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Which team did Krisztián Vadócz play for in 06/21/2008?
|
June 21, 2008
|
{
"text": [
"Hungary national association football team",
"Club Atlético Osasuna"
]
}
|
L2_Q115101_P54_2
|
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Grasshopper Club Zürich from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Hungary national association football team from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2011.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Deportivo Alavés from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2016.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Club Atlético Osasuna from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2011.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for N.E.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Motherwell F.C. from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Budapest Honvéd FC from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2005.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Odense Boldklub from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2014.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Hungary national under-21 football team from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2006.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for A.J. Auxerre from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2007.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Perth Glory FC from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for FC Pune City from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Pune F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
|
Krisztián VadóczKrisztián Vadócz (; Chinese: 華杜斯; born 30 May 1985) is a Hungarian professional footballer who plays for Uruguayan club Montevideo Wanderers as a central midfielder.Born in Budapest, Vadócz made his professional debut aged 17 with hometown club Budapest Honvéd FC, and caught the eye of AJ Auxerre in summer 2005. However, he managed no Ligue 1 appearances in a two-year spell, finishing his last on loan to Motherwell in Scotland.In June 2007, Vadócz was finally released by the French, joining NEC Nijmegen. During his only season in the Eredivisie, he was an essential midfield element for a team that finished a comfortable eighth.On 11 August 2008, Vadócz agreed to a four-year contract with CA Osasuna for a €950,000 transfer fee. Never an undisputed starter in his first season in La Liga, he did score important goals against UD Almería (3–1, after only playing one minute) and at Atlético Madrid (4–2).In the 2009–10 campaign, Vadócz appeared in exactly the same number of matches for the Navarrese, again mainly from the bench. On 11 April 2010, he netted from 35 yards to help his team to a 2–0 home win over Real Zaragoza.Vadócz was released by Osasuna in the last day of the 2011 summer transfer window, immediately signing with former side NEC. On 6 September 2012 he changed clubs and countries again, joining Odense Boldklub of the Danish Superliga.On 14 November 2014, Vadócz moved to the Indian Super League with FC Pune City, as an injury replacement for John Goossens. On 16 February of the following year, he was signed by Grasshopper Club Zürich from the Swiss Super League.On 3 April 2015, Vadócz scored twice against FC Sion to help to a 5–0 victory at the Stade Tourbillon. On 19 September he moved back to Spain, after agreeing to a one-year deal with Deportivo Alavés.On 28 January 2016, after appearing rarely for the Basques, Vadócz terminated his contract and joined Perth Glory FC on an injury-replacement contract. At the end of the season, he was not offered a new deal and was released.Vadócz signed for Mumbai City FC on 28 June 2016, thus returning to the Indian top division. Hong Kong Premier League's Kitchee SC announced his signing for six months the following 11 January, and on 8 June the 32-year-old renewed his contract with the latter until the end of the 2017–18 campaign, where he won the Hong Kong Footballer of the Year, Players' Player of the Year, Most Favourite Player and Top Midfielder awards.Vadócz returned to his native Hungary on 5 July 2018, agreeing to a one-year deal with Honvéd. On 28 August, however, he terminated his contract by mutual consent because he opted to continue to play abroad.Vadócz returned to Kitchee on 17 October 2018, with head coach Chu Chi Kwong confirming that the player had signed a multi-year contract. The following 27 August, he left.After a half-year at Honvéd, Vadócz joined Peñarol of the Uruguayan Primera División on 4 January 2020, where he was reunited with former Mumbai City and Kitchee teammate Diego Forlán who acted as manager of the club.Vadócz made his debut for both Hungary's under-21 and the full side in 2004. He scored his first goal for the latter a year later, in a 3–0 friendly win over Antigua and Barbuda in Miami, Florida.HonvédKitchee
|
[
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Pune F.C.",
"Motherwell F.C.",
"A.J. Auxerre",
"N.E.C.",
"FC Pune City",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Perth Glory FC",
"Deportivo Alavés",
"Hungary national under-21 football team",
"Odense Boldklub"
] |
|
Which team did Krisztián Vadócz play for in 21-Jun-200821-June-2008?
|
June 21, 2008
|
{
"text": [
"Hungary national association football team",
"Club Atlético Osasuna"
]
}
|
L2_Q115101_P54_2
|
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Grasshopper Club Zürich from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2015.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Hungary national association football team from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2011.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Deportivo Alavés from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2016.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Club Atlético Osasuna from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2011.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for N.E.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Motherwell F.C. from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Budapest Honvéd FC from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2005.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Odense Boldklub from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2014.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Hungary national under-21 football team from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2006.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for A.J. Auxerre from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2007.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Perth Glory FC from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for FC Pune City from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2014.
Krisztián Vadócz plays for Pune F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
|
Krisztián VadóczKrisztián Vadócz (; Chinese: 華杜斯; born 30 May 1985) is a Hungarian professional footballer who plays for Uruguayan club Montevideo Wanderers as a central midfielder.Born in Budapest, Vadócz made his professional debut aged 17 with hometown club Budapest Honvéd FC, and caught the eye of AJ Auxerre in summer 2005. However, he managed no Ligue 1 appearances in a two-year spell, finishing his last on loan to Motherwell in Scotland.In June 2007, Vadócz was finally released by the French, joining NEC Nijmegen. During his only season in the Eredivisie, he was an essential midfield element for a team that finished a comfortable eighth.On 11 August 2008, Vadócz agreed to a four-year contract with CA Osasuna for a €950,000 transfer fee. Never an undisputed starter in his first season in La Liga, he did score important goals against UD Almería (3–1, after only playing one minute) and at Atlético Madrid (4–2).In the 2009–10 campaign, Vadócz appeared in exactly the same number of matches for the Navarrese, again mainly from the bench. On 11 April 2010, he netted from 35 yards to help his team to a 2–0 home win over Real Zaragoza.Vadócz was released by Osasuna in the last day of the 2011 summer transfer window, immediately signing with former side NEC. On 6 September 2012 he changed clubs and countries again, joining Odense Boldklub of the Danish Superliga.On 14 November 2014, Vadócz moved to the Indian Super League with FC Pune City, as an injury replacement for John Goossens. On 16 February of the following year, he was signed by Grasshopper Club Zürich from the Swiss Super League.On 3 April 2015, Vadócz scored twice against FC Sion to help to a 5–0 victory at the Stade Tourbillon. On 19 September he moved back to Spain, after agreeing to a one-year deal with Deportivo Alavés.On 28 January 2016, after appearing rarely for the Basques, Vadócz terminated his contract and joined Perth Glory FC on an injury-replacement contract. At the end of the season, he was not offered a new deal and was released.Vadócz signed for Mumbai City FC on 28 June 2016, thus returning to the Indian top division. Hong Kong Premier League's Kitchee SC announced his signing for six months the following 11 January, and on 8 June the 32-year-old renewed his contract with the latter until the end of the 2017–18 campaign, where he won the Hong Kong Footballer of the Year, Players' Player of the Year, Most Favourite Player and Top Midfielder awards.Vadócz returned to his native Hungary on 5 July 2018, agreeing to a one-year deal with Honvéd. On 28 August, however, he terminated his contract by mutual consent because he opted to continue to play abroad.Vadócz returned to Kitchee on 17 October 2018, with head coach Chu Chi Kwong confirming that the player had signed a multi-year contract. The following 27 August, he left.After a half-year at Honvéd, Vadócz joined Peñarol of the Uruguayan Primera División on 4 January 2020, where he was reunited with former Mumbai City and Kitchee teammate Diego Forlán who acted as manager of the club.Vadócz made his debut for both Hungary's under-21 and the full side in 2004. He scored his first goal for the latter a year later, in a 3–0 friendly win over Antigua and Barbuda in Miami, Florida.HonvédKitchee
|
[
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Pune F.C.",
"Motherwell F.C.",
"A.J. Auxerre",
"N.E.C.",
"FC Pune City",
"Grasshopper Club Zürich",
"Perth Glory FC",
"Deportivo Alavés",
"Hungary national under-21 football team",
"Odense Boldklub"
] |
|
Which team did Attila Forrai play for in Jan, 2001?
|
January 01, 2001
|
{
"text": [
"Sportfreunde Siegen",
"Lombard-Pápa TFC"
]
}
|
L2_Q1003042_P54_4
|
Attila Forrai plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Attila Forrai plays for Gázszer FC from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapesti VSC from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Attila Forrai plays for SKN St. Pölten from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Attila Forrai plays for Sportfreunde Siegen from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapest Honvéd FC from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Attila Forrai plays for Lombard-Pápa TFC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
|
Attila ForraiAttila Forrai (born 19 August 1973) is a Hungarian footballer who played for BVSC Budapest as midfielder.Forrai previously played in the Regionalliga with Sportfreunde Siegen.
|
[
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC",
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC"
] |
|
Which team did Attila Forrai play for in 2001-01-01?
|
January 01, 2001
|
{
"text": [
"Sportfreunde Siegen",
"Lombard-Pápa TFC"
]
}
|
L2_Q1003042_P54_4
|
Attila Forrai plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Attila Forrai plays for Gázszer FC from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapesti VSC from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Attila Forrai plays for SKN St. Pölten from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Attila Forrai plays for Sportfreunde Siegen from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapest Honvéd FC from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Attila Forrai plays for Lombard-Pápa TFC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
|
Attila ForraiAttila Forrai (born 19 August 1973) is a Hungarian footballer who played for BVSC Budapest as midfielder.Forrai previously played in the Regionalliga with Sportfreunde Siegen.
|
[
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC",
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC"
] |
|
Which team did Attila Forrai play for in 01/01/2001?
|
January 01, 2001
|
{
"text": [
"Sportfreunde Siegen",
"Lombard-Pápa TFC"
]
}
|
L2_Q1003042_P54_4
|
Attila Forrai plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Attila Forrai plays for Gázszer FC from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapesti VSC from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Attila Forrai plays for SKN St. Pölten from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Attila Forrai plays for Sportfreunde Siegen from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapest Honvéd FC from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Attila Forrai plays for Lombard-Pápa TFC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
|
Attila ForraiAttila Forrai (born 19 August 1973) is a Hungarian footballer who played for BVSC Budapest as midfielder.Forrai previously played in the Regionalliga with Sportfreunde Siegen.
|
[
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC",
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC"
] |
|
Which team did Attila Forrai play for in Jan 01, 2001?
|
January 01, 2001
|
{
"text": [
"Sportfreunde Siegen",
"Lombard-Pápa TFC"
]
}
|
L2_Q1003042_P54_4
|
Attila Forrai plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Attila Forrai plays for Gázszer FC from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapesti VSC from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Attila Forrai plays for SKN St. Pölten from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Attila Forrai plays for Sportfreunde Siegen from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapest Honvéd FC from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Attila Forrai plays for Lombard-Pápa TFC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
|
Attila ForraiAttila Forrai (born 19 August 1973) is a Hungarian footballer who played for BVSC Budapest as midfielder.Forrai previously played in the Regionalliga with Sportfreunde Siegen.
|
[
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC",
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC"
] |
|
Which team did Attila Forrai play for in 01/01/2001?
|
January 01, 2001
|
{
"text": [
"Sportfreunde Siegen",
"Lombard-Pápa TFC"
]
}
|
L2_Q1003042_P54_4
|
Attila Forrai plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Attila Forrai plays for Gázszer FC from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapesti VSC from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Attila Forrai plays for SKN St. Pölten from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Attila Forrai plays for Sportfreunde Siegen from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapest Honvéd FC from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Attila Forrai plays for Lombard-Pápa TFC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
|
Attila ForraiAttila Forrai (born 19 August 1973) is a Hungarian footballer who played for BVSC Budapest as midfielder.Forrai previously played in the Regionalliga with Sportfreunde Siegen.
|
[
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC",
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC"
] |
|
Which team did Attila Forrai play for in 01-Jan-200101-January-2001?
|
January 01, 2001
|
{
"text": [
"Sportfreunde Siegen",
"Lombard-Pápa TFC"
]
}
|
L2_Q1003042_P54_4
|
Attila Forrai plays for Ferencvárosi TC from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Attila Forrai plays for Gázszer FC from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapesti VSC from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Attila Forrai plays for SKN St. Pölten from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Attila Forrai plays for Sportfreunde Siegen from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Attila Forrai plays for Budapest Honvéd FC from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Attila Forrai plays for Lombard-Pápa TFC from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
|
Attila ForraiAttila Forrai (born 19 August 1973) is a Hungarian footballer who played for BVSC Budapest as midfielder.Forrai previously played in the Regionalliga with Sportfreunde Siegen.
|
[
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC",
"Budapest Honvéd FC",
"Ferencvárosi TC",
"SKN St. Pölten",
"Budapesti VSC",
"Gázszer FC"
] |
|
Which position did Bonar Law hold in Mar, 1919?
|
March 23, 1919
|
{
"text": [
"Leader of the House of Commons",
"Leader of the Conservative Party",
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Lord Privy Seal"
]
}
|
L2_Q166663_P39_3
|
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the House of Commons from Dec, 1916 to Mar, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Lord Privy Seal from Jan, 1919 to Apr, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Bonar Law holds the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer from Dec, 1916 to Jan, 1919.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Conservative Party from Jan, 1911 to Jan, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Opposition from Nov, 1911 to May, 1915.
Bonar Law holds the position of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1922 to May, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1918 to Oct, 1922.
|
Bonar LawAndrew Bonar Law (; 16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from October 1922 to May 1923.Law was born in the British colony of New Brunswick (now a Canadian province), the first British prime minister to be born outside the British Isles. He was of Scottish and Ulster Scots descent and moved to Scotland in 1870. He left school aged sixteen to work in the iron industry, becoming a wealthy man by the age of thirty. He entered the House of Commons at the 1900 general election, relatively late in life for a front-rank politician; he was made a junior minister, Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade, in 1902. Law joined the Shadow Cabinet in opposition after the 1906 general election. In 1911, he was appointed a Privy Councillor, before standing for the vacant party leadership. Despite never having served in the Cabinet and despite trailing third after Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain, Law became leader when the two front-runners withdrew rather than risk a draw splitting the party.As Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition, Law focused his attentions in favour of tariff reform and against Irish Home Rule. His campaigning helped turn Liberal attempts to pass the Third Home Rule Bill into a three-year struggle eventually halted by the start of the First World War, with much argument over the status of the six counties in Ulster which would later become Northern Ireland, four of which were predominantly Protestant.Law first held Cabinet office as Secretary of State for the Colonies in H. H. Asquith's Coalition Government (May 1915 – December 1916). Upon Asquith's fall from power he declined to form a government, instead serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer in David Lloyd George's Coalition Government. He resigned on grounds of ill health in early-1921. In October 1922, with Lloyd George's Coalition having become unpopular with the Conservatives, he wrote a letter to the press giving only lukewarm support to the Government's actions over Chanak. After Conservative MPs voted to end the Coalition, he again became party leader and, this time, prime minister. Bonar Law won a clear majority at the 1922 general election, and his brief premiership saw negotiation with the United States over Britain's war loans. Seriously ill with throat cancer, Law resigned in May 1923, and died later that year. He was the third shortest-serving prime minister of the United Kingdom (211 days in office), and is sometimes called "The Unknown Prime Minister".He was born on 16 September 1858 in Kingston (now Rexton), New Brunswick, to Eliza Kidston Law and the Reverend James Law, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland with Scottish and Irish (mainly Ulster Scots) ancestry. At the time of his birth, New Brunswick was still a separate colony, as the Canadian confederation did not occur until 1867.His mother originally wanted to name him after Robert Murray M'Cheyne, a preacher she greatly admired, but as his older brother was already called Robert, he was instead named after Andrew Bonar, a biographer of M'Cheyne. Throughout his life he was always called Bonar (rhyming with honour) by his family and close friends, never Andrew. He originally signed his name as A.B. Law, changing to A. Bonar Law in his thirties, and he was referred to as Bonar Law by the public as well.James Law was the minister for several isolated townships, and had to travel between them by horse, boat and on foot. To supplement the family income, he bought a small farm on the Richibucto River, which Bonar helped tend along with his brothers Robert, William and John, and his sister Mary. Studying at the local village school, Law did well at his studies, and it is here that he was first noted for his excellent memory. After Eliza Law died in 1861, her sister Janet travelled to New Brunswick from her home in Scotland to look after the Law children. When James Law remarried in 1870, his new wife took over Janet's duties, and Janet decided to return home to Scotland. She suggested that Bonar Law should go with her, as the Kidston family were wealthier and better connected than the Laws, and Bonar would have a more privileged upbringing. Both James and Bonar accepted this, and Bonar left with Janet, never to return to Kingston.Law went to live at Janet's house in Helensburgh, near Glasgow. Her brothers Charles, Richard and William were partners in the family merchant bank Kidston & Sons, and as only one of them had married (and produced no heir) it was generally accepted that Law would inherit the firm, or at least play a role in its management when he was older. Immediately upon arriving from Kingston, Law began attending Gilbertfield House School, a preparatory school in Hamilton. In 1873, aged fourteen, he transferred to the High School of Glasgow, where with his good memory he showed a talent for languages, excelling in Greek, German and French. During this period, he first began to play chess – he would carry a board on the train between Helensburgh and Glasgow, challenging other commuters to matches. He eventually became a very good amateur player, and competed with internationally renowned chess masters. Despite his good academic record, it became obvious at Glasgow that he was better suited to business than to university, and when he was sixteen, Law left school to become a clerk at Kidston & Sons.At Kidston & Sons, Law received a nominal salary, on the understanding that he would gain a "commercial education" from working there that would serve him well as a businessman. In 1885 the Kidston brothers decided to retire, and agreed to merge the firm with the Clydesdale Bank.The merger would have left Law without a job and with poor career-prospects, but the retiring brothers found him a job with William Jacks, an iron merchant who had started pursuing a parliamentary career. The Kidston brothers lent Law the money to buy a partnership in Jacks' firm, and with Jacks himself no longer playing an active part in the company, Law effectively became the managing partner. Working long hours (and insisting that his employees did likewise), Law turned the firm into one of the most profitable iron merchants in the Glaswegian and Scottish markets.During this period Law became a "self-improver"; despite his lack of formal university education he sought to test his intellect, attending lectures given at Glasgow University and joining the Glasgow Parliamentary Debating Association, which adhered as closely as possible to the layout of the real Parliament of the United Kingdom and undoubtedly helped Law hone the skills that served him so well in the political arena.By the time he was thirty Law had established himself as a successful businessman, and had time to devote to more leisurely pursuits. He remained an avid chess player, whom Andrew Harley called "a strong player, touching first-class amateur level, which he had attained by practice at the Glasgow Club in earlier days". Law also worked with the Parliamentary Debating Association and took up golf, tennis and walking. In 1888 he moved out of the Kidston household and set up his own home at Seabank, with his sister Mary (who had earlier come over from Canada) acting as the housekeeper.In 1890, Law met Annie Pitcairn Robley, the 24-year-old daughter of a Glaswegian merchant, Harrington Robley. They quickly fell in love, and married on 24 March 1891. Little is known of Law's wife, as most of her letters have been lost. It is known that she was much liked in both Glasgow and London, and that her death in 1909 hit Law hard; despite his relatively young age and prosperous career, he never remarried. The couple had six children: James Kidston (1893–1917), Isabel Harrington (1895–1969), Charles John (1897–1917), Harrington (1899–1958), Richard Kidston (1901–1980), and Catherine Edith (1905–1992).The second son, Charlie, who was a lieutenant in the King's Own Scottish Borderers, was killed at the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917. The eldest son, James, who was a captain in the Royal Fusiliers, was shot down and killed on 21 September 1917, and the deaths made Law even more melancholy and depressed than before. The youngest son, Richard, later served as a Conservative MP and minister. Isabel married Sir Frederick Sykes (in the early years of World War I she had been engaged for a time to the Australian war correspondent Keith Murdoch) and Catherine married, firstly, Kent Colwell and, much later, in 1961, The 1st Baron Archibald.In 1897, Law was asked to become the Conservative Party candidate for the parliamentary seat of Glasgow Bridgeton. Soon after he was offered another seat, this one in Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown, which he took instead of Glasgow Bridgeton. Blackfriars was not a seat with high prospects attached; a working-class area, it had returned Liberal Party MPs since it was created in 1884, and the incumbent, Andrew Provand, was highly popular. Although the election was not due until 1902, the events of the Second Boer War forced the Conservative government to call a general election in 1900, later known as the khaki election. The campaign was unpleasant for both sides, with anti- and pro-war campaigners fighting vociferously, but Law distinguished himself with his oratory and wit. When the results came in on 4 October, Law was returned to Parliament with a majority of 1,000, overturning Provand's majority of 381. He immediately ended his active work at Jacks and Company (although he retained his directorship) and moved to London.Law initially became frustrated with the slow speed of Parliament compared to the rapid pace of the Glasgow iron market, and Austen Chamberlain recalled him saying to Chamberlain that "it was very well for men who, like myself had been able to enter the House of Commons young to adapt to a Parliamentary career, but if he had known what the House of Commons was he would never had entered at this stage". He soon learnt to be patient, however, and on 18 February 1901 made his maiden speech. Replying to anti-Boer War MPs including David Lloyd George, Law used his excellent memory to quote sections of Hansard back to the opposition which contained their previous speeches supporting and commending the policies they now denounced. Although lasting only fifteen minutes and not a crowd- or press-pleaser like the maiden speeches of F.E. Smith or Winston Churchill, it attracted the attention of the Conservative Party leaders.Law's chance to make his mark came with the issue of tariff reform. To cover the costs of the Second Boer War, Lord Salisbury's Chancellor of the Exchequer (Michael Hicks Beach) suggested introducing import taxes or tariffs on foreign metal, flour and grain coming into Britain. Such tariffs had previously existed in Britain, but the last of these had been abolished in the 1870s because of the free trade movement. A duty was now introduced on imported corn. The issue became "explosive", dividing the British political world, and continued even after Salisbury retired and was replaced as prime minister by his nephew, Arthur Balfour.Law took advantage of this, making his first major speech on 22 April 1902, in which he argued that while he felt a general tariff was unnecessary, an imperial customs union (which would put tariffs on items from outside the British Empire, instead of on every nation but Britain) was a good idea, particularly since other nations such as (Germany) and the United States had increasingly high tariffs. Using his business experience, he made a "plausible case" that there was no proof that tariffs led to increases in the cost of living, as the Liberals had argued. Again his memory came into good use – when William Harcourt accused Law of misquoting him, Law was able to precisely give the place in Hansard where Harcourt's speech was to be found.As a result of Law's proven experience in business matters and his skill as an economic spokesman for the government, Balfour offered him the position of Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade when he formed his government, which Law accepted, and he was formally appointed on 11 August 1902.As Parliamentary Secretary his job was to assist the President of the Board of Trade, Gerald Balfour. At the time the tariff reform controversy was brewing, led by the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, an ardent tariff reformer who "declared war" on free trade, and who persuaded the Cabinet that the Empire should be exempted from the new corn duty. After returning from a speaking tour of South Africa in 1903, Chamberlain found that the new Chancellor of the Exchequer (C.T. Ritchie) had instead abolished Hicks Beach's corn duty altogether in his budget. Angered by this, Chamberlain spoke at the Birmingham Town Hall on 15 May without the government's permission, arguing for an Empire-wide system of tariffs which would protect Imperial economies, forge the British Empire into one political entity and allow them to compete with other world powers.The speech and its ideas split the Conservative Party and its coalition ally the Liberal Unionist Party into two wings – the Free Fooders, who supported free trade, and the Tariff Reformers, who supported Chamberlain's tariff reforms. Law was a dedicated Tariff Reformer, but whereas Chamberlain dreamed of a new golden age for Britain, Law focused on more mundane and practical goals, such as a reduction in unemployment. L.S. Amery said that to Law, the tariff reform programme was "a question of trade figures and not national and Imperial policy of expansion and consolidation of which trade was merely the economic factor". Keith Laybourn attributes Law's interest in tariff reform not only to the sound business practice that it represented but also that because of his place of birth "he was attracted by the Imperial tariff preference arrangements advocated by Joseph Chamberlain". Law's constituents in Blackfriars were not overly enthusiastic about tariff reform – Glasgow was a poor area at the time that had benefited from free trade.In parliament, Law worked exceedingly hard at pushing for tariff reform, regularly speaking in the House of Commons and defeating legendary debaters such as Winston Churchill, Charles Dilke and H. H. Asquith, former home secretary and later prime minister. His speeches at the time were known for their clarity and common sense; Sir Ian Malcolm said that he made "the involved seem intelligible", and L.S. Amery said his arguments were "like the hammering of a skilled riveter, every blow hitting the nail on the head". Despite Law's efforts to forge consensus within the Conservatives, Balfour was unable to hold the two sides of his party together, and resigned as prime minister in December 1905, allowing the Liberals to form a government.The new prime minister, the Liberal Henry Campbell-Bannerman, immediately dissolved Parliament. Despite strong campaigning and a visit by Arthur Balfour, Law lost his seat in the ensuing general election. In total the Conservative Party and Liberal Unionists lost 245 seats, leaving them with only 157 members of parliament, the majority of them tariff reformers. Despite his loss, Law was at this stage such an asset to the Conservatives that an immediate effort was made to get him back into Parliament. The retirement of Frederick Rutherfoord Harris, MP for the safe Conservative seat of Dulwich, offered him a chance. Law was returned to Parliament in the ensuing by-election, increasing the Conservative majority to 1,279.The party was struck a blow in July 1906, when two days after a celebration of his seventieth birthday, Joseph Chamberlain suffered a stroke and was forced to retire from public life. He was succeeded as leader of the tariff reformers by his son Austen Chamberlain, who despite previous experience as Chancellor of the Exchequer and enthusiasm for tariff reform was not as skilled a speaker as Law. As a result, Law joined Balfour's Shadow Cabinet as the principal spokesman for tariff reform. The death of Law's wife on 31 October 1909 led him to work even harder, treating his political career not only as a job but as a coping strategy for his loneliness.Campbell-Bannerman resigned as prime minister in April 1908 and was replaced by H. H. Asquith. In 1909, he and his Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George introduced the People's Budget, which sought through increased direct and indirect taxes to redistribute wealth and fund social reform programmes. By parliamentary convention financial and budget bills are not challenged by the House of Lords, but in this case the predominantly Conservative Lords rejected the bill on 30 April, setting off a constitutional crisis.The Liberals called a general election for January 1910, and Law spent most of the preceding months campaigning up and down the country for other Conservative candidates and MPs, sure that his Dulwich seat was safe. He obtained an increased majority of 2,418. The overall result was more confused: the Conservatives gained 116 seats, bringing their total to 273, but this was still less than the Liberal caucus, and produced a hung parliament, as neither had a majority of the seats (the Irish Parliamentary Party, the Labour Party and the All-for-Ireland League took more than 120 seats in total). The Liberals remained in office with the support of the Irish Parliamentary Party. The Budget passed through the House of Commons a second time, and – as it now had an electoral mandate – was then approved by the House of Lords without a division.However, the crisis over the Budget had highlighted a long-standing constitutional question: should the House of Lords be able to overturn bills passed by the House of Commons? The Liberal government introduced a bill in February 1910 which would prevent the House of Lords vetoing finance bills, and would force them to pass any bill which had been passed by the Commons in three sessions of Parliament.This was immediately opposed by the Unionists, and both parties spent the next several months in a running battle over the bill. The Conservatives were led by Arthur Balfour and Lord Lansdowne, who headed the Conservatives in the House of Lords, while Law spent the time concentrating on the continuing problem of tariff reform. The lack of progress had convinced some senior Conservatives that it would be a good idea to scrap tariff reform altogether. Law disagreed, successfully arguing that tariff reform "was the first constructive work of the [Conservative Party]" and that to scrap it would "split the Party from top to bottom".With this success, Law returned to the constitutional crisis surrounding the House of Lords. The death of Edward VII on 6 May 1910 prompted the leaders of the major political parties to meet secretly in a "Truce of God" to discuss the Lords. The meetings were kept almost entirely secret: apart from the party representatives, the only people aware were F.E. Smith, J.L. Garvin, Edward Carson and Law. The group met about twenty times at Buckingham Palace between June and November 1910, with the Conservatives represented by Arthur Balfour, Lord Cawdor, Lord Lansdowne and Austen Chamberlain. The proposal presented at the conference by David Lloyd George was a coalition government with members of both major parties in the Cabinet and a programme involving Home Rule, Poor Law reforms, imperial reorganisation and possibly tariff reforms. The Home Rule proposal would have made the United Kingdom a federation, with "Home Rule All Round" for Scotland, Ireland, and England & Wales. In the end the plans fell through: Balfour told Lloyd George on 2 November that the proposal would not work, and the conference was dissolved a few days later.With the failure to establish a political consensus after the January 1910 general election, the Liberals called a second general election in December. The Conservative leadership decided that a good test of the popularity of the tariff reform programme would be to have a prominent tariff reformer stand for election in a disputed seat. They considered Law a prime candidate, and after debating it for a month he guardedly agreed, enthusiastic about the idea but worried about the effect of a defeat on the Party. Law was selected as the candidate for Manchester North West, and became drawn into party debates about how strong a tariff reform policy should be put in their manifesto. Law personally felt that duties on foodstuffs should be excluded, something agreed to by Alexander Acland-Hood, Edward Carson and others at a meeting of the Constitutional Club on 8 November 1910, but they failed to reach a consensus and the idea of including or excluding food duties continued to be something that divided the party.During the constitutional talks the Conservatives had demanded that, if the Lords' veto were removed, Irish Home Rule should only be permitted if approved by a UK-wide referendum. In response Lord Crewe, Liberal Leader in the Lords, had suggested sarcastically that tariff reform – a policy of questionable popularity because of the likelihood of increased prices on imported food – should also be submitted to a referendum. Arthur Balfour now announced to a crowd of 10,000 at the Royal Albert Hall that after the coming election, a Conservative Government would indeed submit tariff reform to a referendum, something he described as "Bonar Law's proposal" or the "Referendum Pledge". The suggestion was no more Law's than it was any of the dozens of Conservatives who had suggested this to Balfour, and his comment was simply an attempt to "pass the buck" and avoid the anger of Austen Chamberlain, who was furious that such an announcement had been made without consulting him or the party. While Law had written a letter to Balfour suggesting that a referendum would attract wealthy Conservatives, he said that "declaration would do no good with [the working class] and might damp enthusiasm of best workers".Parliament was dissolved on 28 November, with the election to take place and polling to end by 19 December. The Conservative and Liberal parties were equal in strength, and with the continued support of the Irish Nationalists the Liberal Party remained in government. Law called his campaign in Manchester North West the hardest of his career; his opponent, George Kemp, was a war hero who had fought in the Second Boer War and a former Conservative who had joined the Liberal party because of his disagreement with tariff reform.In the end Law narrowly lost, with 5,114 votes to Kemp's 5,559, but the election turned him into a "genuine [Conservative] hero", and he later said that the defeat did "more for him in the party than a hundred victories". In 1911, with the Conservative Party unable to afford him being out of Parliament, Law was elected in a by-election for the safe Conservative seat of Bootle. In his brief absence the Liberal suggestions for the reform of the House of Lords were passed as the Parliament Act 1911, ending that particular dispute.On the coronation of George V on 22 June 1911, Law was appointed as a Privy Councillor on the recommendation of the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and Arthur Balfour. This was evidence of his seniority and importance within the Conservative Party. Balfour had become increasingly unpopular as Leader of the Conservative Party since the 1906 general election; tariff reformers saw his leadership as the reason for their electoral losses, and the "free fooders" had been alienated by Balfour's attempts to tame the zeal of the tariff reform faction. Balfour refused all suggestions of party reorganisation until a meeting of senior Conservatives led by Lord Salisbury after the December 1910 electoral defeat issued an ultimatum demanding a review of party structure.The defeat on the House of Lords issue turned a wing of the Conservative Party led by Henry Page Croft and his Reveille Movement, against Balfour. Leo Maxse began a Balfour Must Go campaign in his newspaper, the "National Review", and by July 1911 Balfour was contemplating resignation. Law himself had no problem with Balfour's leadership, and along with Edward Carson attempted to regain support for him. By November 1911 it was accepted that Balfour was likely to resign, with the main competitors for the leadership being Law, Carson, Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain. When the elections began, Long and Chamberlain were the frontrunners; Chamberlain commanded the support of many tariff reformers, and Long that of the Irish Unionists. Carson immediately announced that he would not stand, and Law eventually announced that he would run for Leader, the day before Balfour resigned on 7 November.At the beginning of the election Law held the support of no more than 40 of the 270 members of parliament; the remaining 230 were divided between Long and Chamberlain. Although Long believed he had the most MPs, his support was largely amongst backbenchers, and most of the whips and frontbenchers preferred Chamberlain.With Long and Chamberlain almost neck-and-neck they called a meeting on 9 November to discuss the possibility of a deadlock. Chamberlain suggested that he would withdraw if this became a strong possibility, assuming Long did the same. Long, now concerned that his weak health would not allow him to survive the stress of party leadership, agreed. Both withdrew on 10 November, and on 13 November 232 MPs assembled at the Carlton Club, and Law was nominated as leader by Long and Chamberlain. With the unanimous support of the MPs, Law became Leader of the Conservative Party despite never having sat in Cabinet. Law's biographer, Robert Blake, wrote that he was an unusual choice to lead the Conservatives as a Presbyterian Canadian-Scots businessman had just become the leader of "the Party of Old England, the Party of the Anglican Church and the country squire, the party of broad acres and hereditary titles"As leader, Law first "rejuvenated the party machine", selecting newer, younger and more popular whips and secretaries, elevating F.E. Smith and Lord Robert Cecil to the Shadow Cabinet and using his business acumen to reorganise the party, resulting in better relations with the press and local branches, along with the raising of a £671,000 "war chest" for the next general election: almost double that available at the previous one.On 12 February 1912, he finally unified the two Unionist parties (Conservatives and Liberal Unionists) into the awkwardly named National Unionist Association of Conservative and Liberal-Unionist Organisations. From then on all were referred to as "Unionists" until the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922, after which they became Conservatives again (though the name "Unionist" continued in use in Scotland and Northern Ireland).In Parliament, Law introduced the so-called "new style" of speaking, with harsh, accusatory rhetoric, which dominates British politics to this day. This was as a counter to Arthur Balfour, known for his "masterly witticisms", because the party felt they needed a warrior-like figure. Law did not particularly enjoy his tougher manner, and at the State Opening of Parliament in February 1912 apologised directly to Asquith for his coming speech, saying, "I am afraid I shall have to show myself very vicious, Mr Asquith, this session. I hope you will understand." Law's "warrior king" figure helped unify the divided Conservatives into a single body, with him as the leader.During his early time as Conservative leader, the party's social policy was the most complicated and difficult to agree. In his opening speech as leader he said that the party would be one of principle, and would not be reactionary, instead sticking to their guns and holding firm policies. Despite this he left women's suffrage alone, leaving the party unwhipped and saying that "the less part we take in this question the better". In terms of social reform (legislation to improve the conditions of the poor and working classes) Law was similarly unenthusiastic, believing that the area was a Liberal one, in which they could not successfully compete. His response to a request by Lord Balcarres for a social programme was simply "As the [Liberal Party] refuse to formulate their policy in advance we should be equally absolved". His refusal to get drawn in may have actually strengthened his hold over Conservative MPs, many of whom were similarly uninterested in social reform.In his first public speech as leader at the Royal Albert Hall on 26 January 1912 he listed his three biggest concerns: an attack on the Liberal government for failing to submit Home Rule to a referendum; tariff reform; and the Conservative refusal to let the Ulster Unionists be "trampled upon" by an unfair Home Rule bill. Both tariff reform and Ulster dominated his political work, with Austen Chamberlain saying that Law "once said to me that he cared intensely for only two things: Tariff Reform and Ulster; all the rest was only part of the game".After further review with members of his party, Law changed his initial beliefs on tariff reform and accepted the full package, including duties on foodstuffs. On 29 February 1912 the entire Conservative parliamentary body (i.e. both MPs and peers) met at Lansdowne House, with Lord Lansdowne chairing. Lansdowne argued that although the electorate might prefer the Conservative Party if they dropped food duties from their tariff reform plan, it would open them to accusations of bad faith and "poltroonery". Law endorsed Lansdowne's argument, pointing out that any attempt to avoid food duties would cause an internal party struggle and could only aid the Liberals, and that Canada, the most economically important colony and a major exporter of foodstuffs, would never agree to tariffs without British support of food duties.Lord Salisbury, who opposed food duties, wrote to Law several weeks later suggesting they separate foodstuffs from tariff reform for the referendum. If the electorate liked food duties, they would vote for the entire package; if not, they did not have to. Law replied arguing that it would be impossible to do so effectively, and that with the increasing costs of defence and social programmes it would be impossible to raise the necessary capital except by comprehensive tariff reform. He argued that a failure to offer the entire tariff reform package would split the Conservative Party down the middle, offending the tariff reform faction, and that if such a split took place "I could not possibly continue as leader".Law postponed withdrawing the tariff reform "Referendum Pledge" because of the visit of Robert Borden, the newly elected Conservative prime minister of Canada, to London planned for July 1912. Meeting with Borden on his arrival, Law got him to agree to make a statement about the necessity of Imperial tariff reform, promising reciprocal agreements and saying that failure by London to agree tariff reform would result in an "irresistible pressure" for Canada to make a treaty with another nation, most obviously the United States.Law decided that the November party conference was the perfect time to announce the withdrawal of the Referendum Pledge, and that Lord Lansdowne should do it, because he had been leader in the House of Lords when the pledge was made and because of his relatively low profile during the original tariff reform dispute. When the conference opened the British political world was febrile; on 12 November the opposition had narrowly defeated the government on an amendment to the Home Rule Bill, and the next evening, amidst hysterical shouting from the opposition, Asquith attempted to introduce a motion reversing the previous vote. As the MPs filed out at the end of the day Winston Churchill began taunting the opposition, and in his anger Ronald McNeil hurled a copy of "Standing Orders of the House" at Churchill, hitting him on the head. Law refused to condemn the events, and it seems apparent that while he had played no part in organising them they "had" been planned by the party Whips. As party leader, he was most likely aware of the plans even if he did not actively participate.The conference was opened on 14 November 1912 by Lord Farquhar, who immediately introduced Lord Lansdowne. Lansdowne revoked the Referendum Pledge, saying that as the government had failed to submit Home Rule to a referendum, the offer that tariff reform would also be submitted was null and void. Lansdowne promised that when the Unionists took office they would "do so with a free hand to deal with tariffs as they saw fit". Law then rose to speak, and in line with his agreement to let Lansdowne speak for tariff reform mentioned it only briefly when he said "I concur in every word which has fallen from Lord Lansdowne". He instead promised a reversal of several Liberal policies when the Unionists came to power, including the disestablishment of the Welsh Church, land taxes and Irish Home Rule. The crowd "cheered themselves hoarse" at Law's speech.However, the reaction from the party outside the conference hall was not a positive one. Law had not consulted the local constituency branches about his plan, and several important constituency leaders led by Archibald Salvidge and Lord Derby planned for a meeting of the Lancashire party, the centre of discontent, on 21 December. Law was preoccupied with the problem of Irish Home Rule and was unable to give the discontent his full attention. He continued to believe that his approach to the problem of tariff reform was the correct one, and wrote to John Strachey on 16 November saying that "it was a case of a choice of two evils, and all that one could do was to take the lesser of the two, and that I am sure we have done". Speaking to Edward Carson, F.E. Smith, Austen Chamberlain and Lord Balcarres in December after two weeks of receiving negative letters from party members about the change, Law outlined that he would not be averse to a return to the previous policy considering the negative feelings from the party, but felt that this would require the resignation of both himself and Lansdowne.Law again wrote to Strachey saying that he continued to feel this policy was the correct one, and only regretted that the issue was splitting the party at a time when unity was needed to fight the Home Rule problem. At the meeting of the Lancashire party the group under Derby condemned Law's actions and called for a three-week party recess before deciding what to do about the repeal of the Referendum Pledge. This was an obvious ultimatum to Law, giving him a three-week period to change his mind. Law believed that Derby was "unprincipled and treacherous", particularly since he then circulated a questionnaire among Lancashire party members with leading questions such as "do you think the abandonment of the referendum will do harm?" Law met the Lancashire party on 2 January 1913 and ordered that they must replace any food tariff based resolutions with a vote of confidence in him as a leader, and that any alternative would result in his resignation.After a chance meeting at which Edward Carson learnt of Law and Lansdowne's acceptance of possible resignation, he was spurred to ask Edward Goulding to beg Law and Lansdowne to compromise over the policy and remain as leaders. The compromise, known as the January Memorial, was agreed by Carson, James Craig, Law and Lansdowne at Law's house between 6–8 January 1913, affirming the support of the signatories for Law and his policies, and noting that his resignation was not wanted.Within two days 231 of the 280 Conservative MPs had signed it; 27 frontbenchers had not been invited, neither had five who were not in London, seven who were ill, the Speaker and a few others who could not be found – only eight MPs actively refused to sign. Law's official response took the form of an open letter published on 13 January 1913, in which Law offered a compromise that food duties would not be placed before Parliament to vote on until after a second, approving election took place.The January and December elections in 1910 destroyed the large Liberal majority, meaning they relied on the Irish Nationalists to maintain a government. As a result, they were forced to consider Home Rule, and with the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 which replaced the Lords' veto with a two-year power of delay on most issues, the Conservative Party became aware that unless they could dissolve Parliament or sabotage the Home Rule Bill, introduced in 1912, it would most likely become law by 1914.As the child of an Ulster family who had spent much time in the area (his father had moved back there several years after Law moved to Scotland), Law believed the gap between Ulster Unionism and Irish Nationalism could never be crossed. Despite this he said little about Home Rule until the passing of the Parliament Act in 1911, calling it the "Home Rule in Disguise Act" and saying it was an attempt to change parliamentary procedures so as to allow Home Rule "through the back door".After the act's passage, he made a speech in the Commons saying if the Liberals wished to pass a Home Rule Bill they should submit it to the electorate by calling a general election. His elevation to the leadership of the Conservative Party allowed him a platform to voice his opinion to the public, and his speeches (culminating with the January 1912 speech at the Royal Albert Hall) were centred on Home Rule as much as they were around tariff reform. In contrast to Balfour's "milk and water" opposition to Home Rule, Law presented a "fire and blood" opposition to Home Rule that at times seemed to suggest that he was willing to contemplate a civil war to stop Home Rule. Law stated he would not stop "from any action...we think necessary to defeat one of the most ignoble conspiracies...ever formed against the liberties of free-born men." As the Conservative Party was badly divided by the tariff issue, Law had decided to make opposition for Home Rule his signature issue as the best way of unifying the Conservative Party. Right form the start, Law presented his anti-Home Rule stance more in terms of protecting Protestant majority Ulster from being ruled by a Parliament in Dublin that would be dominated by Catholics than in terms of preserving the Union, much to the chagrin of many Unionists.Law was supported by Edward Carson, leader of the Ulster Unionists. Although Law sympathised with the Ulster Unionists politically he did not agree with the religious intolerance shown to Catholics. The passions unleashed by the Home Rule debate frequently threatened to get out of hand. In January 1912, when Winston Churchill planned to deliver a speech in favour of Home Rule in at the Ulster Hall in Belfast, the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) threatened to use violence if necessary to stop Churchill from speaking. The legal scholar A. V. Dicey, himself an opponent of Home Rule, wrote in a letter to Law that the threats of violence were "the worst mistake" that undermined "the whole moral strength" of the Unionist movement. But as Carson admitted in a letter to Law, the situation in Belfast was beyond his control as many UUC members were also members of the Loyal Orange Order, and the prospect of Churchill's visit to Belfast had angered so many of his followers that he felt he had to threaten violence as the best possible way of stopping the planned speech instead of leaving it to his followers who might otherwise riot. As it was, Churchill agreed to cancel his speech in response to warnings that the police would not be able to guarantee his security. Besides for his concerns about the violence, Dicey was also worried about the way in which Law was more interested about stopping Home Rule from being imposed on Ulster, instead of all of Ireland, which seemed to imply he was willing to accept the partition of Ireland. Many Irish Unionists outside of Ulster felt abandoned by Law, who seemed to care only about Ulster.The 1912 session of Parliament opened on 14 February with a stated intent by the Liberal Party in the King's Speech to introduce a new Home Rule Bill. The bill was to be introduced on 11 April, and four days before that Law travelled to Ulster for a tour of the area. The pinnacle of this was a meeting on 9 April in the grounds of the Royal Agricultural Society near Balmoral (an area of Belfast), attended by seventy Unionist MPs, the Primate of All Ireland and topped by "perhaps the largest Union Jack ever made" – 48 feet by 25 feet on a flagpole 90 feet high.At the meeting both Law and Carson swore to the crowd that "never under any circumstances will we submit to Home Rule". However, the Parliament Act and the government majority made such a victory against the Bill unlikely unless the government could be brought down or Parliament dissolved. A second problem was that not all Unionists opposed Home Rule to the same degree; some hardcore Unionists would oppose any attempt at Home Rule, others thought it inevitable that the Bill would pass and were simply trying to get the best deal possible for Ulster. The spectre of civil war was also raised – the Ulstermen began to form paramilitary groups such as the Ulster Volunteers, and there was a strong possibility that if it came to fighting the British Army would have to be sent in to support the underfunded and understaffed Royal Irish Constabulary.The argument of Law and the Unionists between 1912 and 1914 was based on three complaints. Firstly, Ulster would never accept forced Home Rule, and made up a quarter of Ireland; if the Liberals wanted to force this issue, military force would be the only way. Law thundered that "Do you plan to hurl the full majesty and power of the law, supported on the bayonets of the British Army, against a million Ulstermen marching under the Union Flag and singing 'God Save The King'? Would the Army hold? Would the British people – would the Crown – stand for such a slaughter?". A second complaint was that the government had so far refused to submit it to a general election, as Law had been suggesting since 1910. Law warned that "you will not carry this Bill without submitting it to the people of this country, and, if you make the attempt, you will succeed only in breaking our Parliamentary machine". The third complaint was that the Liberals had still not honoured the preamble of the Parliament Act 1911, which promised "to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of a hereditary basis". The Unionist argument was that the Liberals were trying to make a massive constitutional change while the constitution was suspended. In May 1912, Law was told by the Conservative whip Lord Balcarres that outside of Ireland "the electors are apathetic" about Home Rule, suggesting that he should de-emphasis the topic.In July 1912 Asquith travelled to Dublin (the first sitting prime minister to do so in over a century) to make a speech, ridiculing Unionist demands for a referendum on the issue via an election and calling their campaign "purely destructive in its objects, anarchic and chaotic in its methods". In response the Unionists had a meeting on 27 July at Blenheim Palace, the birthplace of Winston Churchill, one of Asquith's ministers. More than 13,000 people attended, including over 40 peers. In Law's speech he said "I said so to [the Liberals] and I say so now, with the full sense of the responsibility which attaches to my position, that if the attempt be made under present conditions, I can imagine no length of resistance to which Ulster will go, in which I shall not be ready to support them, and in which they will not be supported by the overwhelming majority of the British people". Law added that if Asquith continued with the Home Rule bill, the government would be "lighting the fires of civil war". This speech was more known and criticised than any others; it implied both he and the British people would support the Ulstermen in anything, including armed rebellion.Despite the conflict and fierce resistance, the Bill continued its passage through Parliament. It moved to its second reading on 9 June, and the Committee stage on 11 June, where it became fraught in controversy after a young Liberal named Thomas Agar-Robartes proposed an amendment excluding four of the Ulster counties (Londonderry, Down, Antrim & Armagh) from the Irish Parliament. This put Law in a delicate situation, since he had previously said that he would support a system allowing each county to remain "outside the Irish Parliament", at the same time saying that he would not support any amendment that didn't have Ulster's full co-operation. If he accepted the amendment, he would be seen as abandoning the Irish Unionists, but on the other hand if the amendment was carried it might disrupt the government by causing a split between the Liberals and Irish Nationalists, bringing down the government and thus forcing an election.If Unionists wished to win the ensuing election they would have to show they were willing to compromise. In the end the amendment failed, but with the Liberal majority reduced by 40, and when a compromise amendment was proposed by another Liberal MP the government Whips were forced to trawl for votes. Law saw this as a victory, as it highlighted the split in the government. Edward Carson tabled another amendment on 1 January 1913 which would exclude all nine Ulster counties, more to test government resolve than anything else. While it failed, it allowed the Unionists to portray themselves as the party of compromise and the Liberals as stubborn and recalcitrant.The Unionists in Ulster were committed to independence from any Irish Home Rule. They secretly authorised a Commission of Five to write a constitution for "a provisional Government of Ulster... to come into operation on the day of the passage of any Home Rule Bill, to remain in force until Ulster shall again resume unimpaired citizenship in the United Kingdom".On 28 September 1912, Carson led 237,638 of his followers in signing a Solemn League and Covenant saying that Ulster would refuse to recognise the authority of any Parliament of Ireland arising from Home Rule. The "Ulster Covenant" as the Solemn League and Covenant was popularly called recalled the National Covenant signed by the Scots in 1638 to resist King Charles I who was viewed by Scots Presbyterians as a crypto-Catholic, and was widely seen as a sectarian document that promoted a "Protestant crusade". The Conservative MP Alfred Cripps wrote in a letter to Law that English Catholics like himself were opposed to Home Rule, but he was troubled by the way that Law seemed to be using the issue as "an occasion to attack their religion." In his reply of 7 October 1912, Law wrote he was opposed to religious bigotry and claimed that as far he could tell that no "responsible" Unionist leader in Ireland had attacked the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the Conservative MP Lord Hugh Cecil had in the summer of 1912 given anti-Home Rule speeches in Ireland where he shouted "To Hell with the Pope!", and was not censured by Law. When Parliament resumed in October after the summer recess, the Home Rule Bill was passed by the Commons. As expected, the House of Lords rejected it 326 to 69, and under the provisions of the Parliament Act it could only be passed if it was passed twice more by the Commons in successive Parliaments. In December 1912, the chairmen of the Conservative Party, Arthur Steel-Maitland, wrote to Law that the Home Rule issue did not command much attention in England, and asked that he move away from the topic which he asserted was damaging the image of the Conservatives.The end of 1912 saw the end of a year of political struggle for Law. As well as the problem of Home Rule, there were internal party struggles; supporters of the Church of England or military reform lambasted Law for not paying attention to their causes, and tariff reformers argued with him over his previous compromise on food duties. Despite this, most Conservatives realised that as a fighting leader, Law could not be bettered. The results of by-elections throughout 1913 continued to favour them, but progress on the Home Rule Bill was less encouraging; on 7 July it was again passed by the Commons, and again rejected by the Lords on 15 July. In response, the UUC created a paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), to fight against the British government if necessary to stop Home Rule. The Conservative peer, Lord Hythe, wrote to Law to suggest the Conservatives needed to present a constructive alternative to Home Rule and he had the "duty to tell these Ulstermen" that there was no need for the UVF. Another Tory peer, Lord Sailsbury, wrote to Law that as much as he was opposed to Home Rule that: "I cannot support political lawlessness and I shall either disenfranchise myself or vote Liberal...rather than encourage armed resistance in Ulster." Lord Balcarres wrote to Law that much of the Conservative caucus were "deeply confused and uncertain" and the "policies of reckless defiance" were unpopular with the party membership in England. Balcarres wrote he was "...much alarmed lest some sporadicoutbreak by Orangemen should...alienate English sympathies." Lord Lansdowne advised Law to be "extremely careful in our relations with Carson and his friends" and find a way of stopping F. E. Smith’s "habit of expressing rather violent sentiments in the guise of messages from the Unionist party." Balfour wrote to Law that he had "much misgiving upon the general loosening of the ordinary ties of social obligation...I do most strongly feel that nothing can be more demoralising to a society than that some of its...most loyal members should deliberately organise themselves for the purpose of offering...armed resistance to persons...representing lawful authority."During the debate on the Home Rule bill, Carson submitted an amendment that would exclude the 9 counties of Ulster from the jurisdiction of the proposed Parliament that would govern from Dublin, which was defeated by the Liberal MPs. However, Carson's amendment which would lead to the partition of Ireland caused much alarm with Irish Unionists outside of Ulster and led many to write letters from Law seeking assurances that he would not abandon them for the sake of saving Ulster from Home Rule. Carson told Law that he favoured a compromise under which Home Rule would be granted to southern Ireland, but not Ulster, and at the same time some sort of home rule be granted to Wales and Scotland as well. Law himself in a letter to a friend stated that the British public was "so sick of the whole Irish question" that the majority would probably agree to a compromise of a Home Rule for Ireland sans Ulster.Parliament rose for the summer recess on 15 August, and Law and the Unionists spent the summer trying to convince the King to voice an opinion on the issue. Their first suggestion was that he should withhold the Royal Assent on it, something that horrified Law's constitutional law adviser A.V. Dicey. The second was more reasonable – they argued that the Liberals had put the King in an impossible position by asking him to ratify a bill that would infuriate half of the population. His only option was to write a memo to Asquith saying this and requesting that the problem of home rule be put to the electorate via a general election. After thinking on this, the King agreed, and handed a note to Asquith on 11 August requesting either an election or an all-party conference.Asquith responded with two notes, the first countering the Unionist claim that it would be acceptable for the King to dismiss Parliament or withhold assent of the Bill to force an election, and the second arguing that a Home Rule election would not prove anything, since a Unionist victory would only be due to other problems and scandals and would not assure supporters of the current government that Home Rule was truly opposed.King George pressed for a compromise, summoning various political leaders to Balmoral Castle individually for talks. Law arrived on 13 September and again pointed out to the king his belief that if the Government continued to refuse an election fought over Home Rule and instead forced it on Ulster, the Ulstermen would not accept it and any attempts to enforce it would not be obeyed by the British Army.By early October the King was pressuring the British political world for an all-party conference. Fending this off, Law instead met with senior party members to discuss developments. Law, Balfour, Smith and Long discussed the matter, all except Long favouring a compromise with the Liberals. Long represented the anti-Home Rule elements in Southern Ireland, and from this moment onwards Southern and Northern attitudes towards Home Rule began to diverge. Law then met with Edward Carson, and afterwards expressed the opinion that "the men of Ulster do desire a settlement on the basis of leaving Ulster out, and Carson thinks such an arrangement could be carried out without any serious attack from the Unionists in the South".On 8 October Asquith wrote to Law suggesting an informal meeting of the two party leaders, which Law accepted. The two met at Cherkley Court, the home of Law's ally Sir Max Aitken MP (later Lord Beaverbrook), on 14 October. The meeting lasted an hour, and Law told Asquith that he would continue to try to have Parliament dissolved, and that in any ensuing election the Unionists would accept the result even if it went against them. Law later expressed his fear to Lansdowne that Asquith would persuade the Irish Nationalists to accept Home Rule with the exclusion of four Ulster counties with Protestant/unionist majorities. Carson would not accept this, requiring six of nine ulster counties to be excluded (i.e., four with unionist majorities plus two majority nationalist, leaving the three Ulster counties with large nationalist majorities, leading to an overall unionist majority in the six); such a move might split the Unionists. Law knew that Asquith was unlikely to consent to a general election, since he would almost certainly lose it, and that any attempt to pass the Home Rule Bill "without reference to the electorate" would lead to civil disturbance. As such, Asquith was stuck "between a rock and a hard place" and was sure to negotiate.Asquith and Law met for a second private meeting on 6 November, at which Asquith raised three possibilities. The first, suggested by Sir Edward Grey, consisted of "Home Rule within Home Rule" – Home Rule covering Ulster, but with partial autonomy for Ulster. The second was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for a number of years before becoming part of it, and the third was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for as long as it liked, with the opportunity of joining when it wished. Law made it clear to Asquith that the first two options were unacceptable, but the third might be accepted in some circles.The leaders then discussed the geographical definition of the area to be excluded from Home Rule; Ulster formally consists of nine counties, of which only four had a clear unionist majority, three a clear nationalist majority and two a small nationalist majority – however, overall a practical problem was that the nine counties of Ulster were majority nationalist. Carson always referred to nine counties of Ulster, but Law told Asquith that if an appropriate settlement could be made with a smaller number, Carson "would see his people and probably, though I could not give any promise to that effect, try to induce them to accept it".The third meeting was on 10 December and Law, raging because Asquith had not yet presented a concrete way to exclude Ulster, made little progress. Law brushed aside Asquith's suggestions and insisted that only the exclusion of Ulster was worth considering. He later wrote that "My feeling, however, is that Asquith has no hope whatsoever of making such an arrangement and that his present idea is simply to let things drift in the meantime.. I do not understand why he took the trouble of seeing me at all. The only explanation I can give is that I think he is in a funk about the whole position and thought that meeting me might keep the thing open at least".With the failure of these talks, Law accepted that a compromise was unlikely, and from January 1914 he returned to the position that the Unionists were "opposed utterly to Home Rule". The campaign was sufficient to bring the noted organiser Lord Milner back into politics to support the Unionists, and he immediately asked L.S. Amery to write a British Covenant saying that the signers would, if the Home Rule Bill passed, "feel justified in taking or supporting any action that may be effective to prevent it being put into operation, and more particularly to prevent the armed forces of the Crown being used to deprive the people of Ulster of their rights as citizens of the United Kingdom". The Covenant was announced at a massive rally in Hyde Park on 4 April 1914, with hundreds of thousands assembling to hear Milner, Long and Carson speak. By the middle of the summer Long claimed more than 2,000,000 people had signed the Covenant.Law's critics, including George Dangerfield, condemned his actions in assuring the Ulster Unionists of Conservative Party support in their armed resistance to Home Rule, as unconstitutional, verging on promoting a civil war. Law's supporters argued that he was acting constitutionally by forcing the Liberal government into calling the election it had been avoiding, to obtain a mandate for their reforms.Law was not directly involved in the British Covenant campaign as he was focusing on a practical way to defeat the Home Rule Bill. His first attempt was via the Army (Annual) Act, something that "violated a basic and ancient principle of the constitution". Every year since the Glorious Revolution, the Act had fixed the maximum number of soldiers in the British Army; rejecting it would technically make the British Army an illegal institution.Lord Selborne had written to Law in 1912 to point out that vetoing or significantly amending the Act in the House of Lords would force the government to resign, and such a course of action was also suggested by others in 1913–14. Law believed that subjecting Ulstermen to a Dublin-based government they did not recognise was itself constitutionally damaging, and that amending the Army (Annual) Act to prevent the use of force in Ulster (he never suggested vetoing it) would not violate the constitution any more than the actions the government had already undertaken.By 12 March he had established that, should the Home Rule Bill be passed under the Parliament Act 1911, the Army (Annual) Act should be amended in the Lords to stipulate that the Army could not "be used in Ulster to prevent or interfere with any step which may thereafter be taken in Ulster to organise resistance to the enforcement of the Home Rule Act in Ulster nor to suppress any such resistance until and unless the present Parliament has been dissolved and a period of three months shall have lapsed after the meeting of a new Parliament". The Shadow Cabinet consulted legal experts, who agreed wholeheartedly with Law's suggestion. Although several members expressed dissent, the Shadow Cabinet decided "provisionally to agree to amendment of army act. but to leave details and decisions as to the moment of acting to Lansdowne and Law". In the end no amendment to the Army Act was offered, though; many backbenchers and party loyalists became agitated by the scheme and wrote to him that it was unacceptable – Ian Malcolm, a fanatical Ulster supporter, told Law that amending the Army Act would drive him out of the Party.On 30 July 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Law met with Asquith and agreed to temporarily suspend the issue of Home Rule to avoid domestic discontent during wartime. By the following day both leaders had convinced their parties to agree to this move. On 3 August, Law promised openly in Commons that his Conservative Party would give "unhesitating support' to the government's war policy. On 4 August, Germany rejected British demands for a withdrawal from Belgium, and Britain declared war.Over the coming months, the Liberal, Labour and Conservative whips worked out a truce suspending confrontational politics until either 1 January 1915 or until the end of the War. On 4 August both Asquith and Law made speeches together at the Middlesex Guildhall, and uncomfortably socialised with each other's parties. On 6 August, the Conservatives learnt that Asquith planned to put the Home Rule Bill on the statute books; Law wrote an angry letter to Asquith, the response of which was that Asquith could either pass the bill immediately, suspending it for the duration of the conflict, or make it law with a six-month delay and with a three-year exclusion for Ulster. Law responded with a speech in the Commons, saying that "the Government have treated us abominably... but we are in the middle of a great struggle. Until that struggle [is] over, so far as we are concerned, in everything connected with it there would be no parties, there would openly be a nation. In regard to this debate I have made protest as well as I could, but when I have finished we shall take no further part in the discussion". The entire Party then left the Commons silently, and although a strong protest (Asquith later admitted that "it was unique in my or I think anybody's experience") the bill was still passed, although with a suspension for the duration of the War.The Conservatives soon began to get annoyed that they were unable to criticise the Government, and took this into Parliament; rather than criticising policy, they would attack individual ministers, including the Lord Chancellor (who they considered "far too enamoured of German culture") and the Home Secretary, who was "too tender to aliens". By Christmas 1914 they were anxious about the war; it was not, in their opinion, going well, and yet they were restricted to serving on committees and making recruitment speeches. At about the same time, Law and David Lloyd George met to discuss the possibility of a coalition government. Law was supportive of the idea in some ways, seeing it as a probability that "a coalition government would come in time".The crisis which forced a coalition was twofold; first the Shell Crisis of 1915, and then the resignation of Lord Fisher, the First Sea Lord. The Shell Crisis was a shortage of artillery shells on the Western Front. It indicated a failure to fully organise British industry. Asquith tried to ward off the criticism the day before the debate, praising his government's efforts and saying that "I do not believe that any army has ever either entered upon a campaign or been maintained during a campaign with better or more adequate equipment". The Conservatives, whose sources of information included officers such as Sir John French, were not put off, and instead became furious.Over the next few days the Conservative backbenchers threatened to break the truce and mount an attack on the government over the munitions situation. Law forced them to back down on 12 May, but on the 14th an article appeared in "The Times" blaming the British failure at the Battle of Aubers Ridge on the lack of munitions. This again stirred up the backbenchers, who were only just kept in line. The Shadow Cabinet took a similar line; things could not go on as they were. The crisis was only halted with the resignation of Lord Fisher. Fisher had opposed Winston Churchill over the Gallipoli Campaign, and felt that he could not continue in government if the two would be in conflict. Law knew that this would push the Conservative back bench over the edge, and met with David Lloyd George on 17 May to discuss Fisher's resignation. Lloyd George decided that "the only way to preserve a united front was to arrange for more complete cooperation between parties in the direction of the War". Lloyd George reported the meeting to Asquith, who agreed that a coalition was inescapable. He and Law agreed to form a coalition government.Law's next job, therefore, was to assist the Liberal Party in creating a new government. In their discussions on 17 May, both Law and Lloyd George had agreed that Lord Kitchener should not remain in the War Office, and removing him became top priority. Unfortunately the press began a campaign supporting Kitchener on 21 May, and the popular feeling that this raised convinced Law, Lloyd George and Asquith that Kitchener could not be removed. To keep him and at the same time remove the munitions supply from his grasp to prevent a repeat of the "shells crisis" the Ministry of Munitions was created, with Lloyd George becoming Minister of Munitions.Law eventually accepted the post of Colonial Secretary, an unimportant post in wartime; Asquith had made it clear that he would not allow a Conservative minister to head the Exchequer, and that with Kitchener (whom he considered a Conservative) in the War Office, he would not allow another Conservative to hold a similarly important position. Fearing for the integrity of the coalition, Law accepted this position. Outside of Law's position, other Conservatives also gained positions in the new administration; Arthur Balfour became First Lord of the Admiralty, Austen Chamberlain became Secretary of State for India and Edward Carson became Attorney General.During Law's time as Colonial Secretary, the three main issues were the question of manpower for the British Army, the crisis in Ireland and the Dardanelles Campaign. Dardanelles took priority, as seen by Asquith's restructuring of his War Council into a Dardanelles Committee. Members included Kitchener, Law, Churchill, Lloyd George and Lansdowne, with the make-up divided between political parties to defuse tension and provide criticism of policy. The main discussion was on the possibility of reinforcing the forces already landed, something Law disagreed with. With Asquith and the Army in support, however, he felt that he was ill-equipped to combat the proposal. Five more divisions were landed, but faced heavy casualties for little gain. As a result, Law led a strong resistance to the idea at the next Committee meeting on 18 August. The idea only avoided being scrapped thanks to the French promise to send forces in early September, and the arguing became an immense strain on the government.Law entered the coalition government as Colonial Secretary in May 1915, his first Cabinet post, and, following the resignation of Prime Minister and Liberal Party Leader Asquith in December 1916, was invited by King George V to form a government, but he deferred to Lloyd George, Secretary of State for War and former Minister of Munitions, who he believed was better placed to lead a coalition ministry. He served in Lloyd George's War Cabinet, first as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.While chancellor, he raised the stamp duty on cheques from one penny to twopence in 1918. His promotion reflected the great mutual trust between the two leaders and made for a well co-ordinated political partnership; their coalition was re-elected by a landslide following the Armistice. Law's two eldest sons were both killed whilst fighting in the war. In the 1918 General Election, Law returned to Glasgow and was elected as member for Glasgow Central.At war's end, Law gave up the Exchequer for the less demanding sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal, but remained Leader of the Commons. In 1921, ill health forced his resignation as Conservative leader and Leader of the Commons in favour of Austen Chamberlain. His departure weakened the hardliners in the cabinet who were opposed to negotiating with the Irish Republican Army, and the Anglo-Irish War ended in the summer.By 1921–22 the coalition had become embroiled in an air of moral and financial corruption (e.g. the sale of honours). Besides the recent Irish Treaty and Edwin Montagu's moves towards greater self-government for India, both of which dismayed rank-and-file Conservative opinion, the government's willingness to intervene against the Bolshevik regime in Russia also seemed out of step with the new and more pacifist mood. A sharp slump in 1921 and a wave of strikes in the coal and railway industries also added to the government's unpopularity, as did the apparent failure of the Genoa Conference, which ended in an apparent rapprochement between Germany and Soviet Russia. In other words, it was no longer the case that Lloyd George was an electoral asset to the Conservative Party.Lloyd George, Birkenhead and Winston Churchill (still distrusted by many Conservatives) wished to use armed force against Turkey (the Chanak Crisis), but had to back down when offered support only by New Zealand and Newfoundland, and not Canada, Australia or South Africa; Law wrote to "The Times" supporting the government but stating that Britain could not "act as the policeman for the world".At a meeting at the Carlton Club, Conservative backbenchers, led by the President of the Board of Trade Stanley Baldwin and influenced by the recent Newport by-election which was won from the Liberals by a Conservative, voted to end the Lloyd George Coalition and fight the next election as an independent party. Austen Chamberlain resigned as Party Leader, Lloyd George resigned as prime minister and Law took both jobs on 23 October 1922.Many leading Conservatives (e.g. Birkenhead, Arthur Balfour, Austen Chamberlain, Robert Horne) were not members of the new Cabinet, which Birkenhead contemptuously referred to as "the Second Eleven". Although the Coalition Conservatives numbered no more than thirty, they hoped to dominate any future Coalition government in the same way that the similarly sized Peelite group had dominated the Coalition Government of 1852–1855 – an analogy much used at the time.Parliament was immediately dissolved, and a General Election ensued. Besides the two Conservative factions, the Labour Party were fighting as a major national party for the first time and indeed became the main Opposition after the election; the Liberals were still split into Asquith and Lloyd George factions, with many Lloyd George Liberals still unopposed by Conservative candidates (including Churchill, who was defeated at Dundee nonetheless). Despite the confused political arena the Conservatives were re-elected with a comfortable majority.Questions were raised about whether the elderly Conservative Party Treasurer, Lord Farquhar, had passed on to Lloyd George (who during his premiership had amassed a large fund, largely from the sale of honours) any money intended for the Conservative Party. The Coalition Conservatives also hoped to obtain Conservative Party money from Farquhar. Bonar Law found Farquhar too "gaga" to properly explain what had happened, and dismissed him.One of the questions which taxed Law's brief government was that of inter-Allied war debts. Britain owed money to the US, and in turn was owed four times as much money by France, Italy and the other Allied powers, although under the Lloyd George government Balfour had promised that Britain would collect no more money from other Allies than she was required to repay the USA; the debt was hard to repay as trade (exports were needed to earn foreign currency) had not returned to prewar levels.On a trip to the USA Stanley Baldwin, the inexperienced Chancellor of the Exchequer, agreed to repay £40 million per annum to the USA rather than the £25 million which the British government had thought feasible, and on his return announced the deal to the press when his ship docked at Southampton, before the Cabinet had had a chance to consider it. Law contemplated resignation, and after being talked out of it by senior ministers vented his feelings in an anonymous letter to "The Times".Law was soon diagnosed with terminal throat cancer and, no longer physically able to speak in Parliament, resigned on 20 May 1923. George V sent for Baldwin, whom Law is rumoured to have favoured over Lord Curzon. However Law did not offer any advice to the King. Law died later that same year in London at the age of 65. His funeral was held at Westminster Abbey where later his ashes were interred. His estate was probated at £35,736 (approximately £ as of 2021).Bonar Law was the shortest-serving prime minister of the 20th century. He is often referred to as "the unknown prime minister", not least because of a biography of that title by Robert Blake; the name comes from a remark by Asquith at Bonar Law's funeral, that they were burying the Unknown Prime Minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Sir Steven Runciman is reported to have said that he had known all British prime ministers in his lifetime, except Bonar Law, "whom nobody knew".A tiny hamlet (unincorporated village) in the municipality of Stirling-Rawdon, Ontario, Canada, is named Bonarlaw after the British prime minister. It had been known as "Big Springs" and then "Bellview". The Bonar Law Memorial High School in Bonar Law's birthplace, Rexton, New Brunswick, Canada, is also named in his honour.
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[
"Chancellor of the Exchequer",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Leader of the Opposition",
"Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
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Which position did Bonar Law hold in 1919-03-23?
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March 23, 1919
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{
"text": [
"Leader of the House of Commons",
"Leader of the Conservative Party",
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Lord Privy Seal"
]
}
|
L2_Q166663_P39_3
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Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the House of Commons from Dec, 1916 to Mar, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Lord Privy Seal from Jan, 1919 to Apr, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Bonar Law holds the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer from Dec, 1916 to Jan, 1919.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Conservative Party from Jan, 1911 to Jan, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Opposition from Nov, 1911 to May, 1915.
Bonar Law holds the position of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1922 to May, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1918 to Oct, 1922.
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Bonar LawAndrew Bonar Law (; 16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from October 1922 to May 1923.Law was born in the British colony of New Brunswick (now a Canadian province), the first British prime minister to be born outside the British Isles. He was of Scottish and Ulster Scots descent and moved to Scotland in 1870. He left school aged sixteen to work in the iron industry, becoming a wealthy man by the age of thirty. He entered the House of Commons at the 1900 general election, relatively late in life for a front-rank politician; he was made a junior minister, Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade, in 1902. Law joined the Shadow Cabinet in opposition after the 1906 general election. In 1911, he was appointed a Privy Councillor, before standing for the vacant party leadership. Despite never having served in the Cabinet and despite trailing third after Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain, Law became leader when the two front-runners withdrew rather than risk a draw splitting the party.As Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition, Law focused his attentions in favour of tariff reform and against Irish Home Rule. His campaigning helped turn Liberal attempts to pass the Third Home Rule Bill into a three-year struggle eventually halted by the start of the First World War, with much argument over the status of the six counties in Ulster which would later become Northern Ireland, four of which were predominantly Protestant.Law first held Cabinet office as Secretary of State for the Colonies in H. H. Asquith's Coalition Government (May 1915 – December 1916). Upon Asquith's fall from power he declined to form a government, instead serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer in David Lloyd George's Coalition Government. He resigned on grounds of ill health in early-1921. In October 1922, with Lloyd George's Coalition having become unpopular with the Conservatives, he wrote a letter to the press giving only lukewarm support to the Government's actions over Chanak. After Conservative MPs voted to end the Coalition, he again became party leader and, this time, prime minister. Bonar Law won a clear majority at the 1922 general election, and his brief premiership saw negotiation with the United States over Britain's war loans. Seriously ill with throat cancer, Law resigned in May 1923, and died later that year. He was the third shortest-serving prime minister of the United Kingdom (211 days in office), and is sometimes called "The Unknown Prime Minister".He was born on 16 September 1858 in Kingston (now Rexton), New Brunswick, to Eliza Kidston Law and the Reverend James Law, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland with Scottish and Irish (mainly Ulster Scots) ancestry. At the time of his birth, New Brunswick was still a separate colony, as the Canadian confederation did not occur until 1867.His mother originally wanted to name him after Robert Murray M'Cheyne, a preacher she greatly admired, but as his older brother was already called Robert, he was instead named after Andrew Bonar, a biographer of M'Cheyne. Throughout his life he was always called Bonar (rhyming with honour) by his family and close friends, never Andrew. He originally signed his name as A.B. Law, changing to A. Bonar Law in his thirties, and he was referred to as Bonar Law by the public as well.James Law was the minister for several isolated townships, and had to travel between them by horse, boat and on foot. To supplement the family income, he bought a small farm on the Richibucto River, which Bonar helped tend along with his brothers Robert, William and John, and his sister Mary. Studying at the local village school, Law did well at his studies, and it is here that he was first noted for his excellent memory. After Eliza Law died in 1861, her sister Janet travelled to New Brunswick from her home in Scotland to look after the Law children. When James Law remarried in 1870, his new wife took over Janet's duties, and Janet decided to return home to Scotland. She suggested that Bonar Law should go with her, as the Kidston family were wealthier and better connected than the Laws, and Bonar would have a more privileged upbringing. Both James and Bonar accepted this, and Bonar left with Janet, never to return to Kingston.Law went to live at Janet's house in Helensburgh, near Glasgow. Her brothers Charles, Richard and William were partners in the family merchant bank Kidston & Sons, and as only one of them had married (and produced no heir) it was generally accepted that Law would inherit the firm, or at least play a role in its management when he was older. Immediately upon arriving from Kingston, Law began attending Gilbertfield House School, a preparatory school in Hamilton. In 1873, aged fourteen, he transferred to the High School of Glasgow, where with his good memory he showed a talent for languages, excelling in Greek, German and French. During this period, he first began to play chess – he would carry a board on the train between Helensburgh and Glasgow, challenging other commuters to matches. He eventually became a very good amateur player, and competed with internationally renowned chess masters. Despite his good academic record, it became obvious at Glasgow that he was better suited to business than to university, and when he was sixteen, Law left school to become a clerk at Kidston & Sons.At Kidston & Sons, Law received a nominal salary, on the understanding that he would gain a "commercial education" from working there that would serve him well as a businessman. In 1885 the Kidston brothers decided to retire, and agreed to merge the firm with the Clydesdale Bank.The merger would have left Law without a job and with poor career-prospects, but the retiring brothers found him a job with William Jacks, an iron merchant who had started pursuing a parliamentary career. The Kidston brothers lent Law the money to buy a partnership in Jacks' firm, and with Jacks himself no longer playing an active part in the company, Law effectively became the managing partner. Working long hours (and insisting that his employees did likewise), Law turned the firm into one of the most profitable iron merchants in the Glaswegian and Scottish markets.During this period Law became a "self-improver"; despite his lack of formal university education he sought to test his intellect, attending lectures given at Glasgow University and joining the Glasgow Parliamentary Debating Association, which adhered as closely as possible to the layout of the real Parliament of the United Kingdom and undoubtedly helped Law hone the skills that served him so well in the political arena.By the time he was thirty Law had established himself as a successful businessman, and had time to devote to more leisurely pursuits. He remained an avid chess player, whom Andrew Harley called "a strong player, touching first-class amateur level, which he had attained by practice at the Glasgow Club in earlier days". Law also worked with the Parliamentary Debating Association and took up golf, tennis and walking. In 1888 he moved out of the Kidston household and set up his own home at Seabank, with his sister Mary (who had earlier come over from Canada) acting as the housekeeper.In 1890, Law met Annie Pitcairn Robley, the 24-year-old daughter of a Glaswegian merchant, Harrington Robley. They quickly fell in love, and married on 24 March 1891. Little is known of Law's wife, as most of her letters have been lost. It is known that she was much liked in both Glasgow and London, and that her death in 1909 hit Law hard; despite his relatively young age and prosperous career, he never remarried. The couple had six children: James Kidston (1893–1917), Isabel Harrington (1895–1969), Charles John (1897–1917), Harrington (1899–1958), Richard Kidston (1901–1980), and Catherine Edith (1905–1992).The second son, Charlie, who was a lieutenant in the King's Own Scottish Borderers, was killed at the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917. The eldest son, James, who was a captain in the Royal Fusiliers, was shot down and killed on 21 September 1917, and the deaths made Law even more melancholy and depressed than before. The youngest son, Richard, later served as a Conservative MP and minister. Isabel married Sir Frederick Sykes (in the early years of World War I she had been engaged for a time to the Australian war correspondent Keith Murdoch) and Catherine married, firstly, Kent Colwell and, much later, in 1961, The 1st Baron Archibald.In 1897, Law was asked to become the Conservative Party candidate for the parliamentary seat of Glasgow Bridgeton. Soon after he was offered another seat, this one in Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown, which he took instead of Glasgow Bridgeton. Blackfriars was not a seat with high prospects attached; a working-class area, it had returned Liberal Party MPs since it was created in 1884, and the incumbent, Andrew Provand, was highly popular. Although the election was not due until 1902, the events of the Second Boer War forced the Conservative government to call a general election in 1900, later known as the khaki election. The campaign was unpleasant for both sides, with anti- and pro-war campaigners fighting vociferously, but Law distinguished himself with his oratory and wit. When the results came in on 4 October, Law was returned to Parliament with a majority of 1,000, overturning Provand's majority of 381. He immediately ended his active work at Jacks and Company (although he retained his directorship) and moved to London.Law initially became frustrated with the slow speed of Parliament compared to the rapid pace of the Glasgow iron market, and Austen Chamberlain recalled him saying to Chamberlain that "it was very well for men who, like myself had been able to enter the House of Commons young to adapt to a Parliamentary career, but if he had known what the House of Commons was he would never had entered at this stage". He soon learnt to be patient, however, and on 18 February 1901 made his maiden speech. Replying to anti-Boer War MPs including David Lloyd George, Law used his excellent memory to quote sections of Hansard back to the opposition which contained their previous speeches supporting and commending the policies they now denounced. Although lasting only fifteen minutes and not a crowd- or press-pleaser like the maiden speeches of F.E. Smith or Winston Churchill, it attracted the attention of the Conservative Party leaders.Law's chance to make his mark came with the issue of tariff reform. To cover the costs of the Second Boer War, Lord Salisbury's Chancellor of the Exchequer (Michael Hicks Beach) suggested introducing import taxes or tariffs on foreign metal, flour and grain coming into Britain. Such tariffs had previously existed in Britain, but the last of these had been abolished in the 1870s because of the free trade movement. A duty was now introduced on imported corn. The issue became "explosive", dividing the British political world, and continued even after Salisbury retired and was replaced as prime minister by his nephew, Arthur Balfour.Law took advantage of this, making his first major speech on 22 April 1902, in which he argued that while he felt a general tariff was unnecessary, an imperial customs union (which would put tariffs on items from outside the British Empire, instead of on every nation but Britain) was a good idea, particularly since other nations such as (Germany) and the United States had increasingly high tariffs. Using his business experience, he made a "plausible case" that there was no proof that tariffs led to increases in the cost of living, as the Liberals had argued. Again his memory came into good use – when William Harcourt accused Law of misquoting him, Law was able to precisely give the place in Hansard where Harcourt's speech was to be found.As a result of Law's proven experience in business matters and his skill as an economic spokesman for the government, Balfour offered him the position of Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade when he formed his government, which Law accepted, and he was formally appointed on 11 August 1902.As Parliamentary Secretary his job was to assist the President of the Board of Trade, Gerald Balfour. At the time the tariff reform controversy was brewing, led by the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, an ardent tariff reformer who "declared war" on free trade, and who persuaded the Cabinet that the Empire should be exempted from the new corn duty. After returning from a speaking tour of South Africa in 1903, Chamberlain found that the new Chancellor of the Exchequer (C.T. Ritchie) had instead abolished Hicks Beach's corn duty altogether in his budget. Angered by this, Chamberlain spoke at the Birmingham Town Hall on 15 May without the government's permission, arguing for an Empire-wide system of tariffs which would protect Imperial economies, forge the British Empire into one political entity and allow them to compete with other world powers.The speech and its ideas split the Conservative Party and its coalition ally the Liberal Unionist Party into two wings – the Free Fooders, who supported free trade, and the Tariff Reformers, who supported Chamberlain's tariff reforms. Law was a dedicated Tariff Reformer, but whereas Chamberlain dreamed of a new golden age for Britain, Law focused on more mundane and practical goals, such as a reduction in unemployment. L.S. Amery said that to Law, the tariff reform programme was "a question of trade figures and not national and Imperial policy of expansion and consolidation of which trade was merely the economic factor". Keith Laybourn attributes Law's interest in tariff reform not only to the sound business practice that it represented but also that because of his place of birth "he was attracted by the Imperial tariff preference arrangements advocated by Joseph Chamberlain". Law's constituents in Blackfriars were not overly enthusiastic about tariff reform – Glasgow was a poor area at the time that had benefited from free trade.In parliament, Law worked exceedingly hard at pushing for tariff reform, regularly speaking in the House of Commons and defeating legendary debaters such as Winston Churchill, Charles Dilke and H. H. Asquith, former home secretary and later prime minister. His speeches at the time were known for their clarity and common sense; Sir Ian Malcolm said that he made "the involved seem intelligible", and L.S. Amery said his arguments were "like the hammering of a skilled riveter, every blow hitting the nail on the head". Despite Law's efforts to forge consensus within the Conservatives, Balfour was unable to hold the two sides of his party together, and resigned as prime minister in December 1905, allowing the Liberals to form a government.The new prime minister, the Liberal Henry Campbell-Bannerman, immediately dissolved Parliament. Despite strong campaigning and a visit by Arthur Balfour, Law lost his seat in the ensuing general election. In total the Conservative Party and Liberal Unionists lost 245 seats, leaving them with only 157 members of parliament, the majority of them tariff reformers. Despite his loss, Law was at this stage such an asset to the Conservatives that an immediate effort was made to get him back into Parliament. The retirement of Frederick Rutherfoord Harris, MP for the safe Conservative seat of Dulwich, offered him a chance. Law was returned to Parliament in the ensuing by-election, increasing the Conservative majority to 1,279.The party was struck a blow in July 1906, when two days after a celebration of his seventieth birthday, Joseph Chamberlain suffered a stroke and was forced to retire from public life. He was succeeded as leader of the tariff reformers by his son Austen Chamberlain, who despite previous experience as Chancellor of the Exchequer and enthusiasm for tariff reform was not as skilled a speaker as Law. As a result, Law joined Balfour's Shadow Cabinet as the principal spokesman for tariff reform. The death of Law's wife on 31 October 1909 led him to work even harder, treating his political career not only as a job but as a coping strategy for his loneliness.Campbell-Bannerman resigned as prime minister in April 1908 and was replaced by H. H. Asquith. In 1909, he and his Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George introduced the People's Budget, which sought through increased direct and indirect taxes to redistribute wealth and fund social reform programmes. By parliamentary convention financial and budget bills are not challenged by the House of Lords, but in this case the predominantly Conservative Lords rejected the bill on 30 April, setting off a constitutional crisis.The Liberals called a general election for January 1910, and Law spent most of the preceding months campaigning up and down the country for other Conservative candidates and MPs, sure that his Dulwich seat was safe. He obtained an increased majority of 2,418. The overall result was more confused: the Conservatives gained 116 seats, bringing their total to 273, but this was still less than the Liberal caucus, and produced a hung parliament, as neither had a majority of the seats (the Irish Parliamentary Party, the Labour Party and the All-for-Ireland League took more than 120 seats in total). The Liberals remained in office with the support of the Irish Parliamentary Party. The Budget passed through the House of Commons a second time, and – as it now had an electoral mandate – was then approved by the House of Lords without a division.However, the crisis over the Budget had highlighted a long-standing constitutional question: should the House of Lords be able to overturn bills passed by the House of Commons? The Liberal government introduced a bill in February 1910 which would prevent the House of Lords vetoing finance bills, and would force them to pass any bill which had been passed by the Commons in three sessions of Parliament.This was immediately opposed by the Unionists, and both parties spent the next several months in a running battle over the bill. The Conservatives were led by Arthur Balfour and Lord Lansdowne, who headed the Conservatives in the House of Lords, while Law spent the time concentrating on the continuing problem of tariff reform. The lack of progress had convinced some senior Conservatives that it would be a good idea to scrap tariff reform altogether. Law disagreed, successfully arguing that tariff reform "was the first constructive work of the [Conservative Party]" and that to scrap it would "split the Party from top to bottom".With this success, Law returned to the constitutional crisis surrounding the House of Lords. The death of Edward VII on 6 May 1910 prompted the leaders of the major political parties to meet secretly in a "Truce of God" to discuss the Lords. The meetings were kept almost entirely secret: apart from the party representatives, the only people aware were F.E. Smith, J.L. Garvin, Edward Carson and Law. The group met about twenty times at Buckingham Palace between June and November 1910, with the Conservatives represented by Arthur Balfour, Lord Cawdor, Lord Lansdowne and Austen Chamberlain. The proposal presented at the conference by David Lloyd George was a coalition government with members of both major parties in the Cabinet and a programme involving Home Rule, Poor Law reforms, imperial reorganisation and possibly tariff reforms. The Home Rule proposal would have made the United Kingdom a federation, with "Home Rule All Round" for Scotland, Ireland, and England & Wales. In the end the plans fell through: Balfour told Lloyd George on 2 November that the proposal would not work, and the conference was dissolved a few days later.With the failure to establish a political consensus after the January 1910 general election, the Liberals called a second general election in December. The Conservative leadership decided that a good test of the popularity of the tariff reform programme would be to have a prominent tariff reformer stand for election in a disputed seat. They considered Law a prime candidate, and after debating it for a month he guardedly agreed, enthusiastic about the idea but worried about the effect of a defeat on the Party. Law was selected as the candidate for Manchester North West, and became drawn into party debates about how strong a tariff reform policy should be put in their manifesto. Law personally felt that duties on foodstuffs should be excluded, something agreed to by Alexander Acland-Hood, Edward Carson and others at a meeting of the Constitutional Club on 8 November 1910, but they failed to reach a consensus and the idea of including or excluding food duties continued to be something that divided the party.During the constitutional talks the Conservatives had demanded that, if the Lords' veto were removed, Irish Home Rule should only be permitted if approved by a UK-wide referendum. In response Lord Crewe, Liberal Leader in the Lords, had suggested sarcastically that tariff reform – a policy of questionable popularity because of the likelihood of increased prices on imported food – should also be submitted to a referendum. Arthur Balfour now announced to a crowd of 10,000 at the Royal Albert Hall that after the coming election, a Conservative Government would indeed submit tariff reform to a referendum, something he described as "Bonar Law's proposal" or the "Referendum Pledge". The suggestion was no more Law's than it was any of the dozens of Conservatives who had suggested this to Balfour, and his comment was simply an attempt to "pass the buck" and avoid the anger of Austen Chamberlain, who was furious that such an announcement had been made without consulting him or the party. While Law had written a letter to Balfour suggesting that a referendum would attract wealthy Conservatives, he said that "declaration would do no good with [the working class] and might damp enthusiasm of best workers".Parliament was dissolved on 28 November, with the election to take place and polling to end by 19 December. The Conservative and Liberal parties were equal in strength, and with the continued support of the Irish Nationalists the Liberal Party remained in government. Law called his campaign in Manchester North West the hardest of his career; his opponent, George Kemp, was a war hero who had fought in the Second Boer War and a former Conservative who had joined the Liberal party because of his disagreement with tariff reform.In the end Law narrowly lost, with 5,114 votes to Kemp's 5,559, but the election turned him into a "genuine [Conservative] hero", and he later said that the defeat did "more for him in the party than a hundred victories". In 1911, with the Conservative Party unable to afford him being out of Parliament, Law was elected in a by-election for the safe Conservative seat of Bootle. In his brief absence the Liberal suggestions for the reform of the House of Lords were passed as the Parliament Act 1911, ending that particular dispute.On the coronation of George V on 22 June 1911, Law was appointed as a Privy Councillor on the recommendation of the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and Arthur Balfour. This was evidence of his seniority and importance within the Conservative Party. Balfour had become increasingly unpopular as Leader of the Conservative Party since the 1906 general election; tariff reformers saw his leadership as the reason for their electoral losses, and the "free fooders" had been alienated by Balfour's attempts to tame the zeal of the tariff reform faction. Balfour refused all suggestions of party reorganisation until a meeting of senior Conservatives led by Lord Salisbury after the December 1910 electoral defeat issued an ultimatum demanding a review of party structure.The defeat on the House of Lords issue turned a wing of the Conservative Party led by Henry Page Croft and his Reveille Movement, against Balfour. Leo Maxse began a Balfour Must Go campaign in his newspaper, the "National Review", and by July 1911 Balfour was contemplating resignation. Law himself had no problem with Balfour's leadership, and along with Edward Carson attempted to regain support for him. By November 1911 it was accepted that Balfour was likely to resign, with the main competitors for the leadership being Law, Carson, Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain. When the elections began, Long and Chamberlain were the frontrunners; Chamberlain commanded the support of many tariff reformers, and Long that of the Irish Unionists. Carson immediately announced that he would not stand, and Law eventually announced that he would run for Leader, the day before Balfour resigned on 7 November.At the beginning of the election Law held the support of no more than 40 of the 270 members of parliament; the remaining 230 were divided between Long and Chamberlain. Although Long believed he had the most MPs, his support was largely amongst backbenchers, and most of the whips and frontbenchers preferred Chamberlain.With Long and Chamberlain almost neck-and-neck they called a meeting on 9 November to discuss the possibility of a deadlock. Chamberlain suggested that he would withdraw if this became a strong possibility, assuming Long did the same. Long, now concerned that his weak health would not allow him to survive the stress of party leadership, agreed. Both withdrew on 10 November, and on 13 November 232 MPs assembled at the Carlton Club, and Law was nominated as leader by Long and Chamberlain. With the unanimous support of the MPs, Law became Leader of the Conservative Party despite never having sat in Cabinet. Law's biographer, Robert Blake, wrote that he was an unusual choice to lead the Conservatives as a Presbyterian Canadian-Scots businessman had just become the leader of "the Party of Old England, the Party of the Anglican Church and the country squire, the party of broad acres and hereditary titles"As leader, Law first "rejuvenated the party machine", selecting newer, younger and more popular whips and secretaries, elevating F.E. Smith and Lord Robert Cecil to the Shadow Cabinet and using his business acumen to reorganise the party, resulting in better relations with the press and local branches, along with the raising of a £671,000 "war chest" for the next general election: almost double that available at the previous one.On 12 February 1912, he finally unified the two Unionist parties (Conservatives and Liberal Unionists) into the awkwardly named National Unionist Association of Conservative and Liberal-Unionist Organisations. From then on all were referred to as "Unionists" until the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922, after which they became Conservatives again (though the name "Unionist" continued in use in Scotland and Northern Ireland).In Parliament, Law introduced the so-called "new style" of speaking, with harsh, accusatory rhetoric, which dominates British politics to this day. This was as a counter to Arthur Balfour, known for his "masterly witticisms", because the party felt they needed a warrior-like figure. Law did not particularly enjoy his tougher manner, and at the State Opening of Parliament in February 1912 apologised directly to Asquith for his coming speech, saying, "I am afraid I shall have to show myself very vicious, Mr Asquith, this session. I hope you will understand." Law's "warrior king" figure helped unify the divided Conservatives into a single body, with him as the leader.During his early time as Conservative leader, the party's social policy was the most complicated and difficult to agree. In his opening speech as leader he said that the party would be one of principle, and would not be reactionary, instead sticking to their guns and holding firm policies. Despite this he left women's suffrage alone, leaving the party unwhipped and saying that "the less part we take in this question the better". In terms of social reform (legislation to improve the conditions of the poor and working classes) Law was similarly unenthusiastic, believing that the area was a Liberal one, in which they could not successfully compete. His response to a request by Lord Balcarres for a social programme was simply "As the [Liberal Party] refuse to formulate their policy in advance we should be equally absolved". His refusal to get drawn in may have actually strengthened his hold over Conservative MPs, many of whom were similarly uninterested in social reform.In his first public speech as leader at the Royal Albert Hall on 26 January 1912 he listed his three biggest concerns: an attack on the Liberal government for failing to submit Home Rule to a referendum; tariff reform; and the Conservative refusal to let the Ulster Unionists be "trampled upon" by an unfair Home Rule bill. Both tariff reform and Ulster dominated his political work, with Austen Chamberlain saying that Law "once said to me that he cared intensely for only two things: Tariff Reform and Ulster; all the rest was only part of the game".After further review with members of his party, Law changed his initial beliefs on tariff reform and accepted the full package, including duties on foodstuffs. On 29 February 1912 the entire Conservative parliamentary body (i.e. both MPs and peers) met at Lansdowne House, with Lord Lansdowne chairing. Lansdowne argued that although the electorate might prefer the Conservative Party if they dropped food duties from their tariff reform plan, it would open them to accusations of bad faith and "poltroonery". Law endorsed Lansdowne's argument, pointing out that any attempt to avoid food duties would cause an internal party struggle and could only aid the Liberals, and that Canada, the most economically important colony and a major exporter of foodstuffs, would never agree to tariffs without British support of food duties.Lord Salisbury, who opposed food duties, wrote to Law several weeks later suggesting they separate foodstuffs from tariff reform for the referendum. If the electorate liked food duties, they would vote for the entire package; if not, they did not have to. Law replied arguing that it would be impossible to do so effectively, and that with the increasing costs of defence and social programmes it would be impossible to raise the necessary capital except by comprehensive tariff reform. He argued that a failure to offer the entire tariff reform package would split the Conservative Party down the middle, offending the tariff reform faction, and that if such a split took place "I could not possibly continue as leader".Law postponed withdrawing the tariff reform "Referendum Pledge" because of the visit of Robert Borden, the newly elected Conservative prime minister of Canada, to London planned for July 1912. Meeting with Borden on his arrival, Law got him to agree to make a statement about the necessity of Imperial tariff reform, promising reciprocal agreements and saying that failure by London to agree tariff reform would result in an "irresistible pressure" for Canada to make a treaty with another nation, most obviously the United States.Law decided that the November party conference was the perfect time to announce the withdrawal of the Referendum Pledge, and that Lord Lansdowne should do it, because he had been leader in the House of Lords when the pledge was made and because of his relatively low profile during the original tariff reform dispute. When the conference opened the British political world was febrile; on 12 November the opposition had narrowly defeated the government on an amendment to the Home Rule Bill, and the next evening, amidst hysterical shouting from the opposition, Asquith attempted to introduce a motion reversing the previous vote. As the MPs filed out at the end of the day Winston Churchill began taunting the opposition, and in his anger Ronald McNeil hurled a copy of "Standing Orders of the House" at Churchill, hitting him on the head. Law refused to condemn the events, and it seems apparent that while he had played no part in organising them they "had" been planned by the party Whips. As party leader, he was most likely aware of the plans even if he did not actively participate.The conference was opened on 14 November 1912 by Lord Farquhar, who immediately introduced Lord Lansdowne. Lansdowne revoked the Referendum Pledge, saying that as the government had failed to submit Home Rule to a referendum, the offer that tariff reform would also be submitted was null and void. Lansdowne promised that when the Unionists took office they would "do so with a free hand to deal with tariffs as they saw fit". Law then rose to speak, and in line with his agreement to let Lansdowne speak for tariff reform mentioned it only briefly when he said "I concur in every word which has fallen from Lord Lansdowne". He instead promised a reversal of several Liberal policies when the Unionists came to power, including the disestablishment of the Welsh Church, land taxes and Irish Home Rule. The crowd "cheered themselves hoarse" at Law's speech.However, the reaction from the party outside the conference hall was not a positive one. Law had not consulted the local constituency branches about his plan, and several important constituency leaders led by Archibald Salvidge and Lord Derby planned for a meeting of the Lancashire party, the centre of discontent, on 21 December. Law was preoccupied with the problem of Irish Home Rule and was unable to give the discontent his full attention. He continued to believe that his approach to the problem of tariff reform was the correct one, and wrote to John Strachey on 16 November saying that "it was a case of a choice of two evils, and all that one could do was to take the lesser of the two, and that I am sure we have done". Speaking to Edward Carson, F.E. Smith, Austen Chamberlain and Lord Balcarres in December after two weeks of receiving negative letters from party members about the change, Law outlined that he would not be averse to a return to the previous policy considering the negative feelings from the party, but felt that this would require the resignation of both himself and Lansdowne.Law again wrote to Strachey saying that he continued to feel this policy was the correct one, and only regretted that the issue was splitting the party at a time when unity was needed to fight the Home Rule problem. At the meeting of the Lancashire party the group under Derby condemned Law's actions and called for a three-week party recess before deciding what to do about the repeal of the Referendum Pledge. This was an obvious ultimatum to Law, giving him a three-week period to change his mind. Law believed that Derby was "unprincipled and treacherous", particularly since he then circulated a questionnaire among Lancashire party members with leading questions such as "do you think the abandonment of the referendum will do harm?" Law met the Lancashire party on 2 January 1913 and ordered that they must replace any food tariff based resolutions with a vote of confidence in him as a leader, and that any alternative would result in his resignation.After a chance meeting at which Edward Carson learnt of Law and Lansdowne's acceptance of possible resignation, he was spurred to ask Edward Goulding to beg Law and Lansdowne to compromise over the policy and remain as leaders. The compromise, known as the January Memorial, was agreed by Carson, James Craig, Law and Lansdowne at Law's house between 6–8 January 1913, affirming the support of the signatories for Law and his policies, and noting that his resignation was not wanted.Within two days 231 of the 280 Conservative MPs had signed it; 27 frontbenchers had not been invited, neither had five who were not in London, seven who were ill, the Speaker and a few others who could not be found – only eight MPs actively refused to sign. Law's official response took the form of an open letter published on 13 January 1913, in which Law offered a compromise that food duties would not be placed before Parliament to vote on until after a second, approving election took place.The January and December elections in 1910 destroyed the large Liberal majority, meaning they relied on the Irish Nationalists to maintain a government. As a result, they were forced to consider Home Rule, and with the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 which replaced the Lords' veto with a two-year power of delay on most issues, the Conservative Party became aware that unless they could dissolve Parliament or sabotage the Home Rule Bill, introduced in 1912, it would most likely become law by 1914.As the child of an Ulster family who had spent much time in the area (his father had moved back there several years after Law moved to Scotland), Law believed the gap between Ulster Unionism and Irish Nationalism could never be crossed. Despite this he said little about Home Rule until the passing of the Parliament Act in 1911, calling it the "Home Rule in Disguise Act" and saying it was an attempt to change parliamentary procedures so as to allow Home Rule "through the back door".After the act's passage, he made a speech in the Commons saying if the Liberals wished to pass a Home Rule Bill they should submit it to the electorate by calling a general election. His elevation to the leadership of the Conservative Party allowed him a platform to voice his opinion to the public, and his speeches (culminating with the January 1912 speech at the Royal Albert Hall) were centred on Home Rule as much as they were around tariff reform. In contrast to Balfour's "milk and water" opposition to Home Rule, Law presented a "fire and blood" opposition to Home Rule that at times seemed to suggest that he was willing to contemplate a civil war to stop Home Rule. Law stated he would not stop "from any action...we think necessary to defeat one of the most ignoble conspiracies...ever formed against the liberties of free-born men." As the Conservative Party was badly divided by the tariff issue, Law had decided to make opposition for Home Rule his signature issue as the best way of unifying the Conservative Party. Right form the start, Law presented his anti-Home Rule stance more in terms of protecting Protestant majority Ulster from being ruled by a Parliament in Dublin that would be dominated by Catholics than in terms of preserving the Union, much to the chagrin of many Unionists.Law was supported by Edward Carson, leader of the Ulster Unionists. Although Law sympathised with the Ulster Unionists politically he did not agree with the religious intolerance shown to Catholics. The passions unleashed by the Home Rule debate frequently threatened to get out of hand. In January 1912, when Winston Churchill planned to deliver a speech in favour of Home Rule in at the Ulster Hall in Belfast, the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) threatened to use violence if necessary to stop Churchill from speaking. The legal scholar A. V. Dicey, himself an opponent of Home Rule, wrote in a letter to Law that the threats of violence were "the worst mistake" that undermined "the whole moral strength" of the Unionist movement. But as Carson admitted in a letter to Law, the situation in Belfast was beyond his control as many UUC members were also members of the Loyal Orange Order, and the prospect of Churchill's visit to Belfast had angered so many of his followers that he felt he had to threaten violence as the best possible way of stopping the planned speech instead of leaving it to his followers who might otherwise riot. As it was, Churchill agreed to cancel his speech in response to warnings that the police would not be able to guarantee his security. Besides for his concerns about the violence, Dicey was also worried about the way in which Law was more interested about stopping Home Rule from being imposed on Ulster, instead of all of Ireland, which seemed to imply he was willing to accept the partition of Ireland. Many Irish Unionists outside of Ulster felt abandoned by Law, who seemed to care only about Ulster.The 1912 session of Parliament opened on 14 February with a stated intent by the Liberal Party in the King's Speech to introduce a new Home Rule Bill. The bill was to be introduced on 11 April, and four days before that Law travelled to Ulster for a tour of the area. The pinnacle of this was a meeting on 9 April in the grounds of the Royal Agricultural Society near Balmoral (an area of Belfast), attended by seventy Unionist MPs, the Primate of All Ireland and topped by "perhaps the largest Union Jack ever made" – 48 feet by 25 feet on a flagpole 90 feet high.At the meeting both Law and Carson swore to the crowd that "never under any circumstances will we submit to Home Rule". However, the Parliament Act and the government majority made such a victory against the Bill unlikely unless the government could be brought down or Parliament dissolved. A second problem was that not all Unionists opposed Home Rule to the same degree; some hardcore Unionists would oppose any attempt at Home Rule, others thought it inevitable that the Bill would pass and were simply trying to get the best deal possible for Ulster. The spectre of civil war was also raised – the Ulstermen began to form paramilitary groups such as the Ulster Volunteers, and there was a strong possibility that if it came to fighting the British Army would have to be sent in to support the underfunded and understaffed Royal Irish Constabulary.The argument of Law and the Unionists between 1912 and 1914 was based on three complaints. Firstly, Ulster would never accept forced Home Rule, and made up a quarter of Ireland; if the Liberals wanted to force this issue, military force would be the only way. Law thundered that "Do you plan to hurl the full majesty and power of the law, supported on the bayonets of the British Army, against a million Ulstermen marching under the Union Flag and singing 'God Save The King'? Would the Army hold? Would the British people – would the Crown – stand for such a slaughter?". A second complaint was that the government had so far refused to submit it to a general election, as Law had been suggesting since 1910. Law warned that "you will not carry this Bill without submitting it to the people of this country, and, if you make the attempt, you will succeed only in breaking our Parliamentary machine". The third complaint was that the Liberals had still not honoured the preamble of the Parliament Act 1911, which promised "to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of a hereditary basis". The Unionist argument was that the Liberals were trying to make a massive constitutional change while the constitution was suspended. In May 1912, Law was told by the Conservative whip Lord Balcarres that outside of Ireland "the electors are apathetic" about Home Rule, suggesting that he should de-emphasis the topic.In July 1912 Asquith travelled to Dublin (the first sitting prime minister to do so in over a century) to make a speech, ridiculing Unionist demands for a referendum on the issue via an election and calling their campaign "purely destructive in its objects, anarchic and chaotic in its methods". In response the Unionists had a meeting on 27 July at Blenheim Palace, the birthplace of Winston Churchill, one of Asquith's ministers. More than 13,000 people attended, including over 40 peers. In Law's speech he said "I said so to [the Liberals] and I say so now, with the full sense of the responsibility which attaches to my position, that if the attempt be made under present conditions, I can imagine no length of resistance to which Ulster will go, in which I shall not be ready to support them, and in which they will not be supported by the overwhelming majority of the British people". Law added that if Asquith continued with the Home Rule bill, the government would be "lighting the fires of civil war". This speech was more known and criticised than any others; it implied both he and the British people would support the Ulstermen in anything, including armed rebellion.Despite the conflict and fierce resistance, the Bill continued its passage through Parliament. It moved to its second reading on 9 June, and the Committee stage on 11 June, where it became fraught in controversy after a young Liberal named Thomas Agar-Robartes proposed an amendment excluding four of the Ulster counties (Londonderry, Down, Antrim & Armagh) from the Irish Parliament. This put Law in a delicate situation, since he had previously said that he would support a system allowing each county to remain "outside the Irish Parliament", at the same time saying that he would not support any amendment that didn't have Ulster's full co-operation. If he accepted the amendment, he would be seen as abandoning the Irish Unionists, but on the other hand if the amendment was carried it might disrupt the government by causing a split between the Liberals and Irish Nationalists, bringing down the government and thus forcing an election.If Unionists wished to win the ensuing election they would have to show they were willing to compromise. In the end the amendment failed, but with the Liberal majority reduced by 40, and when a compromise amendment was proposed by another Liberal MP the government Whips were forced to trawl for votes. Law saw this as a victory, as it highlighted the split in the government. Edward Carson tabled another amendment on 1 January 1913 which would exclude all nine Ulster counties, more to test government resolve than anything else. While it failed, it allowed the Unionists to portray themselves as the party of compromise and the Liberals as stubborn and recalcitrant.The Unionists in Ulster were committed to independence from any Irish Home Rule. They secretly authorised a Commission of Five to write a constitution for "a provisional Government of Ulster... to come into operation on the day of the passage of any Home Rule Bill, to remain in force until Ulster shall again resume unimpaired citizenship in the United Kingdom".On 28 September 1912, Carson led 237,638 of his followers in signing a Solemn League and Covenant saying that Ulster would refuse to recognise the authority of any Parliament of Ireland arising from Home Rule. The "Ulster Covenant" as the Solemn League and Covenant was popularly called recalled the National Covenant signed by the Scots in 1638 to resist King Charles I who was viewed by Scots Presbyterians as a crypto-Catholic, and was widely seen as a sectarian document that promoted a "Protestant crusade". The Conservative MP Alfred Cripps wrote in a letter to Law that English Catholics like himself were opposed to Home Rule, but he was troubled by the way that Law seemed to be using the issue as "an occasion to attack their religion." In his reply of 7 October 1912, Law wrote he was opposed to religious bigotry and claimed that as far he could tell that no "responsible" Unionist leader in Ireland had attacked the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the Conservative MP Lord Hugh Cecil had in the summer of 1912 given anti-Home Rule speeches in Ireland where he shouted "To Hell with the Pope!", and was not censured by Law. When Parliament resumed in October after the summer recess, the Home Rule Bill was passed by the Commons. As expected, the House of Lords rejected it 326 to 69, and under the provisions of the Parliament Act it could only be passed if it was passed twice more by the Commons in successive Parliaments. In December 1912, the chairmen of the Conservative Party, Arthur Steel-Maitland, wrote to Law that the Home Rule issue did not command much attention in England, and asked that he move away from the topic which he asserted was damaging the image of the Conservatives.The end of 1912 saw the end of a year of political struggle for Law. As well as the problem of Home Rule, there were internal party struggles; supporters of the Church of England or military reform lambasted Law for not paying attention to their causes, and tariff reformers argued with him over his previous compromise on food duties. Despite this, most Conservatives realised that as a fighting leader, Law could not be bettered. The results of by-elections throughout 1913 continued to favour them, but progress on the Home Rule Bill was less encouraging; on 7 July it was again passed by the Commons, and again rejected by the Lords on 15 July. In response, the UUC created a paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), to fight against the British government if necessary to stop Home Rule. The Conservative peer, Lord Hythe, wrote to Law to suggest the Conservatives needed to present a constructive alternative to Home Rule and he had the "duty to tell these Ulstermen" that there was no need for the UVF. Another Tory peer, Lord Sailsbury, wrote to Law that as much as he was opposed to Home Rule that: "I cannot support political lawlessness and I shall either disenfranchise myself or vote Liberal...rather than encourage armed resistance in Ulster." Lord Balcarres wrote to Law that much of the Conservative caucus were "deeply confused and uncertain" and the "policies of reckless defiance" were unpopular with the party membership in England. Balcarres wrote he was "...much alarmed lest some sporadicoutbreak by Orangemen should...alienate English sympathies." Lord Lansdowne advised Law to be "extremely careful in our relations with Carson and his friends" and find a way of stopping F. E. Smith’s "habit of expressing rather violent sentiments in the guise of messages from the Unionist party." Balfour wrote to Law that he had "much misgiving upon the general loosening of the ordinary ties of social obligation...I do most strongly feel that nothing can be more demoralising to a society than that some of its...most loyal members should deliberately organise themselves for the purpose of offering...armed resistance to persons...representing lawful authority."During the debate on the Home Rule bill, Carson submitted an amendment that would exclude the 9 counties of Ulster from the jurisdiction of the proposed Parliament that would govern from Dublin, which was defeated by the Liberal MPs. However, Carson's amendment which would lead to the partition of Ireland caused much alarm with Irish Unionists outside of Ulster and led many to write letters from Law seeking assurances that he would not abandon them for the sake of saving Ulster from Home Rule. Carson told Law that he favoured a compromise under which Home Rule would be granted to southern Ireland, but not Ulster, and at the same time some sort of home rule be granted to Wales and Scotland as well. Law himself in a letter to a friend stated that the British public was "so sick of the whole Irish question" that the majority would probably agree to a compromise of a Home Rule for Ireland sans Ulster.Parliament rose for the summer recess on 15 August, and Law and the Unionists spent the summer trying to convince the King to voice an opinion on the issue. Their first suggestion was that he should withhold the Royal Assent on it, something that horrified Law's constitutional law adviser A.V. Dicey. The second was more reasonable – they argued that the Liberals had put the King in an impossible position by asking him to ratify a bill that would infuriate half of the population. His only option was to write a memo to Asquith saying this and requesting that the problem of home rule be put to the electorate via a general election. After thinking on this, the King agreed, and handed a note to Asquith on 11 August requesting either an election or an all-party conference.Asquith responded with two notes, the first countering the Unionist claim that it would be acceptable for the King to dismiss Parliament or withhold assent of the Bill to force an election, and the second arguing that a Home Rule election would not prove anything, since a Unionist victory would only be due to other problems and scandals and would not assure supporters of the current government that Home Rule was truly opposed.King George pressed for a compromise, summoning various political leaders to Balmoral Castle individually for talks. Law arrived on 13 September and again pointed out to the king his belief that if the Government continued to refuse an election fought over Home Rule and instead forced it on Ulster, the Ulstermen would not accept it and any attempts to enforce it would not be obeyed by the British Army.By early October the King was pressuring the British political world for an all-party conference. Fending this off, Law instead met with senior party members to discuss developments. Law, Balfour, Smith and Long discussed the matter, all except Long favouring a compromise with the Liberals. Long represented the anti-Home Rule elements in Southern Ireland, and from this moment onwards Southern and Northern attitudes towards Home Rule began to diverge. Law then met with Edward Carson, and afterwards expressed the opinion that "the men of Ulster do desire a settlement on the basis of leaving Ulster out, and Carson thinks such an arrangement could be carried out without any serious attack from the Unionists in the South".On 8 October Asquith wrote to Law suggesting an informal meeting of the two party leaders, which Law accepted. The two met at Cherkley Court, the home of Law's ally Sir Max Aitken MP (later Lord Beaverbrook), on 14 October. The meeting lasted an hour, and Law told Asquith that he would continue to try to have Parliament dissolved, and that in any ensuing election the Unionists would accept the result even if it went against them. Law later expressed his fear to Lansdowne that Asquith would persuade the Irish Nationalists to accept Home Rule with the exclusion of four Ulster counties with Protestant/unionist majorities. Carson would not accept this, requiring six of nine ulster counties to be excluded (i.e., four with unionist majorities plus two majority nationalist, leaving the three Ulster counties with large nationalist majorities, leading to an overall unionist majority in the six); such a move might split the Unionists. Law knew that Asquith was unlikely to consent to a general election, since he would almost certainly lose it, and that any attempt to pass the Home Rule Bill "without reference to the electorate" would lead to civil disturbance. As such, Asquith was stuck "between a rock and a hard place" and was sure to negotiate.Asquith and Law met for a second private meeting on 6 November, at which Asquith raised three possibilities. The first, suggested by Sir Edward Grey, consisted of "Home Rule within Home Rule" – Home Rule covering Ulster, but with partial autonomy for Ulster. The second was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for a number of years before becoming part of it, and the third was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for as long as it liked, with the opportunity of joining when it wished. Law made it clear to Asquith that the first two options were unacceptable, but the third might be accepted in some circles.The leaders then discussed the geographical definition of the area to be excluded from Home Rule; Ulster formally consists of nine counties, of which only four had a clear unionist majority, three a clear nationalist majority and two a small nationalist majority – however, overall a practical problem was that the nine counties of Ulster were majority nationalist. Carson always referred to nine counties of Ulster, but Law told Asquith that if an appropriate settlement could be made with a smaller number, Carson "would see his people and probably, though I could not give any promise to that effect, try to induce them to accept it".The third meeting was on 10 December and Law, raging because Asquith had not yet presented a concrete way to exclude Ulster, made little progress. Law brushed aside Asquith's suggestions and insisted that only the exclusion of Ulster was worth considering. He later wrote that "My feeling, however, is that Asquith has no hope whatsoever of making such an arrangement and that his present idea is simply to let things drift in the meantime.. I do not understand why he took the trouble of seeing me at all. The only explanation I can give is that I think he is in a funk about the whole position and thought that meeting me might keep the thing open at least".With the failure of these talks, Law accepted that a compromise was unlikely, and from January 1914 he returned to the position that the Unionists were "opposed utterly to Home Rule". The campaign was sufficient to bring the noted organiser Lord Milner back into politics to support the Unionists, and he immediately asked L.S. Amery to write a British Covenant saying that the signers would, if the Home Rule Bill passed, "feel justified in taking or supporting any action that may be effective to prevent it being put into operation, and more particularly to prevent the armed forces of the Crown being used to deprive the people of Ulster of their rights as citizens of the United Kingdom". The Covenant was announced at a massive rally in Hyde Park on 4 April 1914, with hundreds of thousands assembling to hear Milner, Long and Carson speak. By the middle of the summer Long claimed more than 2,000,000 people had signed the Covenant.Law's critics, including George Dangerfield, condemned his actions in assuring the Ulster Unionists of Conservative Party support in their armed resistance to Home Rule, as unconstitutional, verging on promoting a civil war. Law's supporters argued that he was acting constitutionally by forcing the Liberal government into calling the election it had been avoiding, to obtain a mandate for their reforms.Law was not directly involved in the British Covenant campaign as he was focusing on a practical way to defeat the Home Rule Bill. His first attempt was via the Army (Annual) Act, something that "violated a basic and ancient principle of the constitution". Every year since the Glorious Revolution, the Act had fixed the maximum number of soldiers in the British Army; rejecting it would technically make the British Army an illegal institution.Lord Selborne had written to Law in 1912 to point out that vetoing or significantly amending the Act in the House of Lords would force the government to resign, and such a course of action was also suggested by others in 1913–14. Law believed that subjecting Ulstermen to a Dublin-based government they did not recognise was itself constitutionally damaging, and that amending the Army (Annual) Act to prevent the use of force in Ulster (he never suggested vetoing it) would not violate the constitution any more than the actions the government had already undertaken.By 12 March he had established that, should the Home Rule Bill be passed under the Parliament Act 1911, the Army (Annual) Act should be amended in the Lords to stipulate that the Army could not "be used in Ulster to prevent or interfere with any step which may thereafter be taken in Ulster to organise resistance to the enforcement of the Home Rule Act in Ulster nor to suppress any such resistance until and unless the present Parliament has been dissolved and a period of three months shall have lapsed after the meeting of a new Parliament". The Shadow Cabinet consulted legal experts, who agreed wholeheartedly with Law's suggestion. Although several members expressed dissent, the Shadow Cabinet decided "provisionally to agree to amendment of army act. but to leave details and decisions as to the moment of acting to Lansdowne and Law". In the end no amendment to the Army Act was offered, though; many backbenchers and party loyalists became agitated by the scheme and wrote to him that it was unacceptable – Ian Malcolm, a fanatical Ulster supporter, told Law that amending the Army Act would drive him out of the Party.On 30 July 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Law met with Asquith and agreed to temporarily suspend the issue of Home Rule to avoid domestic discontent during wartime. By the following day both leaders had convinced their parties to agree to this move. On 3 August, Law promised openly in Commons that his Conservative Party would give "unhesitating support' to the government's war policy. On 4 August, Germany rejected British demands for a withdrawal from Belgium, and Britain declared war.Over the coming months, the Liberal, Labour and Conservative whips worked out a truce suspending confrontational politics until either 1 January 1915 or until the end of the War. On 4 August both Asquith and Law made speeches together at the Middlesex Guildhall, and uncomfortably socialised with each other's parties. On 6 August, the Conservatives learnt that Asquith planned to put the Home Rule Bill on the statute books; Law wrote an angry letter to Asquith, the response of which was that Asquith could either pass the bill immediately, suspending it for the duration of the conflict, or make it law with a six-month delay and with a three-year exclusion for Ulster. Law responded with a speech in the Commons, saying that "the Government have treated us abominably... but we are in the middle of a great struggle. Until that struggle [is] over, so far as we are concerned, in everything connected with it there would be no parties, there would openly be a nation. In regard to this debate I have made protest as well as I could, but when I have finished we shall take no further part in the discussion". The entire Party then left the Commons silently, and although a strong protest (Asquith later admitted that "it was unique in my or I think anybody's experience") the bill was still passed, although with a suspension for the duration of the War.The Conservatives soon began to get annoyed that they were unable to criticise the Government, and took this into Parliament; rather than criticising policy, they would attack individual ministers, including the Lord Chancellor (who they considered "far too enamoured of German culture") and the Home Secretary, who was "too tender to aliens". By Christmas 1914 they were anxious about the war; it was not, in their opinion, going well, and yet they were restricted to serving on committees and making recruitment speeches. At about the same time, Law and David Lloyd George met to discuss the possibility of a coalition government. Law was supportive of the idea in some ways, seeing it as a probability that "a coalition government would come in time".The crisis which forced a coalition was twofold; first the Shell Crisis of 1915, and then the resignation of Lord Fisher, the First Sea Lord. The Shell Crisis was a shortage of artillery shells on the Western Front. It indicated a failure to fully organise British industry. Asquith tried to ward off the criticism the day before the debate, praising his government's efforts and saying that "I do not believe that any army has ever either entered upon a campaign or been maintained during a campaign with better or more adequate equipment". The Conservatives, whose sources of information included officers such as Sir John French, were not put off, and instead became furious.Over the next few days the Conservative backbenchers threatened to break the truce and mount an attack on the government over the munitions situation. Law forced them to back down on 12 May, but on the 14th an article appeared in "The Times" blaming the British failure at the Battle of Aubers Ridge on the lack of munitions. This again stirred up the backbenchers, who were only just kept in line. The Shadow Cabinet took a similar line; things could not go on as they were. The crisis was only halted with the resignation of Lord Fisher. Fisher had opposed Winston Churchill over the Gallipoli Campaign, and felt that he could not continue in government if the two would be in conflict. Law knew that this would push the Conservative back bench over the edge, and met with David Lloyd George on 17 May to discuss Fisher's resignation. Lloyd George decided that "the only way to preserve a united front was to arrange for more complete cooperation between parties in the direction of the War". Lloyd George reported the meeting to Asquith, who agreed that a coalition was inescapable. He and Law agreed to form a coalition government.Law's next job, therefore, was to assist the Liberal Party in creating a new government. In their discussions on 17 May, both Law and Lloyd George had agreed that Lord Kitchener should not remain in the War Office, and removing him became top priority. Unfortunately the press began a campaign supporting Kitchener on 21 May, and the popular feeling that this raised convinced Law, Lloyd George and Asquith that Kitchener could not be removed. To keep him and at the same time remove the munitions supply from his grasp to prevent a repeat of the "shells crisis" the Ministry of Munitions was created, with Lloyd George becoming Minister of Munitions.Law eventually accepted the post of Colonial Secretary, an unimportant post in wartime; Asquith had made it clear that he would not allow a Conservative minister to head the Exchequer, and that with Kitchener (whom he considered a Conservative) in the War Office, he would not allow another Conservative to hold a similarly important position. Fearing for the integrity of the coalition, Law accepted this position. Outside of Law's position, other Conservatives also gained positions in the new administration; Arthur Balfour became First Lord of the Admiralty, Austen Chamberlain became Secretary of State for India and Edward Carson became Attorney General.During Law's time as Colonial Secretary, the three main issues were the question of manpower for the British Army, the crisis in Ireland and the Dardanelles Campaign. Dardanelles took priority, as seen by Asquith's restructuring of his War Council into a Dardanelles Committee. Members included Kitchener, Law, Churchill, Lloyd George and Lansdowne, with the make-up divided between political parties to defuse tension and provide criticism of policy. The main discussion was on the possibility of reinforcing the forces already landed, something Law disagreed with. With Asquith and the Army in support, however, he felt that he was ill-equipped to combat the proposal. Five more divisions were landed, but faced heavy casualties for little gain. As a result, Law led a strong resistance to the idea at the next Committee meeting on 18 August. The idea only avoided being scrapped thanks to the French promise to send forces in early September, and the arguing became an immense strain on the government.Law entered the coalition government as Colonial Secretary in May 1915, his first Cabinet post, and, following the resignation of Prime Minister and Liberal Party Leader Asquith in December 1916, was invited by King George V to form a government, but he deferred to Lloyd George, Secretary of State for War and former Minister of Munitions, who he believed was better placed to lead a coalition ministry. He served in Lloyd George's War Cabinet, first as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.While chancellor, he raised the stamp duty on cheques from one penny to twopence in 1918. His promotion reflected the great mutual trust between the two leaders and made for a well co-ordinated political partnership; their coalition was re-elected by a landslide following the Armistice. Law's two eldest sons were both killed whilst fighting in the war. In the 1918 General Election, Law returned to Glasgow and was elected as member for Glasgow Central.At war's end, Law gave up the Exchequer for the less demanding sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal, but remained Leader of the Commons. In 1921, ill health forced his resignation as Conservative leader and Leader of the Commons in favour of Austen Chamberlain. His departure weakened the hardliners in the cabinet who were opposed to negotiating with the Irish Republican Army, and the Anglo-Irish War ended in the summer.By 1921–22 the coalition had become embroiled in an air of moral and financial corruption (e.g. the sale of honours). Besides the recent Irish Treaty and Edwin Montagu's moves towards greater self-government for India, both of which dismayed rank-and-file Conservative opinion, the government's willingness to intervene against the Bolshevik regime in Russia also seemed out of step with the new and more pacifist mood. A sharp slump in 1921 and a wave of strikes in the coal and railway industries also added to the government's unpopularity, as did the apparent failure of the Genoa Conference, which ended in an apparent rapprochement between Germany and Soviet Russia. In other words, it was no longer the case that Lloyd George was an electoral asset to the Conservative Party.Lloyd George, Birkenhead and Winston Churchill (still distrusted by many Conservatives) wished to use armed force against Turkey (the Chanak Crisis), but had to back down when offered support only by New Zealand and Newfoundland, and not Canada, Australia or South Africa; Law wrote to "The Times" supporting the government but stating that Britain could not "act as the policeman for the world".At a meeting at the Carlton Club, Conservative backbenchers, led by the President of the Board of Trade Stanley Baldwin and influenced by the recent Newport by-election which was won from the Liberals by a Conservative, voted to end the Lloyd George Coalition and fight the next election as an independent party. Austen Chamberlain resigned as Party Leader, Lloyd George resigned as prime minister and Law took both jobs on 23 October 1922.Many leading Conservatives (e.g. Birkenhead, Arthur Balfour, Austen Chamberlain, Robert Horne) were not members of the new Cabinet, which Birkenhead contemptuously referred to as "the Second Eleven". Although the Coalition Conservatives numbered no more than thirty, they hoped to dominate any future Coalition government in the same way that the similarly sized Peelite group had dominated the Coalition Government of 1852–1855 – an analogy much used at the time.Parliament was immediately dissolved, and a General Election ensued. Besides the two Conservative factions, the Labour Party were fighting as a major national party for the first time and indeed became the main Opposition after the election; the Liberals were still split into Asquith and Lloyd George factions, with many Lloyd George Liberals still unopposed by Conservative candidates (including Churchill, who was defeated at Dundee nonetheless). Despite the confused political arena the Conservatives were re-elected with a comfortable majority.Questions were raised about whether the elderly Conservative Party Treasurer, Lord Farquhar, had passed on to Lloyd George (who during his premiership had amassed a large fund, largely from the sale of honours) any money intended for the Conservative Party. The Coalition Conservatives also hoped to obtain Conservative Party money from Farquhar. Bonar Law found Farquhar too "gaga" to properly explain what had happened, and dismissed him.One of the questions which taxed Law's brief government was that of inter-Allied war debts. Britain owed money to the US, and in turn was owed four times as much money by France, Italy and the other Allied powers, although under the Lloyd George government Balfour had promised that Britain would collect no more money from other Allies than she was required to repay the USA; the debt was hard to repay as trade (exports were needed to earn foreign currency) had not returned to prewar levels.On a trip to the USA Stanley Baldwin, the inexperienced Chancellor of the Exchequer, agreed to repay £40 million per annum to the USA rather than the £25 million which the British government had thought feasible, and on his return announced the deal to the press when his ship docked at Southampton, before the Cabinet had had a chance to consider it. Law contemplated resignation, and after being talked out of it by senior ministers vented his feelings in an anonymous letter to "The Times".Law was soon diagnosed with terminal throat cancer and, no longer physically able to speak in Parliament, resigned on 20 May 1923. George V sent for Baldwin, whom Law is rumoured to have favoured over Lord Curzon. However Law did not offer any advice to the King. Law died later that same year in London at the age of 65. His funeral was held at Westminster Abbey where later his ashes were interred. His estate was probated at £35,736 (approximately £ as of 2021).Bonar Law was the shortest-serving prime minister of the 20th century. He is often referred to as "the unknown prime minister", not least because of a biography of that title by Robert Blake; the name comes from a remark by Asquith at Bonar Law's funeral, that they were burying the Unknown Prime Minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Sir Steven Runciman is reported to have said that he had known all British prime ministers in his lifetime, except Bonar Law, "whom nobody knew".A tiny hamlet (unincorporated village) in the municipality of Stirling-Rawdon, Ontario, Canada, is named Bonarlaw after the British prime minister. It had been known as "Big Springs" and then "Bellview". The Bonar Law Memorial High School in Bonar Law's birthplace, Rexton, New Brunswick, Canada, is also named in his honour.
