons, and up to 1,300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works.
Battle
The battle started in the evening. Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor). The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice)) also created a tabor. Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica. Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan. The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński. Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner. After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal. During this fight Raveneck was wounded. He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeatRaveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped. The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry.
At the end of the battle, reinforcements of Eric II of Pomerania appeared, however, seeing the defeat of the Teutonic Knights, the Pomeranian prince did not attack, while the Poles attacked, forcing his troops to flee.
Casualties
The Teutonic Order's army lost around 1,000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen. Fifty soldiers were captured. The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.
The Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds. Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk. Piotr Dunin was wounded twice.
Aftermath
The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order. As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds. This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe.
The psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights. Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466.
References
* Janusz Sikorski, Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX. [Universal history of military operations till 1900], Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972. – description of the battle of Świecino: pp. 287–288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288
* Janusz Sikorski (ed.), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, Polskie tradycje wojskowe. Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X–XVII w. [Polish military traditions. Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th–17th centuries]. Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990. – description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114
* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia – O bitwie pod Świecinem. [The Thirteen Years' War – About the Battle of Świecino], Przegląd Historyczno–Wojskowy, vol. 7: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp. 309–311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia. Wybór pism. Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978
* K. Górski, Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej. [Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War], Poznań 1932 – description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308
* Marian Biskup, Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462–1466). [Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462–1466], in: Gerard Labuda (ed.), Historia Pomorza. [History of Pomerania], Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, – description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738
* Świecino, in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, Bedeker Kaszubski, Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974
* Świecino, in: Tadeusz Bolduan, Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997
External links
* [http://www.zamek.malbork.com.pl/index.php?m02&p11 Malbork Castle – Battle of Świecino]
Category:1462 in Europe
Swiecino
Category:Conflicts in 1462
Category:Battles involving Poland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Świecino
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Barney Bubbles
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| birth_place = Whitton, Middlesex, England
| death_date
| death_place = Islington, Greater London, England
| resting_place = London, England
| resting_place_coordinates <!-- -->
| education = Twickenham College of Technology
| alma_mater | known_for
| notable_works = The design of the Radar Records logo and the redesign of the NME logo. ''Damned Damned Damned, Music For Pleasure, My Aim Is True, This Year's Model, Armed Forces, Labour of Lust album covers.
| style | home_town
| movement | spouse
| partner | awards British Poster Design Awards (1964/65)
| elected | patrons
| memorials | website <!-- -->
| module =
}}
Barney Bubbles (born Colin Fulcher; 30 July 1942 – 14 November 1983) was an English graphic artist whose work encompassed graphic design and music video direction. Bubbles, who also sketched and painted privately, is best known for his distinctive contribution to the design practices associated with the British independent music scene of the 1970s and 1980s. His record sleeves, laden with symbols and riddles, were his most recognisable output.
Early life
Fulcher was born in Tranmere Road, Whitton, Middlesex (now Greater London), in July 1942. He attended Isleworth Grammar School. In 1958 he embarked on a retail display course for a National Diploma in Design (NDD) at the art school of Twickenham College of Technology. During his five years at the college Fulcher received a multi-disciplinary education that included training in cardboard design, display and packaging, skills that would be utilised later in his record sleeve work.
Career
Michael Tucker + Associates
After leaving college in 1963, Fulcher worked as an assistant at the design company Michael Tucker + Associates in London. Its clients included Pirelli. In a rare interview in November 1981 in The Face'', Bubbles described Tucker's discipline as "very Swiss; very hard; unjustified, very grey; and he taught me everything about typography." Tucker's studio produced the posters for Hugh Hudson's Pirelli-sponsored film The Tortoise & The Hare (1967), for which Fulcher designed the poster lettering on a freelance basis.
Bubbles' son, Aten Skinner, who is also an artists and graphic designer, was born in 1972.Hawkwind (and other 1970s rock)
's In Search of Space designed by Barney Bubbles]]
While he was working at Friends, Bubbles formed an association with Hawkwind and became responsible for a run of their album sleeves, including In Search of Space, Doremi Fasol Latido and Space Ritual. Bubbles engaged in many aspects of the group's visual identity, titling releases and designing posters, adverts, stage decoration and performance plans, some of which were adorned with mystical and mock-Teutonic insignia. In 1972 Bubbles produced the triple LP package Glastonbury Fayre. This comprised a six-panel fold-out card sleeve, two poster inserts, a booklet and a cut-out and build miniature pyramid, housed in a clear vinyl bag (with two sleeve variations and three label variations).
From 1973 onwards, Bubbles increasingly avoided credits for his artwork, typically working anonymously or occasionally adopting alternative pseudonyms. During this period he designed album sleeves and additional material for such acts as the Sutherland Brothers, Kevin Coyne, Edgar Broughton Band, Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers, Quiver, the Kursaal Flyers and Michael Moorcock and the Deep Fix.
In 1976, his design relationship with Hawkwind came to an end. It was rekindled once, in 1978, for the Hawklords spin-off, but otherwise continued only with design commissions for projects involving the band's saxophonist Nik Turner.
Stiff, Radar and F Beat (and other punk and new wave)
's ''C'est C Bon'' designed by Barney Bubbles]]
Barney Bubbles joined Stiff Records as designer and art director early in 1977. With the label's co-founder Jake Riviera he generated a body of creative work that helped to secure Stiff's reputation as an exciting new independent label. Bubbles created sleeves for bands including the Damned, Elvis Costello, Ian Dury and Wreckless Eric. Often these were accompanied by quirky logos such as the face logo for Blockhead, advertisements and promotional items. The marketing of Elvis Costello's My Aim Is True included advertisements in three UK music papers from which a poster of Costello could be constructed, and the first 1,000 pressings contained an insert headed Help Us Hype Elvis, which, if completed and returned to Stiff, ensured that a friend would receive a free copy.
When Riviera left Stiff in late 1977, Bubbles joined him at his new label Radar Records and later at Riviera's F-Beat Records. At these labels, Bubbles created more designs for Elvis Costello, as well as other artists such as Nick Lowe, Carlene Carter, Blanket of Secrecy and Clive Langer & The Boxes.
Bubbles also maintained his freelance output, producing designs for Peter Jenner (Ian Dury and Billy Bragg's manager), and others. He created a prodigious output by working for such bands, musicians and performers as Peter Hammill, Vivian Stanshall, Generation X, Big Star, Johnny Moped, Whirlwind, Billy Bragg, Clover, the Sinceros, Roger Chapman, Phillip Goodhand-Tait, Dr. Feelgood, Inner City Unit and the Psychedelic Furs. As a result, his work appeared on releases by labels such as Aura, Chiswick, Utility, Go! Discs, Epic, Charisma, CBS, Line Records, United Artists and Riddle Records. His signature style emerged as one that was colourful, playful, loaded with geometry, art-history and music-history references, jokes, cryptograms and symbols. The overriding appetite was for going against the grain of accepted design standards. His work is simultaneously complex in meaning and simple in its delivery. Examples include:
' "Hit Me with Your Rhythm Stick" designed by Barney Bubbles]]
* Elvis Costello: ''This Year's Model'', which was designed to have a deliberate miscropping so that the entire design was off-register and a sticker that read 'Free Album With This Single';
* The Damned: Damned Damned Damned, a limited number of which were deliberately printed with a photo of Eddie and the Hot Rods on the back of the cover, rather than the Damned playing at the Roxy Club, and with an erratum sticker apologising for this "mistake", and on the front of the LP, on top of the original shrinkwrap, a red food-fight sticker saying 'Damned Damned', thus completing the LP's title when read underneath the band's name;
* Elvis Costello: Armed Forces, with an extended back panel consisting of folding flaps, postcards carrying the instruction ''DON'T JOIN (advice against joining the armed forces), and a message that these postcards had been die-cut from the rest of the sleeve;
* Nick Lowe: Labour of Lust'', with its innovative "Hamer & sickle" logo, fashioning Lowe's Hamer-brand bass guitar into a playful version of the actual Hammer and sickle, the symbol of proletarian solidarity first adopted during the Russian Revolution (Bubbles's original mockup is shown on the gatefold sleeve of the 2011 Yep Roc reissue of the album);
* Ian Dury and the Blockheads: Do It Yourself, which was released in at least 30 known sleeve variations, all of which were old designs supplied by Crown Wallpaper.
Music promo videos
Barney Bubbles directed several videos, including the Specials' "Ghost Town", Squeeze's "Is That Love" and "Tempted", Elvis Costello's "Clubland" and "New Lace Sleeves", and Fun Boy Three's "The Lunatics (Have Taken Over the Asylum)". Two promos for the punk act Johnny Moped, "Incendiary Device" and "Darling Let's Have Another Baby", were never commercially released to broadcasters.
"A good video can sell a record which might not do so well," Bubbles told Smash Hits magazine in 1982. "The record companies know that. I think Chrysalis would agree that The Specials' 'Ghost Town' video helped sales a good deal. This year I intend to make videos which are really inexpensive but really inventive. It can be done, you know."
NME
|thumb|right]]
In 1979, riding on the reputation of his work for Stiff, Bubbles was engaged by the UK music newspaper New Musical Express'' to spearhead an overhaul of its decades-old brand. Bubbles' redesign incorporated elements of Pop art and 1920s Soviet poster art into a "sleek, forward-looking" graphic format. His restyling included a fresh logo with "clean, stencilled, military-style lettering", which heralded the title's change from New Musical Express to NME.
Other work
In 1979, Derek Boshier curated an exhibition entitled Lives at the Hayward Gallery, London, and he commissioned Bubbles to design the catalogue and poster. Together with the photographer Chris Gabrin, Bubbles also exhibited a video and mixed-media installation in the exhibition.
In the early 1980s, Bubbles created furniture designs, some of which were featured in The Face, November 1981.
In 1982, Bubbles conceived the album Ersatz, working primarily with Nik Turner and other musicians from Inner City Unit. The LP was released under the name of The Imperial Pompadours.
Bubbles painted privately, increasingly in the early 1980s.
Death
Fulcher, who suffered from manic depression, committed suicide in London on 14 November 1983 by gassing himself, trapping the fumes in a plastic bag he placed over his head, at the age of 41. He had considerable personal and financial worries, and had fallen out of fashion in the early 1980s. His designs for record sleeves were being rejected by musicians and record companies, and he was being investigated by the Inland Revenue for unpaid taxes dating back several years. He was also displaying increasingly erratic behaviour, alarming close friends by lacerating his face with razor blades and making threats to kill himself.Monograph/biographyReasons To Be Cheerful: The Life & Work of Barney Bubbles, a hybrid monograph-biography by Paul Gorman containing 400-plus images of artworks by Bubbles and contributions from British designers Peter Saville and Malcolm Garrett along with Billy Bragg was published in November 2008 by independent British imprint Adelita. The book was welcomed as a long-overdue recognition of Bubbles' achievements and selected by British music magazine Mojo as its Book Of The Year.
A revised and updated second edition of Reasons To Be Cheerful, with an additional contribution by US graphic artist Art Chantry, was published by Adelita in October 2010.
The third edition of the monograph, retitled The Wild World of Barney Bubbles: Graphic Design and the Art of Music, with a new cover and updated sections including previously unpublished designs and an essay by American graphic designer Clarita Hinojosa, was published by Thames & Hudson in June 2022 in the UK and in July 2022 in the US.
A companion limited edition box-set, A Box of Bubbles, containing the monograph with a different jacket and reproductions of the designer's artworks for Ian Dury, Hawkwind and the Glastonbury Fayre triple-LP package, was published by specialist imprint Volume in September 2022.Influence and legacyBarney Bubbles is widely acknowledged as a pioneer and exemplar of design for music. 'To say that Bubbles' work was influential would be an understatement. He took the world by storm with his momentous contribution,' wrote Creative Boom's Aya Angelos in 2022. According to Peter Saville, 'The work of Barney Bubbles expresses post-modern principles: that there is the past, the present and the possible; that culture and the history of culture are a fluid palette of semiotic expression and everything is available to articulate a point of view.'
The first exhibition dedicated to Bubbles' work was held at London gallery Artomatic in 2001,
Paul Gorman and Caz Facey curated an exhibition about Bubbles' practice entitled Process: The Working Practices of Barney Bubbles at London gallery Chelsea Space in October 2010.
In January 2012, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a documentary, In Search of Barney Bubbles, written, produced and presented by Mark Hodkinson.
In summer 2012 Gorman curated The Past The Present & The Possible, which presented 250 examples of Bubbles' finished artworks as part of the exhibition White Noise at the 23rd International Poster & Graphic Design Festival in Chaumont, France.
Under the heading Génération Bubbles!, the cover and a 10-page feature in the July 2012 issue of French design magazine Étapes were dedicated to the exhibition and Bubbles' influence over contemporary design practice.
In 2017 Gorman curated "Optics & Semantics", an exhibition which included furniture designed by Bubbles, at central London's Rob Tufnell Gallery as well as a show featuring finished artworks including record sleeves, posters and ephemera at casualwear brand Fred Perry's outlet in Covent Garden.
In 2020 an archive of Bubbles work was acquired for public collections under the UK's cultural gifts and acceptance in lieu (AiL) schemes and allocated to Liverpool John Moores University.
General and group exhibitions
Designs by Barney Bubbles have been prominently featured in many exhibitions, including Destroy: Punk Graphic Design in Britain, held at London's Southbank Centre in 1998, Communicate: British Independent Graphic Design since the Sixties, staged at the Barbican Centre in 2004, Too Fast To Live, Too Young To Die: Punk Graphics 1976 - 1986 at Cranbrook Art Museum in Michigan in 2017 and the Museum of Art & Design in New York in 2019
Bubbles works are in the permanent collections of The Museum of Modern Art in New York and London's Victoria and Albert Museum, which gave prominence to a selection in its 2011 show Postmodernism: Style & Subversion 1970–1990 and the following year's British Design 1948–2012.
Barney Bubbles Estate
Representing family members, the Barney Bubbles Estate controls the intellectual copyrights in hundreds of original designs by Bubbles and has worked with others to ensure that the designer's legacy is protected.
Projects include a capsule collection of shirts bearing Bubbles designs with Fred Perry in 2017, Elvis Costello and Universal Music's 2020 box-set reissue of Costello's 1979 album Armed Forces, the 12-inch vinyl rerelease of "Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick" for Record Store Day 2021 with the Ian Dury Estate and music group BMG and a collaboration of four T-shirts with New York streetwear label Noah in 2022.
Examples of rare and hitherto unseen work from Bubbles' vast archive is posted regularly on the Estate's Instagram account, and the Estate also has an online shop marketing original designs on apparel and other media.ReferencesExternal links
* http://www.barneybubbles.com The official Barney Bubbles website
*
* [http://www.johncoulthart.com/feuilleton/?p=1296 Barney Bubbles: Artist and Designer.] Career overview by graphic designer John Coulthart.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071025081919/http://www.briangriffin.co.uk/other.php?pg_id=59 Brian Griffin on Barney Bubbles.] Tribute by friend and photographer Brian Griffin.
* [http://davidwills.wordpress.com/tag/barney-bubbles/ David Wills Tells Tales.] Anecdotal Barney Bubbles blog by friend and fellow student, designer David Wills.
