Datasets:

corag
/

kilt-corpus

id stringlengths 1 8	contents stringlengths 0 3.1k	title stringlengths 1 243	wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8
0	Academy Award for Best Production Design The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the...	Academy Award for Best Production Design	316
1	The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order. See also. - BAFTA Award for Best Production Des...	Academy Award for Best Production Design	316
2	Animalia (book) Animalia is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published...	Animalia (book)	332
3	from the animal kingdom (A is for alligator, B is for butterfly, etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture ...	Animalia (book)	332
4	book version for children the same year. H. N. Abrams published "The Animalia Wall Frieze", a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter. The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover. Adaptations. A television series was also...	Animalia (book)	332
5	the Czech Republic and Slovakia. And recently in Greece on the channel ET1. The Australian Children's Television Foundation released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use. In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for iPad an...	Animalia (book)	332
6	1987 : Honour Book. Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named "Animalia" the 1988 Picture Book Winner. External links. - Graeme Base's official website - A Learning Time activity guide for "Animalia" created by The Little Big Book Club	Animalia (book)	332
7	Actrius Actresses (Catalan: Actrius) is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play "E.R." by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996. Synopsis. In order to pre...	Actrius	330
8	pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc (Núria Espert), the television star Assumpta Roca (Rosa Maria Sardà), and dubbing director Maria Caminal (Anna Lizaran). Cast. - Núria Espert as Glòria Marc - Rosa Maria Sardà as Assumpta Roca - Anna Lizaran as Maria Caminal - Mercè Pons as Estudiant Recognition. Recognition S...	Actrius	330
9	at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival. Recognition Reception. In "Movie - Film - Review", "Daily Mail" staffer Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers", the film "is visually...	Actrius	330
10	did not "justify comparisons to "All About Eve"", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with "Rashomon"". He also wrote that "The Guardian" called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that "The Evening Standard" stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething bene...	Actrius	330
11	rendering of the story." Recognition Awards and nominations. - 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons - 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè Pons - 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at Goya Awards, shared b...	Actrius	330
12	Alain Connes Alain Connes (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, currently Professor at the Collège de France, IHÉS, Ohio State University and Vanderbilt University. He was an Invited Professor at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers (2000). Work. Alain Connes studies operator algebras. In his early...	Alain Connes	340
13	K-theory and index theory, which culminated in the Baum–Connes conjecture. He also introduced cyclic cohomology in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of noncommutative differential geometry. He was a member of Bourbaki. Connes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and theoretical physics, including num...	Alain Connes	340
14	Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives", Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, - Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, and Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, "Triangle of Thought", translated by Jennifer Gage, American Mathematical Society, 2001, - Jean-Pierre Changeux, and Alain Connes, "Con...	Alain Connes	340
15	. - Bost–Connes system - Cyclic homology - Factor (functional analysis) - Higgs boson - C*-algebra - M-theory - Groupoid - Criticism of non-standard analysis External links. - Alain Connes Official Web Site containing downloadable papers, and his book "Non-commutative geometry", . - Alain Connes' Standard Model - An in...	Alain Connes	340
16	International Atomic Time International Atomic Time (TAI, from the French name ) is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earth's geoid. It is the principal realisation of Terrestrial Time (with a fixed offset of epoch). It is also the basis for Coordinated Uni...	International Atomic Time	334
17	results from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972. TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both Julian Dates and the Gregorian calendar are ...	International Atomic Time	334
18	TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over 400 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are caesium clocks; the International System of Units (SI) definition of the second is based on caesium. The clocks are compared using GPS signals and two-way satellite ti...	International Atomic Time	334
19	, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form "UTC(NPL)" in the UTC form, where "NPL" in this case identifies the National Physical Laboratory, UK. The TAI form may be den...	International Atomic Time	334
20	TAI or to anything else. The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale...	International Atomic Time	334
21	k". The same circular also gives tables of TAI − TA("k"), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales. Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T, the TAI scale is not revised. In hind...	International Atomic Time	334
22	another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time (TT). History. Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experime...	International Atomic Time	334
23	Greenwich Atomic (GA). The United States Naval Observatory began the A.1 scale on 13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado on 9 October 1957. The International Time Bureau (BIH) began a time scale, T or AM, in July...	International Atomic Time	334
24	by an epoch at the beginning of 1958 The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: "A3" in 1964 and "TA(BIH)" in 1969. The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967. From 1971 to 1975 the General Conference on Weights and Measures and the International Committee for W...	International Atomic Time	334
25	clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to gravitational time dilation, and the combined TAI scale therefore corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participati...	International Atomic Time	334
26	. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name "EAL" ("Echelle Atomique Libre", meaning "Free Atomic Scale"). The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB), Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG), and Terrestrial Ti...	International Atomic Time	334
27	that instant. TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184 s. The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated, "In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of supp...	International Atomic Time	334
28	. Between these adjustments it is composed from segments that are linear transformations of atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971 the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated UT2. Afterwards these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approxima...	International Atomic Time	334
29	approximate UT1 means that tasks such as navigation which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC. See also. - Clock synchronization - Network Time Protocol - Precision Time Protocol - Time and frequency transfer External links. - Bureau International des Poids et Me...	International Atomic Time	334
30	Atomic Clock - Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan - Standard of time definition: UTC, GPS, LORAN and TAI	International Atomic Time	334
31	An American in Paris An American in Paris is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by American composer George Gershwin first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in Paris and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital in the 1920s. Walter Damrosch had asked Gershwin to write a fu...	An American in Paris	309
32	four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in Carnegie Hall, with Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. He completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere. He collaborated on the original program note...	An American in Paris	309
33	in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, "Why be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?" That 1926 trip, however, resulted in a snippet of melody entitled "Very Parisienne", ...	An American in Paris	309
34	. Gershwin called it "a rhapsodic ballet"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works. Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had me...	An American in Paris	309
35	a $10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel. Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by Éva Gauthier. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris which he and his brother Ira did after meeting Ravel. Ravel's high p...	An American in Paris	309
36	could not teach him. Nadia Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all of her accomplished master students: "What could I give you that you haven't already got?" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano...	An American in Paris	309
37	. Composition. Gershwin based "An American in Paris" on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. He described the piece as a "rhapsodic ballet" because it was written freely and is more modern than his previous works. Ger...	An American in Paris	309
38	the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere." The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose ABA format. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio". The style of this A sect...	An American in Paris	309
39	, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American Blues and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the...	An American in Paris	309
40	Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final "Grandioso". Instrumentation. "An American in Paris" is scored for 3 flutes (3rd doubling on piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in B-flat, bass clarinet in B-flat, 2 bassoons, 4 horns in F, 3 trumpets in B-flat, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, sna...	An American in Paris	309