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[
"Chancellor of the Exchequer",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Leader of the Opposition",
"Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Bonar Law hold in 23/03/1919?
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March 23, 1919
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{
"text": [
"Leader of the House of Commons",
"Leader of the Conservative Party",
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Lord Privy Seal"
]
}
|
L2_Q166663_P39_3
|
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the House of Commons from Dec, 1916 to Mar, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Lord Privy Seal from Jan, 1919 to Apr, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Bonar Law holds the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer from Dec, 1916 to Jan, 1919.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Conservative Party from Jan, 1911 to Jan, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Opposition from Nov, 1911 to May, 1915.
Bonar Law holds the position of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1922 to May, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1918 to Oct, 1922.
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Bonar LawAndrew Bonar Law (; 16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from October 1922 to May 1923.Law was born in the British colony of New Brunswick (now a Canadian province), the first British prime minister to be born outside the British Isles. He was of Scottish and Ulster Scots descent and moved to Scotland in 1870. He left school aged sixteen to work in the iron industry, becoming a wealthy man by the age of thirty. He entered the House of Commons at the 1900 general election, relatively late in life for a front-rank politician; he was made a junior minister, Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade, in 1902. Law joined the Shadow Cabinet in opposition after the 1906 general election. In 1911, he was appointed a Privy Councillor, before standing for the vacant party leadership. Despite never having served in the Cabinet and despite trailing third after Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain, Law became leader when the two front-runners withdrew rather than risk a draw splitting the party.As Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition, Law focused his attentions in favour of tariff reform and against Irish Home Rule. His campaigning helped turn Liberal attempts to pass the Third Home Rule Bill into a three-year struggle eventually halted by the start of the First World War, with much argument over the status of the six counties in Ulster which would later become Northern Ireland, four of which were predominantly Protestant.Law first held Cabinet office as Secretary of State for the Colonies in H. H. Asquith's Coalition Government (May 1915 – December 1916). Upon Asquith's fall from power he declined to form a government, instead serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer in David Lloyd George's Coalition Government. He resigned on grounds of ill health in early-1921. In October 1922, with Lloyd George's Coalition having become unpopular with the Conservatives, he wrote a letter to the press giving only lukewarm support to the Government's actions over Chanak. After Conservative MPs voted to end the Coalition, he again became party leader and, this time, prime minister. Bonar Law won a clear majority at the 1922 general election, and his brief premiership saw negotiation with the United States over Britain's war loans. Seriously ill with throat cancer, Law resigned in May 1923, and died later that year. He was the third shortest-serving prime minister of the United Kingdom (211 days in office), and is sometimes called "The Unknown Prime Minister".He was born on 16 September 1858 in Kingston (now Rexton), New Brunswick, to Eliza Kidston Law and the Reverend James Law, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland with Scottish and Irish (mainly Ulster Scots) ancestry. At the time of his birth, New Brunswick was still a separate colony, as the Canadian confederation did not occur until 1867.His mother originally wanted to name him after Robert Murray M'Cheyne, a preacher she greatly admired, but as his older brother was already called Robert, he was instead named after Andrew Bonar, a biographer of M'Cheyne. Throughout his life he was always called Bonar (rhyming with honour) by his family and close friends, never Andrew. He originally signed his name as A.B. Law, changing to A. Bonar Law in his thirties, and he was referred to as Bonar Law by the public as well.James Law was the minister for several isolated townships, and had to travel between them by horse, boat and on foot. To supplement the family income, he bought a small farm on the Richibucto River, which Bonar helped tend along with his brothers Robert, William and John, and his sister Mary. Studying at the local village school, Law did well at his studies, and it is here that he was first noted for his excellent memory. After Eliza Law died in 1861, her sister Janet travelled to New Brunswick from her home in Scotland to look after the Law children. When James Law remarried in 1870, his new wife took over Janet's duties, and Janet decided to return home to Scotland. She suggested that Bonar Law should go with her, as the Kidston family were wealthier and better connected than the Laws, and Bonar would have a more privileged upbringing. Both James and Bonar accepted this, and Bonar left with Janet, never to return to Kingston.Law went to live at Janet's house in Helensburgh, near Glasgow. Her brothers Charles, Richard and William were partners in the family merchant bank Kidston & Sons, and as only one of them had married (and produced no heir) it was generally accepted that Law would inherit the firm, or at least play a role in its management when he was older. Immediately upon arriving from Kingston, Law began attending Gilbertfield House School, a preparatory school in Hamilton. In 1873, aged fourteen, he transferred to the High School of Glasgow, where with his good memory he showed a talent for languages, excelling in Greek, German and French. During this period, he first began to play chess – he would carry a board on the train between Helensburgh and Glasgow, challenging other commuters to matches. He eventually became a very good amateur player, and competed with internationally renowned chess masters. Despite his good academic record, it became obvious at Glasgow that he was better suited to business than to university, and when he was sixteen, Law left school to become a clerk at Kidston & Sons.At Kidston & Sons, Law received a nominal salary, on the understanding that he would gain a "commercial education" from working there that would serve him well as a businessman. In 1885 the Kidston brothers decided to retire, and agreed to merge the firm with the Clydesdale Bank.The merger would have left Law without a job and with poor career-prospects, but the retiring brothers found him a job with William Jacks, an iron merchant who had started pursuing a parliamentary career. The Kidston brothers lent Law the money to buy a partnership in Jacks' firm, and with Jacks himself no longer playing an active part in the company, Law effectively became the managing partner. Working long hours (and insisting that his employees did likewise), Law turned the firm into one of the most profitable iron merchants in the Glaswegian and Scottish markets.During this period Law became a "self-improver"; despite his lack of formal university education he sought to test his intellect, attending lectures given at Glasgow University and joining the Glasgow Parliamentary Debating Association, which adhered as closely as possible to the layout of the real Parliament of the United Kingdom and undoubtedly helped Law hone the skills that served him so well in the political arena.By the time he was thirty Law had established himself as a successful businessman, and had time to devote to more leisurely pursuits. He remained an avid chess player, whom Andrew Harley called "a strong player, touching first-class amateur level, which he had attained by practice at the Glasgow Club in earlier days". Law also worked with the Parliamentary Debating Association and took up golf, tennis and walking. In 1888 he moved out of the Kidston household and set up his own home at Seabank, with his sister Mary (who had earlier come over from Canada) acting as the housekeeper.In 1890, Law met Annie Pitcairn Robley, the 24-year-old daughter of a Glaswegian merchant, Harrington Robley. They quickly fell in love, and married on 24 March 1891. Little is known of Law's wife, as most of her letters have been lost. It is known that she was much liked in both Glasgow and London, and that her death in 1909 hit Law hard; despite his relatively young age and prosperous career, he never remarried. The couple had six children: James Kidston (1893–1917), Isabel Harrington (1895–1969), Charles John (1897–1917), Harrington (1899–1958), Richard Kidston (1901–1980), and Catherine Edith (1905–1992).The second son, Charlie, who was a lieutenant in the King's Own Scottish Borderers, was killed at the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917. The eldest son, James, who was a captain in the Royal Fusiliers, was shot down and killed on 21 September 1917, and the deaths made Law even more melancholy and depressed than before. The youngest son, Richard, later served as a Conservative MP and minister. Isabel married Sir Frederick Sykes (in the early years of World War I she had been engaged for a time to the Australian war correspondent Keith Murdoch) and Catherine married, firstly, Kent Colwell and, much later, in 1961, The 1st Baron Archibald.In 1897, Law was asked to become the Conservative Party candidate for the parliamentary seat of Glasgow Bridgeton. Soon after he was offered another seat, this one in Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown, which he took instead of Glasgow Bridgeton. Blackfriars was not a seat with high prospects attached; a working-class area, it had returned Liberal Party MPs since it was created in 1884, and the incumbent, Andrew Provand, was highly popular. Although the election was not due until 1902, the events of the Second Boer War forced the Conservative government to call a general election in 1900, later known as the khaki election. The campaign was unpleasant for both sides, with anti- and pro-war campaigners fighting vociferously, but Law distinguished himself with his oratory and wit. When the results came in on 4 October, Law was returned to Parliament with a majority of 1,000, overturning Provand's majority of 381. He immediately ended his active work at Jacks and Company (although he retained his directorship) and moved to London.Law initially became frustrated with the slow speed of Parliament compared to the rapid pace of the Glasgow iron market, and Austen Chamberlain recalled him saying to Chamberlain that "it was very well for men who, like myself had been able to enter the House of Commons young to adapt to a Parliamentary career, but if he had known what the House of Commons was he would never had entered at this stage". He soon learnt to be patient, however, and on 18 February 1901 made his maiden speech. Replying to anti-Boer War MPs including David Lloyd George, Law used his excellent memory to quote sections of Hansard back to the opposition which contained their previous speeches supporting and commending the policies they now denounced. Although lasting only fifteen minutes and not a crowd- or press-pleaser like the maiden speeches of F.E. Smith or Winston Churchill, it attracted the attention of the Conservative Party leaders.Law's chance to make his mark came with the issue of tariff reform. To cover the costs of the Second Boer War, Lord Salisbury's Chancellor of the Exchequer (Michael Hicks Beach) suggested introducing import taxes or tariffs on foreign metal, flour and grain coming into Britain. Such tariffs had previously existed in Britain, but the last of these had been abolished in the 1870s because of the free trade movement. A duty was now introduced on imported corn. The issue became "explosive", dividing the British political world, and continued even after Salisbury retired and was replaced as prime minister by his nephew, Arthur Balfour.Law took advantage of this, making his first major speech on 22 April 1902, in which he argued that while he felt a general tariff was unnecessary, an imperial customs union (which would put tariffs on items from outside the British Empire, instead of on every nation but Britain) was a good idea, particularly since other nations such as (Germany) and the United States had increasingly high tariffs. Using his business experience, he made a "plausible case" that there was no proof that tariffs led to increases in the cost of living, as the Liberals had argued. Again his memory came into good use – when William Harcourt accused Law of misquoting him, Law was able to precisely give the place in Hansard where Harcourt's speech was to be found.As a result of Law's proven experience in business matters and his skill as an economic spokesman for the government, Balfour offered him the position of Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade when he formed his government, which Law accepted, and he was formally appointed on 11 August 1902.As Parliamentary Secretary his job was to assist the President of the Board of Trade, Gerald Balfour. At the time the tariff reform controversy was brewing, led by the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, an ardent tariff reformer who "declared war" on free trade, and who persuaded the Cabinet that the Empire should be exempted from the new corn duty. After returning from a speaking tour of South Africa in 1903, Chamberlain found that the new Chancellor of the Exchequer (C.T. Ritchie) had instead abolished Hicks Beach's corn duty altogether in his budget. Angered by this, Chamberlain spoke at the Birmingham Town Hall on 15 May without the government's permission, arguing for an Empire-wide system of tariffs which would protect Imperial economies, forge the British Empire into one political entity and allow them to compete with other world powers.The speech and its ideas split the Conservative Party and its coalition ally the Liberal Unionist Party into two wings – the Free Fooders, who supported free trade, and the Tariff Reformers, who supported Chamberlain's tariff reforms. Law was a dedicated Tariff Reformer, but whereas Chamberlain dreamed of a new golden age for Britain, Law focused on more mundane and practical goals, such as a reduction in unemployment. L.S. Amery said that to Law, the tariff reform programme was "a question of trade figures and not national and Imperial policy of expansion and consolidation of which trade was merely the economic factor". Keith Laybourn attributes Law's interest in tariff reform not only to the sound business practice that it represented but also that because of his place of birth "he was attracted by the Imperial tariff preference arrangements advocated by Joseph Chamberlain". Law's constituents in Blackfriars were not overly enthusiastic about tariff reform – Glasgow was a poor area at the time that had benefited from free trade.In parliament, Law worked exceedingly hard at pushing for tariff reform, regularly speaking in the House of Commons and defeating legendary debaters such as Winston Churchill, Charles Dilke and H. H. Asquith, former home secretary and later prime minister. His speeches at the time were known for their clarity and common sense; Sir Ian Malcolm said that he made "the involved seem intelligible", and L.S. Amery said his arguments were "like the hammering of a skilled riveter, every blow hitting the nail on the head". Despite Law's efforts to forge consensus within the Conservatives, Balfour was unable to hold the two sides of his party together, and resigned as prime minister in December 1905, allowing the Liberals to form a government.The new prime minister, the Liberal Henry Campbell-Bannerman, immediately dissolved Parliament. Despite strong campaigning and a visit by Arthur Balfour, Law lost his seat in the ensuing general election. In total the Conservative Party and Liberal Unionists lost 245 seats, leaving them with only 157 members of parliament, the majority of them tariff reformers. Despite his loss, Law was at this stage such an asset to the Conservatives that an immediate effort was made to get him back into Parliament. The retirement of Frederick Rutherfoord Harris, MP for the safe Conservative seat of Dulwich, offered him a chance. Law was returned to Parliament in the ensuing by-election, increasing the Conservative majority to 1,279.The party was struck a blow in July 1906, when two days after a celebration of his seventieth birthday, Joseph Chamberlain suffered a stroke and was forced to retire from public life. He was succeeded as leader of the tariff reformers by his son Austen Chamberlain, who despite previous experience as Chancellor of the Exchequer and enthusiasm for tariff reform was not as skilled a speaker as Law. As a result, Law joined Balfour's Shadow Cabinet as the principal spokesman for tariff reform. The death of Law's wife on 31 October 1909 led him to work even harder, treating his political career not only as a job but as a coping strategy for his loneliness.Campbell-Bannerman resigned as prime minister in April 1908 and was replaced by H. H. Asquith. In 1909, he and his Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George introduced the People's Budget, which sought through increased direct and indirect taxes to redistribute wealth and fund social reform programmes. By parliamentary convention financial and budget bills are not challenged by the House of Lords, but in this case the predominantly Conservative Lords rejected the bill on 30 April, setting off a constitutional crisis.The Liberals called a general election for January 1910, and Law spent most of the preceding months campaigning up and down the country for other Conservative candidates and MPs, sure that his Dulwich seat was safe. He obtained an increased majority of 2,418. The overall result was more confused: the Conservatives gained 116 seats, bringing their total to 273, but this was still less than the Liberal caucus, and produced a hung parliament, as neither had a majority of the seats (the Irish Parliamentary Party, the Labour Party and the All-for-Ireland League took more than 120 seats in total). The Liberals remained in office with the support of the Irish Parliamentary Party. The Budget passed through the House of Commons a second time, and – as it now had an electoral mandate – was then approved by the House of Lords without a division.However, the crisis over the Budget had highlighted a long-standing constitutional question: should the House of Lords be able to overturn bills passed by the House of Commons? The Liberal government introduced a bill in February 1910 which would prevent the House of Lords vetoing finance bills, and would force them to pass any bill which had been passed by the Commons in three sessions of Parliament.This was immediately opposed by the Unionists, and both parties spent the next several months in a running battle over the bill. The Conservatives were led by Arthur Balfour and Lord Lansdowne, who headed the Conservatives in the House of Lords, while Law spent the time concentrating on the continuing problem of tariff reform. The lack of progress had convinced some senior Conservatives that it would be a good idea to scrap tariff reform altogether. Law disagreed, successfully arguing that tariff reform "was the first constructive work of the [Conservative Party]" and that to scrap it would "split the Party from top to bottom".With this success, Law returned to the constitutional crisis surrounding the House of Lords. The death of Edward VII on 6 May 1910 prompted the leaders of the major political parties to meet secretly in a "Truce of God" to discuss the Lords. The meetings were kept almost entirely secret: apart from the party representatives, the only people aware were F.E. Smith, J.L. Garvin, Edward Carson and Law. The group met about twenty times at Buckingham Palace between June and November 1910, with the Conservatives represented by Arthur Balfour, Lord Cawdor, Lord Lansdowne and Austen Chamberlain. The proposal presented at the conference by David Lloyd George was a coalition government with members of both major parties in the Cabinet and a programme involving Home Rule, Poor Law reforms, imperial reorganisation and possibly tariff reforms. The Home Rule proposal would have made the United Kingdom a federation, with "Home Rule All Round" for Scotland, Ireland, and England & Wales. In the end the plans fell through: Balfour told Lloyd George on 2 November that the proposal would not work, and the conference was dissolved a few days later.With the failure to establish a political consensus after the January 1910 general election, the Liberals called a second general election in December. The Conservative leadership decided that a good test of the popularity of the tariff reform programme would be to have a prominent tariff reformer stand for election in a disputed seat. They considered Law a prime candidate, and after debating it for a month he guardedly agreed, enthusiastic about the idea but worried about the effect of a defeat on the Party. Law was selected as the candidate for Manchester North West, and became drawn into party debates about how strong a tariff reform policy should be put in their manifesto. Law personally felt that duties on foodstuffs should be excluded, something agreed to by Alexander Acland-Hood, Edward Carson and others at a meeting of the Constitutional Club on 8 November 1910, but they failed to reach a consensus and the idea of including or excluding food duties continued to be something that divided the party.During the constitutional talks the Conservatives had demanded that, if the Lords' veto were removed, Irish Home Rule should only be permitted if approved by a UK-wide referendum. In response Lord Crewe, Liberal Leader in the Lords, had suggested sarcastically that tariff reform – a policy of questionable popularity because of the likelihood of increased prices on imported food – should also be submitted to a referendum. Arthur Balfour now announced to a crowd of 10,000 at the Royal Albert Hall that after the coming election, a Conservative Government would indeed submit tariff reform to a referendum, something he described as "Bonar Law's proposal" or the "Referendum Pledge". The suggestion was no more Law's than it was any of the dozens of Conservatives who had suggested this to Balfour, and his comment was simply an attempt to "pass the buck" and avoid the anger of Austen Chamberlain, who was furious that such an announcement had been made without consulting him or the party. While Law had written a letter to Balfour suggesting that a referendum would attract wealthy Conservatives, he said that "declaration would do no good with [the working class] and might damp enthusiasm of best workers".Parliament was dissolved on 28 November, with the election to take place and polling to end by 19 December. The Conservative and Liberal parties were equal in strength, and with the continued support of the Irish Nationalists the Liberal Party remained in government. Law called his campaign in Manchester North West the hardest of his career; his opponent, George Kemp, was a war hero who had fought in the Second Boer War and a former Conservative who had joined the Liberal party because of his disagreement with tariff reform.In the end Law narrowly lost, with 5,114 votes to Kemp's 5,559, but the election turned him into a "genuine [Conservative] hero", and he later said that the defeat did "more for him in the party than a hundred victories". In 1911, with the Conservative Party unable to afford him being out of Parliament, Law was elected in a by-election for the safe Conservative seat of Bootle. In his brief absence the Liberal suggestions for the reform of the House of Lords were passed as the Parliament Act 1911, ending that particular dispute.On the coronation of George V on 22 June 1911, Law was appointed as a Privy Councillor on the recommendation of the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and Arthur Balfour. This was evidence of his seniority and importance within the Conservative Party. Balfour had become increasingly unpopular as Leader of the Conservative Party since the 1906 general election; tariff reformers saw his leadership as the reason for their electoral losses, and the "free fooders" had been alienated by Balfour's attempts to tame the zeal of the tariff reform faction. Balfour refused all suggestions of party reorganisation until a meeting of senior Conservatives led by Lord Salisbury after the December 1910 electoral defeat issued an ultimatum demanding a review of party structure.The defeat on the House of Lords issue turned a wing of the Conservative Party led by Henry Page Croft and his Reveille Movement, against Balfour. Leo Maxse began a Balfour Must Go campaign in his newspaper, the "National Review", and by July 1911 Balfour was contemplating resignation. Law himself had no problem with Balfour's leadership, and along with Edward Carson attempted to regain support for him. By November 1911 it was accepted that Balfour was likely to resign, with the main competitors for the leadership being Law, Carson, Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain. When the elections began, Long and Chamberlain were the frontrunners; Chamberlain commanded the support of many tariff reformers, and Long that of the Irish Unionists. Carson immediately announced that he would not stand, and Law eventually announced that he would run for Leader, the day before Balfour resigned on 7 November.At the beginning of the election Law held the support of no more than 40 of the 270 members of parliament; the remaining 230 were divided between Long and Chamberlain. Although Long believed he had the most MPs, his support was largely amongst backbenchers, and most of the whips and frontbenchers preferred Chamberlain.With Long and Chamberlain almost neck-and-neck they called a meeting on 9 November to discuss the possibility of a deadlock. Chamberlain suggested that he would withdraw if this became a strong possibility, assuming Long did the same. Long, now concerned that his weak health would not allow him to survive the stress of party leadership, agreed. Both withdrew on 10 November, and on 13 November 232 MPs assembled at the Carlton Club, and Law was nominated as leader by Long and Chamberlain. With the unanimous support of the MPs, Law became Leader of the Conservative Party despite never having sat in Cabinet. Law's biographer, Robert Blake, wrote that he was an unusual choice to lead the Conservatives as a Presbyterian Canadian-Scots businessman had just become the leader of "the Party of Old England, the Party of the Anglican Church and the country squire, the party of broad acres and hereditary titles"As leader, Law first "rejuvenated the party machine", selecting newer, younger and more popular whips and secretaries, elevating F.E. Smith and Lord Robert Cecil to the Shadow Cabinet and using his business acumen to reorganise the party, resulting in better relations with the press and local branches, along with the raising of a £671,000 "war chest" for the next general election: almost double that available at the previous one.On 12 February 1912, he finally unified the two Unionist parties (Conservatives and Liberal Unionists) into the awkwardly named National Unionist Association of Conservative and Liberal-Unionist Organisations. From then on all were referred to as "Unionists" until the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922, after which they became Conservatives again (though the name "Unionist" continued in use in Scotland and Northern Ireland).In Parliament, Law introduced the so-called "new style" of speaking, with harsh, accusatory rhetoric, which dominates British politics to this day. This was as a counter to Arthur Balfour, known for his "masterly witticisms", because the party felt they needed a warrior-like figure. Law did not particularly enjoy his tougher manner, and at the State Opening of Parliament in February 1912 apologised directly to Asquith for his coming speech, saying, "I am afraid I shall have to show myself very vicious, Mr Asquith, this session. I hope you will understand." Law's "warrior king" figure helped unify the divided Conservatives into a single body, with him as the leader.During his early time as Conservative leader, the party's social policy was the most complicated and difficult to agree. In his opening speech as leader he said that the party would be one of principle, and would not be reactionary, instead sticking to their guns and holding firm policies. Despite this he left women's suffrage alone, leaving the party unwhipped and saying that "the less part we take in this question the better". In terms of social reform (legislation to improve the conditions of the poor and working classes) Law was similarly unenthusiastic, believing that the area was a Liberal one, in which they could not successfully compete. His response to a request by Lord Balcarres for a social programme was simply "As the [Liberal Party] refuse to formulate their policy in advance we should be equally absolved". His refusal to get drawn in may have actually strengthened his hold over Conservative MPs, many of whom were similarly uninterested in social reform.In his first public speech as leader at the Royal Albert Hall on 26 January 1912 he listed his three biggest concerns: an attack on the Liberal government for failing to submit Home Rule to a referendum; tariff reform; and the Conservative refusal to let the Ulster Unionists be "trampled upon" by an unfair Home Rule bill. Both tariff reform and Ulster dominated his political work, with Austen Chamberlain saying that Law "once said to me that he cared intensely for only two things: Tariff Reform and Ulster; all the rest was only part of the game".After further review with members of his party, Law changed his initial beliefs on tariff reform and accepted the full package, including duties on foodstuffs. On 29 February 1912 the entire Conservative parliamentary body (i.e. both MPs and peers) met at Lansdowne House, with Lord Lansdowne chairing. Lansdowne argued that although the electorate might prefer the Conservative Party if they dropped food duties from their tariff reform plan, it would open them to accusations of bad faith and "poltroonery". Law endorsed Lansdowne's argument, pointing out that any attempt to avoid food duties would cause an internal party struggle and could only aid the Liberals, and that Canada, the most economically important colony and a major exporter of foodstuffs, would never agree to tariffs without British support of food duties.Lord Salisbury, who opposed food duties, wrote to Law several weeks later suggesting they separate foodstuffs from tariff reform for the referendum. If the electorate liked food duties, they would vote for the entire package; if not, they did not have to. Law replied arguing that it would be impossible to do so effectively, and that with the increasing costs of defence and social programmes it would be impossible to raise the necessary capital except by comprehensive tariff reform. He argued that a failure to offer the entire tariff reform package would split the Conservative Party down the middle, offending the tariff reform faction, and that if such a split took place "I could not possibly continue as leader".Law postponed withdrawing the tariff reform "Referendum Pledge" because of the visit of Robert Borden, the newly elected Conservative prime minister of Canada, to London planned for July 1912. Meeting with Borden on his arrival, Law got him to agree to make a statement about the necessity of Imperial tariff reform, promising reciprocal agreements and saying that failure by London to agree tariff reform would result in an "irresistible pressure" for Canada to make a treaty with another nation, most obviously the United States.Law decided that the November party conference was the perfect time to announce the withdrawal of the Referendum Pledge, and that Lord Lansdowne should do it, because he had been leader in the House of Lords when the pledge was made and because of his relatively low profile during the original tariff reform dispute. When the conference opened the British political world was febrile; on 12 November the opposition had narrowly defeated the government on an amendment to the Home Rule Bill, and the next evening, amidst hysterical shouting from the opposition, Asquith attempted to introduce a motion reversing the previous vote. As the MPs filed out at the end of the day Winston Churchill began taunting the opposition, and in his anger Ronald McNeil hurled a copy of "Standing Orders of the House" at Churchill, hitting him on the head. Law refused to condemn the events, and it seems apparent that while he had played no part in organising them they "had" been planned by the party Whips. As party leader, he was most likely aware of the plans even if he did not actively participate.The conference was opened on 14 November 1912 by Lord Farquhar, who immediately introduced Lord Lansdowne. Lansdowne revoked the Referendum Pledge, saying that as the government had failed to submit Home Rule to a referendum, the offer that tariff reform would also be submitted was null and void. Lansdowne promised that when the Unionists took office they would "do so with a free hand to deal with tariffs as they saw fit". Law then rose to speak, and in line with his agreement to let Lansdowne speak for tariff reform mentioned it only briefly when he said "I concur in every word which has fallen from Lord Lansdowne". He instead promised a reversal of several Liberal policies when the Unionists came to power, including the disestablishment of the Welsh Church, land taxes and Irish Home Rule. The crowd "cheered themselves hoarse" at Law's speech.However, the reaction from the party outside the conference hall was not a positive one. Law had not consulted the local constituency branches about his plan, and several important constituency leaders led by Archibald Salvidge and Lord Derby planned for a meeting of the Lancashire party, the centre of discontent, on 21 December. Law was preoccupied with the problem of Irish Home Rule and was unable to give the discontent his full attention. He continued to believe that his approach to the problem of tariff reform was the correct one, and wrote to John Strachey on 16 November saying that "it was a case of a choice of two evils, and all that one could do was to take the lesser of the two, and that I am sure we have done". Speaking to Edward Carson, F.E. Smith, Austen Chamberlain and Lord Balcarres in December after two weeks of receiving negative letters from party members about the change, Law outlined that he would not be averse to a return to the previous policy considering the negative feelings from the party, but felt that this would require the resignation of both himself and Lansdowne.Law again wrote to Strachey saying that he continued to feel this policy was the correct one, and only regretted that the issue was splitting the party at a time when unity was needed to fight the Home Rule problem. At the meeting of the Lancashire party the group under Derby condemned Law's actions and called for a three-week party recess before deciding what to do about the repeal of the Referendum Pledge. This was an obvious ultimatum to Law, giving him a three-week period to change his mind. Law believed that Derby was "unprincipled and treacherous", particularly since he then circulated a questionnaire among Lancashire party members with leading questions such as "do you think the abandonment of the referendum will do harm?" Law met the Lancashire party on 2 January 1913 and ordered that they must replace any food tariff based resolutions with a vote of confidence in him as a leader, and that any alternative would result in his resignation.After a chance meeting at which Edward Carson learnt of Law and Lansdowne's acceptance of possible resignation, he was spurred to ask Edward Goulding to beg Law and Lansdowne to compromise over the policy and remain as leaders. The compromise, known as the January Memorial, was agreed by Carson, James Craig, Law and Lansdowne at Law's house between 6–8 January 1913, affirming the support of the signatories for Law and his policies, and noting that his resignation was not wanted.Within two days 231 of the 280 Conservative MPs had signed it; 27 frontbenchers had not been invited, neither had five who were not in London, seven who were ill, the Speaker and a few others who could not be found – only eight MPs actively refused to sign. Law's official response took the form of an open letter published on 13 January 1913, in which Law offered a compromise that food duties would not be placed before Parliament to vote on until after a second, approving election took place.The January and December elections in 1910 destroyed the large Liberal majority, meaning they relied on the Irish Nationalists to maintain a government. As a result, they were forced to consider Home Rule, and with the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 which replaced the Lords' veto with a two-year power of delay on most issues, the Conservative Party became aware that unless they could dissolve Parliament or sabotage the Home Rule Bill, introduced in 1912, it would most likely become law by 1914.As the child of an Ulster family who had spent much time in the area (his father had moved back there several years after Law moved to Scotland), Law believed the gap between Ulster Unionism and Irish Nationalism could never be crossed. Despite this he said little about Home Rule until the passing of the Parliament Act in 1911, calling it the "Home Rule in Disguise Act" and saying it was an attempt to change parliamentary procedures so as to allow Home Rule "through the back door".After the act's passage, he made a speech in the Commons saying if the Liberals wished to pass a Home Rule Bill they should submit it to the electorate by calling a general election. His elevation to the leadership of the Conservative Party allowed him a platform to voice his opinion to the public, and his speeches (culminating with the January 1912 speech at the Royal Albert Hall) were centred on Home Rule as much as they were around tariff reform. In contrast to Balfour's "milk and water" opposition to Home Rule, Law presented a "fire and blood" opposition to Home Rule that at times seemed to suggest that he was willing to contemplate a civil war to stop Home Rule. Law stated he would not stop "from any action...we think necessary to defeat one of the most ignoble conspiracies...ever formed against the liberties of free-born men." As the Conservative Party was badly divided by the tariff issue, Law had decided to make opposition for Home Rule his signature issue as the best way of unifying the Conservative Party. Right form the start, Law presented his anti-Home Rule stance more in terms of protecting Protestant majority Ulster from being ruled by a Parliament in Dublin that would be dominated by Catholics than in terms of preserving the Union, much to the chagrin of many Unionists.Law was supported by Edward Carson, leader of the Ulster Unionists. Although Law sympathised with the Ulster Unionists politically he did not agree with the religious intolerance shown to Catholics. The passions unleashed by the Home Rule debate frequently threatened to get out of hand. In January 1912, when Winston Churchill planned to deliver a speech in favour of Home Rule in at the Ulster Hall in Belfast, the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) threatened to use violence if necessary to stop Churchill from speaking. The legal scholar A. V. Dicey, himself an opponent of Home Rule, wrote in a letter to Law that the threats of violence were "the worst mistake" that undermined "the whole moral strength" of the Unionist movement. But as Carson admitted in a letter to Law, the situation in Belfast was beyond his control as many UUC members were also members of the Loyal Orange Order, and the prospect of Churchill's visit to Belfast had angered so many of his followers that he felt he had to threaten violence as the best possible way of stopping the planned speech instead of leaving it to his followers who might otherwise riot. As it was, Churchill agreed to cancel his speech in response to warnings that the police would not be able to guarantee his security. Besides for his concerns about the violence, Dicey was also worried about the way in which Law was more interested about stopping Home Rule from being imposed on Ulster, instead of all of Ireland, which seemed to imply he was willing to accept the partition of Ireland. Many Irish Unionists outside of Ulster felt abandoned by Law, who seemed to care only about Ulster.The 1912 session of Parliament opened on 14 February with a stated intent by the Liberal Party in the King's Speech to introduce a new Home Rule Bill. The bill was to be introduced on 11 April, and four days before that Law travelled to Ulster for a tour of the area. The pinnacle of this was a meeting on 9 April in the grounds of the Royal Agricultural Society near Balmoral (an area of Belfast), attended by seventy Unionist MPs, the Primate of All Ireland and topped by "perhaps the largest Union Jack ever made" – 48 feet by 25 feet on a flagpole 90 feet high.At the meeting both Law and Carson swore to the crowd that "never under any circumstances will we submit to Home Rule". However, the Parliament Act and the government majority made such a victory against the Bill unlikely unless the government could be brought down or Parliament dissolved. A second problem was that not all Unionists opposed Home Rule to the same degree; some hardcore Unionists would oppose any attempt at Home Rule, others thought it inevitable that the Bill would pass and were simply trying to get the best deal possible for Ulster. The spectre of civil war was also raised – the Ulstermen began to form paramilitary groups such as the Ulster Volunteers, and there was a strong possibility that if it came to fighting the British Army would have to be sent in to support the underfunded and understaffed Royal Irish Constabulary.The argument of Law and the Unionists between 1912 and 1914 was based on three complaints. Firstly, Ulster would never accept forced Home Rule, and made up a quarter of Ireland; if the Liberals wanted to force this issue, military force would be the only way. Law thundered that "Do you plan to hurl the full majesty and power of the law, supported on the bayonets of the British Army, against a million Ulstermen marching under the Union Flag and singing 'God Save The King'? Would the Army hold? Would the British people – would the Crown – stand for such a slaughter?". A second complaint was that the government had so far refused to submit it to a general election, as Law had been suggesting since 1910. Law warned that "you will not carry this Bill without submitting it to the people of this country, and, if you make the attempt, you will succeed only in breaking our Parliamentary machine". The third complaint was that the Liberals had still not honoured the preamble of the Parliament Act 1911, which promised "to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of a hereditary basis". The Unionist argument was that the Liberals were trying to make a massive constitutional change while the constitution was suspended. In May 1912, Law was told by the Conservative whip Lord Balcarres that outside of Ireland "the electors are apathetic" about Home Rule, suggesting that he should de-emphasis the topic.In July 1912 Asquith travelled to Dublin (the first sitting prime minister to do so in over a century) to make a speech, ridiculing Unionist demands for a referendum on the issue via an election and calling their campaign "purely destructive in its objects, anarchic and chaotic in its methods". In response the Unionists had a meeting on 27 July at Blenheim Palace, the birthplace of Winston Churchill, one of Asquith's ministers. More than 13,000 people attended, including over 40 peers. In Law's speech he said "I said so to [the Liberals] and I say so now, with the full sense of the responsibility which attaches to my position, that if the attempt be made under present conditions, I can imagine no length of resistance to which Ulster will go, in which I shall not be ready to support them, and in which they will not be supported by the overwhelming majority of the British people". Law added that if Asquith continued with the Home Rule bill, the government would be "lighting the fires of civil war". This speech was more known and criticised than any others; it implied both he and the British people would support the Ulstermen in anything, including armed rebellion.Despite the conflict and fierce resistance, the Bill continued its passage through Parliament. It moved to its second reading on 9 June, and the Committee stage on 11 June, where it became fraught in controversy after a young Liberal named Thomas Agar-Robartes proposed an amendment excluding four of the Ulster counties (Londonderry, Down, Antrim & Armagh) from the Irish Parliament. This put Law in a delicate situation, since he had previously said that he would support a system allowing each county to remain "outside the Irish Parliament", at the same time saying that he would not support any amendment that didn't have Ulster's full co-operation. If he accepted the amendment, he would be seen as abandoning the Irish Unionists, but on the other hand if the amendment was carried it might disrupt the government by causing a split between the Liberals and Irish Nationalists, bringing down the government and thus forcing an election.If Unionists wished to win the ensuing election they would have to show they were willing to compromise. In the end the amendment failed, but with the Liberal majority reduced by 40, and when a compromise amendment was proposed by another Liberal MP the government Whips were forced to trawl for votes. Law saw this as a victory, as it highlighted the split in the government. Edward Carson tabled another amendment on 1 January 1913 which would exclude all nine Ulster counties, more to test government resolve than anything else. While it failed, it allowed the Unionists to portray themselves as the party of compromise and the Liberals as stubborn and recalcitrant.The Unionists in Ulster were committed to independence from any Irish Home Rule. They secretly authorised a Commission of Five to write a constitution for "a provisional Government of Ulster... to come into operation on the day of the passage of any Home Rule Bill, to remain in force until Ulster shall again resume unimpaired citizenship in the United Kingdom".On 28 September 1912, Carson led 237,638 of his followers in signing a Solemn League and Covenant saying that Ulster would refuse to recognise the authority of any Parliament of Ireland arising from Home Rule. The "Ulster Covenant" as the Solemn League and Covenant was popularly called recalled the National Covenant signed by the Scots in 1638 to resist King Charles I who was viewed by Scots Presbyterians as a crypto-Catholic, and was widely seen as a sectarian document that promoted a "Protestant crusade". The Conservative MP Alfred Cripps wrote in a letter to Law that English Catholics like himself were opposed to Home Rule, but he was troubled by the way that Law seemed to be using the issue as "an occasion to attack their religion." In his reply of 7 October 1912, Law wrote he was opposed to religious bigotry and claimed that as far he could tell that no "responsible" Unionist leader in Ireland had attacked the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the Conservative MP Lord Hugh Cecil had in the summer of 1912 given anti-Home Rule speeches in Ireland where he shouted "To Hell with the Pope!", and was not censured by Law. When Parliament resumed in October after the summer recess, the Home Rule Bill was passed by the Commons. As expected, the House of Lords rejected it 326 to 69, and under the provisions of the Parliament Act it could only be passed if it was passed twice more by the Commons in successive Parliaments. In December 1912, the chairmen of the Conservative Party, Arthur Steel-Maitland, wrote to Law that the Home Rule issue did not command much attention in England, and asked that he move away from the topic which he asserted was damaging the image of the Conservatives.The end of 1912 saw the end of a year of political struggle for Law. As well as the problem of Home Rule, there were internal party struggles; supporters of the Church of England or military reform lambasted Law for not paying attention to their causes, and tariff reformers argued with him over his previous compromise on food duties. Despite this, most Conservatives realised that as a fighting leader, Law could not be bettered. The results of by-elections throughout 1913 continued to favour them, but progress on the Home Rule Bill was less encouraging; on 7 July it was again passed by the Commons, and again rejected by the Lords on 15 July. In response, the UUC created a paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), to fight against the British government if necessary to stop Home Rule. The Conservative peer, Lord Hythe, wrote to Law to suggest the Conservatives needed to present a constructive alternative to Home Rule and he had the "duty to tell these Ulstermen" that there was no need for the UVF. Another Tory peer, Lord Sailsbury, wrote to Law that as much as he was opposed to Home Rule that: "I cannot support political lawlessness and I shall either disenfranchise myself or vote Liberal...rather than encourage armed resistance in Ulster." Lord Balcarres wrote to Law that much of the Conservative caucus were "deeply confused and uncertain" and the "policies of reckless defiance" were unpopular with the party membership in England. Balcarres wrote he was "...much alarmed lest some sporadicoutbreak by Orangemen should...alienate English sympathies." Lord Lansdowne advised Law to be "extremely careful in our relations with Carson and his friends" and find a way of stopping F. E. Smith’s "habit of expressing rather violent sentiments in the guise of messages from the Unionist party." Balfour wrote to Law that he had "much misgiving upon the general loosening of the ordinary ties of social obligation...I do most strongly feel that nothing can be more demoralising to a society than that some of its...most loyal members should deliberately organise themselves for the purpose of offering...armed resistance to persons...representing lawful authority."During the debate on the Home Rule bill, Carson submitted an amendment that would exclude the 9 counties of Ulster from the jurisdiction of the proposed Parliament that would govern from Dublin, which was defeated by the Liberal MPs. However, Carson's amendment which would lead to the partition of Ireland caused much alarm with Irish Unionists outside of Ulster and led many to write letters from Law seeking assurances that he would not abandon them for the sake of saving Ulster from Home Rule. Carson told Law that he favoured a compromise under which Home Rule would be granted to southern Ireland, but not Ulster, and at the same time some sort of home rule be granted to Wales and Scotland as well. Law himself in a letter to a friend stated that the British public was "so sick of the whole Irish question" that the majority would probably agree to a compromise of a Home Rule for Ireland sans Ulster.Parliament rose for the summer recess on 15 August, and Law and the Unionists spent the summer trying to convince the King to voice an opinion on the issue. Their first suggestion was that he should withhold the Royal Assent on it, something that horrified Law's constitutional law adviser A.V. Dicey. The second was more reasonable – they argued that the Liberals had put the King in an impossible position by asking him to ratify a bill that would infuriate half of the population. His only option was to write a memo to Asquith saying this and requesting that the problem of home rule be put to the electorate via a general election. After thinking on this, the King agreed, and handed a note to Asquith on 11 August requesting either an election or an all-party conference.Asquith responded with two notes, the first countering the Unionist claim that it would be acceptable for the King to dismiss Parliament or withhold assent of the Bill to force an election, and the second arguing that a Home Rule election would not prove anything, since a Unionist victory would only be due to other problems and scandals and would not assure supporters of the current government that Home Rule was truly opposed.King George pressed for a compromise, summoning various political leaders to Balmoral Castle individually for talks. Law arrived on 13 September and again pointed out to the king his belief that if the Government continued to refuse an election fought over Home Rule and instead forced it on Ulster, the Ulstermen would not accept it and any attempts to enforce it would not be obeyed by the British Army.By early October the King was pressuring the British political world for an all-party conference. Fending this off, Law instead met with senior party members to discuss developments. Law, Balfour, Smith and Long discussed the matter, all except Long favouring a compromise with the Liberals. Long represented the anti-Home Rule elements in Southern Ireland, and from this moment onwards Southern and Northern attitudes towards Home Rule began to diverge. Law then met with Edward Carson, and afterwards expressed the opinion that "the men of Ulster do desire a settlement on the basis of leaving Ulster out, and Carson thinks such an arrangement could be carried out without any serious attack from the Unionists in the South".On 8 October Asquith wrote to Law suggesting an informal meeting of the two party leaders, which Law accepted. The two met at Cherkley Court, the home of Law's ally Sir Max Aitken MP (later Lord Beaverbrook), on 14 October. The meeting lasted an hour, and Law told Asquith that he would continue to try to have Parliament dissolved, and that in any ensuing election the Unionists would accept the result even if it went against them. Law later expressed his fear to Lansdowne that Asquith would persuade the Irish Nationalists to accept Home Rule with the exclusion of four Ulster counties with Protestant/unionist majorities. Carson would not accept this, requiring six of nine ulster counties to be excluded (i.e., four with unionist majorities plus two majority nationalist, leaving the three Ulster counties with large nationalist majorities, leading to an overall unionist majority in the six); such a move might split the Unionists. Law knew that Asquith was unlikely to consent to a general election, since he would almost certainly lose it, and that any attempt to pass the Home Rule Bill "without reference to the electorate" would lead to civil disturbance. As such, Asquith was stuck "between a rock and a hard place" and was sure to negotiate.Asquith and Law met for a second private meeting on 6 November, at which Asquith raised three possibilities. The first, suggested by Sir Edward Grey, consisted of "Home Rule within Home Rule" – Home Rule covering Ulster, but with partial autonomy for Ulster. The second was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for a number of years before becoming part of it, and the third was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for as long as it liked, with the opportunity of joining when it wished. Law made it clear to Asquith that the first two options were unacceptable, but the third might be accepted in some circles.The leaders then discussed the geographical definition of the area to be excluded from Home Rule; Ulster formally consists of nine counties, of which only four had a clear unionist majority, three a clear nationalist majority and two a small nationalist majority – however, overall a practical problem was that the nine counties of Ulster were majority nationalist. Carson always referred to nine counties of Ulster, but Law told Asquith that if an appropriate settlement could be made with a smaller number, Carson "would see his people and probably, though I could not give any promise to that effect, try to induce them to accept it".The third meeting was on 10 December and Law, raging because Asquith had not yet presented a concrete way to exclude Ulster, made little progress. Law brushed aside Asquith's suggestions and insisted that only the exclusion of Ulster was worth considering. He later wrote that "My feeling, however, is that Asquith has no hope whatsoever of making such an arrangement and that his present idea is simply to let things drift in the meantime.. I do not understand why he took the trouble of seeing me at all. The only explanation I can give is that I think he is in a funk about the whole position and thought that meeting me might keep the thing open at least".With the failure of these talks, Law accepted that a compromise was unlikely, and from January 1914 he returned to the position that the Unionists were "opposed utterly to Home Rule". The campaign was sufficient to bring the noted organiser Lord Milner back into politics to support the Unionists, and he immediately asked L.S. Amery to write a British Covenant saying that the signers would, if the Home Rule Bill passed, "feel justified in taking or supporting any action that may be effective to prevent it being put into operation, and more particularly to prevent the armed forces of the Crown being used to deprive the people of Ulster of their rights as citizens of the United Kingdom". The Covenant was announced at a massive rally in Hyde Park on 4 April 1914, with hundreds of thousands assembling to hear Milner, Long and Carson speak. By the middle of the summer Long claimed more than 2,000,000 people had signed the Covenant.Law's critics, including George Dangerfield, condemned his actions in assuring the Ulster Unionists of Conservative Party support in their armed resistance to Home Rule, as unconstitutional, verging on promoting a civil war. Law's supporters argued that he was acting constitutionally by forcing the Liberal government into calling the election it had been avoiding, to obtain a mandate for their reforms.Law was not directly involved in the British Covenant campaign as he was focusing on a practical way to defeat the Home Rule Bill. His first attempt was via the Army (Annual) Act, something that "violated a basic and ancient principle of the constitution". Every year since the Glorious Revolution, the Act had fixed the maximum number of soldiers in the British Army; rejecting it would technically make the British Army an illegal institution.Lord Selborne had written to Law in 1912 to point out that vetoing or significantly amending the Act in the House of Lords would force the government to resign, and such a course of action was also suggested by others in 1913–14. Law believed that subjecting Ulstermen to a Dublin-based government they did not recognise was itself constitutionally damaging, and that amending the Army (Annual) Act to prevent the use of force in Ulster (he never suggested vetoing it) would not violate the constitution any more than the actions the government had already undertaken.By 12 March he had established that, should the Home Rule Bill be passed under the Parliament Act 1911, the Army (Annual) Act should be amended in the Lords to stipulate that the Army could not "be used in Ulster to prevent or interfere with any step which may thereafter be taken in Ulster to organise resistance to the enforcement of the Home Rule Act in Ulster nor to suppress any such resistance until and unless the present Parliament has been dissolved and a period of three months shall have lapsed after the meeting of a new Parliament". The Shadow Cabinet consulted legal experts, who agreed wholeheartedly with Law's suggestion. Although several members expressed dissent, the Shadow Cabinet decided "provisionally to agree to amendment of army act. but to leave details and decisions as to the moment of acting to Lansdowne and Law". In the end no amendment to the Army Act was offered, though; many backbenchers and party loyalists became agitated by the scheme and wrote to him that it was unacceptable – Ian Malcolm, a fanatical Ulster supporter, told Law that amending the Army Act would drive him out of the Party.On 30 July 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Law met with Asquith and agreed to temporarily suspend the issue of Home Rule to avoid domestic discontent during wartime. By the following day both leaders had convinced their parties to agree to this move. On 3 August, Law promised openly in Commons that his Conservative Party would give "unhesitating support' to the government's war policy. On 4 August, Germany rejected British demands for a withdrawal from Belgium, and Britain declared war.Over the coming months, the Liberal, Labour and Conservative whips worked out a truce suspending confrontational politics until either 1 January 1915 or until the end of the War. On 4 August both Asquith and Law made speeches together at the Middlesex Guildhall, and uncomfortably socialised with each other's parties. On 6 August, the Conservatives learnt that Asquith planned to put the Home Rule Bill on the statute books; Law wrote an angry letter to Asquith, the response of which was that Asquith could either pass the bill immediately, suspending it for the duration of the conflict, or make it law with a six-month delay and with a three-year exclusion for Ulster. Law responded with a speech in the Commons, saying that "the Government have treated us abominably... but we are in the middle of a great struggle. Until that struggle [is] over, so far as we are concerned, in everything connected with it there would be no parties, there would openly be a nation. In regard to this debate I have made protest as well as I could, but when I have finished we shall take no further part in the discussion". The entire Party then left the Commons silently, and although a strong protest (Asquith later admitted that "it was unique in my or I think anybody's experience") the bill was still passed, although with a suspension for the duration of the War.The Conservatives soon began to get annoyed that they were unable to criticise the Government, and took this into Parliament; rather than criticising policy, they would attack individual ministers, including the Lord Chancellor (who they considered "far too enamoured of German culture") and the Home Secretary, who was "too tender to aliens". By Christmas 1914 they were anxious about the war; it was not, in their opinion, going well, and yet they were restricted to serving on committees and making recruitment speeches. At about the same time, Law and David Lloyd George met to discuss the possibility of a coalition government. Law was supportive of the idea in some ways, seeing it as a probability that "a coalition government would come in time".The crisis which forced a coalition was twofold; first the Shell Crisis of 1915, and then the resignation of Lord Fisher, the First Sea Lord. The Shell Crisis was a shortage of artillery shells on the Western Front. It indicated a failure to fully organise British industry. Asquith tried to ward off the criticism the day before the debate, praising his government's efforts and saying that "I do not believe that any army has ever either entered upon a campaign or been maintained during a campaign with better or more adequate equipment". The Conservatives, whose sources of information included officers such as Sir John French, were not put off, and instead became furious.Over the next few days the Conservative backbenchers threatened to break the truce and mount an attack on the government over the munitions situation. Law forced them to back down on 12 May, but on the 14th an article appeared in "The Times" blaming the British failure at the Battle of Aubers Ridge on the lack of munitions. This again stirred up the backbenchers, who were only just kept in line. The Shadow Cabinet took a similar line; things could not go on as they were. The crisis was only halted with the resignation of Lord Fisher. Fisher had opposed Winston Churchill over the Gallipoli Campaign, and felt that he could not continue in government if the two would be in conflict. Law knew that this would push the Conservative back bench over the edge, and met with David Lloyd George on 17 May to discuss Fisher's resignation. Lloyd George decided that "the only way to preserve a united front was to arrange for more complete cooperation between parties in the direction of the War". Lloyd George reported the meeting to Asquith, who agreed that a coalition was inescapable. He and Law agreed to form a coalition government.Law's next job, therefore, was to assist the Liberal Party in creating a new government. In their discussions on 17 May, both Law and Lloyd George had agreed that Lord Kitchener should not remain in the War Office, and removing him became top priority. Unfortunately the press began a campaign supporting Kitchener on 21 May, and the popular feeling that this raised convinced Law, Lloyd George and Asquith that Kitchener could not be removed. To keep him and at the same time remove the munitions supply from his grasp to prevent a repeat of the "shells crisis" the Ministry of Munitions was created, with Lloyd George becoming Minister of Munitions.Law eventually accepted the post of Colonial Secretary, an unimportant post in wartime; Asquith had made it clear that he would not allow a Conservative minister to head the Exchequer, and that with Kitchener (whom he considered a Conservative) in the War Office, he would not allow another Conservative to hold a similarly important position. Fearing for the integrity of the coalition, Law accepted this position. Outside of Law's position, other Conservatives also gained positions in the new administration; Arthur Balfour became First Lord of the Admiralty, Austen Chamberlain became Secretary of State for India and Edward Carson became Attorney General.During Law's time as Colonial Secretary, the three main issues were the question of manpower for the British Army, the crisis in Ireland and the Dardanelles Campaign. Dardanelles took priority, as seen by Asquith's restructuring of his War Council into a Dardanelles Committee. Members included Kitchener, Law, Churchill, Lloyd George and Lansdowne, with the make-up divided between political parties to defuse tension and provide criticism of policy. The main discussion was on the possibility of reinforcing the forces already landed, something Law disagreed with. With Asquith and the Army in support, however, he felt that he was ill-equipped to combat the proposal. Five more divisions were landed, but faced heavy casualties for little gain. As a result, Law led a strong resistance to the idea at the next Committee meeting on 18 August. The idea only avoided being scrapped thanks to the French promise to send forces in early September, and the arguing became an immense strain on the government.Law entered the coalition government as Colonial Secretary in May 1915, his first Cabinet post, and, following the resignation of Prime Minister and Liberal Party Leader Asquith in December 1916, was invited by King George V to form a government, but he deferred to Lloyd George, Secretary of State for War and former Minister of Munitions, who he believed was better placed to lead a coalition ministry. He served in Lloyd George's War Cabinet, first as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.While chancellor, he raised the stamp duty on cheques from one penny to twopence in 1918. His promotion reflected the great mutual trust between the two leaders and made for a well co-ordinated political partnership; their coalition was re-elected by a landslide following the Armistice. Law's two eldest sons were both killed whilst fighting in the war. In the 1918 General Election, Law returned to Glasgow and was elected as member for Glasgow Central.At war's end, Law gave up the Exchequer for the less demanding sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal, but remained Leader of the Commons. In 1921, ill health forced his resignation as Conservative leader and Leader of the Commons in favour of Austen Chamberlain. His departure weakened the hardliners in the cabinet who were opposed to negotiating with the Irish Republican Army, and the Anglo-Irish War ended in the summer.By 1921–22 the coalition had become embroiled in an air of moral and financial corruption (e.g. the sale of honours). Besides the recent Irish Treaty and Edwin Montagu's moves towards greater self-government for India, both of which dismayed rank-and-file Conservative opinion, the government's willingness to intervene against the Bolshevik regime in Russia also seemed out of step with the new and more pacifist mood. A sharp slump in 1921 and a wave of strikes in the coal and railway industries also added to the government's unpopularity, as did the apparent failure of the Genoa Conference, which ended in an apparent rapprochement between Germany and Soviet Russia. In other words, it was no longer the case that Lloyd George was an electoral asset to the Conservative Party.Lloyd George, Birkenhead and Winston Churchill (still distrusted by many Conservatives) wished to use armed force against Turkey (the Chanak Crisis), but had to back down when offered support only by New Zealand and Newfoundland, and not Canada, Australia or South Africa; Law wrote to "The Times" supporting the government but stating that Britain could not "act as the policeman for the world".At a meeting at the Carlton Club, Conservative backbenchers, led by the President of the Board of Trade Stanley Baldwin and influenced by the recent Newport by-election which was won from the Liberals by a Conservative, voted to end the Lloyd George Coalition and fight the next election as an independent party. Austen Chamberlain resigned as Party Leader, Lloyd George resigned as prime minister and Law took both jobs on 23 October 1922.Many leading Conservatives (e.g. Birkenhead, Arthur Balfour, Austen Chamberlain, Robert Horne) were not members of the new Cabinet, which Birkenhead contemptuously referred to as "the Second Eleven". Although the Coalition Conservatives numbered no more than thirty, they hoped to dominate any future Coalition government in the same way that the similarly sized Peelite group had dominated the Coalition Government of 1852–1855 – an analogy much used at the time.Parliament was immediately dissolved, and a General Election ensued. Besides the two Conservative factions, the Labour Party were fighting as a major national party for the first time and indeed became the main Opposition after the election; the Liberals were still split into Asquith and Lloyd George factions, with many Lloyd George Liberals still unopposed by Conservative candidates (including Churchill, who was defeated at Dundee nonetheless). Despite the confused political arena the Conservatives were re-elected with a comfortable majority.Questions were raised about whether the elderly Conservative Party Treasurer, Lord Farquhar, had passed on to Lloyd George (who during his premiership had amassed a large fund, largely from the sale of honours) any money intended for the Conservative Party. The Coalition Conservatives also hoped to obtain Conservative Party money from Farquhar. Bonar Law found Farquhar too "gaga" to properly explain what had happened, and dismissed him.One of the questions which taxed Law's brief government was that of inter-Allied war debts. Britain owed money to the US, and in turn was owed four times as much money by France, Italy and the other Allied powers, although under the Lloyd George government Balfour had promised that Britain would collect no more money from other Allies than she was required to repay the USA; the debt was hard to repay as trade (exports were needed to earn foreign currency) had not returned to prewar levels.On a trip to the USA Stanley Baldwin, the inexperienced Chancellor of the Exchequer, agreed to repay £40 million per annum to the USA rather than the £25 million which the British government had thought feasible, and on his return announced the deal to the press when his ship docked at Southampton, before the Cabinet had had a chance to consider it. Law contemplated resignation, and after being talked out of it by senior ministers vented his feelings in an anonymous letter to "The Times".Law was soon diagnosed with terminal throat cancer and, no longer physically able to speak in Parliament, resigned on 20 May 1923. George V sent for Baldwin, whom Law is rumoured to have favoured over Lord Curzon. However Law did not offer any advice to the King. Law died later that same year in London at the age of 65. His funeral was held at Westminster Abbey where later his ashes were interred. His estate was probated at £35,736 (approximately £ as of 2021).Bonar Law was the shortest-serving prime minister of the 20th century. He is often referred to as "the unknown prime minister", not least because of a biography of that title by Robert Blake; the name comes from a remark by Asquith at Bonar Law's funeral, that they were burying the Unknown Prime Minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Sir Steven Runciman is reported to have said that he had known all British prime ministers in his lifetime, except Bonar Law, "whom nobody knew".A tiny hamlet (unincorporated village) in the municipality of Stirling-Rawdon, Ontario, Canada, is named Bonarlaw after the British prime minister. It had been known as "Big Springs" and then "Bellview". The Bonar Law Memorial High School in Bonar Law's birthplace, Rexton, New Brunswick, Canada, is also named in his honour.
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[
"Chancellor of the Exchequer",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Leader of the Opposition",
"Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
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Which position did Bonar Law hold in Mar 23, 1919?
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March 23, 1919
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{
"text": [
"Leader of the House of Commons",
"Leader of the Conservative Party",
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Lord Privy Seal"
]
}
|
L2_Q166663_P39_3
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Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the House of Commons from Dec, 1916 to Mar, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Lord Privy Seal from Jan, 1919 to Apr, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Bonar Law holds the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer from Dec, 1916 to Jan, 1919.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Conservative Party from Jan, 1911 to Jan, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Opposition from Nov, 1911 to May, 1915.
Bonar Law holds the position of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1922 to May, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1918 to Oct, 1922.