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b018wh7h In Search of Barney Bubbles, BBC Radio 4] Documentary by Mark Hodkinson.
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/mal/MO/philm/barney/ Philm Freax: Barney Bubbles: In Memoriam.] A memorial page by friend and photographer Phil Franks.
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/mal/MO/philm/friends/barney.html Philm Freax: Friends: Barney Bubbles] Includes Phil Franks' photos and text extracts from "Days in the Life: Voices from the English Underground 1961-'71" by Jonathon Green.
Category:1942 births
Category:1983 deaths
Category:People from Whitton, London
Category:English designers
Category:English music video directors
Category:Psychedelic artists
Category:Artists who died by suicide
Category:English album-cover and concert-poster artists
Category:20th-century English male musicians
Category:People with bipolar disorder
Category:1983 suicides
Category:Suicides by gas
Category:Suicides in Islington
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barney_Bubbles
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Blackridge, Pennsylvania
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Blackridge is a community in eastern Allegheny County and is a suburb of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. This community consists of approximately 650 private homes built from 1920 to 1949. Blackridge Estates was and remains one of the area's largest residential communities.
Blackridge lies in the municipalities of Wilkinsburg, Penn Hills and Churchill. It maintains a Civic Association and a private park and swim club for residents.
Blackridge is defined as the territory bounded on the West by Graham Boulevard, on the South by William Penn Highway, on the East by Beulah Road and the Churchill Country Club property, from the Churchill Country Club property along Orlando Place to Atkinson Place, Atkinson Place to Pine Way, and Pine Way to Graham Boulevard, and includes the properties fronting on both sides of said portions of Country Club Drive, Orlando Place, Atkinson Place and Pine Way.
The Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmark "1939 House" (Good Housekeeping house) is located in Blackridge at 2363 Sebring Place in the Wilkinsburg section of the neighborhood.
References
External links
Blackridge Civic Association
Blackridge Garden Club
Blackridge Swim Club
Category:Unincorporated communities in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
Category:Unincorporated communities in Pennsylvania
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackridge,_Pennsylvania
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2025-04-05T18:27:01.166174
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Basic English
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Basic English (a backronym for British American Scientific International and Commercial English) is a controlled language based on standard English, but with a greatly simplified vocabulary and grammar. It was created by the linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a second language. It was presented in Ogden's 1930 book Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar.
The first work on Basic English was written by two Englishmen, Ivor Richards of Harvard University and Charles Kay Ogden of the University of Cambridge in England. The design of Basic English drew heavily on the semiotic theory put forward by Ogden and Richards in their 1923 book The Meaning of Meaning.
Ogden's Basic, and the concept of a simplified English, gained its greatest publicity just after the Allied victory in World War II as a means for world peace. He was convinced that the world needed to gradually eradicate minority languages and use as much as possible only one: English, in either a simple or complete form.
Although Basic English was not built into a program, similar simplifications have been devised for various international uses. Richards promoted its use in schools in China. It has influenced the creation of Voice of America's Learning English for news broadcasting, and Simplified Technical English, another English-based controlled language designed to write technical manuals.
What survives of Ogden's Basic English is the basic 850-word list used as the beginner's vocabulary of the English language taught worldwide, especially in Asia.
Design principles
Ogden tried to simplify English while keeping it normal for native speakers, by specifying grammar restrictions and a controlled small vocabulary which makes an extensive use of paraphrasing. Most notably, Ogden allowed only 18 verbs, which he called "operators". His "General Introduction" says, "There are no 'verbs' in Basic English", with the underlying assumption that, as noun use in English is very straightforward but verb use/conjugation is not, the elimination of verbs would be a welcome simplification.
Word lists
Ogden's word lists include only word roots, which in practice are extended with the defined set of affixes and the full set of forms allowed for any available word (noun, pronoun, or the limited set of verbs). The 850 core words of Basic English are found in Wiktionary's Basic English word list. This core is theoretically enough for everyday life. However, Ogden prescribed that any student should learn an additional 150-word list for everyday work in some particular field, by adding a list of 100 words particularly useful in a general field (e.g., science, verse, business), along with a 50-word list from a more specialised subset of that general field, to make a basic 1000-word vocabulary for everyday work and life.
Moreover, Ogden assumed that any student should already be familiar with (and thus may only review) a core subset of around 200 "international" words. Therefore, a first-level student should graduate with a core vocabulary of around 1200 words. A realistic general core vocabulary could contain around 2000 words (the core 850 words, plus 200 international words, and 1000 words for the general fields of trade, economics, and science). It is enough for a "standard" English level. This 2000 word vocabulary represents "what any learner should know". At this level students could start to move on their own.
Ogden's Basic English 2000 word list and Voice of America's Special English 1500 word list serve as dictionaries for the Simple English Wikipedia.
Rules
Basic English includes a simple grammar for modifying or combining its 850 words to talk about additional meanings (morphological derivation or inflection). The grammar is based on English, but simplified.
Plural nouns are formed by adding -s or related forms, as in drinks, boxes, or countries.
Nouns are formed with the endings -er (as in prisoner) or -ing (building).
Adjectives are formed with the endings -ing (boiling) or -ed (mixed).
Adverbs can be formed by adding -ly (for example tightly) to words that Basic English calls "qualities" (adjectives that describe objects).
The words more and most are used for comparison (for example more complex), but -er and -est may appear in common use (cheaper).
Negatives can be formed with un- (unwise).
The word do is used in questions, as it is in English (Do you have some?).
Both pronouns and what Basic English calls "operators" (a set of ten verbs) use the different forms they have in English (for example I go to him, He goes to me).
Compound words can be formed by combining two nouns (e.g. soapbox) or a noun and a preposition, which Basic English calls "directives" (sunup).
International words, words that are the same or similar in English and other European languages (e.g. radio), use the English form. English forms are also used for numbers, dates, money, or measurements.
Any technical terms or special vocabulary needed for a task should be written in inverted commas and then be explained in the text using words from the Basic English vocabulary (for example the 'vocabulary' is the list of words).
Criticism
Like all international auxiliary languages (or IALs), Basic English may be criticised as inevitably based on personal preferences, and is thus, paradoxically, inherently divisive. Moreover, like all natural-language-based IALs, Basic is subject to criticism as unfairly biased towards the native speaker community.
As a teaching aid for English as a second language, Basic English has been criticised for the choice of the core vocabulary and for its grammatical constraints.
In 1944, readability expert Rudolf Flesch published an article in Harper's Magazine, "How Basic is Basic English?" in which he said, "It's not basic, and it's not English." The essence of his complaint is that the vocabulary is too restricted, and, as a result, the text ends up being awkward and more difficult than necessary. He also argues that the words in the Basic vocabulary were arbitrarily selected, and notes that there had been no empirical studies showing that it made language simpler.
In his 1948 paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", Claude Shannon contrasted the limited vocabulary of Basic English with James Joyce's Finnegans Wake, a work noted for a wide vocabulary. Shannon notes that the lack of vocabulary in Basic English leads to a very high level of redundancy, whereas Joyce's large vocabulary "is alleged to achieve a compression of semantic content".
Literary references
In the novel The Shape of Things to Come, published in 1933, H. G. Wells depicted Basic English as the lingua franca of a new elite that after a prolonged struggle succeeds in uniting the world and establishing a totalitarian world government. In the future world of Wells' vision, virtually all members of humanity know this language.
From 1942 to 1944 George Orwell was a proponent of Basic English, but in 1945 he became critical of universal languages. Basic English later inspired his use of Newspeak in Nineteen Eighty-Four.
Evelyn Waugh criticized his own 1945 novel Brideshead Revisited, which he had previously called his magnum opus, in the preface of the 1959 reprint: "It [World War II] was a bleak period of present privation and threatening disaster—the period of soya beans and Basic English—and in consequence the book is infused with a kind of gluttony, for food and wine, for the splendours of the recent past, and for rhetorical and ornamental language that now, with a full stomach, I find distasteful."
In his story "Gulf", science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein used a constructed language called Speedtalk, in which every Basic English word is replaced with a single phoneme, as an appropriate means of communication for a race of genius supermen.
Samples
The Lord's Prayer has been often used for an impressionistic language comparison:
Basic English (BBE) English (NRSV)Our Father in heaven,hallowed be your name.Your kingdom come.Your will be done,on earth as it is in heaven.Give us this day our daily bread.And forgive us our debts,as we also have forgiven our debtors.And do not bring us to the time of trial,but rescue us from the evil one.
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
I. A. Richards & Christine Gibson, Learning Basic English: A Practical Handbook for English-Speaking People, New York: W. W. Norton & Co. (1945)
Basic English: A Protest, Joseph Albert Lauwerys, F. J. Daniels, Robert A. Hall Jr., London: Basic English Foundation, 1966. An answer to Robert A. Hall, Jr.'s criticism.
(eo) Vĕra Barandovská-Frank, (2020), Basic English, In: Interlingvistiko. Enkonduko en la sciencon pri planlingvoj (PDF), p. 270-275, Poznań, Univ. Adam Mickiewicz, 333 pp., ISBN 9788365483539
External links
Charles Kay Ogden, Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar , London: Paul Treber
Charles Kay Ogden, Basic English and Grammatical Reform, Cambridge: The Orthological Institute. (1937)e
Ogden.Basic-English.org , Ogden's books and word lists online and several discussions
Basic-English.org, Ongoing project to support and update Ogden's Basic (with downloads)
The Reference Shelf Vol. 17. No. 1, a discussion about Basic English, with supporters and critics
Charles Kay Ogden, Basic English Course (1930)
Augusto Ghio Del'Rio, Inglés Básico, 1954 translation of Ogden's Basic English Course for Spanish Speakers
Simple English Helper Tool — Detect words which are not in a given dictionary, Ogden's Basic English dictionary list included
Essential World English — some criticisms of Basic English and suggestions for overcoming its problems
Records of the Basic English Foundation at University College London
Ogden Library at University College London
Ogden Manuscript Collection at University College London
Category:International auxiliary languages
Category:Technical communication
Category:English language
Category:Controlled English
Category:Constructed languages introduced in the 1930s
Category:1930 introductions
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BND
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BND may refer to:
Organisations
Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany
Federal Intelligence Service (disambiguation)
Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, USA
Belleville News-Democrat, a newspaper in Belleville, Illinois, USA
Bulgarian New Democracy (), a Bulgarian centre-right political party
VID (company) (), a Russian TV company
Business & Decision (stock ticker: BND), a consulting company
Banco Nacional de Desarrollo, the national development bank, for banking in Nicaragua
National Digital Library () of Moldova; part of the National Library of Moldova
By codename
Brunei dollar, currency of the Sultanate of Brunei, by ISO 4217 code
Banda language (Maluku) (ISO 639 language code: bnd), found in Indonesia
Brandon railway station (National Rail station code: BND), Suffolk, England, UK
Bandar Abbas International Airport (IATA airport code BND; ICAO airport code: OIKB), Bandar Abbas, Hormozgan Province, Iran
Other uses
Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism
BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom
"BND", a song on the album No Doubt by No Doubt
Bnd, short for "Bend"; a Street suffix as used in the US
See also
Band (disambiguation)
Bend (disambiguation)
Bind (disambiguation)
Bond (disambiguation)
Bound (disambiguation)
Bund (disambiguation)
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Brass instrument
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thumb|333x333px|Six high brass instruments
Left, from top: A reproduction baroque trumpet in D, a modern trumpet in B, a modern trumpet in D, a piccolo trumpet in B (octave higher), and a flugelhorn in B. Right: a cornet in B.
(alto horn) in E, baritone horn in B, and euphonium in B]]
A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the player's lips. The term labrosone, from Latin elements meaning "lip" and "sound", is also used for the group, since instruments employing this "lip reed" method of sound production can be made from other materials like wood or animal horn, particularly early or traditional instruments such as the cornett, alphorn or shofar.
There are several factors involved in producing different pitches on a brass instrument. Slides, valves, crooks (though they are rarely used today), or keys are used to change vibratory length of tubing, thus changing the available harmonic series, while the player's embouchure, lip tension and air flow serve to select the specific harmonic produced from the available series.
The view of most scholars (see organology) is that the term "brass instrument" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of brass. Thus one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the alphorn, the cornett, the serpent and the didgeridoo, while some woodwind instruments are made of brass, like the saxophone.
Families
Modern brass instruments generally come in one of two families:
* Valved brass instruments use a set of valves (typically three or four but as many as seven or more in some cases) operated by the player's fingers that introduce additional tubing, or crooks, into the instrument, changing its overall length. This family includes all of the modern brass instruments except the trombone: the trumpet, horn (also called French horn), euphonium, and tuba, as well as the cornet, flugelhorn, tenor horn (alto horn), baritone horn, sousaphone, and the mellophone. As valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves; the latter are the norm for the horn (except in France) and are also common on the tuba.
* Slide brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the trombone family, though valve trombones are occasionally used, especially in jazz. The trombone family's ancestor, the sackbut, and the folk instrument bazooka are also in the slide family.
There are two other families that have, in general, become functionally obsolete for practical purposes. Instruments of both types, however, are sometimes used for period-instrument performances of Baroque or Classical pieces. In more modern compositions, they are occasionally used for their intonation or tone color.
* Natural brass instruments only play notes in the instrument's harmonic series. These include the bugle and older variants of the trumpet and horn. The trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820. In the 18th century, makers developed interchangeable crooks of different lengths, which let players use a single instrument in more than one key. Natural instruments are still played for period performances and some ceremonial functions, and are occasionally found in more modern scores, such as those by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss.
* Keyed or Fingered brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument, which were covered by fingers or by finger-operated pads (keys) in a similar way to a woodwind instrument. These included the cornett, serpent, ophicleide, keyed bugle and keyed trumpet. They are more difficult to play than valved instruments.
Bore taper and diameter
Brass instruments may also be characterised by two generalizations about geometry of the bore, that is, the tubing between the mouthpiece and the flaring of the tubing into the bell. Those two generalizations are with regard to
* the degree of taper or conicity of the bore and
* the diameter of the bore with respect to its length.
Cylindrical vs. conical bore
While all modern valved and slide brass instruments consist in part of conical and in part of cylindrical tubing, they are divided as follows:
* Cylindrical bore brass instruments are those in which approximately constant diameter tubing predominates. Cylindrical bore brass instruments are generally perceived as having a brighter, more penetrating tone quality compared to conical bore brass instruments. The trumpet, and all trombones are cylindrical bore. In particular, the slide design of the trombone necessitates this.
* Conical bore brass instruments are those in which tubing of constantly increasing diameter predominates. Conical bore instruments are generally perceived as having a more mellow tone quality than the cylindrical bore brass instruments. The "British brass band" group of instruments fall into this category. This includes the flugelhorn, cornet, tenor horn (alto horn), baritone horn, horn, euphonium and tuba. Some conical bore brass instruments are more conical than others. For example, the flugelhorn differs from the cornet by having a higher percentage of its tubing length conical than does the cornet, in addition to possessing a wider bore than the cornet. In the 1910s and 1920s, the E. A. Couturier company built brass band instruments utilizing a patent for a continuous conical bore without cylindrical portions even for the valves or tuning slide.