41	toms, xylophone, glockenspiel, celesta, 4 taxi horns labeled as A, B, C and D with circles around them, alto saxophone/soprano saxophone, tenor saxophone/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, baritone saxophone/soprano saxophone/alto saxophone, and strings. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the...	An American in Paris	309
42	in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C and D with circles, he may have been referring to the use of the four different horns and not the notes that they played. The revised edition by F. Campbell-Watson calls for three saxophones, alto, tenor and baritone. In this arrangement the soprano and alto doublings have been rew...	An American in Paris	309
43	manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in F. Campbell-Watson's revision; Gibbons' restored orchestration of An American in Paris was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000 by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian William Daly arranged t...	An American in Paris	309
44	's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with "a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses." Critics bel...	An American in Paris	309
45	responded to the critics, "It's not a Beethoven Symphony, you know... It's a humorous piece, nothing solemn about it. It's not intended to draw tears. If it pleases symphony audiences as a light, jolly piece, a series of impressions musically expressed, it succeeds." Preservation status. On September 22, 2013, it was a...	An American in Paris	309
46	the University of Michigan, are working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It is unknown if the critical score will include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or ...	An American in Paris	309
47	. The entire project may take 30 to 40 years to complete, but "An American in Paris" will be an early volume in the series. Two urtext editions of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson have been withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 b...	An American in Paris	309
48	has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for RCA Victor in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the RCA Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked...	An American in Paris	309
49	said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D and a lower A. The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937 Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which "A...	An American in Paris	309
50	the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the piece for RCA Victor, one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The Seattle Symp...	An American in Paris	309
51	Stand," recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago (Columbia GL 522 and CL 522). Use in film. In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film "An American in Paris", featuring Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film was directed by Vincente Minnel...	An American in Paris	309
52	the film by Johnny Green), costing $500,000. Further reading. - Rimler, Walter. "George Gershwin – An Intimate Portrait". Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 2009. 29–33. - Pollack, Howard. "George Gershwin – His Life and Work". Berkeley, University of California Press, 2006. 431–42. External links. - 1944 recording ...	An American in Paris	309
53	Albedo Albedo () (, meaning 'whiteness') is the measure of the diffuse reflection of solar radiation out of the total solar radiation received by an astronomical body (e.g. a planet like Earth). It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (...	Albedo	39
54	. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see position of the Sun). While bi-hemispherical reflec...	Albedo	39
55	as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and...	Albedo	39
56	appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). Albedo is an important concept in climatology, astronomy, and environmental management (e.g., as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program for sustainable rating of buildings). The average albedo of the Earth from the upper atmosphere, i...	Albedo	39
57	Lambert in his 1760 work "Photometria". Terrestrial albedo. Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, th...	Albedo	39
58	. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. This is far higher than for the ocean primarily because of the contribution of clouds. Earth's surface albedo is regularly estimated via Earth observation satellite sensors such as NASA's MODIS instruments on board the Terra and Aqua satellites, and the CERES instrument on th...	Albedo	39
59	of directional-hemispherical reflectance and bi-hemispherical reflectance (e.g.,). These calculations are based on the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), which describes how the reflectance of a given surface depends on the view angle of the observer and the solar angle. BDRF can facilitate transla...	Albedo	39
60	of the planet would drop below −40 °C. If only the continental land masses became covered by glaciers, the mean temperature of the planet would drop to about 0 °C. In contrast, if the entire Earth was covered by water — a so-called ocean planet — the average temperature on the planet would rise to almost 27 °C. Terrest...	Albedo	39
61	a particular solar zenith angle "θ" can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: - the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, formula_1, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and - the bi-hemispherical reflectance, formula_2, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo. with...	Albedo	39
62	then be given as: This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface. Astronomical albedo. The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their p...	Albedo	39
63	that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albed...	Albedo	39
64	-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic comp...	Albedo	39
65	from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies. Two common albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proporti...	Albedo	39
66	which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces. The correlation between astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is: formula_7, where formula_8 is the astronomical albedo, formula_9 is the diame...	Albedo	39
67	light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through albedo-temperature feedback). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics....	Albedo	39
68	antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation....	Albedo	39
69	notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects...	Albedo	39
70	of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather. Examples of terrestrial albedo effects Albedo–temperature feedback. When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to...	Albedo	39
71	snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surfa...	Albedo	39
72	from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being ...	Albedo	39
73	ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea wate...	Albedo	39
74	of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important to the modern theory of Global warming. Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets. The dynamica...	Albedo	39
75	energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions. Examples of terrestrial albedo effects Small-scale effects. Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat ...	Albedo	39
76	the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared...	Albedo	39
77	) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications. Examples of terrestrial albedo effects Trees. Because forests generally have a low albe...	Albedo	39
78	of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong gre...	Albedo	39
79	, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is correlated ...	Albedo	39
80	are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy. Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropica...	Albedo	39
81	reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations (see graph). At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of inciden...	Albedo	39
82	at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specul...	Albedo	39
83	waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9. Examples of terrestrial albedo effects Clouds. Clo...	Albedo	39
84	, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth." Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial ...	Albedo	39
85	under clear skies. Examples of terrestrial albedo effects Aerosol effects. Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensatio...	Albedo	39
86	atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. - "Aerosol indirect effect." Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn l...	Albedo	39
87	Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m. Black carb...	Albedo	39
88	, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult. Other types of albedo. Single-scattering albedo is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (r...	Albedo	39
89	- Daisyworld - Emissivity - Exitance - Global dimming - Irradiance - Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation - Opposition surge - Polar see-saw - Solar radiation management External links. - Albedo Project - Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth - NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site - Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observa...	Albedo	39
90	A A (named , plural "As", "A's", "a"s, "a's" or "aes") is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It is similar to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the m...	A	290
91	and single-storey ɑ. The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type. In the English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an indefinite article. History. The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is aleph (also written 'al...	A	290
92	called an abjad to distinguish it from a true alphabet). In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. By 1600 BC, the Phoenician alphabet letter had a linear form that served as th...	A	290
93	use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of alpha. I...	A	290
94	letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Lati...	A	290
95	the letter "A". First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media. There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many exa...	A	290
96	. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial. At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were...	A	290
97	the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms. 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These v...	A	290
98	in most current handwriting and consists of a circle and vertical stroke. This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers. The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ("a"). Both der...	A	290
99	shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish o...	A	290