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Bonar LawAndrew Bonar Law (; 16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from October 1922 to May 1923.Law was born in the British colony of New Brunswick (now a Canadian province), the first British prime minister to be born outside the British Isles. He was of Scottish and Ulster Scots descent and moved to Scotland in 1870. He left school aged sixteen to work in the iron industry, becoming a wealthy man by the age of thirty. He entered the House of Commons at the 1900 general election, relatively late in life for a front-rank politician; he was made a junior minister, Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade, in 1902. Law joined the Shadow Cabinet in opposition after the 1906 general election. In 1911, he was appointed a Privy Councillor, before standing for the vacant party leadership. Despite never having served in the Cabinet and despite trailing third after Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain, Law became leader when the two front-runners withdrew rather than risk a draw splitting the party.As Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition, Law focused his attentions in favour of tariff reform and against Irish Home Rule. His campaigning helped turn Liberal attempts to pass the Third Home Rule Bill into a three-year struggle eventually halted by the start of the First World War, with much argument over the status of the six counties in Ulster which would later become Northern Ireland, four of which were predominantly Protestant.Law first held Cabinet office as Secretary of State for the Colonies in H. H. Asquith's Coalition Government (May 1915 – December 1916). Upon Asquith's fall from power he declined to form a government, instead serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer in David Lloyd George's Coalition Government. He resigned on grounds of ill health in early-1921. In October 1922, with Lloyd George's Coalition having become unpopular with the Conservatives, he wrote a letter to the press giving only lukewarm support to the Government's actions over Chanak. After Conservative MPs voted to end the Coalition, he again became party leader and, this time, prime minister. Bonar Law won a clear majority at the 1922 general election, and his brief premiership saw negotiation with the United States over Britain's war loans. Seriously ill with throat cancer, Law resigned in May 1923, and died later that year. He was the third shortest-serving prime minister of the United Kingdom (211 days in office), and is sometimes called "The Unknown Prime Minister".He was born on 16 September 1858 in Kingston (now Rexton), New Brunswick, to Eliza Kidston Law and the Reverend James Law, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland with Scottish and Irish (mainly Ulster Scots) ancestry. At the time of his birth, New Brunswick was still a separate colony, as the Canadian confederation did not occur until 1867.His mother originally wanted to name him after Robert Murray M'Cheyne, a preacher she greatly admired, but as his older brother was already called Robert, he was instead named after Andrew Bonar, a biographer of M'Cheyne. Throughout his life he was always called Bonar (rhyming with honour) by his family and close friends, never Andrew. He originally signed his name as A.B. Law, changing to A. Bonar Law in his thirties, and he was referred to as Bonar Law by the public as well.James Law was the minister for several isolated townships, and had to travel between them by horse, boat and on foot. To supplement the family income, he bought a small farm on the Richibucto River, which Bonar helped tend along with his brothers Robert, William and John, and his sister Mary. Studying at the local village school, Law did well at his studies, and it is here that he was first noted for his excellent memory. After Eliza Law died in 1861, her sister Janet travelled to New Brunswick from her home in Scotland to look after the Law children. When James Law remarried in 1870, his new wife took over Janet's duties, and Janet decided to return home to Scotland. She suggested that Bonar Law should go with her, as the Kidston family were wealthier and better connected than the Laws, and Bonar would have a more privileged upbringing. Both James and Bonar accepted this, and Bonar left with Janet, never to return to Kingston.Law went to live at Janet's house in Helensburgh, near Glasgow. Her brothers Charles, Richard and William were partners in the family merchant bank Kidston & Sons, and as only one of them had married (and produced no heir) it was generally accepted that Law would inherit the firm, or at least play a role in its management when he was older. Immediately upon arriving from Kingston, Law began attending Gilbertfield House School, a preparatory school in Hamilton. In 1873, aged fourteen, he transferred to the High School of Glasgow, where with his good memory he showed a talent for languages, excelling in Greek, German and French. During this period, he first began to play chess – he would carry a board on the train between Helensburgh and Glasgow, challenging other commuters to matches. He eventually became a very good amateur player, and competed with internationally renowned chess masters. Despite his good academic record, it became obvious at Glasgow that he was better suited to business than to university, and when he was sixteen, Law left school to become a clerk at Kidston & Sons.At Kidston & Sons, Law received a nominal salary, on the understanding that he would gain a "commercial education" from working there that would serve him well as a businessman. In 1885 the Kidston brothers decided to retire, and agreed to merge the firm with the Clydesdale Bank.The merger would have left Law without a job and with poor career-prospects, but the retiring brothers found him a job with William Jacks, an iron merchant who had started pursuing a parliamentary career. The Kidston brothers lent Law the money to buy a partnership in Jacks' firm, and with Jacks himself no longer playing an active part in the company, Law effectively became the managing partner. Working long hours (and insisting that his employees did likewise), Law turned the firm into one of the most profitable iron merchants in the Glaswegian and Scottish markets.During this period Law became a "self-improver"; despite his lack of formal university education he sought to test his intellect, attending lectures given at Glasgow University and joining the Glasgow Parliamentary Debating Association, which adhered as closely as possible to the layout of the real Parliament of the United Kingdom and undoubtedly helped Law hone the skills that served him so well in the political arena.By the time he was thirty Law had established himself as a successful businessman, and had time to devote to more leisurely pursuits. He remained an avid chess player, whom Andrew Harley called "a strong player, touching first-class amateur level, which he had attained by practice at the Glasgow Club in earlier days". Law also worked with the Parliamentary Debating Association and took up golf, tennis and walking. In 1888 he moved out of the Kidston household and set up his own home at Seabank, with his sister Mary (who had earlier come over from Canada) acting as the housekeeper.In 1890, Law met Annie Pitcairn Robley, the 24-year-old daughter of a Glaswegian merchant, Harrington Robley. They quickly fell in love, and married on 24 March 1891. Little is known of Law's wife, as most of her letters have been lost. It is known that she was much liked in both Glasgow and London, and that her death in 1909 hit Law hard; despite his relatively young age and prosperous career, he never remarried. The couple had six children: James Kidston (1893–1917), Isabel Harrington (1895–1969), Charles John (1897–1917), Harrington (1899–1958), Richard Kidston (1901–1980), and Catherine Edith (1905–1992).The second son, Charlie, who was a lieutenant in the King's Own Scottish Borderers, was killed at the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917. The eldest son, James, who was a captain in the Royal Fusiliers, was shot down and killed on 21 September 1917, and the deaths made Law even more melancholy and depressed than before. The youngest son, Richard, later served as a Conservative MP and minister. Isabel married Sir Frederick Sykes (in the early years of World War I she had been engaged for a time to the Australian war correspondent Keith Murdoch) and Catherine married, firstly, Kent Colwell and, much later, in 1961, The 1st Baron Archibald.In 1897, Law was asked to become the Conservative Party candidate for the parliamentary seat of Glasgow Bridgeton. Soon after he was offered another seat, this one in Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown, which he took instead of Glasgow Bridgeton. Blackfriars was not a seat with high prospects attached; a working-class area, it had returned Liberal Party MPs since it was created in 1884, and the incumbent, Andrew Provand, was highly popular. Although the election was not due until 1902, the events of the Second Boer War forced the Conservative government to call a general election in 1900, later known as the khaki election. The campaign was unpleasant for both sides, with anti- and pro-war campaigners fighting vociferously, but Law distinguished himself with his oratory and wit. When the results came in on 4 October, Law was returned to Parliament with a majority of 1,000, overturning Provand's majority of 381. He immediately ended his active work at Jacks and Company (although he retained his directorship) and moved to London.Law initially became frustrated with the slow speed of Parliament compared to the rapid pace of the Glasgow iron market, and Austen Chamberlain recalled him saying to Chamberlain that "it was very well for men who, like myself had been able to enter the House of Commons young to adapt to a Parliamentary career, but if he had known what the House of Commons was he would never had entered at this stage". He soon learnt to be patient, however, and on 18 February 1901 made his maiden speech. Replying to anti-Boer War MPs including David Lloyd George, Law used his excellent memory to quote sections of Hansard back to the opposition which contained their previous speeches supporting and commending the policies they now denounced. Although lasting only fifteen minutes and not a crowd- or press-pleaser like the maiden speeches of F.E. Smith or Winston Churchill, it attracted the attention of the Conservative Party leaders.Law's chance to make his mark came with the issue of tariff reform. To cover the costs of the Second Boer War, Lord Salisbury's Chancellor of the Exchequer (Michael Hicks Beach) suggested introducing import taxes or tariffs on foreign metal, flour and grain coming into Britain. Such tariffs had previously existed in Britain, but the last of these had been abolished in the 1870s because of the free trade movement. A duty was now introduced on imported corn. The issue became "explosive", dividing the British political world, and continued even after Salisbury retired and was replaced as prime minister by his nephew, Arthur Balfour.Law took advantage of this, making his first major speech on 22 April 1902, in which he argued that while he felt a general tariff was unnecessary, an imperial customs union (which would put tariffs on items from outside the British Empire, instead of on every nation but Britain) was a good idea, particularly since other nations such as (Germany) and the United States had increasingly high tariffs. Using his business experience, he made a "plausible case" that there was no proof that tariffs led to increases in the cost of living, as the Liberals had argued. Again his memory came into good use – when William Harcourt accused Law of misquoting him, Law was able to precisely give the place in Hansard where Harcourt's speech was to be found.As a result of Law's proven experience in business matters and his skill as an economic spokesman for the government, Balfour offered him the position of Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade when he formed his government, which Law accepted, and he was formally appointed on 11 August 1902.As Parliamentary Secretary his job was to assist the President of the Board of Trade, Gerald Balfour. At the time the tariff reform controversy was brewing, led by the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, an ardent tariff reformer who "declared war" on free trade, and who persuaded the Cabinet that the Empire should be exempted from the new corn duty. After returning from a speaking tour of South Africa in 1903, Chamberlain found that the new Chancellor of the Exchequer (C.T. Ritchie) had instead abolished Hicks Beach's corn duty altogether in his budget. Angered by this, Chamberlain spoke at the Birmingham Town Hall on 15 May without the government's permission, arguing for an Empire-wide system of tariffs which would protect Imperial economies, forge the British Empire into one political entity and allow them to compete with other world powers.The speech and its ideas split the Conservative Party and its coalition ally the Liberal Unionist Party into two wings – the Free Fooders, who supported free trade, and the Tariff Reformers, who supported Chamberlain's tariff reforms. Law was a dedicated Tariff Reformer, but whereas Chamberlain dreamed of a new golden age for Britain, Law focused on more mundane and practical goals, such as a reduction in unemployment. L.S. Amery said that to Law, the tariff reform programme was "a question of trade figures and not national and Imperial policy of expansion and consolidation of which trade was merely the economic factor". Keith Laybourn attributes Law's interest in tariff reform not only to the sound business practice that it represented but also that because of his place of birth "he was attracted by the Imperial tariff preference arrangements advocated by Joseph Chamberlain". Law's constituents in Blackfriars were not overly enthusiastic about tariff reform – Glasgow was a poor area at the time that had benefited from free trade.In parliament, Law worked exceedingly hard at pushing for tariff reform, regularly speaking in the House of Commons and defeating legendary debaters such as Winston Churchill, Charles Dilke and H. H. Asquith, former home secretary and later prime minister. His speeches at the time were known for their clarity and common sense; Sir Ian Malcolm said that he made "the involved seem intelligible", and L.S. Amery said his arguments were "like the hammering of a skilled riveter, every blow hitting the nail on the head". Despite Law's efforts to forge consensus within the Conservatives, Balfour was unable to hold the two sides of his party together, and resigned as prime minister in December 1905, allowing the Liberals to form a government.The new prime minister, the Liberal Henry Campbell-Bannerman, immediately dissolved Parliament. Despite strong campaigning and a visit by Arthur Balfour, Law lost his seat in the ensuing general election. In total the Conservative Party and Liberal Unionists lost 245 seats, leaving them with only 157 members of parliament, the majority of them tariff reformers. Despite his loss, Law was at this stage such an asset to the Conservatives that an immediate effort was made to get him back into Parliament. The retirement of Frederick Rutherfoord Harris, MP for the safe Conservative seat of Dulwich, offered him a chance. Law was returned to Parliament in the ensuing by-election, increasing the Conservative majority to 1,279.The party was struck a blow in July 1906, when two days after a celebration of his seventieth birthday, Joseph Chamberlain suffered a stroke and was forced to retire from public life. He was succeeded as leader of the tariff reformers by his son Austen Chamberlain, who despite previous experience as Chancellor of the Exchequer and enthusiasm for tariff reform was not as skilled a speaker as Law. As a result, Law joined Balfour's Shadow Cabinet as the principal spokesman for tariff reform. The death of Law's wife on 31 October 1909 led him to work even harder, treating his political career not only as a job but as a coping strategy for his loneliness.Campbell-Bannerman resigned as prime minister in April 1908 and was replaced by H. H. Asquith. In 1909, he and his Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George introduced the People's Budget, which sought through increased direct and indirect taxes to redistribute wealth and fund social reform programmes. By parliamentary convention financial and budget bills are not challenged by the House of Lords, but in this case the predominantly Conservative Lords rejected the bill on 30 April, setting off a constitutional crisis.The Liberals called a general election for January 1910, and Law spent most of the preceding months campaigning up and down the country for other Conservative candidates and MPs, sure that his Dulwich seat was safe. He obtained an increased majority of 2,418. The overall result was more confused: the Conservatives gained 116 seats, bringing their total to 273, but this was still less than the Liberal caucus, and produced a hung parliament, as neither had a majority of the seats (the Irish Parliamentary Party, the Labour Party and the All-for-Ireland League took more than 120 seats in total). The Liberals remained in office with the support of the Irish Parliamentary Party. The Budget passed through the House of Commons a second time, and – as it now had an electoral mandate – was then approved by the House of Lords without a division.However, the crisis over the Budget had highlighted a long-standing constitutional question: should the House of Lords be able to overturn bills passed by the House of Commons? The Liberal government introduced a bill in February 1910 which would prevent the House of Lords vetoing finance bills, and would force them to pass any bill which had been passed by the Commons in three sessions of Parliament.This was immediately opposed by the Unionists, and both parties spent the next several months in a running battle over the bill. The Conservatives were led by Arthur Balfour and Lord Lansdowne, who headed the Conservatives in the House of Lords, while Law spent the time concentrating on the continuing problem of tariff reform. The lack of progress had convinced some senior Conservatives that it would be a good idea to scrap tariff reform altogether. Law disagreed, successfully arguing that tariff reform "was the first constructive work of the [Conservative Party]" and that to scrap it would "split the Party from top to bottom".With this success, Law returned to the constitutional crisis surrounding the House of Lords. The death of Edward VII on 6 May 1910 prompted the leaders of the major political parties to meet secretly in a "Truce of God" to discuss the Lords. The meetings were kept almost entirely secret: apart from the party representatives, the only people aware were F.E. Smith, J.L. Garvin, Edward Carson and Law. The group met about twenty times at Buckingham Palace between June and November 1910, with the Conservatives represented by Arthur Balfour, Lord Cawdor, Lord Lansdowne and Austen Chamberlain. The proposal presented at the conference by David Lloyd George was a coalition government with members of both major parties in the Cabinet and a programme involving Home Rule, Poor Law reforms, imperial reorganisation and possibly tariff reforms. The Home Rule proposal would have made the United Kingdom a federation, with "Home Rule All Round" for Scotland, Ireland, and England & Wales. In the end the plans fell through: Balfour told Lloyd George on 2 November that the proposal would not work, and the conference was dissolved a few days later.With the failure to establish a political consensus after the January 1910 general election, the Liberals called a second general election in December. The Conservative leadership decided that a good test of the popularity of the tariff reform programme would be to have a prominent tariff reformer stand for election in a disputed seat. They considered Law a prime candidate, and after debating it for a month he guardedly agreed, enthusiastic about the idea but worried about the effect of a defeat on the Party. Law was selected as the candidate for Manchester North West, and became drawn into party debates about how strong a tariff reform policy should be put in their manifesto. Law personally felt that duties on foodstuffs should be excluded, something agreed to by Alexander Acland-Hood, Edward Carson and others at a meeting of the Constitutional Club on 8 November 1910, but they failed to reach a consensus and the idea of including or excluding food duties continued to be something that divided the party.During the constitutional talks the Conservatives had demanded that, if the Lords' veto were removed, Irish Home Rule should only be permitted if approved by a UK-wide referendum. In response Lord Crewe, Liberal Leader in the Lords, had suggested sarcastically that tariff reform – a policy of questionable popularity because of the likelihood of increased prices on imported food – should also be submitted to a referendum. Arthur Balfour now announced to a crowd of 10,000 at the Royal Albert Hall that after the coming election, a Conservative Government would indeed submit tariff reform to a referendum, something he described as "Bonar Law's proposal" or the "Referendum Pledge". The suggestion was no more Law's than it was any of the dozens of Conservatives who had suggested this to Balfour, and his comment was simply an attempt to "pass the buck" and avoid the anger of Austen Chamberlain, who was furious that such an announcement had been made without consulting him or the party. While Law had written a letter to Balfour suggesting that a referendum would attract wealthy Conservatives, he said that "declaration would do no good with [the working class] and might damp enthusiasm of best workers".Parliament was dissolved on 28 November, with the election to take place and polling to end by 19 December. The Conservative and Liberal parties were equal in strength, and with the continued support of the Irish Nationalists the Liberal Party remained in government. Law called his campaign in Manchester North West the hardest of his career; his opponent, George Kemp, was a war hero who had fought in the Second Boer War and a former Conservative who had joined the Liberal party because of his disagreement with tariff reform.In the end Law narrowly lost, with 5,114 votes to Kemp's 5,559, but the election turned him into a "genuine [Conservative] hero", and he later said that the defeat did "more for him in the party than a hundred victories". In 1911, with the Conservative Party unable to afford him being out of Parliament, Law was elected in a by-election for the safe Conservative seat of Bootle. In his brief absence the Liberal suggestions for the reform of the House of Lords were passed as the Parliament Act 1911, ending that particular dispute.On the coronation of George V on 22 June 1911, Law was appointed as a Privy Councillor on the recommendation of the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and Arthur Balfour. This was evidence of his seniority and importance within the Conservative Party. Balfour had become increasingly unpopular as Leader of the Conservative Party since the 1906 general election; tariff reformers saw his leadership as the reason for their electoral losses, and the "free fooders" had been alienated by Balfour's attempts to tame the zeal of the tariff reform faction. Balfour refused all suggestions of party reorganisation until a meeting of senior Conservatives led by Lord Salisbury after the December 1910 electoral defeat issued an ultimatum demanding a review of party structure.The defeat on the House of Lords issue turned a wing of the Conservative Party led by Henry Page Croft and his Reveille Movement, against Balfour. Leo Maxse began a Balfour Must Go campaign in his newspaper, the "National Review", and by July 1911 Balfour was contemplating resignation. Law himself had no problem with Balfour's leadership, and along with Edward Carson attempted to regain support for him. By November 1911 it was accepted that Balfour was likely to resign, with the main competitors for the leadership being Law, Carson, Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain. When the elections began, Long and Chamberlain were the frontrunners; Chamberlain commanded the support of many tariff reformers, and Long that of the Irish Unionists. Carson immediately announced that he would not stand, and Law eventually announced that he would run for Leader, the day before Balfour resigned on 7 November.At the beginning of the election Law held the support of no more than 40 of the 270 members of parliament; the remaining 230 were divided between Long and Chamberlain. Although Long believed he had the most MPs, his support was largely amongst backbenchers, and most of the whips and frontbenchers preferred Chamberlain.With Long and Chamberlain almost neck-and-neck they called a meeting on 9 November to discuss the possibility of a deadlock. Chamberlain suggested that he would withdraw if this became a strong possibility, assuming Long did the same. Long, now concerned that his weak health would not allow him to survive the stress of party leadership, agreed. Both withdrew on 10 November, and on 13 November 232 MPs assembled at the Carlton Club, and Law was nominated as leader by Long and Chamberlain. With the unanimous support of the MPs, Law became Leader of the Conservative Party despite never having sat in Cabinet. Law's biographer, Robert Blake, wrote that he was an unusual choice to lead the Conservatives as a Presbyterian Canadian-Scots businessman had just become the leader of "the Party of Old England, the Party of the Anglican Church and the country squire, the party of broad acres and hereditary titles"As leader, Law first "rejuvenated the party machine", selecting newer, younger and more popular whips and secretaries, elevating F.E. Smith and Lord Robert Cecil to the Shadow Cabinet and using his business acumen to reorganise the party, resulting in better relations with the press and local branches, along with the raising of a £671,000 "war chest" for the next general election: almost double that available at the previous one.On 12 February 1912, he finally unified the two Unionist parties (Conservatives and Liberal Unionists) into the awkwardly named National Unionist Association of Conservative and Liberal-Unionist Organisations. From then on all were referred to as "Unionists" until the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922, after which they became Conservatives again (though the name "Unionist" continued in use in Scotland and Northern Ireland).In Parliament, Law introduced the so-called "new style" of speaking, with harsh, accusatory rhetoric, which dominates British politics to this day. This was as a counter to Arthur Balfour, known for his "masterly witticisms", because the party felt they needed a warrior-like figure. Law did not particularly enjoy his tougher manner, and at the State Opening of Parliament in February 1912 apologised directly to Asquith for his coming speech, saying, "I am afraid I shall have to show myself very vicious, Mr Asquith, this session. I hope you will understand." Law's "warrior king" figure helped unify the divided Conservatives into a single body, with him as the leader.During his early time as Conservative leader, the party's social policy was the most complicated and difficult to agree. In his opening speech as leader he said that the party would be one of principle, and would not be reactionary, instead sticking to their guns and holding firm policies. Despite this he left women's suffrage alone, leaving the party unwhipped and saying that "the less part we take in this question the better". In terms of social reform (legislation to improve the conditions of the poor and working classes) Law was similarly unenthusiastic, believing that the area was a Liberal one, in which they could not successfully compete. His response to a request by Lord Balcarres for a social programme was simply "As the [Liberal Party] refuse to formulate their policy in advance we should be equally absolved". His refusal to get drawn in may have actually strengthened his hold over Conservative MPs, many of whom were similarly uninterested in social reform.In his first public speech as leader at the Royal Albert Hall on 26 January 1912 he listed his three biggest concerns: an attack on the Liberal government for failing to submit Home Rule to a referendum; tariff reform; and the Conservative refusal to let the Ulster Unionists be "trampled upon" by an unfair Home Rule bill. Both tariff reform and Ulster dominated his political work, with Austen Chamberlain saying that Law "once said to me that he cared intensely for only two things: Tariff Reform and Ulster; all the rest was only part of the game".After further review with members of his party, Law changed his initial beliefs on tariff reform and accepted the full package, including duties on foodstuffs. On 29 February 1912 the entire Conservative parliamentary body (i.e. both MPs and peers) met at Lansdowne House, with Lord Lansdowne chairing. Lansdowne argued that although the electorate might prefer the Conservative Party if they dropped food duties from their tariff reform plan, it would open them to accusations of bad faith and "poltroonery". Law endorsed Lansdowne's argument, pointing out that any attempt to avoid food duties would cause an internal party struggle and could only aid the Liberals, and that Canada, the most economically important colony and a major exporter of foodstuffs, would never agree to tariffs without British support of food duties.Lord Salisbury, who opposed food duties, wrote to Law several weeks later suggesting they separate foodstuffs from tariff reform for the referendum. If the electorate liked food duties, they would vote for the entire package; if not, they did not have to. Law replied arguing that it would be impossible to do so effectively, and that with the increasing costs of defence and social programmes it would be impossible to raise the necessary capital except by comprehensive tariff reform. He argued that a failure to offer the entire tariff reform package would split the Conservative Party down the middle, offending the tariff reform faction, and that if such a split took place "I could not possibly continue as leader".Law postponed withdrawing the tariff reform "Referendum Pledge" because of the visit of Robert Borden, the newly elected Conservative prime minister of Canada, to London planned for July 1912. Meeting with Borden on his arrival, Law got him to agree to make a statement about the necessity of Imperial tariff reform, promising reciprocal agreements and saying that failure by London to agree tariff reform would result in an "irresistible pressure" for Canada to make a treaty with another nation, most obviously the United States.Law decided that the November party conference was the perfect time to announce the withdrawal of the Referendum Pledge, and that Lord Lansdowne should do it, because he had been leader in the House of Lords when the pledge was made and because of his relatively low profile during the original tariff reform dispute. When the conference opened the British political world was febrile; on 12 November the opposition had narrowly defeated the government on an amendment to the Home Rule Bill, and the next evening, amidst hysterical shouting from the opposition, Asquith attempted to introduce a motion reversing the previous vote. As the MPs filed out at the end of the day Winston Churchill began taunting the opposition, and in his anger Ronald McNeil hurled a copy of "Standing Orders of the House" at Churchill, hitting him on the head. Law refused to condemn the events, and it seems apparent that while he had played no part in organising them they "had" been planned by the party Whips. As party leader, he was most likely aware of the plans even if he did not actively participate.The conference was opened on 14 November 1912 by Lord Farquhar, who immediately introduced Lord Lansdowne. Lansdowne revoked the Referendum Pledge, saying that as the government had failed to submit Home Rule to a referendum, the offer that tariff reform would also be submitted was null and void. Lansdowne promised that when the Unionists took office they would "do so with a free hand to deal with tariffs as they saw fit". Law then rose to speak, and in line with his agreement to let Lansdowne speak for tariff reform mentioned it only briefly when he said "I concur in every word which has fallen from Lord Lansdowne". He instead promised a reversal of several Liberal policies when the Unionists came to power, including the disestablishment of the Welsh Church, land taxes and Irish Home Rule. The crowd "cheered themselves hoarse" at Law's speech.However, the reaction from the party outside the conference hall was not a positive one. Law had not consulted the local constituency branches about his plan, and several important constituency leaders led by Archibald Salvidge and Lord Derby planned for a meeting of the Lancashire party, the centre of discontent, on 21 December. Law was preoccupied with the problem of Irish Home Rule and was unable to give the discontent his full attention. He continued to believe that his approach to the problem of tariff reform was the correct one, and wrote to John Strachey on 16 November saying that "it was a case of a choice of two evils, and all that one could do was to take the lesser of the two, and that I am sure we have done". Speaking to Edward Carson, F.E. Smith, Austen Chamberlain and Lord Balcarres in December after two weeks of receiving negative letters from party members about the change, Law outlined that he would not be averse to a return to the previous policy considering the negative feelings from the party, but felt that this would require the resignation of both himself and Lansdowne.Law again wrote to Strachey saying that he continued to feel this policy was the correct one, and only regretted that the issue was splitting the party at a time when unity was needed to fight the Home Rule problem. At the meeting of the Lancashire party the group under Derby condemned Law's actions and called for a three-week party recess before deciding what to do about the repeal of the Referendum Pledge. This was an obvious ultimatum to Law, giving him a three-week period to change his mind. Law believed that Derby was "unprincipled and treacherous", particularly since he then circulated a questionnaire among Lancashire party members with leading questions such as "do you think the abandonment of the referendum will do harm?" Law met the Lancashire party on 2 January 1913 and ordered that they must replace any food tariff based resolutions with a vote of confidence in him as a leader, and that any alternative would result in his resignation.After a chance meeting at which Edward Carson learnt of Law and Lansdowne's acceptance of possible resignation, he was spurred to ask Edward Goulding to beg Law and Lansdowne to compromise over the policy and remain as leaders. The compromise, known as the January Memorial, was agreed by Carson, James Craig, Law and Lansdowne at Law's house between 6–8 January 1913, affirming the support of the signatories for Law and his policies, and noting that his resignation was not wanted.Within two days 231 of the 280 Conservative MPs had signed it; 27 frontbenchers had not been invited, neither had five who were not in London, seven who were ill, the Speaker and a few others who could not be found – only eight MPs actively refused to sign. Law's official response took the form of an open letter published on 13 January 1913, in which Law offered a compromise that food duties would not be placed before Parliament to vote on until after a second, approving election took place.The January and December elections in 1910 destroyed the large Liberal majority, meaning they relied on the Irish Nationalists to maintain a government. As a result, they were forced to consider Home Rule, and with the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 which replaced the Lords' veto with a two-year power of delay on most issues, the Conservative Party became aware that unless they could dissolve Parliament or sabotage the Home Rule Bill, introduced in 1912, it would most likely become law by 1914.As the child of an Ulster family who had spent much time in the area (his father had moved back there several years after Law moved to Scotland), Law believed the gap between Ulster Unionism and Irish Nationalism could never be crossed. Despite this he said little about Home Rule until the passing of the Parliament Act in 1911, calling it the "Home Rule in Disguise Act" and saying it was an attempt to change parliamentary procedures so as to allow Home Rule "through the back door".After the act's passage, he made a speech in the Commons saying if the Liberals wished to pass a Home Rule Bill they should submit it to the electorate by calling a general election. His elevation to the leadership of the Conservative Party allowed him a platform to voice his opinion to the public, and his speeches (culminating with the January 1912 speech at the Royal Albert Hall) were centred on Home Rule as much as they were around tariff reform. In contrast to Balfour's "milk and water" opposition to Home Rule, Law presented a "fire and blood" opposition to Home Rule that at times seemed to suggest that he was willing to contemplate a civil war to stop Home Rule. Law stated he would not stop "from any action...we think necessary to defeat one of the most ignoble conspiracies...ever formed against the liberties of free-born men." As the Conservative Party was badly divided by the tariff issue, Law had decided to make opposition for Home Rule his signature issue as the best way of unifying the Conservative Party. Right form the start, Law presented his anti-Home Rule stance more in terms of protecting Protestant majority Ulster from being ruled by a Parliament in Dublin that would be dominated by Catholics than in terms of preserving the Union, much to the chagrin of many Unionists.Law was supported by Edward Carson, leader of the Ulster Unionists. Although Law sympathised with the Ulster Unionists politically he did not agree with the religious intolerance shown to Catholics. The passions unleashed by the Home Rule debate frequently threatened to get out of hand. In January 1912, when Winston Churchill planned to deliver a speech in favour of Home Rule in at the Ulster Hall in Belfast, the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) threatened to use violence if necessary to stop Churchill from speaking. The legal scholar A. V. Dicey, himself an opponent of Home Rule, wrote in a letter to Law that the threats of violence were "the worst mistake" that undermined "the whole moral strength" of the Unionist movement. But as Carson admitted in a letter to Law, the situation in Belfast was beyond his control as many UUC members were also members of the Loyal Orange Order, and the prospect of Churchill's visit to Belfast had angered so many of his followers that he felt he had to threaten violence as the best possible way of stopping the planned speech instead of leaving it to his followers who might otherwise riot. As it was, Churchill agreed to cancel his speech in response to warnings that the police would not be able to guarantee his security. Besides for his concerns about the violence, Dicey was also worried about the way in which Law was more interested about stopping Home Rule from being imposed on Ulster, instead of all of Ireland, which seemed to imply he was willing to accept the partition of Ireland. Many Irish Unionists outside of Ulster felt abandoned by Law, who seemed to care only about Ulster.The 1912 session of Parliament opened on 14 February with a stated intent by the Liberal Party in the King's Speech to introduce a new Home Rule Bill. The bill was to be introduced on 11 April, and four days before that Law travelled to Ulster for a tour of the area. The pinnacle of this was a meeting on 9 April in the grounds of the Royal Agricultural Society near Balmoral (an area of Belfast), attended by seventy Unionist MPs, the Primate of All Ireland and topped by "perhaps the largest Union Jack ever made" – 48 feet by 25 feet on a flagpole 90 feet high.At the meeting both Law and Carson swore to the crowd that "never under any circumstances will we submit to Home Rule". However, the Parliament Act and the government majority made such a victory against the Bill unlikely unless the government could be brought down or Parliament dissolved. A second problem was that not all Unionists opposed Home Rule to the same degree; some hardcore Unionists would oppose any attempt at Home Rule, others thought it inevitable that the Bill would pass and were simply trying to get the best deal possible for Ulster. The spectre of civil war was also raised – the Ulstermen began to form paramilitary groups such as the Ulster Volunteers, and there was a strong possibility that if it came to fighting the British Army would have to be sent in to support the underfunded and understaffed Royal Irish Constabulary.The argument of Law and the Unionists between 1912 and 1914 was based on three complaints. Firstly, Ulster would never accept forced Home Rule, and made up a quarter of Ireland; if the Liberals wanted to force this issue, military force would be the only way. Law thundered that "Do you plan to hurl the full majesty and power of the law, supported on the bayonets of the British Army, against a million Ulstermen marching under the Union Flag and singing 'God Save The King'? Would the Army hold? Would the British people – would the Crown – stand for such a slaughter?". A second complaint was that the government had so far refused to submit it to a general election, as Law had been suggesting since 1910. Law warned that "you will not carry this Bill without submitting it to the people of this country, and, if you make the attempt, you will succeed only in breaking our Parliamentary machine". The third complaint was that the Liberals had still not honoured the preamble of the Parliament Act 1911, which promised "to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of a hereditary basis". The Unionist argument was that the Liberals were trying to make a massive constitutional change while the constitution was suspended. In May 1912, Law was told by the Conservative whip Lord Balcarres that outside of Ireland "the electors are apathetic" about Home Rule, suggesting that he should de-emphasis the topic.In July 1912 Asquith travelled to Dublin (the first sitting prime minister to do so in over a century) to make a speech, ridiculing Unionist demands for a referendum on the issue via an election and calling their campaign "purely destructive in its objects, anarchic and chaotic in its methods". In response the Unionists had a meeting on 27 July at Blenheim Palace, the birthplace of Winston Churchill, one of Asquith's ministers. More than 13,000 people attended, including over 40 peers. In Law's speech he said "I said so to [the Liberals] and I say so now, with the full sense of the responsibility which attaches to my position, that if the attempt be made under present conditions, I can imagine no length of resistance to which Ulster will go, in which I shall not be ready to support them, and in which they will not be supported by the overwhelming majority of the British people". Law added that if Asquith continued with the Home Rule bill, the government would be "lighting the fires of civil war". This speech was more known and criticised than any others; it implied both he and the British people would support the Ulstermen in anything, including armed rebellion.Despite the conflict and fierce resistance, the Bill continued its passage through Parliament. It moved to its second reading on 9 June, and the Committee stage on 11 June, where it became fraught in controversy after a young Liberal named Thomas Agar-Robartes proposed an amendment excluding four of the Ulster counties (Londonderry, Down, Antrim & Armagh) from the Irish Parliament. This put Law in a delicate situation, since he had previously said that he would support a system allowing each county to remain "outside the Irish Parliament", at the same time saying that he would not support any amendment that didn't have Ulster's full co-operation. If he accepted the amendment, he would be seen as abandoning the Irish Unionists, but on the other hand if the amendment was carried it might disrupt the government by causing a split between the Liberals and Irish Nationalists, bringing down the government and thus forcing an election.If Unionists wished to win the ensuing election they would have to show they were willing to compromise. In the end the amendment failed, but with the Liberal majority reduced by 40, and when a compromise amendment was proposed by another Liberal MP the government Whips were forced to trawl for votes. Law saw this as a victory, as it highlighted the split in the government. Edward Carson tabled another amendment on 1 January 1913 which would exclude all nine Ulster counties, more to test government resolve than anything else. While it failed, it allowed the Unionists to portray themselves as the party of compromise and the Liberals as stubborn and recalcitrant.The Unionists in Ulster were committed to independence from any Irish Home Rule. They secretly authorised a Commission of Five to write a constitution for "a provisional Government of Ulster... to come into operation on the day of the passage of any Home Rule Bill, to remain in force until Ulster shall again resume unimpaired citizenship in the United Kingdom".On 28 September 1912, Carson led 237,638 of his followers in signing a Solemn League and Covenant saying that Ulster would refuse to recognise the authority of any Parliament of Ireland arising from Home Rule. The "Ulster Covenant" as the Solemn League and Covenant was popularly called recalled the National Covenant signed by the Scots in 1638 to resist King Charles I who was viewed by Scots Presbyterians as a crypto-Catholic, and was widely seen as a sectarian document that promoted a "Protestant crusade". The Conservative MP Alfred Cripps wrote in a letter to Law that English Catholics like himself were opposed to Home Rule, but he was troubled by the way that Law seemed to be using the issue as "an occasion to attack their religion." In his reply of 7 October 1912, Law wrote he was opposed to religious bigotry and claimed that as far he could tell that no "responsible" Unionist leader in Ireland had attacked the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the Conservative MP Lord Hugh Cecil had in the summer of 1912 given anti-Home Rule speeches in Ireland where he shouted "To Hell with the Pope!", and was not censured by Law. When Parliament resumed in October after the summer recess, the Home Rule Bill was passed by the Commons. As expected, the House of Lords rejected it 326 to 69, and under the provisions of the Parliament Act it could only be passed if it was passed twice more by the Commons in successive Parliaments. In December 1912, the chairmen of the Conservative Party, Arthur Steel-Maitland, wrote to Law that the Home Rule issue did not command much attention in England, and asked that he move away from the topic which he asserted was damaging the image of the Conservatives.The end of 1912 saw the end of a year of political struggle for Law. As well as the problem of Home Rule, there were internal party struggles; supporters of the Church of England or military reform lambasted Law for not paying attention to their causes, and tariff reformers argued with him over his previous compromise on food duties. Despite this, most Conservatives realised that as a fighting leader, Law could not be bettered. The results of by-elections throughout 1913 continued to favour them, but progress on the Home Rule Bill was less encouraging; on 7 July it was again passed by the Commons, and again rejected by the Lords on 15 July. In response, the UUC created a paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), to fight against the British government if necessary to stop Home Rule. The Conservative peer, Lord Hythe, wrote to Law to suggest the Conservatives needed to present a constructive alternative to Home Rule and he had the "duty to tell these Ulstermen" that there was no need for the UVF. Another Tory peer, Lord Sailsbury, wrote to Law that as much as he was opposed to Home Rule that: "I cannot support political lawlessness and I shall either disenfranchise myself or vote Liberal...rather than encourage armed resistance in Ulster." Lord Balcarres wrote to Law that much of the Conservative caucus were "deeply confused and uncertain" and the "policies of reckless defiance" were unpopular with the party membership in England. Balcarres wrote he was "...much alarmed lest some sporadicoutbreak by Orangemen should...alienate English sympathies." Lord Lansdowne advised Law to be "extremely careful in our relations with Carson and his friends" and find a way of stopping F. E. Smith’s "habit of expressing rather violent sentiments in the guise of messages from the Unionist party." Balfour wrote to Law that he had "much misgiving upon the general loosening of the ordinary ties of social obligation...I do most strongly feel that nothing can be more demoralising to a society than that some of its...most loyal members should deliberately organise themselves for the purpose of offering...armed resistance to persons...representing lawful authority."During the debate on the Home Rule bill, Carson submitted an amendment that would exclude the 9 counties of Ulster from the jurisdiction of the proposed Parliament that would govern from Dublin, which was defeated by the Liberal MPs. However, Carson's amendment which would lead to the partition of Ireland caused much alarm with Irish Unionists outside of Ulster and led many to write letters from Law seeking assurances that he would not abandon them for the sake of saving Ulster from Home Rule. Carson told Law that he favoured a compromise under which Home Rule would be granted to southern Ireland, but not Ulster, and at the same time some sort of home rule be granted to Wales and Scotland as well. Law himself in a letter to a friend stated that the British public was "so sick of the whole Irish question" that the majority would probably agree to a compromise of a Home Rule for Ireland sans Ulster.Parliament rose for the summer recess on 15 August, and Law and the Unionists spent the summer trying to convince the King to voice an opinion on the issue. Their first suggestion was that he should withhold the Royal Assent on it, something that horrified Law's constitutional law adviser A.V. Dicey. The second was more reasonable – they argued that the Liberals had put the King in an impossible position by asking him to ratify a bill that would infuriate half of the population. His only option was to write a memo to Asquith saying this and requesting that the problem of home rule be put to the electorate via a general election. After thinking on this, the King agreed, and handed a note to Asquith on 11 August requesting either an election or an all-party conference.Asquith responded with two notes, the first countering the Unionist claim that it would be acceptable for the King to dismiss Parliament or withhold assent of the Bill to force an election, and the second arguing that a Home Rule election would not prove anything, since a Unionist victory would only be due to other problems and scandals and would not assure supporters of the current government that Home Rule was truly opposed.King George pressed for a compromise, summoning various political leaders to Balmoral Castle individually for talks. Law arrived on 13 September and again pointed out to the king his belief that if the Government continued to refuse an election fought over Home Rule and instead forced it on Ulster, the Ulstermen would not accept it and any attempts to enforce it would not be obeyed by the British Army.By early October the King was pressuring the British political world for an all-party conference. Fending this off, Law instead met with senior party members to discuss developments. Law, Balfour, Smith and Long discussed the matter, all except Long favouring a compromise with the Liberals. Long represented the anti-Home Rule elements in Southern Ireland, and from this moment onwards Southern and Northern attitudes towards Home Rule began to diverge. Law then met with Edward Carson, and afterwards expressed the opinion that "the men of Ulster do desire a settlement on the basis of leaving Ulster out, and Carson thinks such an arrangement could be carried out without any serious attack from the Unionists in the South".On 8 October Asquith wrote to Law suggesting an informal meeting of the two party leaders, which Law accepted. The two met at Cherkley Court, the home of Law's ally Sir Max Aitken MP (later Lord Beaverbrook), on 14 October. The meeting lasted an hour, and Law told Asquith that he would continue to try to have Parliament dissolved, and that in any ensuing election the Unionists would accept the result even if it went against them. Law later expressed his fear to Lansdowne that Asquith would persuade the Irish Nationalists to accept Home Rule with the exclusion of four Ulster counties with Protestant/unionist majorities. Carson would not accept this, requiring six of nine ulster counties to be excluded (i.e., four with unionist majorities plus two majority nationalist, leaving the three Ulster counties with large nationalist majorities, leading to an overall unionist majority in the six); such a move might split the Unionists. Law knew that Asquith was unlikely to consent to a general election, since he would almost certainly lose it, and that any attempt to pass the Home Rule Bill "without reference to the electorate" would lead to civil disturbance. As such, Asquith was stuck "between a rock and a hard place" and was sure to negotiate.Asquith and Law met for a second private meeting on 6 November, at which Asquith raised three possibilities. The first, suggested by Sir Edward Grey, consisted of "Home Rule within Home Rule" – Home Rule covering Ulster, but with partial autonomy for Ulster. The second was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for a number of years before becoming part of it, and the third was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for as long as it liked, with the opportunity of joining when it wished. Law made it clear to Asquith that the first two options were unacceptable, but the third might be accepted in some circles.The leaders then discussed the geographical definition of the area to be excluded from Home Rule; Ulster formally consists of nine counties, of which only four had a clear unionist majority, three a clear nationalist majority and two a small nationalist majority – however, overall a practical problem was that the nine counties of Ulster were majority nationalist. Carson always referred to nine counties of Ulster, but Law told Asquith that if an appropriate settlement could be made with a smaller number, Carson "would see his people and probably, though I could not give any promise to that effect, try to induce them to accept it".The third meeting was on 10 December and Law, raging because Asquith had not yet presented a concrete way to exclude Ulster, made little progress. Law brushed aside Asquith's suggestions and insisted that only the exclusion of Ulster was worth considering. He later wrote that "My feeling, however, is that Asquith has no hope whatsoever of making such an arrangement and that his present idea is simply to let things drift in the meantime.. I do not understand why he took the trouble of seeing me at all. The only explanation I can give is that I think he is in a funk about the whole position and thought that meeting me might keep the thing open at least".With the failure of these talks, Law accepted that a compromise was unlikely, and from January 1914 he returned to the position that the Unionists were "opposed utterly to Home Rule". The campaign was sufficient to bring the noted organiser Lord Milner back into politics to support the Unionists, and he immediately asked L.S. Amery to write a British Covenant saying that the signers would, if the Home Rule Bill passed, "feel justified in taking or supporting any action that may be effective to prevent it being put into operation, and more particularly to prevent the armed forces of the Crown being used to deprive the people of Ulster of their rights as citizens of the United Kingdom". The Covenant was announced at a massive rally in Hyde Park on 4 April 1914, with hundreds of thousands assembling to hear Milner, Long and Carson speak. By the middle of the summer Long claimed more than 2,000,000 people had signed the Covenant.Law's critics, including George Dangerfield, condemned his actions in assuring the Ulster Unionists of Conservative Party support in their armed resistance to Home Rule, as unconstitutional, verging on promoting a civil war. Law's supporters argued that he was acting constitutionally by forcing the Liberal government into calling the election it had been avoiding, to obtain a mandate for their reforms.Law was not directly involved in the British Covenant campaign as he was focusing on a practical way to defeat the Home Rule Bill. His first attempt was via the Army (Annual) Act, something that "violated a basic and ancient principle of the constitution". Every year since the Glorious Revolution, the Act had fixed the maximum number of soldiers in the British Army; rejecting it would technically make the British Army an illegal institution.Lord Selborne had written to Law in 1912 to point out that vetoing or significantly amending the Act in the House of Lords would force the government to resign, and such a course of action was also suggested by others in 1913–14. Law believed that subjecting Ulstermen to a Dublin-based government they did not recognise was itself constitutionally damaging, and that amending the Army (Annual) Act to prevent the use of force in Ulster (he never suggested vetoing it) would not violate the constitution any more than the actions the government had already undertaken.By 12 March he had established that, should the Home Rule Bill be passed under the Parliament Act 1911, the Army (Annual) Act should be amended in the Lords to stipulate that the Army could not "be used in Ulster to prevent or interfere with any step which may thereafter be taken in Ulster to organise resistance to the enforcement of the Home Rule Act in Ulster nor to suppress any such resistance until and unless the present Parliament has been dissolved and a period of three months shall have lapsed after the meeting of a new Parliament". The Shadow Cabinet consulted legal experts, who agreed wholeheartedly with Law's suggestion. Although several members expressed dissent, the Shadow Cabinet decided "provisionally to agree to amendment of army act. but to leave details and decisions as to the moment of acting to Lansdowne and Law". In the end no amendment to the Army Act was offered, though; many backbenchers and party loyalists became agitated by the scheme and wrote to him that it was unacceptable – Ian Malcolm, a fanatical Ulster supporter, told Law that amending the Army Act would drive him out of the Party.On 30 July 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Law met with Asquith and agreed to temporarily suspend the issue of Home Rule to avoid domestic discontent during wartime. By the following day both leaders had convinced their parties to agree to this move. On 3 August, Law promised openly in Commons that his Conservative Party would give "unhesitating support' to the government's war policy. On 4 August, Germany rejected British demands for a withdrawal from Belgium, and Britain declared war.Over the coming months, the Liberal, Labour and Conservative whips worked out a truce suspending confrontational politics until either 1 January 1915 or until the end of the War. On 4 August both Asquith and Law made speeches together at the Middlesex Guildhall, and uncomfortably socialised with each other's parties. On 6 August, the Conservatives learnt that Asquith planned to put the Home Rule Bill on the statute books; Law wrote an angry letter to Asquith, the response of which was that Asquith could either pass the bill immediately, suspending it for the duration of the conflict, or make it law with a six-month delay and with a three-year exclusion for Ulster. Law responded with a speech in the Commons, saying that "the Government have treated us abominably... but we are in the middle of a great struggle. Until that struggle [is] over, so far as we are concerned, in everything connected with it there would be no parties, there would openly be a nation. In regard to this debate I have made protest as well as I could, but when I have finished we shall take no further part in the discussion". The entire Party then left the Commons silently, and although a strong protest (Asquith later admitted that "it was unique in my or I think anybody's experience") the bill was still passed, although with a suspension for the duration of the War.The Conservatives soon began to get annoyed that they were unable to criticise the Government, and took this into Parliament; rather than criticising policy, they would attack individual ministers, including the Lord Chancellor (who they considered "far too enamoured of German culture") and the Home Secretary, who was "too tender to aliens". By Christmas 1914 they were anxious about the war; it was not, in their opinion, going well, and yet they were restricted to serving on committees and making recruitment speeches. At about the same time, Law and David Lloyd George met to discuss the possibility of a coalition government. Law was supportive of the idea in some ways, seeing it as a probability that "a coalition government would come in time".The crisis which forced a coalition was twofold; first the Shell Crisis of 1915, and then the resignation of Lord Fisher, the First Sea Lord. The Shell Crisis was a shortage of artillery shells on the Western Front. It indicated a failure to fully organise British industry. Asquith tried to ward off the criticism the day before the debate, praising his government's efforts and saying that "I do not believe that any army has ever either entered upon a campaign or been maintained during a campaign with better or more adequate equipment". The Conservatives, whose sources of information included officers such as Sir John French, were not put off, and instead became furious.Over the next few days the Conservative backbenchers threatened to break the truce and mount an attack on the government over the munitions situation. Law forced them to back down on 12 May, but on the 14th an article appeared in "The Times" blaming the British failure at the Battle of Aubers Ridge on the lack of munitions. This again stirred up the backbenchers, who were only just kept in line. The Shadow Cabinet took a similar line; things could not go on as they were. The crisis was only halted with the resignation of Lord Fisher. Fisher had opposed Winston Churchill over the Gallipoli Campaign, and felt that he could not continue in government if the two would be in conflict. Law knew that this would push the Conservative back bench over the edge, and met with David Lloyd George on 17 May to discuss Fisher's resignation. Lloyd George decided that "the only way to preserve a united front was to arrange for more complete cooperation between parties in the direction of the War". Lloyd George reported the meeting to Asquith, who agreed that a coalition was inescapable. He and Law agreed to form a coalition government.Law's next job, therefore, was to assist the Liberal Party in creating a new government. In their discussions on 17 May, both Law and Lloyd George had agreed that Lord Kitchener should not remain in the War Office, and removing him became top priority. Unfortunately the press began a campaign supporting Kitchener on 21 May, and the popular feeling that this raised convinced Law, Lloyd George and Asquith that Kitchener could not be removed. To keep him and at the same time remove the munitions supply from his grasp to prevent a repeat of the "shells crisis" the Ministry of Munitions was created, with Lloyd George becoming Minister of Munitions.Law eventually accepted the post of Colonial Secretary, an unimportant post in wartime; Asquith had made it clear that he would not allow a Conservative minister to head the Exchequer, and that with Kitchener (whom he considered a Conservative) in the War Office, he would not allow another Conservative to hold a similarly important position. Fearing for the integrity of the coalition, Law accepted this position. Outside of Law's position, other Conservatives also gained positions in the new administration; Arthur Balfour became First Lord of the Admiralty, Austen Chamberlain became Secretary of State for India and Edward Carson became Attorney General.During Law's time as Colonial Secretary, the three main issues were the question of manpower for the British Army, the crisis in Ireland and the Dardanelles Campaign. Dardanelles took priority, as seen by Asquith's restructuring of his War Council into a Dardanelles Committee. Members included Kitchener, Law, Churchill, Lloyd George and Lansdowne, with the make-up divided between political parties to defuse tension and provide criticism of policy. The main discussion was on the possibility of reinforcing the forces already landed, something Law disagreed with. With Asquith and the Army in support, however, he felt that he was ill-equipped to combat the proposal. Five more divisions were landed, but faced heavy casualties for little gain. As a result, Law led a strong resistance to the idea at the next Committee meeting on 18 August. The idea only avoided being scrapped thanks to the French promise to send forces in early September, and the arguing became an immense strain on the government.Law entered the coalition government as Colonial Secretary in May 1915, his first Cabinet post, and, following the resignation of Prime Minister and Liberal Party Leader Asquith in December 1916, was invited by King George V to form a government, but he deferred to Lloyd George, Secretary of State for War and former Minister of Munitions, who he believed was better placed to lead a coalition ministry. He served in Lloyd George's War Cabinet, first as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.While chancellor, he raised the stamp duty on cheques from one penny to twopence in 1918. His promotion reflected the great mutual trust between the two leaders and made for a well co-ordinated political partnership; their coalition was re-elected by a landslide following the Armistice. Law's two eldest sons were both killed whilst fighting in the war. In the 1918 General Election, Law returned to Glasgow and was elected as member for Glasgow Central.At war's end, Law gave up the Exchequer for the less demanding sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal, but remained Leader of the Commons. In 1921, ill health forced his resignation as Conservative leader and Leader of the Commons in favour of Austen Chamberlain. His departure weakened the hardliners in the cabinet who were opposed to negotiating with the Irish Republican Army, and the Anglo-Irish War ended in the summer.By 1921–22 the coalition had become embroiled in an air of moral and financial corruption (e.g. the sale of honours). Besides the recent Irish Treaty and Edwin Montagu's moves towards greater self-government for India, both of which dismayed rank-and-file Conservative opinion, the government's willingness to intervene against the Bolshevik regime in Russia also seemed out of step with the new and more pacifist mood. A sharp slump in 1921 and a wave of strikes in the coal and railway industries also added to the government's unpopularity, as did the apparent failure of the Genoa Conference, which ended in an apparent rapprochement between Germany and Soviet Russia. In other words, it was no longer the case that Lloyd George was an electoral asset to the Conservative Party.Lloyd George, Birkenhead and Winston Churchill (still distrusted by many Conservatives) wished to use armed force against Turkey (the Chanak Crisis), but had to back down when offered support only by New Zealand and Newfoundland, and not Canada, Australia or South Africa; Law wrote to "The Times" supporting the government but stating that Britain could not "act as the policeman for the world".At a meeting at the Carlton Club, Conservative backbenchers, led by the President of the Board of Trade Stanley Baldwin and influenced by the recent Newport by-election which was won from the Liberals by a Conservative, voted to end the Lloyd George Coalition and fight the next election as an independent party. Austen Chamberlain resigned as Party Leader, Lloyd George resigned as prime minister and Law took both jobs on 23 October 1922.Many leading Conservatives (e.g. Birkenhead, Arthur Balfour, Austen Chamberlain, Robert Horne) were not members of the new Cabinet, which Birkenhead contemptuously referred to as "the Second Eleven". Although the Coalition Conservatives numbered no more than thirty, they hoped to dominate any future Coalition government in the same way that the similarly sized Peelite group had dominated the Coalition Government of 1852–1855 – an analogy much used at the time.Parliament was immediately dissolved, and a General Election ensued. Besides the two Conservative factions, the Labour Party were fighting as a major national party for the first time and indeed became the main Opposition after the election; the Liberals were still split into Asquith and Lloyd George factions, with many Lloyd George Liberals still unopposed by Conservative candidates (including Churchill, who was defeated at Dundee nonetheless). Despite the confused political arena the Conservatives were re-elected with a comfortable majority.Questions were raised about whether the elderly Conservative Party Treasurer, Lord Farquhar, had passed on to Lloyd George (who during his premiership had amassed a large fund, largely from the sale of honours) any money intended for the Conservative Party. The Coalition Conservatives also hoped to obtain Conservative Party money from Farquhar. Bonar Law found Farquhar too "gaga" to properly explain what had happened, and dismissed him.One of the questions which taxed Law's brief government was that of inter-Allied war debts. Britain owed money to the US, and in turn was owed four times as much money by France, Italy and the other Allied powers, although under the Lloyd George government Balfour had promised that Britain would collect no more money from other Allies than she was required to repay the USA; the debt was hard to repay as trade (exports were needed to earn foreign currency) had not returned to prewar levels.On a trip to the USA Stanley Baldwin, the inexperienced Chancellor of the Exchequer, agreed to repay £40 million per annum to the USA rather than the £25 million which the British government had thought feasible, and on his return announced the deal to the press when his ship docked at Southampton, before the Cabinet had had a chance to consider it. Law contemplated resignation, and after being talked out of it by senior ministers vented his feelings in an anonymous letter to "The Times".Law was soon diagnosed with terminal throat cancer and, no longer physically able to speak in Parliament, resigned on 20 May 1923. George V sent for Baldwin, whom Law is rumoured to have favoured over Lord Curzon. However Law did not offer any advice to the King. Law died later that same year in London at the age of 65. His funeral was held at Westminster Abbey where later his ashes were interred. His estate was probated at £35,736 (approximately £ as of 2021).Bonar Law was the shortest-serving prime minister of the 20th century. He is often referred to as "the unknown prime minister", not least because of a biography of that title by Robert Blake; the name comes from a remark by Asquith at Bonar Law's funeral, that they were burying the Unknown Prime Minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Sir Steven Runciman is reported to have said that he had known all British prime ministers in his lifetime, except Bonar Law, "whom nobody knew".A tiny hamlet (unincorporated village) in the municipality of Stirling-Rawdon, Ontario, Canada, is named Bonarlaw after the British prime minister. It had been known as "Big Springs" and then "Bellview". The Bonar Law Memorial High School in Bonar Law's birthplace, Rexton, New Brunswick, Canada, is also named in his honour.
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[
"Chancellor of the Exchequer",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Leader of the Opposition",
"Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
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Which position did Bonar Law hold in 03/23/1919?
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March 23, 1919
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{
"text": [
"Leader of the House of Commons",
"Leader of the Conservative Party",
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Lord Privy Seal"
]
}
|
L2_Q166663_P39_3
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Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the House of Commons from Dec, 1916 to Mar, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Lord Privy Seal from Jan, 1919 to Apr, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Bonar Law holds the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer from Dec, 1916 to Jan, 1919.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Conservative Party from Jan, 1911 to Jan, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Opposition from Nov, 1911 to May, 1915.
Bonar Law holds the position of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1922 to May, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1918 to Oct, 1922.
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Bonar LawAndrew Bonar Law (; 16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from October 1922 to May 1923.Law was born in the British colony of New Brunswick (now a Canadian province), the first British prime minister to be born outside the British Isles. He was of Scottish and Ulster Scots descent and moved to Scotland in 1870. He left school aged sixteen to work in the iron industry, becoming a wealthy man by the age of thirty. He entered the House of Commons at the 1900 general election, relatively late in life for a front-rank politician; he was made a junior minister, Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade, in 1902. Law joined the Shadow Cabinet in opposition after the 1906 general election. In 1911, he was appointed a Privy Councillor, before standing for the vacant party leadership. Despite never having served in the Cabinet and despite trailing third after Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain, Law became leader when the two front-runners withdrew rather than risk a draw splitting the party.As Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition, Law focused his attentions in favour of tariff reform and against Irish Home Rule. His campaigning helped turn Liberal attempts to pass the Third Home Rule Bill into a three-year struggle eventually halted by the start of the First World War, with much argument over the status of the six counties in Ulster which would later become Northern Ireland, four of which were predominantly Protestant.Law first held Cabinet office as Secretary of State for the Colonies in H. H. Asquith's Coalition Government (May 1915 – December 1916). Upon Asquith's fall from power he declined to form a government, instead serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer in David Lloyd George's Coalition Government. He resigned on grounds of ill health in early-1921. In October 1922, with Lloyd George's Coalition having become unpopular with the Conservatives, he wrote a letter to the press giving only lukewarm support to the Government's actions over Chanak. After Conservative MPs voted to end the Coalition, he again became party leader and, this time, prime minister. Bonar Law won a clear majority at the 1922 general election, and his brief premiership saw negotiation with the United States over Britain's war loans. Seriously ill with throat cancer, Law resigned in May 1923, and died later that year. He was the third shortest-serving prime minister of the United Kingdom (211 days in office), and is sometimes called "The Unknown Prime Minister".He was born on 16 September 1858 in Kingston (now Rexton), New Brunswick, to Eliza Kidston Law and the Reverend James Law, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland with Scottish and Irish (mainly Ulster Scots) ancestry. At the time of his birth, New Brunswick was still a separate colony, as the Canadian confederation did not occur until 1867.His mother originally wanted to name him after Robert Murray M'Cheyne, a preacher she greatly admired, but as his older brother was already called Robert, he was instead named after Andrew Bonar, a biographer of M'Cheyne. Throughout his life he was always called Bonar (rhyming with honour) by his family and close friends, never Andrew. He originally signed his name as A.B. Law, changing to A. Bonar Law in his thirties, and he was referred to as Bonar Law by the public as well.James Law was the minister for several isolated townships, and had to travel between them by horse, boat and on foot. To supplement the family income, he bought a small farm on the Richibucto River, which Bonar helped tend along with his brothers Robert, William and John, and his sister Mary. Studying at the local village school, Law did well at his studies, and it is here that he was first noted for his excellent memory. After Eliza Law died in 1861, her sister Janet travelled to New Brunswick from her home in Scotland to look after the Law children. When James Law remarried in 1870, his new wife took over Janet's duties, and Janet decided to return home to Scotland. She suggested that Bonar Law should go with her, as the Kidston family were wealthier and better connected than the Laws, and Bonar would have a more privileged upbringing. Both James and Bonar accepted this, and Bonar left with Janet, never to return to Kingston.Law went to live at Janet's house in Helensburgh, near Glasgow. Her brothers Charles, Richard and William were partners in the family merchant bank Kidston & Sons, and as only one of them had married (and produced no heir) it was generally accepted that Law would inherit the firm, or at least play a role in its management when he was older. Immediately upon arriving from Kingston, Law began attending Gilbertfield House School, a preparatory school in Hamilton. In 1873, aged fourteen, he transferred to the High School of Glasgow, where with his good memory he showed a talent for languages, excelling in Greek, German and French. During this period, he first began to play chess – he would carry a board on the train between Helensburgh and Glasgow, challenging other commuters to matches. He eventually became a very good amateur player, and competed with internationally renowned chess masters. Despite his good academic record, it became obvious at Glasgow that he was better suited to business than to university, and when he was sixteen, Law left school to become a clerk at Kidston & Sons.At Kidston & Sons, Law received a nominal salary, on the understanding that he would gain a "commercial education" from working there that would serve him well as a businessman. In 1885 the Kidston brothers decided to retire, and agreed to merge the firm with the Clydesdale Bank.The merger would have left Law without a job and with poor career-prospects, but the retiring brothers found him a job with William Jacks, an iron merchant who had started pursuing a parliamentary career. The Kidston brothers lent Law the money to buy a partnership in Jacks' firm, and with Jacks himself no longer playing an active part in the company, Law effectively became the managing partner. Working long hours (and insisting that his employees did likewise), Law turned the firm into one of the most profitable iron merchants in the Glaswegian and Scottish markets.During this period Law became a "self-improver"; despite his lack of formal university education he sought to test his intellect, attending lectures given at Glasgow University and joining the Glasgow Parliamentary Debating Association, which adhered as closely as possible to the layout of the real Parliament of the United Kingdom and undoubtedly helped Law hone the skills that served him so well in the political arena.By the time he was thirty Law had established himself as a successful businessman, and had time to devote to more leisurely pursuits. He remained an avid chess player, whom Andrew Harley called "a strong player, touching first-class amateur level, which he had attained by practice at the Glasgow Club in earlier days". Law also worked with the Parliamentary Debating Association and took up golf, tennis and walking. In 1888 he moved out of the Kidston household and set up his own home at Seabank, with his sister Mary (who had earlier come over from Canada) acting as the housekeeper.In 1890, Law met Annie Pitcairn Robley, the 24-year-old daughter of a Glaswegian merchant, Harrington Robley. They quickly fell in love, and married on 24 March 1891. Little is known of Law's wife, as most of her letters have been lost. It is known that she was much liked in both Glasgow and London, and that her death in 1909 hit Law hard; despite his relatively young age and prosperous career, he never remarried. The couple had six children: James Kidston (1893–1917), Isabel Harrington (1895–1969), Charles John (1897–1917), Harrington (1899–1958), Richard Kidston (1901–1980), and Catherine Edith (1905–1992).The second son, Charlie, who was a lieutenant in the King's Own Scottish Borderers, was killed at the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917. The eldest son, James, who was a captain in the Royal Fusiliers, was shot down and killed on 21 September 1917, and the deaths made Law even more melancholy and depressed than before. The youngest son, Richard, later served as a Conservative MP and minister. Isabel married Sir Frederick Sykes (in the early years of World War I she had been engaged for a time to the Australian war correspondent Keith Murdoch) and Catherine married, firstly, Kent Colwell and, much later, in 1961, The 1st Baron Archibald.In 1897, Law was asked to become the Conservative Party candidate for the parliamentary seat of Glasgow Bridgeton. Soon after he was offered another seat, this one in Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown, which he took instead of Glasgow Bridgeton. Blackfriars was not a seat with high prospects attached; a working-class area, it had returned Liberal Party MPs since it was created in 1884, and the incumbent, Andrew Provand, was highly popular. Although the election was not due until 1902, the events of the Second Boer War forced the Conservative government to call a general election in 1900, later known as the khaki election. The campaign was unpleasant for both sides, with anti- and pro-war campaigners fighting vociferously, but Law distinguished himself with his oratory and wit. When the results came in on 4 October, Law was returned to Parliament with a majority of 1,000, overturning Provand's majority of 381. He immediately ended his active work at Jacks and Company (although he retained his directorship) and moved to London.Law initially became frustrated with the slow speed of Parliament compared to the rapid pace of the Glasgow iron market, and Austen Chamberlain recalled him saying to Chamberlain that "it was very well for men who, like myself had been able to enter the House of Commons young to adapt to a Parliamentary career, but if he had known what the House of Commons was he would never had entered at this stage". He soon learnt to be patient, however, and on 18 February 1901 made his maiden speech. Replying to anti-Boer War MPs including David Lloyd George, Law used his excellent memory to quote sections of Hansard back to the opposition which contained their previous speeches supporting and commending the policies they now denounced. Although lasting only fifteen minutes and not a crowd- or press-pleaser like the maiden speeches of F.E. Smith or Winston Churchill, it attracted the attention of the Conservative Party leaders.Law's chance to make his mark came with the issue of tariff reform. To cover the costs of the Second Boer War, Lord Salisbury's Chancellor of the Exchequer (Michael Hicks Beach) suggested introducing import taxes or tariffs on foreign metal, flour and grain coming into Britain. Such tariffs had previously existed in Britain, but the last of these had been abolished in the 1870s because of the free trade movement. A duty was now introduced on imported corn. The issue became "explosive", dividing the British political world, and continued even after Salisbury retired and was replaced as prime minister by his nephew, Arthur Balfour.Law took advantage of this, making his first major speech on 22 April 1902, in which he argued that while he felt a general tariff was unnecessary, an imperial customs union (which would put tariffs on items from outside the British Empire, instead of on every nation but Britain) was a good idea, particularly since other nations such as (Germany) and the United States had increasingly high tariffs. Using his business experience, he made a "plausible case" that there was no proof that tariffs led to increases in the cost of living, as the Liberals had argued. Again his memory came into good use – when William Harcourt accused Law of misquoting him, Law was able to precisely give the place in Hansard where Harcourt's speech was to be found.As a result of Law's proven experience in business matters and his skill as an economic spokesman for the government, Balfour offered him the position of Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade when he formed his government, which Law accepted, and he was formally appointed on 11 August 1902.As Parliamentary Secretary his job was to assist the President of the Board of Trade, Gerald Balfour. At the time the tariff reform controversy was brewing, led by the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, an ardent tariff reformer who "declared war" on free trade, and who persuaded the Cabinet that the Empire should be exempted from the new corn duty. After returning from a speaking tour of South Africa in 1903, Chamberlain found that the new Chancellor of the Exchequer (C.T. Ritchie) had instead abolished Hicks Beach's corn duty altogether in his budget. Angered by this, Chamberlain spoke at the Birmingham Town Hall on 15 May without the government's permission, arguing for an Empire-wide system of tariffs which would protect Imperial economies, forge the British Empire into one political entity and allow them to compete with other world powers.The speech and its ideas split the Conservative Party and its coalition ally the Liberal Unionist Party into two wings – the Free Fooders, who supported free trade, and the Tariff Reformers, who supported Chamberlain's tariff reforms. Law was a dedicated Tariff Reformer, but whereas Chamberlain dreamed of a new golden age for Britain, Law focused on more mundane and practical goals, such as a reduction in unemployment. L.S. Amery said that to Law, the tariff reform programme was "a question of trade figures and not national and Imperial policy of expansion and consolidation of which trade was merely the economic factor". Keith Laybourn attributes Law's interest in tariff reform not only to the sound business practice that it represented but also that because of his place of birth "he was attracted by the Imperial tariff preference arrangements advocated by Joseph Chamberlain". Law's constituents in Blackfriars were not overly enthusiastic about tariff reform – Glasgow was a poor area at the time that had benefited from free trade.In parliament, Law worked exceedingly hard at pushing for tariff reform, regularly speaking in the House of Commons and defeating legendary debaters such as Winston Churchill, Charles Dilke and H. H. Asquith, former home secretary and later prime minister. His speeches at the time were known for their clarity and common sense; Sir Ian Malcolm said that he made "the involved seem intelligible", and L.S. Amery said his arguments were "like the hammering of a skilled riveter, every blow hitting the nail on the head". Despite Law's efforts to forge consensus within the Conservatives, Balfour was unable to hold the two sides of his party together, and resigned as prime minister in December 1905, allowing the Liberals to form a government.The new prime minister, the Liberal Henry Campbell-Bannerman, immediately dissolved Parliament. Despite strong campaigning and a visit by Arthur Balfour, Law lost his seat in the ensuing general election. In total the Conservative Party and Liberal Unionists lost 245 seats, leaving them with only 157 members of parliament, the majority of them tariff reformers. Despite his loss, Law was at this stage such an asset to the Conservatives that an immediate effort was made to get him back into Parliament. The retirement of Frederick Rutherfoord Harris, MP for the safe Conservative seat of Dulwich, offered him a chance. Law was returned to Parliament in the ensuing by-election, increasing the Conservative majority to 1,279.The party was struck a blow in July 1906, when two days after a celebration of his seventieth birthday, Joseph Chamberlain suffered a stroke and was forced to retire from public life. He was succeeded as leader of the tariff reformers by his son Austen Chamberlain, who despite previous experience as Chancellor of the Exchequer and enthusiasm for tariff reform was not as skilled a speaker as Law. As a result, Law joined Balfour's Shadow Cabinet as the principal spokesman for tariff reform. The death of Law's wife on 31 October 1909 led him to work even harder, treating his political career not only as a job but as a coping strategy for his loneliness.Campbell-Bannerman resigned as prime minister in April 1908 and was replaced by H. H. Asquith. In 1909, he and his Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George introduced the People's Budget, which sought through increased direct and indirect taxes to redistribute wealth and fund social reform programmes. By parliamentary convention financial and budget bills are not challenged by the House of Lords, but in this case the predominantly Conservative Lords rejected the bill on 30 April, setting off a constitutional crisis.The Liberals called a general election for January 1910, and Law spent most of the preceding months campaigning up and down the country for other Conservative candidates and MPs, sure that his Dulwich seat was safe. He obtained an increased majority of 2,418. The overall result was more confused: the Conservatives gained 116 seats, bringing their total to 273, but this was still less than the Liberal caucus, and produced a hung parliament, as neither had a majority of the seats (the Irish Parliamentary Party, the Labour Party and the All-for-Ireland League took more than 120 seats in total). The Liberals remained in office with the support of the Irish Parliamentary Party. The Budget passed through the House of Commons a second time, and – as it now had an electoral mandate – was then approved by the House of Lords without a division.However, the crisis over the Budget had highlighted a long-standing constitutional question: should the House of Lords be able to overturn bills passed by the House of Commons? The Liberal government introduced a bill in February 1910 which would prevent the House of Lords vetoing finance bills, and would force them to pass any bill which had been passed by the Commons in three sessions of Parliament.This was immediately opposed by the Unionists, and both parties spent the next several months in a running battle over the bill. The Conservatives were led by Arthur Balfour and Lord Lansdowne, who headed the Conservatives in the House of Lords, while Law spent the time concentrating on the continuing problem of tariff reform. The lack of progress had convinced some senior Conservatives that it would be a good idea to scrap tariff reform altogether. Law disagreed, successfully arguing that tariff reform "was the first constructive work of the [Conservative Party]" and that to scrap it would "split the Party from top to bottom".With this success, Law returned to the constitutional crisis surrounding the House of Lords. The death of Edward VII on 6 May 1910 prompted the leaders of the major political parties to meet secretly in a "Truce of God" to discuss the Lords. The meetings were kept almost entirely secret: apart from the party representatives, the only people aware were F.E. Smith, J.L. Garvin, Edward Carson and Law. The group met about twenty times at Buckingham Palace between June and November 1910, with the Conservatives represented by Arthur Balfour, Lord Cawdor, Lord Lansdowne and Austen Chamberlain. The proposal presented at the conference by David Lloyd George was a coalition government with members of both major parties in the Cabinet and a programme involving Home Rule, Poor Law reforms, imperial reorganisation and possibly tariff reforms. The Home Rule proposal would have made the United Kingdom a federation, with "Home Rule All Round" for Scotland, Ireland, and England & Wales. In the end the plans fell through: Balfour told Lloyd George on 2 November that the proposal would not work, and the conference was dissolved a few days later.With the failure to establish a political consensus after the January 1910 general election, the Liberals called a second general election in December. The Conservative leadership decided that a good test of the popularity of the tariff reform programme would be to have a prominent tariff reformer stand for election in a disputed seat. They considered Law a prime candidate, and after debating it for a month he guardedly agreed, enthusiastic about the idea but worried about the effect of a defeat on the Party. Law was selected as the candidate for Manchester North West, and became drawn into party debates about how strong a tariff reform policy should be put in their manifesto. Law personally felt that duties on foodstuffs should be excluded, something agreed to by Alexander Acland-Hood, Edward Carson and others at a meeting of the Constitutional Club on 8 November 1910, but they failed to reach a consensus and the idea of including or excluding food duties continued to be something that divided the party.During the constitutional talks the Conservatives had demanded that, if the Lords' veto were removed, Irish Home Rule should only be permitted if approved by a UK-wide referendum. In response Lord Crewe, Liberal Leader in the Lords, had suggested sarcastically that tariff reform – a policy of questionable popularity because of the likelihood of increased prices on imported food – should also be submitted to a referendum. Arthur Balfour now announced to a crowd of 10,000 at the Royal Albert Hall that after the coming election, a Conservative Government would indeed submit tariff reform to a referendum, something he described as "Bonar Law's proposal" or the "Referendum Pledge". The suggestion was no more Law's than it was any of the dozens of Conservatives who had suggested this to Balfour, and his comment was simply an attempt to "pass the buck" and avoid the anger of Austen Chamberlain, who was furious that such an announcement had been made without consulting him or the party. While Law had written a letter to Balfour suggesting that a referendum would attract wealthy Conservatives, he said that "declaration would do no good with [the working class] and might damp enthusiasm of best workers".Parliament was dissolved on 28 November, with the election to take place and polling to end by 19 December. The Conservative and Liberal parties were equal in strength, and with the continued support of the Irish Nationalists the Liberal Party remained in government. Law called his campaign in Manchester North West the hardest of his career; his opponent, George Kemp, was a war hero who had fought in the Second Boer War and a former Conservative who had joined the Liberal party because of his disagreement with tariff reform.In the end Law narrowly lost, with 5,114 votes to Kemp's 5,559, but the election turned him into a "genuine [Conservative] hero", and he later said that the defeat did "more for him in the party than a hundred victories". In 1911, with the Conservative Party unable to afford him being out of Parliament, Law was elected in a by-election for the safe Conservative seat of Bootle. In his brief absence the Liberal suggestions for the reform of the House of Lords were passed as the Parliament Act 1911, ending that particular dispute.On the coronation of George V on 22 June 1911, Law was appointed as a Privy Councillor on the recommendation of the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and Arthur Balfour. This was evidence of his seniority and importance within the Conservative Party. Balfour had become increasingly unpopular as Leader of the Conservative Party since the 1906 general election; tariff reformers saw his leadership as the reason for their electoral losses, and the "free fooders" had been alienated by Balfour's attempts to tame the zeal of the tariff reform faction. Balfour refused all suggestions of party reorganisation until a meeting of senior Conservatives led by Lord Salisbury after the December 1910 electoral defeat issued an ultimatum demanding a review of party structure.The defeat on the House of Lords issue turned a wing of the Conservative Party led by Henry Page Croft and his Reveille Movement, against Balfour. Leo Maxse began a Balfour Must Go campaign in his newspaper, the "National Review", and by July 1911 Balfour was contemplating resignation. Law himself had no problem with Balfour's leadership, and along with Edward Carson attempted to regain support for him. By November 1911 it was accepted that Balfour was likely to resign, with the main competitors for the leadership being Law, Carson, Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain. When the elections began, Long and Chamberlain were the frontrunners; Chamberlain commanded the support of many tariff reformers, and Long that of the Irish Unionists. Carson immediately announced that he would not stand, and Law eventually announced that he would run for Leader, the day before Balfour resigned on 7 November.At the beginning of the election Law held the support of no more than 40 of the 270 members of parliament; the remaining 230 were divided between Long and Chamberlain. Although Long believed he had the most MPs, his support was largely amongst backbenchers, and most of the whips and frontbenchers preferred Chamberlain.With Long and Chamberlain almost neck-and-neck they called a meeting on 9 November to discuss the possibility of a deadlock. Chamberlain suggested that he would withdraw if this became a strong possibility, assuming Long did the same. Long, now concerned that his weak health would not allow him to survive the stress of party leadership, agreed. Both withdrew on 10 November, and on 13 November 232 MPs assembled at the Carlton Club, and Law was nominated as leader by Long and Chamberlain. With the unanimous support of the MPs, Law became Leader of the Conservative Party despite never having sat in Cabinet. Law's biographer, Robert Blake, wrote that he was an unusual choice to lead the Conservatives as a Presbyterian Canadian-Scots businessman had just become the leader of "the Party of Old England, the Party of the Anglican Church and the country squire, the party of broad acres and hereditary titles"As leader, Law first "rejuvenated the party machine", selecting newer, younger and more popular whips and secretaries, elevating F.E. Smith and Lord Robert Cecil to the Shadow Cabinet and using his business acumen to reorganise the party, resulting in better relations with the press and local branches, along with the raising of a £671,000 "war chest" for the next general election: almost double that available at the previous one.On 12 February 1912, he finally unified the two Unionist parties (Conservatives and Liberal Unionists) into the awkwardly named National Unionist Association of Conservative and Liberal-Unionist Organisations. From then on all were referred to as "Unionists" until the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922, after which they became Conservatives again (though the name "Unionist" continued in use in Scotland and Northern Ireland).In Parliament, Law introduced the so-called "new style" of speaking, with harsh, accusatory rhetoric, which dominates British politics to this day. This was as a counter to Arthur Balfour, known for his "masterly witticisms", because the party felt they needed a warrior-like figure. Law did not particularly enjoy his tougher manner, and at the State Opening of Parliament in February 1912 apologised directly to Asquith for his coming speech, saying, "I am afraid I shall have to show myself very vicious, Mr Asquith, this session. I hope you will understand." Law's "warrior king" figure helped unify the divided Conservatives into a single body, with him as the leader.During his early time as Conservative leader, the party's social policy was the most complicated and difficult to agree. In his opening speech as leader he said that the party would be one of principle, and would not be reactionary, instead sticking to their guns and holding firm policies. Despite this he left women's suffrage alone, leaving the party unwhipped and saying that "the less part we take in this question the better". In terms of social reform (legislation to improve the conditions of the poor and working classes) Law was similarly unenthusiastic, believing that the area was a Liberal one, in which they could not successfully compete. His response to a request by Lord Balcarres for a social programme was simply "As the [Liberal Party] refuse to formulate their policy in advance we should be equally absolved". His refusal to get drawn in may have actually strengthened his hold over Conservative MPs, many of whom were similarly uninterested in social reform.In his first public speech as leader at the Royal Albert Hall on 26 January 1912 he listed his three biggest concerns: an attack on the Liberal government for failing to submit Home Rule to a referendum; tariff reform; and the Conservative refusal to let the Ulster Unionists be "trampled upon" by an unfair Home Rule bill. Both tariff reform and Ulster dominated his political work, with Austen Chamberlain saying that Law "once said to me that he cared intensely for only two things: Tariff Reform and Ulster; all the rest was only part of the game".After further review with members of his party, Law changed his initial beliefs on tariff reform and accepted the full package, including duties on foodstuffs. On 29 February 1912 the entire Conservative parliamentary body (i.e. both MPs and peers) met at Lansdowne House, with Lord Lansdowne chairing. Lansdowne argued that although the electorate might prefer the Conservative Party if they dropped food duties from their tariff reform plan, it would open them to accusations of bad faith and "poltroonery". Law endorsed Lansdowne's argument, pointing out that any attempt to avoid food duties would cause an internal party struggle and could only aid the Liberals, and that Canada, the most economically important colony and a major exporter of foodstuffs, would never agree to tariffs without British support of food duties.Lord Salisbury, who opposed food duties, wrote to Law several weeks later suggesting they separate foodstuffs from tariff reform for the referendum. If the electorate liked food duties, they would vote for the entire package; if not, they did not have to. Law replied arguing that it would be impossible to do so effectively, and that with the increasing costs of defence and social programmes it would be impossible to raise the necessary capital except by comprehensive tariff reform. He argued that a failure to offer the entire tariff reform package would split the Conservative Party down the middle, offending the tariff reform faction, and that if such a split took place "I could not possibly continue as leader".Law postponed withdrawing the tariff reform "Referendum Pledge" because of the visit of Robert Borden, the newly elected Conservative prime minister of Canada, to London planned for July 1912. Meeting with Borden on his arrival, Law got him to agree to make a statement about the necessity of Imperial tariff reform, promising reciprocal agreements and saying that failure by London to agree tariff reform would result in an "irresistible pressure" for Canada to make a treaty with another nation, most obviously the United States.Law decided that the November party conference was the perfect time to announce the withdrawal of the Referendum Pledge, and that Lord Lansdowne should do it, because he had been leader in the House of Lords when the pledge was made and because of his relatively low profile during the original tariff reform dispute. When the conference opened the British political world was febrile; on 12 November the opposition had narrowly defeated the government on an amendment to the Home Rule Bill, and the next evening, amidst hysterical shouting from the opposition, Asquith attempted to introduce a motion reversing the previous vote. As the MPs filed out at the end of the day Winston Churchill began taunting the opposition, and in his anger Ronald McNeil hurled a copy of "Standing Orders of the House" at Churchill, hitting him on the head. Law refused to condemn the events, and it seems apparent that while he had played no part in organising them they "had" been planned by the party Whips. As party leader, he was most likely aware of the plans even if he did not actively participate.The conference was opened on 14 November 1912 by Lord Farquhar, who immediately introduced Lord Lansdowne. Lansdowne revoked the Referendum Pledge, saying that as the government had failed to submit Home Rule to a referendum, the offer that tariff reform would also be submitted was null and void. Lansdowne promised that when the Unionists took office they would "do so with a free hand to deal with tariffs as they saw fit". Law then rose to speak, and in line with his agreement to let Lansdowne speak for tariff reform mentioned it only briefly when he said "I concur in every word which has fallen from Lord Lansdowne". He instead promised a reversal of several Liberal policies when the Unionists came to power, including the disestablishment of the Welsh Church, land taxes and Irish Home Rule. The crowd "cheered themselves hoarse" at Law's speech.However, the reaction from the party outside the conference hall was not a positive one. Law had not consulted the local constituency branches about his plan, and several important constituency leaders led by Archibald Salvidge and Lord Derby planned for a meeting of the Lancashire party, the centre of discontent, on 21 December. Law was preoccupied with the problem of Irish Home Rule and was unable to give the discontent his full attention. He continued to believe that his approach to the problem of tariff reform was the correct one, and wrote to John Strachey on 16 November saying that "it was a case of a choice of two evils, and all that one could do was to take the lesser of the two, and that I am sure we have done". Speaking to Edward Carson, F.E. Smith, Austen Chamberlain and Lord Balcarres in December after two weeks of receiving negative letters from party members about the change, Law outlined that he would not be averse to a return to the previous policy considering the negative feelings from the party, but felt that this would require the resignation of both himself and Lansdowne.Law again wrote to Strachey saying that he continued to feel this policy was the correct one, and only regretted that the issue was splitting the party at a time when unity was needed to fight the Home Rule problem. At the meeting of the Lancashire party the group under Derby condemned Law's actions and called for a three-week party recess before deciding what to do about the repeal of the Referendum Pledge. This was an obvious ultimatum to Law, giving him a three-week period to change his mind. Law believed that Derby was "unprincipled and treacherous", particularly since he then circulated a questionnaire among Lancashire party members with leading questions such as "do you think the abandonment of the referendum will do harm?" Law met the Lancashire party on 2 January 1913 and ordered that they must replace any food tariff based resolutions with a vote of confidence in him as a leader, and that any alternative would result in his resignation.After a chance meeting at which Edward Carson learnt of Law and Lansdowne's acceptance of possible resignation, he was spurred to ask Edward Goulding to beg Law and Lansdowne to compromise over the policy and remain as leaders. The compromise, known as the January Memorial, was agreed by Carson, James Craig, Law and Lansdowne at Law's house between 6–8 January 1913, affirming the support of the signatories for Law and his policies, and noting that his resignation was not wanted.Within two days 231 of the 280 Conservative MPs had signed it; 27 frontbenchers had not been invited, neither had five who were not in London, seven who were ill, the Speaker and a few others who could not be found – only eight MPs actively refused to sign. Law's official response took the form of an open letter published on 13 January 1913, in which Law offered a compromise that food duties would not be placed before Parliament to vote on until after a second, approving election took place.The January and December elections in 1910 destroyed the large Liberal majority, meaning they relied on the Irish Nationalists to maintain a government. As a result, they were forced to consider Home Rule, and with the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 which replaced the Lords' veto with a two-year power of delay on most issues, the Conservative Party became aware that unless they could dissolve Parliament or sabotage the Home Rule Bill, introduced in 1912, it would most likely become law by 1914.As the child of an Ulster family who had spent much time in the area (his father had moved back there several years after Law moved to Scotland), Law believed the gap between Ulster Unionism and Irish Nationalism could never be crossed. Despite this he said little about Home Rule until the passing of the Parliament Act in 1911, calling it the "Home Rule in Disguise Act" and saying it was an attempt to change parliamentary procedures so as to allow Home Rule "through the back door".After the act's passage, he made a speech in the Commons saying if the Liberals wished to pass a Home Rule Bill they should submit it to the electorate by calling a general election. His elevation to the leadership of the Conservative Party allowed him a platform to voice his opinion to the public, and his speeches (culminating with the January 1912 speech at the Royal Albert Hall) were centred on Home Rule as much as they were around tariff reform. In contrast to Balfour's "milk and water" opposition to Home Rule, Law presented a "fire and blood" opposition to Home Rule that at times seemed to suggest that he was willing to contemplate a civil war to stop Home Rule. Law stated he would not stop "from any action...we think necessary to defeat one of the most ignoble conspiracies...ever formed against the liberties of free-born men." As the Conservative Party was badly divided by the tariff issue, Law had decided to make opposition for Home Rule his signature issue as the best way of unifying the Conservative Party. Right form the start, Law presented his anti-Home Rule stance more in terms of protecting Protestant majority Ulster from being ruled by a Parliament in Dublin that would be dominated by Catholics than in terms of preserving the Union, much to the chagrin of many Unionists.Law was supported by Edward Carson, leader of the Ulster Unionists. Although Law sympathised with the Ulster Unionists politically he did not agree with the religious intolerance shown to Catholics. The passions unleashed by the Home Rule debate frequently threatened to get out of hand. In January 1912, when Winston Churchill planned to deliver a speech in favour of Home Rule in at the Ulster Hall in Belfast, the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) threatened to use violence if necessary to stop Churchill from speaking. The legal scholar A. V. Dicey, himself an opponent of Home Rule, wrote in a letter to Law that the threats of violence were "the worst mistake" that undermined "the whole moral strength" of the Unionist movement. But as Carson admitted in a letter to Law, the situation in Belfast was beyond his control as many UUC members were also members of the Loyal Orange Order, and the prospect of Churchill's visit to Belfast had angered so many of his followers that he felt he had to threaten violence as the best possible way of stopping the planned speech instead of leaving it to his followers who might otherwise riot. As it was, Churchill agreed to cancel his speech in response to warnings that the police would not be able to guarantee his security. Besides for his concerns about the violence, Dicey was also worried about the way in which Law was more interested about stopping Home Rule from being imposed on Ulster, instead of all of Ireland, which seemed to imply he was willing to accept the partition of Ireland. Many Irish Unionists outside of Ulster felt abandoned by Law, who seemed to care only about Ulster.The 1912 session of Parliament opened on 14 February with a stated intent by the Liberal Party in the King's Speech to introduce a new Home Rule Bill. The bill was to be introduced on 11 April, and four days before that Law travelled to Ulster for a tour of the area. The pinnacle of this was a meeting on 9 April in the grounds of the Royal Agricultural Society near Balmoral (an area of Belfast), attended by seventy Unionist MPs, the Primate of All Ireland and topped by "perhaps the largest Union Jack ever made" – 48 feet by 25 feet on a flagpole 90 feet high.At the meeting both Law and Carson swore to the crowd that "never under any circumstances will we submit to Home Rule". However, the Parliament Act and the government majority made such a victory against the Bill unlikely unless the government could be brought down or Parliament dissolved. A second problem was that not all Unionists opposed Home Rule to the same degree; some hardcore Unionists would oppose any attempt at Home Rule, others thought it inevitable that the Bill would pass and were simply trying to get the best deal possible for Ulster. The spectre of civil war was also raised – the Ulstermen began to form paramilitary groups such as the Ulster Volunteers, and there was a strong possibility that if it came to fighting the British Army would have to be sent in to support the underfunded and understaffed Royal Irish Constabulary.The argument of Law and the Unionists between 1912 and 1914 was based on three complaints. Firstly, Ulster would never accept forced Home Rule, and made up a quarter of Ireland; if the Liberals wanted to force this issue, military force would be the only way. Law thundered that "Do you plan to hurl the full majesty and power of the law, supported on the bayonets of the British Army, against a million Ulstermen marching under the Union Flag and singing 'God Save The King'? Would the Army hold? Would the British people – would the Crown – stand for such a slaughter?". A second complaint was that the government had so far refused to submit it to a general election, as Law had been suggesting since 1910. Law warned that "you will not carry this Bill without submitting it to the people of this country, and, if you make the attempt, you will succeed only in breaking our Parliamentary machine". The third complaint was that the Liberals had still not honoured the preamble of the Parliament Act 1911, which promised "to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of a hereditary basis". The Unionist argument was that the Liberals were trying to make a massive constitutional change while the constitution was suspended. In May 1912, Law was told by the Conservative whip Lord Balcarres that outside of Ireland "the electors are apathetic" about Home Rule, suggesting that he should de-emphasis the topic.In July 1912 Asquith travelled to Dublin (the first sitting prime minister to do so in over a century) to make a speech, ridiculing Unionist demands for a referendum on the issue via an election and calling their campaign "purely destructive in its objects, anarchic and chaotic in its methods". In response the Unionists had a meeting on 27 July at Blenheim Palace, the birthplace of Winston Churchill, one of Asquith's ministers. More than 13,000 people attended, including over 40 peers. In Law's speech he said "I said so to [the Liberals] and I say so now, with the full sense of the responsibility which attaches to my position, that if the attempt be made under present conditions, I can imagine no length of resistance to which Ulster will go, in which I shall not be ready to support them, and in which they will not be supported by the overwhelming majority of the British people". Law added that if Asquith continued with the Home Rule bill, the government would be "lighting the fires of civil war". This speech was more known and criticised than any others; it implied both he and the British people would support the Ulstermen in anything, including armed rebellion.Despite the conflict and fierce resistance, the Bill continued its passage through Parliament. It moved to its second reading on 9 June, and the Committee stage on 11 June, where it became fraught in controversy after a young Liberal named Thomas Agar-Robartes proposed an amendment excluding four of the Ulster counties (Londonderry, Down, Antrim & Armagh) from the Irish Parliament. This put Law in a delicate situation, since he had previously said that he would support a system allowing each county to remain "outside the Irish Parliament", at the same time saying that he would not support any amendment that didn't have Ulster's full co-operation. If he accepted the amendment, he would be seen as abandoning the Irish Unionists, but on the other hand if the amendment was carried it might disrupt the government by causing a split between the Liberals and Irish Nationalists, bringing down the government and thus forcing an election.If Unionists wished to win the ensuing election they would have to show they were willing to compromise. In the end the amendment failed, but with the Liberal majority reduced by 40, and when a compromise amendment was proposed by another Liberal MP the government Whips were forced to trawl for votes. Law saw this as a victory, as it highlighted the split in the government. Edward Carson tabled another amendment on 1 January 1913 which would exclude all nine Ulster counties, more to test government resolve than anything else. While it failed, it allowed the Unionists to portray themselves as the party of compromise and the Liberals as stubborn and recalcitrant.The Unionists in Ulster were committed to independence from any Irish Home Rule. They secretly authorised a Commission of Five to write a constitution for "a provisional Government of Ulster... to come into operation on the day of the passage of any Home Rule Bill, to remain in force until Ulster shall again resume unimpaired citizenship in the United Kingdom".On 28 September 1912, Carson led 237,638 of his followers in signing a Solemn League and Covenant saying that Ulster would refuse to recognise the authority of any Parliament of Ireland arising from Home Rule. The "Ulster Covenant" as the Solemn League and Covenant was popularly called recalled the National Covenant signed by the Scots in 1638 to resist King Charles I who was viewed by Scots Presbyterians as a crypto-Catholic, and was widely seen as a sectarian document that promoted a "Protestant crusade". The Conservative MP Alfred Cripps wrote in a letter to Law that English Catholics like himself were opposed to Home Rule, but he was troubled by the way that Law seemed to be using the issue as "an occasion to attack their religion." In his reply of 7 October 1912, Law wrote he was opposed to religious bigotry and claimed that as far he could tell that no "responsible" Unionist leader in Ireland had attacked the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the Conservative MP Lord Hugh Cecil had in the summer of 1912 given anti-Home Rule speeches in Ireland where he shouted "To Hell with the Pope!", and was not censured by Law. When Parliament resumed in October after the summer recess, the Home Rule Bill was passed by the Commons. As expected, the House of Lords rejected it 326 to 69, and under the provisions of the Parliament Act it could only be passed if it was passed twice more by the Commons in successive Parliaments. In December 1912, the chairmen of the Conservative Party, Arthur Steel-Maitland, wrote to Law that the Home Rule issue did not command much attention in England, and asked that he move away from the topic which he asserted was damaging the image of the Conservatives.The end of 1912 saw the end of a year of political struggle for Law. As well as the problem of Home Rule, there were internal party struggles; supporters of the Church of England or military reform lambasted Law for not paying attention to their causes, and tariff reformers argued with him over his previous compromise on food duties. Despite this, most Conservatives realised that as a fighting leader, Law could not be bettered. The results of by-elections throughout 1913 continued to favour them, but progress on the Home Rule Bill was less encouraging; on 7 July it was again passed by the Commons, and again rejected by the Lords on 15 July. In response, the UUC created a paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), to fight against the British government if necessary to stop Home Rule. The Conservative peer, Lord Hythe, wrote to Law to suggest the Conservatives needed to present a constructive alternative to Home Rule and he had the "duty to tell these Ulstermen" that there was no need for the UVF. Another Tory peer, Lord Sailsbury, wrote to Law that as much as he was opposed to Home Rule that: "I cannot support political lawlessness and I shall either disenfranchise myself or vote Liberal...rather than encourage armed resistance in Ulster." Lord Balcarres wrote to Law that much of the Conservative caucus were "deeply confused and uncertain" and the "policies of reckless defiance" were unpopular with the party membership in England. Balcarres wrote he was "...much alarmed lest some sporadicoutbreak by Orangemen should...alienate English sympathies." Lord Lansdowne advised Law to be "extremely careful in our relations with Carson and his friends" and find a way of stopping F. E. Smith’s "habit of expressing rather violent sentiments in the guise of messages from the Unionist party." Balfour wrote to Law that he had "much misgiving upon the general loosening of the ordinary ties of social obligation...I do most strongly feel that nothing can be more demoralising to a society than that some of its...most loyal members should deliberately organise themselves for the purpose of offering...armed resistance to persons...representing lawful authority."During the debate on the Home Rule bill, Carson submitted an amendment that would exclude the 9 counties of Ulster from the jurisdiction of the proposed Parliament that would govern from Dublin, which was defeated by the Liberal MPs. However, Carson's amendment which would lead to the partition of Ireland caused much alarm with Irish Unionists outside of Ulster and led many to write letters from Law seeking assurances that he would not abandon them for the sake of saving Ulster from Home Rule. Carson told Law that he favoured a compromise under which Home Rule would be granted to southern Ireland, but not Ulster, and at the same time some sort of home rule be granted to Wales and Scotland as well. Law himself in a letter to a friend stated that the British public was "so sick of the whole Irish question" that the majority would probably agree to a compromise of a Home Rule for Ireland sans Ulster.Parliament rose for the summer recess on 15 August, and Law and the Unionists spent the summer trying to convince the King to voice an opinion on the issue. Their first suggestion was that he should withhold the Royal Assent on it, something that horrified Law's constitutional law adviser A.V. Dicey. The second was more reasonable – they argued that the Liberals had put the King in an impossible position by asking him to ratify a bill that would infuriate half of the population. His only option was to write a memo to Asquith saying this and requesting that the problem of home rule be put to the electorate via a general election. After thinking on this, the King agreed, and handed a note to Asquith on 11 August requesting either an election or an all-party conference.Asquith responded with two notes, the first countering the Unionist claim that it would be acceptable for the King to dismiss Parliament or withhold assent of the Bill to force an election, and the second arguing that a Home Rule election would not prove anything, since a Unionist victory would only be due to other problems and scandals and would not assure supporters of the current government that Home Rule was truly opposed.King George pressed for a compromise, summoning various political leaders to Balmoral Castle individually for talks. Law arrived on 13 September and again pointed out to the king his belief that if the Government continued to refuse an election fought over Home Rule and instead forced it on Ulster, the Ulstermen would not accept it and any attempts to enforce it would not be obeyed by the British Army.By early October the King was pressuring the British political world for an all-party conference. Fending this off, Law instead met with senior party members to discuss developments. Law, Balfour, Smith and Long discussed the matter, all except Long favouring a compromise with the Liberals. Long represented the anti-Home Rule elements in Southern Ireland, and from this moment onwards Southern and Northern attitudes towards Home Rule began to diverge. Law then met with Edward Carson, and afterwards expressed the opinion that "the men of Ulster do desire a settlement on the basis of leaving Ulster out, and Carson thinks such an arrangement could be carried out without any serious attack from the Unionists in the South".On 8 October Asquith wrote to Law suggesting an informal meeting of the two party leaders, which Law accepted. The two met at Cherkley Court, the home of Law's ally Sir Max Aitken MP (later Lord Beaverbrook), on 14 October. The meeting lasted an hour, and Law told Asquith that he would continue to try to have Parliament dissolved, and that in any ensuing election the Unionists would accept the result even if it went against them. Law later expressed his fear to Lansdowne that Asquith would persuade the Irish Nationalists to accept Home Rule with the exclusion of four Ulster counties with Protestant/unionist majorities. Carson would not accept this, requiring six of nine ulster counties to be excluded (i.e., four with unionist majorities plus two majority nationalist, leaving the three Ulster counties with large nationalist majorities, leading to an overall unionist majority in the six); such a move might split the Unionists. Law knew that Asquith was unlikely to consent to a general election, since he would almost certainly lose it, and that any attempt to pass the Home Rule Bill "without reference to the electorate" would lead to civil disturbance. As such, Asquith was stuck "between a rock and a hard place" and was sure to negotiate.Asquith and Law met for a second private meeting on 6 November, at which Asquith raised three possibilities. The first, suggested by Sir Edward Grey, consisted of "Home Rule within Home Rule" – Home Rule covering Ulster, but with partial autonomy for Ulster. The second was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for a number of years before becoming part of it, and the third was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for as long as it liked, with the opportunity of joining when it wished. Law made it clear to Asquith that the first two options were unacceptable, but the third might be accepted in some circles.The leaders then discussed the geographical definition of the area to be excluded from Home Rule; Ulster formally consists of nine counties, of which only four had a clear unionist majority, three a clear nationalist majority and two a small nationalist majority – however, overall a practical problem was that the nine counties of Ulster were majority nationalist. Carson always referred to nine counties of Ulster, but Law told Asquith that if an appropriate settlement could be made with a smaller number, Carson "would see his people and probably, though I could not give any promise to that effect, try to induce them to accept it".The third meeting was on 10 December and Law, raging because Asquith had not yet presented a concrete way to exclude Ulster, made little progress. Law brushed aside Asquith's suggestions and insisted that only the exclusion of Ulster was worth considering. He later wrote that "My feeling, however, is that Asquith has no hope whatsoever of making such an arrangement and that his present idea is simply to let things drift in the meantime.. I do not understand why he took the trouble of seeing me at all. The only explanation I can give is that I think he is in a funk about the whole position and thought that meeting me might keep the thing open at least".With the failure of these talks, Law accepted that a compromise was unlikely, and from January 1914 he returned to the position that the Unionists were "opposed utterly to Home Rule". The campaign was sufficient to bring the noted organiser Lord Milner back into politics to support the Unionists, and he immediately asked L.S. Amery to write a British Covenant saying that the signers would, if the Home Rule Bill passed, "feel justified in taking or supporting any action that may be effective to prevent it being put into operation, and more particularly to prevent the armed forces of the Crown being used to deprive the people of Ulster of their rights as citizens of the United Kingdom". The Covenant was announced at a massive rally in Hyde Park on 4 April 1914, with hundreds of thousands assembling to hear Milner, Long and Carson speak. By the middle of the summer Long claimed more than 2,000,000 people had signed the Covenant.Law's critics, including George Dangerfield, condemned his actions in assuring the Ulster Unionists of Conservative Party support in their armed resistance to Home Rule, as unconstitutional, verging on promoting a civil war. Law's supporters argued that he was acting constitutionally by forcing the Liberal government into calling the election it had been avoiding, to obtain a mandate for their reforms.Law was not directly involved in the British Covenant campaign as he was focusing on a practical way to defeat the Home Rule Bill. His first attempt was via the Army (Annual) Act, something that "violated a basic and ancient principle of the constitution". Every year since the Glorious Revolution, the Act had fixed the maximum number of soldiers in the British Army; rejecting it would technically make the British Army an illegal institution.Lord Selborne had written to Law in 1912 to point out that vetoing or significantly amending the Act in the House of Lords would force the government to resign, and such a course of action was also suggested by others in 1913–14. Law believed that subjecting Ulstermen to a Dublin-based government they did not recognise was itself constitutionally damaging, and that amending the Army (Annual) Act to prevent the use of force in Ulster (he never suggested vetoing it) would not violate the constitution any more than the actions the government had already undertaken.By 12 March he had established that, should the Home Rule Bill be passed under the Parliament Act 1911, the Army (Annual) Act should be amended in the Lords to stipulate that the Army could not "be used in Ulster to prevent or interfere with any step which may thereafter be taken in Ulster to organise resistance to the enforcement of the Home Rule Act in Ulster nor to suppress any such resistance until and unless the present Parliament has been dissolved and a period of three months shall have lapsed after the meeting of a new Parliament". The Shadow Cabinet consulted legal experts, who agreed wholeheartedly with Law's suggestion. Although several members expressed dissent, the Shadow Cabinet decided "provisionally to agree to amendment of army act. but to leave details and decisions as to the moment of acting to Lansdowne and Law". In the end no amendment to the Army Act was offered, though; many backbenchers and party loyalists became agitated by the scheme and wrote to him that it was unacceptable – Ian Malcolm, a fanatical Ulster supporter, told Law that amending the Army Act would drive him out of the Party.On 30 July 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Law met with Asquith and agreed to temporarily suspend the issue of Home Rule to avoid domestic discontent during wartime. By the following day both leaders had convinced their parties to agree to this move. On 3 August, Law promised openly in Commons that his Conservative Party would give "unhesitating support' to the government's war policy. On 4 August, Germany rejected British demands for a withdrawal from Belgium, and Britain declared war.Over the coming months, the Liberal, Labour and Conservative whips worked out a truce suspending confrontational politics until either 1 January 1915 or until the end of the War. On 4 August both Asquith and Law made speeches together at the Middlesex Guildhall, and uncomfortably socialised with each other's parties. On 6 August, the Conservatives learnt that Asquith planned to put the Home Rule Bill on the statute books; Law wrote an angry letter to Asquith, the response of which was that Asquith could either pass the bill immediately, suspending it for the duration of the conflict, or make it law with a six-month delay and with a three-year exclusion for Ulster. Law responded with a speech in the Commons, saying that "the Government have treated us abominably... but we are in the middle of a great struggle. Until that struggle [is] over, so far as we are concerned, in everything connected with it there would be no parties, there would openly be a nation. In regard to this debate I have made protest as well as I could, but when I have finished we shall take no further part in the discussion". The entire Party then left the Commons silently, and although a strong protest (Asquith later admitted that "it was unique in my or I think anybody's experience") the bill was still passed, although with a suspension for the duration of the War.The Conservatives soon began to get annoyed that they were unable to criticise the Government, and took this into Parliament; rather than criticising policy, they would attack individual ministers, including the Lord Chancellor (who they considered "far too enamoured of German culture") and the Home Secretary, who was "too tender to aliens". By Christmas 1914 they were anxious about the war; it was not, in their opinion, going well, and yet they were restricted to serving on committees and making recruitment speeches. At about the same time, Law and David Lloyd George met to discuss the possibility of a coalition government. Law was supportive of the idea in some ways, seeing it as a probability that "a coalition government would come in time".The crisis which forced a coalition was twofold; first the Shell Crisis of 1915, and then the resignation of Lord Fisher, the First Sea Lord. The Shell Crisis was a shortage of artillery shells on the Western Front. It indicated a failure to fully organise British industry. Asquith tried to ward off the criticism the day before the debate, praising his government's efforts and saying that "I do not believe that any army has ever either entered upon a campaign or been maintained during a campaign with better or more adequate equipment". The Conservatives, whose sources of information included officers such as Sir John French, were not put off, and instead became furious.Over the next few days the Conservative backbenchers threatened to break the truce and mount an attack on the government over the munitions situation. Law forced them to back down on 12 May, but on the 14th an article appeared in "The Times" blaming the British failure at the Battle of Aubers Ridge on the lack of munitions. This again stirred up the backbenchers, who were only just kept in line. The Shadow Cabinet took a similar line; things could not go on as they were. The crisis was only halted with the resignation of Lord Fisher. Fisher had opposed Winston Churchill over the Gallipoli Campaign, and felt that he could not continue in government if the two would be in conflict. Law knew that this would push the Conservative back bench over the edge, and met with David Lloyd George on 17 May to discuss Fisher's resignation. Lloyd George decided that "the only way to preserve a united front was to arrange for more complete cooperation between parties in the direction of the War". Lloyd George reported the meeting to Asquith, who agreed that a coalition was inescapable. He and Law agreed to form a coalition government.Law's next job, therefore, was to assist the Liberal Party in creating a new government. In their discussions on 17 May, both Law and Lloyd George had agreed that Lord Kitchener should not remain in the War Office, and removing him became top priority. Unfortunately the press began a campaign supporting Kitchener on 21 May, and the popular feeling that this raised convinced Law, Lloyd George and Asquith that Kitchener could not be removed. To keep him and at the same time remove the munitions supply from his grasp to prevent a repeat of the "shells crisis" the Ministry of Munitions was created, with Lloyd George becoming Minister of Munitions.Law eventually accepted the post of Colonial Secretary, an unimportant post in wartime; Asquith had made it clear that he would not allow a Conservative minister to head the Exchequer, and that with Kitchener (whom he considered a Conservative) in the War Office, he would not allow another Conservative to hold a similarly important position. Fearing for the integrity of the coalition, Law accepted this position. Outside of Law's position, other Conservatives also gained positions in the new administration; Arthur Balfour became First Lord of the Admiralty, Austen Chamberlain became Secretary of State for India and Edward Carson became Attorney General.During Law's time as Colonial Secretary, the three main issues were the question of manpower for the British Army, the crisis in Ireland and the Dardanelles Campaign. Dardanelles took priority, as seen by Asquith's restructuring of his War Council into a Dardanelles Committee. Members included Kitchener, Law, Churchill, Lloyd George and Lansdowne, with the make-up divided between political parties to defuse tension and provide criticism of policy. The main discussion was on the possibility of reinforcing the forces already landed, something Law disagreed with. With Asquith and the Army in support, however, he felt that he was ill-equipped to combat the proposal. Five more divisions were landed, but faced heavy casualties for little gain. As a result, Law led a strong resistance to the idea at the next Committee meeting on 18 August. The idea only avoided being scrapped thanks to the French promise to send forces in early September, and the arguing became an immense strain on the government.Law entered the coalition government as Colonial Secretary in May 1915, his first Cabinet post, and, following the resignation of Prime Minister and Liberal Party Leader Asquith in December 1916, was invited by King George V to form a government, but he deferred to Lloyd George, Secretary of State for War and former Minister of Munitions, who he believed was better placed to lead a coalition ministry. He served in Lloyd George's War Cabinet, first as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.While chancellor, he raised the stamp duty on cheques from one penny to twopence in 1918. His promotion reflected the great mutual trust between the two leaders and made for a well co-ordinated political partnership; their coalition was re-elected by a landslide following the Armistice. Law's two eldest sons were both killed whilst fighting in the war. In the 1918 General Election, Law returned to Glasgow and was elected as member for Glasgow Central.At war's end, Law gave up the Exchequer for the less demanding sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal, but remained Leader of the Commons. In 1921, ill health forced his resignation as Conservative leader and Leader of the Commons in favour of Austen Chamberlain. His departure weakened the hardliners in the cabinet who were opposed to negotiating with the Irish Republican Army, and the Anglo-Irish War ended in the summer.By 1921–22 the coalition had become embroiled in an air of moral and financial corruption (e.g. the sale of honours). Besides the recent Irish Treaty and Edwin Montagu's moves towards greater self-government for India, both of which dismayed rank-and-file Conservative opinion, the government's willingness to intervene against the Bolshevik regime in Russia also seemed out of step with the new and more pacifist mood. A sharp slump in 1921 and a wave of strikes in the coal and railway industries also added to the government's unpopularity, as did the apparent failure of the Genoa Conference, which ended in an apparent rapprochement between Germany and Soviet Russia. In other words, it was no longer the case that Lloyd George was an electoral asset to the Conservative Party.Lloyd George, Birkenhead and Winston Churchill (still distrusted by many Conservatives) wished to use armed force against Turkey (the Chanak Crisis), but had to back down when offered support only by New Zealand and Newfoundland, and not Canada, Australia or South Africa; Law wrote to "The Times" supporting the government but stating that Britain could not "act as the policeman for the world".At a meeting at the Carlton Club, Conservative backbenchers, led by the President of the Board of Trade Stanley Baldwin and influenced by the recent Newport by-election which was won from the Liberals by a Conservative, voted to end the Lloyd George Coalition and fight the next election as an independent party. Austen Chamberlain resigned as Party Leader, Lloyd George resigned as prime minister and Law took both jobs on 23 October 1922.Many leading Conservatives (e.g. Birkenhead, Arthur Balfour, Austen Chamberlain, Robert Horne) were not members of the new Cabinet, which Birkenhead contemptuously referred to as "the Second Eleven". Although the Coalition Conservatives numbered no more than thirty, they hoped to dominate any future Coalition government in the same way that the similarly sized Peelite group had dominated the Coalition Government of 1852–1855 – an analogy much used at the time.Parliament was immediately dissolved, and a General Election ensued. Besides the two Conservative factions, the Labour Party were fighting as a major national party for the first time and indeed became the main Opposition after the election; the Liberals were still split into Asquith and Lloyd George factions, with many Lloyd George Liberals still unopposed by Conservative candidates (including Churchill, who was defeated at Dundee nonetheless). Despite the confused political arena the Conservatives were re-elected with a comfortable majority.Questions were raised about whether the elderly Conservative Party Treasurer, Lord Farquhar, had passed on to Lloyd George (who during his premiership had amassed a large fund, largely from the sale of honours) any money intended for the Conservative Party. The Coalition Conservatives also hoped to obtain Conservative Party money from Farquhar. Bonar Law found Farquhar too "gaga" to properly explain what had happened, and dismissed him.One of the questions which taxed Law's brief government was that of inter-Allied war debts. Britain owed money to the US, and in turn was owed four times as much money by France, Italy and the other Allied powers, although under the Lloyd George government Balfour had promised that Britain would collect no more money from other Allies than she was required to repay the USA; the debt was hard to repay as trade (exports were needed to earn foreign currency) had not returned to prewar levels.On a trip to the USA Stanley Baldwin, the inexperienced Chancellor of the Exchequer, agreed to repay £40 million per annum to the USA rather than the £25 million which the British government had thought feasible, and on his return announced the deal to the press when his ship docked at Southampton, before the Cabinet had had a chance to consider it. Law contemplated resignation, and after being talked out of it by senior ministers vented his feelings in an anonymous letter to "The Times".Law was soon diagnosed with terminal throat cancer and, no longer physically able to speak in Parliament, resigned on 20 May 1923. George V sent for Baldwin, whom Law is rumoured to have favoured over Lord Curzon. However Law did not offer any advice to the King. Law died later that same year in London at the age of 65. His funeral was held at Westminster Abbey where later his ashes were interred. His estate was probated at £35,736 (approximately £ as of 2021).Bonar Law was the shortest-serving prime minister of the 20th century. He is often referred to as "the unknown prime minister", not least because of a biography of that title by Robert Blake; the name comes from a remark by Asquith at Bonar Law's funeral, that they were burying the Unknown Prime Minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Sir Steven Runciman is reported to have said that he had known all British prime ministers in his lifetime, except Bonar Law, "whom nobody knew".A tiny hamlet (unincorporated village) in the municipality of Stirling-Rawdon, Ontario, Canada, is named Bonarlaw after the British prime minister. It had been known as "Big Springs" and then "Bellview". The Bonar Law Memorial High School in Bonar Law's birthplace, Rexton, New Brunswick, Canada, is also named in his honour.
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[
"Chancellor of the Exchequer",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Leader of the Opposition",
"Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
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Which position did Bonar Law hold in 23-Mar-191923-March-1919?
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March 23, 1919
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{
"text": [
"Leader of the House of Commons",
"Leader of the Conservative Party",
"Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Lord Privy Seal"
]
}
|
L2_Q166663_P39_3
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Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the House of Commons from Dec, 1916 to Mar, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Lord Privy Seal from Jan, 1919 to Apr, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Bonar Law holds the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer from Dec, 1916 to Jan, 1919.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Conservative Party from Jan, 1911 to Jan, 1921.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from May, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Mar, 1911 to Nov, 1918.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
Bonar Law holds the position of Leader of the Opposition from Nov, 1911 to May, 1915.
Bonar Law holds the position of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1922 to May, 1923.
Bonar Law holds the position of Member of the 31st Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1918 to Oct, 1922.