Whole-tube vs. half-tube
The resonances of a brass instrument resemble a harmonic series, with the exception of the lowest resonance, which is significantly lower than the fundamental frequency of the series that the other resonances are overtones of. Depending on the instrument and the skill of the player, the missing fundamental of the series can still be played as a pedal tone, which relies mainly on vibration at the overtone frequencies to produce the fundamental pitch. The bore diameter in relation to length determines whether the fundamental tone or the first overtone is the lowest partial practically available to the player in terms of playability and musicality, dividing brass instruments into whole-tube and half-tube instruments. These terms stem from a comparison to organ pipes, which produce the same pitch as the fundamental pedal tone of a brass instrument of equal length.
. long. Half its length was practically useless ... it was found that if the calibre of tube was sufficiently enlarged in proportion to its length, the instrument could be relied upon to give its fundamental note in all normal circumstances. – Cecil Forsyth, Orchestration, p. 86}}
* Whole-tube instruments have larger bores in relation to tubing length, and can play the fundamental tone with ease and precision. The tuba and euphonium are examples of whole-tube brass instruments.
* Half-tube instruments have smaller bores in relation to tubing length and cannot easily or accurately play the fundamental tone. The second partial (first overtone) is the lowest note of each tubing length practical to play on half-tube instruments. The trumpet and horn are examples of half-tube brass instruments.
Other brass instruments
The instruments in this list fall for various reasons outside the scope of much of the discussion above regarding families of brass instruments.
* Alphorn (wood)
* Conch (shell)
* Didgeridoo (wood, Australia)
* Natural horn (no valves or slides—except tuning crooks in some cases)
* Jazzophone
* Keyed bugle (keyed brass)
* Keyed trumpet (keyed brass)
* Serpent (keyed brass)
* Ophicleide (keyed brass)
* Shofar (animal horn)
* Vladimirskiy rozhok (wood, Russia)
* Vuvuzela (simple short horn, origins disputed but achieved fame or notoriety through many plastic examples in the 2010 World Cup)
* Lur
Valves
<!--Valve (music) redirects here-->
Valves are used to change the length of tubing of a brass instrument allowing the player to reach the notes of various harmonic series. Each valve pressed diverts the air stream through additional tubing, individually or in conjunction with other valves. This lengthens the vibrating air column thus lowering the fundamental tone and associated harmonic series produced by the instrument. Designs exist, although rare, in which this behaviour is reversed, i.e., pressing a valve removes a length of tubing rather than adding one. One modern example of such an ascending valve is the Yamaha YSL-350C trombone, (this is entirely separate from the slight deficiencies between Western music's dominant equal (even) temperament system and the just (not equal) temperament of the harmonic series itself). Since each lengthening of the tubing has an inversely proportional effect on pitch (Pitch of brass instruments), while pitch perception is logarithmic, there is no way for a simple, uncompensated addition of length to be correct in every combination when compared with the pitches of the open tubing and the other valves.Absolute tube length
For example, given a length of tubing equaling 100 units of length when open, one may obtain the following tuning discrepancies:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Valve combination and creation of pitch discrepancies
!Valve(s) !!Desired pitch !!Necessary valve length !!Component tubing length !!Difference !!Slide positions
|-
|Open tubing ||A/B ||0 || – || – ||1
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|2 ||A ||5.9 || – || – ||2
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|1 ||G/A ||12.2 || – || – ||3
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|1+2 or 3 ||G ||18.9 ||18.1 ||0.8 ||4
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|2+3 ||F/G ||25.9 ||24.8 ||1.1 ||5
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|1+3 or 4 ||F ||33.5 ||31.1 ||2.4 ||6 or T
|-
|1+2+3 or 2+4 ||E ||41.4 ||37 ||4.4 ||7 or T+2
|-
|1+4 ||D/E || – ||45.7 || – ||T+3
|-
|1+2+4 or 3+4 ||D || – ||52.4 || – ||T+4
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|2+3+4 ||C/D || – ||58.3 || – ||T+5
|-
|1+3+4 ||C || – ||64.6 || – ||T+6
|-
|1+2+3+4 ||B || – ||70.5 || – ||T+7
|}
Playing notes using valves (notably 1st + 3rd and 1st + 2nd + 3rd) requires compensation to adjust the tuning appropriately, either by the player's lip-and-breath control, via mechanical assistance of some sort, or, in the case of horns, by the position of the stopping hand in the bell. 'T' stands for trigger on a trombone.
Relative tube length
Traditionally the valves lower the pitch of the instrument by adding extra lengths of tubing based on a just tuning:
* 1st valve: of main tube, making an interval of 9:8, a pythagorean major second
* 2nd valve: of main tube, making an interval of 16:15, a just minor second
* 3rd valve: of main tube, making an interval of 6:5, a just minor third
Combining the valves and the harmonics of the instrument leads to the following ratios and comparisons to 12-tone equal tuning and to a common five-limit tuning in C:
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center"
|- valign="top"
! Valves || Har-<br />monic || Note || Ratio || Cents || Cents from<br />12ET || Just<br />tuning || Cents from<br />just
|-
|○○○||2||C||1:1||0||0||1:1||0
|-
|●●●||3||C/D||180:167||130||30||16:15||18
|-
|●○●||3||D||60:53||215||15||9:8||11
|-
|○●●||3||D/E||45:38||293||−7||6:5||−23
|-
|●●○||3||E||180:143||398||−2||5:4||12
|-
|●○○||3||F||4:3||498||−2||4:3||0
|-
|○●○||3||F/G||45:32||590||−10||45:32||0
|-
|○○○||3||G||3:2||702||2||3:2||0
|-
|○●●||4||G/A||30:19||791||−9||8:5||−23
|-
|●●○||4||A||240:143||896||−4||5:3||12
|-
|●○○||4||A/B||16:9||996||−4||9:5||−22
|-
|○●○||4||B||15:8||1088||−12||15:8||0
|-
|○○○||4||C||2:1||1200||0||2:1||0
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|●●○||5||C/D||300:143||1283||−17||32:15||−29
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|●○○||5||D||20:9||1382||−18||9:4||−22
|-
|○●○||5||D/E||75:32||1475||−25||12:5||−41
|-
|○○○||5||E||5:2||1586||−14||5:2||0
|}
Tuning compensation
The additional tubing for each valve usually features a short tuning slide of its own for fine adjustment of the valve's tuning, except when it is too short to make this practicable. For the first and third valves this is often designed to be adjusted as the instrument is played, to account for the deficiencies in the valve system.
In most trumpets and cornets, the compensation must be provided by extending the third valve slide with the third or fourth finger, and the first valve slide with the left hand thumb (see Trigger or throw below). This is used to lower the pitch of the 1–3 and 1–2–3 valve combinations. On the trumpet and cornet, these valve combinations correspond to low D, low C, low G, and low F, so chromatically, to stay in tune, one must use this method.
In instruments with a fourth valve, such as tubas, euphoniums, piccolo trumpets, etc. that valve lowers the pitch by a perfect fourth; this is used to compensate for the sharpness of the valve combinations 1–3 and 1–2–3 (4 replaces 1–3, 2–4 replaces 1–2–3). All three normal valves may be used in addition to the fourth to increase the instrument's range downwards by a perfect fourth, although with increasingly severe intonation problems.
When four-valved models without any kind of compensation play in the corresponding register, the sharpness becomes so severe that players must finger the note a half-step below the one they are trying to play. This eliminates the note a half-step above their open fundamental.
Manufacturers of low brass instruments may choose one or a combination of four basic approaches to compensate for the tuning difficulties, whose respective merits are subject to debate:
Compensation system
In the Compensation system, each of the first two (or three) valves has an additional set of tubing extending from the back of the valve. When the third (or fourth) valve is depressed in combination with another one, the air is routed through both the usual set of tubing plus the extra one, so that the pitch is lowered by an appropriate amount. This allows compensating instruments to play with accurate intonation in the octave below their open second partial, which is critical for tubas and euphoniums in much of their repertoire.
The compensating system was applied to horns to serve a different purpose. It was used to allow a double horn in F and B to ease playing difficulties in the high register. In contrast to the system in use in tubas and euphoniums, the default 'side' of the horn is the longer F horn, with secondary lengths of tubing coming into play when the first, second or third valves are pressed; pressing the thumb valve takes these secondary valve slides and the extra length of main tubing out of play to produce a shorter B horn. A later "full double" design has completely separate valve section tubing for the two sides, and is considered superior, although rather heavier in weight.
Additional valves
Initially, compensated instruments tended to sound stuffy and blow less freely due to the air being doubled back through the main valves. In early designs, this led to sharp bends in the tubing and other obstructions of the air-flow. Some manufacturers therefore preferred adding more 'straight' valves instead, which for example could be pitched a little lower than the 2nd and 1st valves and were intended to be used instead of these in the respective valve combinations. While no longer featured in euphoniums for decades, many professional tubas are still built like this, with five valves being common on CC- and BB-tubas and five or six valves on F-tubas.
Compensating double horns can also suffer from the stuffiness resulting from the air being passed through the valve section twice, but as this really only affects the longer F side, a compensating double can be very useful for a 1st or 3rd horn player, who uses the F side less.
Additional sets of slides on each valve
Another approach was the addition of two sets of slides for different parts of the range. Some euphoniums and tubas were built like this, but today, this approach has become highly exotic for all instruments except horns, where it is the norm, usually in a double, sometimes even triple configuration.
Trigger or throw
<!--Throw (music), Throw (instrument), Throw (brass instrument), Throw (musical instrument), Trigger (music), Trigger (instrument), Trigger (brass instrument), and Trigger (musical instrument) redirect directly here.-->
Some valved brass instruments provide triggers or throws that manually lengthen (or, less commonly, shorten) the main tuning slide, a valve slide, or the main tubing. These mechanisms alter the pitch of notes that are naturally sharp in a specific register of the instrument, or shift the instrument to another playing range. Triggers and throws permit speedy adjustment while playing.
Trigger is used in two senses:
* A trigger can be a mechanical lever that lengthens a slide when pressed in a contrary direction. Triggers are sprung in such a way that they return the slide to its original position when released.
* The term "trigger" also describes a device engaging a valve to lengthen the main tubing, e.g. lowering the key of certain trombones from B to F.
A throw is a simple metal grip for the player's finger or thumb, attached to a valve slide. The general term "throw" can describe a u-hook, a saddle (u-shaped grips), or a ring (ring-shape grip) in which a player's finger or thumb rests. A player extends a finger or thumb to lengthen a slide, and retracts the finger to return the slide to its original position.
Examples of instruments that use triggers or throws
Trumpet or cornet
Triggers or throws are sometimes found on the first valve slide. They are operated by the player's thumb and are used to adjust a large range of notes using the first valve, most notably the player's written top line F, the A above directly above that, and the B above that. Other notes that require the first valve slide, but are not as problematic without it include the first line E, the F above that, the A above that, and the third line B.
Triggers or throws are often found on the third valve slide. They are operated by the player's fourth finger, and are used to adjust the lower D and C. Trumpets typically use throws, whilst cornets may have a throw or trigger.
Trombone
Trombone triggers are primarily but not exclusively installed on the F-trigger, bass, and contrabass trombones to alter the length of tubing, thus making certain ranges and pitches more accessible.
Euphoniums
A euphonium occasionally has a trigger on valves other than 2 (especially 3), although many professional quality euphoniums, and indeed other brass band instruments, have a trigger for the main tuning slide.
Mechanism
The two major types of valve mechanisms are rotary valves and piston valves. The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the 19th century. The Stölzel valve (invented by Heinrich Stölzel in 1814) was an early variety. In the mid 19th century the Vienna valve was an improved design. However many professional musicians preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves were mass manufactured towards the end of the 19th century. Since the early decades of the 20th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments except for the orchestral horn and the tuba. See also the article Brass Instrument Valves.
Sound production in brass instruments
Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the prime vibrator (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the harmonic at which the instrument's column of air vibrates. By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see embouchure).
Most brass instruments are fitted with a removable mouthpiece. Different shapes, sizes and styles of mouthpiece may be used to suit different embouchures, or to more easily produce certain tonal characteristics. Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are characteristically fitted with a cupped mouthpiece, while horns are fitted with a conical mouthpiece.
One interesting difference between a woodwind instrument and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a brass instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands.
Manufacture
Metal
Traditionally the instruments are normally made of brass, polished and then lacquered to prevent corrosion. Some higher quality and higher cost instruments use gold or silver plating to prevent corrosion.
Alternatives to brass include other alloys containing significant amounts of copper or silver. These alloys are biostatic due to the oligodynamic effect, and thus suppress growth of molds, fungi or bacteria. Brass instruments constructed from stainless steel or aluminium have good sound quality but are rapidly colonized by microorganisms and become unpleasant to play.
Most higher quality instruments are designed to prevent or reduce galvanic corrosion between any steel in the valves and springs, and the brass of the tubing. This may take the form of desiccant design, to keep the valves dry, sacrificial zincs, replaceable valve cores and springs, plastic insulating washers, or nonconductive or noble materials for the valve cores and springs. Some instruments use several such features.
The process of making the large open end (bell) of a brass instrument is called metal beating. In making the bell of, for example, a trumpet, a person lays out a pattern and shapes sheet metal into a bell-shape using templates, machine tools, handtools, and blueprints. The maker cuts out the bell blank, using hand or power shears. He hammers the blank over a bell-shaped mandrel, and butts the seam, using a notching tool. The seam is brazed, using a torch and smoothed using a hammer or file. A draw bench or arbor press equipped with expandable lead plug is used to shape and smooth the bell and bell neck over a mandrel. A lathe is used to spin the bell head and to form a bead at the edge of bell head. Previously shaped bell necks are annealed, using a hand torch to soften the metal for further bending. Scratches are removed from the bell using abrasive-coated cloth.
Other materials
A few specialty instruments are made from wood.
Instruments made mostly from plastic emerged in the 2010s as a cheaper and more robust alternative to brass. Plastic instruments could come in almost any colour. The sound plastic instruments produce is different from the one of brass, lacquer, gold or silver. This is because plastic is much less dense, or rather has less matter in a given space as compared to the aforementioned which causes vibrations to occur differently. While originally seen as a gimmick, these plastic models have found increasing popularity during the last decade and are now viewed as practice tools that make for more convenient travel as well as a cheaper option for beginning players.Ensembles
Brass instruments are one of the major classical instrument families and are played across a range of musical ensembles.
Orchestras include a varying number of brass instruments depending on music style and era, typically:
* two or three trumpets
* four to eight French horns
* two or three tenor trombones
* one or two bass trombones; the second of which may be a contrabass trombone or cimbasso
* one tuba
** Baroque and classical period orchestras may include valveless trumpets or bugles, or have valved trumpets/cornets playing these parts, and they may include valveless horns, or have valved horns playing these parts.