End of preview. Expand in Data Studio

KILT Corpus

This dataset contains approximately 36 million Wikipedia passages from the "Multi-task retrieval for knowledge-intensive tasks" paper. It is also the retrieval corpus used in the paper Chain-of-Retrieval Augmented Generation.

Fields

id: A unique identifier for each passage.
title: The title of the Wikipedia page from which the passage originates.
contents: The textual content of the passage.
wikipedia_id: The unique identifier for the Wikipedia page, used for KILT evaluation.

How to Load the Dataset

You can easily load this dataset using the datasets library from Hugging Face. Make sure you have the library installed (pip install datasets).

from datasets import load_dataset

ds = load_dataset('corag/kilt-corpus', split='train')

# You can inspect the dataset structure and the first few examples:
print(ds)
print(ds[0])

References

@article{maillard2021multi,
  title={Multi-task retrieval for knowledge-intensive tasks},
  author={Maillard, Jean and Karpukhin, Vladimir and Petroni, Fabio and Yih, Wen-tau and O{\u{g}}uz, Barlas and Stoyanov, Veselin and Ghosh, Gargi},
  journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2101.00117},
  year={2021}
}

@article{wang2025chain,
  title={Chain-of-Retrieval Augmented Generation},
  author={Wang, Liang and Chen, Haonan and Yang, Nan and Huang, Xiaolong and Dou, Zhicheng and Wei, Furu},
  journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.14342},
  year={2025}
}

Downloads last month: 347

Papers for corag/kilt-corpus

Chain-of-Retrieval Augmented Generation

Paper • 2501.14342 • Published Jan 24, 2025 • 58

Multi-task Retrieval for Knowledge-Intensive Tasks

Paper • 2101.00117 • Published Jan 1, 2021