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Bonar LawAndrew Bonar Law (; 16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from October 1922 to May 1923.Law was born in the British colony of New Brunswick (now a Canadian province), the first British prime minister to be born outside the British Isles. He was of Scottish and Ulster Scots descent and moved to Scotland in 1870. He left school aged sixteen to work in the iron industry, becoming a wealthy man by the age of thirty. He entered the House of Commons at the 1900 general election, relatively late in life for a front-rank politician; he was made a junior minister, Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade, in 1902. Law joined the Shadow Cabinet in opposition after the 1906 general election. In 1911, he was appointed a Privy Councillor, before standing for the vacant party leadership. Despite never having served in the Cabinet and despite trailing third after Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain, Law became leader when the two front-runners withdrew rather than risk a draw splitting the party.As Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition, Law focused his attentions in favour of tariff reform and against Irish Home Rule. His campaigning helped turn Liberal attempts to pass the Third Home Rule Bill into a three-year struggle eventually halted by the start of the First World War, with much argument over the status of the six counties in Ulster which would later become Northern Ireland, four of which were predominantly Protestant.Law first held Cabinet office as Secretary of State for the Colonies in H. H. Asquith's Coalition Government (May 1915 – December 1916). Upon Asquith's fall from power he declined to form a government, instead serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer in David Lloyd George's Coalition Government. He resigned on grounds of ill health in early-1921. In October 1922, with Lloyd George's Coalition having become unpopular with the Conservatives, he wrote a letter to the press giving only lukewarm support to the Government's actions over Chanak. After Conservative MPs voted to end the Coalition, he again became party leader and, this time, prime minister. Bonar Law won a clear majority at the 1922 general election, and his brief premiership saw negotiation with the United States over Britain's war loans. Seriously ill with throat cancer, Law resigned in May 1923, and died later that year. He was the third shortest-serving prime minister of the United Kingdom (211 days in office), and is sometimes called "The Unknown Prime Minister".He was born on 16 September 1858 in Kingston (now Rexton), New Brunswick, to Eliza Kidston Law and the Reverend James Law, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland with Scottish and Irish (mainly Ulster Scots) ancestry. At the time of his birth, New Brunswick was still a separate colony, as the Canadian confederation did not occur until 1867.His mother originally wanted to name him after Robert Murray M'Cheyne, a preacher she greatly admired, but as his older brother was already called Robert, he was instead named after Andrew Bonar, a biographer of M'Cheyne. Throughout his life he was always called Bonar (rhyming with honour) by his family and close friends, never Andrew. He originally signed his name as A.B. Law, changing to A. Bonar Law in his thirties, and he was referred to as Bonar Law by the public as well.James Law was the minister for several isolated townships, and had to travel between them by horse, boat and on foot. To supplement the family income, he bought a small farm on the Richibucto River, which Bonar helped tend along with his brothers Robert, William and John, and his sister Mary. Studying at the local village school, Law did well at his studies, and it is here that he was first noted for his excellent memory. After Eliza Law died in 1861, her sister Janet travelled to New Brunswick from her home in Scotland to look after the Law children. When James Law remarried in 1870, his new wife took over Janet's duties, and Janet decided to return home to Scotland. She suggested that Bonar Law should go with her, as the Kidston family were wealthier and better connected than the Laws, and Bonar would have a more privileged upbringing. Both James and Bonar accepted this, and Bonar left with Janet, never to return to Kingston.Law went to live at Janet's house in Helensburgh, near Glasgow. Her brothers Charles, Richard and William were partners in the family merchant bank Kidston & Sons, and as only one of them had married (and produced no heir) it was generally accepted that Law would inherit the firm, or at least play a role in its management when he was older. Immediately upon arriving from Kingston, Law began attending Gilbertfield House School, a preparatory school in Hamilton. In 1873, aged fourteen, he transferred to the High School of Glasgow, where with his good memory he showed a talent for languages, excelling in Greek, German and French. During this period, he first began to play chess – he would carry a board on the train between Helensburgh and Glasgow, challenging other commuters to matches. He eventually became a very good amateur player, and competed with internationally renowned chess masters. Despite his good academic record, it became obvious at Glasgow that he was better suited to business than to university, and when he was sixteen, Law left school to become a clerk at Kidston & Sons.At Kidston & Sons, Law received a nominal salary, on the understanding that he would gain a "commercial education" from working there that would serve him well as a businessman. In 1885 the Kidston brothers decided to retire, and agreed to merge the firm with the Clydesdale Bank.The merger would have left Law without a job and with poor career-prospects, but the retiring brothers found him a job with William Jacks, an iron merchant who had started pursuing a parliamentary career. The Kidston brothers lent Law the money to buy a partnership in Jacks' firm, and with Jacks himself no longer playing an active part in the company, Law effectively became the managing partner. Working long hours (and insisting that his employees did likewise), Law turned the firm into one of the most profitable iron merchants in the Glaswegian and Scottish markets.During this period Law became a "self-improver"; despite his lack of formal university education he sought to test his intellect, attending lectures given at Glasgow University and joining the Glasgow Parliamentary Debating Association, which adhered as closely as possible to the layout of the real Parliament of the United Kingdom and undoubtedly helped Law hone the skills that served him so well in the political arena.By the time he was thirty Law had established himself as a successful businessman, and had time to devote to more leisurely pursuits. He remained an avid chess player, whom Andrew Harley called "a strong player, touching first-class amateur level, which he had attained by practice at the Glasgow Club in earlier days". Law also worked with the Parliamentary Debating Association and took up golf, tennis and walking. In 1888 he moved out of the Kidston household and set up his own home at Seabank, with his sister Mary (who had earlier come over from Canada) acting as the housekeeper.In 1890, Law met Annie Pitcairn Robley, the 24-year-old daughter of a Glaswegian merchant, Harrington Robley. They quickly fell in love, and married on 24 March 1891. Little is known of Law's wife, as most of her letters have been lost. It is known that she was much liked in both Glasgow and London, and that her death in 1909 hit Law hard; despite his relatively young age and prosperous career, he never remarried. The couple had six children: James Kidston (1893–1917), Isabel Harrington (1895–1969), Charles John (1897–1917), Harrington (1899–1958), Richard Kidston (1901–1980), and Catherine Edith (1905–1992).The second son, Charlie, who was a lieutenant in the King's Own Scottish Borderers, was killed at the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917. The eldest son, James, who was a captain in the Royal Fusiliers, was shot down and killed on 21 September 1917, and the deaths made Law even more melancholy and depressed than before. The youngest son, Richard, later served as a Conservative MP and minister. Isabel married Sir Frederick Sykes (in the early years of World War I she had been engaged for a time to the Australian war correspondent Keith Murdoch) and Catherine married, firstly, Kent Colwell and, much later, in 1961, The 1st Baron Archibald.In 1897, Law was asked to become the Conservative Party candidate for the parliamentary seat of Glasgow Bridgeton. Soon after he was offered another seat, this one in Glasgow Blackfriars and Hutchesontown, which he took instead of Glasgow Bridgeton. Blackfriars was not a seat with high prospects attached; a working-class area, it had returned Liberal Party MPs since it was created in 1884, and the incumbent, Andrew Provand, was highly popular. Although the election was not due until 1902, the events of the Second Boer War forced the Conservative government to call a general election in 1900, later known as the khaki election. The campaign was unpleasant for both sides, with anti- and pro-war campaigners fighting vociferously, but Law distinguished himself with his oratory and wit. When the results came in on 4 October, Law was returned to Parliament with a majority of 1,000, overturning Provand's majority of 381. He immediately ended his active work at Jacks and Company (although he retained his directorship) and moved to London.Law initially became frustrated with the slow speed of Parliament compared to the rapid pace of the Glasgow iron market, and Austen Chamberlain recalled him saying to Chamberlain that "it was very well for men who, like myself had been able to enter the House of Commons young to adapt to a Parliamentary career, but if he had known what the House of Commons was he would never had entered at this stage". He soon learnt to be patient, however, and on 18 February 1901 made his maiden speech. Replying to anti-Boer War MPs including David Lloyd George, Law used his excellent memory to quote sections of Hansard back to the opposition which contained their previous speeches supporting and commending the policies they now denounced. Although lasting only fifteen minutes and not a crowd- or press-pleaser like the maiden speeches of F.E. Smith or Winston Churchill, it attracted the attention of the Conservative Party leaders.Law's chance to make his mark came with the issue of tariff reform. To cover the costs of the Second Boer War, Lord Salisbury's Chancellor of the Exchequer (Michael Hicks Beach) suggested introducing import taxes or tariffs on foreign metal, flour and grain coming into Britain. Such tariffs had previously existed in Britain, but the last of these had been abolished in the 1870s because of the free trade movement. A duty was now introduced on imported corn. The issue became "explosive", dividing the British political world, and continued even after Salisbury retired and was replaced as prime minister by his nephew, Arthur Balfour.Law took advantage of this, making his first major speech on 22 April 1902, in which he argued that while he felt a general tariff was unnecessary, an imperial customs union (which would put tariffs on items from outside the British Empire, instead of on every nation but Britain) was a good idea, particularly since other nations such as (Germany) and the United States had increasingly high tariffs. Using his business experience, he made a "plausible case" that there was no proof that tariffs led to increases in the cost of living, as the Liberals had argued. Again his memory came into good use – when William Harcourt accused Law of misquoting him, Law was able to precisely give the place in Hansard where Harcourt's speech was to be found.As a result of Law's proven experience in business matters and his skill as an economic spokesman for the government, Balfour offered him the position of Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade when he formed his government, which Law accepted, and he was formally appointed on 11 August 1902.As Parliamentary Secretary his job was to assist the President of the Board of Trade, Gerald Balfour. At the time the tariff reform controversy was brewing, led by the Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain, an ardent tariff reformer who "declared war" on free trade, and who persuaded the Cabinet that the Empire should be exempted from the new corn duty. After returning from a speaking tour of South Africa in 1903, Chamberlain found that the new Chancellor of the Exchequer (C.T. Ritchie) had instead abolished Hicks Beach's corn duty altogether in his budget. Angered by this, Chamberlain spoke at the Birmingham Town Hall on 15 May without the government's permission, arguing for an Empire-wide system of tariffs which would protect Imperial economies, forge the British Empire into one political entity and allow them to compete with other world powers.The speech and its ideas split the Conservative Party and its coalition ally the Liberal Unionist Party into two wings – the Free Fooders, who supported free trade, and the Tariff Reformers, who supported Chamberlain's tariff reforms. Law was a dedicated Tariff Reformer, but whereas Chamberlain dreamed of a new golden age for Britain, Law focused on more mundane and practical goals, such as a reduction in unemployment. L.S. Amery said that to Law, the tariff reform programme was "a question of trade figures and not national and Imperial policy of expansion and consolidation of which trade was merely the economic factor". Keith Laybourn attributes Law's interest in tariff reform not only to the sound business practice that it represented but also that because of his place of birth "he was attracted by the Imperial tariff preference arrangements advocated by Joseph Chamberlain". Law's constituents in Blackfriars were not overly enthusiastic about tariff reform – Glasgow was a poor area at the time that had benefited from free trade.In parliament, Law worked exceedingly hard at pushing for tariff reform, regularly speaking in the House of Commons and defeating legendary debaters such as Winston Churchill, Charles Dilke and H. H. Asquith, former home secretary and later prime minister. His speeches at the time were known for their clarity and common sense; Sir Ian Malcolm said that he made "the involved seem intelligible", and L.S. Amery said his arguments were "like the hammering of a skilled riveter, every blow hitting the nail on the head". Despite Law's efforts to forge consensus within the Conservatives, Balfour was unable to hold the two sides of his party together, and resigned as prime minister in December 1905, allowing the Liberals to form a government.The new prime minister, the Liberal Henry Campbell-Bannerman, immediately dissolved Parliament. Despite strong campaigning and a visit by Arthur Balfour, Law lost his seat in the ensuing general election. In total the Conservative Party and Liberal Unionists lost 245 seats, leaving them with only 157 members of parliament, the majority of them tariff reformers. Despite his loss, Law was at this stage such an asset to the Conservatives that an immediate effort was made to get him back into Parliament. The retirement of Frederick Rutherfoord Harris, MP for the safe Conservative seat of Dulwich, offered him a chance. Law was returned to Parliament in the ensuing by-election, increasing the Conservative majority to 1,279.The party was struck a blow in July 1906, when two days after a celebration of his seventieth birthday, Joseph Chamberlain suffered a stroke and was forced to retire from public life. He was succeeded as leader of the tariff reformers by his son Austen Chamberlain, who despite previous experience as Chancellor of the Exchequer and enthusiasm for tariff reform was not as skilled a speaker as Law. As a result, Law joined Balfour's Shadow Cabinet as the principal spokesman for tariff reform. The death of Law's wife on 31 October 1909 led him to work even harder, treating his political career not only as a job but as a coping strategy for his loneliness.Campbell-Bannerman resigned as prime minister in April 1908 and was replaced by H. H. Asquith. In 1909, he and his Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George introduced the People's Budget, which sought through increased direct and indirect taxes to redistribute wealth and fund social reform programmes. By parliamentary convention financial and budget bills are not challenged by the House of Lords, but in this case the predominantly Conservative Lords rejected the bill on 30 April, setting off a constitutional crisis.The Liberals called a general election for January 1910, and Law spent most of the preceding months campaigning up and down the country for other Conservative candidates and MPs, sure that his Dulwich seat was safe. He obtained an increased majority of 2,418. The overall result was more confused: the Conservatives gained 116 seats, bringing their total to 273, but this was still less than the Liberal caucus, and produced a hung parliament, as neither had a majority of the seats (the Irish Parliamentary Party, the Labour Party and the All-for-Ireland League took more than 120 seats in total). The Liberals remained in office with the support of the Irish Parliamentary Party. The Budget passed through the House of Commons a second time, and – as it now had an electoral mandate – was then approved by the House of Lords without a division.However, the crisis over the Budget had highlighted a long-standing constitutional question: should the House of Lords be able to overturn bills passed by the House of Commons? The Liberal government introduced a bill in February 1910 which would prevent the House of Lords vetoing finance bills, and would force them to pass any bill which had been passed by the Commons in three sessions of Parliament.This was immediately opposed by the Unionists, and both parties spent the next several months in a running battle over the bill. The Conservatives were led by Arthur Balfour and Lord Lansdowne, who headed the Conservatives in the House of Lords, while Law spent the time concentrating on the continuing problem of tariff reform. The lack of progress had convinced some senior Conservatives that it would be a good idea to scrap tariff reform altogether. Law disagreed, successfully arguing that tariff reform "was the first constructive work of the [Conservative Party]" and that to scrap it would "split the Party from top to bottom".With this success, Law returned to the constitutional crisis surrounding the House of Lords. The death of Edward VII on 6 May 1910 prompted the leaders of the major political parties to meet secretly in a "Truce of God" to discuss the Lords. The meetings were kept almost entirely secret: apart from the party representatives, the only people aware were F.E. Smith, J.L. Garvin, Edward Carson and Law. The group met about twenty times at Buckingham Palace between June and November 1910, with the Conservatives represented by Arthur Balfour, Lord Cawdor, Lord Lansdowne and Austen Chamberlain. The proposal presented at the conference by David Lloyd George was a coalition government with members of both major parties in the Cabinet and a programme involving Home Rule, Poor Law reforms, imperial reorganisation and possibly tariff reforms. The Home Rule proposal would have made the United Kingdom a federation, with "Home Rule All Round" for Scotland, Ireland, and England & Wales. In the end the plans fell through: Balfour told Lloyd George on 2 November that the proposal would not work, and the conference was dissolved a few days later.With the failure to establish a political consensus after the January 1910 general election, the Liberals called a second general election in December. The Conservative leadership decided that a good test of the popularity of the tariff reform programme would be to have a prominent tariff reformer stand for election in a disputed seat. They considered Law a prime candidate, and after debating it for a month he guardedly agreed, enthusiastic about the idea but worried about the effect of a defeat on the Party. Law was selected as the candidate for Manchester North West, and became drawn into party debates about how strong a tariff reform policy should be put in their manifesto. Law personally felt that duties on foodstuffs should be excluded, something agreed to by Alexander Acland-Hood, Edward Carson and others at a meeting of the Constitutional Club on 8 November 1910, but they failed to reach a consensus and the idea of including or excluding food duties continued to be something that divided the party.During the constitutional talks the Conservatives had demanded that, if the Lords' veto were removed, Irish Home Rule should only be permitted if approved by a UK-wide referendum. In response Lord Crewe, Liberal Leader in the Lords, had suggested sarcastically that tariff reform – a policy of questionable popularity because of the likelihood of increased prices on imported food – should also be submitted to a referendum. Arthur Balfour now announced to a crowd of 10,000 at the Royal Albert Hall that after the coming election, a Conservative Government would indeed submit tariff reform to a referendum, something he described as "Bonar Law's proposal" or the "Referendum Pledge". The suggestion was no more Law's than it was any of the dozens of Conservatives who had suggested this to Balfour, and his comment was simply an attempt to "pass the buck" and avoid the anger of Austen Chamberlain, who was furious that such an announcement had been made without consulting him or the party. While Law had written a letter to Balfour suggesting that a referendum would attract wealthy Conservatives, he said that "declaration would do no good with [the working class] and might damp enthusiasm of best workers".Parliament was dissolved on 28 November, with the election to take place and polling to end by 19 December. The Conservative and Liberal parties were equal in strength, and with the continued support of the Irish Nationalists the Liberal Party remained in government. Law called his campaign in Manchester North West the hardest of his career; his opponent, George Kemp, was a war hero who had fought in the Second Boer War and a former Conservative who had joined the Liberal party because of his disagreement with tariff reform.In the end Law narrowly lost, with 5,114 votes to Kemp's 5,559, but the election turned him into a "genuine [Conservative] hero", and he later said that the defeat did "more for him in the party than a hundred victories". In 1911, with the Conservative Party unable to afford him being out of Parliament, Law was elected in a by-election for the safe Conservative seat of Bootle. In his brief absence the Liberal suggestions for the reform of the House of Lords were passed as the Parliament Act 1911, ending that particular dispute.On the coronation of George V on 22 June 1911, Law was appointed as a Privy Councillor on the recommendation of the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith and Arthur Balfour. This was evidence of his seniority and importance within the Conservative Party. Balfour had become increasingly unpopular as Leader of the Conservative Party since the 1906 general election; tariff reformers saw his leadership as the reason for their electoral losses, and the "free fooders" had been alienated by Balfour's attempts to tame the zeal of the tariff reform faction. Balfour refused all suggestions of party reorganisation until a meeting of senior Conservatives led by Lord Salisbury after the December 1910 electoral defeat issued an ultimatum demanding a review of party structure.The defeat on the House of Lords issue turned a wing of the Conservative Party led by Henry Page Croft and his Reveille Movement, against Balfour. Leo Maxse began a Balfour Must Go campaign in his newspaper, the "National Review", and by July 1911 Balfour was contemplating resignation. Law himself had no problem with Balfour's leadership, and along with Edward Carson attempted to regain support for him. By November 1911 it was accepted that Balfour was likely to resign, with the main competitors for the leadership being Law, Carson, Walter Long and Austen Chamberlain. When the elections began, Long and Chamberlain were the frontrunners; Chamberlain commanded the support of many tariff reformers, and Long that of the Irish Unionists. Carson immediately announced that he would not stand, and Law eventually announced that he would run for Leader, the day before Balfour resigned on 7 November.At the beginning of the election Law held the support of no more than 40 of the 270 members of parliament; the remaining 230 were divided between Long and Chamberlain. Although Long believed he had the most MPs, his support was largely amongst backbenchers, and most of the whips and frontbenchers preferred Chamberlain.With Long and Chamberlain almost neck-and-neck they called a meeting on 9 November to discuss the possibility of a deadlock. Chamberlain suggested that he would withdraw if this became a strong possibility, assuming Long did the same. Long, now concerned that his weak health would not allow him to survive the stress of party leadership, agreed. Both withdrew on 10 November, and on 13 November 232 MPs assembled at the Carlton Club, and Law was nominated as leader by Long and Chamberlain. With the unanimous support of the MPs, Law became Leader of the Conservative Party despite never having sat in Cabinet. Law's biographer, Robert Blake, wrote that he was an unusual choice to lead the Conservatives as a Presbyterian Canadian-Scots businessman had just become the leader of "the Party of Old England, the Party of the Anglican Church and the country squire, the party of broad acres and hereditary titles"As leader, Law first "rejuvenated the party machine", selecting newer, younger and more popular whips and secretaries, elevating F.E. Smith and Lord Robert Cecil to the Shadow Cabinet and using his business acumen to reorganise the party, resulting in better relations with the press and local branches, along with the raising of a £671,000 "war chest" for the next general election: almost double that available at the previous one.On 12 February 1912, he finally unified the two Unionist parties (Conservatives and Liberal Unionists) into the awkwardly named National Unionist Association of Conservative and Liberal-Unionist Organisations. From then on all were referred to as "Unionists" until the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1922, after which they became Conservatives again (though the name "Unionist" continued in use in Scotland and Northern Ireland).In Parliament, Law introduced the so-called "new style" of speaking, with harsh, accusatory rhetoric, which dominates British politics to this day. This was as a counter to Arthur Balfour, known for his "masterly witticisms", because the party felt they needed a warrior-like figure. Law did not particularly enjoy his tougher manner, and at the State Opening of Parliament in February 1912 apologised directly to Asquith for his coming speech, saying, "I am afraid I shall have to show myself very vicious, Mr Asquith, this session. I hope you will understand." Law's "warrior king" figure helped unify the divided Conservatives into a single body, with him as the leader.During his early time as Conservative leader, the party's social policy was the most complicated and difficult to agree. In his opening speech as leader he said that the party would be one of principle, and would not be reactionary, instead sticking to their guns and holding firm policies. Despite this he left women's suffrage alone, leaving the party unwhipped and saying that "the less part we take in this question the better". In terms of social reform (legislation to improve the conditions of the poor and working classes) Law was similarly unenthusiastic, believing that the area was a Liberal one, in which they could not successfully compete. His response to a request by Lord Balcarres for a social programme was simply "As the [Liberal Party] refuse to formulate their policy in advance we should be equally absolved". His refusal to get drawn in may have actually strengthened his hold over Conservative MPs, many of whom were similarly uninterested in social reform.In his first public speech as leader at the Royal Albert Hall on 26 January 1912 he listed his three biggest concerns: an attack on the Liberal government for failing to submit Home Rule to a referendum; tariff reform; and the Conservative refusal to let the Ulster Unionists be "trampled upon" by an unfair Home Rule bill. Both tariff reform and Ulster dominated his political work, with Austen Chamberlain saying that Law "once said to me that he cared intensely for only two things: Tariff Reform and Ulster; all the rest was only part of the game".After further review with members of his party, Law changed his initial beliefs on tariff reform and accepted the full package, including duties on foodstuffs. On 29 February 1912 the entire Conservative parliamentary body (i.e. both MPs and peers) met at Lansdowne House, with Lord Lansdowne chairing. Lansdowne argued that although the electorate might prefer the Conservative Party if they dropped food duties from their tariff reform plan, it would open them to accusations of bad faith and "poltroonery". Law endorsed Lansdowne's argument, pointing out that any attempt to avoid food duties would cause an internal party struggle and could only aid the Liberals, and that Canada, the most economically important colony and a major exporter of foodstuffs, would never agree to tariffs without British support of food duties.Lord Salisbury, who opposed food duties, wrote to Law several weeks later suggesting they separate foodstuffs from tariff reform for the referendum. If the electorate liked food duties, they would vote for the entire package; if not, they did not have to. Law replied arguing that it would be impossible to do so effectively, and that with the increasing costs of defence and social programmes it would be impossible to raise the necessary capital except by comprehensive tariff reform. He argued that a failure to offer the entire tariff reform package would split the Conservative Party down the middle, offending the tariff reform faction, and that if such a split took place "I could not possibly continue as leader".Law postponed withdrawing the tariff reform "Referendum Pledge" because of the visit of Robert Borden, the newly elected Conservative prime minister of Canada, to London planned for July 1912. Meeting with Borden on his arrival, Law got him to agree to make a statement about the necessity of Imperial tariff reform, promising reciprocal agreements and saying that failure by London to agree tariff reform would result in an "irresistible pressure" for Canada to make a treaty with another nation, most obviously the United States.Law decided that the November party conference was the perfect time to announce the withdrawal of the Referendum Pledge, and that Lord Lansdowne should do it, because he had been leader in the House of Lords when the pledge was made and because of his relatively low profile during the original tariff reform dispute. When the conference opened the British political world was febrile; on 12 November the opposition had narrowly defeated the government on an amendment to the Home Rule Bill, and the next evening, amidst hysterical shouting from the opposition, Asquith attempted to introduce a motion reversing the previous vote. As the MPs filed out at the end of the day Winston Churchill began taunting the opposition, and in his anger Ronald McNeil hurled a copy of "Standing Orders of the House" at Churchill, hitting him on the head. Law refused to condemn the events, and it seems apparent that while he had played no part in organising them they "had" been planned by the party Whips. As party leader, he was most likely aware of the plans even if he did not actively participate.The conference was opened on 14 November 1912 by Lord Farquhar, who immediately introduced Lord Lansdowne. Lansdowne revoked the Referendum Pledge, saying that as the government had failed to submit Home Rule to a referendum, the offer that tariff reform would also be submitted was null and void. Lansdowne promised that when the Unionists took office they would "do so with a free hand to deal with tariffs as they saw fit". Law then rose to speak, and in line with his agreement to let Lansdowne speak for tariff reform mentioned it only briefly when he said "I concur in every word which has fallen from Lord Lansdowne". He instead promised a reversal of several Liberal policies when the Unionists came to power, including the disestablishment of the Welsh Church, land taxes and Irish Home Rule. The crowd "cheered themselves hoarse" at Law's speech.However, the reaction from the party outside the conference hall was not a positive one. Law had not consulted the local constituency branches about his plan, and several important constituency leaders led by Archibald Salvidge and Lord Derby planned for a meeting of the Lancashire party, the centre of discontent, on 21 December. Law was preoccupied with the problem of Irish Home Rule and was unable to give the discontent his full attention. He continued to believe that his approach to the problem of tariff reform was the correct one, and wrote to John Strachey on 16 November saying that "it was a case of a choice of two evils, and all that one could do was to take the lesser of the two, and that I am sure we have done". Speaking to Edward Carson, F.E. Smith, Austen Chamberlain and Lord Balcarres in December after two weeks of receiving negative letters from party members about the change, Law outlined that he would not be averse to a return to the previous policy considering the negative feelings from the party, but felt that this would require the resignation of both himself and Lansdowne.Law again wrote to Strachey saying that he continued to feel this policy was the correct one, and only regretted that the issue was splitting the party at a time when unity was needed to fight the Home Rule problem. At the meeting of the Lancashire party the group under Derby condemned Law's actions and called for a three-week party recess before deciding what to do about the repeal of the Referendum Pledge. This was an obvious ultimatum to Law, giving him a three-week period to change his mind. Law believed that Derby was "unprincipled and treacherous", particularly since he then circulated a questionnaire among Lancashire party members with leading questions such as "do you think the abandonment of the referendum will do harm?" Law met the Lancashire party on 2 January 1913 and ordered that they must replace any food tariff based resolutions with a vote of confidence in him as a leader, and that any alternative would result in his resignation.After a chance meeting at which Edward Carson learnt of Law and Lansdowne's acceptance of possible resignation, he was spurred to ask Edward Goulding to beg Law and Lansdowne to compromise over the policy and remain as leaders. The compromise, known as the January Memorial, was agreed by Carson, James Craig, Law and Lansdowne at Law's house between 6–8 January 1913, affirming the support of the signatories for Law and his policies, and noting that his resignation was not wanted.Within two days 231 of the 280 Conservative MPs had signed it; 27 frontbenchers had not been invited, neither had five who were not in London, seven who were ill, the Speaker and a few others who could not be found – only eight MPs actively refused to sign. Law's official response took the form of an open letter published on 13 January 1913, in which Law offered a compromise that food duties would not be placed before Parliament to vote on until after a second, approving election took place.The January and December elections in 1910 destroyed the large Liberal majority, meaning they relied on the Irish Nationalists to maintain a government. As a result, they were forced to consider Home Rule, and with the passing of the Parliament Act 1911 which replaced the Lords' veto with a two-year power of delay on most issues, the Conservative Party became aware that unless they could dissolve Parliament or sabotage the Home Rule Bill, introduced in 1912, it would most likely become law by 1914.As the child of an Ulster family who had spent much time in the area (his father had moved back there several years after Law moved to Scotland), Law believed the gap between Ulster Unionism and Irish Nationalism could never be crossed. Despite this he said little about Home Rule until the passing of the Parliament Act in 1911, calling it the "Home Rule in Disguise Act" and saying it was an attempt to change parliamentary procedures so as to allow Home Rule "through the back door".After the act's passage, he made a speech in the Commons saying if the Liberals wished to pass a Home Rule Bill they should submit it to the electorate by calling a general election. His elevation to the leadership of the Conservative Party allowed him a platform to voice his opinion to the public, and his speeches (culminating with the January 1912 speech at the Royal Albert Hall) were centred on Home Rule as much as they were around tariff reform. In contrast to Balfour's "milk and water" opposition to Home Rule, Law presented a "fire and blood" opposition to Home Rule that at times seemed to suggest that he was willing to contemplate a civil war to stop Home Rule. Law stated he would not stop "from any action...we think necessary to defeat one of the most ignoble conspiracies...ever formed against the liberties of free-born men." As the Conservative Party was badly divided by the tariff issue, Law had decided to make opposition for Home Rule his signature issue as the best way of unifying the Conservative Party. Right form the start, Law presented his anti-Home Rule stance more in terms of protecting Protestant majority Ulster from being ruled by a Parliament in Dublin that would be dominated by Catholics than in terms of preserving the Union, much to the chagrin of many Unionists.Law was supported by Edward Carson, leader of the Ulster Unionists. Although Law sympathised with the Ulster Unionists politically he did not agree with the religious intolerance shown to Catholics. The passions unleashed by the Home Rule debate frequently threatened to get out of hand. In January 1912, when Winston Churchill planned to deliver a speech in favour of Home Rule in at the Ulster Hall in Belfast, the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) threatened to use violence if necessary to stop Churchill from speaking. The legal scholar A. V. Dicey, himself an opponent of Home Rule, wrote in a letter to Law that the threats of violence were "the worst mistake" that undermined "the whole moral strength" of the Unionist movement. But as Carson admitted in a letter to Law, the situation in Belfast was beyond his control as many UUC members were also members of the Loyal Orange Order, and the prospect of Churchill's visit to Belfast had angered so many of his followers that he felt he had to threaten violence as the best possible way of stopping the planned speech instead of leaving it to his followers who might otherwise riot. As it was, Churchill agreed to cancel his speech in response to warnings that the police would not be able to guarantee his security. Besides for his concerns about the violence, Dicey was also worried about the way in which Law was more interested about stopping Home Rule from being imposed on Ulster, instead of all of Ireland, which seemed to imply he was willing to accept the partition of Ireland. Many Irish Unionists outside of Ulster felt abandoned by Law, who seemed to care only about Ulster.The 1912 session of Parliament opened on 14 February with a stated intent by the Liberal Party in the King's Speech to introduce a new Home Rule Bill. The bill was to be introduced on 11 April, and four days before that Law travelled to Ulster for a tour of the area. The pinnacle of this was a meeting on 9 April in the grounds of the Royal Agricultural Society near Balmoral (an area of Belfast), attended by seventy Unionist MPs, the Primate of All Ireland and topped by "perhaps the largest Union Jack ever made" – 48 feet by 25 feet on a flagpole 90 feet high.At the meeting both Law and Carson swore to the crowd that "never under any circumstances will we submit to Home Rule". However, the Parliament Act and the government majority made such a victory against the Bill unlikely unless the government could be brought down or Parliament dissolved. A second problem was that not all Unionists opposed Home Rule to the same degree; some hardcore Unionists would oppose any attempt at Home Rule, others thought it inevitable that the Bill would pass and were simply trying to get the best deal possible for Ulster. The spectre of civil war was also raised – the Ulstermen began to form paramilitary groups such as the Ulster Volunteers, and there was a strong possibility that if it came to fighting the British Army would have to be sent in to support the underfunded and understaffed Royal Irish Constabulary.The argument of Law and the Unionists between 1912 and 1914 was based on three complaints. Firstly, Ulster would never accept forced Home Rule, and made up a quarter of Ireland; if the Liberals wanted to force this issue, military force would be the only way. Law thundered that "Do you plan to hurl the full majesty and power of the law, supported on the bayonets of the British Army, against a million Ulstermen marching under the Union Flag and singing 'God Save The King'? Would the Army hold? Would the British people – would the Crown – stand for such a slaughter?". A second complaint was that the government had so far refused to submit it to a general election, as Law had been suggesting since 1910. Law warned that "you will not carry this Bill without submitting it to the people of this country, and, if you make the attempt, you will succeed only in breaking our Parliamentary machine". The third complaint was that the Liberals had still not honoured the preamble of the Parliament Act 1911, which promised "to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of a hereditary basis". The Unionist argument was that the Liberals were trying to make a massive constitutional change while the constitution was suspended. In May 1912, Law was told by the Conservative whip Lord Balcarres that outside of Ireland "the electors are apathetic" about Home Rule, suggesting that he should de-emphasis the topic.In July 1912 Asquith travelled to Dublin (the first sitting prime minister to do so in over a century) to make a speech, ridiculing Unionist demands for a referendum on the issue via an election and calling their campaign "purely destructive in its objects, anarchic and chaotic in its methods". In response the Unionists had a meeting on 27 July at Blenheim Palace, the birthplace of Winston Churchill, one of Asquith's ministers. More than 13,000 people attended, including over 40 peers. In Law's speech he said "I said so to [the Liberals] and I say so now, with the full sense of the responsibility which attaches to my position, that if the attempt be made under present conditions, I can imagine no length of resistance to which Ulster will go, in which I shall not be ready to support them, and in which they will not be supported by the overwhelming majority of the British people". Law added that if Asquith continued with the Home Rule bill, the government would be "lighting the fires of civil war". This speech was more known and criticised than any others; it implied both he and the British people would support the Ulstermen in anything, including armed rebellion.Despite the conflict and fierce resistance, the Bill continued its passage through Parliament. It moved to its second reading on 9 June, and the Committee stage on 11 June, where it became fraught in controversy after a young Liberal named Thomas Agar-Robartes proposed an amendment excluding four of the Ulster counties (Londonderry, Down, Antrim & Armagh) from the Irish Parliament. This put Law in a delicate situation, since he had previously said that he would support a system allowing each county to remain "outside the Irish Parliament", at the same time saying that he would not support any amendment that didn't have Ulster's full co-operation. If he accepted the amendment, he would be seen as abandoning the Irish Unionists, but on the other hand if the amendment was carried it might disrupt the government by causing a split between the Liberals and Irish Nationalists, bringing down the government and thus forcing an election.If Unionists wished to win the ensuing election they would have to show they were willing to compromise. In the end the amendment failed, but with the Liberal majority reduced by 40, and when a compromise amendment was proposed by another Liberal MP the government Whips were forced to trawl for votes. Law saw this as a victory, as it highlighted the split in the government. Edward Carson tabled another amendment on 1 January 1913 which would exclude all nine Ulster counties, more to test government resolve than anything else. While it failed, it allowed the Unionists to portray themselves as the party of compromise and the Liberals as stubborn and recalcitrant.The Unionists in Ulster were committed to independence from any Irish Home Rule. They secretly authorised a Commission of Five to write a constitution for "a provisional Government of Ulster... to come into operation on the day of the passage of any Home Rule Bill, to remain in force until Ulster shall again resume unimpaired citizenship in the United Kingdom".On 28 September 1912, Carson led 237,638 of his followers in signing a Solemn League and Covenant saying that Ulster would refuse to recognise the authority of any Parliament of Ireland arising from Home Rule. The "Ulster Covenant" as the Solemn League and Covenant was popularly called recalled the National Covenant signed by the Scots in 1638 to resist King Charles I who was viewed by Scots Presbyterians as a crypto-Catholic, and was widely seen as a sectarian document that promoted a "Protestant crusade". The Conservative MP Alfred Cripps wrote in a letter to Law that English Catholics like himself were opposed to Home Rule, but he was troubled by the way that Law seemed to be using the issue as "an occasion to attack their religion." In his reply of 7 October 1912, Law wrote he was opposed to religious bigotry and claimed that as far he could tell that no "responsible" Unionist leader in Ireland had attacked the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, the Conservative MP Lord Hugh Cecil had in the summer of 1912 given anti-Home Rule speeches in Ireland where he shouted "To Hell with the Pope!", and was not censured by Law. When Parliament resumed in October after the summer recess, the Home Rule Bill was passed by the Commons. As expected, the House of Lords rejected it 326 to 69, and under the provisions of the Parliament Act it could only be passed if it was passed twice more by the Commons in successive Parliaments. In December 1912, the chairmen of the Conservative Party, Arthur Steel-Maitland, wrote to Law that the Home Rule issue did not command much attention in England, and asked that he move away from the topic which he asserted was damaging the image of the Conservatives.The end of 1912 saw the end of a year of political struggle for Law. As well as the problem of Home Rule, there were internal party struggles; supporters of the Church of England or military reform lambasted Law for not paying attention to their causes, and tariff reformers argued with him over his previous compromise on food duties. Despite this, most Conservatives realised that as a fighting leader, Law could not be bettered. The results of by-elections throughout 1913 continued to favour them, but progress on the Home Rule Bill was less encouraging; on 7 July it was again passed by the Commons, and again rejected by the Lords on 15 July. In response, the UUC created a paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), to fight against the British government if necessary to stop Home Rule. The Conservative peer, Lord Hythe, wrote to Law to suggest the Conservatives needed to present a constructive alternative to Home Rule and he had the "duty to tell these Ulstermen" that there was no need for the UVF. Another Tory peer, Lord Sailsbury, wrote to Law that as much as he was opposed to Home Rule that: "I cannot support political lawlessness and I shall either disenfranchise myself or vote Liberal...rather than encourage armed resistance in Ulster." Lord Balcarres wrote to Law that much of the Conservative caucus were "deeply confused and uncertain" and the "policies of reckless defiance" were unpopular with the party membership in England. Balcarres wrote he was "...much alarmed lest some sporadicoutbreak by Orangemen should...alienate English sympathies." Lord Lansdowne advised Law to be "extremely careful in our relations with Carson and his friends" and find a way of stopping F. E. Smith’s "habit of expressing rather violent sentiments in the guise of messages from the Unionist party." Balfour wrote to Law that he had "much misgiving upon the general loosening of the ordinary ties of social obligation...I do most strongly feel that nothing can be more demoralising to a society than that some of its...most loyal members should deliberately organise themselves for the purpose of offering...armed resistance to persons...representing lawful authority."During the debate on the Home Rule bill, Carson submitted an amendment that would exclude the 9 counties of Ulster from the jurisdiction of the proposed Parliament that would govern from Dublin, which was defeated by the Liberal MPs. However, Carson's amendment which would lead to the partition of Ireland caused much alarm with Irish Unionists outside of Ulster and led many to write letters from Law seeking assurances that he would not abandon them for the sake of saving Ulster from Home Rule. Carson told Law that he favoured a compromise under which Home Rule would be granted to southern Ireland, but not Ulster, and at the same time some sort of home rule be granted to Wales and Scotland as well. Law himself in a letter to a friend stated that the British public was "so sick of the whole Irish question" that the majority would probably agree to a compromise of a Home Rule for Ireland sans Ulster.Parliament rose for the summer recess on 15 August, and Law and the Unionists spent the summer trying to convince the King to voice an opinion on the issue. Their first suggestion was that he should withhold the Royal Assent on it, something that horrified Law's constitutional law adviser A.V. Dicey. The second was more reasonable – they argued that the Liberals had put the King in an impossible position by asking him to ratify a bill that would infuriate half of the population. His only option was to write a memo to Asquith saying this and requesting that the problem of home rule be put to the electorate via a general election. After thinking on this, the King agreed, and handed a note to Asquith on 11 August requesting either an election or an all-party conference.Asquith responded with two notes, the first countering the Unionist claim that it would be acceptable for the King to dismiss Parliament or withhold assent of the Bill to force an election, and the second arguing that a Home Rule election would not prove anything, since a Unionist victory would only be due to other problems and scandals and would not assure supporters of the current government that Home Rule was truly opposed.King George pressed for a compromise, summoning various political leaders to Balmoral Castle individually for talks. Law arrived on 13 September and again pointed out to the king his belief that if the Government continued to refuse an election fought over Home Rule and instead forced it on Ulster, the Ulstermen would not accept it and any attempts to enforce it would not be obeyed by the British Army.By early October the King was pressuring the British political world for an all-party conference. Fending this off, Law instead met with senior party members to discuss developments. Law, Balfour, Smith and Long discussed the matter, all except Long favouring a compromise with the Liberals. Long represented the anti-Home Rule elements in Southern Ireland, and from this moment onwards Southern and Northern attitudes towards Home Rule began to diverge. Law then met with Edward Carson, and afterwards expressed the opinion that "the men of Ulster do desire a settlement on the basis of leaving Ulster out, and Carson thinks such an arrangement could be carried out without any serious attack from the Unionists in the South".On 8 October Asquith wrote to Law suggesting an informal meeting of the two party leaders, which Law accepted. The two met at Cherkley Court, the home of Law's ally Sir Max Aitken MP (later Lord Beaverbrook), on 14 October. The meeting lasted an hour, and Law told Asquith that he would continue to try to have Parliament dissolved, and that in any ensuing election the Unionists would accept the result even if it went against them. Law later expressed his fear to Lansdowne that Asquith would persuade the Irish Nationalists to accept Home Rule with the exclusion of four Ulster counties with Protestant/unionist majorities. Carson would not accept this, requiring six of nine ulster counties to be excluded (i.e., four with unionist majorities plus two majority nationalist, leaving the three Ulster counties with large nationalist majorities, leading to an overall unionist majority in the six); such a move might split the Unionists. Law knew that Asquith was unlikely to consent to a general election, since he would almost certainly lose it, and that any attempt to pass the Home Rule Bill "without reference to the electorate" would lead to civil disturbance. As such, Asquith was stuck "between a rock and a hard place" and was sure to negotiate.Asquith and Law met for a second private meeting on 6 November, at which Asquith raised three possibilities. The first, suggested by Sir Edward Grey, consisted of "Home Rule within Home Rule" – Home Rule covering Ulster, but with partial autonomy for Ulster. The second was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for a number of years before becoming part of it, and the third was that Ulster would be excluded from Home Rule for as long as it liked, with the opportunity of joining when it wished. Law made it clear to Asquith that the first two options were unacceptable, but the third might be accepted in some circles.The leaders then discussed the geographical definition of the area to be excluded from Home Rule; Ulster formally consists of nine counties, of which only four had a clear unionist majority, three a clear nationalist majority and two a small nationalist majority – however, overall a practical problem was that the nine counties of Ulster were majority nationalist. Carson always referred to nine counties of Ulster, but Law told Asquith that if an appropriate settlement could be made with a smaller number, Carson "would see his people and probably, though I could not give any promise to that effect, try to induce them to accept it".The third meeting was on 10 December and Law, raging because Asquith had not yet presented a concrete way to exclude Ulster, made little progress. Law brushed aside Asquith's suggestions and insisted that only the exclusion of Ulster was worth considering. He later wrote that "My feeling, however, is that Asquith has no hope whatsoever of making such an arrangement and that his present idea is simply to let things drift in the meantime.. I do not understand why he took the trouble of seeing me at all. The only explanation I can give is that I think he is in a funk about the whole position and thought that meeting me might keep the thing open at least".With the failure of these talks, Law accepted that a compromise was unlikely, and from January 1914 he returned to the position that the Unionists were "opposed utterly to Home Rule". The campaign was sufficient to bring the noted organiser Lord Milner back into politics to support the Unionists, and he immediately asked L.S. Amery to write a British Covenant saying that the signers would, if the Home Rule Bill passed, "feel justified in taking or supporting any action that may be effective to prevent it being put into operation, and more particularly to prevent the armed forces of the Crown being used to deprive the people of Ulster of their rights as citizens of the United Kingdom". The Covenant was announced at a massive rally in Hyde Park on 4 April 1914, with hundreds of thousands assembling to hear Milner, Long and Carson speak. By the middle of the summer Long claimed more than 2,000,000 people had signed the Covenant.Law's critics, including George Dangerfield, condemned his actions in assuring the Ulster Unionists of Conservative Party support in their armed resistance to Home Rule, as unconstitutional, verging on promoting a civil war. Law's supporters argued that he was acting constitutionally by forcing the Liberal government into calling the election it had been avoiding, to obtain a mandate for their reforms.Law was not directly involved in the British Covenant campaign as he was focusing on a practical way to defeat the Home Rule Bill. His first attempt was via the Army (Annual) Act, something that "violated a basic and ancient principle of the constitution". Every year since the Glorious Revolution, the Act had fixed the maximum number of soldiers in the British Army; rejecting it would technically make the British Army an illegal institution.Lord Selborne had written to Law in 1912 to point out that vetoing or significantly amending the Act in the House of Lords would force the government to resign, and such a course of action was also suggested by others in 1913–14. Law believed that subjecting Ulstermen to a Dublin-based government they did not recognise was itself constitutionally damaging, and that amending the Army (Annual) Act to prevent the use of force in Ulster (he never suggested vetoing it) would not violate the constitution any more than the actions the government had already undertaken.By 12 March he had established that, should the Home Rule Bill be passed under the Parliament Act 1911, the Army (Annual) Act should be amended in the Lords to stipulate that the Army could not "be used in Ulster to prevent or interfere with any step which may thereafter be taken in Ulster to organise resistance to the enforcement of the Home Rule Act in Ulster nor to suppress any such resistance until and unless the present Parliament has been dissolved and a period of three months shall have lapsed after the meeting of a new Parliament". The Shadow Cabinet consulted legal experts, who agreed wholeheartedly with Law's suggestion. Although several members expressed dissent, the Shadow Cabinet decided "provisionally to agree to amendment of army act. but to leave details and decisions as to the moment of acting to Lansdowne and Law". In the end no amendment to the Army Act was offered, though; many backbenchers and party loyalists became agitated by the scheme and wrote to him that it was unacceptable – Ian Malcolm, a fanatical Ulster supporter, told Law that amending the Army Act would drive him out of the Party.On 30 July 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Law met with Asquith and agreed to temporarily suspend the issue of Home Rule to avoid domestic discontent during wartime. By the following day both leaders had convinced their parties to agree to this move. On 3 August, Law promised openly in Commons that his Conservative Party would give "unhesitating support' to the government's war policy. On 4 August, Germany rejected British demands for a withdrawal from Belgium, and Britain declared war.Over the coming months, the Liberal, Labour and Conservative whips worked out a truce suspending confrontational politics until either 1 January 1915 or until the end of the War. On 4 August both Asquith and Law made speeches together at the Middlesex Guildhall, and uncomfortably socialised with each other's parties. On 6 August, the Conservatives learnt that Asquith planned to put the Home Rule Bill on the statute books; Law wrote an angry letter to Asquith, the response of which was that Asquith could either pass the bill immediately, suspending it for the duration of the conflict, or make it law with a six-month delay and with a three-year exclusion for Ulster. Law responded with a speech in the Commons, saying that "the Government have treated us abominably... but we are in the middle of a great struggle. Until that struggle [is] over, so far as we are concerned, in everything connected with it there would be no parties, there would openly be a nation. In regard to this debate I have made protest as well as I could, but when I have finished we shall take no further part in the discussion". The entire Party then left the Commons silently, and although a strong protest (Asquith later admitted that "it was unique in my or I think anybody's experience") the bill was still passed, although with a suspension for the duration of the War.The Conservatives soon began to get annoyed that they were unable to criticise the Government, and took this into Parliament; rather than criticising policy, they would attack individual ministers, including the Lord Chancellor (who they considered "far too enamoured of German culture") and the Home Secretary, who was "too tender to aliens". By Christmas 1914 they were anxious about the war; it was not, in their opinion, going well, and yet they were restricted to serving on committees and making recruitment speeches. At about the same time, Law and David Lloyd George met to discuss the possibility of a coalition government. Law was supportive of the idea in some ways, seeing it as a probability that "a coalition government would come in time".The crisis which forced a coalition was twofold; first the Shell Crisis of 1915, and then the resignation of Lord Fisher, the First Sea Lord. The Shell Crisis was a shortage of artillery shells on the Western Front. It indicated a failure to fully organise British industry. Asquith tried to ward off the criticism the day before the debate, praising his government's efforts and saying that "I do not believe that any army has ever either entered upon a campaign or been maintained during a campaign with better or more adequate equipment". The Conservatives, whose sources of information included officers such as Sir John French, were not put off, and instead became furious.Over the next few days the Conservative backbenchers threatened to break the truce and mount an attack on the government over the munitions situation. Law forced them to back down on 12 May, but on the 14th an article appeared in "The Times" blaming the British failure at the Battle of Aubers Ridge on the lack of munitions. This again stirred up the backbenchers, who were only just kept in line. The Shadow Cabinet took a similar line; things could not go on as they were. The crisis was only halted with the resignation of Lord Fisher. Fisher had opposed Winston Churchill over the Gallipoli Campaign, and felt that he could not continue in government if the two would be in conflict. Law knew that this would push the Conservative back bench over the edge, and met with David Lloyd George on 17 May to discuss Fisher's resignation. Lloyd George decided that "the only way to preserve a united front was to arrange for more complete cooperation between parties in the direction of the War". Lloyd George reported the meeting to Asquith, who agreed that a coalition was inescapable. He and Law agreed to form a coalition government.Law's next job, therefore, was to assist the Liberal Party in creating a new government. In their discussions on 17 May, both Law and Lloyd George had agreed that Lord Kitchener should not remain in the War Office, and removing him became top priority. Unfortunately the press began a campaign supporting Kitchener on 21 May, and the popular feeling that this raised convinced Law, Lloyd George and Asquith that Kitchener could not be removed. To keep him and at the same time remove the munitions supply from his grasp to prevent a repeat of the "shells crisis" the Ministry of Munitions was created, with Lloyd George becoming Minister of Munitions.Law eventually accepted the post of Colonial Secretary, an unimportant post in wartime; Asquith had made it clear that he would not allow a Conservative minister to head the Exchequer, and that with Kitchener (whom he considered a Conservative) in the War Office, he would not allow another Conservative to hold a similarly important position. Fearing for the integrity of the coalition, Law accepted this position. Outside of Law's position, other Conservatives also gained positions in the new administration; Arthur Balfour became First Lord of the Admiralty, Austen Chamberlain became Secretary of State for India and Edward Carson became Attorney General.During Law's time as Colonial Secretary, the three main issues were the question of manpower for the British Army, the crisis in Ireland and the Dardanelles Campaign. Dardanelles took priority, as seen by Asquith's restructuring of his War Council into a Dardanelles Committee. Members included Kitchener, Law, Churchill, Lloyd George and Lansdowne, with the make-up divided between political parties to defuse tension and provide criticism of policy. The main discussion was on the possibility of reinforcing the forces already landed, something Law disagreed with. With Asquith and the Army in support, however, he felt that he was ill-equipped to combat the proposal. Five more divisions were landed, but faced heavy casualties for little gain. As a result, Law led a strong resistance to the idea at the next Committee meeting on 18 August. The idea only avoided being scrapped thanks to the French promise to send forces in early September, and the arguing became an immense strain on the government.Law entered the coalition government as Colonial Secretary in May 1915, his first Cabinet post, and, following the resignation of Prime Minister and Liberal Party Leader Asquith in December 1916, was invited by King George V to form a government, but he deferred to Lloyd George, Secretary of State for War and former Minister of Munitions, who he believed was better placed to lead a coalition ministry. He served in Lloyd George's War Cabinet, first as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons.While chancellor, he raised the stamp duty on cheques from one penny to twopence in 1918. His promotion reflected the great mutual trust between the two leaders and made for a well co-ordinated political partnership; their coalition was re-elected by a landslide following the Armistice. Law's two eldest sons were both killed whilst fighting in the war. In the 1918 General Election, Law returned to Glasgow and was elected as member for Glasgow Central.At war's end, Law gave up the Exchequer for the less demanding sinecure office of Lord Privy Seal, but remained Leader of the Commons. In 1921, ill health forced his resignation as Conservative leader and Leader of the Commons in favour of Austen Chamberlain. His departure weakened the hardliners in the cabinet who were opposed to negotiating with the Irish Republican Army, and the Anglo-Irish War ended in the summer.By 1921–22 the coalition had become embroiled in an air of moral and financial corruption (e.g. the sale of honours). Besides the recent Irish Treaty and Edwin Montagu's moves towards greater self-government for India, both of which dismayed rank-and-file Conservative opinion, the government's willingness to intervene against the Bolshevik regime in Russia also seemed out of step with the new and more pacifist mood. A sharp slump in 1921 and a wave of strikes in the coal and railway industries also added to the government's unpopularity, as did the apparent failure of the Genoa Conference, which ended in an apparent rapprochement between Germany and Soviet Russia. In other words, it was no longer the case that Lloyd George was an electoral asset to the Conservative Party.Lloyd George, Birkenhead and Winston Churchill (still distrusted by many Conservatives) wished to use armed force against Turkey (the Chanak Crisis), but had to back down when offered support only by New Zealand and Newfoundland, and not Canada, Australia or South Africa; Law wrote to "The Times" supporting the government but stating that Britain could not "act as the policeman for the world".At a meeting at the Carlton Club, Conservative backbenchers, led by the President of the Board of Trade Stanley Baldwin and influenced by the recent Newport by-election which was won from the Liberals by a Conservative, voted to end the Lloyd George Coalition and fight the next election as an independent party. Austen Chamberlain resigned as Party Leader, Lloyd George resigned as prime minister and Law took both jobs on 23 October 1922.Many leading Conservatives (e.g. Birkenhead, Arthur Balfour, Austen Chamberlain, Robert Horne) were not members of the new Cabinet, which Birkenhead contemptuously referred to as "the Second Eleven". Although the Coalition Conservatives numbered no more than thirty, they hoped to dominate any future Coalition government in the same way that the similarly sized Peelite group had dominated the Coalition Government of 1852–1855 – an analogy much used at the time.Parliament was immediately dissolved, and a General Election ensued. Besides the two Conservative factions, the Labour Party were fighting as a major national party for the first time and indeed became the main Opposition after the election; the Liberals were still split into Asquith and Lloyd George factions, with many Lloyd George Liberals still unopposed by Conservative candidates (including Churchill, who was defeated at Dundee nonetheless). Despite the confused political arena the Conservatives were re-elected with a comfortable majority.Questions were raised about whether the elderly Conservative Party Treasurer, Lord Farquhar, had passed on to Lloyd George (who during his premiership had amassed a large fund, largely from the sale of honours) any money intended for the Conservative Party. The Coalition Conservatives also hoped to obtain Conservative Party money from Farquhar. Bonar Law found Farquhar too "gaga" to properly explain what had happened, and dismissed him.One of the questions which taxed Law's brief government was that of inter-Allied war debts. Britain owed money to the US, and in turn was owed four times as much money by France, Italy and the other Allied powers, although under the Lloyd George government Balfour had promised that Britain would collect no more money from other Allies than she was required to repay the USA; the debt was hard to repay as trade (exports were needed to earn foreign currency) had not returned to prewar levels.On a trip to the USA Stanley Baldwin, the inexperienced Chancellor of the Exchequer, agreed to repay £40 million per annum to the USA rather than the £25 million which the British government had thought feasible, and on his return announced the deal to the press when his ship docked at Southampton, before the Cabinet had had a chance to consider it. Law contemplated resignation, and after being talked out of it by senior ministers vented his feelings in an anonymous letter to "The Times".Law was soon diagnosed with terminal throat cancer and, no longer physically able to speak in Parliament, resigned on 20 May 1923. George V sent for Baldwin, whom Law is rumoured to have favoured over Lord Curzon. However Law did not offer any advice to the King. Law died later that same year in London at the age of 65. His funeral was held at Westminster Abbey where later his ashes were interred. His estate was probated at £35,736 (approximately £ as of 2021).Bonar Law was the shortest-serving prime minister of the 20th century. He is often referred to as "the unknown prime minister", not least because of a biography of that title by Robert Blake; the name comes from a remark by Asquith at Bonar Law's funeral, that they were burying the Unknown Prime Minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Sir Steven Runciman is reported to have said that he had known all British prime ministers in his lifetime, except Bonar Law, "whom nobody knew".A tiny hamlet (unincorporated village) in the municipality of Stirling-Rawdon, Ontario, Canada, is named Bonarlaw after the British prime minister. It had been known as "Big Springs" and then "Bellview". The Bonar Law Memorial High School in Bonar Law's birthplace, Rexton, New Brunswick, Canada, is also named in his honour.
|
[
"Chancellor of the Exchequer",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Leader of the Opposition",
"Member of the 32nd Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Prime Minister of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
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Who was the head coach of the team Panathinaikos F.C. in Aug, 2005?
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August 09, 2005
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{
"text": [
"Alberto Malesani"
]
}
|
L2_Q4122219_P286_6
|
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Sotiris Silaidopoulos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Juan Ramón Rocha is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Aggelos Anastasiadis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Feb, 2001.
Zdeněk Ščasný is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2004 to Feb, 2005.
Alberto Malesani is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Feb, 2005 to May, 2006.
Dani Poyatos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Jasminko Velić is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Sep, 2006 to Oct, 2006.
José Peseiro is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2007 to May, 2008.
Yannis Anastasiou is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from May, 2013 to Nov, 2015.
László Bölöni is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to May, 2021.
Sergio Markarián is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2002 to Jun, 2004.
Jesualdo Ferreira is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2010 to Nov, 2012.
Fabriciano González is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Mar, 2013.
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Panathinaikos F.C.Panathinaikos Football Club ( ), known as Panathinaikos, or by its full name, and the name of its parent sports club, Panathinaikos A.O. or PAO (; "Panathinaïkós Athlitikós Ómilos", "All-Athenian Athletic Club"), is a Greek professional football club based in the capital-city of Athens, Greece.Created in 1908 as "Podosfairikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens") by Georgios Kalafatis, they play in the Super League Greece, being one of the most successful clubs in Greek football and one of three clubs which have never been relegated from the top division. Amongst their major titles are 20 Greek Championships, 18 Greek Cups, achieving eight times the Double, and 3 Greek Super Cups. They are also one of the two clubs that won a championship undefeated, going without a loss in a top-flight campaign in the 1963–64 season.Panathinaikos is also the most successful Greek club in terms of achievements in the European competitions. It is the only Greek team that has reached the European Cup (later renamed UEFA Champions League) final in 1971 (which they lost to Ajax Amsterdam 2–0), and also the semi-finals twice, in 1985 and 1996. It is also the only Greek team that has played for the Intercontinental Cup (1971). Furthermore, they have reached the quarter-finals of the Champions League on another two occasions (in 1992 and 2002), as well as the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup twice (1988 and 2003). They have also won the Balkans Cup in 1977. Panathinaikos is a member of the European Club Association.Since the 1950s, the club maintains some of the oldest and most successful academies in Greece, producing talent for the first team and feeding the Greek national football team. They have played their home games in the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, considered their traditional home ground, and the Athens Olympic Stadium.According to researches and polls, Panathinaikos is one of the most popular football teams in Greece.They hold a long-term rivalry with Olympiacos, the clash between the two teams being referred to as the "Derby of the eternal enemies."According to the official history of the club, Panathinaikos was founded by Giorgos Kalafatis on 3 February 1908, when he and 40 other athletes decided to break away from Panellinios Gymnastikos Syllogos following the club's decision to discontinue its football team. The name of the new club was "Podosferikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens"). It was founded with the aim of spreading and making more known this new sport (football) to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, the intention of the founders was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active. The first president elected was Alexandros Kalafatis, brother of Giorgos. The ground of the team was in Patission Street. Oxford University athlete John Cyril Campbell was brought in as coach, the first time that a foreigner was appointed as the coach of a Greek team. Konstantinos Tsiklitiras, the great Greek athlete of the early 20th century, played as goalkeeper for the new team.In 1910, after a dispute among a number of board members, Kalafatis with most of the players—also followed by Campbell—decided to pull out of POA and secured a new ground in Amerikis Square. Subsequently, the name of the club changed to Panellinios Podosferikos Omilos ("Panhellenic Football Club") and its colours to green and white. By 1914, Campbell had returned to England but the club was already at the top of Greek football with players such as Michalis Papazoglou, Michalis Rokkos and Loukas Panourgias.In 1918, the team adopted the trifolium (shamrock) as its emblem, as proposed by Michalis Papazoglou. In 1921 and 1922, the Athens-Piraeus FCA organized the first two post-WWI championships, in both of which PPO was declared champion. By that stage, the club had outgrown both the grounds in Patission Street and Amerikis Square, due mainly to its expansion in other sports, and began to look at vacant land in the area of Perivola on Alexandras Avenue as its potential new ground. After long discussions with the Municipality of Athens, an agreement was finally reached and in 1922 "Leoforos" ("Avenue" in Greek) was granted to the club.The move to a permanent home ground also heralded another—final—name change to Panathinaikos Athlitikos Omilos (PAO), ""All-Athenian Athletic Club"", on 15 March 1924, from now on a multi-sport club. However, the decision was already taken by 1922.In 1926, the Hellenic Football Federation (HFF) was founded and the first Greek Championship under its authority took place in 1927.Panathinaikos won undefeated the Championship of 1929–30 under the guidance of József Künsztler and Angelos Messaris as the team's star player. Other notable players of this "Belle Époque" period of the team were Antonis Migiakis, Diomidis Symeonidis, Mimis Pierrakos and Stefanos Pierrakos, among others. They thrashed rivals Olympiacos 8–2, a result that still remains the biggest win either team has achieved against its rival, with Messaris scoring three goals. The team also defeated Aris 1–4 away in Thessaloniki. Messaris, who scored again three goals, became a hero and chant for the fans.In 1931, a serious disagreement between leading board member Apostolos Nikolaidis from one side, and some players (most notably Angelos Messaris) and club's officials on the other side, regarding the professionalization in the Greek football, which lasted two years, damaged the club and led to a counterproductive period. In the meantime, the HFF Greek Cup had commenced in 1932. The last bright moment for the Greens before World War II was winning the Cup for the first time in 1940 against Aris, 3–1.In 1940, with the break out of the Greco-Italian War, many players of the club joined the Hellenic Army. Mimis Pierrakos was killed during the war (later, during the 1950s, his bones were transferred from Albania back to Athens). During the Axis Occupation of Greece from 1941 to 1944, many players of the team became members of United Panhellenic Organization of Youth (PEAN) resistance organization., while Michalis Papazoglou had a leading role in the resistance group of Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz.After this long crisis period, Panathinaikos had to wait until 1949 to win again a Greek Championship under the guidance of the Austrian coach Johann Strnad. That same year, Vangelis Panakis and Kostas Linoxilakis came to the club and quickly became the side's new star players. Panathinaikos was again champion for the 1952–53 Panhellenic Championship.Until 1959, the team had also won seven of the last eight Athens Championships, the regional championships organised in Greece. In 1959, Mimis Domazos, the emblematic captain of the team, made his first appearance with Panathinaikos and the same year took place the first season under the new system of Alpha Ethniki (1959–60 Alpha Ethniki). Panathinaikos was the champion team.During the next years, Panathinaikos were again champions in 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1969 and 1970. Moreover, the team won two more Greek Cups, in 1967 and 1969. Also, during these years, a long process of rejuvenation took place in the club. Notable players retired, such as Panakis, Linoxilakis, Takis Loukanidis and Andreas Papaemmanouil, and the team had to count on young players like Domazos, Antonis Antoniadis, Anthimos Kapsis, Kostas Eleftherakis and Takis Ikonomopoulos.Stjepan Bobek was the main contributor to this process. In 1963, he became the club's head coach, changing the playing style of the team to a 4–3–3 and created a new team based on young players (the "Bobek's rejuvenation"). Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the Championship of 1964 without a loss, making them one of the two teams that has won the Greek Championship (with its modern system) undefeated. Notable players of the team included Panakis, Domazos, Takis Ikonomopoulos, Totis Filakouris, Frangiskos Sourpis and Aristidis Kamaras.With the establishment of the Greek military regime, the president of the club, Loukas Panourgias, was forced out of the presidency. The contract of Bobek was canceled by the State, while Apostolos Nikolaidis, the old player, manager and official of the club, went on trial.In 1967, the great Béla Guttmann came as coach, but he soon left and ex-player Lakis Petropoulos was appointed. Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the championships of 1969 (with a double) and 1970.In 1971, under the guidance of Ferenc Puskás, Panathinaikos were 1970–71 European Cup finalists, the first and only Greek team until today, losing 2–0 to Ajax at Wembley Stadium. In the road to the final, they eliminated Jeunesse Esch, Slovan Bratislava, Everton and Red Star Belgrade. Notable players included the captain Mimis Domazos, Anthimos Kapsis, Aristidis Kamaras, Kostas Eleftherakis, Totis Filakouris and the goalkeepers Takis Ikonomopoulos and Vasilis Konstantinou. Antonis Antoniadis was the top scorer in the competition scoring ten goals.In the same year, Panathinaikos played for the 1971 Intercontinental Cup (due to the refusal of Ajax to participate), where they lost to Uruguayan club Nacional (1–1 in Greece, 2–1 in Uruguay). Totis Filakouris was the scorer for the Greek club.During the last amateur years of Greek football, the "Trifolium" won one more Championship in 1972. Antonis Antoniadis was again top scorer with 39 goals (also second in Europe). His record remains until today in the Greek league.With the collapse of the military regime, Apostolos Nikolaidis became again active for the club and was appointed honorary president of Panathinaikos. In 1975, one of the greatest coaches of his era, the Brazilian Aymoré Moreira, who mainly worked in Brazil (World Cup Champion with the Brazilian national team in 1962), was appointed. After a year-and-a-half of poor results, however, he was replaced by Kazimierz Górski. With Górski, Panathinaikos won the double in 1977, followed by a Balkans Cup victory in the same year. Notable foreign players who played for the team during the late 1970s include Juan Ramón Verón, Araquem de Melo and Óscar Álvarez.In 1979, Greek football turned professional. The Vardinogiannis family purchased PAO's football department and Giorgos Vardinogiannis became president. Panathinaikos were one of the first Greek clubs that formed a women's team in 1980, but that department is currently inactive.The transformation period lasted a few years, but in 1982 the club won its first professional era trophy, the Greek Cup, and during the 1980s they would go on winning two championships (1984, 1986), four more Greek Cups (1984, 1986—with a 4–0 against Olympiacos in the final—, 1988, 1989) and the Greek Super Cup in 1988. The great star of the team during these years was Dimitris Saravakos, nicknamed "The Kid." Saravakos, a high-technique explosive midfielder and iconic captain of Panathinaikos, was the alsolute idol for the fans during the 1980s, while other players included Nikos Sarganis, Spiros Livathinos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha, Christos Dimopoulos and Giannis Kyrastas.In the 1984–85 season, Panathinaikos, with coach Jacek Gmoch and stars Dimitris Saravakos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha and Ioannis Kyrastas, made a run in Europe, eliminating Feyenoord, Linfield and IFK Göteborg to reach the semi-finals of the European Cup, where they were knocked out by Liverpool.In 1987–88, they made it also to the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup, eliminating Juventus, Auxerre and Budapest Honvéd. Dimitris Saravakos was top scorer of the competition.The 1990s were an even more successful period for the club, both nationally and internationally. Four Greek championships (1990, 1991, 1995, 1996), four Greek Cups (1991, 1993, 1994, 1995) and two Greek Super Cups (1993, 1994) were awarded to the club.In the 1991–92 season, Panathinaikos reached also the last eight of the European Cup and took part in the first ever European tournament to have a group stage.In 1995–96, with Juan Ramon Rocha as coach and key players Krzysztof Warzycha, Józef Wandzik, Stratos Apostolakis, Georgios Georgiadis, Dimitris Markos, Giannis Kalitzakis, Giorgos Donis and Juan Jose Borrelli, Panathinaikos reached the Champions League semi-finals, finishing first in the group stage against Nantes, Porto, Aalborg BK and eliminating Legia Warsaw in the quarter-finals.In the semi-finals, Panathinaikos faced Ajax, recording an impressive 0–1 first leg away victory with Krzysztof Warzycha scoring the winning goal. Ajax had a record of 22 undefeated international matches until then, with Panathinaikos breaking their series. The Greek team, however, suffered a 0–3 defeat on the second leg. Thus, Panathinaikos was denied entry to a Champions League final once more.In the summer of 2000, President Giorgos Vardinogiannis resigned from his duties with complaints for the refereeing situation in Greece and passed his shares to his nephew Giannis Vardinogiannis, who changed the style of the club's management. Angelos Anastasiadis was initially appointed coach of the team and later the ex-player Giannis Kyrastas.With the arrival of coach Sergio Markarian, Panathinaikos reached the quarter-finals of the 2001–02 UEFA Champions League, being eliminated by Barcelona. Panathinaikos had passed the first group stage as the top club against Arsenal, Mallorca and Schalke 04, and the second group stage as second against Real Madrid, Porto and Sparta Prague.In the first leg of the quarter-finals, Panathinaikos managed to defeat Barcelona by 1–0 in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium. The second leg in Camp Nou was to be an eventful one. Panathinaikos scored first thanks to a beautiful goal by Michalis Konstantinou but eventually was eliminated as Barcelona scored three goals.Ιn Europe, Panathinaikos made it to the quarter-finals of UEFA Cup quarter-finals. En route, the Greek team had knocked-out Litex Lovech, Fenerbahçe (with an impressive 4–1 win in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium), Slovan Liberec and Anderlecht.During the quarter-finals, although winning the first match in Estádio das Antas against eventual winners of the trophy FC Porto of José Mourinho, with the header of Emmanuel Olisadebe, they were eliminated in the second leg after extra time.Notable players of this team included Takis Fyssas, Giorgos Karagounis, Antonis Nikopolidis, Angelos Basinas, Nikos Lyberopoulos, Michalis Konstantinou, Giourkas Seitaridis, Sotirios Kyrgiakos, Paulo Sousa, Goran Vlaović, Rene Henriksen, Joonas Kolkka, Jan Michaelsen and Emmanuel Olisadebe, considered by the fans one of the best teams in the club's history.During 2002–03 Alpha Ethniki season, they lost the Greek championship in the last two games by arch-rivals Olympiacos.Under the guidance of Israeli coach Itzhak Shum, Panathinaikos managed to win the championship in 2004. They won also the Cup, beating Olympiacos 3–1 in the final, making the double. New players like Ezequiel González, Lucian Sanmartean and Markus Münch had signed the summer before. In the Champions League, they came third in the group stage facing Manchester United, VfB Stuttgart and Rangers.However, Shum was unexpectedly fired early in the next season (2004–05) and Zdeněk Ščasný succeeded him on the bench. Panathinaikos finished second in the championship, while in the Champions League they came again third in the group stage facing Rosenborg, PSV and Arsenal. They continued in the UEFA Cup, where they were eliminated by Sevilla.In 2005, major changes were made in the team's roster. Players like Angelos Basinas and Michalis Konstantinou departed, while others like Flávio Conceição, Igor Bišćan and Andreas Ivanschitz arrived. Ščasný gave his seat to Alberto Malesani. At the start of the 2006–07 season, Malesani left the team and was replaced by Hans Backe, who left only three months after his appointment; Víctor Muñoz was his replacement. For the 2007–08 season, Panathinaikos hired José Peseiro.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% and the other shareholders 34% (with main investors Andreas Vgenopoulos, Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Adamantios Polemis and Nikos Pateras). Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president of the club.Following the major changes in 2008, Panathinaikos hired Henk ten Cate as coach and bought many expensive players, such as Gilberto Silva from Arsenal and Gabriel from Fluminense. In the 2008–09 season, the Greens proved that they could hold their weight in the Champions League by reaching the last 16. However, they disappointed in the Greek Championship, finishing third in the regular season, though they managed to come second overall after the playoff mini-league.The 2009–10 season was a successful one for Panathinaikos. During the summer transfer period, the club bought Djibril Cissé from Marseille, Kostas Katsouranis from Benfica, Sebastián Leto from Liverpool and various other players, spending more than €35 million in total. Henk ten Cate left in December to be replaced by Nikos Nioplias. The team managed to reach the last 16 of the Europa League, eliminating A.S. Roma after two amazing matches in Olympic Stadium of Athens and Stadio Olimpico. Panathinaikos also won both the Greek Championship and the Greek Cup, beating Aris by 1–0 in the final of the latter, thanks to a goal by Sebastián Leto.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, Panathinaikos sold Cissé for €5.8 million to Lazio and first-choice goalkeeper Alexandros Tzorvas to Palermo to reduce the budget. New players then entered, such as Quincy Owusu-Abeyie, Toché, Vitolo and Zeca. The club also changed their president and chose Dimitris Gontikas to be the new chairman. Panathinaikos failed to qualify to the group stage of 2011–12 Champions League after they were knocked out by Odense BK 4–5 on aggregate.Panathinaikos' downfall continued as a result of the serious riots in the Panathinaikos–Olympiacos derby of 18 March 2012. The entire board quit and Panathinaikos remained headless for about two months. However, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute a desired amount, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His plan seemed to be working, as a new 20-member board was elected with Dimitris Gontikas at the president's chair again, though it was yet to be seen how the fans would respond to Panathinaikos' call for help.On 2 July 2012, the PAO Alliance 2012 finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. After a few weeks of operation, 8,606 members had signed up, some of which were current or former Panathinaikos players, including Jean-Alain Boumsong, Sotiris Ninis, Gilberto Silva and Djibril Cissé, among others.On 18 July 2012, marked a historical day in Panathinaikos history, as Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Panathinaikos Alliance, thereby allowing Panathinaikos to have a fresh start with their own fans at the steering wheel, who through elections (amongst the members of the Alliance) they compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos.The first season with the Panathinaikos Alliance at the helm was nothing short of abysmal for the club. While still enduring financial troubles, Panathinaikos finished sixth in the championship and failed to qualify for the European competition for the first time in 16 years.For the 2013–14 season, the membership had risen up to 9,305 members. Starting the football year, both fans and journalists were very skeptical of Panathinaikos' chances of a successful season, and many people expected the team to suffer relegation from the Super League Greece. In May 2013, Yannis Anastasiou was appointed manager, and he planned a team based on players from the Panathinaikos Youth Academies joined by experienced foreign players looking to revive their careers. Despite the early skepticism, Panathinaikos' fans supported the team through the rough start, and the season turned out to be a massive success in light of the dire financial situation of the club and the young and inexperienced squad. The club finished fourth in the regular season and second after the playoffs (meaning they qualified for the 2014–15 Champions League), with Marcus Berg the top scorer of the team. Panathinaikos also won the 2013–14 Greek Football Cup after a 4–1 win over PAOK.On 2 November 2015, after bad performances and a home draw with AEK Athens, manager Yannis Anastasiou was sacked and replaced by Andrea Stramaccioni. Further successive poor results under the latter's reign, combined with loss of dressing room control, led to the dismissal of Stramaccioni on 1 December 2016, with former Panathinaikos player and Greece international Marinos Ouzounidis taking over the management at the club. Ouzounidis had some great moments with Panathinaikos and was generally liked by the fans. His resignation, due to problems with owner Giannis Alafouzos sparked another wave of disappointment and hatred against Alafouzos from the fans. On 24 April 2018 UEFA decided to exclude Panathinaikos FC from participating in the next UEFA club competition for which it would otherwise qualify in the next three seasons as a result of Financial Fair Play breaches Giorgos Donis was announced as the new coach on 3 July 2018. Coach Donis had a great year in 2018-1019, mainly depending on young players from Panathinaikos' academy, including Giannis Mpouzoukis, Tasos Xatzigiovannis and Achilleas Poungouras. He had a great start of the season despite beginning with −6 points in the championship, counting 6 consecutive wins that put Panathinaikos on top of the table. However, due to problems with his salary and a clash with Giannis Alafouzos, he was forced to resign in 2019. This situation made the relations between Alafouzos and the fans worse, with protests and demonstrations during games against him. Panathinaikos remained one of the top clubs in Greece, but its absence from European tournaments was a major factor in the fans' disappointment with the ownership. During the summer of 2020, a series of bad decisions were made from Giannis Alafouzos, who chose to let most of the players that had contributed to a ver good season go.Spaniard Dani Poyatos signed on as head of the club on 22 July 2020 for two years, taking over from George Donis' work. Poyatos was sacked after a poor start of the season on 12 October and was replaced by László Bölöni.White was the colour that was first used by the team in 1908 (probably like that of the first crest). The first symbol of the club was an association football ball of the era.In 1911, the colours changed to green and white. In 1918, Michalis Papazoglou proposed the trifolium, symbol of harmony, unity, nature and good luck, as emblem of Panathinaikos. The officials of the club were looking for a universal, non-nationalistic or localistic, symbol aiming to represent the whole Athens at the country and further at the world. Papazoglou used to have it sewn on his shirt since he was competing for a club in his native Chalcedon, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). He was possibly inspired by Billy Sherring, an Irish Canadian athlete who had won the Athens 1906 Olympic marathon (1906 Intercalated Games) wearing a white outfit with a big green shamrock on the chest.Georgios Chatzopoulos, member—and later president—of the club and director of the National Gallery, took over to design the new emblem for the team. Up to the end of the 1970s, a trifolium (green or white) was sewed on heart's side of the jersey and was big in size. With the beginning of professionalism, the crest of the F.C. was created, accompanied by the club initials and the year of founding, 1908.Until today, the team's traditional colours are green and white (green for health, nature, such as physiolatry, and white for virtue), although the white sometimes is omitted, used as trim or as an alternative. During the first years after the establishment of green as Panathinaikos' primary colour, players were wearing green shirts, white shorts and green socks. During the 1930s, an appearance with characteristic horizontal strips was established. This motive was used also in the next decades as primary or second choice. Since then, the uniform style has changed many times, but green has always remained the team's primary colour.Since 1979, when football became professional in Greece, Panathinaikos had a specific kit manufacturer and since 1983 a specific shirt sponsor as well. The following table shows in detail Panathinaikos kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors by year:Panathinaikos' traditional home ground since the early 1920s is the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, the oldest active football stadium in Greece, in the Ampelokipoi district of central Athens. The stadium is located on Alexandras Avenue and is most commonly referred to as "Leoforos" (Greek for "Avenue"). It is considered one of the most historic stadiums in Greece, as it was used by the Greek national team as home ground for many years (most recently for the UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying matches) and even by Panathinaikos' biggest rivals, AEK Athens and Olympiacos, on various occasions.Panathinaikos left "Leoforos" in 1984 to play in the newly built Athens Olympic Stadium. In 2000, then-club president Angelos Filippidis announced a return to the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, following a €7 million renovation. Capacity was reduced from 25,000 to 16,620, new dressing rooms were built and modular stand roofing was added in compliance with UEFA requirements, but in 2004, stricter standards were announced and the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium would need further expansion were it to remain suitable for UEFA-sanctioned matches. This was precluded by local zoning regulations and the team had to return to the Olympic Stadium once more until a new stadium, the proposed Votanikos Arena, was built. The "Leoforos" ground was due for demolition.On 27 January 2007, the board of Panathinaikos decided to reuse the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium for the team's 2007–08 domestic league and UEFA Cup home games. Additionally, the club officials decided to install new lawn, new seats and upgrade the press conference room and the restrooms.As of October 2013, and due to the club's and the country's financial troubles, the construction of the Votanikos Arena has stopped and consequently the plans for the demolition of the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium have been put on hold. After another five-year spell at the Olympic Stadium, the team has returned to its traditional home ground once again.The current president of the club, Giannis Alafouzos, declared his intention for another renovation of the stadium and the capacity increase, while the Panathinaikos Movement made its propositions for a total reconstruction.In 2019 the owner of Panathinaikos basketball team presented a funding plan for the construction of the new football and basketball stadiums. The Greek government confirmed in 2020 the construction of the new stadiums in the Votanikos area to be completed by 2024.Paiania has been the training ground of Panathinaikos since 1981. That same year, the Academy of the club was reorganized, becoming one of the best in the country and feeding the first team with notable players, such as Giorgos Karagounis, Angelos Basinas, Sotirios Kyrgiakos and Sotiris Ninis among others, key members of the Greek national team. In 2013, was decided the move of the club from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the team. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became a new training ground and Academy base of Panathinaikos.Until 1979, football in Greece was still in amateur level. The team, such as the other departments of Panathinaikos A.O., depended on the financial support of the club's members, while the president (responsible for all athletic departments) was elected by the Board members. In 1979, the Greek football turned professional and the Vardinogiannis family purchased the football department. Giorgos Vardinogiannis became the new president. Vardinogiannis family were the owners of the club the next decades.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% (as before) and the new shareholders 34%. Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Nikos Pateras, Adamantios Polemis and Andreas Vgenopoulos were the main investors, plus other minor shareholders. Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, the direction decided to reduce the budget and sell many players. In 2012, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His intention was to create a new, for the Greek athletic standards, supporter-owned football club. On 2 July 2012, the Panathenaic Alliance finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. A few days later, Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Alliance, while the other shareholders maintained their percentage. The members of the Alliance through elections compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos. In 2013, was decided the move of the team from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the club. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became the new training ground and academy base of Panathinaikos.For the 2014–15 season, the membership had risen up to 8,495 members contributing a total of €2,680,041.Panathinaikos currently is partially supporter-owned football club.According to the latest accounts in 2016 Panathenaic Alliance shares have been reduced to (15%), Giannis Alafouzos through Sortivo International Ltd and his own shares is the largest shareholder at (74%). Giannis Alafouzos suddenly decided to quit the team in September 2017, announcing his departure in a written statement and inviting potential investors to express their interest in buying the team.Current sponsorships:Panathinaikos was founded by middle class athletes (with Giorgos Kalafatis as a key figure) aiming of spreading and making more known football to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, their intention was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active.Today, according to UEFA and numerous polls and researches by the biggest newspapers and poll companies in a span of 20 years, Panathinaikos is the second most popular football team in Greece, with the difference behind Olympiacos to be varied between 2% to 9% and the difference in front of the third to be fluctuated between 17% to 21% among the fans. They have the highest popularity in Athens metropolitan area according to many of the corresponding polls, having also a large fanbase in all Greek prefectures, in Cyprus and in the Greek diaspora. They historically have a large fanbase among the highly-educated Greek upper class (traditionally representing the old Athenian society), while they are also popular among the middle and lower classes.Panathinaikos supporters hold both records of the most season tickets sales (31,091 in 2010) and highest average attendance for a unique season (44,942 in 1985–86) in the history of Greek football.The main organized supporters of Panathinaikos are known as Gate 13 (established 1966), the oldest fan association in Greece, which consists of around 80 clubs alongside Greece and Cyprus.Gate 13 style of supporting includes the use of green fireworks, large and small green flags, displaying of banners and especially the creation of colorful and large choreographies, noisy and constant cheering and other supporters stuff. Gate 13 has over the years become a part of the club by affecting club decisions and by following the club on all occasions.They share a traditional friendship with Ultras Rapid Wien, based mainly on the common green and white colours. Moreover, they have been sharing since the early 10s' close relations with Dinamo Zagreb's Bad Blue Boys (based on their common rivalry with Red Star and Olympiacos fans, capital city teams and mutual respect for each other's ultras achievements) and also with Fedayin of A.S. Roma based on the capital city team factor, their mutual respect and the ancient Athens and ancient Roma cultural connection.PALEFIP (Panhellenic club of Panathinaikos friends) is another supporters organization.Panathenaic Alliance, a collective organisation of the fan base, is the major shareholder of the football club, making it currently the only supporter-owned football club in Greece. The members of the Alliance, through elections, compose the board of directors and elect the club's president.Panathinaikos Movement, founded in 2012, is also a Greek political party founded by people with an initial common their love for the sports club of Panathinaikos and the wish for a new stadium for the football team, despite the bureaucracy of the Greek state.Key: R32 = Round of 32, R16 = Round of 16, QF = Quarter-finals, SF = Semi-finals, RU = Runners up, C = Champions.Mimis Domazos holds the record for Panathinaikos appearances, having played 502 first-team matches between 1959 and 1980. Striker Krzysztof Warzycha comes second, having played 390 times. The record for a goalkeeper is held by Takis Ikonomopoulos, with 303 appearances.Krzysztof Warzycha is the club's top goalscorer with 288 goals in all competitions between 1989 and 2004, having surpassed Antonis Antoniadis' total of 180 in January 1998.Panathinaikos record home attendance is 74,493, for a Greek League match against AEK Athens in 1986 at the Olympic Stadium. The record attendance for a Panathinaikos match at the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium is from 1967, when 29,665 spectators watched the Cup Winners' Cup game between Panathinaikos and Bayern Munich.Panathinaikos is one of the two clubs in the history of Greek football to finish a top-flight (after 1959) campaign unbeaten. This happened in the 1963–64 season.One-Club playersUefa Champions LeagueUEFA Cup1976–77 Alpha Ethniki, 1976–77 Greek Football Cup, 1977 Balkans Cup13 – Ιn honour of Gate 13Overall, Panathinaikos has a significant contribution to the Greek national football team. Giorgos Kalafatis, the founder of Panathinaikos, was the member of the Greek national team that participated in the Inter-Allied Games in Paris, while later he was also a player/manager for Greece in the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp. During the next decades, Panathinaikos highlighted some of the best Greek players in the history of Greek football, who contributed also to the national team (Migiakis, Linoxilakis, Loukanidis, Domazos, Antoniadis, Kapsis, Ikonomopoulos, Saravakos etc.). Six Panathinaikos players were members of the first appearance of the national team in a World Cup in 1994 (Saravakos, Kolitsidakis, Apostolakis, Kalitzakis, Nioplias, Marangos).Five players of the club were part of the golden team of 2004 that won the UEFA Euro 2004 (UEFA Euro 2004): Giourkas Seitaridis, Angelos Basinas, Giannis Goumas, Dimitris Papadopoulos, Kostas Chalkias (he did not play in any match).Official websitesNews sitesMedia
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[
"Fabriciano González",
"Yannis Anastasiou",
"Yannis Vonortas",
"Henk ten Cate",
"José Peseiro",
"Víctor Muñoz",
"Sergio Markarián",
"Marinos Ouzounidis",
"Jasminko Velić",
"Juan Ramón Rocha",
"Itzhak Shum",
"Zdeněk Ščasný",
"László Bölöni",
"Giorgos Donis",
"Dani Poyatos",
"Aggelos Anastasiadis",
"Fernando Santos",
"Nikos Nioplias",
"Jesualdo Ferreira",
"Sotiris Silaidopoulos",
"Giorgos Kalafatis"
] |
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Who was the head coach of the team Panathinaikos F.C. in 2005-08-09?
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August 09, 2005
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{
"text": [
"Alberto Malesani"
]
}
|
L2_Q4122219_P286_6
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Marinos Ouzounidis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2016 to May, 2018.
Giorgos Kalafatis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1923.
Fernando Santos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2002.
Itzhak Shum is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2003 to Oct, 2004.
Nikos Nioplias is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2009 to Nov, 2010.
Giorgos Donis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2018 to Jul, 2020.
Víctor Muñoz is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2006 to May, 2007.
Henk ten Cate is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2008 to Dec, 2009.
Yannis Vonortas is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Mar, 2013 to May, 2013.
Sotiris Silaidopoulos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Juan Ramón Rocha is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Aggelos Anastasiadis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Feb, 2001.
Zdeněk Ščasný is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2004 to Feb, 2005.
Alberto Malesani is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Feb, 2005 to May, 2006.
Dani Poyatos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Jasminko Velić is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Sep, 2006 to Oct, 2006.
José Peseiro is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2007 to May, 2008.
Yannis Anastasiou is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from May, 2013 to Nov, 2015.
László Bölöni is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to May, 2021.
Sergio Markarián is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2002 to Jun, 2004.
Jesualdo Ferreira is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2010 to Nov, 2012.
Fabriciano González is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Mar, 2013.
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Panathinaikos F.C.Panathinaikos Football Club ( ), known as Panathinaikos, or by its full name, and the name of its parent sports club, Panathinaikos A.O. or PAO (; "Panathinaïkós Athlitikós Ómilos", "All-Athenian Athletic Club"), is a Greek professional football club based in the capital-city of Athens, Greece.Created in 1908 as "Podosfairikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens") by Georgios Kalafatis, they play in the Super League Greece, being one of the most successful clubs in Greek football and one of three clubs which have never been relegated from the top division. Amongst their major titles are 20 Greek Championships, 18 Greek Cups, achieving eight times the Double, and 3 Greek Super Cups. They are also one of the two clubs that won a championship undefeated, going without a loss in a top-flight campaign in the 1963–64 season.Panathinaikos is also the most successful Greek club in terms of achievements in the European competitions. It is the only Greek team that has reached the European Cup (later renamed UEFA Champions League) final in 1971 (which they lost to Ajax Amsterdam 2–0), and also the semi-finals twice, in 1985 and 1996. It is also the only Greek team that has played for the Intercontinental Cup (1971). Furthermore, they have reached the quarter-finals of the Champions League on another two occasions (in 1992 and 2002), as well as the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup twice (1988 and 2003). They have also won the Balkans Cup in 1977. Panathinaikos is a member of the European Club Association.Since the 1950s, the club maintains some of the oldest and most successful academies in Greece, producing talent for the first team and feeding the Greek national football team. They have played their home games in the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, considered their traditional home ground, and the Athens Olympic Stadium.According to researches and polls, Panathinaikos is one of the most popular football teams in Greece.They hold a long-term rivalry with Olympiacos, the clash between the two teams being referred to as the "Derby of the eternal enemies."According to the official history of the club, Panathinaikos was founded by Giorgos Kalafatis on 3 February 1908, when he and 40 other athletes decided to break away from Panellinios Gymnastikos Syllogos following the club's decision to discontinue its football team. The name of the new club was "Podosferikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens"). It was founded with the aim of spreading and making more known this new sport (football) to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, the intention of the founders was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active. The first president elected was Alexandros Kalafatis, brother of Giorgos. The ground of the team was in Patission Street. Oxford University athlete John Cyril Campbell was brought in as coach, the first time that a foreigner was appointed as the coach of a Greek team. Konstantinos Tsiklitiras, the great Greek athlete of the early 20th century, played as goalkeeper for the new team.In 1910, after a dispute among a number of board members, Kalafatis with most of the players—also followed by Campbell—decided to pull out of POA and secured a new ground in Amerikis Square. Subsequently, the name of the club changed to Panellinios Podosferikos Omilos ("Panhellenic Football Club") and its colours to green and white. By 1914, Campbell had returned to England but the club was already at the top of Greek football with players such as Michalis Papazoglou, Michalis Rokkos and Loukas Panourgias.In 1918, the team adopted the trifolium (shamrock) as its emblem, as proposed by Michalis Papazoglou. In 1921 and 1922, the Athens-Piraeus FCA organized the first two post-WWI championships, in both of which PPO was declared champion. By that stage, the club had outgrown both the grounds in Patission Street and Amerikis Square, due mainly to its expansion in other sports, and began to look at vacant land in the area of Perivola on Alexandras Avenue as its potential new ground. After long discussions with the Municipality of Athens, an agreement was finally reached and in 1922 "Leoforos" ("Avenue" in Greek) was granted to the club.The move to a permanent home ground also heralded another—final—name change to Panathinaikos Athlitikos Omilos (PAO), ""All-Athenian Athletic Club"", on 15 March 1924, from now on a multi-sport club. However, the decision was already taken by 1922.In 1926, the Hellenic Football Federation (HFF) was founded and the first Greek Championship under its authority took place in 1927.Panathinaikos won undefeated the Championship of 1929–30 under the guidance of József Künsztler and Angelos Messaris as the team's star player. Other notable players of this "Belle Époque" period of the team were Antonis Migiakis, Diomidis Symeonidis, Mimis Pierrakos and Stefanos Pierrakos, among others. They thrashed rivals Olympiacos 8–2, a result that still remains the biggest win either team has achieved against its rival, with Messaris scoring three goals. The team also defeated Aris 1–4 away in Thessaloniki. Messaris, who scored again three goals, became a hero and chant for the fans.In 1931, a serious disagreement between leading board member Apostolos Nikolaidis from one side, and some players (most notably Angelos Messaris) and club's officials on the other side, regarding the professionalization in the Greek football, which lasted two years, damaged the club and led to a counterproductive period. In the meantime, the HFF Greek Cup had commenced in 1932. The last bright moment for the Greens before World War II was winning the Cup for the first time in 1940 against Aris, 3–1.In 1940, with the break out of the Greco-Italian War, many players of the club joined the Hellenic Army. Mimis Pierrakos was killed during the war (later, during the 1950s, his bones were transferred from Albania back to Athens). During the Axis Occupation of Greece from 1941 to 1944, many players of the team became members of United Panhellenic Organization of Youth (PEAN) resistance organization., while Michalis Papazoglou had a leading role in the resistance group of Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz.After this long crisis period, Panathinaikos had to wait until 1949 to win again a Greek Championship under the guidance of the Austrian coach Johann Strnad. That same year, Vangelis Panakis and Kostas Linoxilakis came to the club and quickly became the side's new star players. Panathinaikos was again champion for the 1952–53 Panhellenic Championship.Until 1959, the team had also won seven of the last eight Athens Championships, the regional championships organised in Greece. In 1959, Mimis Domazos, the emblematic captain of the team, made his first appearance with Panathinaikos and the same year took place the first season under the new system of Alpha Ethniki (1959–60 Alpha Ethniki). Panathinaikos was the champion team.During the next years, Panathinaikos were again champions in 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1969 and 1970. Moreover, the team won two more Greek Cups, in 1967 and 1969. Also, during these years, a long process of rejuvenation took place in the club. Notable players retired, such as Panakis, Linoxilakis, Takis Loukanidis and Andreas Papaemmanouil, and the team had to count on young players like Domazos, Antonis Antoniadis, Anthimos Kapsis, Kostas Eleftherakis and Takis Ikonomopoulos.Stjepan Bobek was the main contributor to this process. In 1963, he became the club's head coach, changing the playing style of the team to a 4–3–3 and created a new team based on young players (the "Bobek's rejuvenation"). Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the Championship of 1964 without a loss, making them one of the two teams that has won the Greek Championship (with its modern system) undefeated. Notable players of the team included Panakis, Domazos, Takis Ikonomopoulos, Totis Filakouris, Frangiskos Sourpis and Aristidis Kamaras.With the establishment of the Greek military regime, the president of the club, Loukas Panourgias, was forced out of the presidency. The contract of Bobek was canceled by the State, while Apostolos Nikolaidis, the old player, manager and official of the club, went on trial.In 1967, the great Béla Guttmann came as coach, but he soon left and ex-player Lakis Petropoulos was appointed. Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the championships of 1969 (with a double) and 1970.In 1971, under the guidance of Ferenc Puskás, Panathinaikos were 1970–71 European Cup finalists, the first and only Greek team until today, losing 2–0 to Ajax at Wembley Stadium. In the road to the final, they eliminated Jeunesse Esch, Slovan Bratislava, Everton and Red Star Belgrade. Notable players included the captain Mimis Domazos, Anthimos Kapsis, Aristidis Kamaras, Kostas Eleftherakis, Totis Filakouris and the goalkeepers Takis Ikonomopoulos and Vasilis Konstantinou. Antonis Antoniadis was the top scorer in the competition scoring ten goals.In the same year, Panathinaikos played for the 1971 Intercontinental Cup (due to the refusal of Ajax to participate), where they lost to Uruguayan club Nacional (1–1 in Greece, 2–1 in Uruguay). Totis Filakouris was the scorer for the Greek club.During the last amateur years of Greek football, the "Trifolium" won one more Championship in 1972. Antonis Antoniadis was again top scorer with 39 goals (also second in Europe). His record remains until today in the Greek league.With the collapse of the military regime, Apostolos Nikolaidis became again active for the club and was appointed honorary president of Panathinaikos. In 1975, one of the greatest coaches of his era, the Brazilian Aymoré Moreira, who mainly worked in Brazil (World Cup Champion with the Brazilian national team in 1962), was appointed. After a year-and-a-half of poor results, however, he was replaced by Kazimierz Górski. With Górski, Panathinaikos won the double in 1977, followed by a Balkans Cup victory in the same year. Notable foreign players who played for the team during the late 1970s include Juan Ramón Verón, Araquem de Melo and Óscar Álvarez.In 1979, Greek football turned professional. The Vardinogiannis family purchased PAO's football department and Giorgos Vardinogiannis became president. Panathinaikos were one of the first Greek clubs that formed a women's team in 1980, but that department is currently inactive.The transformation period lasted a few years, but in 1982 the club won its first professional era trophy, the Greek Cup, and during the 1980s they would go on winning two championships (1984, 1986), four more Greek Cups (1984, 1986—with a 4–0 against Olympiacos in the final—, 1988, 1989) and the Greek Super Cup in 1988. The great star of the team during these years was Dimitris Saravakos, nicknamed "The Kid." Saravakos, a high-technique explosive midfielder and iconic captain of Panathinaikos, was the alsolute idol for the fans during the 1980s, while other players included Nikos Sarganis, Spiros Livathinos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha, Christos Dimopoulos and Giannis Kyrastas.In the 1984–85 season, Panathinaikos, with coach Jacek Gmoch and stars Dimitris Saravakos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha and Ioannis Kyrastas, made a run in Europe, eliminating Feyenoord, Linfield and IFK Göteborg to reach the semi-finals of the European Cup, where they were knocked out by Liverpool.In 1987–88, they made it also to the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup, eliminating Juventus, Auxerre and Budapest Honvéd. Dimitris Saravakos was top scorer of the competition.The 1990s were an even more successful period for the club, both nationally and internationally. Four Greek championships (1990, 1991, 1995, 1996), four Greek Cups (1991, 1993, 1994, 1995) and two Greek Super Cups (1993, 1994) were awarded to the club.In the 1991–92 season, Panathinaikos reached also the last eight of the European Cup and took part in the first ever European tournament to have a group stage.In 1995–96, with Juan Ramon Rocha as coach and key players Krzysztof Warzycha, Józef Wandzik, Stratos Apostolakis, Georgios Georgiadis, Dimitris Markos, Giannis Kalitzakis, Giorgos Donis and Juan Jose Borrelli, Panathinaikos reached the Champions League semi-finals, finishing first in the group stage against Nantes, Porto, Aalborg BK and eliminating Legia Warsaw in the quarter-finals.In the semi-finals, Panathinaikos faced Ajax, recording an impressive 0–1 first leg away victory with Krzysztof Warzycha scoring the winning goal. Ajax had a record of 22 undefeated international matches until then, with Panathinaikos breaking their series. The Greek team, however, suffered a 0–3 defeat on the second leg. Thus, Panathinaikos was denied entry to a Champions League final once more.In the summer of 2000, President Giorgos Vardinogiannis resigned from his duties with complaints for the refereeing situation in Greece and passed his shares to his nephew Giannis Vardinogiannis, who changed the style of the club's management. Angelos Anastasiadis was initially appointed coach of the team and later the ex-player Giannis Kyrastas.With the arrival of coach Sergio Markarian, Panathinaikos reached the quarter-finals of the 2001–02 UEFA Champions League, being eliminated by Barcelona. Panathinaikos had passed the first group stage as the top club against Arsenal, Mallorca and Schalke 04, and the second group stage as second against Real Madrid, Porto and Sparta Prague.In the first leg of the quarter-finals, Panathinaikos managed to defeat Barcelona by 1–0 in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium. The second leg in Camp Nou was to be an eventful one. Panathinaikos scored first thanks to a beautiful goal by Michalis Konstantinou but eventually was eliminated as Barcelona scored three goals.Ιn Europe, Panathinaikos made it to the quarter-finals of UEFA Cup quarter-finals. En route, the Greek team had knocked-out Litex Lovech, Fenerbahçe (with an impressive 4–1 win in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium), Slovan Liberec and Anderlecht.During the quarter-finals, although winning the first match in Estádio das Antas against eventual winners of the trophy FC Porto of José Mourinho, with the header of Emmanuel Olisadebe, they were eliminated in the second leg after extra time.Notable players of this team included Takis Fyssas, Giorgos Karagounis, Antonis Nikopolidis, Angelos Basinas, Nikos Lyberopoulos, Michalis Konstantinou, Giourkas Seitaridis, Sotirios Kyrgiakos, Paulo Sousa, Goran Vlaović, Rene Henriksen, Joonas Kolkka, Jan Michaelsen and Emmanuel Olisadebe, considered by the fans one of the best teams in the club's history.During 2002–03 Alpha Ethniki season, they lost the Greek championship in the last two games by arch-rivals Olympiacos.Under the guidance of Israeli coach Itzhak Shum, Panathinaikos managed to win the championship in 2004. They won also the Cup, beating Olympiacos 3–1 in the final, making the double. New players like Ezequiel González, Lucian Sanmartean and Markus Münch had signed the summer before. In the Champions League, they came third in the group stage facing Manchester United, VfB Stuttgart and Rangers.However, Shum was unexpectedly fired early in the next season (2004–05) and Zdeněk Ščasný succeeded him on the bench. Panathinaikos finished second in the championship, while in the Champions League they came again third in the group stage facing Rosenborg, PSV and Arsenal. They continued in the UEFA Cup, where they were eliminated by Sevilla.In 2005, major changes were made in the team's roster. Players like Angelos Basinas and Michalis Konstantinou departed, while others like Flávio Conceição, Igor Bišćan and Andreas Ivanschitz arrived. Ščasný gave his seat to Alberto Malesani. At the start of the 2006–07 season, Malesani left the team and was replaced by Hans Backe, who left only three months after his appointment; Víctor Muñoz was his replacement. For the 2007–08 season, Panathinaikos hired José Peseiro.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% and the other shareholders 34% (with main investors Andreas Vgenopoulos, Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Adamantios Polemis and Nikos Pateras). Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president of the club.Following the major changes in 2008, Panathinaikos hired Henk ten Cate as coach and bought many expensive players, such as Gilberto Silva from Arsenal and Gabriel from Fluminense. In the 2008–09 season, the Greens proved that they could hold their weight in the Champions League by reaching the last 16. However, they disappointed in the Greek Championship, finishing third in the regular season, though they managed to come second overall after the playoff mini-league.The 2009–10 season was a successful one for Panathinaikos. During the summer transfer period, the club bought Djibril Cissé from Marseille, Kostas Katsouranis from Benfica, Sebastián Leto from Liverpool and various other players, spending more than €35 million in total. Henk ten Cate left in December to be replaced by Nikos Nioplias. The team managed to reach the last 16 of the Europa League, eliminating A.S. Roma after two amazing matches in Olympic Stadium of Athens and Stadio Olimpico. Panathinaikos also won both the Greek Championship and the Greek Cup, beating Aris by 1–0 in the final of the latter, thanks to a goal by Sebastián Leto.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, Panathinaikos sold Cissé for €5.8 million to Lazio and first-choice goalkeeper Alexandros Tzorvas to Palermo to reduce the budget. New players then entered, such as Quincy Owusu-Abeyie, Toché, Vitolo and Zeca. The club also changed their president and chose Dimitris Gontikas to be the new chairman. Panathinaikos failed to qualify to the group stage of 2011–12 Champions League after they were knocked out by Odense BK 4–5 on aggregate.Panathinaikos' downfall continued as a result of the serious riots in the Panathinaikos–Olympiacos derby of 18 March 2012. The entire board quit and Panathinaikos remained headless for about two months. However, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute a desired amount, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His plan seemed to be working, as a new 20-member board was elected with Dimitris Gontikas at the president's chair again, though it was yet to be seen how the fans would respond to Panathinaikos' call for help.On 2 July 2012, the PAO Alliance 2012 finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. After a few weeks of operation, 8,606 members had signed up, some of which were current or former Panathinaikos players, including Jean-Alain Boumsong, Sotiris Ninis, Gilberto Silva and Djibril Cissé, among others.On 18 July 2012, marked a historical day in Panathinaikos history, as Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Panathinaikos Alliance, thereby allowing Panathinaikos to have a fresh start with their own fans at the steering wheel, who through elections (amongst the members of the Alliance) they compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos.The first season with the Panathinaikos Alliance at the helm was nothing short of abysmal for the club. While still enduring financial troubles, Panathinaikos finished sixth in the championship and failed to qualify for the European competition for the first time in 16 years.For the 2013–14 season, the membership had risen up to 9,305 members. Starting the football year, both fans and journalists were very skeptical of Panathinaikos' chances of a successful season, and many people expected the team to suffer relegation from the Super League Greece. In May 2013, Yannis Anastasiou was appointed manager, and he planned a team based on players from the Panathinaikos Youth Academies joined by experienced foreign players looking to revive their careers. Despite the early skepticism, Panathinaikos' fans supported the team through the rough start, and the season turned out to be a massive success in light of the dire financial situation of the club and the young and inexperienced squad. The club finished fourth in the regular season and second after the playoffs (meaning they qualified for the 2014–15 Champions League), with Marcus Berg the top scorer of the team. Panathinaikos also won the 2013–14 Greek Football Cup after a 4–1 win over PAOK.On 2 November 2015, after bad performances and a home draw with AEK Athens, manager Yannis Anastasiou was sacked and replaced by Andrea Stramaccioni. Further successive poor results under the latter's reign, combined with loss of dressing room control, led to the dismissal of Stramaccioni on 1 December 2016, with former Panathinaikos player and Greece international Marinos Ouzounidis taking over the management at the club. Ouzounidis had some great moments with Panathinaikos and was generally liked by the fans. His resignation, due to problems with owner Giannis Alafouzos sparked another wave of disappointment and hatred against Alafouzos from the fans. On 24 April 2018 UEFA decided to exclude Panathinaikos FC from participating in the next UEFA club competition for which it would otherwise qualify in the next three seasons as a result of Financial Fair Play breaches Giorgos Donis was announced as the new coach on 3 July 2018. Coach Donis had a great year in 2018-1019, mainly depending on young players from Panathinaikos' academy, including Giannis Mpouzoukis, Tasos Xatzigiovannis and Achilleas Poungouras. He had a great start of the season despite beginning with −6 points in the championship, counting 6 consecutive wins that put Panathinaikos on top of the table. However, due to problems with his salary and a clash with Giannis Alafouzos, he was forced to resign in 2019. This situation made the relations between Alafouzos and the fans worse, with protests and demonstrations during games against him. Panathinaikos remained one of the top clubs in Greece, but its absence from European tournaments was a major factor in the fans' disappointment with the ownership. During the summer of 2020, a series of bad decisions were made from Giannis Alafouzos, who chose to let most of the players that had contributed to a ver good season go.Spaniard Dani Poyatos signed on as head of the club on 22 July 2020 for two years, taking over from George Donis' work. Poyatos was sacked after a poor start of the season on 12 October and was replaced by László Bölöni.White was the colour that was first used by the team in 1908 (probably like that of the first crest). The first symbol of the club was an association football ball of the era.In 1911, the colours changed to green and white. In 1918, Michalis Papazoglou proposed the trifolium, symbol of harmony, unity, nature and good luck, as emblem of Panathinaikos. The officials of the club were looking for a universal, non-nationalistic or localistic, symbol aiming to represent the whole Athens at the country and further at the world. Papazoglou used to have it sewn on his shirt since he was competing for a club in his native Chalcedon, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). He was possibly inspired by Billy Sherring, an Irish Canadian athlete who had won the Athens 1906 Olympic marathon (1906 Intercalated Games) wearing a white outfit with a big green shamrock on the chest.Georgios Chatzopoulos, member—and later president—of the club and director of the National Gallery, took over to design the new emblem for the team. Up to the end of the 1970s, a trifolium (green or white) was sewed on heart's side of the jersey and was big in size. With the beginning of professionalism, the crest of the F.C. was created, accompanied by the club initials and the year of founding, 1908.Until today, the team's traditional colours are green and white (green for health, nature, such as physiolatry, and white for virtue), although the white sometimes is omitted, used as trim or as an alternative. During the first years after the establishment of green as Panathinaikos' primary colour, players were wearing green shirts, white shorts and green socks. During the 1930s, an appearance with characteristic horizontal strips was established. This motive was used also in the next decades as primary or second choice. Since then, the uniform style has changed many times, but green has always remained the team's primary colour.Since 1979, when football became professional in Greece, Panathinaikos had a specific kit manufacturer and since 1983 a specific shirt sponsor as well. The following table shows in detail Panathinaikos kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors by year:Panathinaikos' traditional home ground since the early 1920s is the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, the oldest active football stadium in Greece, in the Ampelokipoi district of central Athens. The stadium is located on Alexandras Avenue and is most commonly referred to as "Leoforos" (Greek for "Avenue"). It is considered one of the most historic stadiums in Greece, as it was used by the Greek national team as home ground for many years (most recently for the UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying matches) and even by Panathinaikos' biggest rivals, AEK Athens and Olympiacos, on various occasions.Panathinaikos left "Leoforos" in 1984 to play in the newly built Athens Olympic Stadium. In 2000, then-club president Angelos Filippidis announced a return to the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, following a €7 million renovation. Capacity was reduced from 25,000 to 16,620, new dressing rooms were built and modular stand roofing was added in compliance with UEFA requirements, but in 2004, stricter standards were announced and the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium would need further expansion were it to remain suitable for UEFA-sanctioned matches. This was precluded by local zoning regulations and the team had to return to the Olympic Stadium once more until a new stadium, the proposed Votanikos Arena, was built. The "Leoforos" ground was due for demolition.On 27 January 2007, the board of Panathinaikos decided to reuse the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium for the team's 2007–08 domestic league and UEFA Cup home games. Additionally, the club officials decided to install new lawn, new seats and upgrade the press conference room and the restrooms.As of October 2013, and due to the club's and the country's financial troubles, the construction of the Votanikos Arena has stopped and consequently the plans for the demolition of the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium have been put on hold. After another five-year spell at the Olympic Stadium, the team has returned to its traditional home ground once again.The current president of the club, Giannis Alafouzos, declared his intention for another renovation of the stadium and the capacity increase, while the Panathinaikos Movement made its propositions for a total reconstruction.In 2019 the owner of Panathinaikos basketball team presented a funding plan for the construction of the new football and basketball stadiums. The Greek government confirmed in 2020 the construction of the new stadiums in the Votanikos area to be completed by 2024.Paiania has been the training ground of Panathinaikos since 1981. That same year, the Academy of the club was reorganized, becoming one of the best in the country and feeding the first team with notable players, such as Giorgos Karagounis, Angelos Basinas, Sotirios Kyrgiakos and Sotiris Ninis among others, key members of the Greek national team. In 2013, was decided the move of the club from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the team. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became a new training ground and Academy base of Panathinaikos.Until 1979, football in Greece was still in amateur level. The team, such as the other departments of Panathinaikos A.O., depended on the financial support of the club's members, while the president (responsible for all athletic departments) was elected by the Board members. In 1979, the Greek football turned professional and the Vardinogiannis family purchased the football department. Giorgos Vardinogiannis became the new president. Vardinogiannis family were the owners of the club the next decades.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% (as before) and the new shareholders 34%. Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Nikos Pateras, Adamantios Polemis and Andreas Vgenopoulos were the main investors, plus other minor shareholders. Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, the direction decided to reduce the budget and sell many players. In 2012, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His intention was to create a new, for the Greek athletic standards, supporter-owned football club. On 2 July 2012, the Panathenaic Alliance finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. A few days later, Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Alliance, while the other shareholders maintained their percentage. The members of the Alliance through elections compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos. In 2013, was decided the move of the team from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the club. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became the new training ground and academy base of Panathinaikos.For the 2014–15 season, the membership had risen up to 8,495 members contributing a total of €2,680,041.Panathinaikos currently is partially supporter-owned football club.According to the latest accounts in 2016 Panathenaic Alliance shares have been reduced to (15%), Giannis Alafouzos through Sortivo International Ltd and his own shares is the largest shareholder at (74%). Giannis Alafouzos suddenly decided to quit the team in September 2017, announcing his departure in a written statement and inviting potential investors to express their interest in buying the team.Current sponsorships:Panathinaikos was founded by middle class athletes (with Giorgos Kalafatis as a key figure) aiming of spreading and making more known football to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, their intention was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active.Today, according to UEFA and numerous polls and researches by the biggest newspapers and poll companies in a span of 20 years, Panathinaikos is the second most popular football team in Greece, with the difference behind Olympiacos to be varied between 2% to 9% and the difference in front of the third to be fluctuated between 17% to 21% among the fans. They have the highest popularity in Athens metropolitan area according to many of the corresponding polls, having also a large fanbase in all Greek prefectures, in Cyprus and in the Greek diaspora. They historically have a large fanbase among the highly-educated Greek upper class (traditionally representing the old Athenian society), while they are also popular among the middle and lower classes.Panathinaikos supporters hold both records of the most season tickets sales (31,091 in 2010) and highest average attendance for a unique season (44,942 in 1985–86) in the history of Greek football.The main organized supporters of Panathinaikos are known as Gate 13 (established 1966), the oldest fan association in Greece, which consists of around 80 clubs alongside Greece and Cyprus.Gate 13 style of supporting includes the use of green fireworks, large and small green flags, displaying of banners and especially the creation of colorful and large choreographies, noisy and constant cheering and other supporters stuff. Gate 13 has over the years become a part of the club by affecting club decisions and by following the club on all occasions.They share a traditional friendship with Ultras Rapid Wien, based mainly on the common green and white colours. Moreover, they have been sharing since the early 10s' close relations with Dinamo Zagreb's Bad Blue Boys (based on their common rivalry with Red Star and Olympiacos fans, capital city teams and mutual respect for each other's ultras achievements) and also with Fedayin of A.S. Roma based on the capital city team factor, their mutual respect and the ancient Athens and ancient Roma cultural connection.PALEFIP (Panhellenic club of Panathinaikos friends) is another supporters organization.Panathenaic Alliance, a collective organisation of the fan base, is the major shareholder of the football club, making it currently the only supporter-owned football club in Greece. The members of the Alliance, through elections, compose the board of directors and elect the club's president.Panathinaikos Movement, founded in 2012, is also a Greek political party founded by people with an initial common their love for the sports club of Panathinaikos and the wish for a new stadium for the football team, despite the bureaucracy of the Greek state.Key: R32 = Round of 32, R16 = Round of 16, QF = Quarter-finals, SF = Semi-finals, RU = Runners up, C = Champions.Mimis Domazos holds the record for Panathinaikos appearances, having played 502 first-team matches between 1959 and 1980. Striker Krzysztof Warzycha comes second, having played 390 times. The record for a goalkeeper is held by Takis Ikonomopoulos, with 303 appearances.Krzysztof Warzycha is the club's top goalscorer with 288 goals in all competitions between 1989 and 2004, having surpassed Antonis Antoniadis' total of 180 in January 1998.Panathinaikos record home attendance is 74,493, for a Greek League match against AEK Athens in 1986 at the Olympic Stadium. The record attendance for a Panathinaikos match at the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium is from 1967, when 29,665 spectators watched the Cup Winners' Cup game between Panathinaikos and Bayern Munich.Panathinaikos is one of the two clubs in the history of Greek football to finish a top-flight (after 1959) campaign unbeaten. This happened in the 1963–64 season.One-Club playersUefa Champions LeagueUEFA Cup1976–77 Alpha Ethniki, 1976–77 Greek Football Cup, 1977 Balkans Cup13 – Ιn honour of Gate 13Overall, Panathinaikos has a significant contribution to the Greek national football team. Giorgos Kalafatis, the founder of Panathinaikos, was the member of the Greek national team that participated in the Inter-Allied Games in Paris, while later he was also a player/manager for Greece in the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp. During the next decades, Panathinaikos highlighted some of the best Greek players in the history of Greek football, who contributed also to the national team (Migiakis, Linoxilakis, Loukanidis, Domazos, Antoniadis, Kapsis, Ikonomopoulos, Saravakos etc.). Six Panathinaikos players were members of the first appearance of the national team in a World Cup in 1994 (Saravakos, Kolitsidakis, Apostolakis, Kalitzakis, Nioplias, Marangos).Five players of the club were part of the golden team of 2004 that won the UEFA Euro 2004 (UEFA Euro 2004): Giourkas Seitaridis, Angelos Basinas, Giannis Goumas, Dimitris Papadopoulos, Kostas Chalkias (he did not play in any match).Official websitesNews sitesMedia
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[
"Fabriciano González",
"Yannis Anastasiou",
"Yannis Vonortas",
"Henk ten Cate",
"José Peseiro",
"Víctor Muñoz",
"Sergio Markarián",
"Marinos Ouzounidis",
"Jasminko Velić",
"Juan Ramón Rocha",
"Itzhak Shum",
"Zdeněk Ščasný",
"László Bölöni",
"Giorgos Donis",
"Dani Poyatos",
"Aggelos Anastasiadis",
"Fernando Santos",
"Nikos Nioplias",
"Jesualdo Ferreira",
"Sotiris Silaidopoulos",
"Giorgos Kalafatis"
] |
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Who was the head coach of the team Panathinaikos F.C. in 09/08/2005?
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August 09, 2005
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{
"text": [
"Alberto Malesani"
]
}
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L2_Q4122219_P286_6
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Marinos Ouzounidis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2016 to May, 2018.
Giorgos Kalafatis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1923.
Fernando Santos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2002.
Itzhak Shum is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2003 to Oct, 2004.
Nikos Nioplias is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2009 to Nov, 2010.
Giorgos Donis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2018 to Jul, 2020.
Víctor Muñoz is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2006 to May, 2007.
Henk ten Cate is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2008 to Dec, 2009.
Yannis Vonortas is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Mar, 2013 to May, 2013.
Sotiris Silaidopoulos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Juan Ramón Rocha is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Aggelos Anastasiadis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Feb, 2001.
Zdeněk Ščasný is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2004 to Feb, 2005.
Alberto Malesani is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Feb, 2005 to May, 2006.
Dani Poyatos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Jasminko Velić is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Sep, 2006 to Oct, 2006.
José Peseiro is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2007 to May, 2008.
Yannis Anastasiou is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from May, 2013 to Nov, 2015.
László Bölöni is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to May, 2021.
Sergio Markarián is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2002 to Jun, 2004.
Jesualdo Ferreira is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2010 to Nov, 2012.
Fabriciano González is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Mar, 2013.