** Romantic, modern, and contemporary orchestras may include larger numbers of brass including more exotic instruments.
Concert bands generally have a larger brass section than an orchestra, typically:
* four to six trumpets or cornets
* four French horns
* two to four tenor trombones
* one or two bass trombones
* two or three euphoniums or baritone horns
* two or three tubas
British brass bands are made up entirely of brass, mostly conical bore instruments. Typical membership is:
* one soprano cornet
* nine cornets
* one flugelhorn
* three tenor (alto) horns
* two baritone horns
* two tenor trombones
* one bass trombone
* two euphoniums
* two E tubas
* two B tubas
Quintets are common small brass ensembles; a quintet typically contains:
* two trumpets
* one horn
* one trombone
* one tuba or bass trombone
Big bands and other jazz bands commonly contain cylindrical bore brass instruments.
* A big band typically includes:
** four trumpets
** four tenor trombones
** one bass trombone (in place of one of the tenor trombones)
* Smaller jazz ensembles may include a single trumpet or trombone soloist.
Mexican bandas have:
* three trumpets
* three trombones
* two alto horns, also called "charchetas" and "saxores"
* one sousaphone, called "tuba"
Single brass instruments are also often used to accompany other instruments or ensembles such as an organ or a choir.
See also
* Brass instrument valve
* Drum and bugle corps (modern)
* Haas (brass instrument makers)
* Horn section
* Pitch of brass instruments
* Wind instruments
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170703164711/http://www.brassbandinformation.co.uk/brass-instruments.html Brass Instruments] Information on individual Brass Instruments
* [http://www.civilization.ca/arts/opus/opus901e.html The traditional manufacture of brass instruments], a 1991 video (RealPlayer format) featuring maker Robert Barclay; from the web site of the [http://www.civilization.ca/indexe.asp Canadian Museum of Civilization].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060304035706/http://www.mti.dmu.ac.uk/~ahugill/manual/brass.html The Orchestra: A User's Manual – Brass]
* [http://www.brassmusic.ru Brassmusic.Ru – Russian Brass Community]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140814070408/http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/brassacoustics.html Acoustics of Brass Instruments] from [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/music Music Acoustics] at the University of New South Wales
* [http://www.public.asu.edu/~jqerics/earlval.htm Early Valve designs, John Ericson]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181109070904/http://www.dwerden.com/eu-articles-comp.cfm 3-Valve and 4-Valve Compensating Systems, David Werden]
Category:Metallic objects
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass_instrument
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2025-04-05T18:27:01.214758
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Blood libel
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, an Italian child whose disappearance and death was blamed on the leaders of the city's Jewish community]]
Blood libel or ritual murder libel (also blood accusation) is an antisemitic canard which falsely accuses Jews of murdering Christians in order to use their blood in the performance of religious rituals. Echoing very old myths of secret cultic practices in many prehistoric societies, the claim, as it is leveled against Jews, was rarely attested to in antiquity. According to Tertullian, it originally emerged in late antiquity as an accusation made against members of the early Christian community of the Roman Empire. Once this accusation had been dismissed, it was revived a millennium later as a Christian slander against Jews in the medieval period. The first examples of medieval blood libel emerged in England in the mid 1100s before spreading into other parts of Europe, especially France and Germany. This libel, alongside those of well poisoning and host desecration, became a major theme of the persecution of Jews in Europe from that period down to modern times. The accusations often assert that the blood of Christian children is especially coveted, and historically, blood libel claims have been made in order to account for the otherwise unexplained deaths of children. In some cases, the alleged victims of human sacrifice have become venerated as Christian martyrs. Many of these most prominently William of Norwich (1144), Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (1255), and Simon of Trent (1475) became objects of local cults and veneration; the cult of Hugh of Lincoln gained the support of Henry III and his son Edward I, giving it official credibility and helping it to be particularly well remembered. Although he was never canonized, the veneration of Simon was added to the General Roman Calendar. One child who was allegedly murdered by Jews, Gabriel of Białystok, was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.
In Jewish lore, blood libels served as the impetus for the creation of the Golem of Prague by Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel in the 16th century. The term 'blood libel' has also been used in reference to any unpleasant or damaging false accusation, and as a result, it has acquired a broader metaphoric meaning. However, this wider usage of the term remains controversial.
History
The earliest versions of the accusations involving Jews supposedly crucifying Christian children on Easter/Passover is said to be because of a prophecy. There is no reference to the use of blood in unleavened matzo bread at this time yet, which develops later as a major motivation for the crime.
Possible precursors
The earliest known antecedent is tenth century, from Damocritus (not Democritus the philosopher) mentioned in the Suda, who alleged that "every seven years the Jews captured a stranger, brought him to the temple in Jerusalem, and sacrificed him, cutting his flesh into bits." The Greco-Egyptian author Apion claimed that the Jews sacrificed Greek victims in their temple. Here, the writer states that when Antiochus Epiphanes entered the temple in Jerusalem, he discovered a Greek captive, who told him that he was being fattened for sacrifice. Every year, Apion claimed, the Jews would sacrifice a Greek and consume his flesh, at the same time swearing eternal hatred towards the Greeks. Apion's claim likely reflects already circulating attitudes towards Jews as similar claims are made by Posidonius and Apollonius Molon in the 1st century BCE. This idea is exampled later in history, when Socrates Scholasticus ( 5th century) reported that in a drunken frolic, a group of Jews bound a Christian child to a cross in mockery of the death of Christ and scourged him until he died.Medieval contextThe blood libels emerged at a time when the church and particularly the Crusades were driving increasingly anti-Judaic discourses. These were later reinforced through the Church council Lateran IV which mandated the segregation of Christian and Jewish society, and built an apparatus of enforcement across Europe. At a local context, many of the English examples may have included an element of church competition for saintly cults, with the income that veneration produced.
Israel Yuval proposed that the blood libel may have originated in the 12th century due to Christian views on Jewish behavior during the First Crusade. Some Jews committed suicide and killed their own children rather than exposing them to forced conversion to Christianity. Yuval wrote that Christians may have argued that if Jews could kill their own children, they could also kill Christian children.Origins in England
in Holy Trinity church, Loddon, Norfolk]]
In England, in 1144, the Jews of Norwich were falsely accused of ritual murder after a boy, William of Norwich, was found dead in the woods with stab wounds. William's hagiographer, Thomas of Monmouth, falsely claimed that every year there is an international council of Jews at which they choose the country in which a child will be killed during Easter, because of a Jewish prophecy that states that the killing of a Christian child each year will ensure that the Jews will be restored to the Holy Land. According to Monmouth, England was chosen in 1144, and the leaders of the Jewish community delegated the Jews of Norwich to perform the killing, after which they abducted and crucified William. The legend was turned into a cult, with William acquiring the status of a martyr and pilgrims bringing offerings to the local church.
This was followed by similar accusations in Gloucester (1168), Bury St Edmunds (1181) and Bristol (1183). In 1189, the Jewish deputation attending the coronation of Richard the Lionheart was attacked by the crowd. Massacres of Jews at London and York soon followed. In 1190, on 16 March, 150 Jews were attacked in York and then massacred when they took refuge in the royal castle, where Clifford's Tower now stands, with some committing suicide rather than being taken by the mob. The remains of 17 bodies thrown in a well in Norwich between the 12th and 13th century (five that were shown by DNA testing to likely be members of a single Jewish family) were very possibly killed as part of one of these pogroms.
After the death of Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, there were trials and executions of Jews. The case was described by Matthew Paris and later by Chaucer, and formed the basis of the Sir Hugh ballads which have circulated to the present day. Its notoriety sprang from the intervention of the Crown, the first time an accusation of ritual killing had been given royal credibility.
The eight-year-old Hugh disappeared at Lincoln on 31 July 1255. His body was probably discovered on 29 August, in a well. A Jew named Copin or Koppin confessed to involvement. He confessed to John of Lexington, a servant of the crown, and relative of the Bishop of Lincoln. He confessed that the boy had been crucified by the Jews, who had assembled at Lincoln for that purpose. King Henry III, who had reached Lincoln at the beginning of October, had Copin executed and 91 of the Jews of Lincoln seized and sent up to London, where 18 of them were executed. The rest were pardoned at the intercession of the Franciscans or Dominicans.
Within a few decades, Jews would be expelled from all of England in 1290 and not allowed to return until 1657, although it is likely that some Jews lived there during this period and kept their religion secret. After the expulsion, Edward I renovated "Little Saint Hugh's" shrine and decorated it with his Royal insignia, as part of his efforts to justify his actions. As Stacey notes: "A more explicit identification of the crown with the ritual crucifixion charge can hardly be imagined."Continental Europe
blood libel. Illustration in Hartmann Schedel's Weltchronik, 1493]]
Much like the blood libel of England, the history of blood libel in continental Europe consists of unsubstantiated claims made about the corpses of Christian children. There were frequently associated supernatural events speculated about these discoveries and corpses, events which were often attributed by contemporaries to miracles. Also, just as in England, these accusations in continental Europe typically resulted in the execution of numerous Jews – sometimes even all, or close to all, the Jews in one town. These accusations and their effects also, in some cases, led to royal interference on behalf of the Jews.
Thomas of Monmouth's story of the annual Jewish meeting to decide which local community would kill a Christian child also quickly spread to the continent. An early version appears in Bonum Universale de Apibus ii. 29, § 23, by Thomas of Cantimpré (a monastery near Cambray). Thomas wrote, in around 1260, "It is quite certain that the Jews of every province annually decide by lot which congregation or city is to send Christian blood to the other congregations." Thomas of Cantimpré also believed that since the time when the Jews called out to Pontius Pilate, "His blood be on us, and on our children" (), they have been afflicted with hemorrhages, a condition equated with male menstruation:
<blockquote>A very learned Jew, who in our day has been converted to the (Christian) faith, informs us that one enjoying the reputation of a prophet among them, toward the close of his life, made the following prediction: 'Be assured that relief from this secret ailment, to which you are exposed, can only be obtained through Christian blood ("solo sanguine Christiano").' This suggestion was followed by the ever-blind and impious Jews, who instituted the custom of annually shedding Christian blood in every province, in order that they might recover from their malady.</blockquote>
Thomas added that the Jews had misunderstood the words of their prophet, who by his expression "solo sanguine Christiano" had meant not the blood of any Christian, but that of Jesus the only true remedy for all physical and spiritual suffering. Thomas did not mention the name of the "very learned" proselyte, but it may have been Nicholas Donin of La Rochelle, who, in 1240, had a disputation on the Talmud with Yechiel of Paris, and who in 1242 caused the burning of numerous Talmudic manuscripts in Paris. It is known that Thomas was personally acquainted with Nicholas. Nicholas Donin and another Jewish convert, Theobald of Cambridge, are greatly credited with the adoption and the belief of the blood libel myth in Europe.
The first known case outside England was in Blois, France, in 1171. This was the site of a blood libel accusation against the town's entire Jewish community that led to around 31–33 Jews (with 17 women making up this total being burned to death on 29 May of that year, or the 20th of Sivan of 4931. The child's body was never found. The count had about 40 adult Blois Jews arrested and they were eventually to be burned. The surviving members of the Blois Jewish community, as well as surviving holy texts, were ransomed. As a result of this case, the Jews garnered new promises from the king. The burned bodies of the sentenced Jews were supposedly maintained unblemished through the burning, a claim which is a well-known miracle, martyr myth for both Jews and Christians. Responding to the mass execution, the Twentieth of Sivan was declared a fast day by Rabbenu Tam. In this case in Blois, there was not yet the myth proclaimed that Jews needed the blood of Christians. At Pforzheim, Baden, in 1267, a woman supposedly sold a girl to Jews who, according to the myth, then cut her open and dumped her in the Enz River, where boatmen found her; the girl cried for vengeance, and then died. The body was said to have bled as the Jews were brought to it. The woman and the Jews allegedly confessed and were subsequently killed. That a judicial execution was summarily committed in consequence of the accusation is evident from the manner in which the Nuremberg "Memorbuch" and the synagogal poems refer to the incident.
In 1270, at Weissenburg, of Alsace, a supposed miracle alone decided the charge against the Jews. A child's body had shown up in the Lauter River; it was claimed that Jews had cut into the child to acquire his blood, and that the child continued bleeding for five days. alleged miracles again constituted the only evidence against the Jews. In this case, it was claimed that the corpse of the 16-year-old Werner of Oberwesel (also referred to as "Good Werner") landed at Bacharach and the body performed miracles, particularly medicinal miracles. Light was also said to have been emitted by the body. Reportedly, the child was hung upside down, forced to throw up the host and was cut open. Rudolph of Habsburg, to whom the Jews had appealed for protection, in order to manage the miracle story, had the archbishop of Mainz declare great wrong had been done to the Jew. This apparent declaration was very limited in effectiveness. or 1294 the Jews tortured and murdered a boy called Rudolph (sometimes also referred to as Ruff, or Ruof). The body was reportedly found by the house of Jöly, a Jew. The Jewish community was then implicated. The penalties imposed upon the Jews included torture, execution, expulsion, and steep financial fines. Justinger argued Jews were out to harm Christianity.
There have been several explanations put forth as to why these blood libel accusations were made and perpetuated. For example, it has been argued Thomas of Monmouth's account and other similar false accusations, as well as their perpetuation, largely had to do with the economic and political interests of leaders perpetuating these myths. The use of blood and other human products for medicinal or magical purposes was an established concept in medieval Europe. As such illegal ways of accessing these item were ascribed (in 1507) by Franciscans to Dominicans, by others to sorcerers and devil worshippers as well as Jews. that this case was constructed by the Spanish Inquisition to facilitate the expulsion of Jews from Spain.
* In a case at Tyrnau (Nagyszombat, today Trnava, Slovakia), the absurdity, even the impossibility, of the statements forced by torture from women and children shows that the accused preferred death as a means of escape from the torture, and admitted everything that was asked of them. They even said that Jewish men menstruated and that the latter therefore practiced the drinking of Christian blood as a remedy.
* At Bösing (Bazin, today Pezinok, Slovakia), it was charged that a nine-year-old boy had been bled to death, suffering cruel torture; thirty Jews confessed to the crime and were publicly burned. The true facts of the case were disclosed later when the child was found alive in Vienna. He had been taken there by the accuser, Count Wolf of Bazin, as a means of ridding himself of his Jewish creditors at Bazin.
* In Rinn, near Innsbruck, a boy named Andreas Oxner (also known as Anderl von Rinn) was said to have been bought by Jewish merchants and cruelly murdered by them in a forest near the city, his blood being carefully collected in vessels. The accusation of drawing off the blood (without murder) was not made until the beginning of the 17th century when the cult was founded. The older inscription in the church of Rinn, dating from 1575, is distorted by fabulous embellishments for example, that the money paid for the boy to his godfather turned into leaves, and that a lily blossomed upon his grave. The cult continued until officially prohibited in 1994, by the Bishop of Innsbruck.
* On 17 January 1670, Raphael Levy, a member of the Jewish community of Metz, was executed on charges of the ritual murder of a peasant child who had gone missing in the woods outside the village of Glatigny on 25 September 1669, the eve of Rosh Hashanah.
* Sandomierz, a city in Poland, has been the venue of a number of blood libel cases, leading to the torture and execution of several people. One such case from 1698 involved Małgorzata, a dead two-year-old Christian girl whose corpse was deposited in a church mortuary by her mother, and the Jew she accused under torture, Aleksander Berek. The revival of the cult in Belarus was cited as a dangerous expression of antisemitism in international reports on human rights and religious freedoms which were passed to the UNHCR.