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Panathinaikos F.C.Panathinaikos Football Club ( ), known as Panathinaikos, or by its full name, and the name of its parent sports club, Panathinaikos A.O. or PAO (; "Panathinaïkós Athlitikós Ómilos", "All-Athenian Athletic Club"), is a Greek professional football club based in the capital-city of Athens, Greece.Created in 1908 as "Podosfairikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens") by Georgios Kalafatis, they play in the Super League Greece, being one of the most successful clubs in Greek football and one of three clubs which have never been relegated from the top division. Amongst their major titles are 20 Greek Championships, 18 Greek Cups, achieving eight times the Double, and 3 Greek Super Cups. They are also one of the two clubs that won a championship undefeated, going without a loss in a top-flight campaign in the 1963–64 season.Panathinaikos is also the most successful Greek club in terms of achievements in the European competitions. It is the only Greek team that has reached the European Cup (later renamed UEFA Champions League) final in 1971 (which they lost to Ajax Amsterdam 2–0), and also the semi-finals twice, in 1985 and 1996. It is also the only Greek team that has played for the Intercontinental Cup (1971). Furthermore, they have reached the quarter-finals of the Champions League on another two occasions (in 1992 and 2002), as well as the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup twice (1988 and 2003). They have also won the Balkans Cup in 1977. Panathinaikos is a member of the European Club Association.Since the 1950s, the club maintains some of the oldest and most successful academies in Greece, producing talent for the first team and feeding the Greek national football team. They have played their home games in the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, considered their traditional home ground, and the Athens Olympic Stadium.According to researches and polls, Panathinaikos is one of the most popular football teams in Greece.They hold a long-term rivalry with Olympiacos, the clash between the two teams being referred to as the "Derby of the eternal enemies."According to the official history of the club, Panathinaikos was founded by Giorgos Kalafatis on 3 February 1908, when he and 40 other athletes decided to break away from Panellinios Gymnastikos Syllogos following the club's decision to discontinue its football team. The name of the new club was "Podosferikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens"). It was founded with the aim of spreading and making more known this new sport (football) to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, the intention of the founders was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active. The first president elected was Alexandros Kalafatis, brother of Giorgos. The ground of the team was in Patission Street. Oxford University athlete John Cyril Campbell was brought in as coach, the first time that a foreigner was appointed as the coach of a Greek team. Konstantinos Tsiklitiras, the great Greek athlete of the early 20th century, played as goalkeeper for the new team.In 1910, after a dispute among a number of board members, Kalafatis with most of the players—also followed by Campbell—decided to pull out of POA and secured a new ground in Amerikis Square. Subsequently, the name of the club changed to Panellinios Podosferikos Omilos ("Panhellenic Football Club") and its colours to green and white. By 1914, Campbell had returned to England but the club was already at the top of Greek football with players such as Michalis Papazoglou, Michalis Rokkos and Loukas Panourgias.In 1918, the team adopted the trifolium (shamrock) as its emblem, as proposed by Michalis Papazoglou. In 1921 and 1922, the Athens-Piraeus FCA organized the first two post-WWI championships, in both of which PPO was declared champion. By that stage, the club had outgrown both the grounds in Patission Street and Amerikis Square, due mainly to its expansion in other sports, and began to look at vacant land in the area of Perivola on Alexandras Avenue as its potential new ground. After long discussions with the Municipality of Athens, an agreement was finally reached and in 1922 "Leoforos" ("Avenue" in Greek) was granted to the club.The move to a permanent home ground also heralded another—final—name change to Panathinaikos Athlitikos Omilos (PAO), ""All-Athenian Athletic Club"", on 15 March 1924, from now on a multi-sport club. However, the decision was already taken by 1922.In 1926, the Hellenic Football Federation (HFF) was founded and the first Greek Championship under its authority took place in 1927.Panathinaikos won undefeated the Championship of 1929–30 under the guidance of József Künsztler and Angelos Messaris as the team's star player. Other notable players of this "Belle Époque" period of the team were Antonis Migiakis, Diomidis Symeonidis, Mimis Pierrakos and Stefanos Pierrakos, among others. They thrashed rivals Olympiacos 8–2, a result that still remains the biggest win either team has achieved against its rival, with Messaris scoring three goals. The team also defeated Aris 1–4 away in Thessaloniki. Messaris, who scored again three goals, became a hero and chant for the fans.In 1931, a serious disagreement between leading board member Apostolos Nikolaidis from one side, and some players (most notably Angelos Messaris) and club's officials on the other side, regarding the professionalization in the Greek football, which lasted two years, damaged the club and led to a counterproductive period. In the meantime, the HFF Greek Cup had commenced in 1932. The last bright moment for the Greens before World War II was winning the Cup for the first time in 1940 against Aris, 3–1.In 1940, with the break out of the Greco-Italian War, many players of the club joined the Hellenic Army. Mimis Pierrakos was killed during the war (later, during the 1950s, his bones were transferred from Albania back to Athens). During the Axis Occupation of Greece from 1941 to 1944, many players of the team became members of United Panhellenic Organization of Youth (PEAN) resistance organization., while Michalis Papazoglou had a leading role in the resistance group of Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz.After this long crisis period, Panathinaikos had to wait until 1949 to win again a Greek Championship under the guidance of the Austrian coach Johann Strnad. That same year, Vangelis Panakis and Kostas Linoxilakis came to the club and quickly became the side's new star players. Panathinaikos was again champion for the 1952–53 Panhellenic Championship.Until 1959, the team had also won seven of the last eight Athens Championships, the regional championships organised in Greece. In 1959, Mimis Domazos, the emblematic captain of the team, made his first appearance with Panathinaikos and the same year took place the first season under the new system of Alpha Ethniki (1959–60 Alpha Ethniki). Panathinaikos was the champion team.During the next years, Panathinaikos were again champions in 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1969 and 1970. Moreover, the team won two more Greek Cups, in 1967 and 1969. Also, during these years, a long process of rejuvenation took place in the club. Notable players retired, such as Panakis, Linoxilakis, Takis Loukanidis and Andreas Papaemmanouil, and the team had to count on young players like Domazos, Antonis Antoniadis, Anthimos Kapsis, Kostas Eleftherakis and Takis Ikonomopoulos.Stjepan Bobek was the main contributor to this process. In 1963, he became the club's head coach, changing the playing style of the team to a 4–3–3 and created a new team based on young players (the "Bobek's rejuvenation"). Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the Championship of 1964 without a loss, making them one of the two teams that has won the Greek Championship (with its modern system) undefeated. Notable players of the team included Panakis, Domazos, Takis Ikonomopoulos, Totis Filakouris, Frangiskos Sourpis and Aristidis Kamaras.With the establishment of the Greek military regime, the president of the club, Loukas Panourgias, was forced out of the presidency. The contract of Bobek was canceled by the State, while Apostolos Nikolaidis, the old player, manager and official of the club, went on trial.In 1967, the great Béla Guttmann came as coach, but he soon left and ex-player Lakis Petropoulos was appointed. Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the championships of 1969 (with a double) and 1970.In 1971, under the guidance of Ferenc Puskás, Panathinaikos were 1970–71 European Cup finalists, the first and only Greek team until today, losing 2–0 to Ajax at Wembley Stadium. In the road to the final, they eliminated Jeunesse Esch, Slovan Bratislava, Everton and Red Star Belgrade. Notable players included the captain Mimis Domazos, Anthimos Kapsis, Aristidis Kamaras, Kostas Eleftherakis, Totis Filakouris and the goalkeepers Takis Ikonomopoulos and Vasilis Konstantinou. Antonis Antoniadis was the top scorer in the competition scoring ten goals.In the same year, Panathinaikos played for the 1971 Intercontinental Cup (due to the refusal of Ajax to participate), where they lost to Uruguayan club Nacional (1–1 in Greece, 2–1 in Uruguay). Totis Filakouris was the scorer for the Greek club.During the last amateur years of Greek football, the "Trifolium" won one more Championship in 1972. Antonis Antoniadis was again top scorer with 39 goals (also second in Europe). His record remains until today in the Greek league.With the collapse of the military regime, Apostolos Nikolaidis became again active for the club and was appointed honorary president of Panathinaikos. In 1975, one of the greatest coaches of his era, the Brazilian Aymoré Moreira, who mainly worked in Brazil (World Cup Champion with the Brazilian national team in 1962), was appointed. After a year-and-a-half of poor results, however, he was replaced by Kazimierz Górski. With Górski, Panathinaikos won the double in 1977, followed by a Balkans Cup victory in the same year. Notable foreign players who played for the team during the late 1970s include Juan Ramón Verón, Araquem de Melo and Óscar Álvarez.In 1979, Greek football turned professional. The Vardinogiannis family purchased PAO's football department and Giorgos Vardinogiannis became president. Panathinaikos were one of the first Greek clubs that formed a women's team in 1980, but that department is currently inactive.The transformation period lasted a few years, but in 1982 the club won its first professional era trophy, the Greek Cup, and during the 1980s they would go on winning two championships (1984, 1986), four more Greek Cups (1984, 1986—with a 4–0 against Olympiacos in the final—, 1988, 1989) and the Greek Super Cup in 1988. The great star of the team during these years was Dimitris Saravakos, nicknamed "The Kid." Saravakos, a high-technique explosive midfielder and iconic captain of Panathinaikos, was the alsolute idol for the fans during the 1980s, while other players included Nikos Sarganis, Spiros Livathinos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha, Christos Dimopoulos and Giannis Kyrastas.In the 1984–85 season, Panathinaikos, with coach Jacek Gmoch and stars Dimitris Saravakos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha and Ioannis Kyrastas, made a run in Europe, eliminating Feyenoord, Linfield and IFK Göteborg to reach the semi-finals of the European Cup, where they were knocked out by Liverpool.In 1987–88, they made it also to the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup, eliminating Juventus, Auxerre and Budapest Honvéd. Dimitris Saravakos was top scorer of the competition.The 1990s were an even more successful period for the club, both nationally and internationally. Four Greek championships (1990, 1991, 1995, 1996), four Greek Cups (1991, 1993, 1994, 1995) and two Greek Super Cups (1993, 1994) were awarded to the club.In the 1991–92 season, Panathinaikos reached also the last eight of the European Cup and took part in the first ever European tournament to have a group stage.In 1995–96, with Juan Ramon Rocha as coach and key players Krzysztof Warzycha, Józef Wandzik, Stratos Apostolakis, Georgios Georgiadis, Dimitris Markos, Giannis Kalitzakis, Giorgos Donis and Juan Jose Borrelli, Panathinaikos reached the Champions League semi-finals, finishing first in the group stage against Nantes, Porto, Aalborg BK and eliminating Legia Warsaw in the quarter-finals.In the semi-finals, Panathinaikos faced Ajax, recording an impressive 0–1 first leg away victory with Krzysztof Warzycha scoring the winning goal. Ajax had a record of 22 undefeated international matches until then, with Panathinaikos breaking their series. The Greek team, however, suffered a 0–3 defeat on the second leg. Thus, Panathinaikos was denied entry to a Champions League final once more.In the summer of 2000, President Giorgos Vardinogiannis resigned from his duties with complaints for the refereeing situation in Greece and passed his shares to his nephew Giannis Vardinogiannis, who changed the style of the club's management. Angelos Anastasiadis was initially appointed coach of the team and later the ex-player Giannis Kyrastas.With the arrival of coach Sergio Markarian, Panathinaikos reached the quarter-finals of the 2001–02 UEFA Champions League, being eliminated by Barcelona. Panathinaikos had passed the first group stage as the top club against Arsenal, Mallorca and Schalke 04, and the second group stage as second against Real Madrid, Porto and Sparta Prague.In the first leg of the quarter-finals, Panathinaikos managed to defeat Barcelona by 1–0 in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium. The second leg in Camp Nou was to be an eventful one. Panathinaikos scored first thanks to a beautiful goal by Michalis Konstantinou but eventually was eliminated as Barcelona scored three goals.Ιn Europe, Panathinaikos made it to the quarter-finals of UEFA Cup quarter-finals. En route, the Greek team had knocked-out Litex Lovech, Fenerbahçe (with an impressive 4–1 win in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium), Slovan Liberec and Anderlecht.During the quarter-finals, although winning the first match in Estádio das Antas against eventual winners of the trophy FC Porto of José Mourinho, with the header of Emmanuel Olisadebe, they were eliminated in the second leg after extra time.Notable players of this team included Takis Fyssas, Giorgos Karagounis, Antonis Nikopolidis, Angelos Basinas, Nikos Lyberopoulos, Michalis Konstantinou, Giourkas Seitaridis, Sotirios Kyrgiakos, Paulo Sousa, Goran Vlaović, Rene Henriksen, Joonas Kolkka, Jan Michaelsen and Emmanuel Olisadebe, considered by the fans one of the best teams in the club's history.During 2002–03 Alpha Ethniki season, they lost the Greek championship in the last two games by arch-rivals Olympiacos.Under the guidance of Israeli coach Itzhak Shum, Panathinaikos managed to win the championship in 2004. They won also the Cup, beating Olympiacos 3–1 in the final, making the double. New players like Ezequiel González, Lucian Sanmartean and Markus Münch had signed the summer before. In the Champions League, they came third in the group stage facing Manchester United, VfB Stuttgart and Rangers.However, Shum was unexpectedly fired early in the next season (2004–05) and Zdeněk Ščasný succeeded him on the bench. Panathinaikos finished second in the championship, while in the Champions League they came again third in the group stage facing Rosenborg, PSV and Arsenal. They continued in the UEFA Cup, where they were eliminated by Sevilla.In 2005, major changes were made in the team's roster. Players like Angelos Basinas and Michalis Konstantinou departed, while others like Flávio Conceição, Igor Bišćan and Andreas Ivanschitz arrived. Ščasný gave his seat to Alberto Malesani. At the start of the 2006–07 season, Malesani left the team and was replaced by Hans Backe, who left only three months after his appointment; Víctor Muñoz was his replacement. For the 2007–08 season, Panathinaikos hired José Peseiro.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% and the other shareholders 34% (with main investors Andreas Vgenopoulos, Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Adamantios Polemis and Nikos Pateras). Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president of the club.Following the major changes in 2008, Panathinaikos hired Henk ten Cate as coach and bought many expensive players, such as Gilberto Silva from Arsenal and Gabriel from Fluminense. In the 2008–09 season, the Greens proved that they could hold their weight in the Champions League by reaching the last 16. However, they disappointed in the Greek Championship, finishing third in the regular season, though they managed to come second overall after the playoff mini-league.The 2009–10 season was a successful one for Panathinaikos. During the summer transfer period, the club bought Djibril Cissé from Marseille, Kostas Katsouranis from Benfica, Sebastián Leto from Liverpool and various other players, spending more than €35 million in total. Henk ten Cate left in December to be replaced by Nikos Nioplias. The team managed to reach the last 16 of the Europa League, eliminating A.S. Roma after two amazing matches in Olympic Stadium of Athens and Stadio Olimpico. Panathinaikos also won both the Greek Championship and the Greek Cup, beating Aris by 1–0 in the final of the latter, thanks to a goal by Sebastián Leto.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, Panathinaikos sold Cissé for €5.8 million to Lazio and first-choice goalkeeper Alexandros Tzorvas to Palermo to reduce the budget. New players then entered, such as Quincy Owusu-Abeyie, Toché, Vitolo and Zeca. The club also changed their president and chose Dimitris Gontikas to be the new chairman. Panathinaikos failed to qualify to the group stage of 2011–12 Champions League after they were knocked out by Odense BK 4–5 on aggregate.Panathinaikos' downfall continued as a result of the serious riots in the Panathinaikos–Olympiacos derby of 18 March 2012. The entire board quit and Panathinaikos remained headless for about two months. However, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute a desired amount, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His plan seemed to be working, as a new 20-member board was elected with Dimitris Gontikas at the president's chair again, though it was yet to be seen how the fans would respond to Panathinaikos' call for help.On 2 July 2012, the PAO Alliance 2012 finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. After a few weeks of operation, 8,606 members had signed up, some of which were current or former Panathinaikos players, including Jean-Alain Boumsong, Sotiris Ninis, Gilberto Silva and Djibril Cissé, among others.On 18 July 2012, marked a historical day in Panathinaikos history, as Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Panathinaikos Alliance, thereby allowing Panathinaikos to have a fresh start with their own fans at the steering wheel, who through elections (amongst the members of the Alliance) they compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos.The first season with the Panathinaikos Alliance at the helm was nothing short of abysmal for the club. While still enduring financial troubles, Panathinaikos finished sixth in the championship and failed to qualify for the European competition for the first time in 16 years.For the 2013–14 season, the membership had risen up to 9,305 members. Starting the football year, both fans and journalists were very skeptical of Panathinaikos' chances of a successful season, and many people expected the team to suffer relegation from the Super League Greece. In May 2013, Yannis Anastasiou was appointed manager, and he planned a team based on players from the Panathinaikos Youth Academies joined by experienced foreign players looking to revive their careers. Despite the early skepticism, Panathinaikos' fans supported the team through the rough start, and the season turned out to be a massive success in light of the dire financial situation of the club and the young and inexperienced squad. The club finished fourth in the regular season and second after the playoffs (meaning they qualified for the 2014–15 Champions League), with Marcus Berg the top scorer of the team. Panathinaikos also won the 2013–14 Greek Football Cup after a 4–1 win over PAOK.On 2 November 2015, after bad performances and a home draw with AEK Athens, manager Yannis Anastasiou was sacked and replaced by Andrea Stramaccioni. Further successive poor results under the latter's reign, combined with loss of dressing room control, led to the dismissal of Stramaccioni on 1 December 2016, with former Panathinaikos player and Greece international Marinos Ouzounidis taking over the management at the club. Ouzounidis had some great moments with Panathinaikos and was generally liked by the fans. His resignation, due to problems with owner Giannis Alafouzos sparked another wave of disappointment and hatred against Alafouzos from the fans. On 24 April 2018 UEFA decided to exclude Panathinaikos FC from participating in the next UEFA club competition for which it would otherwise qualify in the next three seasons as a result of Financial Fair Play breaches Giorgos Donis was announced as the new coach on 3 July 2018. Coach Donis had a great year in 2018-1019, mainly depending on young players from Panathinaikos' academy, including Giannis Mpouzoukis, Tasos Xatzigiovannis and Achilleas Poungouras. He had a great start of the season despite beginning with −6 points in the championship, counting 6 consecutive wins that put Panathinaikos on top of the table. However, due to problems with his salary and a clash with Giannis Alafouzos, he was forced to resign in 2019. This situation made the relations between Alafouzos and the fans worse, with protests and demonstrations during games against him. Panathinaikos remained one of the top clubs in Greece, but its absence from European tournaments was a major factor in the fans' disappointment with the ownership. During the summer of 2020, a series of bad decisions were made from Giannis Alafouzos, who chose to let most of the players that had contributed to a ver good season go.Spaniard Dani Poyatos signed on as head of the club on 22 July 2020 for two years, taking over from George Donis' work. Poyatos was sacked after a poor start of the season on 12 October and was replaced by László Bölöni.White was the colour that was first used by the team in 1908 (probably like that of the first crest). The first symbol of the club was an association football ball of the era.In 1911, the colours changed to green and white. In 1918, Michalis Papazoglou proposed the trifolium, symbol of harmony, unity, nature and good luck, as emblem of Panathinaikos. The officials of the club were looking for a universal, non-nationalistic or localistic, symbol aiming to represent the whole Athens at the country and further at the world. Papazoglou used to have it sewn on his shirt since he was competing for a club in his native Chalcedon, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). He was possibly inspired by Billy Sherring, an Irish Canadian athlete who had won the Athens 1906 Olympic marathon (1906 Intercalated Games) wearing a white outfit with a big green shamrock on the chest.Georgios Chatzopoulos, member—and later president—of the club and director of the National Gallery, took over to design the new emblem for the team. Up to the end of the 1970s, a trifolium (green or white) was sewed on heart's side of the jersey and was big in size. With the beginning of professionalism, the crest of the F.C. was created, accompanied by the club initials and the year of founding, 1908.Until today, the team's traditional colours are green and white (green for health, nature, such as physiolatry, and white for virtue), although the white sometimes is omitted, used as trim or as an alternative. During the first years after the establishment of green as Panathinaikos' primary colour, players were wearing green shirts, white shorts and green socks. During the 1930s, an appearance with characteristic horizontal strips was established. This motive was used also in the next decades as primary or second choice. Since then, the uniform style has changed many times, but green has always remained the team's primary colour.Since 1979, when football became professional in Greece, Panathinaikos had a specific kit manufacturer and since 1983 a specific shirt sponsor as well. The following table shows in detail Panathinaikos kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors by year:Panathinaikos' traditional home ground since the early 1920s is the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, the oldest active football stadium in Greece, in the Ampelokipoi district of central Athens. The stadium is located on Alexandras Avenue and is most commonly referred to as "Leoforos" (Greek for "Avenue"). It is considered one of the most historic stadiums in Greece, as it was used by the Greek national team as home ground for many years (most recently for the UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying matches) and even by Panathinaikos' biggest rivals, AEK Athens and Olympiacos, on various occasions.Panathinaikos left "Leoforos" in 1984 to play in the newly built Athens Olympic Stadium. In 2000, then-club president Angelos Filippidis announced a return to the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, following a €7 million renovation. Capacity was reduced from 25,000 to 16,620, new dressing rooms were built and modular stand roofing was added in compliance with UEFA requirements, but in 2004, stricter standards were announced and the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium would need further expansion were it to remain suitable for UEFA-sanctioned matches. This was precluded by local zoning regulations and the team had to return to the Olympic Stadium once more until a new stadium, the proposed Votanikos Arena, was built. The "Leoforos" ground was due for demolition.On 27 January 2007, the board of Panathinaikos decided to reuse the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium for the team's 2007–08 domestic league and UEFA Cup home games. Additionally, the club officials decided to install new lawn, new seats and upgrade the press conference room and the restrooms.As of October 2013, and due to the club's and the country's financial troubles, the construction of the Votanikos Arena has stopped and consequently the plans for the demolition of the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium have been put on hold. After another five-year spell at the Olympic Stadium, the team has returned to its traditional home ground once again.The current president of the club, Giannis Alafouzos, declared his intention for another renovation of the stadium and the capacity increase, while the Panathinaikos Movement made its propositions for a total reconstruction.In 2019 the owner of Panathinaikos basketball team presented a funding plan for the construction of the new football and basketball stadiums. The Greek government confirmed in 2020 the construction of the new stadiums in the Votanikos area to be completed by 2024.Paiania has been the training ground of Panathinaikos since 1981. That same year, the Academy of the club was reorganized, becoming one of the best in the country and feeding the first team with notable players, such as Giorgos Karagounis, Angelos Basinas, Sotirios Kyrgiakos and Sotiris Ninis among others, key members of the Greek national team. In 2013, was decided the move of the club from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the team. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became a new training ground and Academy base of Panathinaikos.Until 1979, football in Greece was still in amateur level. The team, such as the other departments of Panathinaikos A.O., depended on the financial support of the club's members, while the president (responsible for all athletic departments) was elected by the Board members. In 1979, the Greek football turned professional and the Vardinogiannis family purchased the football department. Giorgos Vardinogiannis became the new president. Vardinogiannis family were the owners of the club the next decades.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% (as before) and the new shareholders 34%. Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Nikos Pateras, Adamantios Polemis and Andreas Vgenopoulos were the main investors, plus other minor shareholders. Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, the direction decided to reduce the budget and sell many players. In 2012, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His intention was to create a new, for the Greek athletic standards, supporter-owned football club. On 2 July 2012, the Panathenaic Alliance finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. A few days later, Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Alliance, while the other shareholders maintained their percentage. The members of the Alliance through elections compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos. In 2013, was decided the move of the team from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the club. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became the new training ground and academy base of Panathinaikos.For the 2014–15 season, the membership had risen up to 8,495 members contributing a total of €2,680,041.Panathinaikos currently is partially supporter-owned football club.According to the latest accounts in 2016 Panathenaic Alliance shares have been reduced to (15%), Giannis Alafouzos through Sortivo International Ltd and his own shares is the largest shareholder at (74%). Giannis Alafouzos suddenly decided to quit the team in September 2017, announcing his departure in a written statement and inviting potential investors to express their interest in buying the team.Current sponsorships:Panathinaikos was founded by middle class athletes (with Giorgos Kalafatis as a key figure) aiming of spreading and making more known football to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, their intention was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active.Today, according to UEFA and numerous polls and researches by the biggest newspapers and poll companies in a span of 20 years, Panathinaikos is the second most popular football team in Greece, with the difference behind Olympiacos to be varied between 2% to 9% and the difference in front of the third to be fluctuated between 17% to 21% among the fans. They have the highest popularity in Athens metropolitan area according to many of the corresponding polls, having also a large fanbase in all Greek prefectures, in Cyprus and in the Greek diaspora. They historically have a large fanbase among the highly-educated Greek upper class (traditionally representing the old Athenian society), while they are also popular among the middle and lower classes.Panathinaikos supporters hold both records of the most season tickets sales (31,091 in 2010) and highest average attendance for a unique season (44,942 in 1985–86) in the history of Greek football.The main organized supporters of Panathinaikos are known as Gate 13 (established 1966), the oldest fan association in Greece, which consists of around 80 clubs alongside Greece and Cyprus.Gate 13 style of supporting includes the use of green fireworks, large and small green flags, displaying of banners and especially the creation of colorful and large choreographies, noisy and constant cheering and other supporters stuff. Gate 13 has over the years become a part of the club by affecting club decisions and by following the club on all occasions.They share a traditional friendship with Ultras Rapid Wien, based mainly on the common green and white colours. Moreover, they have been sharing since the early 10s' close relations with Dinamo Zagreb's Bad Blue Boys (based on their common rivalry with Red Star and Olympiacos fans, capital city teams and mutual respect for each other's ultras achievements) and also with Fedayin of A.S. Roma based on the capital city team factor, their mutual respect and the ancient Athens and ancient Roma cultural connection.PALEFIP (Panhellenic club of Panathinaikos friends) is another supporters organization.Panathenaic Alliance, a collective organisation of the fan base, is the major shareholder of the football club, making it currently the only supporter-owned football club in Greece. The members of the Alliance, through elections, compose the board of directors and elect the club's president.Panathinaikos Movement, founded in 2012, is also a Greek political party founded by people with an initial common their love for the sports club of Panathinaikos and the wish for a new stadium for the football team, despite the bureaucracy of the Greek state.Key: R32 = Round of 32, R16 = Round of 16, QF = Quarter-finals, SF = Semi-finals, RU = Runners up, C = Champions.Mimis Domazos holds the record for Panathinaikos appearances, having played 502 first-team matches between 1959 and 1980. Striker Krzysztof Warzycha comes second, having played 390 times. The record for a goalkeeper is held by Takis Ikonomopoulos, with 303 appearances.Krzysztof Warzycha is the club's top goalscorer with 288 goals in all competitions between 1989 and 2004, having surpassed Antonis Antoniadis' total of 180 in January 1998.Panathinaikos record home attendance is 74,493, for a Greek League match against AEK Athens in 1986 at the Olympic Stadium. The record attendance for a Panathinaikos match at the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium is from 1967, when 29,665 spectators watched the Cup Winners' Cup game between Panathinaikos and Bayern Munich.Panathinaikos is one of the two clubs in the history of Greek football to finish a top-flight (after 1959) campaign unbeaten. This happened in the 1963–64 season.One-Club playersUefa Champions LeagueUEFA Cup1976–77 Alpha Ethniki, 1976–77 Greek Football Cup, 1977 Balkans Cup13 – Ιn honour of Gate 13Overall, Panathinaikos has a significant contribution to the Greek national football team. Giorgos Kalafatis, the founder of Panathinaikos, was the member of the Greek national team that participated in the Inter-Allied Games in Paris, while later he was also a player/manager for Greece in the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp. During the next decades, Panathinaikos highlighted some of the best Greek players in the history of Greek football, who contributed also to the national team (Migiakis, Linoxilakis, Loukanidis, Domazos, Antoniadis, Kapsis, Ikonomopoulos, Saravakos etc.). Six Panathinaikos players were members of the first appearance of the national team in a World Cup in 1994 (Saravakos, Kolitsidakis, Apostolakis, Kalitzakis, Nioplias, Marangos).Five players of the club were part of the golden team of 2004 that won the UEFA Euro 2004 (UEFA Euro 2004): Giourkas Seitaridis, Angelos Basinas, Giannis Goumas, Dimitris Papadopoulos, Kostas Chalkias (he did not play in any match).Official websitesNews sitesMedia
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[
"Fabriciano González",
"Yannis Anastasiou",
"Yannis Vonortas",
"Henk ten Cate",
"José Peseiro",
"Víctor Muñoz",
"Sergio Markarián",
"Marinos Ouzounidis",
"Jasminko Velić",
"Juan Ramón Rocha",
"Itzhak Shum",
"Zdeněk Ščasný",
"László Bölöni",
"Giorgos Donis",
"Dani Poyatos",
"Aggelos Anastasiadis",
"Fernando Santos",
"Nikos Nioplias",
"Jesualdo Ferreira",
"Sotiris Silaidopoulos",
"Giorgos Kalafatis"
] |
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Who was the head coach of the team Panathinaikos F.C. in Aug 09, 2005?
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August 09, 2005
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{
"text": [
"Alberto Malesani"
]
}
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L2_Q4122219_P286_6
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Marinos Ouzounidis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2016 to May, 2018.
Giorgos Kalafatis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1923.
Fernando Santos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2002.
Itzhak Shum is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2003 to Oct, 2004.
Nikos Nioplias is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2009 to Nov, 2010.
Giorgos Donis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2018 to Jul, 2020.
Víctor Muñoz is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2006 to May, 2007.
Henk ten Cate is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2008 to Dec, 2009.
Yannis Vonortas is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Mar, 2013 to May, 2013.
Sotiris Silaidopoulos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Juan Ramón Rocha is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Aggelos Anastasiadis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Feb, 2001.
Zdeněk Ščasný is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2004 to Feb, 2005.
Alberto Malesani is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Feb, 2005 to May, 2006.
Dani Poyatos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Jasminko Velić is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Sep, 2006 to Oct, 2006.
José Peseiro is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2007 to May, 2008.
Yannis Anastasiou is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from May, 2013 to Nov, 2015.
László Bölöni is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to May, 2021.
Sergio Markarián is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2002 to Jun, 2004.
Jesualdo Ferreira is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2010 to Nov, 2012.
Fabriciano González is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Mar, 2013.
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Panathinaikos F.C.Panathinaikos Football Club ( ), known as Panathinaikos, or by its full name, and the name of its parent sports club, Panathinaikos A.O. or PAO (; "Panathinaïkós Athlitikós Ómilos", "All-Athenian Athletic Club"), is a Greek professional football club based in the capital-city of Athens, Greece.Created in 1908 as "Podosfairikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens") by Georgios Kalafatis, they play in the Super League Greece, being one of the most successful clubs in Greek football and one of three clubs which have never been relegated from the top division. Amongst their major titles are 20 Greek Championships, 18 Greek Cups, achieving eight times the Double, and 3 Greek Super Cups. They are also one of the two clubs that won a championship undefeated, going without a loss in a top-flight campaign in the 1963–64 season.Panathinaikos is also the most successful Greek club in terms of achievements in the European competitions. It is the only Greek team that has reached the European Cup (later renamed UEFA Champions League) final in 1971 (which they lost to Ajax Amsterdam 2–0), and also the semi-finals twice, in 1985 and 1996. It is also the only Greek team that has played for the Intercontinental Cup (1971). Furthermore, they have reached the quarter-finals of the Champions League on another two occasions (in 1992 and 2002), as well as the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup twice (1988 and 2003). They have also won the Balkans Cup in 1977. Panathinaikos is a member of the European Club Association.Since the 1950s, the club maintains some of the oldest and most successful academies in Greece, producing talent for the first team and feeding the Greek national football team. They have played their home games in the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, considered their traditional home ground, and the Athens Olympic Stadium.According to researches and polls, Panathinaikos is one of the most popular football teams in Greece.They hold a long-term rivalry with Olympiacos, the clash between the two teams being referred to as the "Derby of the eternal enemies."According to the official history of the club, Panathinaikos was founded by Giorgos Kalafatis on 3 February 1908, when he and 40 other athletes decided to break away from Panellinios Gymnastikos Syllogos following the club's decision to discontinue its football team. The name of the new club was "Podosferikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens"). It was founded with the aim of spreading and making more known this new sport (football) to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, the intention of the founders was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active. The first president elected was Alexandros Kalafatis, brother of Giorgos. The ground of the team was in Patission Street. Oxford University athlete John Cyril Campbell was brought in as coach, the first time that a foreigner was appointed as the coach of a Greek team. Konstantinos Tsiklitiras, the great Greek athlete of the early 20th century, played as goalkeeper for the new team.In 1910, after a dispute among a number of board members, Kalafatis with most of the players—also followed by Campbell—decided to pull out of POA and secured a new ground in Amerikis Square. Subsequently, the name of the club changed to Panellinios Podosferikos Omilos ("Panhellenic Football Club") and its colours to green and white. By 1914, Campbell had returned to England but the club was already at the top of Greek football with players such as Michalis Papazoglou, Michalis Rokkos and Loukas Panourgias.In 1918, the team adopted the trifolium (shamrock) as its emblem, as proposed by Michalis Papazoglou. In 1921 and 1922, the Athens-Piraeus FCA organized the first two post-WWI championships, in both of which PPO was declared champion. By that stage, the club had outgrown both the grounds in Patission Street and Amerikis Square, due mainly to its expansion in other sports, and began to look at vacant land in the area of Perivola on Alexandras Avenue as its potential new ground. After long discussions with the Municipality of Athens, an agreement was finally reached and in 1922 "Leoforos" ("Avenue" in Greek) was granted to the club.The move to a permanent home ground also heralded another—final—name change to Panathinaikos Athlitikos Omilos (PAO), ""All-Athenian Athletic Club"", on 15 March 1924, from now on a multi-sport club. However, the decision was already taken by 1922.In 1926, the Hellenic Football Federation (HFF) was founded and the first Greek Championship under its authority took place in 1927.Panathinaikos won undefeated the Championship of 1929–30 under the guidance of József Künsztler and Angelos Messaris as the team's star player. Other notable players of this "Belle Époque" period of the team were Antonis Migiakis, Diomidis Symeonidis, Mimis Pierrakos and Stefanos Pierrakos, among others. They thrashed rivals Olympiacos 8–2, a result that still remains the biggest win either team has achieved against its rival, with Messaris scoring three goals. The team also defeated Aris 1–4 away in Thessaloniki. Messaris, who scored again three goals, became a hero and chant for the fans.In 1931, a serious disagreement between leading board member Apostolos Nikolaidis from one side, and some players (most notably Angelos Messaris) and club's officials on the other side, regarding the professionalization in the Greek football, which lasted two years, damaged the club and led to a counterproductive period. In the meantime, the HFF Greek Cup had commenced in 1932. The last bright moment for the Greens before World War II was winning the Cup for the first time in 1940 against Aris, 3–1.In 1940, with the break out of the Greco-Italian War, many players of the club joined the Hellenic Army. Mimis Pierrakos was killed during the war (later, during the 1950s, his bones were transferred from Albania back to Athens). During the Axis Occupation of Greece from 1941 to 1944, many players of the team became members of United Panhellenic Organization of Youth (PEAN) resistance organization., while Michalis Papazoglou had a leading role in the resistance group of Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz.After this long crisis period, Panathinaikos had to wait until 1949 to win again a Greek Championship under the guidance of the Austrian coach Johann Strnad. That same year, Vangelis Panakis and Kostas Linoxilakis came to the club and quickly became the side's new star players. Panathinaikos was again champion for the 1952–53 Panhellenic Championship.Until 1959, the team had also won seven of the last eight Athens Championships, the regional championships organised in Greece. In 1959, Mimis Domazos, the emblematic captain of the team, made his first appearance with Panathinaikos and the same year took place the first season under the new system of Alpha Ethniki (1959–60 Alpha Ethniki). Panathinaikos was the champion team.During the next years, Panathinaikos were again champions in 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1969 and 1970. Moreover, the team won two more Greek Cups, in 1967 and 1969. Also, during these years, a long process of rejuvenation took place in the club. Notable players retired, such as Panakis, Linoxilakis, Takis Loukanidis and Andreas Papaemmanouil, and the team had to count on young players like Domazos, Antonis Antoniadis, Anthimos Kapsis, Kostas Eleftherakis and Takis Ikonomopoulos.Stjepan Bobek was the main contributor to this process. In 1963, he became the club's head coach, changing the playing style of the team to a 4–3–3 and created a new team based on young players (the "Bobek's rejuvenation"). Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the Championship of 1964 without a loss, making them one of the two teams that has won the Greek Championship (with its modern system) undefeated. Notable players of the team included Panakis, Domazos, Takis Ikonomopoulos, Totis Filakouris, Frangiskos Sourpis and Aristidis Kamaras.With the establishment of the Greek military regime, the president of the club, Loukas Panourgias, was forced out of the presidency. The contract of Bobek was canceled by the State, while Apostolos Nikolaidis, the old player, manager and official of the club, went on trial.In 1967, the great Béla Guttmann came as coach, but he soon left and ex-player Lakis Petropoulos was appointed. Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the championships of 1969 (with a double) and 1970.In 1971, under the guidance of Ferenc Puskás, Panathinaikos were 1970–71 European Cup finalists, the first and only Greek team until today, losing 2–0 to Ajax at Wembley Stadium. In the road to the final, they eliminated Jeunesse Esch, Slovan Bratislava, Everton and Red Star Belgrade. Notable players included the captain Mimis Domazos, Anthimos Kapsis, Aristidis Kamaras, Kostas Eleftherakis, Totis Filakouris and the goalkeepers Takis Ikonomopoulos and Vasilis Konstantinou. Antonis Antoniadis was the top scorer in the competition scoring ten goals.In the same year, Panathinaikos played for the 1971 Intercontinental Cup (due to the refusal of Ajax to participate), where they lost to Uruguayan club Nacional (1–1 in Greece, 2–1 in Uruguay). Totis Filakouris was the scorer for the Greek club.During the last amateur years of Greek football, the "Trifolium" won one more Championship in 1972. Antonis Antoniadis was again top scorer with 39 goals (also second in Europe). His record remains until today in the Greek league.With the collapse of the military regime, Apostolos Nikolaidis became again active for the club and was appointed honorary president of Panathinaikos. In 1975, one of the greatest coaches of his era, the Brazilian Aymoré Moreira, who mainly worked in Brazil (World Cup Champion with the Brazilian national team in 1962), was appointed. After a year-and-a-half of poor results, however, he was replaced by Kazimierz Górski. With Górski, Panathinaikos won the double in 1977, followed by a Balkans Cup victory in the same year. Notable foreign players who played for the team during the late 1970s include Juan Ramón Verón, Araquem de Melo and Óscar Álvarez.In 1979, Greek football turned professional. The Vardinogiannis family purchased PAO's football department and Giorgos Vardinogiannis became president. Panathinaikos were one of the first Greek clubs that formed a women's team in 1980, but that department is currently inactive.The transformation period lasted a few years, but in 1982 the club won its first professional era trophy, the Greek Cup, and during the 1980s they would go on winning two championships (1984, 1986), four more Greek Cups (1984, 1986—with a 4–0 against Olympiacos in the final—, 1988, 1989) and the Greek Super Cup in 1988. The great star of the team during these years was Dimitris Saravakos, nicknamed "The Kid." Saravakos, a high-technique explosive midfielder and iconic captain of Panathinaikos, was the alsolute idol for the fans during the 1980s, while other players included Nikos Sarganis, Spiros Livathinos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha, Christos Dimopoulos and Giannis Kyrastas.In the 1984–85 season, Panathinaikos, with coach Jacek Gmoch and stars Dimitris Saravakos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha and Ioannis Kyrastas, made a run in Europe, eliminating Feyenoord, Linfield and IFK Göteborg to reach the semi-finals of the European Cup, where they were knocked out by Liverpool.In 1987–88, they made it also to the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup, eliminating Juventus, Auxerre and Budapest Honvéd. Dimitris Saravakos was top scorer of the competition.The 1990s were an even more successful period for the club, both nationally and internationally. Four Greek championships (1990, 1991, 1995, 1996), four Greek Cups (1991, 1993, 1994, 1995) and two Greek Super Cups (1993, 1994) were awarded to the club.In the 1991–92 season, Panathinaikos reached also the last eight of the European Cup and took part in the first ever European tournament to have a group stage.In 1995–96, with Juan Ramon Rocha as coach and key players Krzysztof Warzycha, Józef Wandzik, Stratos Apostolakis, Georgios Georgiadis, Dimitris Markos, Giannis Kalitzakis, Giorgos Donis and Juan Jose Borrelli, Panathinaikos reached the Champions League semi-finals, finishing first in the group stage against Nantes, Porto, Aalborg BK and eliminating Legia Warsaw in the quarter-finals.In the semi-finals, Panathinaikos faced Ajax, recording an impressive 0–1 first leg away victory with Krzysztof Warzycha scoring the winning goal. Ajax had a record of 22 undefeated international matches until then, with Panathinaikos breaking their series. The Greek team, however, suffered a 0–3 defeat on the second leg. Thus, Panathinaikos was denied entry to a Champions League final once more.In the summer of 2000, President Giorgos Vardinogiannis resigned from his duties with complaints for the refereeing situation in Greece and passed his shares to his nephew Giannis Vardinogiannis, who changed the style of the club's management. Angelos Anastasiadis was initially appointed coach of the team and later the ex-player Giannis Kyrastas.With the arrival of coach Sergio Markarian, Panathinaikos reached the quarter-finals of the 2001–02 UEFA Champions League, being eliminated by Barcelona. Panathinaikos had passed the first group stage as the top club against Arsenal, Mallorca and Schalke 04, and the second group stage as second against Real Madrid, Porto and Sparta Prague.In the first leg of the quarter-finals, Panathinaikos managed to defeat Barcelona by 1–0 in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium. The second leg in Camp Nou was to be an eventful one. Panathinaikos scored first thanks to a beautiful goal by Michalis Konstantinou but eventually was eliminated as Barcelona scored three goals.Ιn Europe, Panathinaikos made it to the quarter-finals of UEFA Cup quarter-finals. En route, the Greek team had knocked-out Litex Lovech, Fenerbahçe (with an impressive 4–1 win in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium), Slovan Liberec and Anderlecht.During the quarter-finals, although winning the first match in Estádio das Antas against eventual winners of the trophy FC Porto of José Mourinho, with the header of Emmanuel Olisadebe, they were eliminated in the second leg after extra time.Notable players of this team included Takis Fyssas, Giorgos Karagounis, Antonis Nikopolidis, Angelos Basinas, Nikos Lyberopoulos, Michalis Konstantinou, Giourkas Seitaridis, Sotirios Kyrgiakos, Paulo Sousa, Goran Vlaović, Rene Henriksen, Joonas Kolkka, Jan Michaelsen and Emmanuel Olisadebe, considered by the fans one of the best teams in the club's history.During 2002–03 Alpha Ethniki season, they lost the Greek championship in the last two games by arch-rivals Olympiacos.Under the guidance of Israeli coach Itzhak Shum, Panathinaikos managed to win the championship in 2004. They won also the Cup, beating Olympiacos 3–1 in the final, making the double. New players like Ezequiel González, Lucian Sanmartean and Markus Münch had signed the summer before. In the Champions League, they came third in the group stage facing Manchester United, VfB Stuttgart and Rangers.However, Shum was unexpectedly fired early in the next season (2004–05) and Zdeněk Ščasný succeeded him on the bench. Panathinaikos finished second in the championship, while in the Champions League they came again third in the group stage facing Rosenborg, PSV and Arsenal. They continued in the UEFA Cup, where they were eliminated by Sevilla.In 2005, major changes were made in the team's roster. Players like Angelos Basinas and Michalis Konstantinou departed, while others like Flávio Conceição, Igor Bišćan and Andreas Ivanschitz arrived. Ščasný gave his seat to Alberto Malesani. At the start of the 2006–07 season, Malesani left the team and was replaced by Hans Backe, who left only three months after his appointment; Víctor Muñoz was his replacement. For the 2007–08 season, Panathinaikos hired José Peseiro.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% and the other shareholders 34% (with main investors Andreas Vgenopoulos, Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Adamantios Polemis and Nikos Pateras). Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president of the club.Following the major changes in 2008, Panathinaikos hired Henk ten Cate as coach and bought many expensive players, such as Gilberto Silva from Arsenal and Gabriel from Fluminense. In the 2008–09 season, the Greens proved that they could hold their weight in the Champions League by reaching the last 16. However, they disappointed in the Greek Championship, finishing third in the regular season, though they managed to come second overall after the playoff mini-league.The 2009–10 season was a successful one for Panathinaikos. During the summer transfer period, the club bought Djibril Cissé from Marseille, Kostas Katsouranis from Benfica, Sebastián Leto from Liverpool and various other players, spending more than €35 million in total. Henk ten Cate left in December to be replaced by Nikos Nioplias. The team managed to reach the last 16 of the Europa League, eliminating A.S. Roma after two amazing matches in Olympic Stadium of Athens and Stadio Olimpico. Panathinaikos also won both the Greek Championship and the Greek Cup, beating Aris by 1–0 in the final of the latter, thanks to a goal by Sebastián Leto.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, Panathinaikos sold Cissé for €5.8 million to Lazio and first-choice goalkeeper Alexandros Tzorvas to Palermo to reduce the budget. New players then entered, such as Quincy Owusu-Abeyie, Toché, Vitolo and Zeca. The club also changed their president and chose Dimitris Gontikas to be the new chairman. Panathinaikos failed to qualify to the group stage of 2011–12 Champions League after they were knocked out by Odense BK 4–5 on aggregate.Panathinaikos' downfall continued as a result of the serious riots in the Panathinaikos–Olympiacos derby of 18 March 2012. The entire board quit and Panathinaikos remained headless for about two months. However, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute a desired amount, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His plan seemed to be working, as a new 20-member board was elected with Dimitris Gontikas at the president's chair again, though it was yet to be seen how the fans would respond to Panathinaikos' call for help.On 2 July 2012, the PAO Alliance 2012 finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. After a few weeks of operation, 8,606 members had signed up, some of which were current or former Panathinaikos players, including Jean-Alain Boumsong, Sotiris Ninis, Gilberto Silva and Djibril Cissé, among others.On 18 July 2012, marked a historical day in Panathinaikos history, as Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Panathinaikos Alliance, thereby allowing Panathinaikos to have a fresh start with their own fans at the steering wheel, who through elections (amongst the members of the Alliance) they compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos.The first season with the Panathinaikos Alliance at the helm was nothing short of abysmal for the club. While still enduring financial troubles, Panathinaikos finished sixth in the championship and failed to qualify for the European competition for the first time in 16 years.For the 2013–14 season, the membership had risen up to 9,305 members. Starting the football year, both fans and journalists were very skeptical of Panathinaikos' chances of a successful season, and many people expected the team to suffer relegation from the Super League Greece. In May 2013, Yannis Anastasiou was appointed manager, and he planned a team based on players from the Panathinaikos Youth Academies joined by experienced foreign players looking to revive their careers. Despite the early skepticism, Panathinaikos' fans supported the team through the rough start, and the season turned out to be a massive success in light of the dire financial situation of the club and the young and inexperienced squad. The club finished fourth in the regular season and second after the playoffs (meaning they qualified for the 2014–15 Champions League), with Marcus Berg the top scorer of the team. Panathinaikos also won the 2013–14 Greek Football Cup after a 4–1 win over PAOK.On 2 November 2015, after bad performances and a home draw with AEK Athens, manager Yannis Anastasiou was sacked and replaced by Andrea Stramaccioni. Further successive poor results under the latter's reign, combined with loss of dressing room control, led to the dismissal of Stramaccioni on 1 December 2016, with former Panathinaikos player and Greece international Marinos Ouzounidis taking over the management at the club. Ouzounidis had some great moments with Panathinaikos and was generally liked by the fans. His resignation, due to problems with owner Giannis Alafouzos sparked another wave of disappointment and hatred against Alafouzos from the fans. On 24 April 2018 UEFA decided to exclude Panathinaikos FC from participating in the next UEFA club competition for which it would otherwise qualify in the next three seasons as a result of Financial Fair Play breaches Giorgos Donis was announced as the new coach on 3 July 2018. Coach Donis had a great year in 2018-1019, mainly depending on young players from Panathinaikos' academy, including Giannis Mpouzoukis, Tasos Xatzigiovannis and Achilleas Poungouras. He had a great start of the season despite beginning with −6 points in the championship, counting 6 consecutive wins that put Panathinaikos on top of the table. However, due to problems with his salary and a clash with Giannis Alafouzos, he was forced to resign in 2019. This situation made the relations between Alafouzos and the fans worse, with protests and demonstrations during games against him. Panathinaikos remained one of the top clubs in Greece, but its absence from European tournaments was a major factor in the fans' disappointment with the ownership. During the summer of 2020, a series of bad decisions were made from Giannis Alafouzos, who chose to let most of the players that had contributed to a ver good season go.Spaniard Dani Poyatos signed on as head of the club on 22 July 2020 for two years, taking over from George Donis' work. Poyatos was sacked after a poor start of the season on 12 October and was replaced by László Bölöni.White was the colour that was first used by the team in 1908 (probably like that of the first crest). The first symbol of the club was an association football ball of the era.In 1911, the colours changed to green and white. In 1918, Michalis Papazoglou proposed the trifolium, symbol of harmony, unity, nature and good luck, as emblem of Panathinaikos. The officials of the club were looking for a universal, non-nationalistic or localistic, symbol aiming to represent the whole Athens at the country and further at the world. Papazoglou used to have it sewn on his shirt since he was competing for a club in his native Chalcedon, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). He was possibly inspired by Billy Sherring, an Irish Canadian athlete who had won the Athens 1906 Olympic marathon (1906 Intercalated Games) wearing a white outfit with a big green shamrock on the chest.Georgios Chatzopoulos, member—and later president—of the club and director of the National Gallery, took over to design the new emblem for the team. Up to the end of the 1970s, a trifolium (green or white) was sewed on heart's side of the jersey and was big in size. With the beginning of professionalism, the crest of the F.C. was created, accompanied by the club initials and the year of founding, 1908.Until today, the team's traditional colours are green and white (green for health, nature, such as physiolatry, and white for virtue), although the white sometimes is omitted, used as trim or as an alternative. During the first years after the establishment of green as Panathinaikos' primary colour, players were wearing green shirts, white shorts and green socks. During the 1930s, an appearance with characteristic horizontal strips was established. This motive was used also in the next decades as primary or second choice. Since then, the uniform style has changed many times, but green has always remained the team's primary colour.Since 1979, when football became professional in Greece, Panathinaikos had a specific kit manufacturer and since 1983 a specific shirt sponsor as well. The following table shows in detail Panathinaikos kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors by year:Panathinaikos' traditional home ground since the early 1920s is the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, the oldest active football stadium in Greece, in the Ampelokipoi district of central Athens. The stadium is located on Alexandras Avenue and is most commonly referred to as "Leoforos" (Greek for "Avenue"). It is considered one of the most historic stadiums in Greece, as it was used by the Greek national team as home ground for many years (most recently for the UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying matches) and even by Panathinaikos' biggest rivals, AEK Athens and Olympiacos, on various occasions.Panathinaikos left "Leoforos" in 1984 to play in the newly built Athens Olympic Stadium. In 2000, then-club president Angelos Filippidis announced a return to the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, following a €7 million renovation. Capacity was reduced from 25,000 to 16,620, new dressing rooms were built and modular stand roofing was added in compliance with UEFA requirements, but in 2004, stricter standards were announced and the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium would need further expansion were it to remain suitable for UEFA-sanctioned matches. This was precluded by local zoning regulations and the team had to return to the Olympic Stadium once more until a new stadium, the proposed Votanikos Arena, was built. The "Leoforos" ground was due for demolition.On 27 January 2007, the board of Panathinaikos decided to reuse the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium for the team's 2007–08 domestic league and UEFA Cup home games. Additionally, the club officials decided to install new lawn, new seats and upgrade the press conference room and the restrooms.As of October 2013, and due to the club's and the country's financial troubles, the construction of the Votanikos Arena has stopped and consequently the plans for the demolition of the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium have been put on hold. After another five-year spell at the Olympic Stadium, the team has returned to its traditional home ground once again.The current president of the club, Giannis Alafouzos, declared his intention for another renovation of the stadium and the capacity increase, while the Panathinaikos Movement made its propositions for a total reconstruction.In 2019 the owner of Panathinaikos basketball team presented a funding plan for the construction of the new football and basketball stadiums. The Greek government confirmed in 2020 the construction of the new stadiums in the Votanikos area to be completed by 2024.Paiania has been the training ground of Panathinaikos since 1981. That same year, the Academy of the club was reorganized, becoming one of the best in the country and feeding the first team with notable players, such as Giorgos Karagounis, Angelos Basinas, Sotirios Kyrgiakos and Sotiris Ninis among others, key members of the Greek national team. In 2013, was decided the move of the club from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the team. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became a new training ground and Academy base of Panathinaikos.Until 1979, football in Greece was still in amateur level. The team, such as the other departments of Panathinaikos A.O., depended on the financial support of the club's members, while the president (responsible for all athletic departments) was elected by the Board members. In 1979, the Greek football turned professional and the Vardinogiannis family purchased the football department. Giorgos Vardinogiannis became the new president. Vardinogiannis family were the owners of the club the next decades.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% (as before) and the new shareholders 34%. Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Nikos Pateras, Adamantios Polemis and Andreas Vgenopoulos were the main investors, plus other minor shareholders. Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, the direction decided to reduce the budget and sell many players. In 2012, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His intention was to create a new, for the Greek athletic standards, supporter-owned football club. On 2 July 2012, the Panathenaic Alliance finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. A few days later, Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Alliance, while the other shareholders maintained their percentage. The members of the Alliance through elections compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos. In 2013, was decided the move of the team from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the club. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became the new training ground and academy base of Panathinaikos.For the 2014–15 season, the membership had risen up to 8,495 members contributing a total of €2,680,041.Panathinaikos currently is partially supporter-owned football club.According to the latest accounts in 2016 Panathenaic Alliance shares have been reduced to (15%), Giannis Alafouzos through Sortivo International Ltd and his own shares is the largest shareholder at (74%). Giannis Alafouzos suddenly decided to quit the team in September 2017, announcing his departure in a written statement and inviting potential investors to express their interest in buying the team.Current sponsorships:Panathinaikos was founded by middle class athletes (with Giorgos Kalafatis as a key figure) aiming of spreading and making more known football to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, their intention was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active.Today, according to UEFA and numerous polls and researches by the biggest newspapers and poll companies in a span of 20 years, Panathinaikos is the second most popular football team in Greece, with the difference behind Olympiacos to be varied between 2% to 9% and the difference in front of the third to be fluctuated between 17% to 21% among the fans. They have the highest popularity in Athens metropolitan area according to many of the corresponding polls, having also a large fanbase in all Greek prefectures, in Cyprus and in the Greek diaspora. They historically have a large fanbase among the highly-educated Greek upper class (traditionally representing the old Athenian society), while they are also popular among the middle and lower classes.Panathinaikos supporters hold both records of the most season tickets sales (31,091 in 2010) and highest average attendance for a unique season (44,942 in 1985–86) in the history of Greek football.The main organized supporters of Panathinaikos are known as Gate 13 (established 1966), the oldest fan association in Greece, which consists of around 80 clubs alongside Greece and Cyprus.Gate 13 style of supporting includes the use of green fireworks, large and small green flags, displaying of banners and especially the creation of colorful and large choreographies, noisy and constant cheering and other supporters stuff. Gate 13 has over the years become a part of the club by affecting club decisions and by following the club on all occasions.They share a traditional friendship with Ultras Rapid Wien, based mainly on the common green and white colours. Moreover, they have been sharing since the early 10s' close relations with Dinamo Zagreb's Bad Blue Boys (based on their common rivalry with Red Star and Olympiacos fans, capital city teams and mutual respect for each other's ultras achievements) and also with Fedayin of A.S. Roma based on the capital city team factor, their mutual respect and the ancient Athens and ancient Roma cultural connection.PALEFIP (Panhellenic club of Panathinaikos friends) is another supporters organization.Panathenaic Alliance, a collective organisation of the fan base, is the major shareholder of the football club, making it currently the only supporter-owned football club in Greece. The members of the Alliance, through elections, compose the board of directors and elect the club's president.Panathinaikos Movement, founded in 2012, is also a Greek political party founded by people with an initial common their love for the sports club of Panathinaikos and the wish for a new stadium for the football team, despite the bureaucracy of the Greek state.Key: R32 = Round of 32, R16 = Round of 16, QF = Quarter-finals, SF = Semi-finals, RU = Runners up, C = Champions.Mimis Domazos holds the record for Panathinaikos appearances, having played 502 first-team matches between 1959 and 1980. Striker Krzysztof Warzycha comes second, having played 390 times. The record for a goalkeeper is held by Takis Ikonomopoulos, with 303 appearances.Krzysztof Warzycha is the club's top goalscorer with 288 goals in all competitions between 1989 and 2004, having surpassed Antonis Antoniadis' total of 180 in January 1998.Panathinaikos record home attendance is 74,493, for a Greek League match against AEK Athens in 1986 at the Olympic Stadium. The record attendance for a Panathinaikos match at the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium is from 1967, when 29,665 spectators watched the Cup Winners' Cup game between Panathinaikos and Bayern Munich.Panathinaikos is one of the two clubs in the history of Greek football to finish a top-flight (after 1959) campaign unbeaten. This happened in the 1963–64 season.One-Club playersUefa Champions LeagueUEFA Cup1976–77 Alpha Ethniki, 1976–77 Greek Football Cup, 1977 Balkans Cup13 – Ιn honour of Gate 13Overall, Panathinaikos has a significant contribution to the Greek national football team. Giorgos Kalafatis, the founder of Panathinaikos, was the member of the Greek national team that participated in the Inter-Allied Games in Paris, while later he was also a player/manager for Greece in the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp. During the next decades, Panathinaikos highlighted some of the best Greek players in the history of Greek football, who contributed also to the national team (Migiakis, Linoxilakis, Loukanidis, Domazos, Antoniadis, Kapsis, Ikonomopoulos, Saravakos etc.). Six Panathinaikos players were members of the first appearance of the national team in a World Cup in 1994 (Saravakos, Kolitsidakis, Apostolakis, Kalitzakis, Nioplias, Marangos).Five players of the club were part of the golden team of 2004 that won the UEFA Euro 2004 (UEFA Euro 2004): Giourkas Seitaridis, Angelos Basinas, Giannis Goumas, Dimitris Papadopoulos, Kostas Chalkias (he did not play in any match).Official websitesNews sitesMedia
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[
"Fabriciano González",
"Yannis Anastasiou",
"Yannis Vonortas",
"Henk ten Cate",
"José Peseiro",
"Víctor Muñoz",
"Sergio Markarián",
"Marinos Ouzounidis",
"Jasminko Velić",
"Juan Ramón Rocha",
"Itzhak Shum",
"Zdeněk Ščasný",
"László Bölöni",
"Giorgos Donis",
"Dani Poyatos",
"Aggelos Anastasiadis",
"Fernando Santos",
"Nikos Nioplias",
"Jesualdo Ferreira",
"Sotiris Silaidopoulos",
"Giorgos Kalafatis"
] |
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Who was the head coach of the team Panathinaikos F.C. in 08/09/2005?
|
August 09, 2005
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{
"text": [
"Alberto Malesani"
]
}
|
L2_Q4122219_P286_6
|
Marinos Ouzounidis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2016 to May, 2018.
Giorgos Kalafatis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1923.
Fernando Santos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2002.
Itzhak Shum is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2003 to Oct, 2004.
Nikos Nioplias is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2009 to Nov, 2010.
Giorgos Donis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2018 to Jul, 2020.
Víctor Muñoz is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2006 to May, 2007.
Henk ten Cate is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2008 to Dec, 2009.
Yannis Vonortas is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Mar, 2013 to May, 2013.
Sotiris Silaidopoulos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Juan Ramón Rocha is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Aggelos Anastasiadis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Feb, 2001.
Zdeněk Ščasný is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2004 to Feb, 2005.
Alberto Malesani is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Feb, 2005 to May, 2006.
Dani Poyatos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Jasminko Velić is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Sep, 2006 to Oct, 2006.
José Peseiro is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2007 to May, 2008.
Yannis Anastasiou is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from May, 2013 to Nov, 2015.
László Bölöni is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to May, 2021.
Sergio Markarián is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2002 to Jun, 2004.
Jesualdo Ferreira is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2010 to Nov, 2012.
Fabriciano González is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Mar, 2013.
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Panathinaikos F.C.Panathinaikos Football Club ( ), known as Panathinaikos, or by its full name, and the name of its parent sports club, Panathinaikos A.O. or PAO (; "Panathinaïkós Athlitikós Ómilos", "All-Athenian Athletic Club"), is a Greek professional football club based in the capital-city of Athens, Greece.Created in 1908 as "Podosfairikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens") by Georgios Kalafatis, they play in the Super League Greece, being one of the most successful clubs in Greek football and one of three clubs which have never been relegated from the top division. Amongst their major titles are 20 Greek Championships, 18 Greek Cups, achieving eight times the Double, and 3 Greek Super Cups. They are also one of the two clubs that won a championship undefeated, going without a loss in a top-flight campaign in the 1963–64 season.Panathinaikos is also the most successful Greek club in terms of achievements in the European competitions. It is the only Greek team that has reached the European Cup (later renamed UEFA Champions League) final in 1971 (which they lost to Ajax Amsterdam 2–0), and also the semi-finals twice, in 1985 and 1996. It is also the only Greek team that has played for the Intercontinental Cup (1971). Furthermore, they have reached the quarter-finals of the Champions League on another two occasions (in 1992 and 2002), as well as the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup twice (1988 and 2003). They have also won the Balkans Cup in 1977. Panathinaikos is a member of the European Club Association.Since the 1950s, the club maintains some of the oldest and most successful academies in Greece, producing talent for the first team and feeding the Greek national football team. They have played their home games in the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, considered their traditional home ground, and the Athens Olympic Stadium.According to researches and polls, Panathinaikos is one of the most popular football teams in Greece.They hold a long-term rivalry with Olympiacos, the clash between the two teams being referred to as the "Derby of the eternal enemies."According to the official history of the club, Panathinaikos was founded by Giorgos Kalafatis on 3 February 1908, when he and 40 other athletes decided to break away from Panellinios Gymnastikos Syllogos following the club's decision to discontinue its football team. The name of the new club was "Podosferikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens"). It was founded with the aim of spreading and making more known this new sport (football) to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, the intention of the founders was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active. The first president elected was Alexandros Kalafatis, brother of Giorgos. The ground of the team was in Patission Street. Oxford University athlete John Cyril Campbell was brought in as coach, the first time that a foreigner was appointed as the coach of a Greek team. Konstantinos Tsiklitiras, the great Greek athlete of the early 20th century, played as goalkeeper for the new team.In 1910, after a dispute among a number of board members, Kalafatis with most of the players—also followed by Campbell—decided to pull out of POA and secured a new ground in Amerikis Square. Subsequently, the name of the club changed to Panellinios Podosferikos Omilos ("Panhellenic Football Club") and its colours to green and white. By 1914, Campbell had returned to England but the club was already at the top of Greek football with players such as Michalis Papazoglou, Michalis Rokkos and Loukas Panourgias.In 1918, the team adopted the trifolium (shamrock) as its emblem, as proposed by Michalis Papazoglou. In 1921 and 1922, the Athens-Piraeus FCA organized the first two post-WWI championships, in both of which PPO was declared champion. By that stage, the club had outgrown both the grounds in Patission Street and Amerikis Square, due mainly to its expansion in other sports, and began to look at vacant land in the area of Perivola on Alexandras Avenue as its potential new ground. After long discussions with the Municipality of Athens, an agreement was finally reached and in 1922 "Leoforos" ("Avenue" in Greek) was granted to the club.The move to a permanent home ground also heralded another—final—name change to Panathinaikos Athlitikos Omilos (PAO), ""All-Athenian Athletic Club"", on 15 March 1924, from now on a multi-sport club. However, the decision was already taken by 1922.In 1926, the Hellenic Football Federation (HFF) was founded and the first Greek Championship under its authority took place in 1927.Panathinaikos won undefeated the Championship of 1929–30 under the guidance of József Künsztler and Angelos Messaris as the team's star player. Other notable players of this "Belle Époque" period of the team were Antonis Migiakis, Diomidis Symeonidis, Mimis Pierrakos and Stefanos Pierrakos, among others. They thrashed rivals Olympiacos 8–2, a result that still remains the biggest win either team has achieved against its rival, with Messaris scoring three goals. The team also defeated Aris 1–4 away in Thessaloniki. Messaris, who scored again three goals, became a hero and chant for the fans.In 1931, a serious disagreement between leading board member Apostolos Nikolaidis from one side, and some players (most notably Angelos Messaris) and club's officials on the other side, regarding the professionalization in the Greek football, which lasted two years, damaged the club and led to a counterproductive period. In the meantime, the HFF Greek Cup had commenced in 1932. The last bright moment for the Greens before World War II was winning the Cup for the first time in 1940 against Aris, 3–1.In 1940, with the break out of the Greco-Italian War, many players of the club joined the Hellenic Army. Mimis Pierrakos was killed during the war (later, during the 1950s, his bones were transferred from Albania back to Athens). During the Axis Occupation of Greece from 1941 to 1944, many players of the team became members of United Panhellenic Organization of Youth (PEAN) resistance organization., while Michalis Papazoglou had a leading role in the resistance group of Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz.After this long crisis period, Panathinaikos had to wait until 1949 to win again a Greek Championship under the guidance of the Austrian coach Johann Strnad. That same year, Vangelis Panakis and Kostas Linoxilakis came to the club and quickly became the side's new star players. Panathinaikos was again champion for the 1952–53 Panhellenic Championship.Until 1959, the team had also won seven of the last eight Athens Championships, the regional championships organised in Greece. In 1959, Mimis Domazos, the emblematic captain of the team, made his first appearance with Panathinaikos and the same year took place the first season under the new system of Alpha Ethniki (1959–60 Alpha Ethniki). Panathinaikos was the champion team.During the next years, Panathinaikos were again champions in 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1969 and 1970. Moreover, the team won two more Greek Cups, in 1967 and 1969. Also, during these years, a long process of rejuvenation took place in the club. Notable players retired, such as Panakis, Linoxilakis, Takis Loukanidis and Andreas Papaemmanouil, and the team had to count on young players like Domazos, Antonis Antoniadis, Anthimos Kapsis, Kostas Eleftherakis and Takis Ikonomopoulos.Stjepan Bobek was the main contributor to this process. In 1963, he became the club's head coach, changing the playing style of the team to a 4–3–3 and created a new team based on young players (the "Bobek's rejuvenation"). Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the Championship of 1964 without a loss, making them one of the two teams that has won the Greek Championship (with its modern system) undefeated. Notable players of the team included Panakis, Domazos, Takis Ikonomopoulos, Totis Filakouris, Frangiskos Sourpis and Aristidis Kamaras.With the establishment of the Greek military regime, the president of the club, Loukas Panourgias, was forced out of the presidency. The contract of Bobek was canceled by the State, while Apostolos Nikolaidis, the old player, manager and official of the club, went on trial.In 1967, the great Béla Guttmann came as coach, but he soon left and ex-player Lakis Petropoulos was appointed. Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the championships of 1969 (with a double) and 1970.In 1971, under the guidance of Ferenc Puskás, Panathinaikos were 1970–71 European Cup finalists, the first and only Greek team until today, losing 2–0 to Ajax at Wembley Stadium. In the road to the final, they eliminated Jeunesse Esch, Slovan Bratislava, Everton and Red Star Belgrade. Notable players included the captain Mimis Domazos, Anthimos Kapsis, Aristidis Kamaras, Kostas Eleftherakis, Totis Filakouris and the goalkeepers Takis Ikonomopoulos and Vasilis Konstantinou. Antonis Antoniadis was the top scorer in the competition scoring ten goals.In the same year, Panathinaikos played for the 1971 Intercontinental Cup (due to the refusal of Ajax to participate), where they lost to Uruguayan club Nacional (1–1 in Greece, 2–1 in Uruguay). Totis Filakouris was the scorer for the Greek club.During the last amateur years of Greek football, the "Trifolium" won one more Championship in 1972. Antonis Antoniadis was again top scorer with 39 goals (also second in Europe). His record remains until today in the Greek league.With the collapse of the military regime, Apostolos Nikolaidis became again active for the club and was appointed honorary president of Panathinaikos. In 1975, one of the greatest coaches of his era, the Brazilian Aymoré Moreira, who mainly worked in Brazil (World Cup Champion with the Brazilian national team in 1962), was appointed. After a year-and-a-half of poor results, however, he was replaced by Kazimierz Górski. With Górski, Panathinaikos won the double in 1977, followed by a Balkans Cup victory in the same year. Notable foreign players who played for the team during the late 1970s include Juan Ramón Verón, Araquem de Melo and Óscar Álvarez.In 1979, Greek football turned professional. The Vardinogiannis family purchased PAO's football department and Giorgos Vardinogiannis became president. Panathinaikos were one of the first Greek clubs that formed a women's team in 1980, but that department is currently inactive.The transformation period lasted a few years, but in 1982 the club won its first professional era trophy, the Greek Cup, and during the 1980s they would go on winning two championships (1984, 1986), four more Greek Cups (1984, 1986—with a 4–0 against Olympiacos in the final—, 1988, 1989) and the Greek Super Cup in 1988. The great star of the team during these years was Dimitris Saravakos, nicknamed "The Kid." Saravakos, a high-technique explosive midfielder and iconic captain of Panathinaikos, was the alsolute idol for the fans during the 1980s, while other players included Nikos Sarganis, Spiros Livathinos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha, Christos Dimopoulos and Giannis Kyrastas.In the 1984–85 season, Panathinaikos, with coach Jacek Gmoch and stars Dimitris Saravakos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha and Ioannis Kyrastas, made a run in Europe, eliminating Feyenoord, Linfield and IFK Göteborg to reach the semi-finals of the European Cup, where they were knocked out by Liverpool.In 1987–88, they made it also to the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup, eliminating Juventus, Auxerre and Budapest Honvéd. Dimitris Saravakos was top scorer of the competition.The 1990s were an even more successful period for the club, both nationally and internationally. Four Greek championships (1990, 1991, 1995, 1996), four Greek Cups (1991, 1993, 1994, 1995) and two Greek Super Cups (1993, 1994) were awarded to the club.In the 1991–92 season, Panathinaikos reached also the last eight of the European Cup and took part in the first ever European tournament to have a group stage.In 1995–96, with Juan Ramon Rocha as coach and key players Krzysztof Warzycha, Józef Wandzik, Stratos Apostolakis, Georgios Georgiadis, Dimitris Markos, Giannis Kalitzakis, Giorgos Donis and Juan Jose Borrelli, Panathinaikos reached the Champions League semi-finals, finishing first in the group stage against Nantes, Porto, Aalborg BK and eliminating Legia Warsaw in the quarter-finals.In the semi-finals, Panathinaikos faced Ajax, recording an impressive 0–1 first leg away victory with Krzysztof Warzycha scoring the winning goal. Ajax had a record of 22 undefeated international matches until then, with Panathinaikos breaking their series. The Greek team, however, suffered a 0–3 defeat on the second leg. Thus, Panathinaikos was denied entry to a Champions League final once more.In the summer of 2000, President Giorgos Vardinogiannis resigned from his duties with complaints for the refereeing situation in Greece and passed his shares to his nephew Giannis Vardinogiannis, who changed the style of the club's management. Angelos Anastasiadis was initially appointed coach of the team and later the ex-player Giannis Kyrastas.With the arrival of coach Sergio Markarian, Panathinaikos reached the quarter-finals of the 2001–02 UEFA Champions League, being eliminated by Barcelona. Panathinaikos had passed the first group stage as the top club against Arsenal, Mallorca and Schalke 04, and the second group stage as second against Real Madrid, Porto and Sparta Prague.In the first leg of the quarter-finals, Panathinaikos managed to defeat Barcelona by 1–0 in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium. The second leg in Camp Nou was to be an eventful one. Panathinaikos scored first thanks to a beautiful goal by Michalis Konstantinou but eventually was eliminated as Barcelona scored three goals.Ιn Europe, Panathinaikos made it to the quarter-finals of UEFA Cup quarter-finals. En route, the Greek team had knocked-out Litex Lovech, Fenerbahçe (with an impressive 4–1 win in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium), Slovan Liberec and Anderlecht.During the quarter-finals, although winning the first match in Estádio das Antas against eventual winners of the trophy FC Porto of José Mourinho, with the header of Emmanuel Olisadebe, they were eliminated in the second leg after extra time.Notable players of this team included Takis Fyssas, Giorgos Karagounis, Antonis Nikopolidis, Angelos Basinas, Nikos Lyberopoulos, Michalis Konstantinou, Giourkas Seitaridis, Sotirios Kyrgiakos, Paulo Sousa, Goran Vlaović, Rene Henriksen, Joonas Kolkka, Jan Michaelsen and Emmanuel Olisadebe, considered by the fans one of the best teams in the club's history.During 2002–03 Alpha Ethniki season, they lost the Greek championship in the last two games by arch-rivals Olympiacos.Under the guidance of Israeli coach Itzhak Shum, Panathinaikos managed to win the championship in 2004. They won also the Cup, beating Olympiacos 3–1 in the final, making the double. New players like Ezequiel González, Lucian Sanmartean and Markus Münch had signed the summer before. In the Champions League, they came third in the group stage facing Manchester United, VfB Stuttgart and Rangers.However, Shum was unexpectedly fired early in the next season (2004–05) and Zdeněk Ščasný succeeded him on the bench. Panathinaikos finished second in the championship, while in the Champions League they came again third in the group stage facing Rosenborg, PSV and Arsenal. They continued in the UEFA Cup, where they were eliminated by Sevilla.In 2005, major changes were made in the team's roster. Players like Angelos Basinas and Michalis Konstantinou departed, while others like Flávio Conceição, Igor Bišćan and Andreas Ivanschitz arrived. Ščasný gave his seat to Alberto Malesani. At the start of the 2006–07 season, Malesani left the team and was replaced by Hans Backe, who left only three months after his appointment; Víctor Muñoz was his replacement. For the 2007–08 season, Panathinaikos hired José Peseiro.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% and the other shareholders 34% (with main investors Andreas Vgenopoulos, Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Adamantios Polemis and Nikos Pateras). Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president of the club.Following the major changes in 2008, Panathinaikos hired Henk ten Cate as coach and bought many expensive players, such as Gilberto Silva from Arsenal and Gabriel from Fluminense. In the 2008–09 season, the Greens proved that they could hold their weight in the Champions League by reaching the last 16. However, they disappointed in the Greek Championship, finishing third in the regular season, though they managed to come second overall after the playoff mini-league.The 2009–10 season was a successful one for Panathinaikos. During the summer transfer period, the club bought Djibril Cissé from Marseille, Kostas Katsouranis from Benfica, Sebastián Leto from Liverpool and various other players, spending more than €35 million in total. Henk ten Cate left in December to be replaced by Nikos Nioplias. The team managed to reach the last 16 of the Europa League, eliminating A.S. Roma after two amazing matches in Olympic Stadium of Athens and Stadio Olimpico. Panathinaikos also won both the Greek Championship and the Greek Cup, beating Aris by 1–0 in the final of the latter, thanks to a goal by Sebastián Leto.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, Panathinaikos sold Cissé for €5.8 million to Lazio and first-choice goalkeeper Alexandros Tzorvas to Palermo to reduce the budget. New players then entered, such as Quincy Owusu-Abeyie, Toché, Vitolo and Zeca. The club also changed their president and chose Dimitris Gontikas to be the new chairman. Panathinaikos failed to qualify to the group stage of 2011–12 Champions League after they were knocked out by Odense BK 4–5 on aggregate.Panathinaikos' downfall continued as a result of the serious riots in the Panathinaikos–Olympiacos derby of 18 March 2012. The entire board quit and Panathinaikos remained headless for about two months. However, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute a desired amount, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His plan seemed to be working, as a new 20-member board was elected with Dimitris Gontikas at the president's chair again, though it was yet to be seen how the fans would respond to Panathinaikos' call for help.On 2 July 2012, the PAO Alliance 2012 finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. After a few weeks of operation, 8,606 members had signed up, some of which were current or former Panathinaikos players, including Jean-Alain Boumsong, Sotiris Ninis, Gilberto Silva and Djibril Cissé, among others.On 18 July 2012, marked a historical day in Panathinaikos history, as Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Panathinaikos Alliance, thereby allowing Panathinaikos to have a fresh start with their own fans at the steering wheel, who through elections (amongst the members of the Alliance) they compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos.The first season with the Panathinaikos Alliance at the helm was nothing short of abysmal for the club. While still enduring financial troubles, Panathinaikos finished sixth in the championship and failed to qualify for the European competition for the first time in 16 years.For the 2013–14 season, the membership had risen up to 9,305 members. Starting the football year, both fans and journalists were very skeptical of Panathinaikos' chances of a successful season, and many people expected the team to suffer relegation from the Super League Greece. In May 2013, Yannis Anastasiou was appointed manager, and he planned a team based on players from the Panathinaikos Youth Academies joined by experienced foreign players looking to revive their careers. Despite the early skepticism, Panathinaikos' fans supported the team through the rough start, and the season turned out to be a massive success in light of the dire financial situation of the club and the young and inexperienced squad. The club finished fourth in the regular season and second after the playoffs (meaning they qualified for the 2014–15 Champions League), with Marcus Berg the top scorer of the team. Panathinaikos also won the 2013–14 Greek Football Cup after a 4–1 win over PAOK.On 2 November 2015, after bad performances and a home draw with AEK Athens, manager Yannis Anastasiou was sacked and replaced by Andrea Stramaccioni. Further successive poor results under the latter's reign, combined with loss of dressing room control, led to the dismissal of Stramaccioni on 1 December 2016, with former Panathinaikos player and Greece international Marinos Ouzounidis taking over the management at the club. Ouzounidis had some great moments with Panathinaikos and was generally liked by the fans. His resignation, due to problems with owner Giannis Alafouzos sparked another wave of disappointment and hatred against Alafouzos from the fans. On 24 April 2018 UEFA decided to exclude Panathinaikos FC from participating in the next UEFA club competition for which it would otherwise qualify in the next three seasons as a result of Financial Fair Play breaches Giorgos Donis was announced as the new coach on 3 July 2018. Coach Donis had a great year in 2018-1019, mainly depending on young players from Panathinaikos' academy, including Giannis Mpouzoukis, Tasos Xatzigiovannis and Achilleas Poungouras. He had a great start of the season despite beginning with −6 points in the championship, counting 6 consecutive wins that put Panathinaikos on top of the table. However, due to problems with his salary and a clash with Giannis Alafouzos, he was forced to resign in 2019. This situation made the relations between Alafouzos and the fans worse, with protests and demonstrations during games against him. Panathinaikos remained one of the top clubs in Greece, but its absence from European tournaments was a major factor in the fans' disappointment with the ownership. During the summer of 2020, a series of bad decisions were made from Giannis Alafouzos, who chose to let most of the players that had contributed to a ver good season go.Spaniard Dani Poyatos signed on as head of the club on 22 July 2020 for two years, taking over from George Donis' work. Poyatos was sacked after a poor start of the season on 12 October and was replaced by László Bölöni.White was the colour that was first used by the team in 1908 (probably like that of the first crest). The first symbol of the club was an association football ball of the era.In 1911, the colours changed to green and white. In 1918, Michalis Papazoglou proposed the trifolium, symbol of harmony, unity, nature and good luck, as emblem of Panathinaikos. The officials of the club were looking for a universal, non-nationalistic or localistic, symbol aiming to represent the whole Athens at the country and further at the world. Papazoglou used to have it sewn on his shirt since he was competing for a club in his native Chalcedon, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). He was possibly inspired by Billy Sherring, an Irish Canadian athlete who had won the Athens 1906 Olympic marathon (1906 Intercalated Games) wearing a white outfit with a big green shamrock on the chest.Georgios Chatzopoulos, member—and later president—of the club and director of the National Gallery, took over to design the new emblem for the team. Up to the end of the 1970s, a trifolium (green or white) was sewed on heart's side of the jersey and was big in size. With the beginning of professionalism, the crest of the F.C. was created, accompanied by the club initials and the year of founding, 1908.Until today, the team's traditional colours are green and white (green for health, nature, such as physiolatry, and white for virtue), although the white sometimes is omitted, used as trim or as an alternative. During the first years after the establishment of green as Panathinaikos' primary colour, players were wearing green shirts, white shorts and green socks. During the 1930s, an appearance with characteristic horizontal strips was established. This motive was used also in the next decades as primary or second choice. Since then, the uniform style has changed many times, but green has always remained the team's primary colour.Since 1979, when football became professional in Greece, Panathinaikos had a specific kit manufacturer and since 1983 a specific shirt sponsor as well. The following table shows in detail Panathinaikos kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors by year:Panathinaikos' traditional home ground since the early 1920s is the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, the oldest active football stadium in Greece, in the Ampelokipoi district of central Athens. The stadium is located on Alexandras Avenue and is most commonly referred to as "Leoforos" (Greek for "Avenue"). It is considered one of the most historic stadiums in Greece, as it was used by the Greek national team as home ground for many years (most recently for the UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying matches) and even by Panathinaikos' biggest rivals, AEK Athens and Olympiacos, on various occasions.Panathinaikos left "Leoforos" in 1984 to play in the newly built Athens Olympic Stadium. In 2000, then-club president Angelos Filippidis announced a return to the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, following a €7 million renovation. Capacity was reduced from 25,000 to 16,620, new dressing rooms were built and modular stand roofing was added in compliance with UEFA requirements, but in 2004, stricter standards were announced and the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium would need further expansion were it to remain suitable for UEFA-sanctioned matches. This was precluded by local zoning regulations and the team had to return to the Olympic Stadium once more until a new stadium, the proposed Votanikos Arena, was built. The "Leoforos" ground was due for demolition.On 27 January 2007, the board of Panathinaikos decided to reuse the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium for the team's 2007–08 domestic league and UEFA Cup home games. Additionally, the club officials decided to install new lawn, new seats and upgrade the press conference room and the restrooms.As of October 2013, and due to the club's and the country's financial troubles, the construction of the Votanikos Arena has stopped and consequently the plans for the demolition of the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium have been put on hold. After another five-year spell at the Olympic Stadium, the team has returned to its traditional home ground once again.The current president of the club, Giannis Alafouzos, declared his intention for another renovation of the stadium and the capacity increase, while the Panathinaikos Movement made its propositions for a total reconstruction.In 2019 the owner of Panathinaikos basketball team presented a funding plan for the construction of the new football and basketball stadiums. The Greek government confirmed in 2020 the construction of the new stadiums in the Votanikos area to be completed by 2024.Paiania has been the training ground of Panathinaikos since 1981. That same year, the Academy of the club was reorganized, becoming one of the best in the country and feeding the first team with notable players, such as Giorgos Karagounis, Angelos Basinas, Sotirios Kyrgiakos and Sotiris Ninis among others, key members of the Greek national team. In 2013, was decided the move of the club from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the team. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became a new training ground and Academy base of Panathinaikos.Until 1979, football in Greece was still in amateur level. The team, such as the other departments of Panathinaikos A.O., depended on the financial support of the club's members, while the president (responsible for all athletic departments) was elected by the Board members. In 1979, the Greek football turned professional and the Vardinogiannis family purchased the football department. Giorgos Vardinogiannis became the new president. Vardinogiannis family were the owners of the club the next decades.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% (as before) and the new shareholders 34%. Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Nikos Pateras, Adamantios Polemis and Andreas Vgenopoulos were the main investors, plus other minor shareholders. Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, the direction decided to reduce the budget and sell many players. In 2012, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His intention was to create a new, for the Greek athletic standards, supporter-owned football club. On 2 July 2012, the Panathenaic Alliance finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. A few days later, Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Alliance, while the other shareholders maintained their percentage. The members of the Alliance through elections compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos. In 2013, was decided the move of the team from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the club. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became the new training ground and academy base of Panathinaikos.For the 2014–15 season, the membership had risen up to 8,495 members contributing a total of €2,680,041.Panathinaikos currently is partially supporter-owned football club.According to the latest accounts in 2016 Panathenaic Alliance shares have been reduced to (15%), Giannis Alafouzos through Sortivo International Ltd and his own shares is the largest shareholder at (74%). Giannis Alafouzos suddenly decided to quit the team in September 2017, announcing his departure in a written statement and inviting potential investors to express their interest in buying the team.Current sponsorships:Panathinaikos was founded by middle class athletes (with Giorgos Kalafatis as a key figure) aiming of spreading and making more known football to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, their intention was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active.Today, according to UEFA and numerous polls and researches by the biggest newspapers and poll companies in a span of 20 years, Panathinaikos is the second most popular football team in Greece, with the difference behind Olympiacos to be varied between 2% to 9% and the difference in front of the third to be fluctuated between 17% to 21% among the fans. They have the highest popularity in Athens metropolitan area according to many of the corresponding polls, having also a large fanbase in all Greek prefectures, in Cyprus and in the Greek diaspora. They historically have a large fanbase among the highly-educated Greek upper class (traditionally representing the old Athenian society), while they are also popular among the middle and lower classes.Panathinaikos supporters hold both records of the most season tickets sales (31,091 in 2010) and highest average attendance for a unique season (44,942 in 1985–86) in the history of Greek football.The main organized supporters of Panathinaikos are known as Gate 13 (established 1966), the oldest fan association in Greece, which consists of around 80 clubs alongside Greece and Cyprus.Gate 13 style of supporting includes the use of green fireworks, large and small green flags, displaying of banners and especially the creation of colorful and large choreographies, noisy and constant cheering and other supporters stuff. Gate 13 has over the years become a part of the club by affecting club decisions and by following the club on all occasions.They share a traditional friendship with Ultras Rapid Wien, based mainly on the common green and white colours. Moreover, they have been sharing since the early 10s' close relations with Dinamo Zagreb's Bad Blue Boys (based on their common rivalry with Red Star and Olympiacos fans, capital city teams and mutual respect for each other's ultras achievements) and also with Fedayin of A.S. Roma based on the capital city team factor, their mutual respect and the ancient Athens and ancient Roma cultural connection.PALEFIP (Panhellenic club of Panathinaikos friends) is another supporters organization.Panathenaic Alliance, a collective organisation of the fan base, is the major shareholder of the football club, making it currently the only supporter-owned football club in Greece. The members of the Alliance, through elections, compose the board of directors and elect the club's president.Panathinaikos Movement, founded in 2012, is also a Greek political party founded by people with an initial common their love for the sports club of Panathinaikos and the wish for a new stadium for the football team, despite the bureaucracy of the Greek state.Key: R32 = Round of 32, R16 = Round of 16, QF = Quarter-finals, SF = Semi-finals, RU = Runners up, C = Champions.Mimis Domazos holds the record for Panathinaikos appearances, having played 502 first-team matches between 1959 and 1980. Striker Krzysztof Warzycha comes second, having played 390 times. The record for a goalkeeper is held by Takis Ikonomopoulos, with 303 appearances.Krzysztof Warzycha is the club's top goalscorer with 288 goals in all competitions between 1989 and 2004, having surpassed Antonis Antoniadis' total of 180 in January 1998.Panathinaikos record home attendance is 74,493, for a Greek League match against AEK Athens in 1986 at the Olympic Stadium. The record attendance for a Panathinaikos match at the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium is from 1967, when 29,665 spectators watched the Cup Winners' Cup game between Panathinaikos and Bayern Munich.Panathinaikos is one of the two clubs in the history of Greek football to finish a top-flight (after 1959) campaign unbeaten. This happened in the 1963–64 season.One-Club playersUefa Champions LeagueUEFA Cup1976–77 Alpha Ethniki, 1976–77 Greek Football Cup, 1977 Balkans Cup13 – Ιn honour of Gate 13Overall, Panathinaikos has a significant contribution to the Greek national football team. Giorgos Kalafatis, the founder of Panathinaikos, was the member of the Greek national team that participated in the Inter-Allied Games in Paris, while later he was also a player/manager for Greece in the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp. During the next decades, Panathinaikos highlighted some of the best Greek players in the history of Greek football, who contributed also to the national team (Migiakis, Linoxilakis, Loukanidis, Domazos, Antoniadis, Kapsis, Ikonomopoulos, Saravakos etc.). Six Panathinaikos players were members of the first appearance of the national team in a World Cup in 1994 (Saravakos, Kolitsidakis, Apostolakis, Kalitzakis, Nioplias, Marangos).Five players of the club were part of the golden team of 2004 that won the UEFA Euro 2004 (UEFA Euro 2004): Giourkas Seitaridis, Angelos Basinas, Giannis Goumas, Dimitris Papadopoulos, Kostas Chalkias (he did not play in any match).Official websitesNews sitesMedia
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[
"Fabriciano González",
"Yannis Anastasiou",
"Yannis Vonortas",
"Henk ten Cate",
"José Peseiro",
"Víctor Muñoz",
"Sergio Markarián",
"Marinos Ouzounidis",
"Jasminko Velić",
"Juan Ramón Rocha",
"Itzhak Shum",
"Zdeněk Ščasný",
"László Bölöni",
"Giorgos Donis",
"Dani Poyatos",
"Aggelos Anastasiadis",
"Fernando Santos",
"Nikos Nioplias",
"Jesualdo Ferreira",
"Sotiris Silaidopoulos",
"Giorgos Kalafatis"
] |
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Who was the head coach of the team Panathinaikos F.C. in 09-Aug-200509-August-2005?
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August 09, 2005
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{
"text": [
"Alberto Malesani"
]
}
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L2_Q4122219_P286_6
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Marinos Ouzounidis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2016 to May, 2018.
Giorgos Kalafatis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1923.
Fernando Santos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2002 to Oct, 2002.
Itzhak Shum is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2003 to Oct, 2004.
Nikos Nioplias is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Dec, 2009 to Nov, 2010.
Giorgos Donis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2018 to Jul, 2020.
Víctor Muñoz is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2006 to May, 2007.
Henk ten Cate is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2008 to Dec, 2009.
Yannis Vonortas is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Mar, 2013 to May, 2013.
Sotiris Silaidopoulos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Juan Ramón Rocha is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Aggelos Anastasiadis is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2000 to Feb, 2001.
Zdeněk Ščasný is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2004 to Feb, 2005.
Alberto Malesani is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Feb, 2005 to May, 2006.
Dani Poyatos is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jul, 2020 to Oct, 2020.
Jasminko Velić is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Sep, 2006 to Oct, 2006.
José Peseiro is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jun, 2007 to May, 2008.
Yannis Anastasiou is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from May, 2013 to Nov, 2015.
László Bölöni is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2020 to May, 2021.
Sergio Markarián is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Oct, 2002 to Jun, 2004.
Jesualdo Ferreira is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Nov, 2010 to Nov, 2012.
Fabriciano González is the head coach of Panathinaikos F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Mar, 2013.
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Panathinaikos F.C.Panathinaikos Football Club ( ), known as Panathinaikos, or by its full name, and the name of its parent sports club, Panathinaikos A.O. or PAO (; "Panathinaïkós Athlitikós Ómilos", "All-Athenian Athletic Club"), is a Greek professional football club based in the capital-city of Athens, Greece.Created in 1908 as "Podosfairikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens") by Georgios Kalafatis, they play in the Super League Greece, being one of the most successful clubs in Greek football and one of three clubs which have never been relegated from the top division. Amongst their major titles are 20 Greek Championships, 18 Greek Cups, achieving eight times the Double, and 3 Greek Super Cups. They are also one of the two clubs that won a championship undefeated, going without a loss in a top-flight campaign in the 1963–64 season.Panathinaikos is also the most successful Greek club in terms of achievements in the European competitions. It is the only Greek team that has reached the European Cup (later renamed UEFA Champions League) final in 1971 (which they lost to Ajax Amsterdam 2–0), and also the semi-finals twice, in 1985 and 1996. It is also the only Greek team that has played for the Intercontinental Cup (1971). Furthermore, they have reached the quarter-finals of the Champions League on another two occasions (in 1992 and 2002), as well as the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup twice (1988 and 2003). They have also won the Balkans Cup in 1977. Panathinaikos is a member of the European Club Association.Since the 1950s, the club maintains some of the oldest and most successful academies in Greece, producing talent for the first team and feeding the Greek national football team. They have played their home games in the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, considered their traditional home ground, and the Athens Olympic Stadium.According to researches and polls, Panathinaikos is one of the most popular football teams in Greece.They hold a long-term rivalry with Olympiacos, the clash between the two teams being referred to as the "Derby of the eternal enemies."According to the official history of the club, Panathinaikos was founded by Giorgos Kalafatis on 3 February 1908, when he and 40 other athletes decided to break away from Panellinios Gymnastikos Syllogos following the club's decision to discontinue its football team. The name of the new club was "Podosferikos Omilos Athinon" ("Football Club of Athens"). It was founded with the aim of spreading and making more known this new sport (football) to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, the intention of the founders was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active. The first president elected was Alexandros Kalafatis, brother of Giorgos. The ground of the team was in Patission Street. Oxford University athlete John Cyril Campbell was brought in as coach, the first time that a foreigner was appointed as the coach of a Greek team. Konstantinos Tsiklitiras, the great Greek athlete of the early 20th century, played as goalkeeper for the new team.In 1910, after a dispute among a number of board members, Kalafatis with most of the players—also followed by Campbell—decided to pull out of POA and secured a new ground in Amerikis Square. Subsequently, the name of the club changed to Panellinios Podosferikos Omilos ("Panhellenic Football Club") and its colours to green and white. By 1914, Campbell had returned to England but the club was already at the top of Greek football with players such as Michalis Papazoglou, Michalis Rokkos and Loukas Panourgias.In 1918, the team adopted the trifolium (shamrock) as its emblem, as proposed by Michalis Papazoglou. In 1921 and 1922, the Athens-Piraeus FCA organized the first two post-WWI championships, in both of which PPO was declared champion. By that stage, the club had outgrown both the grounds in Patission Street and Amerikis Square, due mainly to its expansion in other sports, and began to look at vacant land in the area of Perivola on Alexandras Avenue as its potential new ground. After long discussions with the Municipality of Athens, an agreement was finally reached and in 1922 "Leoforos" ("Avenue" in Greek) was granted to the club.The move to a permanent home ground also heralded another—final—name change to Panathinaikos Athlitikos Omilos (PAO), ""All-Athenian Athletic Club"", on 15 March 1924, from now on a multi-sport club. However, the decision was already taken by 1922.In 1926, the Hellenic Football Federation (HFF) was founded and the first Greek Championship under its authority took place in 1927.Panathinaikos won undefeated the Championship of 1929–30 under the guidance of József Künsztler and Angelos Messaris as the team's star player. Other notable players of this "Belle Époque" period of the team were Antonis Migiakis, Diomidis Symeonidis, Mimis Pierrakos and Stefanos Pierrakos, among others. They thrashed rivals Olympiacos 8–2, a result that still remains the biggest win either team has achieved against its rival, with Messaris scoring three goals. The team also defeated Aris 1–4 away in Thessaloniki. Messaris, who scored again three goals, became a hero and chant for the fans.In 1931, a serious disagreement between leading board member Apostolos Nikolaidis from one side, and some players (most notably Angelos Messaris) and club's officials on the other side, regarding the professionalization in the Greek football, which lasted two years, damaged the club and led to a counterproductive period. In the meantime, the HFF Greek Cup had commenced in 1932. The last bright moment for the Greens before World War II was winning the Cup for the first time in 1940 against Aris, 3–1.In 1940, with the break out of the Greco-Italian War, many players of the club joined the Hellenic Army. Mimis Pierrakos was killed during the war (later, during the 1950s, his bones were transferred from Albania back to Athens). During the Axis Occupation of Greece from 1941 to 1944, many players of the team became members of United Panhellenic Organization of Youth (PEAN) resistance organization., while Michalis Papazoglou had a leading role in the resistance group of Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz.After this long crisis period, Panathinaikos had to wait until 1949 to win again a Greek Championship under the guidance of the Austrian coach Johann Strnad. That same year, Vangelis Panakis and Kostas Linoxilakis came to the club and quickly became the side's new star players. Panathinaikos was again champion for the 1952–53 Panhellenic Championship.Until 1959, the team had also won seven of the last eight Athens Championships, the regional championships organised in Greece. In 1959, Mimis Domazos, the emblematic captain of the team, made his first appearance with Panathinaikos and the same year took place the first season under the new system of Alpha Ethniki (1959–60 Alpha Ethniki). Panathinaikos was the champion team.During the next years, Panathinaikos were again champions in 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1969 and 1970. Moreover, the team won two more Greek Cups, in 1967 and 1969. Also, during these years, a long process of rejuvenation took place in the club. Notable players retired, such as Panakis, Linoxilakis, Takis Loukanidis and Andreas Papaemmanouil, and the team had to count on young players like Domazos, Antonis Antoniadis, Anthimos Kapsis, Kostas Eleftherakis and Takis Ikonomopoulos.Stjepan Bobek was the main contributor to this process. In 1963, he became the club's head coach, changing the playing style of the team to a 4–3–3 and created a new team based on young players (the "Bobek's rejuvenation"). Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the Championship of 1964 without a loss, making them one of the two teams that has won the Greek Championship (with its modern system) undefeated. Notable players of the team included Panakis, Domazos, Takis Ikonomopoulos, Totis Filakouris, Frangiskos Sourpis and Aristidis Kamaras.With the establishment of the Greek military regime, the president of the club, Loukas Panourgias, was forced out of the presidency. The contract of Bobek was canceled by the State, while Apostolos Nikolaidis, the old player, manager and official of the club, went on trial.In 1967, the great Béla Guttmann came as coach, but he soon left and ex-player Lakis Petropoulos was appointed. Under his guidance, Panathinaikos won the championships of 1969 (with a double) and 1970.In 1971, under the guidance of Ferenc Puskás, Panathinaikos were 1970–71 European Cup finalists, the first and only Greek team until today, losing 2–0 to Ajax at Wembley Stadium. In the road to the final, they eliminated Jeunesse Esch, Slovan Bratislava, Everton and Red Star Belgrade. Notable players included the captain Mimis Domazos, Anthimos Kapsis, Aristidis Kamaras, Kostas Eleftherakis, Totis Filakouris and the goalkeepers Takis Ikonomopoulos and Vasilis Konstantinou. Antonis Antoniadis was the top scorer in the competition scoring ten goals.In the same year, Panathinaikos played for the 1971 Intercontinental Cup (due to the refusal of Ajax to participate), where they lost to Uruguayan club Nacional (1–1 in Greece, 2–1 in Uruguay). Totis Filakouris was the scorer for the Greek club.During the last amateur years of Greek football, the "Trifolium" won one more Championship in 1972. Antonis Antoniadis was again top scorer with 39 goals (also second in Europe). His record remains until today in the Greek league.With the collapse of the military regime, Apostolos Nikolaidis became again active for the club and was appointed honorary president of Panathinaikos. In 1975, one of the greatest coaches of his era, the Brazilian Aymoré Moreira, who mainly worked in Brazil (World Cup Champion with the Brazilian national team in 1962), was appointed. After a year-and-a-half of poor results, however, he was replaced by Kazimierz Górski. With Górski, Panathinaikos won the double in 1977, followed by a Balkans Cup victory in the same year. Notable foreign players who played for the team during the late 1970s include Juan Ramón Verón, Araquem de Melo and Óscar Álvarez.In 1979, Greek football turned professional. The Vardinogiannis family purchased PAO's football department and Giorgos Vardinogiannis became president. Panathinaikos were one of the first Greek clubs that formed a women's team in 1980, but that department is currently inactive.The transformation period lasted a few years, but in 1982 the club won its first professional era trophy, the Greek Cup, and during the 1980s they would go on winning two championships (1984, 1986), four more Greek Cups (1984, 1986—with a 4–0 against Olympiacos in the final—, 1988, 1989) and the Greek Super Cup in 1988. The great star of the team during these years was Dimitris Saravakos, nicknamed "The Kid." Saravakos, a high-technique explosive midfielder and iconic captain of Panathinaikos, was the alsolute idol for the fans during the 1980s, while other players included Nikos Sarganis, Spiros Livathinos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha, Christos Dimopoulos and Giannis Kyrastas.In the 1984–85 season, Panathinaikos, with coach Jacek Gmoch and stars Dimitris Saravakos, Velimir Zajec, Juan Ramón Rocha and Ioannis Kyrastas, made a run in Europe, eliminating Feyenoord, Linfield and IFK Göteborg to reach the semi-finals of the European Cup, where they were knocked out by Liverpool.In 1987–88, they made it also to the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup, eliminating Juventus, Auxerre and Budapest Honvéd. Dimitris Saravakos was top scorer of the competition.The 1990s were an even more successful period for the club, both nationally and internationally. Four Greek championships (1990, 1991, 1995, 1996), four Greek Cups (1991, 1993, 1994, 1995) and two Greek Super Cups (1993, 1994) were awarded to the club.In the 1991–92 season, Panathinaikos reached also the last eight of the European Cup and took part in the first ever European tournament to have a group stage.In 1995–96, with Juan Ramon Rocha as coach and key players Krzysztof Warzycha, Józef Wandzik, Stratos Apostolakis, Georgios Georgiadis, Dimitris Markos, Giannis Kalitzakis, Giorgos Donis and Juan Jose Borrelli, Panathinaikos reached the Champions League semi-finals, finishing first in the group stage against Nantes, Porto, Aalborg BK and eliminating Legia Warsaw in the quarter-finals.In the semi-finals, Panathinaikos faced Ajax, recording an impressive 0–1 first leg away victory with Krzysztof Warzycha scoring the winning goal. Ajax had a record of 22 undefeated international matches until then, with Panathinaikos breaking their series. The Greek team, however, suffered a 0–3 defeat on the second leg. Thus, Panathinaikos was denied entry to a Champions League final once more.In the summer of 2000, President Giorgos Vardinogiannis resigned from his duties with complaints for the refereeing situation in Greece and passed his shares to his nephew Giannis Vardinogiannis, who changed the style of the club's management. Angelos Anastasiadis was initially appointed coach of the team and later the ex-player Giannis Kyrastas.With the arrival of coach Sergio Markarian, Panathinaikos reached the quarter-finals of the 2001–02 UEFA Champions League, being eliminated by Barcelona. Panathinaikos had passed the first group stage as the top club against Arsenal, Mallorca and Schalke 04, and the second group stage as second against Real Madrid, Porto and Sparta Prague.In the first leg of the quarter-finals, Panathinaikos managed to defeat Barcelona by 1–0 in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium. The second leg in Camp Nou was to be an eventful one. Panathinaikos scored first thanks to a beautiful goal by Michalis Konstantinou but eventually was eliminated as Barcelona scored three goals.Ιn Europe, Panathinaikos made it to the quarter-finals of UEFA Cup quarter-finals. En route, the Greek team had knocked-out Litex Lovech, Fenerbahçe (with an impressive 4–1 win in Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium), Slovan Liberec and Anderlecht.During the quarter-finals, although winning the first match in Estádio das Antas against eventual winners of the trophy FC Porto of José Mourinho, with the header of Emmanuel Olisadebe, they were eliminated in the second leg after extra time.Notable players of this team included Takis Fyssas, Giorgos Karagounis, Antonis Nikopolidis, Angelos Basinas, Nikos Lyberopoulos, Michalis Konstantinou, Giourkas Seitaridis, Sotirios Kyrgiakos, Paulo Sousa, Goran Vlaović, Rene Henriksen, Joonas Kolkka, Jan Michaelsen and Emmanuel Olisadebe, considered by the fans one of the best teams in the club's history.During 2002–03 Alpha Ethniki season, they lost the Greek championship in the last two games by arch-rivals Olympiacos.Under the guidance of Israeli coach Itzhak Shum, Panathinaikos managed to win the championship in 2004. They won also the Cup, beating Olympiacos 3–1 in the final, making the double. New players like Ezequiel González, Lucian Sanmartean and Markus Münch had signed the summer before. In the Champions League, they came third in the group stage facing Manchester United, VfB Stuttgart and Rangers.However, Shum was unexpectedly fired early in the next season (2004–05) and Zdeněk Ščasný succeeded him on the bench. Panathinaikos finished second in the championship, while in the Champions League they came again third in the group stage facing Rosenborg, PSV and Arsenal. They continued in the UEFA Cup, where they were eliminated by Sevilla.In 2005, major changes were made in the team's roster. Players like Angelos Basinas and Michalis Konstantinou departed, while others like Flávio Conceição, Igor Bišćan and Andreas Ivanschitz arrived. Ščasný gave his seat to Alberto Malesani. At the start of the 2006–07 season, Malesani left the team and was replaced by Hans Backe, who left only three months after his appointment; Víctor Muñoz was his replacement. For the 2007–08 season, Panathinaikos hired José Peseiro.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% and the other shareholders 34% (with main investors Andreas Vgenopoulos, Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Adamantios Polemis and Nikos Pateras). Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president of the club.Following the major changes in 2008, Panathinaikos hired Henk ten Cate as coach and bought many expensive players, such as Gilberto Silva from Arsenal and Gabriel from Fluminense. In the 2008–09 season, the Greens proved that they could hold their weight in the Champions League by reaching the last 16. However, they disappointed in the Greek Championship, finishing third in the regular season, though they managed to come second overall after the playoff mini-league.The 2009–10 season was a successful one for Panathinaikos. During the summer transfer period, the club bought Djibril Cissé from Marseille, Kostas Katsouranis from Benfica, Sebastián Leto from Liverpool and various other players, spending more than €35 million in total. Henk ten Cate left in December to be replaced by Nikos Nioplias. The team managed to reach the last 16 of the Europa League, eliminating A.S. Roma after two amazing matches in Olympic Stadium of Athens and Stadio Olimpico. Panathinaikos also won both the Greek Championship and the Greek Cup, beating Aris by 1–0 in the final of the latter, thanks to a goal by Sebastián Leto.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, Panathinaikos sold Cissé for €5.8 million to Lazio and first-choice goalkeeper Alexandros Tzorvas to Palermo to reduce the budget. New players then entered, such as Quincy Owusu-Abeyie, Toché, Vitolo and Zeca. The club also changed their president and chose Dimitris Gontikas to be the new chairman. Panathinaikos failed to qualify to the group stage of 2011–12 Champions League after they were knocked out by Odense BK 4–5 on aggregate.Panathinaikos' downfall continued as a result of the serious riots in the Panathinaikos–Olympiacos derby of 18 March 2012. The entire board quit and Panathinaikos remained headless for about two months. However, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute a desired amount, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His plan seemed to be working, as a new 20-member board was elected with Dimitris Gontikas at the president's chair again, though it was yet to be seen how the fans would respond to Panathinaikos' call for help.On 2 July 2012, the PAO Alliance 2012 finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. After a few weeks of operation, 8,606 members had signed up, some of which were current or former Panathinaikos players, including Jean-Alain Boumsong, Sotiris Ninis, Gilberto Silva and Djibril Cissé, among others.On 18 July 2012, marked a historical day in Panathinaikos history, as Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Panathinaikos Alliance, thereby allowing Panathinaikos to have a fresh start with their own fans at the steering wheel, who through elections (amongst the members of the Alliance) they compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos.The first season with the Panathinaikos Alliance at the helm was nothing short of abysmal for the club. While still enduring financial troubles, Panathinaikos finished sixth in the championship and failed to qualify for the European competition for the first time in 16 years.For the 2013–14 season, the membership had risen up to 9,305 members. Starting the football year, both fans and journalists were very skeptical of Panathinaikos' chances of a successful season, and many people expected the team to suffer relegation from the Super League Greece. In May 2013, Yannis Anastasiou was appointed manager, and he planned a team based on players from the Panathinaikos Youth Academies joined by experienced foreign players looking to revive their careers. Despite the early skepticism, Panathinaikos' fans supported the team through the rough start, and the season turned out to be a massive success in light of the dire financial situation of the club and the young and inexperienced squad. The club finished fourth in the regular season and second after the playoffs (meaning they qualified for the 2014–15 Champions League), with Marcus Berg the top scorer of the team. Panathinaikos also won the 2013–14 Greek Football Cup after a 4–1 win over PAOK.On 2 November 2015, after bad performances and a home draw with AEK Athens, manager Yannis Anastasiou was sacked and replaced by Andrea Stramaccioni. Further successive poor results under the latter's reign, combined with loss of dressing room control, led to the dismissal of Stramaccioni on 1 December 2016, with former Panathinaikos player and Greece international Marinos Ouzounidis taking over the management at the club. Ouzounidis had some great moments with Panathinaikos and was generally liked by the fans. His resignation, due to problems with owner Giannis Alafouzos sparked another wave of disappointment and hatred against Alafouzos from the fans. On 24 April 2018 UEFA decided to exclude Panathinaikos FC from participating in the next UEFA club competition for which it would otherwise qualify in the next three seasons as a result of Financial Fair Play breaches Giorgos Donis was announced as the new coach on 3 July 2018. Coach Donis had a great year in 2018-1019, mainly depending on young players from Panathinaikos' academy, including Giannis Mpouzoukis, Tasos Xatzigiovannis and Achilleas Poungouras. He had a great start of the season despite beginning with −6 points in the championship, counting 6 consecutive wins that put Panathinaikos on top of the table. However, due to problems with his salary and a clash with Giannis Alafouzos, he was forced to resign in 2019. This situation made the relations between Alafouzos and the fans worse, with protests and demonstrations during games against him. Panathinaikos remained one of the top clubs in Greece, but its absence from European tournaments was a major factor in the fans' disappointment with the ownership. During the summer of 2020, a series of bad decisions were made from Giannis Alafouzos, who chose to let most of the players that had contributed to a ver good season go.Spaniard Dani Poyatos signed on as head of the club on 22 July 2020 for two years, taking over from George Donis' work. Poyatos was sacked after a poor start of the season on 12 October and was replaced by László Bölöni.White was the colour that was first used by the team in 1908 (probably like that of the first crest). The first symbol of the club was an association football ball of the era.In 1911, the colours changed to green and white. In 1918, Michalis Papazoglou proposed the trifolium, symbol of harmony, unity, nature and good luck, as emblem of Panathinaikos. The officials of the club were looking for a universal, non-nationalistic or localistic, symbol aiming to represent the whole Athens at the country and further at the world. Papazoglou used to have it sewn on his shirt since he was competing for a club in his native Chalcedon, Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). He was possibly inspired by Billy Sherring, an Irish Canadian athlete who had won the Athens 1906 Olympic marathon (1906 Intercalated Games) wearing a white outfit with a big green shamrock on the chest.Georgios Chatzopoulos, member—and later president—of the club and director of the National Gallery, took over to design the new emblem for the team. Up to the end of the 1970s, a trifolium (green or white) was sewed on heart's side of the jersey and was big in size. With the beginning of professionalism, the crest of the F.C. was created, accompanied by the club initials and the year of founding, 1908.Until today, the team's traditional colours are green and white (green for health, nature, such as physiolatry, and white for virtue), although the white sometimes is omitted, used as trim or as an alternative. During the first years after the establishment of green as Panathinaikos' primary colour, players were wearing green shirts, white shorts and green socks. During the 1930s, an appearance with characteristic horizontal strips was established. This motive was used also in the next decades as primary or second choice. Since then, the uniform style has changed many times, but green has always remained the team's primary colour.Since 1979, when football became professional in Greece, Panathinaikos had a specific kit manufacturer and since 1983 a specific shirt sponsor as well. The following table shows in detail Panathinaikos kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors by year:Panathinaikos' traditional home ground since the early 1920s is the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, the oldest active football stadium in Greece, in the Ampelokipoi district of central Athens. The stadium is located on Alexandras Avenue and is most commonly referred to as "Leoforos" (Greek for "Avenue"). It is considered one of the most historic stadiums in Greece, as it was used by the Greek national team as home ground for many years (most recently for the UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying matches) and even by Panathinaikos' biggest rivals, AEK Athens and Olympiacos, on various occasions.Panathinaikos left "Leoforos" in 1984 to play in the newly built Athens Olympic Stadium. In 2000, then-club president Angelos Filippidis announced a return to the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium, following a €7 million renovation. Capacity was reduced from 25,000 to 16,620, new dressing rooms were built and modular stand roofing was added in compliance with UEFA requirements, but in 2004, stricter standards were announced and the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium would need further expansion were it to remain suitable for UEFA-sanctioned matches. This was precluded by local zoning regulations and the team had to return to the Olympic Stadium once more until a new stadium, the proposed Votanikos Arena, was built. The "Leoforos" ground was due for demolition.On 27 January 2007, the board of Panathinaikos decided to reuse the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium for the team's 2007–08 domestic league and UEFA Cup home games. Additionally, the club officials decided to install new lawn, new seats and upgrade the press conference room and the restrooms.As of October 2013, and due to the club's and the country's financial troubles, the construction of the Votanikos Arena has stopped and consequently the plans for the demolition of the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium have been put on hold. After another five-year spell at the Olympic Stadium, the team has returned to its traditional home ground once again.The current president of the club, Giannis Alafouzos, declared his intention for another renovation of the stadium and the capacity increase, while the Panathinaikos Movement made its propositions for a total reconstruction.In 2019 the owner of Panathinaikos basketball team presented a funding plan for the construction of the new football and basketball stadiums. The Greek government confirmed in 2020 the construction of the new stadiums in the Votanikos area to be completed by 2024.Paiania has been the training ground of Panathinaikos since 1981. That same year, the Academy of the club was reorganized, becoming one of the best in the country and feeding the first team with notable players, such as Giorgos Karagounis, Angelos Basinas, Sotirios Kyrgiakos and Sotiris Ninis among others, key members of the Greek national team. In 2013, was decided the move of the club from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the team. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became a new training ground and Academy base of Panathinaikos.Until 1979, football in Greece was still in amateur level. The team, such as the other departments of Panathinaikos A.O., depended on the financial support of the club's members, while the president (responsible for all athletic departments) was elected by the Board members. In 1979, the Greek football turned professional and the Vardinogiannis family purchased the football department. Giorgos Vardinogiannis became the new president. Vardinogiannis family were the owners of the club the next decades.On 22 April 2008, and under pressure from the fan base, main shareholder Giannis Vardinogiannis gave a press conference in which he announced the decision of his family to reduce their share in the club to 50%—after 30 years of full ownership—through an €80 million increase of the company's capital stock. After the negotiations and the share capital increase, the Vardinogiannis family would hold 56% of the club, the amateur Club 10% (as before) and the new shareholders 34%. Pavlos Giannakopoulos, Nikos Pateras, Adamantios Polemis and Andreas Vgenopoulos were the main investors, plus other minor shareholders. Nikos Pateras was selected to be the new president.In 2011, due to financial problems and management disagreements, the direction decided to reduce the budget and sell many players. In 2012, the owner of Skai TV, Giannis Alafouzos, devised a plan to take Vardinogiannis' shares (54.7%) and make them available to fans around Greece so that everyone could contribute, so that Panathinaikos could overcome the crisis. His intention was to create a new, for the Greek athletic standards, supporter-owned football club. On 2 July 2012, the Panathenaic Alliance finally opened to the public so that everyone could be a member and contribute a desired amount in return for privileges. A few days later, Giannis Vardinogiannis gave his shares—54.7% of Panathinaikos—to the Alliance, while the other shareholders maintained their percentage. The members of the Alliance through elections compose the board of directors and elect the club's president. The first president elected was Giannis Alafouzos. In 2013, was decided the move of the team from the previous training center of Paiania to a new one, owned by the club. Located in the area of Koropi, Georgios Kalafatis Sports Center became the new training ground and academy base of Panathinaikos.For the 2014–15 season, the membership had risen up to 8,495 members contributing a total of €2,680,041.Panathinaikos currently is partially supporter-owned football club.According to the latest accounts in 2016 Panathenaic Alliance shares have been reduced to (15%), Giannis Alafouzos through Sortivo International Ltd and his own shares is the largest shareholder at (74%). Giannis Alafouzos suddenly decided to quit the team in September 2017, announcing his departure in a written statement and inviting potential investors to express their interest in buying the team.Current sponsorships:Panathinaikos was founded by middle class athletes (with Giorgos Kalafatis as a key figure) aiming of spreading and making more known football to the Athenian and Greek public in general. Also, their intention was to create a team for all of Athens and to be connected with the rest of the European football movement, which was already active.Today, according to UEFA and numerous polls and researches by the biggest newspapers and poll companies in a span of 20 years, Panathinaikos is the second most popular football team in Greece, with the difference behind Olympiacos to be varied between 2% to 9% and the difference in front of the third to be fluctuated between 17% to 21% among the fans. They have the highest popularity in Athens metropolitan area according to many of the corresponding polls, having also a large fanbase in all Greek prefectures, in Cyprus and in the Greek diaspora. They historically have a large fanbase among the highly-educated Greek upper class (traditionally representing the old Athenian society), while they are also popular among the middle and lower classes.Panathinaikos supporters hold both records of the most season tickets sales (31,091 in 2010) and highest average attendance for a unique season (44,942 in 1985–86) in the history of Greek football.The main organized supporters of Panathinaikos are known as Gate 13 (established 1966), the oldest fan association in Greece, which consists of around 80 clubs alongside Greece and Cyprus.Gate 13 style of supporting includes the use of green fireworks, large and small green flags, displaying of banners and especially the creation of colorful and large choreographies, noisy and constant cheering and other supporters stuff. Gate 13 has over the years become a part of the club by affecting club decisions and by following the club on all occasions.They share a traditional friendship with Ultras Rapid Wien, based mainly on the common green and white colours. Moreover, they have been sharing since the early 10s' close relations with Dinamo Zagreb's Bad Blue Boys (based on their common rivalry with Red Star and Olympiacos fans, capital city teams and mutual respect for each other's ultras achievements) and also with Fedayin of A.S. Roma based on the capital city team factor, their mutual respect and the ancient Athens and ancient Roma cultural connection.PALEFIP (Panhellenic club of Panathinaikos friends) is another supporters organization.Panathenaic Alliance, a collective organisation of the fan base, is the major shareholder of the football club, making it currently the only supporter-owned football club in Greece. The members of the Alliance, through elections, compose the board of directors and elect the club's president.Panathinaikos Movement, founded in 2012, is also a Greek political party founded by people with an initial common their love for the sports club of Panathinaikos and the wish for a new stadium for the football team, despite the bureaucracy of the Greek state.Key: R32 = Round of 32, R16 = Round of 16, QF = Quarter-finals, SF = Semi-finals, RU = Runners up, C = Champions.Mimis Domazos holds the record for Panathinaikos appearances, having played 502 first-team matches between 1959 and 1980. Striker Krzysztof Warzycha comes second, having played 390 times. The record for a goalkeeper is held by Takis Ikonomopoulos, with 303 appearances.Krzysztof Warzycha is the club's top goalscorer with 288 goals in all competitions between 1989 and 2004, having surpassed Antonis Antoniadis' total of 180 in January 1998.Panathinaikos record home attendance is 74,493, for a Greek League match against AEK Athens in 1986 at the Olympic Stadium. The record attendance for a Panathinaikos match at the Apostolos Nikolaidis Stadium is from 1967, when 29,665 spectators watched the Cup Winners' Cup game between Panathinaikos and Bayern Munich.Panathinaikos is one of the two clubs in the history of Greek football to finish a top-flight (after 1959) campaign unbeaten. This happened in the 1963–64 season.One-Club playersUefa Champions LeagueUEFA Cup1976–77 Alpha Ethniki, 1976–77 Greek Football Cup, 1977 Balkans Cup13 – Ιn honour of Gate 13Overall, Panathinaikos has a significant contribution to the Greek national football team. Giorgos Kalafatis, the founder of Panathinaikos, was the member of the Greek national team that participated in the Inter-Allied Games in Paris, while later he was also a player/manager for Greece in the 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp. During the next decades, Panathinaikos highlighted some of the best Greek players in the history of Greek football, who contributed also to the national team (Migiakis, Linoxilakis, Loukanidis, Domazos, Antoniadis, Kapsis, Ikonomopoulos, Saravakos etc.). Six Panathinaikos players were members of the first appearance of the national team in a World Cup in 1994 (Saravakos, Kolitsidakis, Apostolakis, Kalitzakis, Nioplias, Marangos).Five players of the club were part of the golden team of 2004 that won the UEFA Euro 2004 (UEFA Euro 2004): Giourkas Seitaridis, Angelos Basinas, Giannis Goumas, Dimitris Papadopoulos, Kostas Chalkias (he did not play in any match).Official websitesNews sitesMedia
|
[
"Fabriciano González",
"Yannis Anastasiou",
"Yannis Vonortas",
"Henk ten Cate",
"José Peseiro",
"Víctor Muñoz",
"Sergio Markarián",
"Marinos Ouzounidis",
"Jasminko Velić",
"Juan Ramón Rocha",
"Itzhak Shum",
"Zdeněk Ščasný",
"László Bölöni",
"Giorgos Donis",
"Dani Poyatos",
"Aggelos Anastasiadis",
"Fernando Santos",
"Nikos Nioplias",
"Jesualdo Ferreira",
"Sotiris Silaidopoulos",
"Giorgos Kalafatis"
] |
|
Who was the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in May, 1992?
|
May 24, 1992
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Attali"
]
}
|
L2_Q488981_P488_0
|
Thomas Mirow is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2008 to Jul, 2012.
Jacques de Larosière is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1993 to Jan, 1998.
Suma Chakrabarti is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2012 to Jul, 2020.
Odile Renaud-Basso is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Nov, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Horst Köhler is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1998 to Apr, 2000.
Jacques Attali is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Apr, 1991 to Jun, 1993.
Jean Lemierre is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2008.
|
European Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentThe European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is an international financial institution founded in 1991. As a multilateral developmental investment bank, the EBRD uses investment as a tool to build market economies. Initially focused on the countries of the former Eastern Bloc it expanded to support development in more than 30 countries from Central Europe to Central Asia. Similar to other multilateral development banks, the EBRD has members from all over the world (North America, Africa, Asia and Australia, see below), with the biggest shareholder being the United States, but only lends regionally in its countries of operations. Headquartered in London, the EBRD is owned by 69 countries and two EU institutions, the 69th being India since July 2018. Despite its public sector shareholders, it invests in private enterprises, together with commercial partners.The EBRD is not to be confused with the European Investment Bank (EIB), which is owned by EU member states and is used to support EU policy. EBRD is also distinct from the Council of Europe Development Bank (CEB).The EBRD was founded in April 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union by representatives of 40 nations from 3 continents and two European institutions, the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the European Economic Community (EEC, now European Union – EU), after reaching an agreement on the bank's charter, size, and distribution of power among shareholders.The EBRD is unique among development banks for two reasons. First, it was the first multilateral development bank to have an explicit environmental mandate in its charter (since 1995), and second, in that it will not finance thermal coal mining and coal-fired electricity generation due to their environmental impact.The following table shows the development of investment volume into the Green Economy Transition (GET) approach, in support of the Paris climate goals.The EBRD had pledged, prior to 2015 Paris Agreement, to dedicate above 40 per cent of its financing to green investment by 2020. This goal was accomplished for the first time in 2017. With Russia actually being the biggest donor to an NDEP Support Fund for the environments inside the bank, with total contributions amounting to €60 million. €5 million was donated by Russia in the same year of 2015.The EBRD was founded to support countries of the former Eastern Bloc in the process of establishing their private sectors. To that end, it offers "project financing" for banks, industries and businesses, for new ventures or existing companies. It works with publicly owned companies to support their privatisation, as advocated by the WTO since the 1980s and "improvement of municipal services".The EBRD mandates to work only in countries that are "committed to democratic principles". It promotes "environmentally sound and sustainable development", and does not finance "defence-related activities, the tobacco industry, selected alcoholic products, substances banned by international law and stand-alone gambling facilities."NGOs have criticised the EBRD on the lack of progress the EBRD makes in its main mission, the “transition towards open and democratic market economies.”Some NGOs have criticized the EBRD for financing projects they consider to be environmentally and socially harmful. Although it has increased its investments into energy efficiency and sustainable energy in recent years, these NGOs consider the bank continues to diminish the impacts of green investments by financing carbon-intensive development such as coal, oil and gas production, transportation and generation, motorways, and airports. Among the contested projects are the Ombla power plant in Croatia, the Kumtor Gold Mine in Kyrgyzstan, and the Šoštanj lignite power plant in Slovenia.The EBRD's activities in the Balkans have attracted particular controversy and criticism, especially when they have centered on national parks or free-flowing rivers. This has often involved the actualized or proposed construction of hydroelectric dams and road infrastructure. Indeed, a 2017 report alleged deficiencies in monitoring and mitigation measures that had been designed to lessen the environmental impact of dam projects financed by the EBRD, while, in March 2018, outdoor clothing label Patagonia helped launch "The Dam Truth" campaign, which directly requests international banks including the EBRD to "stop investing in the destruction of Europe's last wild rivers".In 2011, the EBRD approved a €65 million loan to ELEM, the Macedonian electricity utility, for a dam at Boskov Most. The Standing Committee of the Bern Convention requested immediate suspension of the project, with reference to the high biodiversity of the area and its importance as a core reproductive area for the Balkan lynx, one of the most endangered mammals on the planet. In January 2017, the bank cancelled the loan saying the "conditions for disbursement were not met."Again in North Macedonia, the EBRD was criticised by environmentalists after plans were announced to bisect National Park Galičica in the UNESCO Ohrid-Prespa Transboundary Biosphere Reserve with an A3 express road, which would have required certain zones of protection in the national park to be downgraded. Scientists from North Macedonia and across the world signed a declaration in opposition to this and other projects proposed for the Ohrid-Prespa region, a message that was reinforced by a Joint Reactive Monitoring Mission from the World Heritage Centre, ICOMOS and the IUCN, which requested total cancellation of proposed A3 road sections. This recommendation was underlined by the World Heritage Committee at its 41st session in Kraków. Eventually, in February 2018, the Republic of North Macedonia abandoned plans for the road, redirecting the EBRD's funds to other infrastructure projects.The EBRD announced on 23 July 2014 that it would suspend new investment projects in Russia, following an earlier declaration by the European Council. The European Council declaration was made in the context of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. Russia has been the biggest funding recipient of all countries. In 2013, the Russian Federation received €1.8 billion for investments from the EBRD and 1 billion € from the EIB. Russia employed the funds to finance a variety of projects like pipeline valves, property acquisitions, and a loan to a hypermarket chain. Two Russian projects were awaiting funding from the EBRD: a €300 million plan for promoting energy efficiency, and a $180 million loan to lease agricultural and forestry equipment. The bank stated that it will continue to manage on-going projects in Russia. Despite denying Russia new funds the EBRD continues to insist on its 6.1% of ownership in the Moscow Stock Exchange, seeking profits from Russia with the Privatisation of the Soviet economy.The following presidents have served the EBRD to date ().The following countries are recipients of funds:Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.The EBRD publishes its tenders and contracts on its own website and in Development Business, a publication launched in 1978 by the United Nations with the World Bank and other development banks.The following countries contribute in financing the EBRD: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Cyprus, Czech Republic (receiving member until 2007-12-31), Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, India, Japan, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Russian Federation, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America as well as the European Union and the European Investment Bank.The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development owns 6.07% of the Moscow Stock Exchange.The EBRD offers loan and equity finance, guarantees, leasing facilities, trade finance, and professional development through support programs. Direct investments in equity range from 5% to 25% stakes and €5 million to €230 million. Smaller projects are financed both directly by the EBRD and through "financial intermediaries". The EBRD website states it has helped finance over 1 million smaller projects by supporting local commercial banks, micro-business banks, equity funds and leasing facilities.To be eligible for EBRD funding, "a project must be located in an EBRD country of operations, have strong commercial prospects, involve significant equity contributions in-cash or in-kind from the project sponsor, benefit the local economy and help develop the private sector and satisfy banking and environmental standards."The EBRD finances projects in sectors including agribusiness, energy efficiency, financial institutions, manufacturing, municipal infrastructure, also known as public works (which includes transport, schools, water supply, waste disposal, and pollution control services), natural resources, power and energy, property, telecommunications, tourism, transport, information technology.In 2015, the EBRD invested a record amount in the Central Asian region. The total investment in 2015 rose by 75% reaching €1,402.3 billion. Kazakhstan reported the largest total volumes of investment reaching €790 million in 2015.The EBRD supports renewable energy projects in Kazakhstan. Specifically, The EBRD and the Green Climate Fund provide Kazakhstan with a $16.7 million loan for the construction of a new 30MWp solar power plant in Zhangiz-tobe in the east of the country.The EBRD invested $761 million in 29 private and public sector projects in Kazakhstan in 2019. Most of the projects are involved in public infrastructure and renewable energy.In the period 2009 - 2020, the ERD has invested almost €12.5 billion in various sectors of the Turkey's economy, with almost all investment being in the private sector. The EBRD's Turkey portfolio is the largest among the economies where the Bank invests.In 2020, the ERD lent more than $1.18 billion (€1 billion) to local Turkish firms. It also lent $25 million to the Turkish private lender Alternatif Bank for on-lending to small and medium-sized enterprises and firms affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey.Since its founding in 1991, so far only the Czech Republic has graduated from borrower to shareholder within EBRD, in 2007, but re-joined the borrower status in 2021.
|
[
"Odile Renaud-Basso",
"Suma Chakrabarti",
"Jacques de Larosière",
"Horst Köhler",
"Jean Lemierre",
"Thomas Mirow"
] |
|
Who was the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in 1992-05-24?
|
May 24, 1992
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Attali"
]
}
|
L2_Q488981_P488_0
|
Thomas Mirow is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2008 to Jul, 2012.
Jacques de Larosière is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1993 to Jan, 1998.
Suma Chakrabarti is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2012 to Jul, 2020.
Odile Renaud-Basso is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Nov, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Horst Köhler is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1998 to Apr, 2000.
Jacques Attali is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Apr, 1991 to Jun, 1993.
Jean Lemierre is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2008.
|
European Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentThe European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is an international financial institution founded in 1991. As a multilateral developmental investment bank, the EBRD uses investment as a tool to build market economies. Initially focused on the countries of the former Eastern Bloc it expanded to support development in more than 30 countries from Central Europe to Central Asia. Similar to other multilateral development banks, the EBRD has members from all over the world (North America, Africa, Asia and Australia, see below), with the biggest shareholder being the United States, but only lends regionally in its countries of operations. Headquartered in London, the EBRD is owned by 69 countries and two EU institutions, the 69th being India since July 2018. Despite its public sector shareholders, it invests in private enterprises, together with commercial partners.The EBRD is not to be confused with the European Investment Bank (EIB), which is owned by EU member states and is used to support EU policy. EBRD is also distinct from the Council of Europe Development Bank (CEB).The EBRD was founded in April 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union by representatives of 40 nations from 3 continents and two European institutions, the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the European Economic Community (EEC, now European Union – EU), after reaching an agreement on the bank's charter, size, and distribution of power among shareholders.The EBRD is unique among development banks for two reasons. First, it was the first multilateral development bank to have an explicit environmental mandate in its charter (since 1995), and second, in that it will not finance thermal coal mining and coal-fired electricity generation due to their environmental impact.The following table shows the development of investment volume into the Green Economy Transition (GET) approach, in support of the Paris climate goals.The EBRD had pledged, prior to 2015 Paris Agreement, to dedicate above 40 per cent of its financing to green investment by 2020. This goal was accomplished for the first time in 2017. With Russia actually being the biggest donor to an NDEP Support Fund for the environments inside the bank, with total contributions amounting to €60 million. €5 million was donated by Russia in the same year of 2015.The EBRD was founded to support countries of the former Eastern Bloc in the process of establishing their private sectors. To that end, it offers "project financing" for banks, industries and businesses, for new ventures or existing companies. It works with publicly owned companies to support their privatisation, as advocated by the WTO since the 1980s and "improvement of municipal services".The EBRD mandates to work only in countries that are "committed to democratic principles". It promotes "environmentally sound and sustainable development", and does not finance "defence-related activities, the tobacco industry, selected alcoholic products, substances banned by international law and stand-alone gambling facilities."NGOs have criticised the EBRD on the lack of progress the EBRD makes in its main mission, the “transition towards open and democratic market economies.”Some NGOs have criticized the EBRD for financing projects they consider to be environmentally and socially harmful. Although it has increased its investments into energy efficiency and sustainable energy in recent years, these NGOs consider the bank continues to diminish the impacts of green investments by financing carbon-intensive development such as coal, oil and gas production, transportation and generation, motorways, and airports. Among the contested projects are the Ombla power plant in Croatia, the Kumtor Gold Mine in Kyrgyzstan, and the Šoštanj lignite power plant in Slovenia.The EBRD's activities in the Balkans have attracted particular controversy and criticism, especially when they have centered on national parks or free-flowing rivers. This has often involved the actualized or proposed construction of hydroelectric dams and road infrastructure. Indeed, a 2017 report alleged deficiencies in monitoring and mitigation measures that had been designed to lessen the environmental impact of dam projects financed by the EBRD, while, in March 2018, outdoor clothing label Patagonia helped launch "The Dam Truth" campaign, which directly requests international banks including the EBRD to "stop investing in the destruction of Europe's last wild rivers".In 2011, the EBRD approved a €65 million loan to ELEM, the Macedonian electricity utility, for a dam at Boskov Most. The Standing Committee of the Bern Convention requested immediate suspension of the project, with reference to the high biodiversity of the area and its importance as a core reproductive area for the Balkan lynx, one of the most endangered mammals on the planet. In January 2017, the bank cancelled the loan saying the "conditions for disbursement were not met."Again in North Macedonia, the EBRD was criticised by environmentalists after plans were announced to bisect National Park Galičica in the UNESCO Ohrid-Prespa Transboundary Biosphere Reserve with an A3 express road, which would have required certain zones of protection in the national park to be downgraded. Scientists from North Macedonia and across the world signed a declaration in opposition to this and other projects proposed for the Ohrid-Prespa region, a message that was reinforced by a Joint Reactive Monitoring Mission from the World Heritage Centre, ICOMOS and the IUCN, which requested total cancellation of proposed A3 road sections. This recommendation was underlined by the World Heritage Committee at its 41st session in Kraków. Eventually, in February 2018, the Republic of North Macedonia abandoned plans for the road, redirecting the EBRD's funds to other infrastructure projects.The EBRD announced on 23 July 2014 that it would suspend new investment projects in Russia, following an earlier declaration by the European Council. The European Council declaration was made in the context of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. Russia has been the biggest funding recipient of all countries. In 2013, the Russian Federation received €1.8 billion for investments from the EBRD and 1 billion € from the EIB. Russia employed the funds to finance a variety of projects like pipeline valves, property acquisitions, and a loan to a hypermarket chain. Two Russian projects were awaiting funding from the EBRD: a €300 million plan for promoting energy efficiency, and a $180 million loan to lease agricultural and forestry equipment. The bank stated that it will continue to manage on-going projects in Russia. Despite denying Russia new funds the EBRD continues to insist on its 6.1% of ownership in the Moscow Stock Exchange, seeking profits from Russia with the Privatisation of the Soviet economy.The following presidents have served the EBRD to date ().The following countries are recipients of funds:Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.The EBRD publishes its tenders and contracts on its own website and in Development Business, a publication launched in 1978 by the United Nations with the World Bank and other development banks.The following countries contribute in financing the EBRD: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Cyprus, Czech Republic (receiving member until 2007-12-31), Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, India, Japan, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Russian Federation, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America as well as the European Union and the European Investment Bank.The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development owns 6.07% of the Moscow Stock Exchange.The EBRD offers loan and equity finance, guarantees, leasing facilities, trade finance, and professional development through support programs. Direct investments in equity range from 5% to 25% stakes and €5 million to €230 million. Smaller projects are financed both directly by the EBRD and through "financial intermediaries". The EBRD website states it has helped finance over 1 million smaller projects by supporting local commercial banks, micro-business banks, equity funds and leasing facilities.To be eligible for EBRD funding, "a project must be located in an EBRD country of operations, have strong commercial prospects, involve significant equity contributions in-cash or in-kind from the project sponsor, benefit the local economy and help develop the private sector and satisfy banking and environmental standards."The EBRD finances projects in sectors including agribusiness, energy efficiency, financial institutions, manufacturing, municipal infrastructure, also known as public works (which includes transport, schools, water supply, waste disposal, and pollution control services), natural resources, power and energy, property, telecommunications, tourism, transport, information technology.In 2015, the EBRD invested a record amount in the Central Asian region. The total investment in 2015 rose by 75% reaching €1,402.3 billion. Kazakhstan reported the largest total volumes of investment reaching €790 million in 2015.The EBRD supports renewable energy projects in Kazakhstan. Specifically, The EBRD and the Green Climate Fund provide Kazakhstan with a $16.7 million loan for the construction of a new 30MWp solar power plant in Zhangiz-tobe in the east of the country.The EBRD invested $761 million in 29 private and public sector projects in Kazakhstan in 2019. Most of the projects are involved in public infrastructure and renewable energy.In the period 2009 - 2020, the ERD has invested almost €12.5 billion in various sectors of the Turkey's economy, with almost all investment being in the private sector. The EBRD's Turkey portfolio is the largest among the economies where the Bank invests.In 2020, the ERD lent more than $1.18 billion (€1 billion) to local Turkish firms. It also lent $25 million to the Turkish private lender Alternatif Bank for on-lending to small and medium-sized enterprises and firms affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey.Since its founding in 1991, so far only the Czech Republic has graduated from borrower to shareholder within EBRD, in 2007, but re-joined the borrower status in 2021.
|
[
"Odile Renaud-Basso",
"Suma Chakrabarti",
"Jacques de Larosière",
"Horst Köhler",
"Jean Lemierre",
"Thomas Mirow"
] |
|
Who was the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in 24/05/1992?
|
May 24, 1992
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Attali"
]
}
|
L2_Q488981_P488_0
|
Thomas Mirow is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2008 to Jul, 2012.
Jacques de Larosière is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1993 to Jan, 1998.
Suma Chakrabarti is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2012 to Jul, 2020.
Odile Renaud-Basso is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Nov, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Horst Köhler is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1998 to Apr, 2000.
Jacques Attali is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Apr, 1991 to Jun, 1993.
Jean Lemierre is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2008.
|
European Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentThe European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is an international financial institution founded in 1991. As a multilateral developmental investment bank, the EBRD uses investment as a tool to build market economies. Initially focused on the countries of the former Eastern Bloc it expanded to support development in more than 30 countries from Central Europe to Central Asia. Similar to other multilateral development banks, the EBRD has members from all over the world (North America, Africa, Asia and Australia, see below), with the biggest shareholder being the United States, but only lends regionally in its countries of operations. Headquartered in London, the EBRD is owned by 69 countries and two EU institutions, the 69th being India since July 2018. Despite its public sector shareholders, it invests in private enterprises, together with commercial partners.The EBRD is not to be confused with the European Investment Bank (EIB), which is owned by EU member states and is used to support EU policy. EBRD is also distinct from the Council of Europe Development Bank (CEB).The EBRD was founded in April 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union by representatives of 40 nations from 3 continents and two European institutions, the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the European Economic Community (EEC, now European Union – EU), after reaching an agreement on the bank's charter, size, and distribution of power among shareholders.The EBRD is unique among development banks for two reasons. First, it was the first multilateral development bank to have an explicit environmental mandate in its charter (since 1995), and second, in that it will not finance thermal coal mining and coal-fired electricity generation due to their environmental impact.The following table shows the development of investment volume into the Green Economy Transition (GET) approach, in support of the Paris climate goals.The EBRD had pledged, prior to 2015 Paris Agreement, to dedicate above 40 per cent of its financing to green investment by 2020. This goal was accomplished for the first time in 2017. With Russia actually being the biggest donor to an NDEP Support Fund for the environments inside the bank, with total contributions amounting to €60 million. €5 million was donated by Russia in the same year of 2015.The EBRD was founded to support countries of the former Eastern Bloc in the process of establishing their private sectors. To that end, it offers "project financing" for banks, industries and businesses, for new ventures or existing companies. It works with publicly owned companies to support their privatisation, as advocated by the WTO since the 1980s and "improvement of municipal services".The EBRD mandates to work only in countries that are "committed to democratic principles". It promotes "environmentally sound and sustainable development", and does not finance "defence-related activities, the tobacco industry, selected alcoholic products, substances banned by international law and stand-alone gambling facilities."NGOs have criticised the EBRD on the lack of progress the EBRD makes in its main mission, the “transition towards open and democratic market economies.”Some NGOs have criticized the EBRD for financing projects they consider to be environmentally and socially harmful. Although it has increased its investments into energy efficiency and sustainable energy in recent years, these NGOs consider the bank continues to diminish the impacts of green investments by financing carbon-intensive development such as coal, oil and gas production, transportation and generation, motorways, and airports. Among the contested projects are the Ombla power plant in Croatia, the Kumtor Gold Mine in Kyrgyzstan, and the Šoštanj lignite power plant in Slovenia.The EBRD's activities in the Balkans have attracted particular controversy and criticism, especially when they have centered on national parks or free-flowing rivers. This has often involved the actualized or proposed construction of hydroelectric dams and road infrastructure. Indeed, a 2017 report alleged deficiencies in monitoring and mitigation measures that had been designed to lessen the environmental impact of dam projects financed by the EBRD, while, in March 2018, outdoor clothing label Patagonia helped launch "The Dam Truth" campaign, which directly requests international banks including the EBRD to "stop investing in the destruction of Europe's last wild rivers".In 2011, the EBRD approved a €65 million loan to ELEM, the Macedonian electricity utility, for a dam at Boskov Most. The Standing Committee of the Bern Convention requested immediate suspension of the project, with reference to the high biodiversity of the area and its importance as a core reproductive area for the Balkan lynx, one of the most endangered mammals on the planet. In January 2017, the bank cancelled the loan saying the "conditions for disbursement were not met."Again in North Macedonia, the EBRD was criticised by environmentalists after plans were announced to bisect National Park Galičica in the UNESCO Ohrid-Prespa Transboundary Biosphere Reserve with an A3 express road, which would have required certain zones of protection in the national park to be downgraded. Scientists from North Macedonia and across the world signed a declaration in opposition to this and other projects proposed for the Ohrid-Prespa region, a message that was reinforced by a Joint Reactive Monitoring Mission from the World Heritage Centre, ICOMOS and the IUCN, which requested total cancellation of proposed A3 road sections. This recommendation was underlined by the World Heritage Committee at its 41st session in Kraków. Eventually, in February 2018, the Republic of North Macedonia abandoned plans for the road, redirecting the EBRD's funds to other infrastructure projects.The EBRD announced on 23 July 2014 that it would suspend new investment projects in Russia, following an earlier declaration by the European Council. The European Council declaration was made in the context of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. Russia has been the biggest funding recipient of all countries. In 2013, the Russian Federation received €1.8 billion for investments from the EBRD and 1 billion € from the EIB. Russia employed the funds to finance a variety of projects like pipeline valves, property acquisitions, and a loan to a hypermarket chain. Two Russian projects were awaiting funding from the EBRD: a €300 million plan for promoting energy efficiency, and a $180 million loan to lease agricultural and forestry equipment. The bank stated that it will continue to manage on-going projects in Russia. Despite denying Russia new funds the EBRD continues to insist on its 6.1% of ownership in the Moscow Stock Exchange, seeking profits from Russia with the Privatisation of the Soviet economy.The following presidents have served the EBRD to date ().The following countries are recipients of funds:Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.The EBRD publishes its tenders and contracts on its own website and in Development Business, a publication launched in 1978 by the United Nations with the World Bank and other development banks.The following countries contribute in financing the EBRD: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Cyprus, Czech Republic (receiving member until 2007-12-31), Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, India, Japan, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Russian Federation, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America as well as the European Union and the European Investment Bank.The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development owns 6.07% of the Moscow Stock Exchange.The EBRD offers loan and equity finance, guarantees, leasing facilities, trade finance, and professional development through support programs. Direct investments in equity range from 5% to 25% stakes and €5 million to €230 million. Smaller projects are financed both directly by the EBRD and through "financial intermediaries". The EBRD website states it has helped finance over 1 million smaller projects by supporting local commercial banks, micro-business banks, equity funds and leasing facilities.To be eligible for EBRD funding, "a project must be located in an EBRD country of operations, have strong commercial prospects, involve significant equity contributions in-cash or in-kind from the project sponsor, benefit the local economy and help develop the private sector and satisfy banking and environmental standards."The EBRD finances projects in sectors including agribusiness, energy efficiency, financial institutions, manufacturing, municipal infrastructure, also known as public works (which includes transport, schools, water supply, waste disposal, and pollution control services), natural resources, power and energy, property, telecommunications, tourism, transport, information technology.In 2015, the EBRD invested a record amount in the Central Asian region. The total investment in 2015 rose by 75% reaching €1,402.3 billion. Kazakhstan reported the largest total volumes of investment reaching €790 million in 2015.The EBRD supports renewable energy projects in Kazakhstan. Specifically, The EBRD and the Green Climate Fund provide Kazakhstan with a $16.7 million loan for the construction of a new 30MWp solar power plant in Zhangiz-tobe in the east of the country.The EBRD invested $761 million in 29 private and public sector projects in Kazakhstan in 2019. Most of the projects are involved in public infrastructure and renewable energy.In the period 2009 - 2020, the ERD has invested almost €12.5 billion in various sectors of the Turkey's economy, with almost all investment being in the private sector. The EBRD's Turkey portfolio is the largest among the economies where the Bank invests.In 2020, the ERD lent more than $1.18 billion (€1 billion) to local Turkish firms. It also lent $25 million to the Turkish private lender Alternatif Bank for on-lending to small and medium-sized enterprises and firms affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey.Since its founding in 1991, so far only the Czech Republic has graduated from borrower to shareholder within EBRD, in 2007, but re-joined the borrower status in 2021.
|
[
"Odile Renaud-Basso",
"Suma Chakrabarti",
"Jacques de Larosière",
"Horst Köhler",
"Jean Lemierre",
"Thomas Mirow"
] |
|
Who was the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in May 24, 1992?
|
May 24, 1992
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Attali"
]
}
|
L2_Q488981_P488_0
|
Thomas Mirow is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2008 to Jul, 2012.
Jacques de Larosière is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1993 to Jan, 1998.
Suma Chakrabarti is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2012 to Jul, 2020.
Odile Renaud-Basso is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Nov, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Horst Köhler is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1998 to Apr, 2000.
Jacques Attali is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Apr, 1991 to Jun, 1993.
Jean Lemierre is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2008.
|
European Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentThe European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is an international financial institution founded in 1991. As a multilateral developmental investment bank, the EBRD uses investment as a tool to build market economies. Initially focused on the countries of the former Eastern Bloc it expanded to support development in more than 30 countries from Central Europe to Central Asia. Similar to other multilateral development banks, the EBRD has members from all over the world (North America, Africa, Asia and Australia, see below), with the biggest shareholder being the United States, but only lends regionally in its countries of operations. Headquartered in London, the EBRD is owned by 69 countries and two EU institutions, the 69th being India since July 2018. Despite its public sector shareholders, it invests in private enterprises, together with commercial partners.The EBRD is not to be confused with the European Investment Bank (EIB), which is owned by EU member states and is used to support EU policy. EBRD is also distinct from the Council of Europe Development Bank (CEB).The EBRD was founded in April 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union by representatives of 40 nations from 3 continents and two European institutions, the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the European Economic Community (EEC, now European Union – EU), after reaching an agreement on the bank's charter, size, and distribution of power among shareholders.The EBRD is unique among development banks for two reasons. First, it was the first multilateral development bank to have an explicit environmental mandate in its charter (since 1995), and second, in that it will not finance thermal coal mining and coal-fired electricity generation due to their environmental impact.The following table shows the development of investment volume into the Green Economy Transition (GET) approach, in support of the Paris climate goals.The EBRD had pledged, prior to 2015 Paris Agreement, to dedicate above 40 per cent of its financing to green investment by 2020. This goal was accomplished for the first time in 2017. With Russia actually being the biggest donor to an NDEP Support Fund for the environments inside the bank, with total contributions amounting to €60 million. €5 million was donated by Russia in the same year of 2015.The EBRD was founded to support countries of the former Eastern Bloc in the process of establishing their private sectors. To that end, it offers "project financing" for banks, industries and businesses, for new ventures or existing companies. It works with publicly owned companies to support their privatisation, as advocated by the WTO since the 1980s and "improvement of municipal services".The EBRD mandates to work only in countries that are "committed to democratic principles". It promotes "environmentally sound and sustainable development", and does not finance "defence-related activities, the tobacco industry, selected alcoholic products, substances banned by international law and stand-alone gambling facilities."NGOs have criticised the EBRD on the lack of progress the EBRD makes in its main mission, the “transition towards open and democratic market economies.”Some NGOs have criticized the EBRD for financing projects they consider to be environmentally and socially harmful. Although it has increased its investments into energy efficiency and sustainable energy in recent years, these NGOs consider the bank continues to diminish the impacts of green investments by financing carbon-intensive development such as coal, oil and gas production, transportation and generation, motorways, and airports. Among the contested projects are the Ombla power plant in Croatia, the Kumtor Gold Mine in Kyrgyzstan, and the Šoštanj lignite power plant in Slovenia.The EBRD's activities in the Balkans have attracted particular controversy and criticism, especially when they have centered on national parks or free-flowing rivers. This has often involved the actualized or proposed construction of hydroelectric dams and road infrastructure. Indeed, a 2017 report alleged deficiencies in monitoring and mitigation measures that had been designed to lessen the environmental impact of dam projects financed by the EBRD, while, in March 2018, outdoor clothing label Patagonia helped launch "The Dam Truth" campaign, which directly requests international banks including the EBRD to "stop investing in the destruction of Europe's last wild rivers".In 2011, the EBRD approved a €65 million loan to ELEM, the Macedonian electricity utility, for a dam at Boskov Most. The Standing Committee of the Bern Convention requested immediate suspension of the project, with reference to the high biodiversity of the area and its importance as a core reproductive area for the Balkan lynx, one of the most endangered mammals on the planet. In January 2017, the bank cancelled the loan saying the "conditions for disbursement were not met."Again in North Macedonia, the EBRD was criticised by environmentalists after plans were announced to bisect National Park Galičica in the UNESCO Ohrid-Prespa Transboundary Biosphere Reserve with an A3 express road, which would have required certain zones of protection in the national park to be downgraded. Scientists from North Macedonia and across the world signed a declaration in opposition to this and other projects proposed for the Ohrid-Prespa region, a message that was reinforced by a Joint Reactive Monitoring Mission from the World Heritage Centre, ICOMOS and the IUCN, which requested total cancellation of proposed A3 road sections. This recommendation was underlined by the World Heritage Committee at its 41st session in Kraków. Eventually, in February 2018, the Republic of North Macedonia abandoned plans for the road, redirecting the EBRD's funds to other infrastructure projects.The EBRD announced on 23 July 2014 that it would suspend new investment projects in Russia, following an earlier declaration by the European Council. The European Council declaration was made in the context of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. Russia has been the biggest funding recipient of all countries. In 2013, the Russian Federation received €1.8 billion for investments from the EBRD and 1 billion € from the EIB. Russia employed the funds to finance a variety of projects like pipeline valves, property acquisitions, and a loan to a hypermarket chain. Two Russian projects were awaiting funding from the EBRD: a €300 million plan for promoting energy efficiency, and a $180 million loan to lease agricultural and forestry equipment. The bank stated that it will continue to manage on-going projects in Russia. Despite denying Russia new funds the EBRD continues to insist on its 6.1% of ownership in the Moscow Stock Exchange, seeking profits from Russia with the Privatisation of the Soviet economy.The following presidents have served the EBRD to date ().The following countries are recipients of funds:Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.The EBRD publishes its tenders and contracts on its own website and in Development Business, a publication launched in 1978 by the United Nations with the World Bank and other development banks.The following countries contribute in financing the EBRD: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Cyprus, Czech Republic (receiving member until 2007-12-31), Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, India, Japan, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Russian Federation, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America as well as the European Union and the European Investment Bank.The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development owns 6.07% of the Moscow Stock Exchange.The EBRD offers loan and equity finance, guarantees, leasing facilities, trade finance, and professional development through support programs. Direct investments in equity range from 5% to 25% stakes and €5 million to €230 million. Smaller projects are financed both directly by the EBRD and through "financial intermediaries". The EBRD website states it has helped finance over 1 million smaller projects by supporting local commercial banks, micro-business banks, equity funds and leasing facilities.To be eligible for EBRD funding, "a project must be located in an EBRD country of operations, have strong commercial prospects, involve significant equity contributions in-cash or in-kind from the project sponsor, benefit the local economy and help develop the private sector and satisfy banking and environmental standards."The EBRD finances projects in sectors including agribusiness, energy efficiency, financial institutions, manufacturing, municipal infrastructure, also known as public works (which includes transport, schools, water supply, waste disposal, and pollution control services), natural resources, power and energy, property, telecommunications, tourism, transport, information technology.In 2015, the EBRD invested a record amount in the Central Asian region. The total investment in 2015 rose by 75% reaching €1,402.3 billion. Kazakhstan reported the largest total volumes of investment reaching €790 million in 2015.The EBRD supports renewable energy projects in Kazakhstan. Specifically, The EBRD and the Green Climate Fund provide Kazakhstan with a $16.7 million loan for the construction of a new 30MWp solar power plant in Zhangiz-tobe in the east of the country.The EBRD invested $761 million in 29 private and public sector projects in Kazakhstan in 2019. Most of the projects are involved in public infrastructure and renewable energy.In the period 2009 - 2020, the ERD has invested almost €12.5 billion in various sectors of the Turkey's economy, with almost all investment being in the private sector. The EBRD's Turkey portfolio is the largest among the economies where the Bank invests.In 2020, the ERD lent more than $1.18 billion (€1 billion) to local Turkish firms. It also lent $25 million to the Turkish private lender Alternatif Bank for on-lending to small and medium-sized enterprises and firms affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey.Since its founding in 1991, so far only the Czech Republic has graduated from borrower to shareholder within EBRD, in 2007, but re-joined the borrower status in 2021.
|
[
"Odile Renaud-Basso",
"Suma Chakrabarti",
"Jacques de Larosière",
"Horst Köhler",
"Jean Lemierre",
"Thomas Mirow"
] |
|
Who was the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in 05/24/1992?
|
May 24, 1992
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Attali"
]
}
|
L2_Q488981_P488_0
|
Thomas Mirow is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2008 to Jul, 2012.
Jacques de Larosière is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1993 to Jan, 1998.
Suma Chakrabarti is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2012 to Jul, 2020.
Odile Renaud-Basso is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Nov, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Horst Köhler is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1998 to Apr, 2000.
Jacques Attali is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Apr, 1991 to Jun, 1993.
Jean Lemierre is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2008.
|
European Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentThe European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is an international financial institution founded in 1991. As a multilateral developmental investment bank, the EBRD uses investment as a tool to build market economies. Initially focused on the countries of the former Eastern Bloc it expanded to support development in more than 30 countries from Central Europe to Central Asia. Similar to other multilateral development banks, the EBRD has members from all over the world (North America, Africa, Asia and Australia, see below), with the biggest shareholder being the United States, but only lends regionally in its countries of operations. Headquartered in London, the EBRD is owned by 69 countries and two EU institutions, the 69th being India since July 2018. Despite its public sector shareholders, it invests in private enterprises, together with commercial partners.The EBRD is not to be confused with the European Investment Bank (EIB), which is owned by EU member states and is used to support EU policy. EBRD is also distinct from the Council of Europe Development Bank (CEB).The EBRD was founded in April 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union by representatives of 40 nations from 3 continents and two European institutions, the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the European Economic Community (EEC, now European Union – EU), after reaching an agreement on the bank's charter, size, and distribution of power among shareholders.The EBRD is unique among development banks for two reasons. First, it was the first multilateral development bank to have an explicit environmental mandate in its charter (since 1995), and second, in that it will not finance thermal coal mining and coal-fired electricity generation due to their environmental impact.The following table shows the development of investment volume into the Green Economy Transition (GET) approach, in support of the Paris climate goals.The EBRD had pledged, prior to 2015 Paris Agreement, to dedicate above 40 per cent of its financing to green investment by 2020. This goal was accomplished for the first time in 2017. With Russia actually being the biggest donor to an NDEP Support Fund for the environments inside the bank, with total contributions amounting to €60 million. €5 million was donated by Russia in the same year of 2015.The EBRD was founded to support countries of the former Eastern Bloc in the process of establishing their private sectors. To that end, it offers "project financing" for banks, industries and businesses, for new ventures or existing companies. It works with publicly owned companies to support their privatisation, as advocated by the WTO since the 1980s and "improvement of municipal services".The EBRD mandates to work only in countries that are "committed to democratic principles". It promotes "environmentally sound and sustainable development", and does not finance "defence-related activities, the tobacco industry, selected alcoholic products, substances banned by international law and stand-alone gambling facilities."NGOs have criticised the EBRD on the lack of progress the EBRD makes in its main mission, the “transition towards open and democratic market economies.”Some NGOs have criticized the EBRD for financing projects they consider to be environmentally and socially harmful. Although it has increased its investments into energy efficiency and sustainable energy in recent years, these NGOs consider the bank continues to diminish the impacts of green investments by financing carbon-intensive development such as coal, oil and gas production, transportation and generation, motorways, and airports. Among the contested projects are the Ombla power plant in Croatia, the Kumtor Gold Mine in Kyrgyzstan, and the Šoštanj lignite power plant in Slovenia.The EBRD's activities in the Balkans have attracted particular controversy and criticism, especially when they have centered on national parks or free-flowing rivers. This has often involved the actualized or proposed construction of hydroelectric dams and road infrastructure. Indeed, a 2017 report alleged deficiencies in monitoring and mitigation measures that had been designed to lessen the environmental impact of dam projects financed by the EBRD, while, in March 2018, outdoor clothing label Patagonia helped launch "The Dam Truth" campaign, which directly requests international banks including the EBRD to "stop investing in the destruction of Europe's last wild rivers".In 2011, the EBRD approved a €65 million loan to ELEM, the Macedonian electricity utility, for a dam at Boskov Most. The Standing Committee of the Bern Convention requested immediate suspension of the project, with reference to the high biodiversity of the area and its importance as a core reproductive area for the Balkan lynx, one of the most endangered mammals on the planet. In January 2017, the bank cancelled the loan saying the "conditions for disbursement were not met."Again in North Macedonia, the EBRD was criticised by environmentalists after plans were announced to bisect National Park Galičica in the UNESCO Ohrid-Prespa Transboundary Biosphere Reserve with an A3 express road, which would have required certain zones of protection in the national park to be downgraded. Scientists from North Macedonia and across the world signed a declaration in opposition to this and other projects proposed for the Ohrid-Prespa region, a message that was reinforced by a Joint Reactive Monitoring Mission from the World Heritage Centre, ICOMOS and the IUCN, which requested total cancellation of proposed A3 road sections. This recommendation was underlined by the World Heritage Committee at its 41st session in Kraków. Eventually, in February 2018, the Republic of North Macedonia abandoned plans for the road, redirecting the EBRD's funds to other infrastructure projects.The EBRD announced on 23 July 2014 that it would suspend new investment projects in Russia, following an earlier declaration by the European Council. The European Council declaration was made in the context of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. Russia has been the biggest funding recipient of all countries. In 2013, the Russian Federation received €1.8 billion for investments from the EBRD and 1 billion € from the EIB. Russia employed the funds to finance a variety of projects like pipeline valves, property acquisitions, and a loan to a hypermarket chain. Two Russian projects were awaiting funding from the EBRD: a €300 million plan for promoting energy efficiency, and a $180 million loan to lease agricultural and forestry equipment. The bank stated that it will continue to manage on-going projects in Russia. Despite denying Russia new funds the EBRD continues to insist on its 6.1% of ownership in the Moscow Stock Exchange, seeking profits from Russia with the Privatisation of the Soviet economy.The following presidents have served the EBRD to date ().The following countries are recipients of funds:Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.The EBRD publishes its tenders and contracts on its own website and in Development Business, a publication launched in 1978 by the United Nations with the World Bank and other development banks.The following countries contribute in financing the EBRD: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Cyprus, Czech Republic (receiving member until 2007-12-31), Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, India, Japan, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Russian Federation, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America as well as the European Union and the European Investment Bank.The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development owns 6.07% of the Moscow Stock Exchange.The EBRD offers loan and equity finance, guarantees, leasing facilities, trade finance, and professional development through support programs. Direct investments in equity range from 5% to 25% stakes and €5 million to €230 million. Smaller projects are financed both directly by the EBRD and through "financial intermediaries". The EBRD website states it has helped finance over 1 million smaller projects by supporting local commercial banks, micro-business banks, equity funds and leasing facilities.To be eligible for EBRD funding, "a project must be located in an EBRD country of operations, have strong commercial prospects, involve significant equity contributions in-cash or in-kind from the project sponsor, benefit the local economy and help develop the private sector and satisfy banking and environmental standards."The EBRD finances projects in sectors including agribusiness, energy efficiency, financial institutions, manufacturing, municipal infrastructure, also known as public works (which includes transport, schools, water supply, waste disposal, and pollution control services), natural resources, power and energy, property, telecommunications, tourism, transport, information technology.In 2015, the EBRD invested a record amount in the Central Asian region. The total investment in 2015 rose by 75% reaching €1,402.3 billion. Kazakhstan reported the largest total volumes of investment reaching €790 million in 2015.The EBRD supports renewable energy projects in Kazakhstan. Specifically, The EBRD and the Green Climate Fund provide Kazakhstan with a $16.7 million loan for the construction of a new 30MWp solar power plant in Zhangiz-tobe in the east of the country.The EBRD invested $761 million in 29 private and public sector projects in Kazakhstan in 2019. Most of the projects are involved in public infrastructure and renewable energy.In the period 2009 - 2020, the ERD has invested almost €12.5 billion in various sectors of the Turkey's economy, with almost all investment being in the private sector. The EBRD's Turkey portfolio is the largest among the economies where the Bank invests.In 2020, the ERD lent more than $1.18 billion (€1 billion) to local Turkish firms. It also lent $25 million to the Turkish private lender Alternatif Bank for on-lending to small and medium-sized enterprises and firms affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey.Since its founding in 1991, so far only the Czech Republic has graduated from borrower to shareholder within EBRD, in 2007, but re-joined the borrower status in 2021.
|
[
"Odile Renaud-Basso",
"Suma Chakrabarti",
"Jacques de Larosière",
"Horst Köhler",
"Jean Lemierre",
"Thomas Mirow"
] |
|
Who was the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in 24-May-199224-May-1992?
|
May 24, 1992
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Attali"
]
}
|
L2_Q488981_P488_0
|
Thomas Mirow is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2008 to Jul, 2012.
Jacques de Larosière is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1993 to Jan, 1998.
Suma Chakrabarti is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2012 to Jul, 2020.
Odile Renaud-Basso is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Nov, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Horst Köhler is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Sep, 1998 to Apr, 2000.
Jacques Attali is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Apr, 1991 to Jun, 1993.
Jean Lemierre is the chair of European Bank for Reconstruction and Development from Jul, 2000 to Jul, 2008.
|
European Bank for Reconstruction and DevelopmentThe European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is an international financial institution founded in 1991. As a multilateral developmental investment bank, the EBRD uses investment as a tool to build market economies. Initially focused on the countries of the former Eastern Bloc it expanded to support development in more than 30 countries from Central Europe to Central Asia. Similar to other multilateral development banks, the EBRD has members from all over the world (North America, Africa, Asia and Australia, see below), with the biggest shareholder being the United States, but only lends regionally in its countries of operations. Headquartered in London, the EBRD is owned by 69 countries and two EU institutions, the 69th being India since July 2018. Despite its public sector shareholders, it invests in private enterprises, together with commercial partners.The EBRD is not to be confused with the European Investment Bank (EIB), which is owned by EU member states and is used to support EU policy. EBRD is also distinct from the Council of Europe Development Bank (CEB).The EBRD was founded in April 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union by representatives of 40 nations from 3 continents and two European institutions, the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the European Economic Community (EEC, now European Union – EU), after reaching an agreement on the bank's charter, size, and distribution of power among shareholders.The EBRD is unique among development banks for two reasons. First, it was the first multilateral development bank to have an explicit environmental mandate in its charter (since 1995), and second, in that it will not finance thermal coal mining and coal-fired electricity generation due to their environmental impact.The following table shows the development of investment volume into the Green Economy Transition (GET) approach, in support of the Paris climate goals.The EBRD had pledged, prior to 2015 Paris Agreement, to dedicate above 40 per cent of its financing to green investment by 2020. This goal was accomplished for the first time in 2017. With Russia actually being the biggest donor to an NDEP Support Fund for the environments inside the bank, with total contributions amounting to €60 million. €5 million was donated by Russia in the same year of 2015.The EBRD was founded to support countries of the former Eastern Bloc in the process of establishing their private sectors. To that end, it offers "project financing" for banks, industries and businesses, for new ventures or existing companies. It works with publicly owned companies to support their privatisation, as advocated by the WTO since the 1980s and "improvement of municipal services".The EBRD mandates to work only in countries that are "committed to democratic principles". It promotes "environmentally sound and sustainable development", and does not finance "defence-related activities, the tobacco industry, selected alcoholic products, substances banned by international law and stand-alone gambling facilities."NGOs have criticised the EBRD on the lack of progress the EBRD makes in its main mission, the “transition towards open and democratic market economies.”Some NGOs have criticized the EBRD for financing projects they consider to be environmentally and socially harmful. Although it has increased its investments into energy efficiency and sustainable energy in recent years, these NGOs consider the bank continues to diminish the impacts of green investments by financing carbon-intensive development such as coal, oil and gas production, transportation and generation, motorways, and airports. Among the contested projects are the Ombla power plant in Croatia, the Kumtor Gold Mine in Kyrgyzstan, and the Šoštanj lignite power plant in Slovenia.The EBRD's activities in the Balkans have attracted particular controversy and criticism, especially when they have centered on national parks or free-flowing rivers. This has often involved the actualized or proposed construction of hydroelectric dams and road infrastructure. Indeed, a 2017 report alleged deficiencies in monitoring and mitigation measures that had been designed to lessen the environmental impact of dam projects financed by the EBRD, while, in March 2018, outdoor clothing label Patagonia helped launch "The Dam Truth" campaign, which directly requests international banks including the EBRD to "stop investing in the destruction of Europe's last wild rivers".In 2011, the EBRD approved a €65 million loan to ELEM, the Macedonian electricity utility, for a dam at Boskov Most. The Standing Committee of the Bern Convention requested immediate suspension of the project, with reference to the high biodiversity of the area and its importance as a core reproductive area for the Balkan lynx, one of the most endangered mammals on the planet. In January 2017, the bank cancelled the loan saying the "conditions for disbursement were not met."Again in North Macedonia, the EBRD was criticised by environmentalists after plans were announced to bisect National Park Galičica in the UNESCO Ohrid-Prespa Transboundary Biosphere Reserve with an A3 express road, which would have required certain zones of protection in the national park to be downgraded. Scientists from North Macedonia and across the world signed a declaration in opposition to this and other projects proposed for the Ohrid-Prespa region, a message that was reinforced by a Joint Reactive Monitoring Mission from the World Heritage Centre, ICOMOS and the IUCN, which requested total cancellation of proposed A3 road sections. This recommendation was underlined by the World Heritage Committee at its 41st session in Kraków. Eventually, in February 2018, the Republic of North Macedonia abandoned plans for the road, redirecting the EBRD's funds to other infrastructure projects.The EBRD announced on 23 July 2014 that it would suspend new investment projects in Russia, following an earlier declaration by the European Council. The European Council declaration was made in the context of the 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine. Russia has been the biggest funding recipient of all countries. In 2013, the Russian Federation received €1.8 billion for investments from the EBRD and 1 billion € from the EIB. Russia employed the funds to finance a variety of projects like pipeline valves, property acquisitions, and a loan to a hypermarket chain. Two Russian projects were awaiting funding from the EBRD: a €300 million plan for promoting energy efficiency, and a $180 million loan to lease agricultural and forestry equipment. The bank stated that it will continue to manage on-going projects in Russia. Despite denying Russia new funds the EBRD continues to insist on its 6.1% of ownership in the Moscow Stock Exchange, seeking profits from Russia with the Privatisation of the Soviet economy.The following presidents have served the EBRD to date ().The following countries are recipients of funds:Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Egypt, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.The EBRD publishes its tenders and contracts on its own website and in Development Business, a publication launched in 1978 by the United Nations with the World Bank and other development banks.The following countries contribute in financing the EBRD: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Cyprus, Czech Republic (receiving member until 2007-12-31), Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, India, Japan, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Russian Federation, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America as well as the European Union and the European Investment Bank.The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development owns 6.07% of the Moscow Stock Exchange.The EBRD offers loan and equity finance, guarantees, leasing facilities, trade finance, and professional development through support programs. Direct investments in equity range from 5% to 25% stakes and €5 million to €230 million. Smaller projects are financed both directly by the EBRD and through "financial intermediaries". The EBRD website states it has helped finance over 1 million smaller projects by supporting local commercial banks, micro-business banks, equity funds and leasing facilities.To be eligible for EBRD funding, "a project must be located in an EBRD country of operations, have strong commercial prospects, involve significant equity contributions in-cash or in-kind from the project sponsor, benefit the local economy and help develop the private sector and satisfy banking and environmental standards."The EBRD finances projects in sectors including agribusiness, energy efficiency, financial institutions, manufacturing, municipal infrastructure, also known as public works (which includes transport, schools, water supply, waste disposal, and pollution control services), natural resources, power and energy, property, telecommunications, tourism, transport, information technology.In 2015, the EBRD invested a record amount in the Central Asian region. The total investment in 2015 rose by 75% reaching €1,402.3 billion. Kazakhstan reported the largest total volumes of investment reaching €790 million in 2015.The EBRD supports renewable energy projects in Kazakhstan. Specifically, The EBRD and the Green Climate Fund provide Kazakhstan with a $16.7 million loan for the construction of a new 30MWp solar power plant in Zhangiz-tobe in the east of the country.The EBRD invested $761 million in 29 private and public sector projects in Kazakhstan in 2019. Most of the projects are involved in public infrastructure and renewable energy.In the period 2009 - 2020, the ERD has invested almost €12.5 billion in various sectors of the Turkey's economy, with almost all investment being in the private sector. The EBRD's Turkey portfolio is the largest among the economies where the Bank invests.In 2020, the ERD lent more than $1.18 billion (€1 billion) to local Turkish firms. It also lent $25 million to the Turkish private lender Alternatif Bank for on-lending to small and medium-sized enterprises and firms affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey.Since its founding in 1991, so far only the Czech Republic has graduated from borrower to shareholder within EBRD, in 2007, but re-joined the borrower status in 2021.
|
[
"Odile Renaud-Basso",
"Suma Chakrabarti",
"Jacques de Larosière",
"Horst Köhler",
"Jean Lemierre",
"Thomas Mirow"
] |
|
Which position did Ebenezer Parkes hold in Mar, 1910?
|
March 06, 1910
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5331721_P39_3
|
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Nov, 1918.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ebenezer ParkesSir Edward Ebenezer Parkes (1848 – 29 June 1919) was an English Liberal Unionist politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Birmingham Central.When the Liberal Unionist John Albert Bright stood down at the 1895 general election, Parkes was elected in his place to the House of Commons. He held the seat until the constituency was abolished for the 1918 general election, sitting as a Conservative after the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists merged in 1912.After Birmingham Central's abolition, he did not seek re-election again .
|
[
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ebenezer Parkes hold in 1910-03-06?
|
March 06, 1910
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5331721_P39_3
|
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Nov, 1918.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ebenezer ParkesSir Edward Ebenezer Parkes (1848 – 29 June 1919) was an English Liberal Unionist politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Birmingham Central.When the Liberal Unionist John Albert Bright stood down at the 1895 general election, Parkes was elected in his place to the House of Commons. He held the seat until the constituency was abolished for the 1918 general election, sitting as a Conservative after the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists merged in 1912.After Birmingham Central's abolition, he did not seek re-election again .
|
[
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ebenezer Parkes hold in 06/03/1910?
|
March 06, 1910
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5331721_P39_3
|
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Nov, 1918.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ebenezer ParkesSir Edward Ebenezer Parkes (1848 – 29 June 1919) was an English Liberal Unionist politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Birmingham Central.When the Liberal Unionist John Albert Bright stood down at the 1895 general election, Parkes was elected in his place to the House of Commons. He held the seat until the constituency was abolished for the 1918 general election, sitting as a Conservative after the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists merged in 1912.After Birmingham Central's abolition, he did not seek re-election again .
|
[
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ebenezer Parkes hold in Mar 06, 1910?
|
March 06, 1910
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5331721_P39_3
|
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Nov, 1918.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ebenezer ParkesSir Edward Ebenezer Parkes (1848 – 29 June 1919) was an English Liberal Unionist politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Birmingham Central.When the Liberal Unionist John Albert Bright stood down at the 1895 general election, Parkes was elected in his place to the House of Commons. He held the seat until the constituency was abolished for the 1918 general election, sitting as a Conservative after the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists merged in 1912.After Birmingham Central's abolition, he did not seek re-election again .
|
[
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ebenezer Parkes hold in 03/06/1910?
|
March 06, 1910
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5331721_P39_3
|
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Nov, 1918.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ebenezer ParkesSir Edward Ebenezer Parkes (1848 – 29 June 1919) was an English Liberal Unionist politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Birmingham Central.When the Liberal Unionist John Albert Bright stood down at the 1895 general election, Parkes was elected in his place to the House of Commons. He held the seat until the constituency was abolished for the 1918 general election, sitting as a Conservative after the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists merged in 1912.After Birmingham Central's abolition, he did not seek re-election again .
|
[
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ebenezer Parkes hold in 06-Mar-191006-March-1910?
|
March 06, 1910
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5331721_P39_3
|
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1900.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Nov, 1918.
Ebenezer Parkes holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ebenezer ParkesSir Edward Ebenezer Parkes (1848 – 29 June 1919) was an English Liberal Unionist politician who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Birmingham Central.When the Liberal Unionist John Albert Bright stood down at the 1895 general election, Parkes was elected in his place to the House of Commons. He held the seat until the constituency was abolished for the 1918 general election, sitting as a Conservative after the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists merged in 1912.After Birmingham Central's abolition, he did not seek re-election again .
|
[
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Edward George Barnard hold in Aug, 1848?
|
August 11, 1848
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5343087_P39_4
|
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jun, 1851.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
|
Edward George BarnardEdward George Barnard (1778 – 14 June 1851) was a British shipbuilder and Liberal Party politician.He was the son of William and Frances Barnard and baptised on 18 May 1778. He was a member of the Barnard family of shipbuilders who had established themselves at Deptford on the River Thames. He became very wealthy, and in 1824 he purchased Gosfield Hall and estate in Essex from the Marquess of Buckingham for 150,000 guineas.He was elected at the 1832 general election as one of the two Members of Parliament (MPs) for the newly enfranchised borough of Greenwich. He was regarded as an "ultra-radical" who was in favour of the abolition of slavery, triennial parliaments, an ending of "taxes on knowledge" and the secret ballot. He held the seat until his death at his family seat in 1851, aged 73. He was buried in the family vault in Gosfield Parish Church on 21 June.
|
[
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Edward George Barnard hold in 1848-08-11?
|
August 11, 1848
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5343087_P39_4
|
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jun, 1851.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
|
Edward George BarnardEdward George Barnard (1778 – 14 June 1851) was a British shipbuilder and Liberal Party politician.He was the son of William and Frances Barnard and baptised on 18 May 1778. He was a member of the Barnard family of shipbuilders who had established themselves at Deptford on the River Thames. He became very wealthy, and in 1824 he purchased Gosfield Hall and estate in Essex from the Marquess of Buckingham for 150,000 guineas.He was elected at the 1832 general election as one of the two Members of Parliament (MPs) for the newly enfranchised borough of Greenwich. He was regarded as an "ultra-radical" who was in favour of the abolition of slavery, triennial parliaments, an ending of "taxes on knowledge" and the secret ballot. He held the seat until his death at his family seat in 1851, aged 73. He was buried in the family vault in Gosfield Parish Church on 21 June.
|
[
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Edward George Barnard hold in 11/08/1848?
|
August 11, 1848
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5343087_P39_4
|
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jun, 1851.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
|
Edward George BarnardEdward George Barnard (1778 – 14 June 1851) was a British shipbuilder and Liberal Party politician.He was the son of William and Frances Barnard and baptised on 18 May 1778. He was a member of the Barnard family of shipbuilders who had established themselves at Deptford on the River Thames. He became very wealthy, and in 1824 he purchased Gosfield Hall and estate in Essex from the Marquess of Buckingham for 150,000 guineas.He was elected at the 1832 general election as one of the two Members of Parliament (MPs) for the newly enfranchised borough of Greenwich. He was regarded as an "ultra-radical" who was in favour of the abolition of slavery, triennial parliaments, an ending of "taxes on knowledge" and the secret ballot. He held the seat until his death at his family seat in 1851, aged 73. He was buried in the family vault in Gosfield Parish Church on 21 June.
|
[
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Edward George Barnard hold in Aug 11, 1848?
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August 11, 1848
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{
"text": [
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5343087_P39_4
|
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jun, 1851.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
|
Edward George BarnardEdward George Barnard (1778 – 14 June 1851) was a British shipbuilder and Liberal Party politician.He was the son of William and Frances Barnard and baptised on 18 May 1778. He was a member of the Barnard family of shipbuilders who had established themselves at Deptford on the River Thames. He became very wealthy, and in 1824 he purchased Gosfield Hall and estate in Essex from the Marquess of Buckingham for 150,000 guineas.He was elected at the 1832 general election as one of the two Members of Parliament (MPs) for the newly enfranchised borough of Greenwich. He was regarded as an "ultra-radical" who was in favour of the abolition of slavery, triennial parliaments, an ending of "taxes on knowledge" and the secret ballot. He held the seat until his death at his family seat in 1851, aged 73. He was buried in the family vault in Gosfield Parish Church on 21 June.
|
[
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Edward George Barnard hold in 08/11/1848?
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August 11, 1848
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5343087_P39_4
|
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jun, 1851.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
|
Edward George BarnardEdward George Barnard (1778 – 14 June 1851) was a British shipbuilder and Liberal Party politician.He was the son of William and Frances Barnard and baptised on 18 May 1778. He was a member of the Barnard family of shipbuilders who had established themselves at Deptford on the River Thames. He became very wealthy, and in 1824 he purchased Gosfield Hall and estate in Essex from the Marquess of Buckingham for 150,000 guineas.He was elected at the 1832 general election as one of the two Members of Parliament (MPs) for the newly enfranchised borough of Greenwich. He was regarded as an "ultra-radical" who was in favour of the abolition of slavery, triennial parliaments, an ending of "taxes on knowledge" and the secret ballot. He held the seat until his death at his family seat in 1851, aged 73. He was buried in the family vault in Gosfield Parish Church on 21 June.
|
[
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Edward George Barnard hold in 11-Aug-184811-August-1848?
|
August 11, 1848
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5343087_P39_4
|
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1832 to Dec, 1834.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 15th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1847 to Jun, 1851.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1835 to Jul, 1837.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1837 to Jun, 1841.
Edward George Barnard holds the position of Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jun, 1841 to Jul, 1847.
|
Edward George BarnardEdward George Barnard (1778 – 14 June 1851) was a British shipbuilder and Liberal Party politician.He was the son of William and Frances Barnard and baptised on 18 May 1778. He was a member of the Barnard family of shipbuilders who had established themselves at Deptford on the River Thames. He became very wealthy, and in 1824 he purchased Gosfield Hall and estate in Essex from the Marquess of Buckingham for 150,000 guineas.He was elected at the 1832 general election as one of the two Members of Parliament (MPs) for the newly enfranchised borough of Greenwich. He was regarded as an "ultra-radical" who was in favour of the abolition of slavery, triennial parliaments, an ending of "taxes on knowledge" and the secret ballot. He held the seat until his death at his family seat in 1851, aged 73. He was buried in the family vault in Gosfield Parish Church on 21 June.
|
[
"Member of the 13th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 12th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 14th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 11th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Who was the head of Cádiz in Jan, 1978?
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January 20, 1978
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{
"text": [
"Emilio Beltrami López-Linares"
]
}
|
L2_Q15682_P6_12
|
Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979.
Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947.
Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995.
Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917.
Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942.
José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948.
Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.
Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905.
Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915.
Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941.
Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917.
José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969.
Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015.
Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903.
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CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:
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[
"Alfonso Moreno Gallardo",
"Enrique Díaz Rocafull",
"Pedro Barbadillo Delgado",
"Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca",
"Teófila Martínez",
"Francisco Sánchez Cossío",
"José María González Santos",
"Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva",
"Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne",
"Nicomedes Herrero y López",
"Ramón Rivas y Valladares",
"Manuel García Noguerol",
"José León de Carranza",
"Francisco Clotet y Miranda",
"Carlos Díaz Medina"
] |
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Who was the head of Cádiz in 1978-01-20?
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January 20, 1978
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{
"text": [
"Emilio Beltrami López-Linares"
]
}
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L2_Q15682_P6_12
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Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979.
Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947.
Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995.
Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917.
Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942.
José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948.
Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.
Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905.
Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915.
Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941.
Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917.
José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969.
Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015.
Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903.
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CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:
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[
"Alfonso Moreno Gallardo",
"Enrique Díaz Rocafull",
"Pedro Barbadillo Delgado",
"Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca",
"Teófila Martínez",
"Francisco Sánchez Cossío",
"José María González Santos",
"Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva",
"Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne",
"Nicomedes Herrero y López",
"Ramón Rivas y Valladares",
"Manuel García Noguerol",
"José León de Carranza",
"Francisco Clotet y Miranda",
"Carlos Díaz Medina"
] |
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Who was the head of Cádiz in 20/01/1978?
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January 20, 1978
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{
"text": [
"Emilio Beltrami López-Linares"
]
}
|
L2_Q15682_P6_12
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Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979.
Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947.
Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995.
Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917.
Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942.
José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948.
Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.
Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905.
Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915.
Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941.
Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917.
José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969.
Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015.
Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903.
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CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:
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[
"Alfonso Moreno Gallardo",
"Enrique Díaz Rocafull",
"Pedro Barbadillo Delgado",
"Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca",
"Teófila Martínez",
"Francisco Sánchez Cossío",
"José María González Santos",
"Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva",
"Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne",
"Nicomedes Herrero y López",
"Ramón Rivas y Valladares",
"Manuel García Noguerol",
"José León de Carranza",
"Francisco Clotet y Miranda",
"Carlos Díaz Medina"
] |
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Who was the head of Cádiz in Jan 20, 1978?
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January 20, 1978
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{
"text": [
"Emilio Beltrami López-Linares"
]
}
|
L2_Q15682_P6_12
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Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979.
Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947.
Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995.
Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917.
Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942.
José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948.
Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.
Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905.
Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915.
Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941.
Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917.
José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969.
Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015.
Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903.
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CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:
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[
"Alfonso Moreno Gallardo",
"Enrique Díaz Rocafull",
"Pedro Barbadillo Delgado",
"Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca",
"Teófila Martínez",
"Francisco Sánchez Cossío",
"José María González Santos",
"Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva",
"Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne",
"Nicomedes Herrero y López",
"Ramón Rivas y Valladares",
"Manuel García Noguerol",
"José León de Carranza",
"Francisco Clotet y Miranda",
"Carlos Díaz Medina"
] |
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Who was the head of Cádiz in 01/20/1978?
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January 20, 1978
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{
"text": [
"Emilio Beltrami López-Linares"
]
}
|
L2_Q15682_P6_12
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Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979.
Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947.
Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995.
Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917.
Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942.
José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948.
Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.
Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905.
Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915.
Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941.
Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917.
José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969.
Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015.
Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903.
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CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:
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[
"Alfonso Moreno Gallardo",
"Enrique Díaz Rocafull",
"Pedro Barbadillo Delgado",
"Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca",
"Teófila Martínez",
"Francisco Sánchez Cossío",
"José María González Santos",
"Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva",
"Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne",
"Nicomedes Herrero y López",
"Ramón Rivas y Valladares",
"Manuel García Noguerol",
"José León de Carranza",
"Francisco Clotet y Miranda",
"Carlos Díaz Medina"
] |
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Who was the head of Cádiz in 20-Jan-197820-January-1978?
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January 20, 1978
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{
"text": [
"Emilio Beltrami López-Linares"
]
}
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L2_Q15682_P6_12
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Emilio Beltrami López-Linares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Feb, 1976 to Apr, 1979.
Alfonso Moreno Gallardo is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1942 to Mar, 1947.
Francisco Clotet y Miranda is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1922 to Oct, 1923.
Carlos Díaz Medina is the head of the government of Cádiz from Apr, 1979 to Jun, 1995.
Manuel García Noguerol is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jul, 1917 to Dec, 1917.
Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva is the head of the government of Cádiz from Nov, 1941 to Jul, 1942.
José María González Santos is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Francisco Sánchez Cossío is the head of the government of Cádiz from Mar, 1947 to Feb, 1948.
Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1969 to Jan, 1976.
Enrique Díaz Rocafull is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1903 to Feb, 1905.
Ramón Rivas y Valladares is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jan, 1912 to Dec, 1915.
Pedro Barbadillo Delgado is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1940 to Nov, 1941.
Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1915 to Jul, 1917.
José León de Carranza is the head of the government of Cádiz from Aug, 1948 to May, 1969.
Teófila Martínez is the head of the government of Cádiz from Jun, 1995 to Jun, 2015.
Nicomedes Herrero y López is the head of the government of Cádiz from Dec, 1901 to Jan, 1903.
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CádizCádiz (, , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia.Cádiz, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Western Europe, with archaeological remains dating to the 8th century BC, was founded by the Phoenicians. It has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.Situated on a narrow slice of land surrounded by the sea‚ Cádiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old Town (Spanish: "Casco Antiguo"). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters ("barrios"), among them "El Pópulo", "La Viña", and "Santa María", which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted with numerous parks where exotic plants flourish, including giant trees allegedly brought to Spain by Columbus from the New World.Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold". Borrowed by the Berber languages, this became the "agadir" (Tamazight: "wall"; Shilha: "fortified granary") common in North African place names. (The Israeli town Gedera shares a similar etymology, as well as the Moroccan city Agadir). The Carthaginians continued to use this name and all subsequent names have derived from it. The Greek cothon refers to a Carthaginian type of fortified basin that can be seen at ancient sites such as Motya.Attic Greek sources hellenized "Gadir" as (), which is neuter plural. Herodotus, using Ionic Greek, transcribed it a little differently, as (). Rarely, as in Stephanus of Byzantium's notes on the writings of Eratosthenes, the name is given in the feminine singular form as ().In Latin, the city was known as and its Roman colony as ("The August City of Julia of Cádiz"). In Arabic, the Latin name became (), from which the Spanish derives. The Spanish demonym for people and things from Cádiz is .In English, the name is pronounced variously. When the accent is on the second syllable, it is usually pronounced but, when the accent is on the first syllable, it may be pronounced as , , , and similar, typically in American English. In Spanish, the accent is always, as according to the spelling, on the first syllable but, while the usual pronunciation in Spain is , the local dialect says , or even instead. More recently, some English speakers may attempt to pronounce it as the Spanish, similarly to the British version of "Ibiza", leading to pronunciations of "Cádiz" with or instead of , but keeping the English vowels and the strong .Founded around 1104 BC as "Gadir" or "Agadir" by Phoenicians from Tyre (modern day Lebanon), Cádiz is often regarded as the most ancient city still standing in Western Europe. The Phoenicians established a port in the 7th century BC. The expeditions of Himilco around Spain and France, and of Hanno around Western Africa began there. The Phoenician settlement traded with Tartessos, a city-state whose exact location remains unknown but is thought to have been somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River.One of the city's notable features during antiquity was the temple on the south end of its island dedicated to the Phoenician god Melqart, who was conflated with Hercules by the Greeks and Romans under the names "Tyrian Hercules" and "Hercules Gaditanus". It had an oracle and was famed for its wealth. In Greek mythology, Hercules was sometimes credited with founding "Gadeira" after performing his tenth labor, the slaying of Geryon, a monster with three heads and torsos joined to a single pair of legs. (A tumulus near Gadeira was associated with Geryon's final resting-place.) According to the "Life of Apollonius of Tyana", the "Heracleum" (i.e., the temple of Melqart) was still standing during the 1st century. Some historians, based in part on this source, believe that the columns of this temple were the origin of the myth of the "pillars of Hercules".The city fell under the sway of Carthage during Hamilcar Barca's Iberian campaign after the First Punic War. Cádiz became a depot for Hannibal's conquest of southern Iberia, and he sacrificed there to Hercules/Melqart before setting off on his famous journey in 218 BC to cross the Alps and invade Italy. Later the city fell to Romans under Scipio Africanus in 206 BC. Under the Roman Republic and Empire, the city flourished as a port and naval base known as "Gades". Suetonius relates how Julius Caesar, when visiting Gades as a quaestor (junior senator) saw a statue of Alexander the Great there and was saddened to think that he himself, though the same age, had still achieved nothing memorable.The people of Gades had an alliance with Rome and Julius Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on all its inhabitants in 49 BC. By the time of Augustus's census, Cádiz was home to more than five hundred "equites" (members of the wealthy upper class), a concentration rivaled only by Patavium (Padua) and Rome itself. It was the principal city of the Roman colony of Augusta Urbs Julia Gaditana. An aqueduct provided fresh water to the town (the island's supply was notoriously bad), running across open sea for its last leg. However, Roman Gades was never very large. It consisted only of the northwest corner of the present island, and most of its wealthy citizens maintained estates outside of it on the nearby island or on the mainland. The lifestyle maintained on the estates led to the Gaditan dancing girls becoming infamous throughout the ancient world.Although it is not in fact the most westerly city in the Spanish peninsula, for the Romans Cádiz had that reputation. The poet Juvenal begins his famous tenth satire with the words: "Omnibus in terris quae sunt a Gadibus usque Auroram et Gangen" ('In all the lands which exist from Gades as far as Dawn and the Ganges...').The overthrow of Roman power in Hispania Baetica by the Visigoths in 410 saw the destruction of the original city, of which there remain few remnants today. The site was later reconquered by Justinian in 551 as part of the Byzantine province of Spania. It would remain Byzantine until Leovigild's reconquest in 572 returned it to the Visigothic Kingdom.Under Moorish rule between 711 and 1262, the city was called "Qādis", whence the modern Spanish name was derived. A famous Muslim legend developed concerning an "idol" ("sanam Qādis") over 100 cubits tall on the outskirts of Cádiz whose magic blocked the strait of Gibraltar with contrary winds and currents; its destruction by Abd-al-Mumin supposedly permitted ships to sail through the strait once more. It also appeared (as "Salamcadis") in the 12th-century Pseudo-Turpin's history of Charlemagne, where it was considered a statue of Muhammad and thought to warn the Muslims of Christian invasion. Classical sources are entirely silent on such a structure, but it has been conjectured that the origin of the legend was the ruins of a navigational aid constructed in late antiquity. Abd-al-Mumin (or Admiral Ali ibn-Isa ibn-Maymun) found that the idol was gilded bronze rather than pure gold, but coined what there was to help fund his revolt. In 1217, according to the "De itinere frisonum" the city was raided by a group of Frisian crusaders en route to the Holy Land who burned it and destroyed its congregational mosque. The Moors were ousted by Alphonso X of Castile in 1262.During the Age of Exploration, the city experienced a renaissance. Christopher Columbus sailed from Cádiz on his second and fourth voyages and the city later became the home port of the Spanish treasure fleet. Consequently, it became a major target of Spain's enemies. The 16th century saw a series of failed raids by Barbary corsairs; the greater part of the old town was consumed in a major fire in 1569; and in April, 1587, a raid by the Englishman Francis Drake occupied the harbor for three days, captured six ships, and destroyed 31 others (an event which became known in England as 'The Singeing of the King of Spain's Beard'). The attack delayed the sailing of the Spanish Armada by a year.The city suffered a still more serious attack in 1596, when it was captured by an Anglo-Dutch fleet, this time under the Earls of Essex and Nottingham. 32 Spanish ships were destroyed and the city was captured, looted and occupied for almost a month. Finally, when the royal authorities refused to pay a ransom demanded by the English for returning the city intact, they burned much of it before leaving with their booty. A third English raid was mounted against the city in 1625 by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and Edward Cecil, but the attempt was unsuccessful. During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Robert Blake blockaded Cádiz from 1655 to 1657. In the 1702 Battle of Cádiz, the English attacked again under George Rooke and James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, but they were repelled after a costly siege.In the 18th century, the sand bars of the Guadalquivir forced the Spanish government to transfer its American trade from Seville to Cádiz, which now commanded better access to the Atlantic. Although the empire itself was declining, Cádiz now experienced another golden age from its new importance. It became one of Spain's greatest and most cosmopolitan cities and home to trading communities from many countries, the richest of which were the Irishmen. Many of today's historic buildings in the Old City date from this era.During the Napoleonic Wars, Cádiz was blockaded by the British from 1797 until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 and again from 1803 until the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808. In that war, it was one of the few Spanish cities to hold out against the invading French and their candidate Joseph Bonaparte. Cádiz then became the seat of Spain's military high command and Cortes (parliament) for the duration of the war. It was here that the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution and the revolution spread successfully until Ferdinand VII was imprisoned in Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in the 1823 Battle of Trocadero and suppressed liberalism for a time. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. The Cortes of Cádiz decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo just two years later.In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored.The diocese of Cádiz and Ceuta is a suffragan of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville; that is, it is a diocese within the metropolitan see of Seville. It became a diocese in 1263 after its Reconquista (reconquest) from the Moors. By the Concordat of 1753, in which the Spanish crown also gained the rights to make appointments to church offices and to tax church lands, the diocese of Cádiz was merged with the diocese of Ceuta, a Spanish conclave on the northern coast of Africa, and the diocesan bishop became, by virtue of his office, the Apostolic Administrator of Ceuta.Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cádiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a theater, an old municipal building, an 18th-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theater, and electrical pylons of an eye-catchingly modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cádiz. The old town is characterized by narrow streets connecting squares ("plazas"), bordered by the sea and by the city walls. Most of the landmark buildings are situated in the plazas.The old town of Cádiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits, though, from several striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are the "Plaza de Mina", "Plaza San Antonio", "Plaza de Candelaria", "Plaza de San Juan de Dios", and "Plaza de España".Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina was developed in the first half of the 19th century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since that time. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cádiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cádiz's 3000-year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cádiz bourgeoisie.The Plaza de la Catedral houses both the Cathedral and the Baroque church of "Santiago", built in 1635.Located next to Plaza de Mina, this smaller square houses the San Francisco church and convent. Originally built in 1566, it was substantially renovated in the 17th century, when its cloisters were added. Originally, the Plaza de Mina formed the convent's orchard.In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to be Cádiz's main square. The square is surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cádiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza.The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.In 1954 the city's mayor proclaimed the location a historic site. All construction is prohibited.The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873 under the First Spanish Republic, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that Bernardo O'Higgins, an Irish-Chilean adventurer and former dictator of Chile, also lived in the square.One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. Unlike in many places, this cathedral, known locally as the "New Cathedral," the Cathedral of Cádiz is officially the Cathedral de "Santa Cruz sobre el mar” or "Santa Cruz sobre las Aguas.” It was not built on the site of the original Cathedral de Santa Cruz. The original Cathedral of Santa Cruz was completed in 1263 at the behest of Alfonso X. The old cathedral burned in the Anglo-Dutch attack on the city in 1596. The reconstruction of the old cathedral started in the early 17th century, but when the city became more prosperous following the move of the Casa de Contratación from Seville to Cádiz in 1717, it was felt that a grander cathedral was needed.Work on the New Cathedral started in 1722 and was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero resigned from the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely Baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice with some rococo elements, it was completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral in Cadiz and as well as from monasteries throughout Spain.Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cádiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the "Ayuntamiento" is the town hall of Cádiz's "Old City". The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic ( or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón.The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniversary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.The original "Gran Teatro" was constructed in 1871 by the architect García del Alamo, and was destroyed by a fire in August 1881. The current theater was built between 1884 and 1905 over the remains of the previous Gran Teatro. The architect was Adolfo Morales de los Rios, and the overseer of construction was Juan Cabrera de la Torre. The outside was covered in red bricks and is of a neo-Mudéjar or Moorish revival style. Following renovations in the 1920s, the theater was renamed the "Gran Teatro Falla", in honor of composer Manuel de Falla, who is buried in the crypt of the cathedral. After a period of disrepair in the 1980s, the theater has since undergone extensive renovation.Puente De La Constitución De 1812 (Constitution Of 1812 Bridge)The Constitution of 1812 Bridge, also known as La Pepa Bridge, is a new bridge across the Bay of Cádiz, linking Cádiz with the town of Puerto Real.This is one of the highest bridges in Europe, with 5 kilometers in total length. It is the third access to the city, along with the San Fernando road and the Carranza bridge.In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea to watch for arriving merchant ships from the New World. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses, but this particular tower was located on a high point in the city, 45 meters above sea level, and was chosen by the Navy as their official lookout in 1787 (after eliminating several other locations previously.) The "Torre Tavira," was named for its original watchman, Don Antonio Tavira, a lieutenant in the Spanish Navy. Today it is the tallest of the towers which still dot the Cádiz skyline. Since 1994 there is a "camera obscura", a room that uses the principle of the pinhole camera and a specially prepared convex lens to project panoramic views of the Old City onto a concave disc. There are also two exhibition rooms and a rooftop terrace.The "Casa del Almirante" is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.Situated within the confines of the walls which protect the flank of the port of Cádiz are three identical adjacent buildings: the Customs House, the House of Hiring and the Consulate. Of the three, the former had been erected first, built in a sober neo-classical style and of ample and balanced proportions. The works began in 1765 under the direction of Juan Caballero at a cost of 7,717,200 reales.Cádiz's refurbished tobacco factory offers international conference and trade-show facilities. Home to the third annual MAST Conference and trade-show (12 to 14 November 2008)The Roman theatre was discovered in 1980, in the El Pópulo district, after a fire had destroyed some old warehouses, revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations have revealed a largely intact Roman theatre.The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the 1st century BC, is the second-largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theatre of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in his "Epistulae ad Familiares" ('Letters to his friends'), wrote of its use by Balbus for personal propaganda.The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.La Pepa Bridge, officially "La Pepa" and also named the second bridge to Cádiz or new access to Cádiz. It opened 24 September 2015. It crosses the Bay of Cádiz linking Cádiz with Puerto Real in mainland Spain. It is the longest bridge in Spain and the longest span cable-stayed in the country."Las Puertas de Tierra" originated in the 16th century. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city."El Arco de los Blancos" is the gate to the Populo district, built around 1300. It was the principal gate to the medieval town. The gate is named after the family of Felipe Blanco who built a chapel (now disappeared) above the gate."El Arco de la Rosa "("Rose Arch") is a gate carved into the medieval walls next to the cathedral. It is named after captain Gaspar de la Rosa, who lived in the city during the 18th century. The gate was renovated in 1973.The "Baluarte de la Candelaria" (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.The "Castle of San Sebastián" is also a military fortification and is situated at the end of a road leading out from the Caleta beach. It was built in 1706. Today the castle remains unused, although its future uses remain much debated.The "Castle of Santa Catalina" is also a military fortification, and is situated at the end of the Caleta beach. It was built in 1598 following the English sacking of Cádiz two years earlier. Recently renovated, today it is used for exhibitions and concerts.Cádiz has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa") with very mild winters and warm to hot summers. The city has significant maritime influences due to its position on a narrow peninsula. Amongst any European places, Cádiz has one of the warmest winters. The annual sunshine hours of Cádiz are above 3,000h, being one of the sunniest cities in Europe. Although summer nights are tropical in nature, daytime temperatures are comparatively subdued compared to nearby inland areas such as Jerez and the very hot far inland areas in Andalucia. The average sea temperature is around in winter and around during the summer. Snowfall is unknown at least since 1935.Cádiz, situated on a peninsula, is home to many beaches."La Playa de la Caleta" is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the "Barrio de la Viña". It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around long and wide at low tide. La Caleta and the boulevard show a lot of resemblance to parts of Havana, the capital city of Cuba, like the malecon. Therefore, it served as the set for several of the Cuban scenes in the beginning of the James Bond movie "Die Another Day"."La Playa de la Victoria", in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three km long, and it has an average width of of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants."La Playa de Santa María del Mar" or "Playita de las Mujeres" is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.Other beaches are "Torregorda", "Cortadura" and "El Chato".The gastronomy of Cádiz includes stews and sweets typical of the "comarca" and the city.According to a 2016 census estimate, the population of the city of Cádiz was 118,919 (the second-most-populated city of the province after Jerez de la Frontera, with 212,830 inhabitants), and that of its metropolitan area was 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth-largest Spanish city. In recent years, the city's population has steadily declined; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the "comarca" composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 residents, a decrease of 9%.Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of land to be developed. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal.Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this possibility. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different from in the Middle Ages. A 17th-century watchtower, the Tavira Tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest height. (See below.)Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.The population distribution of the municipality is extremely uneven. In its inhabited areas, Cádiz is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. The uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area, Bay of Cádiz Port Area, and Bay of Cádiz Natural Park occupy 63.63% of the municipal area. The entire city population lives in the remaining , at an average density close to 30,000 inhabitants per square kilometer. The city is divided for statistical purposes into 10 divisions, the most densely populated one having 39,592 inhabitants per square kilometer, the least having 20,835.The table below lists the area, population, and population density of the ten statistical divisions of Cádiz. Divisions 1 to 7, the ""stats divisions"", belong to the old town; 8, 9 and 10 correspond to the "new city".The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best known carnivals in the world. Throughout the year, carnival-related activities are almost constant in the city; there are always rehearsals, public demonstrations, and contests of various kinds.The Carnival of Cádiz is famous for the satirical groups called "chirigotas", who perform comical musical pieces. Typically, a chirigota is composed of seven to twelve performers who sing, act and improvise accompanied by guitars, kazoos, a bass drum, and a variety of noise-makers. Other than the chirigotas, there are many other groups of performers: choruses; ensembles called "comparsas", who sing in close harmony much like the barbershop quartets of African-American culture or the mariachis of Mexico; "cuartetos", consisting of four (or sometimes three) performers alternating dramatic parodies and humorous songs; and "romanceros", storytellers who recite tales in verse. These diverse spectacles turn the city into a colourful and popular open-air theatre for two entire weeks in February.The "" (the official association of carnival groups) sponsors a contest in the "Gran Teatro Falla" (see above) each year where chirigotas and other performers compete for prizes. This is the climactic event of the Cádiz carnival.Cádiz is connected to European route E5 which connects it with Sevilla, Cordoba and Madrid to the North and Algeciras to the South East, continuing as E15 northbound along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.The city does not have its own airport. The region is served by Jerez Airport, which is approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of the city centre. The airport offers regular domestic flights to Madrid and Barcelona as well as scheduled and seasonal charter flights to the UK, Germany and other European destinations. Cercanías Cádiz line C1 connects the airport to Cádiz main train station in 1hr.Cádiz railway station is located just outside the old town. It offers regional and national services. The connection to the Madrid-Seville high-speed rail line was finished in 2015 after 14 years of construction, which extends the high speed Alvia trains to the city. Local services make the outskirts and regional destinations accessible along the line to Jerez and Seville.The port opposite the train station provides weekly ferry services to the Canary Islands (2–3 days travel time) as well as providing a stop for seasonal cruise ships.Cádiz is twinned with:
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[
"Alfonso Moreno Gallardo",
"Enrique Díaz Rocafull",
"Pedro Barbadillo Delgado",
"Jerónimo Almagro y Montes de Oca",
"Teófila Martínez",
"Francisco Sánchez Cossío",
"José María González Santos",
"Fernando de Arbazuza y Oliva",
"Sebastián Martínez de Pinillos y Tourne",
"Nicomedes Herrero y López",
"Ramón Rivas y Valladares",
"Manuel García Noguerol",
"José León de Carranza",
"Francisco Clotet y Miranda",
"Carlos Díaz Medina"
] |
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Who was the head of KwaZulu-Natal in Nov, 1995?
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November 18, 1995
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{
"text": [
"Frank Mdlalose"
]
}
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L2_Q81725_P6_0
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Frank Mdlalose is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 1994 to Mar, 1997.
Ben Ngubane is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Mar, 1997 to Feb, 1999.
Lionel Mtshali is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Feb, 1999 to Apr, 2004.
Zweli Mkhize is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2009 to Sep, 2013.
Senzo Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2013 to May, 2016.
Nomusa Dube-Mncube is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Sihle Zikalala is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2019 to Aug, 2022.
Willies Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2016 to May, 2019.
S'bu Ndebele is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Apr, 2004 to May, 2009.
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KwaZulu-NatalKwaZulu-Natal (, also referred to as KZN and known as "the garden province"; ; ; ) is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu ("Place of the Zulu" in Zulu) and Natal Province were merged. It is located in the southeast of the country, enjoying a long shoreline beside the Indian Ocean and sharing borders with three other provinces, and the countries of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho. Its capital is Pietermaritzburg, and its largest city is Durban. It is the second-most populous province in South Africa, with slightly fewer residents than Gauteng.Two areas in KwaZulu-Natal have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park. These areas are extremely scenic as well as important to the surrounding ecosystems.During the 1830s and early 1840s, the northern part of what is now KwaZulu-Natal was established as the Zulu Kingdom while the southern part was, briefly, the Boer Natalia Republic before becoming the British Colony of Natal in 1843. The Zulu Kingdom remained independent until 1879.KwaZulu-Natal is the birthplace of many notable figures in South Africa's history, such as Albert Luthuli, the first non-white and the first person from outside Europe and the Americas to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1960); Pixley ka Isaka Seme, the founder of the African National Congress (ANC) and South Africa's first black lawyer; John Langalibalele Dube, the ANC's founding president; Harry Gwala, ANC member and anti-apartheid activist; Mac Maharaj, ANC member, anti-apartheid activist and little Rivonia Trialist; Mangosuthu Buthelezi, the founder of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP); Anton Lembede, the founding president of the ANC Youth League; Jacob Zuma, the former President of South Africa; Bhambatha, a 19th-century Zulu chief who became an anti-apartheid icon; and Shaka Zulu.At around in area, KwaZulu-Natal is roughly the size of Portugal. It has three different geographic areas. The lowland region along the Indian Ocean coast is extremely narrow in the south, widening in the northern part of the province, while the central Natal Midlands consists of an undulating hilly plateau rising toward the west. Two mountainous areas, the western Drakensberg Mountains and northern Lebombo Mountains form, respectively, a solid basalt wall rising over beside Lesotho border and low parallel ranges of ancient granite running southward from Eswatini. The area's largest river, the Tugela, flows west to east across the center of the province.The coastal regions typically have subtropical thickets and deeper ravines; steep slopes host some Afromontane Forest. The midlands have moist grasslands and isolated pockets of Afromontane Forest. The north has a primarily moist savanna habitat, whilst the Drakensberg region hosts mostly alpine grassland.The province contains rich areas of biodiversity of a range of flora and fauna. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park, along with uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Ndumo, are wetlands of international importance for migratory species, and are designated as Ramsar sites. South Africa signed the 1971 Ramsar Convention to try to conserve and protect important wetlands because of their importance to habitats and numerous species.The former Eastern Cape enclave of the town of Umzimkulu and its hinterland have been incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal following the 12th amendment of the Constitution of South Africa. The amendment also made other changes to the southern border of the province.The northwesterly line of equal latitude and longitude traverses the province from the coast at Hibberdene () to northeast Lesotho.The province became the first to include a portion of road that is made of partial plastic, the equivalent of nearly 40,000 recycled milk cartons.KwaZulu-Natal has a varied yet verdant climate thanks to diverse, complex topography. Generally, the coast is subtropical with inland regions becoming progressively colder. Durban on the south coast has an annual rainfall of 1009 mm, with daytime maxima peaking from January to March at with a minimum of , dropping to daytime highs from June to August of with a minimum of . Temperature drops towards the hinterland, with Pietermaritzburg being similar in the summer, but much cooler in the winter. Ladysmith in the Tugela River Valley reaches in the summer, but may drop below freezing point on winter evenings. The Drakensberg can experience heavy winter snow, with light snow occasionally experienced on the highest peaks in summer. The Zululand north coast has the warmest climate and highest humidity, supporting many sugar cane farms around Pongola.KwaZulu-Natal borders the following areas of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho:Domestically, it borders the following provinces:The KwaZulu-Natal Province is divided into one metropolitan municipality and ten district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 44 local municipalities. The local seat of each district municipality is given in parentheses:In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal, in many municipalities. This amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust.The coastline is dotted with small towns, many of which serve as seasonal recreational hubs. The climate of the coastal areas is humid and subtropical, comparable to southern Florida in the United States, but not quite as hot and rainy in the summer. As one moves further north up the coast towards the border of Mozambique, the climate becomes almost purely tropical. North of Durban is locally referred to as "The North Coast", while south is "The South Coast". The Kwazulu-Natal Tourist board includes towns such as Margate, Port Shepstone, Scottburgh and Port Edward in its definition of the South Coast, while Ballito, Umhlanga and Salt Rock are North Coast resort towns.Beaches of world-class quality are to be found along virtually every part of South Africa's eastern seaboard, with some of the least-developed gems found in the far southern and far northern ends of the province. Marina Beach (and its adjoining resort San Lameer) was recognised in 2002 as a Blue Flag beach.Some visitors come for the annual late autumn or early winter phenomenon on the KwaZulu-Natal coast of the "sardine run". Referred to as "the greatest shoal on earth", the sardine run occurs when millions of sardines migrate from their spawning grounds south of the southern tip of Africa northward along the Eastern Cape coastline toward KwaZulu-Natal. They follow a route close inshore, often resulting in many fish washing up on beaches. The huge shoal of tiny fish can stretch for many kilometres; it is preyed upon by thousands of predators, including game fish, sharks, dolphins and seabirds. Usually the shoals break up and the fish disappear into deeper water around Durban. Scientists have been unable to answer many questions surrounding this exceptional seasonal event.The interior of the province consists largely of rolling hills from the Valley of a Thousand Hills to the Midlands. Their beauty has inspired literature. Alan Paton, in the novel "Cry, the Beloved Country", wrote:On Christmas Day 1497, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama saw the coast of Natal and named the site after the Portuguese word for Christmas, "Natal". The Nguni branch of the Bantu occupied this area later on.The first European settlers, mostly British, established Port Natal, a trading post. They made almost no attempt to develop the interior, whose inhabitants had been decimated by the Zulu king, Shaka. The Afrikaner Voortrekkers entered the area via the Drakensberg passes in 1837. These Afrikaners defeated the Zulus at the Battle of Blood River in 1838 and thereafter established the Republic of Natal. Thus, the territory was once part of a short-lived Boer republic between 1839 and 1843 until its annexation by Britain. Many Afrikaner inhabitants left for the interior after the annexation and were replaced by immigrants, mainly from Britain.From 1860 onwards, increasing numbers of Indians, mainly Tamils, were brought in by the British mainly to work in the sugar plantations on the coast. The colony acquired Zululand (the area north of the Tugela River) after the Zulu War of 1879. The lands north of the Buffalo River were added in 1902. Boer forces entered the area during the South African War (1899 to 1902)also known as the second Boer Warand laid siege to Ladysmith. They failed to build on their initial advantage and for three months the line between the opposing forces followed the course of the Tugela River. In 1910, the colony became a province of the Union of South Africa and in 1961 of the Republic of South Africa.When the homeland of KwaZulu, which means "Place of the Zulu" was re-incorporated into the Natal province after the end of apartheid in 1994, the province of Natal, which had existed between 1910 and 1994, was renamed KwaZulu-Natal. The province is home to the Zulu monarchy; the majority population and language of the province is Zulu. It is the only province in South Africa that has the name of its dominant ethnic group as part of its name.The lion and wildebeest supporters are symbols of, respectively, KwaZulu and Natal, the regions joined to create KwaZulu-Natal. The zig-zag stripe represents the Drakensberg and the star the Zulu myth that the Zulu people are "star people" ("people of heaven"). The strelitzia flower on the shield symbolizes the province's beauty, while the assegai and knobkierrie behind the shield represent protection and peace. The base of the crown element is a type of headdress traditionally worn by Zulu elders that represents wisdom and maturity; the element itself is a Zulu-style grass hut. The motto is "Masisukume Sakhe", Zulu for "Let us stand up and build".KwaZulu-Natal's provincial government sits in Pietermaritzburg. The foundation stone of the new legislative building was laid on 21 June 1887, to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. The building was completed two years later. On 25 April 1889, the Governor of Natal, Sir Arthur Havelock, opened the first Legislative Council session in the new building.This was the former site of St Mary's Church, built in the 1860s. The congregation built a new church in 1884 at the corner of Burger Street and Commercial Road. The old building was demolished in 1887 to provide space for the legislative complex.When governance was granted to Natal in 1893, the new Legislative Assembly took over the chamber used by the Legislative Council since 1889. Further extensions to the parliamentary building were made. The building was unoccupied until 1902, when it was used without being officially opened, due to the country's being engulfed in the Anglo-Boer war. The war forced the Legislative Assembly to move the venue of its sittings, as its chamber was used as a military hospital.The Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council buildings have both been protected as provincial landmarks. They formed a colonial Parliament of two houses: a Council of 11 nominated members and an Assembly of 37 elected members. The Natal Parliament was disbanded in 1910 when the Union of South Africa was formed, and the Assembly became the meeting place of the Natal Provincial Council. The council was disbanded in 1986.The Provincial Legislature consists of 80 members.The African National Congress (ANC) holds power in the provincial legislature, winning the province with a convincing overall majority in South Africa's 2019 elections. After the election, the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) regained the title of the official opposition in the province.KwaZulu-Natal was the home to the Zulu monarch, King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu. Although not holding any direct political power, he held considerable influence among the more traditionalist Zulu people in the province. , kaBhekuzulu is provided a stipend of 54 million South African rands by the provincial government. He is also chairman of the Ingonyama Trust, which controls 32% of the area of the province., the Zulu king had six wives; traditionally, each year a ceremony is performed in which the king receives another wife. This was formerly a way of creating connections among the various peoples. The late King practiced the ceremony, called the "Reed Dance", but had not chosen new wives recently. Instead, he used the occasion to promote abstinence until marriage as a way of preserving Zulu culture and preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS.King Goodwill Zwelethini died in March 2021, his wife, Queen Mantfombi who served as Queen Regent after his death died a month later.Durban is a rapidly growing urban area and is by most measures the busiest port in Africa. A good railway network links the city to other areas of Southern Africa. Sugar refining is Durban's main industry. Sheep, cattle, dairy, citrus fruits, corn, sorghum, cotton, bananas, and pineapples are also raised. There is an embryonic KwaZulu-Natal wine industry. Other industries (located mainly in and around Durban) include textile, clothing, chemicals, rubber, fertiliser, paper, vehicle assembly and food-processing plants, tanneries, and oil refineries. There are large aluminium-smelting plants at Richards Bay, on the north coast.To the north, Newcastle is the province's industrial powerhouse, with Mittal Steel South Africa (previously ISPAT/ISCOR) and the Karbochem synthetic rubber plant dominating the economy. In 2002, Newcastle became the largest producer of chrome chemicals in Africa with the completion of a chrome-chemical plant, a joint-venture project between Karbochem and German manufacturing giant Bayer. Other large operations include a diamond-cutting works, various heavy engineering concerns, the Natal Portland Cement (NPC) slagment cement factory, and the Newcastle Cogeneration Plant (old Ingagane Power Station). This was recommissioned as Africa's first gas-fired power station by Independent Power Southern Africa (IPSA), and it supplies the Karbochem Plant with electricity. The textile industry is a major employer in the Newcastle area, with over 100 factories belonging to ethnic Taiwanese and Chinese industrialists. Maize, livestock and dairy farmers operate on the outskirts of the city. Coal is also mined in the Newcastle area. The province as a whole produces considerable amounts of coal (especially coke) and timber. Offshore mining of heavy mineral sands including minerals with a concentration of significant economic importance at several locations, such as rutile, ilmenite and zircon are threatening the marine ecology of KwaZulu-Natal's coast, including the Tugela Banks; the fishing economy of the prawn and nurse fisheries are also threatened.About 86% of the population is Black African. During apartheid, a large percentage of native blacks was forced to live in Bantu homelands (Bantustans), which had a subsistence economy based on cattle raising and corn growing.Ecology tourism is increasingly important to the economy of KwaZulu-Natal. The area's rich biodiversity and efforts at conservation have been recognised. Tourists have come to see the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park, declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These two major parks and that of Ndumo have wetlands of international importance listed as Ramsar sites for conservation. Tourists pay up to $10,000 for safaris on which they might see lions, elephants and giraffes. Others come to hike in the mountains or explore the wetlands with guides.Prominent civil society organisations based in the province of KwaZulu-Natal include: Abahlali baseMjondolo (shackdwellers') movement, the Diakonia Council of Churches, the Right2Know campaign, and the Unemployed People's Movement.The government in KwaZulu Natal has been under sustained controversy for their eviction of shackdwellers and mistreatment by provincial police structures that has resulted in more than 200 arrests of Abahlali members in the first last three years of its existence and repeated police brutality in people's homes, in the streets and in detention.The attack on Kennedy Road informal settlement by an armed mob in 2009 in [Durban] put local and provincial government under sustained scrutiny. It was reported by members of the Abahlali baseMjondolo movement that the attackers were affiliated with the local branch of the African National Congress and it was claimed that the attack was carefully planned and sanctioned by the provincial police department. Academic research seems to confirm that the attackers self-identified as ANC members and that ANC leaders at Municipal and Provincial level later provided public sanction for the attack.Despite a court interdict, the eThekwini municipality, with the support of the provincial SAPS, repeatedly evicted shackdwellers in Durban's Cato Crest. The General Council of the Bar has also expressed concern over the evictions.There are various game reserves found in the province; one notable example is Hluhluwe–Imfolozi Park, where the southern white rhinoceros was saved from extinction.In many of these larger reserves, large animals ranging from several antelope species to elephant, Cape buffalo and hippopotamus can be found. Predators include lions, leopards, and Cape wild dogs.The scaly yellowfish ("Labeobarbus natalensis") is a fish found in the Tugela River system as well as in the Umzimkulu, Umfolozi and the Mgeni. It is a common endemic species in KwaZulu-Natal Province and it lives in different habitats between the Drakensberg foothills and the coastal lowlands."Carissa macrocarpa" (Natal plum) is a shrub native to South Africa, where it is commonly called the "large num-num". In the Zulu language or isiZulu, as well as in the Bantu tribes of Uganda, it is known as the "Amathungulu or umThungulu oBomvu". In Afrikaans, the fruit is called "noem-noem".The University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) has five campuses in the province. It was formed on 1 January 2004 after the merger between the University of Natal and the University of Durban-Westville. Other universities are :
|
[
"S'bu Ndebele",
"Senzo Mchunu",
"Willies Mchunu",
"Sihle Zikalala",
"Nomusa Dube-Mncube",
"Zweli Mkhize",
"Ben Ngubane",
"Lionel Mtshali"
] |
|
Who was the head of KwaZulu-Natal in 1995-11-18?
|
November 18, 1995
|
{
"text": [
"Frank Mdlalose"
]
}
|
L2_Q81725_P6_0
|
Frank Mdlalose is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 1994 to Mar, 1997.
Ben Ngubane is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Mar, 1997 to Feb, 1999.
Lionel Mtshali is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Feb, 1999 to Apr, 2004.
Zweli Mkhize is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2009 to Sep, 2013.
Senzo Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2013 to May, 2016.
Nomusa Dube-Mncube is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Sihle Zikalala is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2019 to Aug, 2022.
Willies Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2016 to May, 2019.