* 1823–35 Velizh blood libel: After a Christian child was found murdered outside of this small Russian town in 1823, accusations by a drunk prostitute led to the imprisonment of many local Jews. Some were not released until 1835.
* 1840 Damascus affair: In February, at Damascus, a Catholic monk named Father Thomas and his servant disappeared. The accusation of ritual murder was brought against members of the Jewish community of Damascus.
* 1840 Rhodes blood libel: The Jews of Rhodes, under the Ottoman Empire, were accused of murdering a Greek Christian boy. The libel was supported by the local governor and the European consuls posted to Rhodes. Several Jews were arrested and tortured, and the entire Jewish quarter was blockaded for twelve days. An investigation carried out by the central Ottoman government found the Jews to be innocent.
* In 1844, David Paul Drach, the son of the Head Rabbi of Paris and a convert to Christianity, wrote in his book ''De L'harmonie Entre L'eglise et la Synagogue'', that a Catholic priest in Damascus had been ritually killed and the murder covered up by powerful Jews in Europe; referring to the 1840 Damascus affair [See above]
* In 1851–53, a case of blood libel took place in Surami, Georgia (then part of the Russian Empire): seven Jewish men, all versed in religious matters, were falsely accused of the murder of a Christian (Georgian) boy for ritual purposes. Local investigators pressed the case for three years before the Governing Senate in St Petersburg, the Russian Empire's highest judicial organ, convicted and exiled the accused to remote provinces. Soviet, Israeli and Georgian scholars agree that the Russian imperial state, especially Viceroy Mikhail Vorontsov, was heavily involved, even manipulated the case to ensure a conviction. This conviction greatly influenced the Kutaisi case (1878–80, see below).
* In March 1879, nine Jewish men from the village of Sachkhere were brought to Kutaisi, Georgia to stand trial for the alleged kidnapping and murder of a Christian girl. The case attracted a great deal of attention in the Russian Empire (of which Georgia was then a part): "While periodicals as diverse in tendency as Herald of Europe and Saint Petersburg Notices expressed their amazement that medieval prejudice should have found a place in the modern judiciary of a civilized state, New Times hinted darkly of strange Jewish sects with unknown practices." The trial ended in acquittal, and the orientalist Daniel Chwolson published a refutation of the blood libel.
* 1882 Tiszaeszlár blood libel: The Jews of the village of Tiszaeszlár, Hungary were accused of the ritual murder of a fourteen-year-old Christian girl, Eszter Solymosi. The case was one of the main causes of the rise of antisemitism in the country. The accused persons were eventually acquitted.
* In 1899, Hilsner Affair: Leopold Hilsner, a Czech Jewish vagabond, was accused of murdering a nineteen-year-old Christian woman, Anežka Hrůzová, with a slash to the throat. Despite the absurdity of the charge and the relatively progressive nature of society in Austria-Hungary, Hilsner was convicted and sentenced to death. He was later convicted of an additional unsolved murder, also involving a Christian woman. In 1901, the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Tomáš Masaryk, a prominent Austro-Czech philosophy professor and future president of Czechoslovakia, spearheaded Hilsner's defense. He was later blamed by Czech media because of this. In March 1918, Hilsner was pardoned by Austrian emperor Charles I. He was never exonerated, and the true guilty parties were never found.
20th and 21st centuries
of 1903, caused by a blood libel]]
* The 1903 Kishinev pogrom, an anti-Jewish revolt, started when an anti-Semitic newspaper wrote that a Christian Russian boy, Mikhail Rybachenko, was found murdered in the town of Dubossary, alleging that the Jews killed him in order to use the blood in preparation of matzo. Around 49 Jews were killed and hundreds were wounded, with over 700 houses being looted and destroyed.
* In the 1910 Shiraz blood libel, the Jews of Shiraz, Iran, were falsely accused of murdering a Muslim girl. The entire Jewish quarter was pillaged; the pogrom left 12 Jews dead and about 50 injured.
in the 1910s with a picture of the dead Yushchinskyi, issued some time during the trial of Beilis, that read: "Christians, take care of your children!!! It will be the Jews' Passover on 17 March."]]
* In Kyiv, a Jewish factory manager, Menahem Mendel Beilis, was accused of murdering 13-year-old Andriy Yushchinskyi, a Christian child, and using his blood to make matzos. He was acquitted by an all-Christian jury after a sensational trial in 1913.
* In 1928, the Jews of Massena, New York were falsely accused of kidnapping and killing a Christian girl in the Massena blood libel.
* Jews were frequently accused of the ritual murder of Christians for their blood in Der Stürmer, an antisemitic newspaper which was published in Nazi Germany. The infamous May 1934 issue of the paper was later banned by the Nazi authorities, because it went so far as to compare alleged Jewish ritual murder with the Christian rite of communion.
* In Tattarisuo case, where several severed heads, arms and other body parts were discovered in a spring, the far-right media in Finland blamed the case on Jewish ritual murder.
* In 1938 the British fascist politician and veterinarian Arnold Leese published an antisemitic booklet in defense of the Blood Libel which he titled My Irrelevant Defence: Meditations inside Gaol and Out on Jewish Ritual Murder.
* The 1944–1946 Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, which according to some estimates killed as many as 1000–2000 Jews (237 documented cases), involved, among other elements, accusations of blood libel, especially in the case of the 1946 Kielce pogrom.
* King Faisal of Saudi Arabia (r. 1964–1975) made accusations against Parisian Jews that took the form of a blood libel.
* The Matzah of Zion was written by the Syrian Defense Minister, Mustafa Tlass in 1986. The book concentrates on two issues: renewed ritual murder accusations against the Jews in the Damascus affair of 1840, and The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The book was cited at a United Nations conference in 1991 by a Syrian delegate. On 21 October 2002, the London-based Arabic paper Al-Hayat reported that the book The Matzah of Zion was undergoing its eighth reprinting and it was also being translated into English, French and Italian. Egyptian filmmaker Munir Radhi has announced plans to adapt the book into a film.
* In 2003, a private Syrian film company created a 29-part television series Ash-Shatat ("The Diaspora"). This series originally aired in Lebanon in late 2003 and it was subsequently broadcast by Al-Manar, a satellite television network owned by Hezbollah. This TV series, based on the antisemitic forgery The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, shows the Jewish people engaging in a conspiracy to rule the world, and it also presents Jews as people who murder the children of Christians, drain their blood and use it to bake matzah.
* In early January 2005, some 20 members of the Russian State Duma publicly made a blood libel accusation against the Jewish people. They approached the Prosecutor General's Office and demanded that Russia "ban all Jewish organizations." They accused all Jewish groups of being extremist, "anti-Christian and inhumane, and even accused them of practices that include ritual murders." Alluding to previous antisemitic Russian court decrees that accused the Jews of ritual murder, they wrote that "Many facts of such religious extremism were proven in courts." The accusation included traditional antisemitic canards, such as the claim that "the whole democratic world today is under the financial and political control of international Jewry. And we do not want our Russia to be among such unfree countries". This demand was published as an open letter to the prosecutor general, in Rus Pravoslavnaya (, "Orthodox Russia"), a national-conservative newspaper. This group consisted of members of the ultra-nationalist Liberal Democrats, the Communist faction, and the nationalist Motherland party, with some 500 supporters. The mentioned document is known as "The Letter of Five Hundred" ("Письмо пятисот"). Their supporters included editors of nationalist newspapers as well as journalists. By the end of the month, this group was strongly criticized, and it retracted its demand in response.
* At the end of April 2005, five boys, ages 9 to 12, in Krasnoyarsk (Russia) disappeared. In May 2005, their burnt bodies were found in the city sewage. The crime was not disclosed, and in August 2007 the investigation was extended until 18 November 2007. Some Russian nationalist groups claimed that the children were murdered by a Jewish sect with a ritual purpose. Nationalist M. Nazarov, one of the authors of "The Letter of Five Hundred" alleges "the existence of a 'Hasidic sect', whose members kill children before Passover to collect their blood", using the Beilis case mentioned above as evidence. M.Nazarov also alleges that "the ritual murder requires throwing the body away rather than its concealing". "The Union of the Russian People" demanded officials thoroughly investigate the Jews, not stopping at the search in synagogues, Matzah bakeries and their offices.
* During a speech in 2007, Raed Salah, the leader of the northern branch of the Islamic Movement in Israel, referred to Jews in Europe having in the past used children's blood to bake holy bread. "We have never allowed ourselves to knead [the dough for] the bread that breaks the fast in the holy month of Ramadan with children's blood", he said. "Whoever wants a more thorough explanation, let him ask what used to happen to some children in Europe, whose blood was mixed in with the dough of the [Jewish] holy bread."
* In the 2000s, a team of Polish anthropologists and sociologists investigated the currency of the blood libel myth in Sandomierz where a painting depicting the blood libel adorns the Cathedral, and Orthodox faithful in villages near Bialystok, and they discovered that these beliefs persist among some Catholic and Orthodox Christians. The fact that local Jews were saved by orders from the bishop, who saw them hide in the very same cathedral during the Holocaust, gave rise to hopes of transforming Sandomierz into a symbol of hope for the checkered historical Polish-Jewish relations. and described in 2005 as "one of America's most noted Muslim scholars", alleged that Jews kidnap Christians and others in order to slaughter them and use their blood for making matzos. Sultan, who is currently a lecturer on Muslim jurisprudence at Cairo University stated that: "The Zionists kidnap several non-Muslims Christians and others... this happened in a Jewish neighborhood in Damascus. They killed the French doctor, Toma, who used to treat the Jews and others for free, in order to spread Christianity. Even though he was their friend and they benefited from him the most, they took him on one of these holidays and slaughtered him, along with the nurse. Then they kneaded the matzos with the blood of Dr. Toma and his nurse. They do this every year. The world must know these facts about the Zionist entity and its terrible corrupt creed. The world should know this." (Translation by the Middle East Media Research Institute)
* During an interview which aired on Rotana Khalijiya TV on 13 August 2012, Saudi Cleric Salman Al-Odeh stated (as translated by MEMRI) that "It is well known that the Jews celebrate several holidays, one of which is the Passover, or the Matzos Holiday. I read once about a doctor who was working in a laboratory. This doctor lived with a Jewish family. One day, they said to him: 'We want blood. Get us some human blood.' He was confused. He didn't know what this was all about. Of course, he couldn't betray his work ethics in such a way, but he began inquiring, and he found that they were making matzos with human blood." Al-Odeh also stated that "[Jews] eat it, believing that this brings them close to their false god, Yahweh" and that "They would lure a child in order to sacrifice him in the religious rite that they perform during that holiday."
* In April 2013, the Palestinian non-profit organization MIFTAH, founded by Hanan Ashrawi apologized for publishing an article which criticized US President Barack Obama for holding a Passover Seder in the White House by saying "Does Obama, in fact, know the relationship, for example, between 'Passover' and 'Christian blood'...?! Or 'Passover' and 'Jewish blood rituals?!' Much of the chatter and gossip about historical Jewish blood rituals in Europe is real and not fake as they claim; the Jews used the blood of Christians in the Jewish Passover." MIFTAH's apology expressed its "sincerest regret".
* In an interview which aired on Al-Hafez TV on 12 May 2013, Khaled Al-Zaafrani of the Egyptian Justice and Progress Party, stated (as translated by MEMRI): "It's well known that during the Passover, they [the Jews] make matzos called the 'Blood of Zion.' They take a Christian child, slit his throat and slaughter him. Then they take his blood and make their [matzos]. This is a very important rite for the Jews, which they never forgo... They slice it and fight over who gets to eat Christian blood." In the same interview, Al-Zaafrani stated that "The French kings and the Russian czars discovered this in the Jewish quarters. All the massacring of Jews that occurred in those countries were because they discovered that the Jews had kidnapped and slaughtered children, in order to make the Passover matzos."
*In an interview which aired on the Al-Quds TV channel on 28 July 2014 (as translated by MEMRI), Osama Hamdan, the top representative of Hamas in Lebanon, stated that "we all remember how the Jews used to slaughter Christians, in order to mix their blood in their holy matzos. This is not a figment of imagination or something taken from a film. It is a fact, acknowledged by their own books and by historical evidence." In a subsequent interview with CNN's Wolf Blitzer, Hamdan defended his comments, stating that he "has Jewish friends".
* In a sermon broadcast on the official Jordanian TV channel on 22 August 2014, Sheik Bassam Ammoush, a former Minister of Administrative Development who was appointed to Jordan's House of Senate ("Majlis al-Aayan") in 2011, stated (as translated by MEMRI): "In [the Gaza Strip] we are dealing with the enemies of Allah, who believe that the matzos that they bake on their holidays must be kneaded with blood. When the Jews were in the diaspora, they would murder children in England, in Europe, and in America. They would slaughter them and use their blood to make their matzos... They believe that they are God's chosen people. They believe that the killing of any human being is a form of worship and a means to draw near their god."
* Accusations of genocide against Palestinians by Israel have been dismissively alleged to be a form of "blood libel" by some supporters of Israel.
* In April 27, 2019, John Earnest entered Poway synagogue in Poway, California and fatally shot one woman and injured three other people, including the synagogue's rabbi. In the manifesto that is attributed to him, he wrote that he was avenging the martyrdom of Simon of Trent: "You are not forgotten Simon of Trent, the horror that you and countless children have endured at the hands of the Jews will never be forgiven".
* In March 2020, Italian painter Giovanni Gasparro unveiled a painting of the martyrdom of Simon of Trent, titled "Martirio di San Simonino da Trento (Simone Unverdorben), per omicidio rituale ebraico (The Martyrdom of St. Simon of Trento in accordance with Jewish ritual murder)". The painting was condemned by the Italian Jewish community and the Simon Wiesenthal Center, among others.
* The QAnon conspiracy theory has been accused of advancing blood libel tropes through its belief that Hollywood elites are harvesting adrenochrome from children through Satanic ritual abuse in order to become immortal. In February 2022, a sculpture of Simon of Trent depicting the blood libel was used to promote the adrenochrome-harvesting conspiracy theory.Views of the Catholic Church
The attitude of the Catholic Church towards these accusations and the cults venerating children supposedly killed by Jews has varied over time. The Papacy generally opposed them, although it had problems in enforcing its opposition.
In 1911, the Dictionnaire apologétique de la foi catholique, an important French Catholic encyclopedia, published an analysis of the blood libel accusations. This may be taken as being broadly representative of educated Catholic opinion in continental Europe at that time. The article noted that the popes had generally refrained from endorsing the blood libel, and it concluded that the accusations were unproven in a general sense, but it left open the possibility that some Jews had committed ritual murders of Christians. Other contemporary Catholic sources (notably the Jesuit periodical La Civiltà Cattolica) promoted the blood libel as truth.
Today, the accusations are rarer in Catholic circles. While Simon of Trent's local status as a saint was removed in 1965, several towns in Spain still commemorate the blood libel.
Papal pronouncements
* Pope Innocent IV took action against the blood libel: "5 July 1247 Mandate to the prelates of Germany and France to annul all measures adopted against the Jews on account of the ritual murder libel, and to prevent the accusation of Arabs on similar charges" (The Apostolic See and the Jews, Documents: 492–1404; Simonsohn, Shlomo, pp. 188–189, 193–195, 208). In 1247, he wrote also that "Certain of the clergy, and princes, nobles and great lords of your cities and dioceses have falsely devised certain godless plans against the Jews, unjustly depriving them by force of their property, and appropriating it themselves;... they falsely charge them with dividing up among themselves on the Passover the heart of a murdered boy...In their malice, they ascribe every murder, wherever it chance to occur, to the Jews. And on the ground of these and other fabrications, they are filled with rage against them, rob them of their possessions without any formal accusation, without confession, and without legal trial and conviction, contrary to the privileges granted to them by the Apostolic See... Since it is our pleasure that they shall not be disturbed,... we ordain that ye behave towards them in a friendly and kind manner. Whenever any unjust attacks upon them come under your notice, redress their injuries, and do not suffer them to be visited in the future by similar tribulations."
* Pope Gregory X (1271–1276) issued a letter which criticized the practice of blood libels and forbade arrests and persecution of Jews based on a blood libel, ... unless — which we do not believe — they be caught in the commission of the crime.
* Pope Benedict XIV wrote the bull Beatus Andreas (22 February 1755) in response to an application for the formal canonization of the 15th-century Andreas Oxner, a folk saint alleged to have been murdered by Jews "out of hatred for the Christian faith". Benedict did not dispute the claim that Jews murdered Christian children, and in anticipating that further cases on this basis would be brought appears to have accepted it as accurate, but decreed that in such cases beatification or canonization would be inappropriate.
Blood libels in Muslim lands
In late 1553 or 1554, Suleiman the Magnificent, the reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire, issued a firman (royal decree) which formally denounced blood libels against the Jews.
In 1840, following the Western outrage arising from the Damascus affair, British politician and leader of the British Jewish community, Sir Moses Montefiore, backed by other influential westerners including Britain's Lord Palmerston and Damascus consul Charles Henry Churchill, and Solomon Munk, persuaded Sultan Abdulmejid I in Constantinople, to issue a firman on 6 November 1840 intended to halt the spread of blood libel accusations in the Ottoman Empire. The edict declared that blood libel accusations were a slander against Jews and they would be prohibited throughout the Ottoman Empire, and read in part:
<blockquote>... and for the love we bear to our subjects, we cannot permit the Jewish nation, whose innocence for the crime alleged against them is evident, to be worried and tormented as a consequence of accusations which have not the least foundation in truth...</blockquote>
In the remainder of the 19th century and into the 20th century, there were many instances of the blood libel in Ottoman lands, such as the 1881 Fornaraki affair. However the libel almost always came from the Christian community, sometimes with the connivance of Greek or French diplomats. In this book, he argues that the true religious beliefs of Jews are "black hatred against all humans and religions", and no Arab country should ever sign a peace treaty with Israel. Tlass re-printed the book several times. Following the book's publication, Tlass told Der Spiegel, that this accusation against Jews was valid and he also claimed that his book is "an historical study ... based on documents from France, Vienna and the American University in Beirut."
In 2003, the Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram published a series of articles by Osama El-Baz, a senior advisor to the then Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Among other things, Osama El-Baz explained the origins of the blood libel against the Jews. He said that Arabs and Muslims have never been antisemitic, as a group, but he accepted the fact that a few Arab writers and media figures attack Jews "on the basis of the racist fallacies and myths that originated in Europe". He urged people not to succumb to "myths" such as the blood libel.
Nevertheless, on many occasions in modern times, blood libel stories have appeared in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab and Muslim nations, as well as on their television shows and websites, and books which allege instances of Jewish blood libels are not uncommon there.
The blood libel was featured in a scene in the Syrian TV series Ash-Shatat, shown in 2003.
In 2007, Lebanese poet Marwan Chamoun, in an interview aired on Télé Liban, referred to the "... slaughter of the priest Tomaso de Camangiano ... in 1840... in the presence of two rabbis in the heart of Damascus, in the home of a close friend of this priest, Daud Al-Harari, the head of the Jewish community of Damascus. After he was slaughtered, his blood was collected, and the two rabbis took it." A novel, Death of a Monk, based on the Damascus affair, was published in 2004.See also
* Blood atonement
* Blood curse
* Blood ritual
* Cake of Light
* Conspiracy theory
* Human cannibalism
* Kiddush#History of using white wine
* Moral panic
* OpIndia#Bihar human sacrifice claims
* QAnon#Child sex trafficking and satanic sacrifice
* Salem witch trials
* Satanic ritual abuse
* Sefer HaRazim
* Statute of Kalisz, 13th-century Polish ducal decree offering Jews protection against blood libel, among others
References
Notes
Further reading
*
*
* Hsia, R. Po-chia (1998) The Myth of Ritual Murder: Jews and Magic in Reformation Germany. New Haven: Yale University Press.
*
* O'Brien, Darren (2011) The Pinnacle of Hatred: The Blood Libel and the Jews. Jerusalem: Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, Hebrew University Magnes Press.
*Rose, E. M. (2015) The Murder of William of Norwich: The Origins of the Blood Libel in Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press
*
*
*
* Yuval, Israel Jacob (2006) Two Nations in Your Womb: Perceptions of Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 135–204
External links
Category:Anti-Judaism
Category:Antisemitic tropes
Category:Christianity and antisemitism
Category:Islam and antisemitism
Category:Christianity-related controversies
Category:Islam-related controversies
Category:Conspiracy theories involving Jews
Category:Propaganda legends
*
Category:Human sacrifice in folklore and mythology
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Bagpuss
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| voices =
| narrated = Oliver Postgate
| country = United Kingdom
| network = BBC<!--Only show the original network -- see template documentation-->
| company = Smallfilms
| first_aired
| last_aired
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 13
}}
Bagpuss is a British animated children's television series which was made by Peter Firmin and Oliver Postgate through their company Smallfilms. The series of thirteen episodes was first broadcast from 12 February to 7 May 1974. The title character was "a saggy, old cloth cat, baggy, and a bit loose at the seams". Although only thirteen episodes were produced and broadcast, the programme remains fondly remembered, and was frequently repeated in the UK until 1986. In early 1999, Bagpuss topped a BBC poll for the UK's favourite children's television programme.
Characters
Bagpuss himself is a stuffed cloth cat, referred to in the intro as "The Most Important, The Most Beautiful, The Most Magical, Saggy Old Cloth Cat in the Whole, Wide World".
The six mice carved on the side of the "mouse organ" (a small mechanical pipe organ that played rolls of music) wake up and scurry around, singing in high-pitched voices. The names of the six mice are: Charlie Mouse, Jenny Mouse, Janey Mouse, Lizzy Mouse, Eddie Mouse and Willy Mouse, although only three of the mice are ever referred to by their name; the remaining three are named only in the books which accompany the series.
A rag doll made of scraps, called Madeleine, sits in a wicker chair. Gabriel the toad, unlike most Smallfilms characters, could move by a special device beneath his can without the use of stop-motion animation.
The wooden woodpecker bookend became the drily academic Professor Yaffle (based on the philosopher Bertrand Russell, whom Postgate had once met).
Voices and music
Sandra Kerr and John Faulkner provided the voices of Madeleine and Gabriel respectively and put together and performed all the folk songs. All the other characters' voices, including that of the narrator, were performed by writer Oliver Postgate.
Format
The scene is set at the turn of the 20th century, with Emily Firmin (Peter Firmin's daughter) playing the part of the Victorian child Emily. The first antique village vignette is a cropped image of Horrabridge taken in 1898, though nothing is known of the other photo of the children with the pram. The shop window was at the Firmin family home in Blean. who owns a shop. She never sells any merchandise, but instead finds lost or broken objects and later displays them in the front window after they have been mended so their owners might come in and claim them.
Emily leaves an object in front of her favourite stuffed toy, the large, saggy, pink and white striped cat named Bagpuss, and recites the following verse:
| ShortSummary = Some splints of wood are shaken out of a bottle by the mice. Bagpuss tells a story about mermaids and the magic repairs the model ship. The mice put it back into the bottle and raise the sails.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = A dirty rag reveals a picture of an owl. Once cleaned, Madeleine recounts a story explaining why owls sound like they do. Gabriel recounts in song the story of a king who needed a cushion to sit on.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = Assorted jewels, which initially are thought to represent a cat and a bird but which Gabriel decides were the crown jewels of a frog princess.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = Put to inventive use by the mice, and the subject of a very silly song about its possible use as a rowing boat.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = A tartan porcupine pincushion, and a legend of a small, soft creature from Scotland.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = A broken figurine of a Chinese man (the Wise Man of Ling-Po, Yaffle explains) and a turtle.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = An elephant missing its ears.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = A wooden toy mill demonstrated by the mice to make chocolate biscuits out of breadcrumbs and butterbeans. This turns out to be a mischievous fraud. Gabriel and Madeleine sing a song about how ploughmen, farmers, millers, and bakers work at different stages of bread production. Even stern old Professor Yaffle cries.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = A statuette, and a lesson about how sizes are relative.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = A tangly plant (Clematis vitalba seeding), and a loom for weaving.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = A fiddle that plays itself, and a leprechaun.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = A basket that the mice attempt to turn into a flying machine. Professor Yaffle recites a poem about Percy Pratt, a man who apparently invented the aeroplane.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
| ShortSummary = A piece of cloth, destined to be a house for a rag doll.
| LineColor = EE6B78
}}
}}
Production
The programmes were made using stop-frame animation. Bagpuss is an actual cloth cat, but was not intended to be such an electric pink. In Firmin's words: "It should have been a ginger marmalade cat but the company in Folkestone dyeing the material made a mistake and it turned out pink and cream. It was the best thing that ever happened".
Madeleine the rag doll was made by Firmin's wife, Joan, with an extra long dress to hold their children's nightdresses, but Postgate asked Joan to make a new version as one of the characters.
Gabriel the Toad was the only character in the series who could move freely without the use of stop-frame animation. Scenes featuring him playing the banjo and singing would have taken quite a bit of time if filmed with the stop-frame method, so Peter Firmin created a mechanism that helped him control Gabriel through a hole in his can. The character was based on a real toad that lived in the basement area of the flat that Peter and Joan rented in Twickenham beside the River Thames. Gabriel (named after Walter Gabriel in The Archers, a long-running British radio soap opera) was originally made for Firmin's live ITV programme The Musical Box. Postgate chose him to be one of the characters in Bagpuss and he was made into a new, slightly larger version.
Professor Yaffle was created as the book-end who had access to "facts". The BBC did not like the original character, a man in top hat made from black Irish bog oak, called "Professor Bogwood". They thought he was too frightening and asked for a non-human instead.
Most of the stories and songs used in the series are based on folk songs and fairy tales from around the world.
Legacy
In 1987, the University of Kent at Canterbury awarded honorary degrees to Postgate and Firmin. In his speech, Postgate stated that the degree was really intended for Bagpuss, who was subsequently displayed in academic dress.
In 1999, Bagpuss came first in a BBC poll selecting the nation's favourite children's programme made and broadcast by that corporation. It also came fourth in the Channel 4 poll, ''The 100 Greatest Kids' TV Shows'', broadcast in 2001.
In 2002 and 2005, a stage show of Bagpuss songs toured the UK folk festivals and theatres with original singers Sandra Kerr and John Faulkner, along with Kerr's daughter Nancy Kerr and her husband, James Fagan.
In June 2002, the charity Hospices of Hope opened the Bagpuss Children's Wing in its hospice in Brașov, Romania. The wing was funded entirely by Postgate from royalties received from the BBC. In April 2012, Marc Jenner from Tunbridge Wells in Kent ran in the Virgin London Marathon dressed in a Bagpuss costume to raise money for the charity, supported by Emily Firmin (seen in the programme's opening titles) and Postgate's family.
Thom Yorke of the band Radiohead has claimed to be a fan of the series, watching it with his son. It was an influence for 2003 album Hail to the Thief. Gabriel's song in Episode 2 was the acknowledged inspiration for the album track (and first single) "There There" (originally titled "The Bony King of Nowhere").
In 2009 Coolabi revealed that it had signed an “exclusive new option to develop and produce new content” based on Bagpuss, as they held the merchandising and distribution rights. Daniel Postgate, the son of co-creator Oliver Postgate, said he did not want a “lightweight” remake using CGI animation. He said CGI had “a slightly lurid quality, even at the best of times”.
Bagpuss appeared in The Official BBC Children in Need Medley in 2009, along with many other British children's characters.
Bagpuss appeared on one of the twelve postage stamps issued by Royal Mail in January 2014 to celebrate classic children's programmes.
Bagpuss was displayed with Rupert Bear in the Rupert Bear Museum in Canterbury, part of the Canterbury Heritage Museum. After its closure at the end of 2017, he and Rupert Bear moved to the Beaney House of Art and Knowledge in Canterbury.
In 2014, Emily Firmin and Dan Postgate, surviving children of the series creators, created the account to share archive footage not widely available, such as several short stories narrated by Oliver Postgate.
The first episode of the BBC show Man Like Mobeen was called Bagpuss.
In the fourth season of The Crown, Bagpuss made a cameo appearance on the episodes "Fairytale" and "Favourites", in which the fictionalised version of Princess Diana (played by Emma Corrin) watched the show in two aforementioned episodes.
Home media
VHS
{|class"wikitable" width99%
!VHS video title
! style="width:09%;"| Year of release
!Episodes
|-
| align="center"|Bagpuss
| align="center"|1 March 1993
| align="center"|"The Owls of Athens", "Flying", "The Mouse Mill", "The Ballet Shoe", "Uncle Feedle"
|-
| align="center"|Bagpuss (Re-Release)
| align="center"|16 June 1997
| align="center"|"The Owls of Athens", "Flying", "The Mouse Mill", "The Ballet Shoe", "Uncle Feedle"
|-
| align="center"|Bagpuss: The Complete Series
| align="center"|10 May 1999
| align="center"|"Ship in a Bottle", "The Owls of Athens", "The Frog Princess", "The Ballet Shoe", "The Hamish", "The Wise Man", "The Elephant", "The Mouse Mill", "The Giant", "The Old Man's Beard", "The Fiddle", "Flying", "Uncle Feedle" (all 13 episodes)
|-
| align="center"|Bagpuss: The Ballet Shoe and other stories
| align="center"|18 April 2001
| align="center"|"The Ballet Shoe", "Uncle Feedle", "Flying"
|-
| align="center"|Bagpuss: The Mouse Mill and other stories
| align="center"|18 April 2001
| align="center"|"The Mouse Mill", "The Hamish", "The Wise Man"
|-
| align="center"|Bagpuss: Ship in the Bottle and other stories
| align="center"|21 April 2003
| align="center"|"Ship in a Bottle", "The Owls of Athens", "The Giant"
|-
| align="center"|Bagpuss: Frog Princess and other stories
| align="center"|21 April 2003
| align="center"|"The Frog Princess", "The Elephant", "The Old Man's Beard"
|-
|}
DVD and Blu-ray
The full series was released on DVD, in April 2005 and in 2007. It was re-released in April 2015. The full series was re-released in 2023 on Blu-ray and DVD to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Bagpuss. This release included “Peter Firmin – At Home with Bagpuss” and “The Story of Smallfilms” as extra features.