S'bu Ndebele is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Apr, 2004 to May, 2009.
|
KwaZulu-NatalKwaZulu-Natal (, also referred to as KZN and known as "the garden province"; ; ; ) is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu ("Place of the Zulu" in Zulu) and Natal Province were merged. It is located in the southeast of the country, enjoying a long shoreline beside the Indian Ocean and sharing borders with three other provinces, and the countries of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho. Its capital is Pietermaritzburg, and its largest city is Durban. It is the second-most populous province in South Africa, with slightly fewer residents than Gauteng.Two areas in KwaZulu-Natal have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park. These areas are extremely scenic as well as important to the surrounding ecosystems.During the 1830s and early 1840s, the northern part of what is now KwaZulu-Natal was established as the Zulu Kingdom while the southern part was, briefly, the Boer Natalia Republic before becoming the British Colony of Natal in 1843. The Zulu Kingdom remained independent until 1879.KwaZulu-Natal is the birthplace of many notable figures in South Africa's history, such as Albert Luthuli, the first non-white and the first person from outside Europe and the Americas to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1960); Pixley ka Isaka Seme, the founder of the African National Congress (ANC) and South Africa's first black lawyer; John Langalibalele Dube, the ANC's founding president; Harry Gwala, ANC member and anti-apartheid activist; Mac Maharaj, ANC member, anti-apartheid activist and little Rivonia Trialist; Mangosuthu Buthelezi, the founder of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP); Anton Lembede, the founding president of the ANC Youth League; Jacob Zuma, the former President of South Africa; Bhambatha, a 19th-century Zulu chief who became an anti-apartheid icon; and Shaka Zulu.At around in area, KwaZulu-Natal is roughly the size of Portugal. It has three different geographic areas. The lowland region along the Indian Ocean coast is extremely narrow in the south, widening in the northern part of the province, while the central Natal Midlands consists of an undulating hilly plateau rising toward the west. Two mountainous areas, the western Drakensberg Mountains and northern Lebombo Mountains form, respectively, a solid basalt wall rising over beside Lesotho border and low parallel ranges of ancient granite running southward from Eswatini. The area's largest river, the Tugela, flows west to east across the center of the province.The coastal regions typically have subtropical thickets and deeper ravines; steep slopes host some Afromontane Forest. The midlands have moist grasslands and isolated pockets of Afromontane Forest. The north has a primarily moist savanna habitat, whilst the Drakensberg region hosts mostly alpine grassland.The province contains rich areas of biodiversity of a range of flora and fauna. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park, along with uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Ndumo, are wetlands of international importance for migratory species, and are designated as Ramsar sites. South Africa signed the 1971 Ramsar Convention to try to conserve and protect important wetlands because of their importance to habitats and numerous species.The former Eastern Cape enclave of the town of Umzimkulu and its hinterland have been incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal following the 12th amendment of the Constitution of South Africa. The amendment also made other changes to the southern border of the province.The northwesterly line of equal latitude and longitude traverses the province from the coast at Hibberdene () to northeast Lesotho.The province became the first to include a portion of road that is made of partial plastic, the equivalent of nearly 40,000 recycled milk cartons.KwaZulu-Natal has a varied yet verdant climate thanks to diverse, complex topography. Generally, the coast is subtropical with inland regions becoming progressively colder. Durban on the south coast has an annual rainfall of 1009 mm, with daytime maxima peaking from January to March at with a minimum of , dropping to daytime highs from June to August of with a minimum of . Temperature drops towards the hinterland, with Pietermaritzburg being similar in the summer, but much cooler in the winter. Ladysmith in the Tugela River Valley reaches in the summer, but may drop below freezing point on winter evenings. The Drakensberg can experience heavy winter snow, with light snow occasionally experienced on the highest peaks in summer. The Zululand north coast has the warmest climate and highest humidity, supporting many sugar cane farms around Pongola.KwaZulu-Natal borders the following areas of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho:Domestically, it borders the following provinces:The KwaZulu-Natal Province is divided into one metropolitan municipality and ten district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 44 local municipalities. The local seat of each district municipality is given in parentheses:In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal, in many municipalities. This amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust.The coastline is dotted with small towns, many of which serve as seasonal recreational hubs. The climate of the coastal areas is humid and subtropical, comparable to southern Florida in the United States, but not quite as hot and rainy in the summer. As one moves further north up the coast towards the border of Mozambique, the climate becomes almost purely tropical. North of Durban is locally referred to as "The North Coast", while south is "The South Coast". The Kwazulu-Natal Tourist board includes towns such as Margate, Port Shepstone, Scottburgh and Port Edward in its definition of the South Coast, while Ballito, Umhlanga and Salt Rock are North Coast resort towns.Beaches of world-class quality are to be found along virtually every part of South Africa's eastern seaboard, with some of the least-developed gems found in the far southern and far northern ends of the province. Marina Beach (and its adjoining resort San Lameer) was recognised in 2002 as a Blue Flag beach.Some visitors come for the annual late autumn or early winter phenomenon on the KwaZulu-Natal coast of the "sardine run". Referred to as "the greatest shoal on earth", the sardine run occurs when millions of sardines migrate from their spawning grounds south of the southern tip of Africa northward along the Eastern Cape coastline toward KwaZulu-Natal. They follow a route close inshore, often resulting in many fish washing up on beaches. The huge shoal of tiny fish can stretch for many kilometres; it is preyed upon by thousands of predators, including game fish, sharks, dolphins and seabirds. Usually the shoals break up and the fish disappear into deeper water around Durban. Scientists have been unable to answer many questions surrounding this exceptional seasonal event.The interior of the province consists largely of rolling hills from the Valley of a Thousand Hills to the Midlands. Their beauty has inspired literature. Alan Paton, in the novel "Cry, the Beloved Country", wrote:On Christmas Day 1497, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama saw the coast of Natal and named the site after the Portuguese word for Christmas, "Natal". The Nguni branch of the Bantu occupied this area later on.The first European settlers, mostly British, established Port Natal, a trading post. They made almost no attempt to develop the interior, whose inhabitants had been decimated by the Zulu king, Shaka. The Afrikaner Voortrekkers entered the area via the Drakensberg passes in 1837. These Afrikaners defeated the Zulus at the Battle of Blood River in 1838 and thereafter established the Republic of Natal. Thus, the territory was once part of a short-lived Boer republic between 1839 and 1843 until its annexation by Britain. Many Afrikaner inhabitants left for the interior after the annexation and were replaced by immigrants, mainly from Britain.From 1860 onwards, increasing numbers of Indians, mainly Tamils, were brought in by the British mainly to work in the sugar plantations on the coast. The colony acquired Zululand (the area north of the Tugela River) after the Zulu War of 1879. The lands north of the Buffalo River were added in 1902. Boer forces entered the area during the South African War (1899 to 1902)also known as the second Boer Warand laid siege to Ladysmith. They failed to build on their initial advantage and for three months the line between the opposing forces followed the course of the Tugela River. In 1910, the colony became a province of the Union of South Africa and in 1961 of the Republic of South Africa.When the homeland of KwaZulu, which means "Place of the Zulu" was re-incorporated into the Natal province after the end of apartheid in 1994, the province of Natal, which had existed between 1910 and 1994, was renamed KwaZulu-Natal. The province is home to the Zulu monarchy; the majority population and language of the province is Zulu. It is the only province in South Africa that has the name of its dominant ethnic group as part of its name.The lion and wildebeest supporters are symbols of, respectively, KwaZulu and Natal, the regions joined to create KwaZulu-Natal. The zig-zag stripe represents the Drakensberg and the star the Zulu myth that the Zulu people are "star people" ("people of heaven"). The strelitzia flower on the shield symbolizes the province's beauty, while the assegai and knobkierrie behind the shield represent protection and peace. The base of the crown element is a type of headdress traditionally worn by Zulu elders that represents wisdom and maturity; the element itself is a Zulu-style grass hut. The motto is "Masisukume Sakhe", Zulu for "Let us stand up and build".KwaZulu-Natal's provincial government sits in Pietermaritzburg. The foundation stone of the new legislative building was laid on 21 June 1887, to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. The building was completed two years later. On 25 April 1889, the Governor of Natal, Sir Arthur Havelock, opened the first Legislative Council session in the new building.This was the former site of St Mary's Church, built in the 1860s. The congregation built a new church in 1884 at the corner of Burger Street and Commercial Road. The old building was demolished in 1887 to provide space for the legislative complex.When governance was granted to Natal in 1893, the new Legislative Assembly took over the chamber used by the Legislative Council since 1889. Further extensions to the parliamentary building were made. The building was unoccupied until 1902, when it was used without being officially opened, due to the country's being engulfed in the Anglo-Boer war. The war forced the Legislative Assembly to move the venue of its sittings, as its chamber was used as a military hospital.The Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council buildings have both been protected as provincial landmarks. They formed a colonial Parliament of two houses: a Council of 11 nominated members and an Assembly of 37 elected members. The Natal Parliament was disbanded in 1910 when the Union of South Africa was formed, and the Assembly became the meeting place of the Natal Provincial Council. The council was disbanded in 1986.The Provincial Legislature consists of 80 members.The African National Congress (ANC) holds power in the provincial legislature, winning the province with a convincing overall majority in South Africa's 2019 elections. After the election, the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) regained the title of the official opposition in the province.KwaZulu-Natal was the home to the Zulu monarch, King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu. Although not holding any direct political power, he held considerable influence among the more traditionalist Zulu people in the province. , kaBhekuzulu is provided a stipend of 54 million South African rands by the provincial government. He is also chairman of the Ingonyama Trust, which controls 32% of the area of the province., the Zulu king had six wives; traditionally, each year a ceremony is performed in which the king receives another wife. This was formerly a way of creating connections among the various peoples. The late King practiced the ceremony, called the "Reed Dance", but had not chosen new wives recently. Instead, he used the occasion to promote abstinence until marriage as a way of preserving Zulu culture and preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS.King Goodwill Zwelethini died in March 2021, his wife, Queen Mantfombi who served as Queen Regent after his death died a month later.Durban is a rapidly growing urban area and is by most measures the busiest port in Africa. A good railway network links the city to other areas of Southern Africa. Sugar refining is Durban's main industry. Sheep, cattle, dairy, citrus fruits, corn, sorghum, cotton, bananas, and pineapples are also raised. There is an embryonic KwaZulu-Natal wine industry. Other industries (located mainly in and around Durban) include textile, clothing, chemicals, rubber, fertiliser, paper, vehicle assembly and food-processing plants, tanneries, and oil refineries. There are large aluminium-smelting plants at Richards Bay, on the north coast.To the north, Newcastle is the province's industrial powerhouse, with Mittal Steel South Africa (previously ISPAT/ISCOR) and the Karbochem synthetic rubber plant dominating the economy. In 2002, Newcastle became the largest producer of chrome chemicals in Africa with the completion of a chrome-chemical plant, a joint-venture project between Karbochem and German manufacturing giant Bayer. Other large operations include a diamond-cutting works, various heavy engineering concerns, the Natal Portland Cement (NPC) slagment cement factory, and the Newcastle Cogeneration Plant (old Ingagane Power Station). This was recommissioned as Africa's first gas-fired power station by Independent Power Southern Africa (IPSA), and it supplies the Karbochem Plant with electricity. The textile industry is a major employer in the Newcastle area, with over 100 factories belonging to ethnic Taiwanese and Chinese industrialists. Maize, livestock and dairy farmers operate on the outskirts of the city. Coal is also mined in the Newcastle area. The province as a whole produces considerable amounts of coal (especially coke) and timber. Offshore mining of heavy mineral sands including minerals with a concentration of significant economic importance at several locations, such as rutile, ilmenite and zircon are threatening the marine ecology of KwaZulu-Natal's coast, including the Tugela Banks; the fishing economy of the prawn and nurse fisheries are also threatened.About 86% of the population is Black African. During apartheid, a large percentage of native blacks was forced to live in Bantu homelands (Bantustans), which had a subsistence economy based on cattle raising and corn growing.Ecology tourism is increasingly important to the economy of KwaZulu-Natal. The area's rich biodiversity and efforts at conservation have been recognised. Tourists have come to see the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park, declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These two major parks and that of Ndumo have wetlands of international importance listed as Ramsar sites for conservation. Tourists pay up to $10,000 for safaris on which they might see lions, elephants and giraffes. Others come to hike in the mountains or explore the wetlands with guides.Prominent civil society organisations based in the province of KwaZulu-Natal include: Abahlali baseMjondolo (shackdwellers') movement, the Diakonia Council of Churches, the Right2Know campaign, and the Unemployed People's Movement.The government in KwaZulu Natal has been under sustained controversy for their eviction of shackdwellers and mistreatment by provincial police structures that has resulted in more than 200 arrests of Abahlali members in the first last three years of its existence and repeated police brutality in people's homes, in the streets and in detention.The attack on Kennedy Road informal settlement by an armed mob in 2009 in [Durban] put local and provincial government under sustained scrutiny. It was reported by members of the Abahlali baseMjondolo movement that the attackers were affiliated with the local branch of the African National Congress and it was claimed that the attack was carefully planned and sanctioned by the provincial police department. Academic research seems to confirm that the attackers self-identified as ANC members and that ANC leaders at Municipal and Provincial level later provided public sanction for the attack.Despite a court interdict, the eThekwini municipality, with the support of the provincial SAPS, repeatedly evicted shackdwellers in Durban's Cato Crest. The General Council of the Bar has also expressed concern over the evictions.There are various game reserves found in the province; one notable example is Hluhluwe–Imfolozi Park, where the southern white rhinoceros was saved from extinction.In many of these larger reserves, large animals ranging from several antelope species to elephant, Cape buffalo and hippopotamus can be found. Predators include lions, leopards, and Cape wild dogs.The scaly yellowfish ("Labeobarbus natalensis") is a fish found in the Tugela River system as well as in the Umzimkulu, Umfolozi and the Mgeni. It is a common endemic species in KwaZulu-Natal Province and it lives in different habitats between the Drakensberg foothills and the coastal lowlands."Carissa macrocarpa" (Natal plum) is a shrub native to South Africa, where it is commonly called the "large num-num". In the Zulu language or isiZulu, as well as in the Bantu tribes of Uganda, it is known as the "Amathungulu or umThungulu oBomvu". In Afrikaans, the fruit is called "noem-noem".The University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) has five campuses in the province. It was formed on 1 January 2004 after the merger between the University of Natal and the University of Durban-Westville. Other universities are :
|
[
"S'bu Ndebele",
"Senzo Mchunu",
"Willies Mchunu",
"Sihle Zikalala",
"Nomusa Dube-Mncube",
"Zweli Mkhize",
"Ben Ngubane",
"Lionel Mtshali"
] |
|
Who was the head of KwaZulu-Natal in 18/11/1995?
|
November 18, 1995
|
{
"text": [
"Frank Mdlalose"
]
}
|
L2_Q81725_P6_0
|
Frank Mdlalose is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 1994 to Mar, 1997.
Ben Ngubane is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Mar, 1997 to Feb, 1999.
Lionel Mtshali is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Feb, 1999 to Apr, 2004.
Zweli Mkhize is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2009 to Sep, 2013.
Senzo Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2013 to May, 2016.
Nomusa Dube-Mncube is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Sihle Zikalala is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2019 to Aug, 2022.
Willies Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2016 to May, 2019.
S'bu Ndebele is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Apr, 2004 to May, 2009.
|
KwaZulu-NatalKwaZulu-Natal (, also referred to as KZN and known as "the garden province"; ; ; ) is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu ("Place of the Zulu" in Zulu) and Natal Province were merged. It is located in the southeast of the country, enjoying a long shoreline beside the Indian Ocean and sharing borders with three other provinces, and the countries of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho. Its capital is Pietermaritzburg, and its largest city is Durban. It is the second-most populous province in South Africa, with slightly fewer residents than Gauteng.Two areas in KwaZulu-Natal have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park. These areas are extremely scenic as well as important to the surrounding ecosystems.During the 1830s and early 1840s, the northern part of what is now KwaZulu-Natal was established as the Zulu Kingdom while the southern part was, briefly, the Boer Natalia Republic before becoming the British Colony of Natal in 1843. The Zulu Kingdom remained independent until 1879.KwaZulu-Natal is the birthplace of many notable figures in South Africa's history, such as Albert Luthuli, the first non-white and the first person from outside Europe and the Americas to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1960); Pixley ka Isaka Seme, the founder of the African National Congress (ANC) and South Africa's first black lawyer; John Langalibalele Dube, the ANC's founding president; Harry Gwala, ANC member and anti-apartheid activist; Mac Maharaj, ANC member, anti-apartheid activist and little Rivonia Trialist; Mangosuthu Buthelezi, the founder of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP); Anton Lembede, the founding president of the ANC Youth League; Jacob Zuma, the former President of South Africa; Bhambatha, a 19th-century Zulu chief who became an anti-apartheid icon; and Shaka Zulu.At around in area, KwaZulu-Natal is roughly the size of Portugal. It has three different geographic areas. The lowland region along the Indian Ocean coast is extremely narrow in the south, widening in the northern part of the province, while the central Natal Midlands consists of an undulating hilly plateau rising toward the west. Two mountainous areas, the western Drakensberg Mountains and northern Lebombo Mountains form, respectively, a solid basalt wall rising over beside Lesotho border and low parallel ranges of ancient granite running southward from Eswatini. The area's largest river, the Tugela, flows west to east across the center of the province.The coastal regions typically have subtropical thickets and deeper ravines; steep slopes host some Afromontane Forest. The midlands have moist grasslands and isolated pockets of Afromontane Forest. The north has a primarily moist savanna habitat, whilst the Drakensberg region hosts mostly alpine grassland.The province contains rich areas of biodiversity of a range of flora and fauna. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park, along with uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Ndumo, are wetlands of international importance for migratory species, and are designated as Ramsar sites. South Africa signed the 1971 Ramsar Convention to try to conserve and protect important wetlands because of their importance to habitats and numerous species.The former Eastern Cape enclave of the town of Umzimkulu and its hinterland have been incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal following the 12th amendment of the Constitution of South Africa. The amendment also made other changes to the southern border of the province.The northwesterly line of equal latitude and longitude traverses the province from the coast at Hibberdene () to northeast Lesotho.The province became the first to include a portion of road that is made of partial plastic, the equivalent of nearly 40,000 recycled milk cartons.KwaZulu-Natal has a varied yet verdant climate thanks to diverse, complex topography. Generally, the coast is subtropical with inland regions becoming progressively colder. Durban on the south coast has an annual rainfall of 1009 mm, with daytime maxima peaking from January to March at with a minimum of , dropping to daytime highs from June to August of with a minimum of . Temperature drops towards the hinterland, with Pietermaritzburg being similar in the summer, but much cooler in the winter. Ladysmith in the Tugela River Valley reaches in the summer, but may drop below freezing point on winter evenings. The Drakensberg can experience heavy winter snow, with light snow occasionally experienced on the highest peaks in summer. The Zululand north coast has the warmest climate and highest humidity, supporting many sugar cane farms around Pongola.KwaZulu-Natal borders the following areas of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho:Domestically, it borders the following provinces:The KwaZulu-Natal Province is divided into one metropolitan municipality and ten district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 44 local municipalities. The local seat of each district municipality is given in parentheses:In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal, in many municipalities. This amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust.The coastline is dotted with small towns, many of which serve as seasonal recreational hubs. The climate of the coastal areas is humid and subtropical, comparable to southern Florida in the United States, but not quite as hot and rainy in the summer. As one moves further north up the coast towards the border of Mozambique, the climate becomes almost purely tropical. North of Durban is locally referred to as "The North Coast", while south is "The South Coast". The Kwazulu-Natal Tourist board includes towns such as Margate, Port Shepstone, Scottburgh and Port Edward in its definition of the South Coast, while Ballito, Umhlanga and Salt Rock are North Coast resort towns.Beaches of world-class quality are to be found along virtually every part of South Africa's eastern seaboard, with some of the least-developed gems found in the far southern and far northern ends of the province. Marina Beach (and its adjoining resort San Lameer) was recognised in 2002 as a Blue Flag beach.Some visitors come for the annual late autumn or early winter phenomenon on the KwaZulu-Natal coast of the "sardine run". Referred to as "the greatest shoal on earth", the sardine run occurs when millions of sardines migrate from their spawning grounds south of the southern tip of Africa northward along the Eastern Cape coastline toward KwaZulu-Natal. They follow a route close inshore, often resulting in many fish washing up on beaches. The huge shoal of tiny fish can stretch for many kilometres; it is preyed upon by thousands of predators, including game fish, sharks, dolphins and seabirds. Usually the shoals break up and the fish disappear into deeper water around Durban. Scientists have been unable to answer many questions surrounding this exceptional seasonal event.The interior of the province consists largely of rolling hills from the Valley of a Thousand Hills to the Midlands. Their beauty has inspired literature. Alan Paton, in the novel "Cry, the Beloved Country", wrote:On Christmas Day 1497, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama saw the coast of Natal and named the site after the Portuguese word for Christmas, "Natal". The Nguni branch of the Bantu occupied this area later on.The first European settlers, mostly British, established Port Natal, a trading post. They made almost no attempt to develop the interior, whose inhabitants had been decimated by the Zulu king, Shaka. The Afrikaner Voortrekkers entered the area via the Drakensberg passes in 1837. These Afrikaners defeated the Zulus at the Battle of Blood River in 1838 and thereafter established the Republic of Natal. Thus, the territory was once part of a short-lived Boer republic between 1839 and 1843 until its annexation by Britain. Many Afrikaner inhabitants left for the interior after the annexation and were replaced by immigrants, mainly from Britain.From 1860 onwards, increasing numbers of Indians, mainly Tamils, were brought in by the British mainly to work in the sugar plantations on the coast. The colony acquired Zululand (the area north of the Tugela River) after the Zulu War of 1879. The lands north of the Buffalo River were added in 1902. Boer forces entered the area during the South African War (1899 to 1902)also known as the second Boer Warand laid siege to Ladysmith. They failed to build on their initial advantage and for three months the line between the opposing forces followed the course of the Tugela River. In 1910, the colony became a province of the Union of South Africa and in 1961 of the Republic of South Africa.When the homeland of KwaZulu, which means "Place of the Zulu" was re-incorporated into the Natal province after the end of apartheid in 1994, the province of Natal, which had existed between 1910 and 1994, was renamed KwaZulu-Natal. The province is home to the Zulu monarchy; the majority population and language of the province is Zulu. It is the only province in South Africa that has the name of its dominant ethnic group as part of its name.The lion and wildebeest supporters are symbols of, respectively, KwaZulu and Natal, the regions joined to create KwaZulu-Natal. The zig-zag stripe represents the Drakensberg and the star the Zulu myth that the Zulu people are "star people" ("people of heaven"). The strelitzia flower on the shield symbolizes the province's beauty, while the assegai and knobkierrie behind the shield represent protection and peace. The base of the crown element is a type of headdress traditionally worn by Zulu elders that represents wisdom and maturity; the element itself is a Zulu-style grass hut. The motto is "Masisukume Sakhe", Zulu for "Let us stand up and build".KwaZulu-Natal's provincial government sits in Pietermaritzburg. The foundation stone of the new legislative building was laid on 21 June 1887, to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. The building was completed two years later. On 25 April 1889, the Governor of Natal, Sir Arthur Havelock, opened the first Legislative Council session in the new building.This was the former site of St Mary's Church, built in the 1860s. The congregation built a new church in 1884 at the corner of Burger Street and Commercial Road. The old building was demolished in 1887 to provide space for the legislative complex.When governance was granted to Natal in 1893, the new Legislative Assembly took over the chamber used by the Legislative Council since 1889. Further extensions to the parliamentary building were made. The building was unoccupied until 1902, when it was used without being officially opened, due to the country's being engulfed in the Anglo-Boer war. The war forced the Legislative Assembly to move the venue of its sittings, as its chamber was used as a military hospital.The Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council buildings have both been protected as provincial landmarks. They formed a colonial Parliament of two houses: a Council of 11 nominated members and an Assembly of 37 elected members. The Natal Parliament was disbanded in 1910 when the Union of South Africa was formed, and the Assembly became the meeting place of the Natal Provincial Council. The council was disbanded in 1986.The Provincial Legislature consists of 80 members.The African National Congress (ANC) holds power in the provincial legislature, winning the province with a convincing overall majority in South Africa's 2019 elections. After the election, the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) regained the title of the official opposition in the province.KwaZulu-Natal was the home to the Zulu monarch, King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu. Although not holding any direct political power, he held considerable influence among the more traditionalist Zulu people in the province. , kaBhekuzulu is provided a stipend of 54 million South African rands by the provincial government. He is also chairman of the Ingonyama Trust, which controls 32% of the area of the province., the Zulu king had six wives; traditionally, each year a ceremony is performed in which the king receives another wife. This was formerly a way of creating connections among the various peoples. The late King practiced the ceremony, called the "Reed Dance", but had not chosen new wives recently. Instead, he used the occasion to promote abstinence until marriage as a way of preserving Zulu culture and preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS.King Goodwill Zwelethini died in March 2021, his wife, Queen Mantfombi who served as Queen Regent after his death died a month later.Durban is a rapidly growing urban area and is by most measures the busiest port in Africa. A good railway network links the city to other areas of Southern Africa. Sugar refining is Durban's main industry. Sheep, cattle, dairy, citrus fruits, corn, sorghum, cotton, bananas, and pineapples are also raised. There is an embryonic KwaZulu-Natal wine industry. Other industries (located mainly in and around Durban) include textile, clothing, chemicals, rubber, fertiliser, paper, vehicle assembly and food-processing plants, tanneries, and oil refineries. There are large aluminium-smelting plants at Richards Bay, on the north coast.To the north, Newcastle is the province's industrial powerhouse, with Mittal Steel South Africa (previously ISPAT/ISCOR) and the Karbochem synthetic rubber plant dominating the economy. In 2002, Newcastle became the largest producer of chrome chemicals in Africa with the completion of a chrome-chemical plant, a joint-venture project between Karbochem and German manufacturing giant Bayer. Other large operations include a diamond-cutting works, various heavy engineering concerns, the Natal Portland Cement (NPC) slagment cement factory, and the Newcastle Cogeneration Plant (old Ingagane Power Station). This was recommissioned as Africa's first gas-fired power station by Independent Power Southern Africa (IPSA), and it supplies the Karbochem Plant with electricity. The textile industry is a major employer in the Newcastle area, with over 100 factories belonging to ethnic Taiwanese and Chinese industrialists. Maize, livestock and dairy farmers operate on the outskirts of the city. Coal is also mined in the Newcastle area. The province as a whole produces considerable amounts of coal (especially coke) and timber. Offshore mining of heavy mineral sands including minerals with a concentration of significant economic importance at several locations, such as rutile, ilmenite and zircon are threatening the marine ecology of KwaZulu-Natal's coast, including the Tugela Banks; the fishing economy of the prawn and nurse fisheries are also threatened.About 86% of the population is Black African. During apartheid, a large percentage of native blacks was forced to live in Bantu homelands (Bantustans), which had a subsistence economy based on cattle raising and corn growing.Ecology tourism is increasingly important to the economy of KwaZulu-Natal. The area's rich biodiversity and efforts at conservation have been recognised. Tourists have come to see the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park, declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These two major parks and that of Ndumo have wetlands of international importance listed as Ramsar sites for conservation. Tourists pay up to $10,000 for safaris on which they might see lions, elephants and giraffes. Others come to hike in the mountains or explore the wetlands with guides.Prominent civil society organisations based in the province of KwaZulu-Natal include: Abahlali baseMjondolo (shackdwellers') movement, the Diakonia Council of Churches, the Right2Know campaign, and the Unemployed People's Movement.The government in KwaZulu Natal has been under sustained controversy for their eviction of shackdwellers and mistreatment by provincial police structures that has resulted in more than 200 arrests of Abahlali members in the first last three years of its existence and repeated police brutality in people's homes, in the streets and in detention.The attack on Kennedy Road informal settlement by an armed mob in 2009 in [Durban] put local and provincial government under sustained scrutiny. It was reported by members of the Abahlali baseMjondolo movement that the attackers were affiliated with the local branch of the African National Congress and it was claimed that the attack was carefully planned and sanctioned by the provincial police department. Academic research seems to confirm that the attackers self-identified as ANC members and that ANC leaders at Municipal and Provincial level later provided public sanction for the attack.Despite a court interdict, the eThekwini municipality, with the support of the provincial SAPS, repeatedly evicted shackdwellers in Durban's Cato Crest. The General Council of the Bar has also expressed concern over the evictions.There are various game reserves found in the province; one notable example is Hluhluwe–Imfolozi Park, where the southern white rhinoceros was saved from extinction.In many of these larger reserves, large animals ranging from several antelope species to elephant, Cape buffalo and hippopotamus can be found. Predators include lions, leopards, and Cape wild dogs.The scaly yellowfish ("Labeobarbus natalensis") is a fish found in the Tugela River system as well as in the Umzimkulu, Umfolozi and the Mgeni. It is a common endemic species in KwaZulu-Natal Province and it lives in different habitats between the Drakensberg foothills and the coastal lowlands."Carissa macrocarpa" (Natal plum) is a shrub native to South Africa, where it is commonly called the "large num-num". In the Zulu language or isiZulu, as well as in the Bantu tribes of Uganda, it is known as the "Amathungulu or umThungulu oBomvu". In Afrikaans, the fruit is called "noem-noem".The University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) has five campuses in the province. It was formed on 1 January 2004 after the merger between the University of Natal and the University of Durban-Westville. Other universities are :
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[
"S'bu Ndebele",
"Senzo Mchunu",
"Willies Mchunu",
"Sihle Zikalala",
"Nomusa Dube-Mncube",
"Zweli Mkhize",
"Ben Ngubane",
"Lionel Mtshali"
] |
|
Who was the head of KwaZulu-Natal in Nov 18, 1995?
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November 18, 1995
|
{
"text": [
"Frank Mdlalose"
]
}
|
L2_Q81725_P6_0
|
Frank Mdlalose is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 1994 to Mar, 1997.
Ben Ngubane is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Mar, 1997 to Feb, 1999.
Lionel Mtshali is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Feb, 1999 to Apr, 2004.
Zweli Mkhize is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2009 to Sep, 2013.
Senzo Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2013 to May, 2016.
Nomusa Dube-Mncube is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Sihle Zikalala is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2019 to Aug, 2022.
Willies Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2016 to May, 2019.
S'bu Ndebele is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Apr, 2004 to May, 2009.
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KwaZulu-NatalKwaZulu-Natal (, also referred to as KZN and known as "the garden province"; ; ; ) is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu ("Place of the Zulu" in Zulu) and Natal Province were merged. It is located in the southeast of the country, enjoying a long shoreline beside the Indian Ocean and sharing borders with three other provinces, and the countries of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho. Its capital is Pietermaritzburg, and its largest city is Durban. It is the second-most populous province in South Africa, with slightly fewer residents than Gauteng.Two areas in KwaZulu-Natal have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park. These areas are extremely scenic as well as important to the surrounding ecosystems.During the 1830s and early 1840s, the northern part of what is now KwaZulu-Natal was established as the Zulu Kingdom while the southern part was, briefly, the Boer Natalia Republic before becoming the British Colony of Natal in 1843. The Zulu Kingdom remained independent until 1879.KwaZulu-Natal is the birthplace of many notable figures in South Africa's history, such as Albert Luthuli, the first non-white and the first person from outside Europe and the Americas to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1960); Pixley ka Isaka Seme, the founder of the African National Congress (ANC) and South Africa's first black lawyer; John Langalibalele Dube, the ANC's founding president; Harry Gwala, ANC member and anti-apartheid activist; Mac Maharaj, ANC member, anti-apartheid activist and little Rivonia Trialist; Mangosuthu Buthelezi, the founder of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP); Anton Lembede, the founding president of the ANC Youth League; Jacob Zuma, the former President of South Africa; Bhambatha, a 19th-century Zulu chief who became an anti-apartheid icon; and Shaka Zulu.At around in area, KwaZulu-Natal is roughly the size of Portugal. It has three different geographic areas. The lowland region along the Indian Ocean coast is extremely narrow in the south, widening in the northern part of the province, while the central Natal Midlands consists of an undulating hilly plateau rising toward the west. Two mountainous areas, the western Drakensberg Mountains and northern Lebombo Mountains form, respectively, a solid basalt wall rising over beside Lesotho border and low parallel ranges of ancient granite running southward from Eswatini. The area's largest river, the Tugela, flows west to east across the center of the province.The coastal regions typically have subtropical thickets and deeper ravines; steep slopes host some Afromontane Forest. The midlands have moist grasslands and isolated pockets of Afromontane Forest. The north has a primarily moist savanna habitat, whilst the Drakensberg region hosts mostly alpine grassland.The province contains rich areas of biodiversity of a range of flora and fauna. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park, along with uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Ndumo, are wetlands of international importance for migratory species, and are designated as Ramsar sites. South Africa signed the 1971 Ramsar Convention to try to conserve and protect important wetlands because of their importance to habitats and numerous species.The former Eastern Cape enclave of the town of Umzimkulu and its hinterland have been incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal following the 12th amendment of the Constitution of South Africa. The amendment also made other changes to the southern border of the province.The northwesterly line of equal latitude and longitude traverses the province from the coast at Hibberdene () to northeast Lesotho.The province became the first to include a portion of road that is made of partial plastic, the equivalent of nearly 40,000 recycled milk cartons.KwaZulu-Natal has a varied yet verdant climate thanks to diverse, complex topography. Generally, the coast is subtropical with inland regions becoming progressively colder. Durban on the south coast has an annual rainfall of 1009 mm, with daytime maxima peaking from January to March at with a minimum of , dropping to daytime highs from June to August of with a minimum of . Temperature drops towards the hinterland, with Pietermaritzburg being similar in the summer, but much cooler in the winter. Ladysmith in the Tugela River Valley reaches in the summer, but may drop below freezing point on winter evenings. The Drakensberg can experience heavy winter snow, with light snow occasionally experienced on the highest peaks in summer. The Zululand north coast has the warmest climate and highest humidity, supporting many sugar cane farms around Pongola.KwaZulu-Natal borders the following areas of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho:Domestically, it borders the following provinces:The KwaZulu-Natal Province is divided into one metropolitan municipality and ten district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 44 local municipalities. The local seat of each district municipality is given in parentheses:In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal, in many municipalities. This amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust.The coastline is dotted with small towns, many of which serve as seasonal recreational hubs. The climate of the coastal areas is humid and subtropical, comparable to southern Florida in the United States, but not quite as hot and rainy in the summer. As one moves further north up the coast towards the border of Mozambique, the climate becomes almost purely tropical. North of Durban is locally referred to as "The North Coast", while south is "The South Coast". The Kwazulu-Natal Tourist board includes towns such as Margate, Port Shepstone, Scottburgh and Port Edward in its definition of the South Coast, while Ballito, Umhlanga and Salt Rock are North Coast resort towns.Beaches of world-class quality are to be found along virtually every part of South Africa's eastern seaboard, with some of the least-developed gems found in the far southern and far northern ends of the province. Marina Beach (and its adjoining resort San Lameer) was recognised in 2002 as a Blue Flag beach.Some visitors come for the annual late autumn or early winter phenomenon on the KwaZulu-Natal coast of the "sardine run". Referred to as "the greatest shoal on earth", the sardine run occurs when millions of sardines migrate from their spawning grounds south of the southern tip of Africa northward along the Eastern Cape coastline toward KwaZulu-Natal. They follow a route close inshore, often resulting in many fish washing up on beaches. The huge shoal of tiny fish can stretch for many kilometres; it is preyed upon by thousands of predators, including game fish, sharks, dolphins and seabirds. Usually the shoals break up and the fish disappear into deeper water around Durban. Scientists have been unable to answer many questions surrounding this exceptional seasonal event.The interior of the province consists largely of rolling hills from the Valley of a Thousand Hills to the Midlands. Their beauty has inspired literature. Alan Paton, in the novel "Cry, the Beloved Country", wrote:On Christmas Day 1497, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama saw the coast of Natal and named the site after the Portuguese word for Christmas, "Natal". The Nguni branch of the Bantu occupied this area later on.The first European settlers, mostly British, established Port Natal, a trading post. They made almost no attempt to develop the interior, whose inhabitants had been decimated by the Zulu king, Shaka. The Afrikaner Voortrekkers entered the area via the Drakensberg passes in 1837. These Afrikaners defeated the Zulus at the Battle of Blood River in 1838 and thereafter established the Republic of Natal. Thus, the territory was once part of a short-lived Boer republic between 1839 and 1843 until its annexation by Britain. Many Afrikaner inhabitants left for the interior after the annexation and were replaced by immigrants, mainly from Britain.From 1860 onwards, increasing numbers of Indians, mainly Tamils, were brought in by the British mainly to work in the sugar plantations on the coast. The colony acquired Zululand (the area north of the Tugela River) after the Zulu War of 1879. The lands north of the Buffalo River were added in 1902. Boer forces entered the area during the South African War (1899 to 1902)also known as the second Boer Warand laid siege to Ladysmith. They failed to build on their initial advantage and for three months the line between the opposing forces followed the course of the Tugela River. In 1910, the colony became a province of the Union of South Africa and in 1961 of the Republic of South Africa.When the homeland of KwaZulu, which means "Place of the Zulu" was re-incorporated into the Natal province after the end of apartheid in 1994, the province of Natal, which had existed between 1910 and 1994, was renamed KwaZulu-Natal. The province is home to the Zulu monarchy; the majority population and language of the province is Zulu. It is the only province in South Africa that has the name of its dominant ethnic group as part of its name.The lion and wildebeest supporters are symbols of, respectively, KwaZulu and Natal, the regions joined to create KwaZulu-Natal. The zig-zag stripe represents the Drakensberg and the star the Zulu myth that the Zulu people are "star people" ("people of heaven"). The strelitzia flower on the shield symbolizes the province's beauty, while the assegai and knobkierrie behind the shield represent protection and peace. The base of the crown element is a type of headdress traditionally worn by Zulu elders that represents wisdom and maturity; the element itself is a Zulu-style grass hut. The motto is "Masisukume Sakhe", Zulu for "Let us stand up and build".KwaZulu-Natal's provincial government sits in Pietermaritzburg. The foundation stone of the new legislative building was laid on 21 June 1887, to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. The building was completed two years later. On 25 April 1889, the Governor of Natal, Sir Arthur Havelock, opened the first Legislative Council session in the new building.This was the former site of St Mary's Church, built in the 1860s. The congregation built a new church in 1884 at the corner of Burger Street and Commercial Road. The old building was demolished in 1887 to provide space for the legislative complex.When governance was granted to Natal in 1893, the new Legislative Assembly took over the chamber used by the Legislative Council since 1889. Further extensions to the parliamentary building were made. The building was unoccupied until 1902, when it was used without being officially opened, due to the country's being engulfed in the Anglo-Boer war. The war forced the Legislative Assembly to move the venue of its sittings, as its chamber was used as a military hospital.The Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council buildings have both been protected as provincial landmarks. They formed a colonial Parliament of two houses: a Council of 11 nominated members and an Assembly of 37 elected members. The Natal Parliament was disbanded in 1910 when the Union of South Africa was formed, and the Assembly became the meeting place of the Natal Provincial Council. The council was disbanded in 1986.The Provincial Legislature consists of 80 members.The African National Congress (ANC) holds power in the provincial legislature, winning the province with a convincing overall majority in South Africa's 2019 elections. After the election, the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) regained the title of the official opposition in the province.KwaZulu-Natal was the home to the Zulu monarch, King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu. Although not holding any direct political power, he held considerable influence among the more traditionalist Zulu people in the province. , kaBhekuzulu is provided a stipend of 54 million South African rands by the provincial government. He is also chairman of the Ingonyama Trust, which controls 32% of the area of the province., the Zulu king had six wives; traditionally, each year a ceremony is performed in which the king receives another wife. This was formerly a way of creating connections among the various peoples. The late King practiced the ceremony, called the "Reed Dance", but had not chosen new wives recently. Instead, he used the occasion to promote abstinence until marriage as a way of preserving Zulu culture and preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS.King Goodwill Zwelethini died in March 2021, his wife, Queen Mantfombi who served as Queen Regent after his death died a month later.Durban is a rapidly growing urban area and is by most measures the busiest port in Africa. A good railway network links the city to other areas of Southern Africa. Sugar refining is Durban's main industry. Sheep, cattle, dairy, citrus fruits, corn, sorghum, cotton, bananas, and pineapples are also raised. There is an embryonic KwaZulu-Natal wine industry. Other industries (located mainly in and around Durban) include textile, clothing, chemicals, rubber, fertiliser, paper, vehicle assembly and food-processing plants, tanneries, and oil refineries. There are large aluminium-smelting plants at Richards Bay, on the north coast.To the north, Newcastle is the province's industrial powerhouse, with Mittal Steel South Africa (previously ISPAT/ISCOR) and the Karbochem synthetic rubber plant dominating the economy. In 2002, Newcastle became the largest producer of chrome chemicals in Africa with the completion of a chrome-chemical plant, a joint-venture project between Karbochem and German manufacturing giant Bayer. Other large operations include a diamond-cutting works, various heavy engineering concerns, the Natal Portland Cement (NPC) slagment cement factory, and the Newcastle Cogeneration Plant (old Ingagane Power Station). This was recommissioned as Africa's first gas-fired power station by Independent Power Southern Africa (IPSA), and it supplies the Karbochem Plant with electricity. The textile industry is a major employer in the Newcastle area, with over 100 factories belonging to ethnic Taiwanese and Chinese industrialists. Maize, livestock and dairy farmers operate on the outskirts of the city. Coal is also mined in the Newcastle area. The province as a whole produces considerable amounts of coal (especially coke) and timber. Offshore mining of heavy mineral sands including minerals with a concentration of significant economic importance at several locations, such as rutile, ilmenite and zircon are threatening the marine ecology of KwaZulu-Natal's coast, including the Tugela Banks; the fishing economy of the prawn and nurse fisheries are also threatened.About 86% of the population is Black African. During apartheid, a large percentage of native blacks was forced to live in Bantu homelands (Bantustans), which had a subsistence economy based on cattle raising and corn growing.Ecology tourism is increasingly important to the economy of KwaZulu-Natal. The area's rich biodiversity and efforts at conservation have been recognised. Tourists have come to see the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park, declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These two major parks and that of Ndumo have wetlands of international importance listed as Ramsar sites for conservation. Tourists pay up to $10,000 for safaris on which they might see lions, elephants and giraffes. Others come to hike in the mountains or explore the wetlands with guides.Prominent civil society organisations based in the province of KwaZulu-Natal include: Abahlali baseMjondolo (shackdwellers') movement, the Diakonia Council of Churches, the Right2Know campaign, and the Unemployed People's Movement.The government in KwaZulu Natal has been under sustained controversy for their eviction of shackdwellers and mistreatment by provincial police structures that has resulted in more than 200 arrests of Abahlali members in the first last three years of its existence and repeated police brutality in people's homes, in the streets and in detention.The attack on Kennedy Road informal settlement by an armed mob in 2009 in [Durban] put local and provincial government under sustained scrutiny. It was reported by members of the Abahlali baseMjondolo movement that the attackers were affiliated with the local branch of the African National Congress and it was claimed that the attack was carefully planned and sanctioned by the provincial police department. Academic research seems to confirm that the attackers self-identified as ANC members and that ANC leaders at Municipal and Provincial level later provided public sanction for the attack.Despite a court interdict, the eThekwini municipality, with the support of the provincial SAPS, repeatedly evicted shackdwellers in Durban's Cato Crest. The General Council of the Bar has also expressed concern over the evictions.There are various game reserves found in the province; one notable example is Hluhluwe–Imfolozi Park, where the southern white rhinoceros was saved from extinction.In many of these larger reserves, large animals ranging from several antelope species to elephant, Cape buffalo and hippopotamus can be found. Predators include lions, leopards, and Cape wild dogs.The scaly yellowfish ("Labeobarbus natalensis") is a fish found in the Tugela River system as well as in the Umzimkulu, Umfolozi and the Mgeni. It is a common endemic species in KwaZulu-Natal Province and it lives in different habitats between the Drakensberg foothills and the coastal lowlands."Carissa macrocarpa" (Natal plum) is a shrub native to South Africa, where it is commonly called the "large num-num". In the Zulu language or isiZulu, as well as in the Bantu tribes of Uganda, it is known as the "Amathungulu or umThungulu oBomvu". In Afrikaans, the fruit is called "noem-noem".The University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) has five campuses in the province. It was formed on 1 January 2004 after the merger between the University of Natal and the University of Durban-Westville. Other universities are :
|
[
"S'bu Ndebele",
"Senzo Mchunu",
"Willies Mchunu",
"Sihle Zikalala",
"Nomusa Dube-Mncube",
"Zweli Mkhize",
"Ben Ngubane",
"Lionel Mtshali"
] |
|
Who was the head of KwaZulu-Natal in 11/18/1995?
|
November 18, 1995
|
{
"text": [
"Frank Mdlalose"
]
}
|
L2_Q81725_P6_0
|
Frank Mdlalose is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 1994 to Mar, 1997.
Ben Ngubane is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Mar, 1997 to Feb, 1999.
Lionel Mtshali is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Feb, 1999 to Apr, 2004.
Zweli Mkhize is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2009 to Sep, 2013.
Senzo Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2013 to May, 2016.
Nomusa Dube-Mncube is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Sihle Zikalala is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2019 to Aug, 2022.
Willies Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2016 to May, 2019.
S'bu Ndebele is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Apr, 2004 to May, 2009.
|
KwaZulu-NatalKwaZulu-Natal (, also referred to as KZN and known as "the garden province"; ; ; ) is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu ("Place of the Zulu" in Zulu) and Natal Province were merged. It is located in the southeast of the country, enjoying a long shoreline beside the Indian Ocean and sharing borders with three other provinces, and the countries of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho. Its capital is Pietermaritzburg, and its largest city is Durban. It is the second-most populous province in South Africa, with slightly fewer residents than Gauteng.Two areas in KwaZulu-Natal have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park. These areas are extremely scenic as well as important to the surrounding ecosystems.During the 1830s and early 1840s, the northern part of what is now KwaZulu-Natal was established as the Zulu Kingdom while the southern part was, briefly, the Boer Natalia Republic before becoming the British Colony of Natal in 1843. The Zulu Kingdom remained independent until 1879.KwaZulu-Natal is the birthplace of many notable figures in South Africa's history, such as Albert Luthuli, the first non-white and the first person from outside Europe and the Americas to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1960); Pixley ka Isaka Seme, the founder of the African National Congress (ANC) and South Africa's first black lawyer; John Langalibalele Dube, the ANC's founding president; Harry Gwala, ANC member and anti-apartheid activist; Mac Maharaj, ANC member, anti-apartheid activist and little Rivonia Trialist; Mangosuthu Buthelezi, the founder of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP); Anton Lembede, the founding president of the ANC Youth League; Jacob Zuma, the former President of South Africa; Bhambatha, a 19th-century Zulu chief who became an anti-apartheid icon; and Shaka Zulu.At around in area, KwaZulu-Natal is roughly the size of Portugal. It has three different geographic areas. The lowland region along the Indian Ocean coast is extremely narrow in the south, widening in the northern part of the province, while the central Natal Midlands consists of an undulating hilly plateau rising toward the west. Two mountainous areas, the western Drakensberg Mountains and northern Lebombo Mountains form, respectively, a solid basalt wall rising over beside Lesotho border and low parallel ranges of ancient granite running southward from Eswatini. The area's largest river, the Tugela, flows west to east across the center of the province.The coastal regions typically have subtropical thickets and deeper ravines; steep slopes host some Afromontane Forest. The midlands have moist grasslands and isolated pockets of Afromontane Forest. The north has a primarily moist savanna habitat, whilst the Drakensberg region hosts mostly alpine grassland.The province contains rich areas of biodiversity of a range of flora and fauna. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park, along with uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Ndumo, are wetlands of international importance for migratory species, and are designated as Ramsar sites. South Africa signed the 1971 Ramsar Convention to try to conserve and protect important wetlands because of their importance to habitats and numerous species.The former Eastern Cape enclave of the town of Umzimkulu and its hinterland have been incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal following the 12th amendment of the Constitution of South Africa. The amendment also made other changes to the southern border of the province.The northwesterly line of equal latitude and longitude traverses the province from the coast at Hibberdene () to northeast Lesotho.The province became the first to include a portion of road that is made of partial plastic, the equivalent of nearly 40,000 recycled milk cartons.KwaZulu-Natal has a varied yet verdant climate thanks to diverse, complex topography. Generally, the coast is subtropical with inland regions becoming progressively colder. Durban on the south coast has an annual rainfall of 1009 mm, with daytime maxima peaking from January to March at with a minimum of , dropping to daytime highs from June to August of with a minimum of . Temperature drops towards the hinterland, with Pietermaritzburg being similar in the summer, but much cooler in the winter. Ladysmith in the Tugela River Valley reaches in the summer, but may drop below freezing point on winter evenings. The Drakensberg can experience heavy winter snow, with light snow occasionally experienced on the highest peaks in summer. The Zululand north coast has the warmest climate and highest humidity, supporting many sugar cane farms around Pongola.KwaZulu-Natal borders the following areas of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho:Domestically, it borders the following provinces:The KwaZulu-Natal Province is divided into one metropolitan municipality and ten district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 44 local municipalities. The local seat of each district municipality is given in parentheses:In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal, in many municipalities. This amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust.The coastline is dotted with small towns, many of which serve as seasonal recreational hubs. The climate of the coastal areas is humid and subtropical, comparable to southern Florida in the United States, but not quite as hot and rainy in the summer. As one moves further north up the coast towards the border of Mozambique, the climate becomes almost purely tropical. North of Durban is locally referred to as "The North Coast", while south is "The South Coast". The Kwazulu-Natal Tourist board includes towns such as Margate, Port Shepstone, Scottburgh and Port Edward in its definition of the South Coast, while Ballito, Umhlanga and Salt Rock are North Coast resort towns.Beaches of world-class quality are to be found along virtually every part of South Africa's eastern seaboard, with some of the least-developed gems found in the far southern and far northern ends of the province. Marina Beach (and its adjoining resort San Lameer) was recognised in 2002 as a Blue Flag beach.Some visitors come for the annual late autumn or early winter phenomenon on the KwaZulu-Natal coast of the "sardine run". Referred to as "the greatest shoal on earth", the sardine run occurs when millions of sardines migrate from their spawning grounds south of the southern tip of Africa northward along the Eastern Cape coastline toward KwaZulu-Natal. They follow a route close inshore, often resulting in many fish washing up on beaches. The huge shoal of tiny fish can stretch for many kilometres; it is preyed upon by thousands of predators, including game fish, sharks, dolphins and seabirds. Usually the shoals break up and the fish disappear into deeper water around Durban. Scientists have been unable to answer many questions surrounding this exceptional seasonal event.The interior of the province consists largely of rolling hills from the Valley of a Thousand Hills to the Midlands. Their beauty has inspired literature. Alan Paton, in the novel "Cry, the Beloved Country", wrote:On Christmas Day 1497, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama saw the coast of Natal and named the site after the Portuguese word for Christmas, "Natal". The Nguni branch of the Bantu occupied this area later on.The first European settlers, mostly British, established Port Natal, a trading post. They made almost no attempt to develop the interior, whose inhabitants had been decimated by the Zulu king, Shaka. The Afrikaner Voortrekkers entered the area via the Drakensberg passes in 1837. These Afrikaners defeated the Zulus at the Battle of Blood River in 1838 and thereafter established the Republic of Natal. Thus, the territory was once part of a short-lived Boer republic between 1839 and 1843 until its annexation by Britain. Many Afrikaner inhabitants left for the interior after the annexation and were replaced by immigrants, mainly from Britain.From 1860 onwards, increasing numbers of Indians, mainly Tamils, were brought in by the British mainly to work in the sugar plantations on the coast. The colony acquired Zululand (the area north of the Tugela River) after the Zulu War of 1879. The lands north of the Buffalo River were added in 1902. Boer forces entered the area during the South African War (1899 to 1902)also known as the second Boer Warand laid siege to Ladysmith. They failed to build on their initial advantage and for three months the line between the opposing forces followed the course of the Tugela River. In 1910, the colony became a province of the Union of South Africa and in 1961 of the Republic of South Africa.When the homeland of KwaZulu, which means "Place of the Zulu" was re-incorporated into the Natal province after the end of apartheid in 1994, the province of Natal, which had existed between 1910 and 1994, was renamed KwaZulu-Natal. The province is home to the Zulu monarchy; the majority population and language of the province is Zulu. It is the only province in South Africa that has the name of its dominant ethnic group as part of its name.The lion and wildebeest supporters are symbols of, respectively, KwaZulu and Natal, the regions joined to create KwaZulu-Natal. The zig-zag stripe represents the Drakensberg and the star the Zulu myth that the Zulu people are "star people" ("people of heaven"). The strelitzia flower on the shield symbolizes the province's beauty, while the assegai and knobkierrie behind the shield represent protection and peace. The base of the crown element is a type of headdress traditionally worn by Zulu elders that represents wisdom and maturity; the element itself is a Zulu-style grass hut. The motto is "Masisukume Sakhe", Zulu for "Let us stand up and build".KwaZulu-Natal's provincial government sits in Pietermaritzburg. The foundation stone of the new legislative building was laid on 21 June 1887, to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. The building was completed two years later. On 25 April 1889, the Governor of Natal, Sir Arthur Havelock, opened the first Legislative Council session in the new building.This was the former site of St Mary's Church, built in the 1860s. The congregation built a new church in 1884 at the corner of Burger Street and Commercial Road. The old building was demolished in 1887 to provide space for the legislative complex.When governance was granted to Natal in 1893, the new Legislative Assembly took over the chamber used by the Legislative Council since 1889. Further extensions to the parliamentary building were made. The building was unoccupied until 1902, when it was used without being officially opened, due to the country's being engulfed in the Anglo-Boer war. The war forced the Legislative Assembly to move the venue of its sittings, as its chamber was used as a military hospital.The Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council buildings have both been protected as provincial landmarks. They formed a colonial Parliament of two houses: a Council of 11 nominated members and an Assembly of 37 elected members. The Natal Parliament was disbanded in 1910 when the Union of South Africa was formed, and the Assembly became the meeting place of the Natal Provincial Council. The council was disbanded in 1986.The Provincial Legislature consists of 80 members.The African National Congress (ANC) holds power in the provincial legislature, winning the province with a convincing overall majority in South Africa's 2019 elections. After the election, the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) regained the title of the official opposition in the province.KwaZulu-Natal was the home to the Zulu monarch, King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu. Although not holding any direct political power, he held considerable influence among the more traditionalist Zulu people in the province. , kaBhekuzulu is provided a stipend of 54 million South African rands by the provincial government. He is also chairman of the Ingonyama Trust, which controls 32% of the area of the province., the Zulu king had six wives; traditionally, each year a ceremony is performed in which the king receives another wife. This was formerly a way of creating connections among the various peoples. The late King practiced the ceremony, called the "Reed Dance", but had not chosen new wives recently. Instead, he used the occasion to promote abstinence until marriage as a way of preserving Zulu culture and preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS.King Goodwill Zwelethini died in March 2021, his wife, Queen Mantfombi who served as Queen Regent after his death died a month later.Durban is a rapidly growing urban area and is by most measures the busiest port in Africa. A good railway network links the city to other areas of Southern Africa. Sugar refining is Durban's main industry. Sheep, cattle, dairy, citrus fruits, corn, sorghum, cotton, bananas, and pineapples are also raised. There is an embryonic KwaZulu-Natal wine industry. Other industries (located mainly in and around Durban) include textile, clothing, chemicals, rubber, fertiliser, paper, vehicle assembly and food-processing plants, tanneries, and oil refineries. There are large aluminium-smelting plants at Richards Bay, on the north coast.To the north, Newcastle is the province's industrial powerhouse, with Mittal Steel South Africa (previously ISPAT/ISCOR) and the Karbochem synthetic rubber plant dominating the economy. In 2002, Newcastle became the largest producer of chrome chemicals in Africa with the completion of a chrome-chemical plant, a joint-venture project between Karbochem and German manufacturing giant Bayer. Other large operations include a diamond-cutting works, various heavy engineering concerns, the Natal Portland Cement (NPC) slagment cement factory, and the Newcastle Cogeneration Plant (old Ingagane Power Station). This was recommissioned as Africa's first gas-fired power station by Independent Power Southern Africa (IPSA), and it supplies the Karbochem Plant with electricity. The textile industry is a major employer in the Newcastle area, with over 100 factories belonging to ethnic Taiwanese and Chinese industrialists. Maize, livestock and dairy farmers operate on the outskirts of the city. Coal is also mined in the Newcastle area. The province as a whole produces considerable amounts of coal (especially coke) and timber. Offshore mining of heavy mineral sands including minerals with a concentration of significant economic importance at several locations, such as rutile, ilmenite and zircon are threatening the marine ecology of KwaZulu-Natal's coast, including the Tugela Banks; the fishing economy of the prawn and nurse fisheries are also threatened.About 86% of the population is Black African. During apartheid, a large percentage of native blacks was forced to live in Bantu homelands (Bantustans), which had a subsistence economy based on cattle raising and corn growing.Ecology tourism is increasingly important to the economy of KwaZulu-Natal. The area's rich biodiversity and efforts at conservation have been recognised. Tourists have come to see the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park, declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These two major parks and that of Ndumo have wetlands of international importance listed as Ramsar sites for conservation. Tourists pay up to $10,000 for safaris on which they might see lions, elephants and giraffes. Others come to hike in the mountains or explore the wetlands with guides.Prominent civil society organisations based in the province of KwaZulu-Natal include: Abahlali baseMjondolo (shackdwellers') movement, the Diakonia Council of Churches, the Right2Know campaign, and the Unemployed People's Movement.The government in KwaZulu Natal has been under sustained controversy for their eviction of shackdwellers and mistreatment by provincial police structures that has resulted in more than 200 arrests of Abahlali members in the first last three years of its existence and repeated police brutality in people's homes, in the streets and in detention.The attack on Kennedy Road informal settlement by an armed mob in 2009 in [Durban] put local and provincial government under sustained scrutiny. It was reported by members of the Abahlali baseMjondolo movement that the attackers were affiliated with the local branch of the African National Congress and it was claimed that the attack was carefully planned and sanctioned by the provincial police department. Academic research seems to confirm that the attackers self-identified as ANC members and that ANC leaders at Municipal and Provincial level later provided public sanction for the attack.Despite a court interdict, the eThekwini municipality, with the support of the provincial SAPS, repeatedly evicted shackdwellers in Durban's Cato Crest. The General Council of the Bar has also expressed concern over the evictions.There are various game reserves found in the province; one notable example is Hluhluwe–Imfolozi Park, where the southern white rhinoceros was saved from extinction.In many of these larger reserves, large animals ranging from several antelope species to elephant, Cape buffalo and hippopotamus can be found. Predators include lions, leopards, and Cape wild dogs.The scaly yellowfish ("Labeobarbus natalensis") is a fish found in the Tugela River system as well as in the Umzimkulu, Umfolozi and the Mgeni. It is a common endemic species in KwaZulu-Natal Province and it lives in different habitats between the Drakensberg foothills and the coastal lowlands."Carissa macrocarpa" (Natal plum) is a shrub native to South Africa, where it is commonly called the "large num-num". In the Zulu language or isiZulu, as well as in the Bantu tribes of Uganda, it is known as the "Amathungulu or umThungulu oBomvu". In Afrikaans, the fruit is called "noem-noem".The University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) has five campuses in the province. It was formed on 1 January 2004 after the merger between the University of Natal and the University of Durban-Westville. Other universities are :
|
[
"S'bu Ndebele",
"Senzo Mchunu",
"Willies Mchunu",
"Sihle Zikalala",
"Nomusa Dube-Mncube",
"Zweli Mkhize",
"Ben Ngubane",
"Lionel Mtshali"
] |
|
Who was the head of KwaZulu-Natal in 18-Nov-199518-November-1995?
|
November 18, 1995
|
{
"text": [
"Frank Mdlalose"
]
}
|
L2_Q81725_P6_0
|
Frank Mdlalose is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 1994 to Mar, 1997.
Ben Ngubane is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Mar, 1997 to Feb, 1999.
Lionel Mtshali is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Feb, 1999 to Apr, 2004.
Zweli Mkhize is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2009 to Sep, 2013.
Senzo Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2013 to May, 2016.
Nomusa Dube-Mncube is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Aug, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Sihle Zikalala is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2019 to Aug, 2022.
Willies Mchunu is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from May, 2016 to May, 2019.
S'bu Ndebele is the head of the government of KwaZulu-Natal from Apr, 2004 to May, 2009.
|
KwaZulu-NatalKwaZulu-Natal (, also referred to as KZN and known as "the garden province"; ; ; ) is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu ("Place of the Zulu" in Zulu) and Natal Province were merged. It is located in the southeast of the country, enjoying a long shoreline beside the Indian Ocean and sharing borders with three other provinces, and the countries of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho. Its capital is Pietermaritzburg, and its largest city is Durban. It is the second-most populous province in South Africa, with slightly fewer residents than Gauteng.Two areas in KwaZulu-Natal have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park. These areas are extremely scenic as well as important to the surrounding ecosystems.During the 1830s and early 1840s, the northern part of what is now KwaZulu-Natal was established as the Zulu Kingdom while the southern part was, briefly, the Boer Natalia Republic before becoming the British Colony of Natal in 1843. The Zulu Kingdom remained independent until 1879.KwaZulu-Natal is the birthplace of many notable figures in South Africa's history, such as Albert Luthuli, the first non-white and the first person from outside Europe and the Americas to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1960); Pixley ka Isaka Seme, the founder of the African National Congress (ANC) and South Africa's first black lawyer; John Langalibalele Dube, the ANC's founding president; Harry Gwala, ANC member and anti-apartheid activist; Mac Maharaj, ANC member, anti-apartheid activist and little Rivonia Trialist; Mangosuthu Buthelezi, the founder of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP); Anton Lembede, the founding president of the ANC Youth League; Jacob Zuma, the former President of South Africa; Bhambatha, a 19th-century Zulu chief who became an anti-apartheid icon; and Shaka Zulu.At around in area, KwaZulu-Natal is roughly the size of Portugal. It has three different geographic areas. The lowland region along the Indian Ocean coast is extremely narrow in the south, widening in the northern part of the province, while the central Natal Midlands consists of an undulating hilly plateau rising toward the west. Two mountainous areas, the western Drakensberg Mountains and northern Lebombo Mountains form, respectively, a solid basalt wall rising over beside Lesotho border and low parallel ranges of ancient granite running southward from Eswatini. The area's largest river, the Tugela, flows west to east across the center of the province.The coastal regions typically have subtropical thickets and deeper ravines; steep slopes host some Afromontane Forest. The midlands have moist grasslands and isolated pockets of Afromontane Forest. The north has a primarily moist savanna habitat, whilst the Drakensberg region hosts mostly alpine grassland.The province contains rich areas of biodiversity of a range of flora and fauna. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park, along with uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Ndumo, are wetlands of international importance for migratory species, and are designated as Ramsar sites. South Africa signed the 1971 Ramsar Convention to try to conserve and protect important wetlands because of their importance to habitats and numerous species.The former Eastern Cape enclave of the town of Umzimkulu and its hinterland have been incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal following the 12th amendment of the Constitution of South Africa. The amendment also made other changes to the southern border of the province.The northwesterly line of equal latitude and longitude traverses the province from the coast at Hibberdene () to northeast Lesotho.The province became the first to include a portion of road that is made of partial plastic, the equivalent of nearly 40,000 recycled milk cartons.KwaZulu-Natal has a varied yet verdant climate thanks to diverse, complex topography. Generally, the coast is subtropical with inland regions becoming progressively colder. Durban on the south coast has an annual rainfall of 1009 mm, with daytime maxima peaking from January to March at with a minimum of , dropping to daytime highs from June to August of with a minimum of . Temperature drops towards the hinterland, with Pietermaritzburg being similar in the summer, but much cooler in the winter. Ladysmith in the Tugela River Valley reaches in the summer, but may drop below freezing point on winter evenings. The Drakensberg can experience heavy winter snow, with light snow occasionally experienced on the highest peaks in summer. The Zululand north coast has the warmest climate and highest humidity, supporting many sugar cane farms around Pongola.KwaZulu-Natal borders the following areas of Mozambique, Eswatini and Lesotho:Domestically, it borders the following provinces:The KwaZulu-Natal Province is divided into one metropolitan municipality and ten district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 44 local municipalities. The local seat of each district municipality is given in parentheses:In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal, in many municipalities. This amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust.The coastline is dotted with small towns, many of which serve as seasonal recreational hubs. The climate of the coastal areas is humid and subtropical, comparable to southern Florida in the United States, but not quite as hot and rainy in the summer. As one moves further north up the coast towards the border of Mozambique, the climate becomes almost purely tropical. North of Durban is locally referred to as "The North Coast", while south is "The South Coast". The Kwazulu-Natal Tourist board includes towns such as Margate, Port Shepstone, Scottburgh and Port Edward in its definition of the South Coast, while Ballito, Umhlanga and Salt Rock are North Coast resort towns.Beaches of world-class quality are to be found along virtually every part of South Africa's eastern seaboard, with some of the least-developed gems found in the far southern and far northern ends of the province. Marina Beach (and its adjoining resort San Lameer) was recognised in 2002 as a Blue Flag beach.Some visitors come for the annual late autumn or early winter phenomenon on the KwaZulu-Natal coast of the "sardine run". Referred to as "the greatest shoal on earth", the sardine run occurs when millions of sardines migrate from their spawning grounds south of the southern tip of Africa northward along the Eastern Cape coastline toward KwaZulu-Natal. They follow a route close inshore, often resulting in many fish washing up on beaches. The huge shoal of tiny fish can stretch for many kilometres; it is preyed upon by thousands of predators, including game fish, sharks, dolphins and seabirds. Usually the shoals break up and the fish disappear into deeper water around Durban. Scientists have been unable to answer many questions surrounding this exceptional seasonal event.The interior of the province consists largely of rolling hills from the Valley of a Thousand Hills to the Midlands. Their beauty has inspired literature. Alan Paton, in the novel "Cry, the Beloved Country", wrote:On Christmas Day 1497, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama saw the coast of Natal and named the site after the Portuguese word for Christmas, "Natal". The Nguni branch of the Bantu occupied this area later on.The first European settlers, mostly British, established Port Natal, a trading post. They made almost no attempt to develop the interior, whose inhabitants had been decimated by the Zulu king, Shaka. The Afrikaner Voortrekkers entered the area via the Drakensberg passes in 1837. These Afrikaners defeated the Zulus at the Battle of Blood River in 1838 and thereafter established the Republic of Natal. Thus, the territory was once part of a short-lived Boer republic between 1839 and 1843 until its annexation by Britain. Many Afrikaner inhabitants left for the interior after the annexation and were replaced by immigrants, mainly from Britain.From 1860 onwards, increasing numbers of Indians, mainly Tamils, were brought in by the British mainly to work in the sugar plantations on the coast. The colony acquired Zululand (the area north of the Tugela River) after the Zulu War of 1879. The lands north of the Buffalo River were added in 1902. Boer forces entered the area during the South African War (1899 to 1902)also known as the second Boer Warand laid siege to Ladysmith. They failed to build on their initial advantage and for three months the line between the opposing forces followed the course of the Tugela River. In 1910, the colony became a province of the Union of South Africa and in 1961 of the Republic of South Africa.When the homeland of KwaZulu, which means "Place of the Zulu" was re-incorporated into the Natal province after the end of apartheid in 1994, the province of Natal, which had existed between 1910 and 1994, was renamed KwaZulu-Natal. The province is home to the Zulu monarchy; the majority population and language of the province is Zulu. It is the only province in South Africa that has the name of its dominant ethnic group as part of its name.The lion and wildebeest supporters are symbols of, respectively, KwaZulu and Natal, the regions joined to create KwaZulu-Natal. The zig-zag stripe represents the Drakensberg and the star the Zulu myth that the Zulu people are "star people" ("people of heaven"). The strelitzia flower on the shield symbolizes the province's beauty, while the assegai and knobkierrie behind the shield represent protection and peace. The base of the crown element is a type of headdress traditionally worn by Zulu elders that represents wisdom and maturity; the element itself is a Zulu-style grass hut. The motto is "Masisukume Sakhe", Zulu for "Let us stand up and build".KwaZulu-Natal's provincial government sits in Pietermaritzburg. The foundation stone of the new legislative building was laid on 21 June 1887, to commemorate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. The building was completed two years later. On 25 April 1889, the Governor of Natal, Sir Arthur Havelock, opened the first Legislative Council session in the new building.This was the former site of St Mary's Church, built in the 1860s. The congregation built a new church in 1884 at the corner of Burger Street and Commercial Road. The old building was demolished in 1887 to provide space for the legislative complex.When governance was granted to Natal in 1893, the new Legislative Assembly took over the chamber used by the Legislative Council since 1889. Further extensions to the parliamentary building were made. The building was unoccupied until 1902, when it was used without being officially opened, due to the country's being engulfed in the Anglo-Boer war. The war forced the Legislative Assembly to move the venue of its sittings, as its chamber was used as a military hospital.The Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council buildings have both been protected as provincial landmarks. They formed a colonial Parliament of two houses: a Council of 11 nominated members and an Assembly of 37 elected members. The Natal Parliament was disbanded in 1910 when the Union of South Africa was formed, and the Assembly became the meeting place of the Natal Provincial Council. The council was disbanded in 1986.The Provincial Legislature consists of 80 members.The African National Congress (ANC) holds power in the provincial legislature, winning the province with a convincing overall majority in South Africa's 2019 elections. After the election, the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP) regained the title of the official opposition in the province.KwaZulu-Natal was the home to the Zulu monarch, King Goodwill Zwelithini kaBhekuzulu. Although not holding any direct political power, he held considerable influence among the more traditionalist Zulu people in the province. , kaBhekuzulu is provided a stipend of 54 million South African rands by the provincial government. He is also chairman of the Ingonyama Trust, which controls 32% of the area of the province., the Zulu king had six wives; traditionally, each year a ceremony is performed in which the king receives another wife. This was formerly a way of creating connections among the various peoples. The late King practiced the ceremony, called the "Reed Dance", but had not chosen new wives recently. Instead, he used the occasion to promote abstinence until marriage as a way of preserving Zulu culture and preventing the spread of HIV/AIDS.King Goodwill Zwelethini died in March 2021, his wife, Queen Mantfombi who served as Queen Regent after his death died a month later.Durban is a rapidly growing urban area and is by most measures the busiest port in Africa. A good railway network links the city to other areas of Southern Africa. Sugar refining is Durban's main industry. Sheep, cattle, dairy, citrus fruits, corn, sorghum, cotton, bananas, and pineapples are also raised. There is an embryonic KwaZulu-Natal wine industry. Other industries (located mainly in and around Durban) include textile, clothing, chemicals, rubber, fertiliser, paper, vehicle assembly and food-processing plants, tanneries, and oil refineries. There are large aluminium-smelting plants at Richards Bay, on the north coast.To the north, Newcastle is the province's industrial powerhouse, with Mittal Steel South Africa (previously ISPAT/ISCOR) and the Karbochem synthetic rubber plant dominating the economy. In 2002, Newcastle became the largest producer of chrome chemicals in Africa with the completion of a chrome-chemical plant, a joint-venture project between Karbochem and German manufacturing giant Bayer. Other large operations include a diamond-cutting works, various heavy engineering concerns, the Natal Portland Cement (NPC) slagment cement factory, and the Newcastle Cogeneration Plant (old Ingagane Power Station). This was recommissioned as Africa's first gas-fired power station by Independent Power Southern Africa (IPSA), and it supplies the Karbochem Plant with electricity. The textile industry is a major employer in the Newcastle area, with over 100 factories belonging to ethnic Taiwanese and Chinese industrialists. Maize, livestock and dairy farmers operate on the outskirts of the city. Coal is also mined in the Newcastle area. The province as a whole produces considerable amounts of coal (especially coke) and timber. Offshore mining of heavy mineral sands including minerals with a concentration of significant economic importance at several locations, such as rutile, ilmenite and zircon are threatening the marine ecology of KwaZulu-Natal's coast, including the Tugela Banks; the fishing economy of the prawn and nurse fisheries are also threatened.About 86% of the population is Black African. During apartheid, a large percentage of native blacks was forced to live in Bantu homelands (Bantustans), which had a subsistence economy based on cattle raising and corn growing.Ecology tourism is increasingly important to the economy of KwaZulu-Natal. The area's rich biodiversity and efforts at conservation have been recognised. Tourists have come to see the iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park, declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These two major parks and that of Ndumo have wetlands of international importance listed as Ramsar sites for conservation. Tourists pay up to $10,000 for safaris on which they might see lions, elephants and giraffes. Others come to hike in the mountains or explore the wetlands with guides.Prominent civil society organisations based in the province of KwaZulu-Natal include: Abahlali baseMjondolo (shackdwellers') movement, the Diakonia Council of Churches, the Right2Know campaign, and the Unemployed People's Movement.The government in KwaZulu Natal has been under sustained controversy for their eviction of shackdwellers and mistreatment by provincial police structures that has resulted in more than 200 arrests of Abahlali members in the first last three years of its existence and repeated police brutality in people's homes, in the streets and in detention.The attack on Kennedy Road informal settlement by an armed mob in 2009 in [Durban] put local and provincial government under sustained scrutiny. It was reported by members of the Abahlali baseMjondolo movement that the attackers were affiliated with the local branch of the African National Congress and it was claimed that the attack was carefully planned and sanctioned by the provincial police department. Academic research seems to confirm that the attackers self-identified as ANC members and that ANC leaders at Municipal and Provincial level later provided public sanction for the attack.Despite a court interdict, the eThekwini municipality, with the support of the provincial SAPS, repeatedly evicted shackdwellers in Durban's Cato Crest. The General Council of the Bar has also expressed concern over the evictions.There are various game reserves found in the province; one notable example is Hluhluwe–Imfolozi Park, where the southern white rhinoceros was saved from extinction.In many of these larger reserves, large animals ranging from several antelope species to elephant, Cape buffalo and hippopotamus can be found. Predators include lions, leopards, and Cape wild dogs.The scaly yellowfish ("Labeobarbus natalensis") is a fish found in the Tugela River system as well as in the Umzimkulu, Umfolozi and the Mgeni. It is a common endemic species in KwaZulu-Natal Province and it lives in different habitats between the Drakensberg foothills and the coastal lowlands."Carissa macrocarpa" (Natal plum) is a shrub native to South Africa, where it is commonly called the "large num-num". In the Zulu language or isiZulu, as well as in the Bantu tribes of Uganda, it is known as the "Amathungulu or umThungulu oBomvu". In Afrikaans, the fruit is called "noem-noem".The University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) has five campuses in the province. It was formed on 1 January 2004 after the merger between the University of Natal and the University of Durban-Westville. Other universities are :
|
[
"S'bu Ndebele",
"Senzo Mchunu",
"Willies Mchunu",
"Sihle Zikalala",
"Nomusa Dube-Mncube",
"Zweli Mkhize",
"Ben Ngubane",
"Lionel Mtshali"
] |
|
Who was the head of Esch-sur-Alzette in Jan, 1844?
|
January 07, 1844
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Schmit"
]
}
|
L2_Q16010_P6_4
|
Joseph Brebsom is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1978 to Jan, 1990.
Pierre Claude is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1861 to Jan, 1878.
Arthur Useldinger is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1970 to Mar, 1978.
Dominique Stoffel is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1841 to Jan, 1843.
Lydia Mutsch is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jun, 2000 to Dec, 2013.
Jacques Schmit is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1843 to Jan, 1861.
Victor Wilhelm is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1921 to Jan, 1934.
Vera Spautz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 2013 to Nov, 2017.
Johannes-Nepomuk Haas is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1814 to May, 1828.
Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1879 to Aug, 1906.
Armand Spoo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1909 to Jan, 1911.
Jean-Pierre Pierrard is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Theodor Feldhege is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1942 to Jan, 1943.
François-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1836 to Jan, 1841.
Josef Kohns is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1943 to Jan, 1944.
Otto Komp is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Jules Schreiner is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1969.
Jean-Pierre Michels is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1912 to Feb, 1917.
François Schaack is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 2000.
Georges Mischo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Nov, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Nicolas Biwer is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1919.
Henri Motté is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1828 to Jan, 1830.
Jules Heisten is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941.
Léon Metz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1909.
Antoine Krier is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1951 to Jan, 1965.
Hubert Clément is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
|
Esch-sur-AlzetteEsch-sur-Alzette ( , or "Esch an der Alzig", ) is a commune with town status in south-western Luxembourg. It is the country's second "city", and its second-most populous commune, with a population of 35,040 inhabitants, . It lies in the south-west of the country, on the border with France and in the valley of the Alzette, which flows through the town. The town is usually referred to as just Esch; however, the full name distinguishes it from the village and commune of Esch-sur-Sûre which lies further north. The country's capital, Luxembourg City, is roughly to the north-east.For a long time Esch was a small farming village in the valley of the Uelzecht river. This changed when important amounts of iron ore were found in the area in the 1850s. With the development of the mines and the steel industry the town's population multiplied tenfold in a couple of decades. In 1911 the steel- and iron-producing company ARBED was founded. The development of the steel industry, especially in the south of the country, provided Luxembourg with sustained economic growth during the second half of the 19th century.In the 1970s, as a result of the steel crisis, the mines and many of the blast furnaces were shut down, the last one, in Esch-Belval, definitely halting its operations in 1997. The blast furnaces were replaced by an electric furnace that is fed with scrap metal rather than iron ore.Today the industrial wastelands on Belval left behind by the steel industry, are being redeveloped and converted into a new, modern town quarter. New cultural buildings such as the cinema Kinepolis Belval and the Rockhal, Luxembourg's biggest concert hall.The area around the old blast furnaces will host different structures of the University of Luxembourg, many research centres and the national archives.The Lankelz miniature railway operates on Sunday afternoons and public holidays from May to mid-October.Esch is home to the Conservatoire de Musique.The town has the longest shopping street in Luxembourg.Esch is governed by its communal council, consisting of 19 councillors. Elections take place to this body every 6 years, under a system of proportional representation. Currently the mayor is Vera Spautz, of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP). The governing majority on the council consists of the LSAP and The Greens.'G' denotes parties that went on to form the governing majority.The most recent elections were held on 8 October 2017; the results are listed below.After the elections, a coalition agreement was signed between 3 parties, the CSV, the Greens, and the DP, who will form the new governing majority on the council. The designated new mayor is Tom Schlesser of Dei Lénk. Esch is connected by the bus lines 1,2,3,4,5,7,12,13,15 and 17 of the communal public transport company T.I.C.E ("tramways intercommunales du canton Esch/Alzette", intercommunal tramway of the canton Esch/Alzette), which maintenance depot and headquarter is situated in Esch, and by lines 307, 312, 313 and 314 of the R.G.T.R.Esch-sur-Alzette is twinned with:
|
[
"Jean-Pierre Michels",
"Armand Spoo",
"Otto Komp",
"Dominique Stoffel",
"Johannes-Nepomuk Haas",
"Jules Schreiner",
"Georges Mischo",
"Hubert Clément",
"Henri Motté",
"Theodor Feldhege",
"Lydia Mutsch",
"Victor Wilhelm",
"Jean-Pierre Pierrard",
"Josef Kohns",
"Vera Spautz",
"Joseph Brebsom",
"Arthur Useldinger",
"Antoine Krier",
"Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Léon Metz",
"François-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Nicolas Biwer",
"Pierre Claude",
"Jules Heisten",
"François Schaack"
] |
|
Who was the head of Esch-sur-Alzette in 1844-01-07?
|
January 07, 1844
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Schmit"
]
}
|
L2_Q16010_P6_4
|
Joseph Brebsom is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1978 to Jan, 1990.
Pierre Claude is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1861 to Jan, 1878.
Arthur Useldinger is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1970 to Mar, 1978.
Dominique Stoffel is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1841 to Jan, 1843.
Lydia Mutsch is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jun, 2000 to Dec, 2013.
Jacques Schmit is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1843 to Jan, 1861.
Victor Wilhelm is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1921 to Jan, 1934.
Vera Spautz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 2013 to Nov, 2017.
Johannes-Nepomuk Haas is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1814 to May, 1828.
Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1879 to Aug, 1906.
Armand Spoo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1909 to Jan, 1911.
Jean-Pierre Pierrard is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Theodor Feldhege is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1942 to Jan, 1943.
François-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1836 to Jan, 1841.
Josef Kohns is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1943 to Jan, 1944.
Otto Komp is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Jules Schreiner is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1969.
Jean-Pierre Michels is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1912 to Feb, 1917.
François Schaack is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 2000.
Georges Mischo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Nov, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Nicolas Biwer is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1919.
Henri Motté is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1828 to Jan, 1830.
Jules Heisten is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941.
Léon Metz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1909.
Antoine Krier is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1951 to Jan, 1965.
Hubert Clément is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
|
Esch-sur-AlzetteEsch-sur-Alzette ( , or "Esch an der Alzig", ) is a commune with town status in south-western Luxembourg. It is the country's second "city", and its second-most populous commune, with a population of 35,040 inhabitants, . It lies in the south-west of the country, on the border with France and in the valley of the Alzette, which flows through the town. The town is usually referred to as just Esch; however, the full name distinguishes it from the village and commune of Esch-sur-Sûre which lies further north. The country's capital, Luxembourg City, is roughly to the north-east.For a long time Esch was a small farming village in the valley of the Uelzecht river. This changed when important amounts of iron ore were found in the area in the 1850s. With the development of the mines and the steel industry the town's population multiplied tenfold in a couple of decades. In 1911 the steel- and iron-producing company ARBED was founded. The development of the steel industry, especially in the south of the country, provided Luxembourg with sustained economic growth during the second half of the 19th century.In the 1970s, as a result of the steel crisis, the mines and many of the blast furnaces were shut down, the last one, in Esch-Belval, definitely halting its operations in 1997. The blast furnaces were replaced by an electric furnace that is fed with scrap metal rather than iron ore.Today the industrial wastelands on Belval left behind by the steel industry, are being redeveloped and converted into a new, modern town quarter. New cultural buildings such as the cinema Kinepolis Belval and the Rockhal, Luxembourg's biggest concert hall.The area around the old blast furnaces will host different structures of the University of Luxembourg, many research centres and the national archives.The Lankelz miniature railway operates on Sunday afternoons and public holidays from May to mid-October.Esch is home to the Conservatoire de Musique.The town has the longest shopping street in Luxembourg.Esch is governed by its communal council, consisting of 19 councillors. Elections take place to this body every 6 years, under a system of proportional representation. Currently the mayor is Vera Spautz, of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP). The governing majority on the council consists of the LSAP and The Greens.'G' denotes parties that went on to form the governing majority.The most recent elections were held on 8 October 2017; the results are listed below.After the elections, a coalition agreement was signed between 3 parties, the CSV, the Greens, and the DP, who will form the new governing majority on the council. The designated new mayor is Tom Schlesser of Dei Lénk. Esch is connected by the bus lines 1,2,3,4,5,7,12,13,15 and 17 of the communal public transport company T.I.C.E ("tramways intercommunales du canton Esch/Alzette", intercommunal tramway of the canton Esch/Alzette), which maintenance depot and headquarter is situated in Esch, and by lines 307, 312, 313 and 314 of the R.G.T.R.Esch-sur-Alzette is twinned with:
|
[
"Jean-Pierre Michels",
"Armand Spoo",
"Otto Komp",
"Dominique Stoffel",
"Johannes-Nepomuk Haas",
"Jules Schreiner",
"Georges Mischo",
"Hubert Clément",
"Henri Motté",
"Theodor Feldhege",
"Lydia Mutsch",
"Victor Wilhelm",
"Jean-Pierre Pierrard",
"Josef Kohns",
"Vera Spautz",
"Joseph Brebsom",
"Arthur Useldinger",
"Antoine Krier",
"Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Léon Metz",
"François-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Nicolas Biwer",
"Pierre Claude",
"Jules Heisten",
"François Schaack"
] |
|
Who was the head of Esch-sur-Alzette in 07/01/1844?
|
January 07, 1844
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Schmit"
]
}
|
L2_Q16010_P6_4
|
Joseph Brebsom is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1978 to Jan, 1990.
Pierre Claude is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1861 to Jan, 1878.
Arthur Useldinger is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1970 to Mar, 1978.
Dominique Stoffel is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1841 to Jan, 1843.
Lydia Mutsch is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jun, 2000 to Dec, 2013.
Jacques Schmit is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1843 to Jan, 1861.
Victor Wilhelm is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1921 to Jan, 1934.
Vera Spautz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 2013 to Nov, 2017.
Johannes-Nepomuk Haas is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1814 to May, 1828.
Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1879 to Aug, 1906.
Armand Spoo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1909 to Jan, 1911.
Jean-Pierre Pierrard is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Theodor Feldhege is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1942 to Jan, 1943.
François-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1836 to Jan, 1841.
Josef Kohns is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1943 to Jan, 1944.
Otto Komp is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Jules Schreiner is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1969.
Jean-Pierre Michels is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1912 to Feb, 1917.
François Schaack is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 2000.
Georges Mischo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Nov, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Nicolas Biwer is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1919.
Henri Motté is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1828 to Jan, 1830.
Jules Heisten is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941.
Léon Metz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1909.
Antoine Krier is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1951 to Jan, 1965.
Hubert Clément is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
|
Esch-sur-AlzetteEsch-sur-Alzette ( , or "Esch an der Alzig", ) is a commune with town status in south-western Luxembourg. It is the country's second "city", and its second-most populous commune, with a population of 35,040 inhabitants, . It lies in the south-west of the country, on the border with France and in the valley of the Alzette, which flows through the town. The town is usually referred to as just Esch; however, the full name distinguishes it from the village and commune of Esch-sur-Sûre which lies further north. The country's capital, Luxembourg City, is roughly to the north-east.For a long time Esch was a small farming village in the valley of the Uelzecht river. This changed when important amounts of iron ore were found in the area in the 1850s. With the development of the mines and the steel industry the town's population multiplied tenfold in a couple of decades. In 1911 the steel- and iron-producing company ARBED was founded. The development of the steel industry, especially in the south of the country, provided Luxembourg with sustained economic growth during the second half of the 19th century.In the 1970s, as a result of the steel crisis, the mines and many of the blast furnaces were shut down, the last one, in Esch-Belval, definitely halting its operations in 1997. The blast furnaces were replaced by an electric furnace that is fed with scrap metal rather than iron ore.Today the industrial wastelands on Belval left behind by the steel industry, are being redeveloped and converted into a new, modern town quarter. New cultural buildings such as the cinema Kinepolis Belval and the Rockhal, Luxembourg's biggest concert hall.The area around the old blast furnaces will host different structures of the University of Luxembourg, many research centres and the national archives.The Lankelz miniature railway operates on Sunday afternoons and public holidays from May to mid-October.Esch is home to the Conservatoire de Musique.The town has the longest shopping street in Luxembourg.Esch is governed by its communal council, consisting of 19 councillors. Elections take place to this body every 6 years, under a system of proportional representation. Currently the mayor is Vera Spautz, of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP). The governing majority on the council consists of the LSAP and The Greens.'G' denotes parties that went on to form the governing majority.The most recent elections were held on 8 October 2017; the results are listed below.After the elections, a coalition agreement was signed between 3 parties, the CSV, the Greens, and the DP, who will form the new governing majority on the council. The designated new mayor is Tom Schlesser of Dei Lénk. Esch is connected by the bus lines 1,2,3,4,5,7,12,13,15 and 17 of the communal public transport company T.I.C.E ("tramways intercommunales du canton Esch/Alzette", intercommunal tramway of the canton Esch/Alzette), which maintenance depot and headquarter is situated in Esch, and by lines 307, 312, 313 and 314 of the R.G.T.R.Esch-sur-Alzette is twinned with:
|
[
"Jean-Pierre Michels",
"Armand Spoo",
"Otto Komp",
"Dominique Stoffel",
"Johannes-Nepomuk Haas",
"Jules Schreiner",
"Georges Mischo",
"Hubert Clément",
"Henri Motté",
"Theodor Feldhege",
"Lydia Mutsch",
"Victor Wilhelm",
"Jean-Pierre Pierrard",
"Josef Kohns",
"Vera Spautz",
"Joseph Brebsom",
"Arthur Useldinger",
"Antoine Krier",
"Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Léon Metz",
"François-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Nicolas Biwer",
"Pierre Claude",
"Jules Heisten",
"François Schaack"
] |
|
Who was the head of Esch-sur-Alzette in Jan 07, 1844?
|
January 07, 1844
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Schmit"
]
}
|
L2_Q16010_P6_4
|
Joseph Brebsom is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1978 to Jan, 1990.
Pierre Claude is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1861 to Jan, 1878.
Arthur Useldinger is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1970 to Mar, 1978.
Dominique Stoffel is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1841 to Jan, 1843.
Lydia Mutsch is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jun, 2000 to Dec, 2013.
Jacques Schmit is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1843 to Jan, 1861.
Victor Wilhelm is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1921 to Jan, 1934.
Vera Spautz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 2013 to Nov, 2017.
Johannes-Nepomuk Haas is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1814 to May, 1828.
Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1879 to Aug, 1906.
Armand Spoo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1909 to Jan, 1911.
Jean-Pierre Pierrard is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Theodor Feldhege is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1942 to Jan, 1943.
François-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1836 to Jan, 1841.
Josef Kohns is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1943 to Jan, 1944.
Otto Komp is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Jules Schreiner is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1969.
Jean-Pierre Michels is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1912 to Feb, 1917.
François Schaack is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 2000.
Georges Mischo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Nov, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Nicolas Biwer is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1919.
Henri Motté is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1828 to Jan, 1830.
Jules Heisten is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941.
Léon Metz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1909.
Antoine Krier is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1951 to Jan, 1965.
Hubert Clément is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
|
Esch-sur-AlzetteEsch-sur-Alzette ( , or "Esch an der Alzig", ) is a commune with town status in south-western Luxembourg. It is the country's second "city", and its second-most populous commune, with a population of 35,040 inhabitants, . It lies in the south-west of the country, on the border with France and in the valley of the Alzette, which flows through the town. The town is usually referred to as just Esch; however, the full name distinguishes it from the village and commune of Esch-sur-Sûre which lies further north. The country's capital, Luxembourg City, is roughly to the north-east.For a long time Esch was a small farming village in the valley of the Uelzecht river. This changed when important amounts of iron ore were found in the area in the 1850s. With the development of the mines and the steel industry the town's population multiplied tenfold in a couple of decades. In 1911 the steel- and iron-producing company ARBED was founded. The development of the steel industry, especially in the south of the country, provided Luxembourg with sustained economic growth during the second half of the 19th century.In the 1970s, as a result of the steel crisis, the mines and many of the blast furnaces were shut down, the last one, in Esch-Belval, definitely halting its operations in 1997. The blast furnaces were replaced by an electric furnace that is fed with scrap metal rather than iron ore.Today the industrial wastelands on Belval left behind by the steel industry, are being redeveloped and converted into a new, modern town quarter. New cultural buildings such as the cinema Kinepolis Belval and the Rockhal, Luxembourg's biggest concert hall.The area around the old blast furnaces will host different structures of the University of Luxembourg, many research centres and the national archives.The Lankelz miniature railway operates on Sunday afternoons and public holidays from May to mid-October.Esch is home to the Conservatoire de Musique.The town has the longest shopping street in Luxembourg.Esch is governed by its communal council, consisting of 19 councillors. Elections take place to this body every 6 years, under a system of proportional representation. Currently the mayor is Vera Spautz, of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP). The governing majority on the council consists of the LSAP and The Greens.'G' denotes parties that went on to form the governing majority.The most recent elections were held on 8 October 2017; the results are listed below.After the elections, a coalition agreement was signed between 3 parties, the CSV, the Greens, and the DP, who will form the new governing majority on the council. The designated new mayor is Tom Schlesser of Dei Lénk. Esch is connected by the bus lines 1,2,3,4,5,7,12,13,15 and 17 of the communal public transport company T.I.C.E ("tramways intercommunales du canton Esch/Alzette", intercommunal tramway of the canton Esch/Alzette), which maintenance depot and headquarter is situated in Esch, and by lines 307, 312, 313 and 314 of the R.G.T.R.Esch-sur-Alzette is twinned with:
|
[
"Jean-Pierre Michels",
"Armand Spoo",
"Otto Komp",
"Dominique Stoffel",
"Johannes-Nepomuk Haas",
"Jules Schreiner",
"Georges Mischo",
"Hubert Clément",
"Henri Motté",
"Theodor Feldhege",
"Lydia Mutsch",
"Victor Wilhelm",
"Jean-Pierre Pierrard",
"Josef Kohns",
"Vera Spautz",
"Joseph Brebsom",
"Arthur Useldinger",
"Antoine Krier",
"Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Léon Metz",
"François-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Nicolas Biwer",
"Pierre Claude",
"Jules Heisten",
"François Schaack"
] |
|
Who was the head of Esch-sur-Alzette in 01/07/1844?
|
January 07, 1844
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Schmit"
]
}
|
L2_Q16010_P6_4
|
Joseph Brebsom is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1978 to Jan, 1990.
Pierre Claude is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1861 to Jan, 1878.
Arthur Useldinger is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1970 to Mar, 1978.
Dominique Stoffel is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1841 to Jan, 1843.
Lydia Mutsch is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jun, 2000 to Dec, 2013.
Jacques Schmit is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1843 to Jan, 1861.
Victor Wilhelm is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1921 to Jan, 1934.
Vera Spautz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 2013 to Nov, 2017.
Johannes-Nepomuk Haas is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1814 to May, 1828.
Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1879 to Aug, 1906.
Armand Spoo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1909 to Jan, 1911.
Jean-Pierre Pierrard is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Theodor Feldhege is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1942 to Jan, 1943.
François-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1836 to Jan, 1841.
Josef Kohns is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1943 to Jan, 1944.
Otto Komp is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Jules Schreiner is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1969.
Jean-Pierre Michels is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1912 to Feb, 1917.
François Schaack is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 2000.
Georges Mischo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Nov, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Nicolas Biwer is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1919.
Henri Motté is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1828 to Jan, 1830.
Jules Heisten is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941.
Léon Metz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1909.
Antoine Krier is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1951 to Jan, 1965.
Hubert Clément is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
|
Esch-sur-AlzetteEsch-sur-Alzette ( , or "Esch an der Alzig", ) is a commune with town status in south-western Luxembourg. It is the country's second "city", and its second-most populous commune, with a population of 35,040 inhabitants, . It lies in the south-west of the country, on the border with France and in the valley of the Alzette, which flows through the town. The town is usually referred to as just Esch; however, the full name distinguishes it from the village and commune of Esch-sur-Sûre which lies further north. The country's capital, Luxembourg City, is roughly to the north-east.For a long time Esch was a small farming village in the valley of the Uelzecht river. This changed when important amounts of iron ore were found in the area in the 1850s. With the development of the mines and the steel industry the town's population multiplied tenfold in a couple of decades. In 1911 the steel- and iron-producing company ARBED was founded. The development of the steel industry, especially in the south of the country, provided Luxembourg with sustained economic growth during the second half of the 19th century.In the 1970s, as a result of the steel crisis, the mines and many of the blast furnaces were shut down, the last one, in Esch-Belval, definitely halting its operations in 1997. The blast furnaces were replaced by an electric furnace that is fed with scrap metal rather than iron ore.Today the industrial wastelands on Belval left behind by the steel industry, are being redeveloped and converted into a new, modern town quarter. New cultural buildings such as the cinema Kinepolis Belval and the Rockhal, Luxembourg's biggest concert hall.The area around the old blast furnaces will host different structures of the University of Luxembourg, many research centres and the national archives.The Lankelz miniature railway operates on Sunday afternoons and public holidays from May to mid-October.Esch is home to the Conservatoire de Musique.The town has the longest shopping street in Luxembourg.Esch is governed by its communal council, consisting of 19 councillors. Elections take place to this body every 6 years, under a system of proportional representation. Currently the mayor is Vera Spautz, of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP). The governing majority on the council consists of the LSAP and The Greens.'G' denotes parties that went on to form the governing majority.The most recent elections were held on 8 October 2017; the results are listed below.After the elections, a coalition agreement was signed between 3 parties, the CSV, the Greens, and the DP, who will form the new governing majority on the council. The designated new mayor is Tom Schlesser of Dei Lénk. Esch is connected by the bus lines 1,2,3,4,5,7,12,13,15 and 17 of the communal public transport company T.I.C.E ("tramways intercommunales du canton Esch/Alzette", intercommunal tramway of the canton Esch/Alzette), which maintenance depot and headquarter is situated in Esch, and by lines 307, 312, 313 and 314 of the R.G.T.R.Esch-sur-Alzette is twinned with:
|
[
"Jean-Pierre Michels",
"Armand Spoo",
"Otto Komp",
"Dominique Stoffel",
"Johannes-Nepomuk Haas",
"Jules Schreiner",
"Georges Mischo",
"Hubert Clément",
"Henri Motté",
"Theodor Feldhege",
"Lydia Mutsch",
"Victor Wilhelm",
"Jean-Pierre Pierrard",
"Josef Kohns",
"Vera Spautz",
"Joseph Brebsom",
"Arthur Useldinger",
"Antoine Krier",
"Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Léon Metz",
"François-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Nicolas Biwer",
"Pierre Claude",
"Jules Heisten",
"François Schaack"
] |
|
Who was the head of Esch-sur-Alzette in 07-Jan-184407-January-1844?
|
January 07, 1844
|
{
"text": [
"Jacques Schmit"
]
}
|
L2_Q16010_P6_4
|
Joseph Brebsom is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1978 to Jan, 1990.
Pierre Claude is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1861 to Jan, 1878.
Arthur Useldinger is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1970 to Mar, 1978.
Dominique Stoffel is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1841 to Jan, 1843.
Lydia Mutsch is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jun, 2000 to Dec, 2013.
Jacques Schmit is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1843 to Jan, 1861.
Victor Wilhelm is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1921 to Jan, 1934.
Vera Spautz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 2013 to Nov, 2017.
Johannes-Nepomuk Haas is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1814 to May, 1828.
Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1879 to Aug, 1906.
Armand Spoo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1909 to Jan, 1911.
Jean-Pierre Pierrard is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Theodor Feldhege is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1942 to Jan, 1943.
François-Joseph Hoferlin is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1836 to Jan, 1841.
Josef Kohns is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1943 to Jan, 1944.
Otto Komp is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1942.
Jules Schreiner is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1969.
Jean-Pierre Michels is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1912 to Feb, 1917.
François Schaack is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 2000.
Georges Mischo is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Nov, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Nicolas Biwer is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1917 to Jan, 1919.
Henri Motté is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1828 to Jan, 1830.
Jules Heisten is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1940 to Jan, 1941.
Léon Metz is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1909.
Antoine Krier is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1951 to Jan, 1965.