BBC iPlayer
The entire series was released onto the BBC iPlayer for the first time in May 2021 for 30 days.MusicA CD of the original songs was released in 1999. The CD was re-released as well as a vinyl LP, again of the original songs from the series, in 2018.BooksSeveral books have been released over the years to accompany the series.
* The Bagpuss Annual (1974)
* The Second Bagpuss Annual (1975)
* ''Mr Rumbletum's Gumboot (1975)
* The Song of the Pongo (1975)
* Silly Old Uncle Feedle (1975)
* Bagpuss in the Sun (1975)
* Bagpuss on a Rainy Day (1975)
* The New Bagpuss Annual 2001 (2000)
* Little Book Of Bagpuss (2005)
* The Big Book of Bagpuss (2007)
* Happy Birthday Bagpuss!'' (2014)
References
External links
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030218011641/https://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/ilove/tv/bagpuss/index.shtml Archived version of BBC Cult TV page] @ The Wayback Machine
*
* [http://www.smallfilms.co.uk/bagpuss The Smallfilms Treasury's Bagpuss site]
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/562331/index.html Bagpuss at British Film Institute Screen Online]
* [http://www.anorakzone.com/bagpuss Bagpuss & Co]
Category:1970s British animated television series
Category:1970s British children's television series
Category:1970s preschool education television series
Category:British preschool education television series
Category:Animated preschool education television series
Category:1974 animated television series debuts
Category:1974 British television series debuts
Category:1974 British television series endings
Category:BBC children's television shows
Category:British children's animated comedy television series
Category:Animated television series about cats
Category:Television series by Smallfilms
Category:Animated television series set in shops
Category:Television series about sentient toys
Category:British stop-motion animated television series
Category:Television shows adapted into novels
Category:British English-language television shows
Category:BBC animated television series
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Naive set theory
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Naive set theory is any of several theories of sets used in the discussion of the foundations of mathematics. }}
Unlike axiomatic set theories, which are defined using formal logic, naive set theory is defined informally, in natural language. It describes the aspects of mathematical sets familiar in discrete mathematics (for example Venn diagrams and symbolic reasoning about their Boolean algebra), and suffices for the everyday use of set theory concepts in contemporary mathematics.
Sets are of great importance in mathematics; in modern formal treatments, most mathematical objects (numbers, relations, functions, etc.) are defined in terms of sets. Naive set theory suffices for many purposes, while also serving as a stepping stone towards more formal treatments.
Method
A naive theory in the sense of "naive set theory" is a non-formalized theory, that is, a theory that uses natural language to describe sets and operations on sets. Such theory treats sets as platonic absolute objects. The words and, or, if ... then, not, for some, for every are treated as in ordinary mathematics. As a matter of convenience, use of naive set theory and its formalism prevails even in higher mathematics – including in more formal settings of set theory itself.
The first development of set theory was a naive set theory. It was created at the end of the 19th century by Georg Cantor as part of his study of infinite sets and developed by Gottlob Frege in his Grundgesetze der Arithmetik.
Naive set theory may refer to several very distinct notions. It may refer to
* Informal presentation of an axiomatic set theory, e.g. as in Naive Set Theory by Paul Halmos.
* Early or later versions of Georg Cantor's theory and other informal systems.
* Decidedly inconsistent theories (whether axiomatic or not), such as a theory of Gottlob Frege that yielded Russell's paradox, and theories of Giuseppe Peano and Richard Dedekind.
Paradoxes
The assumption that any property may be used to form a set, without restriction, leads to paradoxes. One common example is Russell's paradox: there is no set consisting of "all sets that do not contain themselves". Thus consistent systems of naive set theory must include some limitations on the principles which can be used to form sets.
Cantor's theory
Some believe that Georg Cantor's set theory was not actually implicated in the set-theoretic paradoxes (see Frápolli 1991). One difficulty in determining this with certainty is that Cantor did not provide an axiomatization of his system. By 1899, Cantor was aware of some of the paradoxes following from unrestricted interpretation of his theory, for instance Cantor's paradox and the Burali-Forti paradox, and did not believe that they discredited his theory. Cantor's paradox can actually be derived from the above (false) assumption—that any property may be used to form a set—using for " is a cardinal number". Frege explicitly axiomatized a theory in which a formalized version of naive set theory can be interpreted, and it is this formal theory which Bertrand Russell actually addressed when he presented his paradox, not necessarily a theory Cantorwho, as mentioned, was aware of several paradoxespresumably had in mind.
Axiomatic theories
Axiomatic set theory was developed in response to these early attempts to understand sets, with the goal of determining precisely what operations were allowed and when.
Consistency
A naive set theory is not necessarily inconsistent, if it correctly specifies the sets allowed to be considered. This can be done by the means of definitions, which are implicit axioms. It is possible to state all the axioms explicitly, as in the case of Halmos' Naive Set Theory, which is actually an informal presentation of the usual axiomatic Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. It is "naive" in that the language and notations are those of ordinary informal mathematics, and in that it does not deal with consistency or completeness of the axiom system.
Likewise, an axiomatic set theory is not necessarily consistent: not necessarily free of paradoxes. It follows from Gödel's incompleteness theorems that a sufficiently complicated first order logic system (which includes most common axiomatic set theories) cannot be proved consistent from within the theory itself – even if it actually is consistent. However, the common axiomatic systems are generally believed to be consistent; by their axioms they do exclude some paradoxes, like Russell's paradox. Based on Gödel's theorem, it is just not known – and never can be – if there are no paradoxes at all in these theories or in any first-order set theory.
The term naive set theory is still today also used in some literature to refer to the set theories studied by Frege and Cantor, rather than to the informal counterparts of modern axiomatic set theory.
Utility
The choice between an axiomatic approach and other approaches is largely a matter of convenience. In everyday mathematics the best choice may be informal use of axiomatic set theory. References to particular axioms typically then occur only when demanded by tradition, e.g. the axiom of choice is often mentioned when used. Likewise, formal proofs occur only when warranted by exceptional circumstances. This informal usage of axiomatic set theory can have (depending on notation) precisely the appearance of naive set theory as outlined below. It is considerably easier to read and write (in the formulation of most statements, proofs, and lines of discussion) and is less error-prone than a strictly formal approach.
Sets, membership and equality
In naive set theory, a set is described as a well-defined collection of objects. These objects are called the elements or members of the set. Objects can be anything: numbers, people, other sets, etc. For instance, 4 is a member of the set of all even integers. Clearly, the set of even numbers is infinitely large; there is no requirement that a set be finite.
The definition of sets goes back to Georg Cantor. He wrote in his 1915 article [https://web.archive.org/web/20141020034245/http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?idpdf&no_cache1&IDDOC=36218 Beiträge zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre]:
]]
Note on consistency
It does not follow from this definition how sets can be formed, and what operations on sets again will produce a set. The term "well-defined" in "well-defined collection of objects" cannot, by itself, guarantee the consistency and unambiguity of what exactly constitutes and what does not constitute a set. Attempting to achieve this would be the realm of axiomatic set theory or of axiomatic class theory.
The problem, in this context, with informally formulated set theories, not derived from (and implying) any particular axiomatic theory, is that there may be several widely differing formalized versions, that have both different sets and different rules for how new sets may be formed, that all conform to the original informal definition. For example, Cantor's verbatim definition allows for considerable freedom in what constitutes a set. On the other hand, it is unlikely that Cantor was particularly interested in sets containing cats and dogs, but rather only in sets containing purely mathematical objects. An example of such a class of sets could be the von Neumann universe. But even when fixing the class of sets under consideration, it is not always clear which rules for set formation are allowed without introducing paradoxes.
For the purpose of fixing the discussion below, the term "well-defined" should instead be interpreted as an intention, with either implicit or explicit rules (axioms or definitions), to rule out inconsistencies. The purpose is to keep the often deep and difficult issues of consistency away from the, usually simpler, context at hand. An explicit ruling out of all conceivable inconsistencies (paradoxes) cannot be achieved for an axiomatic set theory anyway, due to Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, so this does not at all hamper the utility of naive set theory as compared to axiomatic set theory in the simple contexts considered below. It merely simplifies the discussion. Consistency is henceforth taken for granted unless explicitly mentioned.
Membership
If x is a member of a set A, then it is also said that x belongs to A, or that x is in A. This is denoted by x ∈ A. The symbol ∈ is a derivation from the lowercase Greek letter epsilon, "ε", introduced by Giuseppe Peano in 1889 and is the first letter of the word ἐστί (means "is"). The symbol ∉ is often used to write x ∉ A, meaning "x is not in A".
Equality
Two sets A and B are defined to be equal when they have precisely the same elements, that is, if every element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an element of A. (See axiom of extensionality.) Thus a set is completely determined by its elements; the description is immaterial. For example, the set with elements 2, 3, and 5 is equal to the set of all prime numbers less than 6.
If the sets A and B are equal, this is denoted symbolically as A B (as usual). Empty set The empty set, denoted as <math>\varnothing</math> and sometimes <math>\{\}</math>, is a set with no members at all. Because a set is determined completely by its elements, there can be only one empty set. (See axiom of empty set.) Although the empty set has no members, it can be a member of other sets. Thus <math>\varnothing\neq\{\varnothing\}</math>, because the former has no members and the latter has one member. Specifying sets
The simplest way to describe a set is to list its elements between curly braces (known as defining a set extensionally). Thus }} denotes the set whose only elements are and .
(See axiom of pairing.)
Note the following points:
*The order of elements is immaterial; for example, }}.
*Repetition (multiplicity) of elements is irrelevant; for example, = }}.
(These are consequences of the definition of equality in the previous section.)
This notation can be informally abused by saying something like }} to indicate the set of all dogs, but this example would usually be read by mathematicians as "the set containing the single element dogs".
An extreme (but correct) example of this notation is }}, which denotes the empty set.
The notation }}, or sometimes }}, is used to denote the set containing all objects for which the condition holds (known as defining a set intensionally).
For example, }} denotes the set of real numbers, }} denotes the set of everything with blonde hair.
This notation is called set-builder notation (or "set comprehension", particularly in the context of Functional programming).
Some variants of set builder notation are:
*}} denotes the set of all that are already members of such that the condition holds for . For example, if is the set of integers, then }} is the set of all even integers. (See axiom of specification.)
*}} denotes the set of all objects obtained by putting members of the set into the formula . For example, }} is again the set of all even integers. (See axiom of replacement.)
*}} is the most general form of set builder notation. For example, }} is the set of all dog owners.
Subsets
Given two sets A and B, A is a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of B.
In particular, each set B is a subset of itself; a subset of B that is not equal to B is called a proper subset.
If A is a subset of B, then one can also say that B is a superset of A, that A is contained in B, or that B contains A. In symbols, means that A is a subset of B, and means that B is a superset of A.
Some authors use the symbols ⊂ and ⊃ for subsets, and others use these symbols only for proper subsets. For clarity, one can explicitly use the symbols ⊊ and ⊋ to indicate non-equality.
As an illustration, let R be the set of real numbers, let Z be the set of integers, let O be the set of odd integers, and let P be the set of current or former U.S. Presidents.
Then O is a subset of Z, Z is a subset of R, and (hence) O is a subset of R, where in all cases subset may even be read as proper subset.
Not all sets are comparable in this way. For example, it is not the case either that R is a subset of P nor that P is a subset of R.
It follows immediately from the definition of equality of sets above that, given two sets A and B, if and only if and . In fact this is often given as the definition of equality. Usually when trying to prove that two sets are equal, one aims to show these two inclusions. The empty set is a subset of every set (the statement that all elements of the empty set are also members of any set A is vacuously true).
The set of all subsets of a given set A is called the power set of A and is denoted by <math>2^A</math> or <math>P(A)</math>; the "" is sometimes in a script font: . If the set A has n elements, then <math>P(A)</math> will have <math>2^n</math> elements.
Universal sets and absolute complements
In certain contexts, one may consider all sets under consideration as being subsets of some given universal set.
For instance, when investigating properties of the real numbers R (and subsets of R), R may be taken as the universal set. A true universal set is not included in standard set theory (see Paradoxes below), but is included in some non-standard set theories.
Given a universal set U and a subset A of U, the complement of A (in U) is defined as
:}}.
In other words, A<sup>C</sup> ("A-complement"; sometimes simply A', "A-prime" ) is the set of all members of U which are not members of A.
Thus with R, Z and O defined as in the section on subsets, if Z is the universal set, then O<sup>C</sup> is the set of even integers, while if R is the universal set, then O<sup>C</sup> is the set of all real numbers that are either even integers or not integers at all.
Unions, intersections, and relative complements
Given two sets A and B, their union is the set consisting of all objects which are elements of A or of B or of both (see axiom of union). It is denoted by .
The intersection of A and B is the set of all objects which are both in A and in B. It is denoted by .
Finally, the relative complement of B relative to A, also known as the set theoretic difference of A and B, is the set of all objects that belong to A but not to B. It is written as or .
Symbolically, these are respectively
:}};
: }};
: = }}.
The set B doesn't have to be a subset of A for to make sense; this is the difference between the relative complement and the absolute complement () from the previous section.
To illustrate these ideas, let A be the set of left-handed people, and let B be the set of people with blond hair. Then is the set of all left-handed blond-haired people, while is the set of all people who are left-handed or blond-haired or both. , on the other hand, is the set of all people that are left-handed but not blond-haired, while is the set of all people who have blond hair but aren't left-handed.
Now let E be the set of all human beings, and let F be the set of all living things over 1000 years old. What is in this case? No living human being is over 1000 years old, so must be the empty set {}.
For any set A, the power set <math>P(A)</math> is a Boolean algebra under the operations of union and intersection.
Ordered pairs and Cartesian products
Intuitively, an ordered pair is simply a collection of two objects such that one can be distinguished as the first element and the other as the second element, and having the fundamental property that, two ordered pairs are equal if and only if their first elements are equal and their second elements are equal.
Formally, an ordered pair with first coordinate a, and second coordinate b, usually denoted by (a, b), can be defined as the set <math>\{\{a\}, \{a, b\}\}.</math>
It follows that, two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if and only if and .
Alternatively, an ordered pair can be formally thought of as a set {a,b} with a total order.
(The notation (a, b) is also used to denote an open interval on the real number line, but the context should make it clear which meaning is intended. Otherwise, the notation ]a, b[ may be used to denote the open interval whereas (a, b) is used for the ordered pair).
If A and B are sets, then the Cartesian product (or simply product) is defined to be:
:.}}
That is, is the set of all ordered pairs whose first coordinate is an element of A and whose second coordinate is an element of B.
This definition may be extended to a set of ordered triples, and more generally to sets of ordered n-tuples for any positive integer n.
It is even possible to define infinite Cartesian products, but this requires a more recondite definition of the product.
Cartesian products were first developed by René Descartes in the context of analytic geometry. If R denotes the set of all real numbers, then represents the Euclidean plane and represents three-dimensional Euclidean space.
Some important sets
There are some ubiquitous sets for which the notation is almost universal. Some of these are listed below. In the list, a, b, and c refer to natural numbers, and r and s are real numbers.
# Natural numbers are used for counting. A blackboard bold capital N (<math>\mathbb{N}</math>) often represents this set.
# Integers appear as solutions for x in equations like x + a = b. A blackboard bold capital Z (<math>\mathbb{Z}</math>) often represents this set (from the German Zahlen, meaning numbers).
# Rational numbers appear as solutions to equations like a + bx = c. A blackboard bold capital Q (<math>\mathbb{Q}</math>) often represents this set (for quotient, because R is used for the set of real numbers).
# Algebraic numbers appear as solutions to polynomial equations (with integer coefficients) and may involve radicals (including <math>i=\sqrt{-1\,}</math>) and certain other irrational numbers. A Q with an overline (<math>\overline{\mathbb{Q}}</math>) often represents this set. The overline denotes the operation of algebraic closure.
# Real numbers represent the "real line" and include all numbers that can be approximated by rationals. These numbers may be rational or algebraic but may also be transcendental numbers, which cannot appear as solutions to polynomial equations with rational coefficients. A blackboard bold capital R (<math>\mathbb{R}</math>) often represents this set.
# Complex numbers are sums of a real and an imaginary number: <math>r+s\,i</math>. Here either <math>r</math> or <math>s</math> (or both) can be zero; thus, the set of real numbers and the set of strictly imaginary numbers are subsets of the set of complex numbers, which form an algebraic closure for the set of real numbers, meaning that every polynomial with coefficients in <math>\mathbb{R}</math> has at least one root in this set. A blackboard bold capital C (<math>\mathbb{C}</math>) often represents this set. Note that since a number <math>r+s\,i</math> can be identified with a point <math>(r,s)</math> in the plane, <math>\mathbb{C}</math> is basically "the same" as the Cartesian product <math>\R\times\R</math> ("the same" meaning that any point in one determines a unique point in the other and for the result of calculations, it doesn't matter which one is used for the calculation, as long as multiplication rule is appropriate for <math>\mathbb{C}</math>).
Paradoxes in early set theory
The unrestricted formation principle of sets referred to as the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension,
is a property, then there exists a set {x : P(x)}<nowiki/>}},}}
is the source of several early appearing paradoxes:
* | is an ordinal}}}} led, in the year 1897, to the Burali-Forti paradox, the first published antinomy.
* | is a cardinal}}}} produced Cantor's paradox in 1897.<ref nameLetter_to_Hilbert/>
* | }}}} yielded '''Cantor's second antinomy''' in the year 1899.<ref name=Letters_to_Dedekind/> Here the property is true for all , whatever may be, so would be a universal set, containing everything.
* | ∉ }}}}, i.e. the set of all sets that do not contain themselves as elements, gave Russell's paradox in 1902.
If the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension is weakened to the axiom schema of specification or axiom schema of separation,
is a property, then for any set there exists a set ∈ : ()}}}},}}
then all the above paradoxes disappear. There is a corollary. With the axiom schema of separation as an axiom of the theory, it follows, as a theorem of the theory:
Or, more spectacularly (Halmos' phrasing): There is no universe. Proof: Suppose that it exists and call it . Now apply the axiom schema of separation with }} and for ()}} use ∉ }}. This leads to Russell's paradox again. Hence cannot exist in this theory.
Related to the above constructions is formation of the set
* | ( ∈ ) → ≠ }}}},
where the statement following the implication certainly is false. It follows, from the definition of , using the usual inference rules (and some afterthought when reading the proof in the linked article below) both that ∈ → ≠ }} and ∈ }} holds, hence ≠ }}. This is Curry's paradox.
It is (perhaps surprisingly) not the possibility of ∈ }} that is problematic. It is again the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension allowing ∈ ) → ≠ }} for ()}}. With the axiom schema of specification instead of unrestricted comprehension, the conclusion ∈ }} does not hold and hence ≠ }} is not a logical consequence.
Nonetheless, the possibility of ∈ }} is often removed explicitly or, e.g. in ZFC, implicitly, by demanding the axiom of regularity to hold. One consequence of it is
for which ∈ }},}}
or, in other words, no set is an element of itself.
The axiom schema of separation is simply too weak (while unrestricted comprehension is a very strong axiom—too strong for set theory) to develop set theory with its usual operations and constructions outlined above. The axiom of regularity is of a restrictive nature as well. Therefore, one is led to the formulation of other axioms to guarantee the existence of enough sets to form a set theory. Some of these have been described informally above and many others are possible. Not all conceivable axioms can be combined freely into consistent theories. For example, the axiom of choice of ZFC is incompatible with the conceivable "every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable". The former implies the latter is false.See also
* Algebra of sets
* Axiomatic set theory
* Internal set theory
* List of set identities and relations
* Set theory
* Set (mathematics)
* Partially ordered set
Notes
References
* Bourbaki, N., Elements of the History of Mathematics, John Meldrum (trans.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1994.
*; see also [http://bolyai.cs.elte.hu/~badam/matbsc/11o/cantor1874.pdf pdf version]
* Devlin, K.J., The Joy of Sets: Fundamentals of Contemporary Set Theory, 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1993.
* María J. Frápolli|Frápolli, María J., 1991, "Is Cantorian set theory an iterative conception of set?". Modern Logic, v. 1 n. 4, 1991, 302–318.
*
*
**
**
*
* Kelley, J.L., General Topology, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1955.
* van Heijenoort, J., From Frege to Gödel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1967. Reprinted with corrections, 1977. .
*
*
* External links
* [https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Beginnings_of_set_theory/ Beginnings of set theory] page at St. Andrews
* [http://jeff560.tripod.com/s.html Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (S)]
Category:Set theory
Category:Systems of set theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_set_theory
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2025-04-05T18:27:01.358813
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Breathy voice
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Breathy voice (also called murmured voice, whispery voice, soughing and susurration) is a phonation in which the vocal folds vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are adjusted to let more air escape which produces a sighing-like sound. A simple breathy phonation, (not actually a fricative consonant, as a literal reading of the IPA chart would suggest), can sometimes be heard as an allophone of English between vowels, such as in the word behind, for some speakers.
In the context of the Indo-Aryan languages like Sanskrit and Hindi and comparative Indo-European studies, breathy consonants are often called voiced aspirated, as in the Hindi and Sanskrit stops normally denoted bh, dh, ḍh, jh, and gh and the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European phonemes bʰ,dʰ,ǵʰ,gʰ,gʷʰ. , as breathy voice is a different type of phonation from aspiration. However, breathy and aspirated stops are acoustically similar in that in both cases there is a delay in the onset of full voicing. In the history of several languages, like Greek and some varieties of Chinese, breathy stops have developed into aspirated stops.Classification and terminology The IPA uses the term "breathy voice", but VoQS uses the term "whispery voice". Both accept the term "murmur", popularised by Ladefoged.
Transcription
A stop with breathy release or a breathy nasal is transcribed in the IPA as etc. or as etc. Breathy vowels are most often written etc. Indication of breathy voice by using subscript diaeresis was approved in or before June 1976 by members of the council of International Phonetic Association.
In VoQS, the notation } is used for whispery voice (or murmur), and } is used for breathy voice. Some authors, such as Laver, suggest the alternative transcription (rather than IPA ) as the correct analysis of Gujarati , but it could be confused with the replacement of modal voicing in voiced segments with whispered phonation, conventionally transcribed with the diacritic .
Methods of production
. One is to hold the vocal folds apart, so that they are lax as they are for , but to increase the volume of airflow so that they vibrate loosely. A second is to bring the vocal folds closer together along their entire length than in voiceless , but not as close as in modally voiced sounds such as vowels. This results in an airflow intermediate between and vowels, and is the case with English intervocalic /h/. A third is to constrict the glottis, but separate the arytenoid cartilages that control one end. This results in the vocal folds being drawn together for voicing in the back, but separated to allow the passage of large volumes of air in the front. This is the situation with Hindi|date=March 2025}}
The distinction between the latter two of these realizations, vocal folds somewhat separated along their length (breathy voice) and vocal folds together with the arytenoids making an opening (whispery voice), is phonetically relevant in White Hmong (Hmong Daw).
Phonological property
In some Bantu languages, historically breathy stops have been phonetically devoiced, but the four-way contrast in the system has been retained.
In Portuguese, vowels after the stressed syllable can be pronounced with breathy voice.
Gujarati is unusual in contrasting breathy vowels and consonants: 'twelve', 'outside', 'burden'.
Tsumkwe Juǀʼhoan makes the following rare distinctions : fall, land (of a bird etc.); walk; herb species; and /n|ʱoaᵑ/ greedy person; /n|oaʱᵑ/ cat.
in some dialects of colloquial Spanish, e.g. for .|dateMarch 2025}}See also<!-- Alphabetical order -->
* Aspirated consonant
* Creaky voice
* Guttural
* Index of phonetics articles
* Slack voice
* Voiced glottal fricative
* Whispering
References
Category:Phonation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breathy_voice
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Bézout's identity
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In mathematics, '''Bézout's identity (also called Bézout's lemma'''), named after Étienne Bézout who proved it for polynomials, is the following theorem:
and be integers with greatest common divisor . Then there exist integers and such that . Moreover, the integers of the form are exactly the multiples of .
}}
Here the greatest common divisor of and is taken to be . The integers and are called Bézout coefficients for ; they are not unique. A pair of Bézout coefficients can be computed by the extended Euclidean algorithm, and this pair is, in the case of integers one of the two pairs such that ≤ }} and ≤ }}; equality occurs only if one of and is a multiple of the other.
As an example, the greatest common divisor of 15 and 69 is 3, and 3 can be written as a combination of 15 and 69 as , with Bézout coefficients −9 and 2.
Many other theorems in elementary number theory, such as Euclid's lemma or the Chinese remainder theorem, result from Bézout's identity.
A Bézout domain is an integral domain in which Bézout's identity holds. In particular, Bézout's identity holds in principal ideal domains. Every theorem that results from Bézout's identity is thus true in all principal ideal domains.
Structure of solutions
If and are not both zero and one pair of Bézout coefficients has been computed (for example, using the extended Euclidean algorithm), all pairs can be represented in the form
<math display=block>\left(x-k\frac{b}{d},\ y+k\frac{a}{d}\right),</math>
where is an arbitrary integer, is the greatest common divisor of and , and the fractions simplify to integers.
If and are both nonzero and none of them divides the other, then exactly two of the pairs of Bézout coefficients satisfy
<math display"block"> |x| < \left |\frac{b}{d}\right |\quad \text{and}\quad |y| < \left |\frac{a}{d}\right |.</math> If and are both positive, one has <math>x>0</math> and <math>y<0</math> for one of these pairs, and <math>x<0</math> and <math>y>0</math> for the other. If is a divisor of (including the case <math>b0</math>), then one pair of Bézout coefficients is .
This relies on a property of Euclidean division: given two non-zero integers and , if does not divide , there is exactly one pair such that and }}, and another one such that and < r < 0}}.
The two pairs of small Bézout's coefficients are obtained from the given one by choosing for in the above formula either of the two integers next to }}.
The extended Euclidean algorithm always produces one of these two minimal pairs.
Example
Let and , then . Then the following Bézout's identities are had, with the Bézout coefficients written in red for the minimal pairs and in blue for the other ones.
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\vdots \\
12 &\times ({\color{blue}{-10}}) & + \;\; 42 &\times \color{blue}{3} &= 6 \\
12 &\times ({\color{red}{-3}}) & + \;\;42 &\times \color{red}{1} &= 6 \\
12 &\times \color{red}{4} & + \;\;42 &\times({\color{red}{-1}}) &= 6 \\
12 &\times \color{blue}{11} & + \;\;42 &\times ({\color{blue}{-3}}) &= 6 \\
12 &\times \color{blue}{18} & + \;\;42 &\times ({\color{blue}{-5}}) &= 6 \\
\vdots
\end{align}</math>
If is the original pair of Bézout coefficients, then ∈ [2, 3]}} yields the minimal pairs via , respectively ; that is, , and .
Existence proof
Given any nonzero integers and , let }}. The set is nonempty since it contains either or (with and ). Since is a nonempty set of positive integers, it has a minimum element , by the well-ordering principle. To prove that is the greatest common divisor of and , it must be proven that is a common divisor of and , and that for any other common divisor , one has .
The Euclidean division of by may be written as
<math display"block">adq+r\quad\text{with}\quad 0\le r<d.</math>
The remainder is in }}, because
<math display="block">\begin{align}
r & = a - qd \\
& = a - q(as+bt)\\
& = a(1-qs) - bqt.
\end{align}</math>
Thus is of the form , and hence }}. However, , and is the smallest positive integer in : the remainder can therefore not be in , making necessarily 0. This implies that is a divisor of . Similarly is also a divisor of , and therefore is a common divisor of and .
Now, let be any common divisor of and ; that is, there exist and such that and . One has thus
<math display="block">\begin{align}
d&=as + bt\\
& =cus+cvt\\
&=c(us+vt).
\end{align} </math>
That is, is a divisor of . Since , this implies .
Generalizations
For three or more integers
Bézout's identity can be extended to more than two integers: if
<math display"block">\gcd(a_1, a_2, \ldots, a_n) d</math>
then there are integers <math>x_1, x_2, \ldots, x_n</math> such that
<math display"block">d a_1 x_1 + a_2 x_2 + \cdots + a_n x_n</math>
has the following properties:
* is the smallest positive integer of this form
* every number of this form is a multiple of
For polynomials
Bézout's identity does not always hold for polynomials. For example, when working in the polynomial ring of integers: the greatest common divisor of and is x, but there does not exist any integer-coefficient polynomials and satisfying .
However, Bézout's identity works for univariate polynomials over a field exactly in the same ways as for integers. In particular the Bézout's coefficients and the greatest common divisor may be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm.
As the common roots of two polynomials are the roots of their greatest common divisor, Bézout's identity and fundamental theorem of algebra imply the following result:
and with coefficients in a field, there exist polynomials and such that if and only if and have no common root in any algebraically closed field (commonly the field of complex numbers).}}
The generalization of this result to any number of polynomials and indeterminates is Hilbert's Nullstellensatz.
For principal ideal domains
As noted in the introduction, Bézout's identity works not only in the ring of integers, but also in any other principal ideal domain (PID).
That is, if is a PID, and and are elements of , and is a greatest common divisor of and ,
then there are elements and in such that . The reason is that the ideal is principal and equal to .
An integral domain in which Bézout's identity holds is called a Bézout domain.
History and attribution
The French mathematician Étienne Bézout (1730–1783) proved this identity for polynomials. The statement for integers can be found already in the work of an earlier French mathematician, Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac (1581–1638).
Andrew Granville traced the association of Bézout's name with the identity to Bourbaki, arguing that it is a misattribution since the identity is implicit in Euclid's Elements.
See also
* , an analogue of Bézout's identity for homogeneous polynomials in three indeterminates
*
*
*
Notes
External links
* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/arithmetic/bezout.en Online calculator] for Bézout's identity.
*
Category:Articles containing proofs
Category:Diophantine equations
Category:Lemmas in number theory
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bézout's_identity
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2025-04-05T18:27:01.376656
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