Hubert Clément is the head of the government of Esch-sur-Alzette from Jan, 1944 to Jan, 1945.
|
Esch-sur-AlzetteEsch-sur-Alzette ( , or "Esch an der Alzig", ) is a commune with town status in south-western Luxembourg. It is the country's second "city", and its second-most populous commune, with a population of 35,040 inhabitants, . It lies in the south-west of the country, on the border with France and in the valley of the Alzette, which flows through the town. The town is usually referred to as just Esch; however, the full name distinguishes it from the village and commune of Esch-sur-Sûre which lies further north. The country's capital, Luxembourg City, is roughly to the north-east.For a long time Esch was a small farming village in the valley of the Uelzecht river. This changed when important amounts of iron ore were found in the area in the 1850s. With the development of the mines and the steel industry the town's population multiplied tenfold in a couple of decades. In 1911 the steel- and iron-producing company ARBED was founded. The development of the steel industry, especially in the south of the country, provided Luxembourg with sustained economic growth during the second half of the 19th century.In the 1970s, as a result of the steel crisis, the mines and many of the blast furnaces were shut down, the last one, in Esch-Belval, definitely halting its operations in 1997. The blast furnaces were replaced by an electric furnace that is fed with scrap metal rather than iron ore.Today the industrial wastelands on Belval left behind by the steel industry, are being redeveloped and converted into a new, modern town quarter. New cultural buildings such as the cinema Kinepolis Belval and the Rockhal, Luxembourg's biggest concert hall.The area around the old blast furnaces will host different structures of the University of Luxembourg, many research centres and the national archives.The Lankelz miniature railway operates on Sunday afternoons and public holidays from May to mid-October.Esch is home to the Conservatoire de Musique.The town has the longest shopping street in Luxembourg.Esch is governed by its communal council, consisting of 19 councillors. Elections take place to this body every 6 years, under a system of proportional representation. Currently the mayor is Vera Spautz, of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party (LSAP). The governing majority on the council consists of the LSAP and The Greens.'G' denotes parties that went on to form the governing majority.The most recent elections were held on 8 October 2017; the results are listed below.After the elections, a coalition agreement was signed between 3 parties, the CSV, the Greens, and the DP, who will form the new governing majority on the council. The designated new mayor is Tom Schlesser of Dei Lénk. Esch is connected by the bus lines 1,2,3,4,5,7,12,13,15 and 17 of the communal public transport company T.I.C.E ("tramways intercommunales du canton Esch/Alzette", intercommunal tramway of the canton Esch/Alzette), which maintenance depot and headquarter is situated in Esch, and by lines 307, 312, 313 and 314 of the R.G.T.R.Esch-sur-Alzette is twinned with:
|
[
"Jean-Pierre Michels",
"Armand Spoo",
"Otto Komp",
"Dominique Stoffel",
"Johannes-Nepomuk Haas",
"Jules Schreiner",
"Georges Mischo",
"Hubert Clément",
"Henri Motté",
"Theodor Feldhege",
"Lydia Mutsch",
"Victor Wilhelm",
"Jean-Pierre Pierrard",
"Josef Kohns",
"Vera Spautz",
"Joseph Brebsom",
"Arthur Useldinger",
"Antoine Krier",
"Dominique-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Léon Metz",
"François-Joseph Hoferlin",
"Nicolas Biwer",
"Pierre Claude",
"Jules Heisten",
"François Schaack"
] |
|
Which employer did Fazlur Rahman Malik work for in Aug, 1969?
|
August 30, 1969
|
{
"text": [
"University of Chicago"
]
}
|
L2_Q2066255_P108_2
|
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for University of Chicago from Jan, 1969 to Jan, 1988.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for McGill University from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for Durham University from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1958.
|
Fazlur Rahman MalikFazlur Rahman Malik () (September 21, 1919 – July 26, 1988), generally known as Fazlur Rahman, was a modernist scholar and philosopher of Islam from today's Pakistan. He is renowned as a prominent liberal reformer of Islam, who devoted himself to educational reform and the revival of independent reasoning ("ijtihad"). His works are subject of widespread interest in countries such as Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia and Turkey.After teaching in Britain and Canada, he was appointed head of the Central Institute of Islamic Research of Pakistan in 1963. Although his works were widely respected by other Islamic reformers, they were also heavily criticized by conservative scholars as being overtly liberal. This was quickly exploited by opponents of his political patron, General Ayub Khan, and led to his eventual exile in the United States. He left Pakistan in 1968 for the United States where he taught at the University of California, Los Angeles and the University of Chicago.Rahman was born in the Hazara District of the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of British India (now Pakistan). His father, Maulana Shihab al-Din, was a well-known scholar of the time who had studied at Deoband and had achieved the rank of alim, through his studies of Islamic law, prophetic narrations, Quran'ic commentaries, logic, philosophy and other subjects. Although Fazlur Rahman may not have himself attended a Darul uloom (traditional seat of Islamic knowledge), his father acquainted him with the traditional Islamic sciences, and he eventually memorized the entire Qur'an at the age of ten.Rahman studied Arabic at Punjab University, and went on to Oxford University, where he wrote a dissertation on Ibn Sina. Afterwards, he began a teaching career, first at Durham University, where he taught Persian and Islamic philosophy, and then at McGill University, where he taught Islamic studies until 1961.In that year, he returned to Pakistan at the behest of President Ayub Khan to head up the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi which was set up by the Pakistani government in order to implement Islam into the daily dealings of the nation. However, due to the political situation in Pakistan, Rahman was hindered from making any progress in this endeavour. Orthodox ulema opposed his modernist interpretations and after Ayub Khan's power weakened, they denounced Rahman as an apostate and called for his death as a wajib ul qatl. He resigned from the post in September 1968 and left for the United States.In the US he returned to teaching, and taught at UCLA as a visiting professor for a year. He moved to the University of Chicago in 1969 and established himself there becoming the Harold H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Islamic Thought. At Chicago he was instrumental for building a strong Near Eastern Studies program that continues to be among the best in the world. Rahman also became a proponent for a reform of the Islamic polity and was an advisor to the State Department. Rahman died in Chicago, Illinois July 26, 1988 at the University of Chicago Medical Center from complications of coronary bypass surgery. A resident of suburban Naperville, Illinois, at his death, he is buried in Arlington Cemetery, Elmhurst, Illinois.Since Rahman's death his writings have continued to be popular among scholars of Islam and the Near East. His contributions to the University of Chicago are still evident in its excellent programs in these areas. In his memory, the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Chicago named its common area after him, due to his many years of service at the center and at the University of Chicago at large.He was a polyglot who, apart from mastering Urdu, Persian, Arabic and English quite early in his life, eventually also learned classical Greek, Latin, German and French in order to be more efficient in his academic career.He argued that the basis of Islamic revival was the return to the intellectual dynamism that was the hallmark of the Islamic scholarly tradition (these ideas are outlined in "Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism" and his magnum opus, "Islam"). He sought to give philosophy free rein, and was keen on Muslims appreciating how the modern nation-state understood law, as opposed to ethics; his view being that the shari'ah was a mixture of both ethics and law. He was critical of historical Muslim theologies and philosophies for failing to create a moral and ethical worldview based on the values derived from the Qur'an: 'moral values', unlike socioeconomic values, 'are not exhausted at any point in history' but require constant interpretation.He also believed that the modern conservatism of Islamic world is a defensive and temporary posture against the perceived political and economic setbacks of the Muslim world. Adding to this was stagnation in Islamic education begun in the early Middle Ages, which led to the inadequate understanding of Qur'anic teachings. He saw it as a priority to re-introduce intellectual disciplines such as philosophy, rationalist theology, and social sciences in education.Rahman criticizes Islamic tradition for failing to develop a systematic Quran-based ethical theory, rather than merely a judicial code. He considers the theocracy and monarchy (imamate and caliphate) to be understandable attempts at creating a just society in historical times, and stresses the Quranic concept of "shura" (mutual consultation) for modern governance. He believes in extending the principle of "shura" to all of society, not only the elite, and in collaboration between religious and secular experts.The issue of what "riba" is and whether it includes all interest on loans has been a major issue in Islam during the 20th century and early 21st. The Islamic revival movement that grew in strength and influence during Rahman's lifetime, considered all and any interest on loans "riba" and a "curse", and considered putting an end to it a top priority. As an Islamic Modernist, Rahman disagreed, believing that only high-interest loans were "riba", and in particularly that "riba" referred only to a particular type of interest charged in the time of Muhammad. He cited the "Muwatta" of Imam Malik in arguing that "riba" should not be interpreted literally but must be understood in the context of pre-Islamic Arab moneylending customs. Feisal Khan describes his position as being that The banned "riba" in the Quran referred to a particular custom, "riba al-nasiah" or "riba al-jahaliyah", where when the debt came due it was traditional to ask the borrower `will you pay or will you "riba"?` If the borrower chose the latter, he would be granted an extension on the loan but the amount due would be doubled -- hense the "riba". ... If the borrower then defaulted on the doubled amount, his debt was redoubled and he was given another time extension: if unable to pay, he and all his possessions could be auctioned off to satisfy his creditors.Rahman himself wrote that the initial interest itself was not usurious and was, therefore, not considered riba. What made it riba was the increase ... that raised the principal several-fold by continued redoubling.This contradicted the contention of famous Islamist author Maulana Maududi that there was no initial interest—that money lenders made initial loans "granted free of interest"—which was doubtful on the grounds that professional moneylenders would ever make loans for free. Rahman concluded that the Quran banned "extreme usury and so by extension injustice but not interest."Rahman criticizes the pre-modern revivalist movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth century for discouraging intellectualism; Modernism for selectively using passages and not being grounded in methodology; and neo-fundamentalism for likewise not being based on proper analyses. Rather than Islamic secularism, he was most optimistic about a "neo-modernism" based on an Islamic methodology, in contrast to previous reform efforts.
|
[
"Durham University",
"McGill University"
] |
|
Which employer did Fazlur Rahman Malik work for in 1969-08-30?
|
August 30, 1969
|
{
"text": [
"University of Chicago"
]
}
|
L2_Q2066255_P108_2
|
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for University of Chicago from Jan, 1969 to Jan, 1988.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for McGill University from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for Durham University from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1958.
|
Fazlur Rahman MalikFazlur Rahman Malik () (September 21, 1919 – July 26, 1988), generally known as Fazlur Rahman, was a modernist scholar and philosopher of Islam from today's Pakistan. He is renowned as a prominent liberal reformer of Islam, who devoted himself to educational reform and the revival of independent reasoning ("ijtihad"). His works are subject of widespread interest in countries such as Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia and Turkey.After teaching in Britain and Canada, he was appointed head of the Central Institute of Islamic Research of Pakistan in 1963. Although his works were widely respected by other Islamic reformers, they were also heavily criticized by conservative scholars as being overtly liberal. This was quickly exploited by opponents of his political patron, General Ayub Khan, and led to his eventual exile in the United States. He left Pakistan in 1968 for the United States where he taught at the University of California, Los Angeles and the University of Chicago.Rahman was born in the Hazara District of the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of British India (now Pakistan). His father, Maulana Shihab al-Din, was a well-known scholar of the time who had studied at Deoband and had achieved the rank of alim, through his studies of Islamic law, prophetic narrations, Quran'ic commentaries, logic, philosophy and other subjects. Although Fazlur Rahman may not have himself attended a Darul uloom (traditional seat of Islamic knowledge), his father acquainted him with the traditional Islamic sciences, and he eventually memorized the entire Qur'an at the age of ten.Rahman studied Arabic at Punjab University, and went on to Oxford University, where he wrote a dissertation on Ibn Sina. Afterwards, he began a teaching career, first at Durham University, where he taught Persian and Islamic philosophy, and then at McGill University, where he taught Islamic studies until 1961.In that year, he returned to Pakistan at the behest of President Ayub Khan to head up the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi which was set up by the Pakistani government in order to implement Islam into the daily dealings of the nation. However, due to the political situation in Pakistan, Rahman was hindered from making any progress in this endeavour. Orthodox ulema opposed his modernist interpretations and after Ayub Khan's power weakened, they denounced Rahman as an apostate and called for his death as a wajib ul qatl. He resigned from the post in September 1968 and left for the United States.In the US he returned to teaching, and taught at UCLA as a visiting professor for a year. He moved to the University of Chicago in 1969 and established himself there becoming the Harold H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Islamic Thought. At Chicago he was instrumental for building a strong Near Eastern Studies program that continues to be among the best in the world. Rahman also became a proponent for a reform of the Islamic polity and was an advisor to the State Department. Rahman died in Chicago, Illinois July 26, 1988 at the University of Chicago Medical Center from complications of coronary bypass surgery. A resident of suburban Naperville, Illinois, at his death, he is buried in Arlington Cemetery, Elmhurst, Illinois.Since Rahman's death his writings have continued to be popular among scholars of Islam and the Near East. His contributions to the University of Chicago are still evident in its excellent programs in these areas. In his memory, the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Chicago named its common area after him, due to his many years of service at the center and at the University of Chicago at large.He was a polyglot who, apart from mastering Urdu, Persian, Arabic and English quite early in his life, eventually also learned classical Greek, Latin, German and French in order to be more efficient in his academic career.He argued that the basis of Islamic revival was the return to the intellectual dynamism that was the hallmark of the Islamic scholarly tradition (these ideas are outlined in "Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism" and his magnum opus, "Islam"). He sought to give philosophy free rein, and was keen on Muslims appreciating how the modern nation-state understood law, as opposed to ethics; his view being that the shari'ah was a mixture of both ethics and law. He was critical of historical Muslim theologies and philosophies for failing to create a moral and ethical worldview based on the values derived from the Qur'an: 'moral values', unlike socioeconomic values, 'are not exhausted at any point in history' but require constant interpretation.He also believed that the modern conservatism of Islamic world is a defensive and temporary posture against the perceived political and economic setbacks of the Muslim world. Adding to this was stagnation in Islamic education begun in the early Middle Ages, which led to the inadequate understanding of Qur'anic teachings. He saw it as a priority to re-introduce intellectual disciplines such as philosophy, rationalist theology, and social sciences in education.Rahman criticizes Islamic tradition for failing to develop a systematic Quran-based ethical theory, rather than merely a judicial code. He considers the theocracy and monarchy (imamate and caliphate) to be understandable attempts at creating a just society in historical times, and stresses the Quranic concept of "shura" (mutual consultation) for modern governance. He believes in extending the principle of "shura" to all of society, not only the elite, and in collaboration between religious and secular experts.The issue of what "riba" is and whether it includes all interest on loans has been a major issue in Islam during the 20th century and early 21st. The Islamic revival movement that grew in strength and influence during Rahman's lifetime, considered all and any interest on loans "riba" and a "curse", and considered putting an end to it a top priority. As an Islamic Modernist, Rahman disagreed, believing that only high-interest loans were "riba", and in particularly that "riba" referred only to a particular type of interest charged in the time of Muhammad. He cited the "Muwatta" of Imam Malik in arguing that "riba" should not be interpreted literally but must be understood in the context of pre-Islamic Arab moneylending customs. Feisal Khan describes his position as being that The banned "riba" in the Quran referred to a particular custom, "riba al-nasiah" or "riba al-jahaliyah", where when the debt came due it was traditional to ask the borrower `will you pay or will you "riba"?` If the borrower chose the latter, he would be granted an extension on the loan but the amount due would be doubled -- hense the "riba". ... If the borrower then defaulted on the doubled amount, his debt was redoubled and he was given another time extension: if unable to pay, he and all his possessions could be auctioned off to satisfy his creditors.Rahman himself wrote that the initial interest itself was not usurious and was, therefore, not considered riba. What made it riba was the increase ... that raised the principal several-fold by continued redoubling.This contradicted the contention of famous Islamist author Maulana Maududi that there was no initial interest—that money lenders made initial loans "granted free of interest"—which was doubtful on the grounds that professional moneylenders would ever make loans for free. Rahman concluded that the Quran banned "extreme usury and so by extension injustice but not interest."Rahman criticizes the pre-modern revivalist movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth century for discouraging intellectualism; Modernism for selectively using passages and not being grounded in methodology; and neo-fundamentalism for likewise not being based on proper analyses. Rather than Islamic secularism, he was most optimistic about a "neo-modernism" based on an Islamic methodology, in contrast to previous reform efforts.
|
[
"Durham University",
"McGill University"
] |
|
Which employer did Fazlur Rahman Malik work for in 30/08/1969?
|
August 30, 1969
|
{
"text": [
"University of Chicago"
]
}
|
L2_Q2066255_P108_2
|
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for University of Chicago from Jan, 1969 to Jan, 1988.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for McGill University from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for Durham University from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1958.
|
Fazlur Rahman MalikFazlur Rahman Malik () (September 21, 1919 – July 26, 1988), generally known as Fazlur Rahman, was a modernist scholar and philosopher of Islam from today's Pakistan. He is renowned as a prominent liberal reformer of Islam, who devoted himself to educational reform and the revival of independent reasoning ("ijtihad"). His works are subject of widespread interest in countries such as Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia and Turkey.After teaching in Britain and Canada, he was appointed head of the Central Institute of Islamic Research of Pakistan in 1963. Although his works were widely respected by other Islamic reformers, they were also heavily criticized by conservative scholars as being overtly liberal. This was quickly exploited by opponents of his political patron, General Ayub Khan, and led to his eventual exile in the United States. He left Pakistan in 1968 for the United States where he taught at the University of California, Los Angeles and the University of Chicago.Rahman was born in the Hazara District of the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of British India (now Pakistan). His father, Maulana Shihab al-Din, was a well-known scholar of the time who had studied at Deoband and had achieved the rank of alim, through his studies of Islamic law, prophetic narrations, Quran'ic commentaries, logic, philosophy and other subjects. Although Fazlur Rahman may not have himself attended a Darul uloom (traditional seat of Islamic knowledge), his father acquainted him with the traditional Islamic sciences, and he eventually memorized the entire Qur'an at the age of ten.Rahman studied Arabic at Punjab University, and went on to Oxford University, where he wrote a dissertation on Ibn Sina. Afterwards, he began a teaching career, first at Durham University, where he taught Persian and Islamic philosophy, and then at McGill University, where he taught Islamic studies until 1961.In that year, he returned to Pakistan at the behest of President Ayub Khan to head up the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi which was set up by the Pakistani government in order to implement Islam into the daily dealings of the nation. However, due to the political situation in Pakistan, Rahman was hindered from making any progress in this endeavour. Orthodox ulema opposed his modernist interpretations and after Ayub Khan's power weakened, they denounced Rahman as an apostate and called for his death as a wajib ul qatl. He resigned from the post in September 1968 and left for the United States.In the US he returned to teaching, and taught at UCLA as a visiting professor for a year. He moved to the University of Chicago in 1969 and established himself there becoming the Harold H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Islamic Thought. At Chicago he was instrumental for building a strong Near Eastern Studies program that continues to be among the best in the world. Rahman also became a proponent for a reform of the Islamic polity and was an advisor to the State Department. Rahman died in Chicago, Illinois July 26, 1988 at the University of Chicago Medical Center from complications of coronary bypass surgery. A resident of suburban Naperville, Illinois, at his death, he is buried in Arlington Cemetery, Elmhurst, Illinois.Since Rahman's death his writings have continued to be popular among scholars of Islam and the Near East. His contributions to the University of Chicago are still evident in its excellent programs in these areas. In his memory, the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Chicago named its common area after him, due to his many years of service at the center and at the University of Chicago at large.He was a polyglot who, apart from mastering Urdu, Persian, Arabic and English quite early in his life, eventually also learned classical Greek, Latin, German and French in order to be more efficient in his academic career.He argued that the basis of Islamic revival was the return to the intellectual dynamism that was the hallmark of the Islamic scholarly tradition (these ideas are outlined in "Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism" and his magnum opus, "Islam"). He sought to give philosophy free rein, and was keen on Muslims appreciating how the modern nation-state understood law, as opposed to ethics; his view being that the shari'ah was a mixture of both ethics and law. He was critical of historical Muslim theologies and philosophies for failing to create a moral and ethical worldview based on the values derived from the Qur'an: 'moral values', unlike socioeconomic values, 'are not exhausted at any point in history' but require constant interpretation.He also believed that the modern conservatism of Islamic world is a defensive and temporary posture against the perceived political and economic setbacks of the Muslim world. Adding to this was stagnation in Islamic education begun in the early Middle Ages, which led to the inadequate understanding of Qur'anic teachings. He saw it as a priority to re-introduce intellectual disciplines such as philosophy, rationalist theology, and social sciences in education.Rahman criticizes Islamic tradition for failing to develop a systematic Quran-based ethical theory, rather than merely a judicial code. He considers the theocracy and monarchy (imamate and caliphate) to be understandable attempts at creating a just society in historical times, and stresses the Quranic concept of "shura" (mutual consultation) for modern governance. He believes in extending the principle of "shura" to all of society, not only the elite, and in collaboration between religious and secular experts.The issue of what "riba" is and whether it includes all interest on loans has been a major issue in Islam during the 20th century and early 21st. The Islamic revival movement that grew in strength and influence during Rahman's lifetime, considered all and any interest on loans "riba" and a "curse", and considered putting an end to it a top priority. As an Islamic Modernist, Rahman disagreed, believing that only high-interest loans were "riba", and in particularly that "riba" referred only to a particular type of interest charged in the time of Muhammad. He cited the "Muwatta" of Imam Malik in arguing that "riba" should not be interpreted literally but must be understood in the context of pre-Islamic Arab moneylending customs. Feisal Khan describes his position as being that The banned "riba" in the Quran referred to a particular custom, "riba al-nasiah" or "riba al-jahaliyah", where when the debt came due it was traditional to ask the borrower `will you pay or will you "riba"?` If the borrower chose the latter, he would be granted an extension on the loan but the amount due would be doubled -- hense the "riba". ... If the borrower then defaulted on the doubled amount, his debt was redoubled and he was given another time extension: if unable to pay, he and all his possessions could be auctioned off to satisfy his creditors.Rahman himself wrote that the initial interest itself was not usurious and was, therefore, not considered riba. What made it riba was the increase ... that raised the principal several-fold by continued redoubling.This contradicted the contention of famous Islamist author Maulana Maududi that there was no initial interest—that money lenders made initial loans "granted free of interest"—which was doubtful on the grounds that professional moneylenders would ever make loans for free. Rahman concluded that the Quran banned "extreme usury and so by extension injustice but not interest."Rahman criticizes the pre-modern revivalist movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth century for discouraging intellectualism; Modernism for selectively using passages and not being grounded in methodology; and neo-fundamentalism for likewise not being based on proper analyses. Rather than Islamic secularism, he was most optimistic about a "neo-modernism" based on an Islamic methodology, in contrast to previous reform efforts.
|
[
"Durham University",
"McGill University"
] |
|
Which employer did Fazlur Rahman Malik work for in Aug 30, 1969?
|
August 30, 1969
|
{
"text": [
"University of Chicago"
]
}
|
L2_Q2066255_P108_2
|
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for University of Chicago from Jan, 1969 to Jan, 1988.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for McGill University from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for Durham University from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1958.
|
Fazlur Rahman MalikFazlur Rahman Malik () (September 21, 1919 – July 26, 1988), generally known as Fazlur Rahman, was a modernist scholar and philosopher of Islam from today's Pakistan. He is renowned as a prominent liberal reformer of Islam, who devoted himself to educational reform and the revival of independent reasoning ("ijtihad"). His works are subject of widespread interest in countries such as Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia and Turkey.After teaching in Britain and Canada, he was appointed head of the Central Institute of Islamic Research of Pakistan in 1963. Although his works were widely respected by other Islamic reformers, they were also heavily criticized by conservative scholars as being overtly liberal. This was quickly exploited by opponents of his political patron, General Ayub Khan, and led to his eventual exile in the United States. He left Pakistan in 1968 for the United States where he taught at the University of California, Los Angeles and the University of Chicago.Rahman was born in the Hazara District of the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of British India (now Pakistan). His father, Maulana Shihab al-Din, was a well-known scholar of the time who had studied at Deoband and had achieved the rank of alim, through his studies of Islamic law, prophetic narrations, Quran'ic commentaries, logic, philosophy and other subjects. Although Fazlur Rahman may not have himself attended a Darul uloom (traditional seat of Islamic knowledge), his father acquainted him with the traditional Islamic sciences, and he eventually memorized the entire Qur'an at the age of ten.Rahman studied Arabic at Punjab University, and went on to Oxford University, where he wrote a dissertation on Ibn Sina. Afterwards, he began a teaching career, first at Durham University, where he taught Persian and Islamic philosophy, and then at McGill University, where he taught Islamic studies until 1961.In that year, he returned to Pakistan at the behest of President Ayub Khan to head up the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi which was set up by the Pakistani government in order to implement Islam into the daily dealings of the nation. However, due to the political situation in Pakistan, Rahman was hindered from making any progress in this endeavour. Orthodox ulema opposed his modernist interpretations and after Ayub Khan's power weakened, they denounced Rahman as an apostate and called for his death as a wajib ul qatl. He resigned from the post in September 1968 and left for the United States.In the US he returned to teaching, and taught at UCLA as a visiting professor for a year. He moved to the University of Chicago in 1969 and established himself there becoming the Harold H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Islamic Thought. At Chicago he was instrumental for building a strong Near Eastern Studies program that continues to be among the best in the world. Rahman also became a proponent for a reform of the Islamic polity and was an advisor to the State Department. Rahman died in Chicago, Illinois July 26, 1988 at the University of Chicago Medical Center from complications of coronary bypass surgery. A resident of suburban Naperville, Illinois, at his death, he is buried in Arlington Cemetery, Elmhurst, Illinois.Since Rahman's death his writings have continued to be popular among scholars of Islam and the Near East. His contributions to the University of Chicago are still evident in its excellent programs in these areas. In his memory, the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Chicago named its common area after him, due to his many years of service at the center and at the University of Chicago at large.He was a polyglot who, apart from mastering Urdu, Persian, Arabic and English quite early in his life, eventually also learned classical Greek, Latin, German and French in order to be more efficient in his academic career.He argued that the basis of Islamic revival was the return to the intellectual dynamism that was the hallmark of the Islamic scholarly tradition (these ideas are outlined in "Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism" and his magnum opus, "Islam"). He sought to give philosophy free rein, and was keen on Muslims appreciating how the modern nation-state understood law, as opposed to ethics; his view being that the shari'ah was a mixture of both ethics and law. He was critical of historical Muslim theologies and philosophies for failing to create a moral and ethical worldview based on the values derived from the Qur'an: 'moral values', unlike socioeconomic values, 'are not exhausted at any point in history' but require constant interpretation.He also believed that the modern conservatism of Islamic world is a defensive and temporary posture against the perceived political and economic setbacks of the Muslim world. Adding to this was stagnation in Islamic education begun in the early Middle Ages, which led to the inadequate understanding of Qur'anic teachings. He saw it as a priority to re-introduce intellectual disciplines such as philosophy, rationalist theology, and social sciences in education.Rahman criticizes Islamic tradition for failing to develop a systematic Quran-based ethical theory, rather than merely a judicial code. He considers the theocracy and monarchy (imamate and caliphate) to be understandable attempts at creating a just society in historical times, and stresses the Quranic concept of "shura" (mutual consultation) for modern governance. He believes in extending the principle of "shura" to all of society, not only the elite, and in collaboration between religious and secular experts.The issue of what "riba" is and whether it includes all interest on loans has been a major issue in Islam during the 20th century and early 21st. The Islamic revival movement that grew in strength and influence during Rahman's lifetime, considered all and any interest on loans "riba" and a "curse", and considered putting an end to it a top priority. As an Islamic Modernist, Rahman disagreed, believing that only high-interest loans were "riba", and in particularly that "riba" referred only to a particular type of interest charged in the time of Muhammad. He cited the "Muwatta" of Imam Malik in arguing that "riba" should not be interpreted literally but must be understood in the context of pre-Islamic Arab moneylending customs. Feisal Khan describes his position as being that The banned "riba" in the Quran referred to a particular custom, "riba al-nasiah" or "riba al-jahaliyah", where when the debt came due it was traditional to ask the borrower `will you pay or will you "riba"?` If the borrower chose the latter, he would be granted an extension on the loan but the amount due would be doubled -- hense the "riba". ... If the borrower then defaulted on the doubled amount, his debt was redoubled and he was given another time extension: if unable to pay, he and all his possessions could be auctioned off to satisfy his creditors.Rahman himself wrote that the initial interest itself was not usurious and was, therefore, not considered riba. What made it riba was the increase ... that raised the principal several-fold by continued redoubling.This contradicted the contention of famous Islamist author Maulana Maududi that there was no initial interest—that money lenders made initial loans "granted free of interest"—which was doubtful on the grounds that professional moneylenders would ever make loans for free. Rahman concluded that the Quran banned "extreme usury and so by extension injustice but not interest."Rahman criticizes the pre-modern revivalist movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth century for discouraging intellectualism; Modernism for selectively using passages and not being grounded in methodology; and neo-fundamentalism for likewise not being based on proper analyses. Rather than Islamic secularism, he was most optimistic about a "neo-modernism" based on an Islamic methodology, in contrast to previous reform efforts.
|
[
"Durham University",
"McGill University"
] |
|
Which employer did Fazlur Rahman Malik work for in 08/30/1969?
|
August 30, 1969
|
{
"text": [
"University of Chicago"
]
}
|
L2_Q2066255_P108_2
|
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for University of Chicago from Jan, 1969 to Jan, 1988.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for McGill University from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for Durham University from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1958.
|
Fazlur Rahman MalikFazlur Rahman Malik () (September 21, 1919 – July 26, 1988), generally known as Fazlur Rahman, was a modernist scholar and philosopher of Islam from today's Pakistan. He is renowned as a prominent liberal reformer of Islam, who devoted himself to educational reform and the revival of independent reasoning ("ijtihad"). His works are subject of widespread interest in countries such as Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia and Turkey.After teaching in Britain and Canada, he was appointed head of the Central Institute of Islamic Research of Pakistan in 1963. Although his works were widely respected by other Islamic reformers, they were also heavily criticized by conservative scholars as being overtly liberal. This was quickly exploited by opponents of his political patron, General Ayub Khan, and led to his eventual exile in the United States. He left Pakistan in 1968 for the United States where he taught at the University of California, Los Angeles and the University of Chicago.Rahman was born in the Hazara District of the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of British India (now Pakistan). His father, Maulana Shihab al-Din, was a well-known scholar of the time who had studied at Deoband and had achieved the rank of alim, through his studies of Islamic law, prophetic narrations, Quran'ic commentaries, logic, philosophy and other subjects. Although Fazlur Rahman may not have himself attended a Darul uloom (traditional seat of Islamic knowledge), his father acquainted him with the traditional Islamic sciences, and he eventually memorized the entire Qur'an at the age of ten.Rahman studied Arabic at Punjab University, and went on to Oxford University, where he wrote a dissertation on Ibn Sina. Afterwards, he began a teaching career, first at Durham University, where he taught Persian and Islamic philosophy, and then at McGill University, where he taught Islamic studies until 1961.In that year, he returned to Pakistan at the behest of President Ayub Khan to head up the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi which was set up by the Pakistani government in order to implement Islam into the daily dealings of the nation. However, due to the political situation in Pakistan, Rahman was hindered from making any progress in this endeavour. Orthodox ulema opposed his modernist interpretations and after Ayub Khan's power weakened, they denounced Rahman as an apostate and called for his death as a wajib ul qatl. He resigned from the post in September 1968 and left for the United States.In the US he returned to teaching, and taught at UCLA as a visiting professor for a year. He moved to the University of Chicago in 1969 and established himself there becoming the Harold H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Islamic Thought. At Chicago he was instrumental for building a strong Near Eastern Studies program that continues to be among the best in the world. Rahman also became a proponent for a reform of the Islamic polity and was an advisor to the State Department. Rahman died in Chicago, Illinois July 26, 1988 at the University of Chicago Medical Center from complications of coronary bypass surgery. A resident of suburban Naperville, Illinois, at his death, he is buried in Arlington Cemetery, Elmhurst, Illinois.Since Rahman's death his writings have continued to be popular among scholars of Islam and the Near East. His contributions to the University of Chicago are still evident in its excellent programs in these areas. In his memory, the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Chicago named its common area after him, due to his many years of service at the center and at the University of Chicago at large.He was a polyglot who, apart from mastering Urdu, Persian, Arabic and English quite early in his life, eventually also learned classical Greek, Latin, German and French in order to be more efficient in his academic career.He argued that the basis of Islamic revival was the return to the intellectual dynamism that was the hallmark of the Islamic scholarly tradition (these ideas are outlined in "Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism" and his magnum opus, "Islam"). He sought to give philosophy free rein, and was keen on Muslims appreciating how the modern nation-state understood law, as opposed to ethics; his view being that the shari'ah was a mixture of both ethics and law. He was critical of historical Muslim theologies and philosophies for failing to create a moral and ethical worldview based on the values derived from the Qur'an: 'moral values', unlike socioeconomic values, 'are not exhausted at any point in history' but require constant interpretation.He also believed that the modern conservatism of Islamic world is a defensive and temporary posture against the perceived political and economic setbacks of the Muslim world. Adding to this was stagnation in Islamic education begun in the early Middle Ages, which led to the inadequate understanding of Qur'anic teachings. He saw it as a priority to re-introduce intellectual disciplines such as philosophy, rationalist theology, and social sciences in education.Rahman criticizes Islamic tradition for failing to develop a systematic Quran-based ethical theory, rather than merely a judicial code. He considers the theocracy and monarchy (imamate and caliphate) to be understandable attempts at creating a just society in historical times, and stresses the Quranic concept of "shura" (mutual consultation) for modern governance. He believes in extending the principle of "shura" to all of society, not only the elite, and in collaboration between religious and secular experts.The issue of what "riba" is and whether it includes all interest on loans has been a major issue in Islam during the 20th century and early 21st. The Islamic revival movement that grew in strength and influence during Rahman's lifetime, considered all and any interest on loans "riba" and a "curse", and considered putting an end to it a top priority. As an Islamic Modernist, Rahman disagreed, believing that only high-interest loans were "riba", and in particularly that "riba" referred only to a particular type of interest charged in the time of Muhammad. He cited the "Muwatta" of Imam Malik in arguing that "riba" should not be interpreted literally but must be understood in the context of pre-Islamic Arab moneylending customs. Feisal Khan describes his position as being that The banned "riba" in the Quran referred to a particular custom, "riba al-nasiah" or "riba al-jahaliyah", where when the debt came due it was traditional to ask the borrower `will you pay or will you "riba"?` If the borrower chose the latter, he would be granted an extension on the loan but the amount due would be doubled -- hense the "riba". ... If the borrower then defaulted on the doubled amount, his debt was redoubled and he was given another time extension: if unable to pay, he and all his possessions could be auctioned off to satisfy his creditors.Rahman himself wrote that the initial interest itself was not usurious and was, therefore, not considered riba. What made it riba was the increase ... that raised the principal several-fold by continued redoubling.This contradicted the contention of famous Islamist author Maulana Maududi that there was no initial interest—that money lenders made initial loans "granted free of interest"—which was doubtful on the grounds that professional moneylenders would ever make loans for free. Rahman concluded that the Quran banned "extreme usury and so by extension injustice but not interest."Rahman criticizes the pre-modern revivalist movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth century for discouraging intellectualism; Modernism for selectively using passages and not being grounded in methodology; and neo-fundamentalism for likewise not being based on proper analyses. Rather than Islamic secularism, he was most optimistic about a "neo-modernism" based on an Islamic methodology, in contrast to previous reform efforts.
|
[
"Durham University",
"McGill University"
] |
|
Which employer did Fazlur Rahman Malik work for in 30-Aug-196930-August-1969?
|
August 30, 1969
|
{
"text": [
"University of Chicago"
]
}
|
L2_Q2066255_P108_2
|
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for University of Chicago from Jan, 1969 to Jan, 1988.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for McGill University from Jan, 1958 to Jan, 1961.
Fazlur Rahman Malik works for Durham University from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1958.
|
Fazlur Rahman MalikFazlur Rahman Malik () (September 21, 1919 – July 26, 1988), generally known as Fazlur Rahman, was a modernist scholar and philosopher of Islam from today's Pakistan. He is renowned as a prominent liberal reformer of Islam, who devoted himself to educational reform and the revival of independent reasoning ("ijtihad"). His works are subject of widespread interest in countries such as Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia and Turkey.After teaching in Britain and Canada, he was appointed head of the Central Institute of Islamic Research of Pakistan in 1963. Although his works were widely respected by other Islamic reformers, they were also heavily criticized by conservative scholars as being overtly liberal. This was quickly exploited by opponents of his political patron, General Ayub Khan, and led to his eventual exile in the United States. He left Pakistan in 1968 for the United States where he taught at the University of California, Los Angeles and the University of Chicago.Rahman was born in the Hazara District of the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) of British India (now Pakistan). His father, Maulana Shihab al-Din, was a well-known scholar of the time who had studied at Deoband and had achieved the rank of alim, through his studies of Islamic law, prophetic narrations, Quran'ic commentaries, logic, philosophy and other subjects. Although Fazlur Rahman may not have himself attended a Darul uloom (traditional seat of Islamic knowledge), his father acquainted him with the traditional Islamic sciences, and he eventually memorized the entire Qur'an at the age of ten.Rahman studied Arabic at Punjab University, and went on to Oxford University, where he wrote a dissertation on Ibn Sina. Afterwards, he began a teaching career, first at Durham University, where he taught Persian and Islamic philosophy, and then at McGill University, where he taught Islamic studies until 1961.In that year, he returned to Pakistan at the behest of President Ayub Khan to head up the Central Institute of Islamic Research in Karachi which was set up by the Pakistani government in order to implement Islam into the daily dealings of the nation. However, due to the political situation in Pakistan, Rahman was hindered from making any progress in this endeavour. Orthodox ulema opposed his modernist interpretations and after Ayub Khan's power weakened, they denounced Rahman as an apostate and called for his death as a wajib ul qatl. He resigned from the post in September 1968 and left for the United States.In the US he returned to teaching, and taught at UCLA as a visiting professor for a year. He moved to the University of Chicago in 1969 and established himself there becoming the Harold H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Islamic Thought. At Chicago he was instrumental for building a strong Near Eastern Studies program that continues to be among the best in the world. Rahman also became a proponent for a reform of the Islamic polity and was an advisor to the State Department. Rahman died in Chicago, Illinois July 26, 1988 at the University of Chicago Medical Center from complications of coronary bypass surgery. A resident of suburban Naperville, Illinois, at his death, he is buried in Arlington Cemetery, Elmhurst, Illinois.Since Rahman's death his writings have continued to be popular among scholars of Islam and the Near East. His contributions to the University of Chicago are still evident in its excellent programs in these areas. In his memory, the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Chicago named its common area after him, due to his many years of service at the center and at the University of Chicago at large.He was a polyglot who, apart from mastering Urdu, Persian, Arabic and English quite early in his life, eventually also learned classical Greek, Latin, German and French in order to be more efficient in his academic career.He argued that the basis of Islamic revival was the return to the intellectual dynamism that was the hallmark of the Islamic scholarly tradition (these ideas are outlined in "Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism" and his magnum opus, "Islam"). He sought to give philosophy free rein, and was keen on Muslims appreciating how the modern nation-state understood law, as opposed to ethics; his view being that the shari'ah was a mixture of both ethics and law. He was critical of historical Muslim theologies and philosophies for failing to create a moral and ethical worldview based on the values derived from the Qur'an: 'moral values', unlike socioeconomic values, 'are not exhausted at any point in history' but require constant interpretation.He also believed that the modern conservatism of Islamic world is a defensive and temporary posture against the perceived political and economic setbacks of the Muslim world. Adding to this was stagnation in Islamic education begun in the early Middle Ages, which led to the inadequate understanding of Qur'anic teachings. He saw it as a priority to re-introduce intellectual disciplines such as philosophy, rationalist theology, and social sciences in education.Rahman criticizes Islamic tradition for failing to develop a systematic Quran-based ethical theory, rather than merely a judicial code. He considers the theocracy and monarchy (imamate and caliphate) to be understandable attempts at creating a just society in historical times, and stresses the Quranic concept of "shura" (mutual consultation) for modern governance. He believes in extending the principle of "shura" to all of society, not only the elite, and in collaboration between religious and secular experts.The issue of what "riba" is and whether it includes all interest on loans has been a major issue in Islam during the 20th century and early 21st. The Islamic revival movement that grew in strength and influence during Rahman's lifetime, considered all and any interest on loans "riba" and a "curse", and considered putting an end to it a top priority. As an Islamic Modernist, Rahman disagreed, believing that only high-interest loans were "riba", and in particularly that "riba" referred only to a particular type of interest charged in the time of Muhammad. He cited the "Muwatta" of Imam Malik in arguing that "riba" should not be interpreted literally but must be understood in the context of pre-Islamic Arab moneylending customs. Feisal Khan describes his position as being that The banned "riba" in the Quran referred to a particular custom, "riba al-nasiah" or "riba al-jahaliyah", where when the debt came due it was traditional to ask the borrower `will you pay or will you "riba"?` If the borrower chose the latter, he would be granted an extension on the loan but the amount due would be doubled -- hense the "riba". ... If the borrower then defaulted on the doubled amount, his debt was redoubled and he was given another time extension: if unable to pay, he and all his possessions could be auctioned off to satisfy his creditors.Rahman himself wrote that the initial interest itself was not usurious and was, therefore, not considered riba. What made it riba was the increase ... that raised the principal several-fold by continued redoubling.This contradicted the contention of famous Islamist author Maulana Maududi that there was no initial interest—that money lenders made initial loans "granted free of interest"—which was doubtful on the grounds that professional moneylenders would ever make loans for free. Rahman concluded that the Quran banned "extreme usury and so by extension injustice but not interest."Rahman criticizes the pre-modern revivalist movement of the eighteenth and nineteenth century for discouraging intellectualism; Modernism for selectively using passages and not being grounded in methodology; and neo-fundamentalism for likewise not being based on proper analyses. Rather than Islamic secularism, he was most optimistic about a "neo-modernism" based on an Islamic methodology, in contrast to previous reform efforts.
|
[
"Durham University",
"McGill University"
] |
|
Who was the head of Taitung County in Mar, 2021?
|
March 01, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Rao Ching-ling"
]
}
|
L2_Q249904_P6_2
|
Kuang Li-chen is the head of the government of Taitung County from Apr, 2006 to Dec, 2009.
Justin Huang is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2009 to Dec, 2018.
Rao Ching-ling is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Taitung CountyTaitung County (; Mandarin pinyin: "Táidōng Xiàn"; Hokkien POJ: "Tâi-tang-koān"; Hakka PFS: "Thòi-tûng-yen"; Paiwan: "Valangaw") is the third largest county in Taiwan, located primarily on the island's southeastern coast and also including Green Island, Orchid Island and Lesser Orchid Island.While its name means "Eastern Taiwan", it is also known as "Houshan" () by many of the locals, meaning behind the mountains or the back mountains.In 1887, the new Fujian-Taiwan Province included Taitung Prefecture as one of four prefectures.During the Japanese rule of Taiwan, Taitung County was administered as Taitō Prefecture.After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945, Taitung was established as a county of Taiwan Province on 25 December the same year.Taitung runs along the south east coast of Taiwan. Taitung county, controlling is the 3rd largest county in Taiwan after Hualien County and Nantou County. Mainland Taitung County's coastline is long. The Huatung Valley runs along the northern half of the county. Taitung currently has a population of 234,123.Due in part to its remote location and isolation by mountains from Taiwan's main population centers, Taitung was the last part of the island to be colonized by Han Chinese immigrants (late 19th century). Throughout the 20th century Taitung remained an economic backwater. Sparsely populated even today, this isolation may have been a blessing in disguise, as Taitung mostly escaped the urbanization and pollution that have come to plague much of the island's lowland areas.In addition to the area on Taiwan proper, the county includes two major islands, Green Island or Isla Verde and Orchid Island. Green Island was home to an infamous penal colony used for political prisoners during the "White Terror" period of Chinese Nationalist (KMT) rule (from 1947 until the end of martial law in 1987). Orchid Island, home of the Tao people (Taiwanese aborigines closely related to the people of the northern Philippines), has become a major tourist attraction despite the government-operated Taiwan Power Company's controversial use of part of the island as a nuclear waste dump.Taitung County is divided into 1 city, 2 urban townships, 8 rural townships and 5 mountain indigenous townships. Taitung County has the second highest number of mountain indigenous townships in Taiwan after Pingtung County. The seat of the county is located at Taitung City, where it houses the Taitung County Government and Taitung County Council. The current Magistrate of Taitung County is Rao Ching-ling of the Kuomintang.Colors indicates the common languages status of Hakka and Formosan languages within each division.Taitung County elected one Democratic Progressive Party legislator to the Legislative Yuan during the 2016 Republic of China legislative election.Taitung County is home to seven aboriginal ethnics, including Amis, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai and Yami. Taitung County has the largest aboriginal to overall population of a county or city in Taiwan, at 35.5%.Education in Taitung County is administered under the Education Department of the Taitung County Government.Taitung County possesses a very diverse collection of aboriginal cultures. Because Taitung is probably one of the least affected counties by the settlement of the Han Chinese, most of the aboriginal cultures are still very much a part of everyday society.Taitung County houses the Lanyu Power Plant, a 6.5 MW fuel-fired power plant located in Orchid Island.Duoliang Station, Lüdao Lighthouse, Moving Castle and Taitung Chinese Association.Beinan Cultural Park, Dulan Site and Green Island White Terror Memorial Park.Lanyu Flying Fish Cultural Museum, National Museum of Prehistory, Rice Village Museum, Taitung Art Museum, Taitung County Museum of Natural History, Taitung Story Museum, Wu Tao Chishang Lunch Box Cultural History Museum.Baxian Caves, Chulu Ranch, Dapo Pond, Dulan Mountain, , , Green Island, Jhihben National Forest Recreation Area, Orchid Island, Sanxiantai, Sika Deer Ecological Park, Taitung Forest Park and Zhaori Hot Spring.Taitung County houses the international Taitung Airport in the mainland Taitung County of Taitung City and another two airports at the outlying islands, which are Lüdao Airport in Green Island and Lanyu Airport in Orchid Island.Taitung County is crossed by two Taiwan Railways Administration lines of South-Link Line and Hualien–Taitung Line. The stations consist of Chishang, Dawu, Guanshan, Guzhuang, Haiduan, Jinlun, Kangle, Longxi, Luye, Ruihe, Ruiyuan, Shanli, Taimali, Taitung and Zhiben Station.Chenggong Fish Harbor, Fugang Fishery Harbor and Green Island Nanliao Harbor.
|
[
"Justin Huang",
"Kuang Li-chen"
] |
|
Who was the head of Taitung County in 2021-03-01?
|
March 01, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Rao Ching-ling"
]
}
|
L2_Q249904_P6_2
|
Kuang Li-chen is the head of the government of Taitung County from Apr, 2006 to Dec, 2009.
Justin Huang is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2009 to Dec, 2018.
Rao Ching-ling is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Taitung CountyTaitung County (; Mandarin pinyin: "Táidōng Xiàn"; Hokkien POJ: "Tâi-tang-koān"; Hakka PFS: "Thòi-tûng-yen"; Paiwan: "Valangaw") is the third largest county in Taiwan, located primarily on the island's southeastern coast and also including Green Island, Orchid Island and Lesser Orchid Island.While its name means "Eastern Taiwan", it is also known as "Houshan" () by many of the locals, meaning behind the mountains or the back mountains.In 1887, the new Fujian-Taiwan Province included Taitung Prefecture as one of four prefectures.During the Japanese rule of Taiwan, Taitung County was administered as Taitō Prefecture.After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945, Taitung was established as a county of Taiwan Province on 25 December the same year.Taitung runs along the south east coast of Taiwan. Taitung county, controlling is the 3rd largest county in Taiwan after Hualien County and Nantou County. Mainland Taitung County's coastline is long. The Huatung Valley runs along the northern half of the county. Taitung currently has a population of 234,123.Due in part to its remote location and isolation by mountains from Taiwan's main population centers, Taitung was the last part of the island to be colonized by Han Chinese immigrants (late 19th century). Throughout the 20th century Taitung remained an economic backwater. Sparsely populated even today, this isolation may have been a blessing in disguise, as Taitung mostly escaped the urbanization and pollution that have come to plague much of the island's lowland areas.In addition to the area on Taiwan proper, the county includes two major islands, Green Island or Isla Verde and Orchid Island. Green Island was home to an infamous penal colony used for political prisoners during the "White Terror" period of Chinese Nationalist (KMT) rule (from 1947 until the end of martial law in 1987). Orchid Island, home of the Tao people (Taiwanese aborigines closely related to the people of the northern Philippines), has become a major tourist attraction despite the government-operated Taiwan Power Company's controversial use of part of the island as a nuclear waste dump.Taitung County is divided into 1 city, 2 urban townships, 8 rural townships and 5 mountain indigenous townships. Taitung County has the second highest number of mountain indigenous townships in Taiwan after Pingtung County. The seat of the county is located at Taitung City, where it houses the Taitung County Government and Taitung County Council. The current Magistrate of Taitung County is Rao Ching-ling of the Kuomintang.Colors indicates the common languages status of Hakka and Formosan languages within each division.Taitung County elected one Democratic Progressive Party legislator to the Legislative Yuan during the 2016 Republic of China legislative election.Taitung County is home to seven aboriginal ethnics, including Amis, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai and Yami. Taitung County has the largest aboriginal to overall population of a county or city in Taiwan, at 35.5%.Education in Taitung County is administered under the Education Department of the Taitung County Government.Taitung County possesses a very diverse collection of aboriginal cultures. Because Taitung is probably one of the least affected counties by the settlement of the Han Chinese, most of the aboriginal cultures are still very much a part of everyday society.Taitung County houses the Lanyu Power Plant, a 6.5 MW fuel-fired power plant located in Orchid Island.Duoliang Station, Lüdao Lighthouse, Moving Castle and Taitung Chinese Association.Beinan Cultural Park, Dulan Site and Green Island White Terror Memorial Park.Lanyu Flying Fish Cultural Museum, National Museum of Prehistory, Rice Village Museum, Taitung Art Museum, Taitung County Museum of Natural History, Taitung Story Museum, Wu Tao Chishang Lunch Box Cultural History Museum.Baxian Caves, Chulu Ranch, Dapo Pond, Dulan Mountain, , , Green Island, Jhihben National Forest Recreation Area, Orchid Island, Sanxiantai, Sika Deer Ecological Park, Taitung Forest Park and Zhaori Hot Spring.Taitung County houses the international Taitung Airport in the mainland Taitung County of Taitung City and another two airports at the outlying islands, which are Lüdao Airport in Green Island and Lanyu Airport in Orchid Island.Taitung County is crossed by two Taiwan Railways Administration lines of South-Link Line and Hualien–Taitung Line. The stations consist of Chishang, Dawu, Guanshan, Guzhuang, Haiduan, Jinlun, Kangle, Longxi, Luye, Ruihe, Ruiyuan, Shanli, Taimali, Taitung and Zhiben Station.Chenggong Fish Harbor, Fugang Fishery Harbor and Green Island Nanliao Harbor.
|
[
"Justin Huang",
"Kuang Li-chen"
] |
|
Who was the head of Taitung County in 01/03/2021?
|
March 01, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Rao Ching-ling"
]
}
|
L2_Q249904_P6_2
|
Kuang Li-chen is the head of the government of Taitung County from Apr, 2006 to Dec, 2009.
Justin Huang is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2009 to Dec, 2018.
Rao Ching-ling is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Taitung CountyTaitung County (; Mandarin pinyin: "Táidōng Xiàn"; Hokkien POJ: "Tâi-tang-koān"; Hakka PFS: "Thòi-tûng-yen"; Paiwan: "Valangaw") is the third largest county in Taiwan, located primarily on the island's southeastern coast and also including Green Island, Orchid Island and Lesser Orchid Island.While its name means "Eastern Taiwan", it is also known as "Houshan" () by many of the locals, meaning behind the mountains or the back mountains.In 1887, the new Fujian-Taiwan Province included Taitung Prefecture as one of four prefectures.During the Japanese rule of Taiwan, Taitung County was administered as Taitō Prefecture.After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945, Taitung was established as a county of Taiwan Province on 25 December the same year.Taitung runs along the south east coast of Taiwan. Taitung county, controlling is the 3rd largest county in Taiwan after Hualien County and Nantou County. Mainland Taitung County's coastline is long. The Huatung Valley runs along the northern half of the county. Taitung currently has a population of 234,123.Due in part to its remote location and isolation by mountains from Taiwan's main population centers, Taitung was the last part of the island to be colonized by Han Chinese immigrants (late 19th century). Throughout the 20th century Taitung remained an economic backwater. Sparsely populated even today, this isolation may have been a blessing in disguise, as Taitung mostly escaped the urbanization and pollution that have come to plague much of the island's lowland areas.In addition to the area on Taiwan proper, the county includes two major islands, Green Island or Isla Verde and Orchid Island. Green Island was home to an infamous penal colony used for political prisoners during the "White Terror" period of Chinese Nationalist (KMT) rule (from 1947 until the end of martial law in 1987). Orchid Island, home of the Tao people (Taiwanese aborigines closely related to the people of the northern Philippines), has become a major tourist attraction despite the government-operated Taiwan Power Company's controversial use of part of the island as a nuclear waste dump.Taitung County is divided into 1 city, 2 urban townships, 8 rural townships and 5 mountain indigenous townships. Taitung County has the second highest number of mountain indigenous townships in Taiwan after Pingtung County. The seat of the county is located at Taitung City, where it houses the Taitung County Government and Taitung County Council. The current Magistrate of Taitung County is Rao Ching-ling of the Kuomintang.Colors indicates the common languages status of Hakka and Formosan languages within each division.Taitung County elected one Democratic Progressive Party legislator to the Legislative Yuan during the 2016 Republic of China legislative election.Taitung County is home to seven aboriginal ethnics, including Amis, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai and Yami. Taitung County has the largest aboriginal to overall population of a county or city in Taiwan, at 35.5%.Education in Taitung County is administered under the Education Department of the Taitung County Government.Taitung County possesses a very diverse collection of aboriginal cultures. Because Taitung is probably one of the least affected counties by the settlement of the Han Chinese, most of the aboriginal cultures are still very much a part of everyday society.Taitung County houses the Lanyu Power Plant, a 6.5 MW fuel-fired power plant located in Orchid Island.Duoliang Station, Lüdao Lighthouse, Moving Castle and Taitung Chinese Association.Beinan Cultural Park, Dulan Site and Green Island White Terror Memorial Park.Lanyu Flying Fish Cultural Museum, National Museum of Prehistory, Rice Village Museum, Taitung Art Museum, Taitung County Museum of Natural History, Taitung Story Museum, Wu Tao Chishang Lunch Box Cultural History Museum.Baxian Caves, Chulu Ranch, Dapo Pond, Dulan Mountain, , , Green Island, Jhihben National Forest Recreation Area, Orchid Island, Sanxiantai, Sika Deer Ecological Park, Taitung Forest Park and Zhaori Hot Spring.Taitung County houses the international Taitung Airport in the mainland Taitung County of Taitung City and another two airports at the outlying islands, which are Lüdao Airport in Green Island and Lanyu Airport in Orchid Island.Taitung County is crossed by two Taiwan Railways Administration lines of South-Link Line and Hualien–Taitung Line. The stations consist of Chishang, Dawu, Guanshan, Guzhuang, Haiduan, Jinlun, Kangle, Longxi, Luye, Ruihe, Ruiyuan, Shanli, Taimali, Taitung and Zhiben Station.Chenggong Fish Harbor, Fugang Fishery Harbor and Green Island Nanliao Harbor.
|
[
"Justin Huang",
"Kuang Li-chen"
] |
|
Who was the head of Taitung County in Mar 01, 2021?
|
March 01, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Rao Ching-ling"
]
}
|
L2_Q249904_P6_2
|
Kuang Li-chen is the head of the government of Taitung County from Apr, 2006 to Dec, 2009.
Justin Huang is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2009 to Dec, 2018.
Rao Ching-ling is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Taitung CountyTaitung County (; Mandarin pinyin: "Táidōng Xiàn"; Hokkien POJ: "Tâi-tang-koān"; Hakka PFS: "Thòi-tûng-yen"; Paiwan: "Valangaw") is the third largest county in Taiwan, located primarily on the island's southeastern coast and also including Green Island, Orchid Island and Lesser Orchid Island.While its name means "Eastern Taiwan", it is also known as "Houshan" () by many of the locals, meaning behind the mountains or the back mountains.In 1887, the new Fujian-Taiwan Province included Taitung Prefecture as one of four prefectures.During the Japanese rule of Taiwan, Taitung County was administered as Taitō Prefecture.After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945, Taitung was established as a county of Taiwan Province on 25 December the same year.Taitung runs along the south east coast of Taiwan. Taitung county, controlling is the 3rd largest county in Taiwan after Hualien County and Nantou County. Mainland Taitung County's coastline is long. The Huatung Valley runs along the northern half of the county. Taitung currently has a population of 234,123.Due in part to its remote location and isolation by mountains from Taiwan's main population centers, Taitung was the last part of the island to be colonized by Han Chinese immigrants (late 19th century). Throughout the 20th century Taitung remained an economic backwater. Sparsely populated even today, this isolation may have been a blessing in disguise, as Taitung mostly escaped the urbanization and pollution that have come to plague much of the island's lowland areas.In addition to the area on Taiwan proper, the county includes two major islands, Green Island or Isla Verde and Orchid Island. Green Island was home to an infamous penal colony used for political prisoners during the "White Terror" period of Chinese Nationalist (KMT) rule (from 1947 until the end of martial law in 1987). Orchid Island, home of the Tao people (Taiwanese aborigines closely related to the people of the northern Philippines), has become a major tourist attraction despite the government-operated Taiwan Power Company's controversial use of part of the island as a nuclear waste dump.Taitung County is divided into 1 city, 2 urban townships, 8 rural townships and 5 mountain indigenous townships. Taitung County has the second highest number of mountain indigenous townships in Taiwan after Pingtung County. The seat of the county is located at Taitung City, where it houses the Taitung County Government and Taitung County Council. The current Magistrate of Taitung County is Rao Ching-ling of the Kuomintang.Colors indicates the common languages status of Hakka and Formosan languages within each division.Taitung County elected one Democratic Progressive Party legislator to the Legislative Yuan during the 2016 Republic of China legislative election.Taitung County is home to seven aboriginal ethnics, including Amis, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai and Yami. Taitung County has the largest aboriginal to overall population of a county or city in Taiwan, at 35.5%.Education in Taitung County is administered under the Education Department of the Taitung County Government.Taitung County possesses a very diverse collection of aboriginal cultures. Because Taitung is probably one of the least affected counties by the settlement of the Han Chinese, most of the aboriginal cultures are still very much a part of everyday society.Taitung County houses the Lanyu Power Plant, a 6.5 MW fuel-fired power plant located in Orchid Island.Duoliang Station, Lüdao Lighthouse, Moving Castle and Taitung Chinese Association.Beinan Cultural Park, Dulan Site and Green Island White Terror Memorial Park.Lanyu Flying Fish Cultural Museum, National Museum of Prehistory, Rice Village Museum, Taitung Art Museum, Taitung County Museum of Natural History, Taitung Story Museum, Wu Tao Chishang Lunch Box Cultural History Museum.Baxian Caves, Chulu Ranch, Dapo Pond, Dulan Mountain, , , Green Island, Jhihben National Forest Recreation Area, Orchid Island, Sanxiantai, Sika Deer Ecological Park, Taitung Forest Park and Zhaori Hot Spring.Taitung County houses the international Taitung Airport in the mainland Taitung County of Taitung City and another two airports at the outlying islands, which are Lüdao Airport in Green Island and Lanyu Airport in Orchid Island.Taitung County is crossed by two Taiwan Railways Administration lines of South-Link Line and Hualien–Taitung Line. The stations consist of Chishang, Dawu, Guanshan, Guzhuang, Haiduan, Jinlun, Kangle, Longxi, Luye, Ruihe, Ruiyuan, Shanli, Taimali, Taitung and Zhiben Station.Chenggong Fish Harbor, Fugang Fishery Harbor and Green Island Nanliao Harbor.
|
[
"Justin Huang",
"Kuang Li-chen"
] |
|
Who was the head of Taitung County in 03/01/2021?
|
March 01, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Rao Ching-ling"
]
}
|
L2_Q249904_P6_2
|
Kuang Li-chen is the head of the government of Taitung County from Apr, 2006 to Dec, 2009.
Justin Huang is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2009 to Dec, 2018.
Rao Ching-ling is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Taitung CountyTaitung County (; Mandarin pinyin: "Táidōng Xiàn"; Hokkien POJ: "Tâi-tang-koān"; Hakka PFS: "Thòi-tûng-yen"; Paiwan: "Valangaw") is the third largest county in Taiwan, located primarily on the island's southeastern coast and also including Green Island, Orchid Island and Lesser Orchid Island.While its name means "Eastern Taiwan", it is also known as "Houshan" () by many of the locals, meaning behind the mountains or the back mountains.In 1887, the new Fujian-Taiwan Province included Taitung Prefecture as one of four prefectures.During the Japanese rule of Taiwan, Taitung County was administered as Taitō Prefecture.After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945, Taitung was established as a county of Taiwan Province on 25 December the same year.Taitung runs along the south east coast of Taiwan. Taitung county, controlling is the 3rd largest county in Taiwan after Hualien County and Nantou County. Mainland Taitung County's coastline is long. The Huatung Valley runs along the northern half of the county. Taitung currently has a population of 234,123.Due in part to its remote location and isolation by mountains from Taiwan's main population centers, Taitung was the last part of the island to be colonized by Han Chinese immigrants (late 19th century). Throughout the 20th century Taitung remained an economic backwater. Sparsely populated even today, this isolation may have been a blessing in disguise, as Taitung mostly escaped the urbanization and pollution that have come to plague much of the island's lowland areas.In addition to the area on Taiwan proper, the county includes two major islands, Green Island or Isla Verde and Orchid Island. Green Island was home to an infamous penal colony used for political prisoners during the "White Terror" period of Chinese Nationalist (KMT) rule (from 1947 until the end of martial law in 1987). Orchid Island, home of the Tao people (Taiwanese aborigines closely related to the people of the northern Philippines), has become a major tourist attraction despite the government-operated Taiwan Power Company's controversial use of part of the island as a nuclear waste dump.Taitung County is divided into 1 city, 2 urban townships, 8 rural townships and 5 mountain indigenous townships. Taitung County has the second highest number of mountain indigenous townships in Taiwan after Pingtung County. The seat of the county is located at Taitung City, where it houses the Taitung County Government and Taitung County Council. The current Magistrate of Taitung County is Rao Ching-ling of the Kuomintang.Colors indicates the common languages status of Hakka and Formosan languages within each division.Taitung County elected one Democratic Progressive Party legislator to the Legislative Yuan during the 2016 Republic of China legislative election.Taitung County is home to seven aboriginal ethnics, including Amis, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai and Yami. Taitung County has the largest aboriginal to overall population of a county or city in Taiwan, at 35.5%.Education in Taitung County is administered under the Education Department of the Taitung County Government.Taitung County possesses a very diverse collection of aboriginal cultures. Because Taitung is probably one of the least affected counties by the settlement of the Han Chinese, most of the aboriginal cultures are still very much a part of everyday society.Taitung County houses the Lanyu Power Plant, a 6.5 MW fuel-fired power plant located in Orchid Island.Duoliang Station, Lüdao Lighthouse, Moving Castle and Taitung Chinese Association.Beinan Cultural Park, Dulan Site and Green Island White Terror Memorial Park.Lanyu Flying Fish Cultural Museum, National Museum of Prehistory, Rice Village Museum, Taitung Art Museum, Taitung County Museum of Natural History, Taitung Story Museum, Wu Tao Chishang Lunch Box Cultural History Museum.Baxian Caves, Chulu Ranch, Dapo Pond, Dulan Mountain, , , Green Island, Jhihben National Forest Recreation Area, Orchid Island, Sanxiantai, Sika Deer Ecological Park, Taitung Forest Park and Zhaori Hot Spring.Taitung County houses the international Taitung Airport in the mainland Taitung County of Taitung City and another two airports at the outlying islands, which are Lüdao Airport in Green Island and Lanyu Airport in Orchid Island.Taitung County is crossed by two Taiwan Railways Administration lines of South-Link Line and Hualien–Taitung Line. The stations consist of Chishang, Dawu, Guanshan, Guzhuang, Haiduan, Jinlun, Kangle, Longxi, Luye, Ruihe, Ruiyuan, Shanli, Taimali, Taitung and Zhiben Station.Chenggong Fish Harbor, Fugang Fishery Harbor and Green Island Nanliao Harbor.
|
[
"Justin Huang",
"Kuang Li-chen"
] |
|
Who was the head of Taitung County in 01-Mar-202101-March-2021?
|
March 01, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Rao Ching-ling"
]
}
|
L2_Q249904_P6_2
|
Kuang Li-chen is the head of the government of Taitung County from Apr, 2006 to Dec, 2009.
Justin Huang is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2009 to Dec, 2018.
Rao Ching-ling is the head of the government of Taitung County from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Taitung CountyTaitung County (; Mandarin pinyin: "Táidōng Xiàn"; Hokkien POJ: "Tâi-tang-koān"; Hakka PFS: "Thòi-tûng-yen"; Paiwan: "Valangaw") is the third largest county in Taiwan, located primarily on the island's southeastern coast and also including Green Island, Orchid Island and Lesser Orchid Island.While its name means "Eastern Taiwan", it is also known as "Houshan" () by many of the locals, meaning behind the mountains or the back mountains.In 1887, the new Fujian-Taiwan Province included Taitung Prefecture as one of four prefectures.During the Japanese rule of Taiwan, Taitung County was administered as Taitō Prefecture.After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945, Taitung was established as a county of Taiwan Province on 25 December the same year.Taitung runs along the south east coast of Taiwan. Taitung county, controlling is the 3rd largest county in Taiwan after Hualien County and Nantou County. Mainland Taitung County's coastline is long. The Huatung Valley runs along the northern half of the county. Taitung currently has a population of 234,123.Due in part to its remote location and isolation by mountains from Taiwan's main population centers, Taitung was the last part of the island to be colonized by Han Chinese immigrants (late 19th century). Throughout the 20th century Taitung remained an economic backwater. Sparsely populated even today, this isolation may have been a blessing in disguise, as Taitung mostly escaped the urbanization and pollution that have come to plague much of the island's lowland areas.In addition to the area on Taiwan proper, the county includes two major islands, Green Island or Isla Verde and Orchid Island. Green Island was home to an infamous penal colony used for political prisoners during the "White Terror" period of Chinese Nationalist (KMT) rule (from 1947 until the end of martial law in 1987). Orchid Island, home of the Tao people (Taiwanese aborigines closely related to the people of the northern Philippines), has become a major tourist attraction despite the government-operated Taiwan Power Company's controversial use of part of the island as a nuclear waste dump.Taitung County is divided into 1 city, 2 urban townships, 8 rural townships and 5 mountain indigenous townships. Taitung County has the second highest number of mountain indigenous townships in Taiwan after Pingtung County. The seat of the county is located at Taitung City, where it houses the Taitung County Government and Taitung County Council. The current Magistrate of Taitung County is Rao Ching-ling of the Kuomintang.Colors indicates the common languages status of Hakka and Formosan languages within each division.Taitung County elected one Democratic Progressive Party legislator to the Legislative Yuan during the 2016 Republic of China legislative election.Taitung County is home to seven aboriginal ethnics, including Amis, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai and Yami. Taitung County has the largest aboriginal to overall population of a county or city in Taiwan, at 35.5%.Education in Taitung County is administered under the Education Department of the Taitung County Government.Taitung County possesses a very diverse collection of aboriginal cultures. Because Taitung is probably one of the least affected counties by the settlement of the Han Chinese, most of the aboriginal cultures are still very much a part of everyday society.Taitung County houses the Lanyu Power Plant, a 6.5 MW fuel-fired power plant located in Orchid Island.Duoliang Station, Lüdao Lighthouse, Moving Castle and Taitung Chinese Association.Beinan Cultural Park, Dulan Site and Green Island White Terror Memorial Park.Lanyu Flying Fish Cultural Museum, National Museum of Prehistory, Rice Village Museum, Taitung Art Museum, Taitung County Museum of Natural History, Taitung Story Museum, Wu Tao Chishang Lunch Box Cultural History Museum.Baxian Caves, Chulu Ranch, Dapo Pond, Dulan Mountain, , , Green Island, Jhihben National Forest Recreation Area, Orchid Island, Sanxiantai, Sika Deer Ecological Park, Taitung Forest Park and Zhaori Hot Spring.Taitung County houses the international Taitung Airport in the mainland Taitung County of Taitung City and another two airports at the outlying islands, which are Lüdao Airport in Green Island and Lanyu Airport in Orchid Island.Taitung County is crossed by two Taiwan Railways Administration lines of South-Link Line and Hualien–Taitung Line. The stations consist of Chishang, Dawu, Guanshan, Guzhuang, Haiduan, Jinlun, Kangle, Longxi, Luye, Ruihe, Ruiyuan, Shanli, Taimali, Taitung and Zhiben Station.Chenggong Fish Harbor, Fugang Fishery Harbor and Green Island Nanliao Harbor.
|
[
"Justin Huang",
"Kuang Li-chen"
] |
|
Who was the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country in Jan, 2011?
|
January 14, 2011
|
{
"text": [
"Antonio Basagoiti Pastor"
]
}
|
L2_Q3325912_P488_3
|
Arantza Quiroga is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Alfonso Alonso Aranegui is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2020.
José Eugenio Azpiroz is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1989.
María San Gil is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2008.
Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Jaime Mayor Oreja is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1996.
Antonio Basagoiti Pastor is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
|
People's Party of the Basque CountryThe People's Party of the Basque Country (, PP; , EAP) is the regional section of the People's Party of Spain (PP) in the Basque Country. It was formed in 1989 from the re-foundation of the People's Alliance.It was founded in January 1989 with the birth of the Spanish People's Party, heir of People's Alliance. Its headquarters are located in the Gran Via de Bilbao and is chaired since 2015 by Alfonso Alonso Aranegui.
|
[
"Jaime Mayor Oreja",
"María San Gil",
"Alfonso Alonso Aranegui",
"José Eugenio Azpiroz",
"Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo",
"Arantza Quiroga"
] |
|
Who was the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country in 2011-01-14?
|
January 14, 2011
|
{
"text": [
"Antonio Basagoiti Pastor"
]
}
|
L2_Q3325912_P488_3
|
Arantza Quiroga is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Alfonso Alonso Aranegui is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2020.
José Eugenio Azpiroz is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1989.
María San Gil is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2008.
Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Jaime Mayor Oreja is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1996.
Antonio Basagoiti Pastor is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
|
People's Party of the Basque CountryThe People's Party of the Basque Country (, PP; , EAP) is the regional section of the People's Party of Spain (PP) in the Basque Country. It was formed in 1989 from the re-foundation of the People's Alliance.It was founded in January 1989 with the birth of the Spanish People's Party, heir of People's Alliance. Its headquarters are located in the Gran Via de Bilbao and is chaired since 2015 by Alfonso Alonso Aranegui.
|
[
"Jaime Mayor Oreja",
"María San Gil",
"Alfonso Alonso Aranegui",
"José Eugenio Azpiroz",
"Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo",
"Arantza Quiroga"
] |
|
Who was the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country in 14/01/2011?
|
January 14, 2011
|
{
"text": [
"Antonio Basagoiti Pastor"
]
}
|
L2_Q3325912_P488_3
|
Arantza Quiroga is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Alfonso Alonso Aranegui is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2020.
José Eugenio Azpiroz is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1989.
María San Gil is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2008.
Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Jaime Mayor Oreja is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1996.
Antonio Basagoiti Pastor is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
|
People's Party of the Basque CountryThe People's Party of the Basque Country (, PP; , EAP) is the regional section of the People's Party of Spain (PP) in the Basque Country. It was formed in 1989 from the re-foundation of the People's Alliance.It was founded in January 1989 with the birth of the Spanish People's Party, heir of People's Alliance. Its headquarters are located in the Gran Via de Bilbao and is chaired since 2015 by Alfonso Alonso Aranegui.
|
[
"Jaime Mayor Oreja",
"María San Gil",
"Alfonso Alonso Aranegui",
"José Eugenio Azpiroz",
"Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo",
"Arantza Quiroga"
] |
|
Who was the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country in Jan 14, 2011?
|
January 14, 2011
|
{
"text": [
"Antonio Basagoiti Pastor"
]
}
|
L2_Q3325912_P488_3
|
Arantza Quiroga is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Alfonso Alonso Aranegui is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2020.
José Eugenio Azpiroz is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1989.
María San Gil is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2008.
Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Jaime Mayor Oreja is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1996.
Antonio Basagoiti Pastor is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
|
People's Party of the Basque CountryThe People's Party of the Basque Country (, PP; , EAP) is the regional section of the People's Party of Spain (PP) in the Basque Country. It was formed in 1989 from the re-foundation of the People's Alliance.It was founded in January 1989 with the birth of the Spanish People's Party, heir of People's Alliance. Its headquarters are located in the Gran Via de Bilbao and is chaired since 2015 by Alfonso Alonso Aranegui.
|
[
"Jaime Mayor Oreja",
"María San Gil",
"Alfonso Alonso Aranegui",
"José Eugenio Azpiroz",
"Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo",
"Arantza Quiroga"
] |
|
Who was the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country in 01/14/2011?
|
January 14, 2011
|
{
"text": [
"Antonio Basagoiti Pastor"
]
}
|
L2_Q3325912_P488_3
|
Arantza Quiroga is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Alfonso Alonso Aranegui is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2020.
José Eugenio Azpiroz is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1989.
María San Gil is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2008.
Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Jaime Mayor Oreja is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1996.
Antonio Basagoiti Pastor is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
|
People's Party of the Basque CountryThe People's Party of the Basque Country (, PP; , EAP) is the regional section of the People's Party of Spain (PP) in the Basque Country. It was formed in 1989 from the re-foundation of the People's Alliance.It was founded in January 1989 with the birth of the Spanish People's Party, heir of People's Alliance. Its headquarters are located in the Gran Via de Bilbao and is chaired since 2015 by Alfonso Alonso Aranegui.
|
[
"Jaime Mayor Oreja",
"María San Gil",
"Alfonso Alonso Aranegui",
"José Eugenio Azpiroz",
"Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo",
"Arantza Quiroga"
] |
|
Who was the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country in 14-Jan-201114-January-2011?
|
January 14, 2011
|
{
"text": [
"Antonio Basagoiti Pastor"
]
}
|
L2_Q3325912_P488_3
|
Arantza Quiroga is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Alfonso Alonso Aranegui is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2020.
José Eugenio Azpiroz is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1989.
María San Gil is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2008.
Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2020 to Dec, 2022.
Jaime Mayor Oreja is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1996.
Antonio Basagoiti Pastor is the chair of People's Party of the Basque Country from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
|
People's Party of the Basque CountryThe People's Party of the Basque Country (, PP; , EAP) is the regional section of the People's Party of Spain (PP) in the Basque Country. It was formed in 1989 from the re-foundation of the People's Alliance.It was founded in January 1989 with the birth of the Spanish People's Party, heir of People's Alliance. Its headquarters are located in the Gran Via de Bilbao and is chaired since 2015 by Alfonso Alonso Aranegui.
|
[
"Jaime Mayor Oreja",
"María San Gil",
"Alfonso Alonso Aranegui",
"José Eugenio Azpiroz",
"Carlos José Iturgaiz Angulo",
"Arantza Quiroga"
] |
|
Which team did Juvhel Tsoumou play for in Jan, 2012?
|
January 01, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"TSV Hartberg",
"Plymouth Argyle F.C.",
"Preston North End F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q542784_P54_4
|
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Feb, 2021 to Jul, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FK Senica from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C. from Feb, 2020 to Feb, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Wacker Burghausen from Jan, 2015 to Jul, 2017.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Preston North End F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Plymouth Argyle F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Waldhof Mannheim from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Alemannia Aachen from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Steaua București from Sep, 2019 to Dec, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for TSV Hartberg from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Hermannstadt from Jul, 2018 to Sep, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Ermis Aradippou FC from Jul, 2017 to Jul, 2018.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Congo national football team from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt II from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
|
Juvhel TsoumouThe striker was raised in the Congolese capital Brazzaville where he showed his talent on sand pitches. As a 10-year-old, Tsoumou came with his mother, who was studying economics, to Zwickau, where he began to play in the youth system of FSV Zwickau.In 2003, Charly Körbel led him to the Eintracht Frankfurt football academy. Here he played until July 2006 before moving to the academy of Blackburn Rovers.After a season in England he returned to Eintracht because he saw a better future for himself at Frankfurt. On 4 September 2007, due to call-ups for the national youth team, Eintracht manager Friedhelm Funkel gave Tsoumou the chance to train with the first squad. For the Bundesliga match on 10 November 2007 against Borussia Dortmund the striker was in the squad for the first time. Youth Coordinator, Holger Mueller gave an interview on him and compared Tsoumou to Jermaine Jones due to his athleticism and ball-winning ability.Tsoumou debuted in the Bundesliga on 28 September 2008 against Arminia Bielefeld, when he was substituted in the 74th minute for Nikos Liberopoulos. Since making his debut, Tsoumou moved to the reserves where he was able to get more playing time and scored 5 in 29 appearance or spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad. On 20 March 2010, Tsuomou scored his first goal for Frankfurt in the 87th minute to equalise against Bayern Munich but Martin Fenin scored a winning goal in a 2–1 win.He signed a contract with Alemannia Aachen on 4 August 2010. On 20 August 2010, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Union Berlin. However, Tsoumou, once again, was not able as he spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad or moved to the reserves.In 2011, he had a trial spell at Sheffield Wednesday.After a successful trial, Tsoumou signed a two-year deal with Preston North End. On 4 October 2011, he scored his first goal for Preston against Morecambe in the Johnstones Paint Trophy. Preston went on to win 7–6 on penalties after the game had finished 2–2. He scored his first goal in English football against Huddersfield Town with a tap in from Iain Hume's cross. He then scored in Preston's next two fixtures against Oldham Athletic and AFC Bournemouth respectively. However under new manager Graham Westley, Tsoumou struggled to get playing time.He was transfer listed by the club along with six other player in May 2012 in order for Westley to strengthen the Preston squad.On 3 July 2012, his contract was cancelled by mutual consent despite having one year left on his contract.On 31 January 2012, Tsoumou joined League Two side Plymouth Argyle on loan along with Alex MacDonald, until the end of the season. His move to Plymouth delighted manager Carl Fletcher. On 4 February 2012, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Southend United. On 31 March 2012, he scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 win over Bradford City which was a winning goal. On 5 May 2012, in the last game of the season, Tsoumou scored Plymouth's only goal in the match against Cheltenham Town which Plymouth lost.On 13 September 2012, Tsoumou signed with Austrian club TSV Hartberg.On 29 August 2013, he signed a two-year contract with FK Senica, following a free transfer. However his contract was cancelled and Tsoumou was released as a free agent on 1 January 2014.Tsoumou remained unattached until 14 November 2014 when he joined SV Waldhof Mannheim. He made 17 appearances, almost all from the bench, scoring 1 goal. He was released at the end of the 2014–15 Regionalliga season.Tsoumou joined SV Wacker Burghausen on 3 September 2015.Tsoumou joined FCSB on 12 September 2019.Juvhel Tsoumou has been capped by Germany at under-18 and under-19 level. He made two appearances for the under-18s against France in March 2008. Tsoumou made his under-19 debut against England in November 2008, replacing Taner Yalçın as a second-half substitute.He was pre-selected by Congo on 19 May 2017. Tsoumou made his debut for the Congo national football team in a 1-1 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification tie with Ghana on 1 September 2017.
|
[
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București"
] |
|
Which team did Juvhel Tsoumou play for in 2012-01-01?
|
January 01, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"TSV Hartberg",
"Plymouth Argyle F.C.",
"Preston North End F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q542784_P54_4
|
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Feb, 2021 to Jul, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FK Senica from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C. from Feb, 2020 to Feb, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Wacker Burghausen from Jan, 2015 to Jul, 2017.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Preston North End F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Plymouth Argyle F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Waldhof Mannheim from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Alemannia Aachen from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Steaua București from Sep, 2019 to Dec, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for TSV Hartberg from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Hermannstadt from Jul, 2018 to Sep, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Ermis Aradippou FC from Jul, 2017 to Jul, 2018.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Congo national football team from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt II from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
|
Juvhel TsoumouThe striker was raised in the Congolese capital Brazzaville where he showed his talent on sand pitches. As a 10-year-old, Tsoumou came with his mother, who was studying economics, to Zwickau, where he began to play in the youth system of FSV Zwickau.In 2003, Charly Körbel led him to the Eintracht Frankfurt football academy. Here he played until July 2006 before moving to the academy of Blackburn Rovers.After a season in England he returned to Eintracht because he saw a better future for himself at Frankfurt. On 4 September 2007, due to call-ups for the national youth team, Eintracht manager Friedhelm Funkel gave Tsoumou the chance to train with the first squad. For the Bundesliga match on 10 November 2007 against Borussia Dortmund the striker was in the squad for the first time. Youth Coordinator, Holger Mueller gave an interview on him and compared Tsoumou to Jermaine Jones due to his athleticism and ball-winning ability.Tsoumou debuted in the Bundesliga on 28 September 2008 against Arminia Bielefeld, when he was substituted in the 74th minute for Nikos Liberopoulos. Since making his debut, Tsoumou moved to the reserves where he was able to get more playing time and scored 5 in 29 appearance or spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad. On 20 March 2010, Tsuomou scored his first goal for Frankfurt in the 87th minute to equalise against Bayern Munich but Martin Fenin scored a winning goal in a 2–1 win.He signed a contract with Alemannia Aachen on 4 August 2010. On 20 August 2010, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Union Berlin. However, Tsoumou, once again, was not able as he spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad or moved to the reserves.In 2011, he had a trial spell at Sheffield Wednesday.After a successful trial, Tsoumou signed a two-year deal with Preston North End. On 4 October 2011, he scored his first goal for Preston against Morecambe in the Johnstones Paint Trophy. Preston went on to win 7–6 on penalties after the game had finished 2–2. He scored his first goal in English football against Huddersfield Town with a tap in from Iain Hume's cross. He then scored in Preston's next two fixtures against Oldham Athletic and AFC Bournemouth respectively. However under new manager Graham Westley, Tsoumou struggled to get playing time.He was transfer listed by the club along with six other player in May 2012 in order for Westley to strengthen the Preston squad.On 3 July 2012, his contract was cancelled by mutual consent despite having one year left on his contract.On 31 January 2012, Tsoumou joined League Two side Plymouth Argyle on loan along with Alex MacDonald, until the end of the season. His move to Plymouth delighted manager Carl Fletcher. On 4 February 2012, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Southend United. On 31 March 2012, he scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 win over Bradford City which was a winning goal. On 5 May 2012, in the last game of the season, Tsoumou scored Plymouth's only goal in the match against Cheltenham Town which Plymouth lost.On 13 September 2012, Tsoumou signed with Austrian club TSV Hartberg.On 29 August 2013, he signed a two-year contract with FK Senica, following a free transfer. However his contract was cancelled and Tsoumou was released as a free agent on 1 January 2014.Tsoumou remained unattached until 14 November 2014 when he joined SV Waldhof Mannheim. He made 17 appearances, almost all from the bench, scoring 1 goal. He was released at the end of the 2014–15 Regionalliga season.Tsoumou joined SV Wacker Burghausen on 3 September 2015.Tsoumou joined FCSB on 12 September 2019.Juvhel Tsoumou has been capped by Germany at under-18 and under-19 level. He made two appearances for the under-18s against France in March 2008. Tsoumou made his under-19 debut against England in November 2008, replacing Taner Yalçın as a second-half substitute.He was pre-selected by Congo on 19 May 2017. Tsoumou made his debut for the Congo national football team in a 1-1 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification tie with Ghana on 1 September 2017.
|
[
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București"
] |
|
Which team did Juvhel Tsoumou play for in 01/01/2012?
|
January 01, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"TSV Hartberg",
"Plymouth Argyle F.C.",
"Preston North End F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q542784_P54_4
|
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Feb, 2021 to Jul, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FK Senica from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C. from Feb, 2020 to Feb, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Wacker Burghausen from Jan, 2015 to Jul, 2017.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Preston North End F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Plymouth Argyle F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Waldhof Mannheim from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Alemannia Aachen from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Steaua București from Sep, 2019 to Dec, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for TSV Hartberg from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Hermannstadt from Jul, 2018 to Sep, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Ermis Aradippou FC from Jul, 2017 to Jul, 2018.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Congo national football team from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt II from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
|
Juvhel TsoumouThe striker was raised in the Congolese capital Brazzaville where he showed his talent on sand pitches. As a 10-year-old, Tsoumou came with his mother, who was studying economics, to Zwickau, where he began to play in the youth system of FSV Zwickau.In 2003, Charly Körbel led him to the Eintracht Frankfurt football academy. Here he played until July 2006 before moving to the academy of Blackburn Rovers.After a season in England he returned to Eintracht because he saw a better future for himself at Frankfurt. On 4 September 2007, due to call-ups for the national youth team, Eintracht manager Friedhelm Funkel gave Tsoumou the chance to train with the first squad. For the Bundesliga match on 10 November 2007 against Borussia Dortmund the striker was in the squad for the first time. Youth Coordinator, Holger Mueller gave an interview on him and compared Tsoumou to Jermaine Jones due to his athleticism and ball-winning ability.Tsoumou debuted in the Bundesliga on 28 September 2008 against Arminia Bielefeld, when he was substituted in the 74th minute for Nikos Liberopoulos. Since making his debut, Tsoumou moved to the reserves where he was able to get more playing time and scored 5 in 29 appearance or spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad. On 20 March 2010, Tsuomou scored his first goal for Frankfurt in the 87th minute to equalise against Bayern Munich but Martin Fenin scored a winning goal in a 2–1 win.He signed a contract with Alemannia Aachen on 4 August 2010. On 20 August 2010, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Union Berlin. However, Tsoumou, once again, was not able as he spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad or moved to the reserves.In 2011, he had a trial spell at Sheffield Wednesday.After a successful trial, Tsoumou signed a two-year deal with Preston North End. On 4 October 2011, he scored his first goal for Preston against Morecambe in the Johnstones Paint Trophy. Preston went on to win 7–6 on penalties after the game had finished 2–2. He scored his first goal in English football against Huddersfield Town with a tap in from Iain Hume's cross. He then scored in Preston's next two fixtures against Oldham Athletic and AFC Bournemouth respectively. However under new manager Graham Westley, Tsoumou struggled to get playing time.He was transfer listed by the club along with six other player in May 2012 in order for Westley to strengthen the Preston squad.On 3 July 2012, his contract was cancelled by mutual consent despite having one year left on his contract.On 31 January 2012, Tsoumou joined League Two side Plymouth Argyle on loan along with Alex MacDonald, until the end of the season. His move to Plymouth delighted manager Carl Fletcher. On 4 February 2012, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Southend United. On 31 March 2012, he scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 win over Bradford City which was a winning goal. On 5 May 2012, in the last game of the season, Tsoumou scored Plymouth's only goal in the match against Cheltenham Town which Plymouth lost.On 13 September 2012, Tsoumou signed with Austrian club TSV Hartberg.On 29 August 2013, he signed a two-year contract with FK Senica, following a free transfer. However his contract was cancelled and Tsoumou was released as a free agent on 1 January 2014.Tsoumou remained unattached until 14 November 2014 when he joined SV Waldhof Mannheim. He made 17 appearances, almost all from the bench, scoring 1 goal. He was released at the end of the 2014–15 Regionalliga season.Tsoumou joined SV Wacker Burghausen on 3 September 2015.Tsoumou joined FCSB on 12 September 2019.Juvhel Tsoumou has been capped by Germany at under-18 and under-19 level. He made two appearances for the under-18s against France in March 2008. Tsoumou made his under-19 debut against England in November 2008, replacing Taner Yalçın as a second-half substitute.He was pre-selected by Congo on 19 May 2017. Tsoumou made his debut for the Congo national football team in a 1-1 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification tie with Ghana on 1 September 2017.
|
[
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București"
] |
|
Which team did Juvhel Tsoumou play for in Jan 01, 2012?
|
January 01, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"TSV Hartberg",
"Plymouth Argyle F.C.",
"Preston North End F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q542784_P54_4
|
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Feb, 2021 to Jul, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FK Senica from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C. from Feb, 2020 to Feb, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Wacker Burghausen from Jan, 2015 to Jul, 2017.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Preston North End F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Plymouth Argyle F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Waldhof Mannheim from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Alemannia Aachen from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Steaua București from Sep, 2019 to Dec, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for TSV Hartberg from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Hermannstadt from Jul, 2018 to Sep, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Ermis Aradippou FC from Jul, 2017 to Jul, 2018.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Congo national football team from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt II from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
|
Juvhel TsoumouThe striker was raised in the Congolese capital Brazzaville where he showed his talent on sand pitches. As a 10-year-old, Tsoumou came with his mother, who was studying economics, to Zwickau, where he began to play in the youth system of FSV Zwickau.In 2003, Charly Körbel led him to the Eintracht Frankfurt football academy. Here he played until July 2006 before moving to the academy of Blackburn Rovers.After a season in England he returned to Eintracht because he saw a better future for himself at Frankfurt. On 4 September 2007, due to call-ups for the national youth team, Eintracht manager Friedhelm Funkel gave Tsoumou the chance to train with the first squad. For the Bundesliga match on 10 November 2007 against Borussia Dortmund the striker was in the squad for the first time. Youth Coordinator, Holger Mueller gave an interview on him and compared Tsoumou to Jermaine Jones due to his athleticism and ball-winning ability.Tsoumou debuted in the Bundesliga on 28 September 2008 against Arminia Bielefeld, when he was substituted in the 74th minute for Nikos Liberopoulos. Since making his debut, Tsoumou moved to the reserves where he was able to get more playing time and scored 5 in 29 appearance or spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad. On 20 March 2010, Tsuomou scored his first goal for Frankfurt in the 87th minute to equalise against Bayern Munich but Martin Fenin scored a winning goal in a 2–1 win.He signed a contract with Alemannia Aachen on 4 August 2010. On 20 August 2010, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Union Berlin. However, Tsoumou, once again, was not able as he spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad or moved to the reserves.In 2011, he had a trial spell at Sheffield Wednesday.After a successful trial, Tsoumou signed a two-year deal with Preston North End. On 4 October 2011, he scored his first goal for Preston against Morecambe in the Johnstones Paint Trophy. Preston went on to win 7–6 on penalties after the game had finished 2–2. He scored his first goal in English football against Huddersfield Town with a tap in from Iain Hume's cross. He then scored in Preston's next two fixtures against Oldham Athletic and AFC Bournemouth respectively. However under new manager Graham Westley, Tsoumou struggled to get playing time.He was transfer listed by the club along with six other player in May 2012 in order for Westley to strengthen the Preston squad.On 3 July 2012, his contract was cancelled by mutual consent despite having one year left on his contract.On 31 January 2012, Tsoumou joined League Two side Plymouth Argyle on loan along with Alex MacDonald, until the end of the season. His move to Plymouth delighted manager Carl Fletcher. On 4 February 2012, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Southend United. On 31 March 2012, he scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 win over Bradford City which was a winning goal. On 5 May 2012, in the last game of the season, Tsoumou scored Plymouth's only goal in the match against Cheltenham Town which Plymouth lost.On 13 September 2012, Tsoumou signed with Austrian club TSV Hartberg.On 29 August 2013, he signed a two-year contract with FK Senica, following a free transfer. However his contract was cancelled and Tsoumou was released as a free agent on 1 January 2014.Tsoumou remained unattached until 14 November 2014 when he joined SV Waldhof Mannheim. He made 17 appearances, almost all from the bench, scoring 1 goal. He was released at the end of the 2014–15 Regionalliga season.Tsoumou joined SV Wacker Burghausen on 3 September 2015.Tsoumou joined FCSB on 12 September 2019.Juvhel Tsoumou has been capped by Germany at under-18 and under-19 level. He made two appearances for the under-18s against France in March 2008. Tsoumou made his under-19 debut against England in November 2008, replacing Taner Yalçın as a second-half substitute.He was pre-selected by Congo on 19 May 2017. Tsoumou made his debut for the Congo national football team in a 1-1 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification tie with Ghana on 1 September 2017.
|
[
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București"
] |
|
Which team did Juvhel Tsoumou play for in 01/01/2012?
|
January 01, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"TSV Hartberg",
"Plymouth Argyle F.C.",
"Preston North End F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q542784_P54_4
|
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Feb, 2021 to Jul, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FK Senica from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C. from Feb, 2020 to Feb, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Wacker Burghausen from Jan, 2015 to Jul, 2017.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Preston North End F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Plymouth Argyle F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Waldhof Mannheim from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Alemannia Aachen from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Steaua București from Sep, 2019 to Dec, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for TSV Hartberg from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Hermannstadt from Jul, 2018 to Sep, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Ermis Aradippou FC from Jul, 2017 to Jul, 2018.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Congo national football team from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt II from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
|
Juvhel TsoumouThe striker was raised in the Congolese capital Brazzaville where he showed his talent on sand pitches. As a 10-year-old, Tsoumou came with his mother, who was studying economics, to Zwickau, where he began to play in the youth system of FSV Zwickau.In 2003, Charly Körbel led him to the Eintracht Frankfurt football academy. Here he played until July 2006 before moving to the academy of Blackburn Rovers.After a season in England he returned to Eintracht because he saw a better future for himself at Frankfurt. On 4 September 2007, due to call-ups for the national youth team, Eintracht manager Friedhelm Funkel gave Tsoumou the chance to train with the first squad. For the Bundesliga match on 10 November 2007 against Borussia Dortmund the striker was in the squad for the first time. Youth Coordinator, Holger Mueller gave an interview on him and compared Tsoumou to Jermaine Jones due to his athleticism and ball-winning ability.Tsoumou debuted in the Bundesliga on 28 September 2008 against Arminia Bielefeld, when he was substituted in the 74th minute for Nikos Liberopoulos. Since making his debut, Tsoumou moved to the reserves where he was able to get more playing time and scored 5 in 29 appearance or spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad. On 20 March 2010, Tsuomou scored his first goal for Frankfurt in the 87th minute to equalise against Bayern Munich but Martin Fenin scored a winning goal in a 2–1 win.He signed a contract with Alemannia Aachen on 4 August 2010. On 20 August 2010, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Union Berlin. However, Tsoumou, once again, was not able as he spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad or moved to the reserves.In 2011, he had a trial spell at Sheffield Wednesday.After a successful trial, Tsoumou signed a two-year deal with Preston North End. On 4 October 2011, he scored his first goal for Preston against Morecambe in the Johnstones Paint Trophy. Preston went on to win 7–6 on penalties after the game had finished 2–2. He scored his first goal in English football against Huddersfield Town with a tap in from Iain Hume's cross. He then scored in Preston's next two fixtures against Oldham Athletic and AFC Bournemouth respectively. However under new manager Graham Westley, Tsoumou struggled to get playing time.He was transfer listed by the club along with six other player in May 2012 in order for Westley to strengthen the Preston squad.On 3 July 2012, his contract was cancelled by mutual consent despite having one year left on his contract.On 31 January 2012, Tsoumou joined League Two side Plymouth Argyle on loan along with Alex MacDonald, until the end of the season. His move to Plymouth delighted manager Carl Fletcher. On 4 February 2012, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Southend United. On 31 March 2012, he scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 win over Bradford City which was a winning goal. On 5 May 2012, in the last game of the season, Tsoumou scored Plymouth's only goal in the match against Cheltenham Town which Plymouth lost.On 13 September 2012, Tsoumou signed with Austrian club TSV Hartberg.On 29 August 2013, he signed a two-year contract with FK Senica, following a free transfer. However his contract was cancelled and Tsoumou was released as a free agent on 1 January 2014.Tsoumou remained unattached until 14 November 2014 when he joined SV Waldhof Mannheim. He made 17 appearances, almost all from the bench, scoring 1 goal. He was released at the end of the 2014–15 Regionalliga season.Tsoumou joined SV Wacker Burghausen on 3 September 2015.Tsoumou joined FCSB on 12 September 2019.Juvhel Tsoumou has been capped by Germany at under-18 and under-19 level. He made two appearances for the under-18s against France in March 2008. Tsoumou made his under-19 debut against England in November 2008, replacing Taner Yalçın as a second-half substitute.He was pre-selected by Congo on 19 May 2017. Tsoumou made his debut for the Congo national football team in a 1-1 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification tie with Ghana on 1 September 2017.
|
[
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București"
] |
|
Which team did Juvhel Tsoumou play for in 01-Jan-201201-January-2012?
|
January 01, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"TSV Hartberg",
"Plymouth Argyle F.C.",
"Preston North End F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q542784_P54_4
|
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Feb, 2021 to Jul, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FK Senica from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C. from Feb, 2020 to Feb, 2021.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Wacker Burghausen from Jan, 2015 to Jul, 2017.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Preston North End F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Plymouth Argyle F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2012.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for SV Waldhof Mannheim from Jan, 2014 to Jan, 2015.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Alemannia Aachen from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2011.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Steaua București from Sep, 2019 to Dec, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for TSV Hartberg from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for FC Hermannstadt from Jul, 2018 to Sep, 2019.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Ermis Aradippou FC from Jul, 2017 to Jul, 2018.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Congo national football team from Sep, 2017 to Dec, 2022.
Juvhel Tsoumou plays for Eintracht Frankfurt II from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2010.
|
Juvhel TsoumouThe striker was raised in the Congolese capital Brazzaville where he showed his talent on sand pitches. As a 10-year-old, Tsoumou came with his mother, who was studying economics, to Zwickau, where he began to play in the youth system of FSV Zwickau.In 2003, Charly Körbel led him to the Eintracht Frankfurt football academy. Here he played until July 2006 before moving to the academy of Blackburn Rovers.After a season in England he returned to Eintracht because he saw a better future for himself at Frankfurt. On 4 September 2007, due to call-ups for the national youth team, Eintracht manager Friedhelm Funkel gave Tsoumou the chance to train with the first squad. For the Bundesliga match on 10 November 2007 against Borussia Dortmund the striker was in the squad for the first time. Youth Coordinator, Holger Mueller gave an interview on him and compared Tsoumou to Jermaine Jones due to his athleticism and ball-winning ability.Tsoumou debuted in the Bundesliga on 28 September 2008 against Arminia Bielefeld, when he was substituted in the 74th minute for Nikos Liberopoulos. Since making his debut, Tsoumou moved to the reserves where he was able to get more playing time and scored 5 in 29 appearance or spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad. On 20 March 2010, Tsuomou scored his first goal for Frankfurt in the 87th minute to equalise against Bayern Munich but Martin Fenin scored a winning goal in a 2–1 win.He signed a contract with Alemannia Aachen on 4 August 2010. On 20 August 2010, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Union Berlin. However, Tsoumou, once again, was not able as he spent time on the bench when he joined the first-team squad or moved to the reserves.In 2011, he had a trial spell at Sheffield Wednesday.After a successful trial, Tsoumou signed a two-year deal with Preston North End. On 4 October 2011, he scored his first goal for Preston against Morecambe in the Johnstones Paint Trophy. Preston went on to win 7–6 on penalties after the game had finished 2–2. He scored his first goal in English football against Huddersfield Town with a tap in from Iain Hume's cross. He then scored in Preston's next two fixtures against Oldham Athletic and AFC Bournemouth respectively. However under new manager Graham Westley, Tsoumou struggled to get playing time.He was transfer listed by the club along with six other player in May 2012 in order for Westley to strengthen the Preston squad.On 3 July 2012, his contract was cancelled by mutual consent despite having one year left on his contract.On 31 January 2012, Tsoumou joined League Two side Plymouth Argyle on loan along with Alex MacDonald, until the end of the season. His move to Plymouth delighted manager Carl Fletcher. On 4 February 2012, Tsoumou made his debut for the club in a 2–2 draw against Southend United. On 31 March 2012, he scored his first goal for the club in a 1–0 win over Bradford City which was a winning goal. On 5 May 2012, in the last game of the season, Tsoumou scored Plymouth's only goal in the match against Cheltenham Town which Plymouth lost.On 13 September 2012, Tsoumou signed with Austrian club TSV Hartberg.On 29 August 2013, he signed a two-year contract with FK Senica, following a free transfer. However his contract was cancelled and Tsoumou was released as a free agent on 1 January 2014.Tsoumou remained unattached until 14 November 2014 when he joined SV Waldhof Mannheim. He made 17 appearances, almost all from the bench, scoring 1 goal. He was released at the end of the 2014–15 Regionalliga season.Tsoumou joined SV Wacker Burghausen on 3 September 2015.Tsoumou joined FCSB on 12 September 2019.Juvhel Tsoumou has been capped by Germany at under-18 and under-19 level. He made two appearances for the under-18s against France in March 2008. Tsoumou made his under-19 debut against England in November 2008, replacing Taner Yalçın as a second-half substitute.He was pre-selected by Congo on 19 May 2017. Tsoumou made his debut for the Congo national football team in a 1-1 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification tie with Ghana on 1 September 2017.
|
[
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București",
"SV Waldhof Mannheim",
"Alemannia Aachen",
"Congo national football team",
"Ermis Aradippou FC",
"FK Senica",
"Eintracht Frankfurt II",
"SV Wacker Burghausen",
"Eintracht Frankfurt",
"FC Hermannstadt",
"Liaoning Shenyang Urban F.C.",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Steaua București"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Delta Air Lines in Oct, 1991?
|
October 17, 1991
|
{
"text": [
"Ronald W. Allen"
]
}
|
L2_Q188920_P488_6
|
Ronald W. Allen is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1987 to Jan, 1997.
Daniel Carp is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2016.
Charles H. Dolson is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1971.
Collett E. Woolman is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1966.
Frank Blake is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Carleton Putnam is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1955.
David C. Garrett, Jr. is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1983 to Jan, 1987.
Gerald Grinstein is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Leo Mullin is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004.
W.T. Beebe is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1983.
Clarence Faulk is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1951.
|
Delta Air LinesDelta Air Lines, Inc., typically referred to as Delta, is one of the major airlines of the United States and a legacy carrier. It is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The airline, along with its subsidiaries and regional affiliates, including Delta Connection, operates over 5,400 flights daily and serves 325 destinations in 52 countries on six continents. Delta is a founding member of the SkyTeam airline alliance.Delta has nine hubs, with Atlanta being its largest in terms of total passengers and number of departures. It is ranked second among the world's largest airlines by number of scheduled passengers carried, revenue passenger-kilometers flown, and fleet size. It is ranked 69th on the Fortune 500. The company slogan is "Keep Climbing."Delta Air Lines' history begins with the world's first aerial crop dusting operation called Huff Daland Dusters, Inc. The company was founded on March 2, 1925, in Macon, Georgia, before moving to Monroe, Louisiana, in summer 1925. It flew a Huff-Daland Duster, the first true crop duster, designed to combat the boll weevil infestation of cotton crops. C.E. Woolman, general manager and later Delta's first CEO, led a group of local investors to acquire the company's assets. Delta Air Service was incorporated on December 3, 1928, and named after the Mississippi Delta region.Passenger operations began on June 17, 1929, from Dallas, Texas, to Jackson, Mississippi, with stops at Shreveport and Monroe, Louisiana. By June 1930, service had extended east to Atlanta and west to Fort Worth, Texas. Passenger service ceased in October 1930 when the airmail contract for the route Delta had pioneered was awarded to another airline, which purchased the assets of Delta Air Service. Local banker Travis Oliver, acting as a trustee, C.E. Woolman, and other local investors purchased back the crop-dusting assets of Delta Air Service and incorporated as Delta Air Corporation on December 31, 1930.Delta Air Corporation secured an air mail contract in 1934, and began doing business as Delta Air Lines over Mail Route 24, stretching from Fort Worth, Texas, to Charleston, South Carolina. Delta moved its headquarters from Monroe, Louisiana, to its current location in Atlanta in 1941. The company name officially became Delta Air Lines in 1945. In 1946, the company commenced regularly scheduled freight transport. In 1949, the company launched the first discounted fares between Chicago and Miami. In 1953, the company launched its first international routes after the acquisition of Chicago and Southern Air Lines. In 1959, it was the first airline to fly the Douglas DC-8. In 1960, it was the first airline to fly Convair 880 jets. In 1964, it launched the Deltamatic reservation systems using computers in the IBM 7070 series. In 1965, Delta was the first airline to fly the McDonnell Douglas DC-9.By 1970, Delta had an all-jet fleet, and in 1972 it acquired Northeast Airlines. Trans-Atlantic service began in 1978 with the first nonstop flights from Atlanta to London. In 1981, Delta launched a frequent-flyer program. In 1987, it acquired Western Airlines, and that same year Delta began trans-Pacific service (Atlanta-Portland, Oregon-Tokyo). In 1990, Delta was the first airline in the United States to fly McDonnell Douglas MD-11 jets. In 1991, it acquired substantially all of Pan Am's trans-Atlantic routes and the Pan Am Shuttle, rebranded as the Delta Shuttle. Delta was now the leading airline across the Atlantic.In 1997, Delta was the first airline to board more than 100 million passengers in a calendar year. Also that year, Delta began an expansion of its international routes into Latin America. In 2003, the company launched Song, a low-cost carrier.On September 14, 2005, the company filed for bankruptcy, citing rising fuel costs. It emerged from bankruptcy in April 2007 after fending off a hostile takeover from US Airways and its shares were re-listed on the New York Stock Exchange.The acquisition of Northwest Airlines was announced April 14, 2008. It was approved and consummated on October 29, 2008. Northwest continued to operate as a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta until December 31, 2009, when the Northwest Airlines operating certificate was merged into that of Delta. Delta completed integration with Northwest on January 31, 2010, when their computer reservations system and websites were combined, and the Northwest Airlines brand was officially retired.Delta and its worldwide alliance partners operate more than 15,000 flights per day. Delta is the only U.S. carrier that flies to Dakar, Lagos, and Stuttgart.In March 2020, Delta suspended all flights to continental Europe for 30 days, and cutting 40% of its capacity.Delta currently has nine hubs:Delta also has one focus-city:Delta is a member of the SkyTeam alliance and has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:, Delta operated a fleet of 750 aircraft manufactured by Airbus and Boeing. Delta operates the largest Boeing 717, Boeing 757, and Boeing 767 fleets in the world, and the largest Airbus A330 fleet of any US airline. Prior to its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines, Delta's fleet was made up of solely Boeing and McDonnell Douglas aircraft. Airbus aircraft from Northwest joined the fleet after the merger, and more have since been added.Delta often seeks to acquire and utilize older aircraft, especially narrow-bodies, and it has created an extensive MRO (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) organization, called TechOps, to support them. However, in early 2011, Delta began talks with Airbus, Boeing and Bombardier Aerospace to discuss replacing the McDonnell Douglas DC-9s, McDonnell Douglas MD-88s, and older A320 and 757-200 aircraft. On August 22, 2011, Delta placed an order for 100 Boeing 737-900ER aircraft and deferred an order of 100 small narrow-body jets until 2012.Delta underwent a cabin branding upgrade in 2015. Availability and exact details vary by route and aircraft type.Delta One is the airline's premier business class product, available on long haul international flights, as well as transcontinental service from New York JFK to Los Angeles, San Francisco and Seattle/Tacoma.Delta One features lie-flat seating on all aircraft types, and direct aisle access from every seat on all types except the Boeing 757-200 (in which only a special sub-fleet of approximately 20 aircraft feature lie-flats). The Boeing 767-300ER and Boeing 767-400ER seats, designed by James Thompson, feature a space-saving design whereby the seats are staggered such that when in the fully flat position, the foot of each bed extends under the armrests of the seat in front of it. Delta One cabins on the Boeing 777-200ER/LR fleet are configured in a herringbone layout, while Airbus A330 cabins (featuring the "Cirrus" flat-bed sleeper suite by Zodiac Seats U.S.) are configured in a reverse herringbone pattern.All seats are also equipped with a personal, on demand in-flight-entertainment (IFE) system, universal power-ports, a movable reading light, and a folding work table. Passengers also receive complimentary chef-curated meals, refreshments, alcoholic beverages, a Tumi Inc. amenity kit, premium bedding, and pre-flight Sky Club access.In August 2016, Delta announced the introduction of Delta One Suites on select widebody fleets. The suites will feature a door to the aisle for enhanced privacy, as well as improved storage space, a larger IFE screen, and updated design. The suites rolled out on the Airbus A350 fleet, first delivered in July 2017, followed by installation within the Boeing 777 fleet.In April 2016, Delta CEO Ed Bastian announced that a new Premium Economy cabin will be added. Since renamed to Premium Select, this cabin will feature extra legroom; adjustable leg rests; extra seat pitch, width, and recline; and a new premium service. Delta introduced it on its new Airbus A350, first delivered in fall 2017, to be followed by the Boeing 777. In October 2018, Delta announced that it would be selling first class seats on domestically configured Boeing 757 aircraft flying transatlantic routes as Premium Select.First Class is offered on mainline domestic flights (except those featuring Delta One service), select short- and medium-haul international flights, and Delta Connection aircraft with more than 50 seats. Seats range from wide and have between of pitch. Passengers in this class receive a wider variety of free snacks compared to Main Cabin, as well as free drinks and alcohol, and full meal service on flights and longer. Certain aircraft also feature power ports at each seat and free entertainment products from Delta Studio. First Class passengers are also eligible for priority boarding.Delta Comfort+ seats are installed on all aircraft excluding Delta's new A350s and feature of pitch; on all Delta One configured aircraft, of pitch and 50 percent more recline over standard Main Cabin seats. Additional amenities include: Sky Priority Boarding, dedicated overhead space, complimentary beer, wine, and spirits on flights or more, and complimentary premium snacks on flights or more. Complimentary premium entertainment is available via Delta Studio, with free headsets available on most flights. On transcontinental flights between JFK-LAX/SFO, Delta Comfort+ passengers also get Luvo snack wraps. Medallion members can upgrade from Main Cabin to Comfort+ for free, while other customers can upgrade for a fee or with SkyMiles.Main Cabin (Economy Class) is available on all aircraft with seats ranging from wide and of pitch. The main cabin on Boeing 737, 777, and selected Boeing 757-200 and 767-300 aircraft have an articulating seat bottom where the seat bottom moves forward in addition to the seat back tilting backwards when reclining.Main Cabin passengers receive complimentary snacks and non-alcoholic drinks on all flights or longer. Alcoholic beverages are also available for purchase. Complimentary meals and alcoholic drinks are provided on long-haul international flights as well as selected transcontinental domestic flights, such as between New York–JFK and Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego. As part of Delta's Flight Fuel buy on board program, meals are available for purchase on other North American flights or longer.Delta operated a different buy on board program between 2003 and 2005. The previous program had items from differing providers, depending on the origin and destination of the flight. Prices ranged up to $10 ($ when adjusted for inflation). The airline started the service on a few selected flights in July 2003, and the meal service was initially offered on 400 flights. Delta ended this buy on board program in 2005; instead, Delta began offering snacks at no extra charge on flights over 90 minutes to most U.S. domestic flights and some flights to the Caribbean and Latin America. Beginning in mid-March 2005 the airline planned to stop providing pillows on flights within the 48 contiguous U.S. states, Bermuda, Canada, the Caribbean, and Central America. In addition, the airline increased the price of alcoholic beverages on Delta mainline flights from $4 ($ when adjusted for inflation) to $5 ($ when adjusted for inflation); the increase in alcohol prices did not occur on Song flights.Basic Economy is a basic version of Main Cabin, offering the same services with fewer flexibility options for a lower price. Examples of fewer flexibility options include no ticket changes, no paid or complimentary upgrades regardless of frequent-flier status, and only having a seat assigned at check-in.SkyMiles is the frequent flyer program for Delta Air Lines. Miles do not expire but accounts may be deactivated by Delta in certain cases, such as the death of a program member or fraudulent activity.Delta Sky Club is the branding name of Delta's airport lounges. Membership is available through an annual membership that can be purchased with either money or miles. International passengers traveling in Delta One class get free access. Membership can also be granted through top-level Delta status or by being an American Express cardholder with certain exceptions. As of January 2019, Delta no longer offers single day passes.Originally, Delta's membership-based airport clubs were called Crown Room lounges, with Northwest's called WorldClubs.On November 27, 2001, Delta Air Lines launched SkyBonus, a program aimed toward small-to-medium businesses spending between $5,000 and $500,000 annually on air travel. Businesses can earn points toward free travel and upgrades, as well as Sky Club memberships and SkyMiles Silver Medallion status. Points are earned on paid travel based on a variety of fare amount paid, booking code, and place origin or destination. While enrolled businesses are able to earn points toward free travel, the travelling passenger is still eligible to earn SkyMiles during his or her travel.In early 2010, Delta Air Lines merged its SkyBonus program with Northwest's similar Biz Perks program.For the fiscal year 2018, Delta Air Lines reported earnings of US$5.1 billion, with an annual revenue of US$44.438 billion, an increase of 8.02% over the previous fiscal cycle. Its shares traded at over $48 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$39.182 billion in April 2019.Between its mainline operation and subsidiaries, and as of March 2015, Delta employs nearly 80,000 people. Ed Bastian is the current Chief Executive Officer and has served in this position since May 2, 2016. Joanne Smith is Executive Vice President and Chief People Officer responsible for the oversight and support of personnel needs at Delta. She was appointed on October 1, 2014, replacing Mike Campbell.Delta's 14,500 mainline pilots are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association, International and are the union's largest pilot group. The company's approximately 180 flight dispatchers are represented by the Professional Airline Flight Control Association (PAFCA). Not counting the pilots and flight dispatchers, Delta is the only one of the five largest airlines in the United States, and one of only two in the top 9 (the other being JetBlue), whose non-pilot USA domestic staff is entirely non-union. In August 2020, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, Delta Air Lines announced that it would be cutting 1,941 pilot job positions if it could not conclude a cost reduction deal with its union. In January 2021, Delta said that, thanks to the federal support, it will be able to bring back 400 pilots in full time.Delta Global Staffing (DGS) was a temporary employment firm located in Atlanta, Georgia. Delta Global Staffing was a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta Air Lines, Inc. and a division of the internal company DAL Global Services.Delta Air Lines sold majority ownership of DAL Global Services to Argenbright Holdings on December 21, 2018. As part of the sale, Delta dissolved the staffing division of DGS.It was founded in 1995 as a provider of temporary staffing for Delta primarily in Atlanta. DGS has since expanded to include customers and businesses outside the airline and aviation industries. DGS now supports customers in major US metropolitan areas.Delta Global Staffing provided contract workers for short and long term assignments, VMS partnering, VOP on-site management, temp-to-hire, direct placements, and payroll services. DGS services markets such as call centers, customer services and administrative placements, IT & professional recruiting, logistics, finance & accounting, hospitality, and aviation/airline industry.Delta's corporate headquarters is located on a corporate campus on the northern boundary of Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, within the city limits of Atlanta. This location has served as Delta's headquarters since 1941, when the company relocated its corporate offices from Monroe, Louisiana to Greater Atlanta. The crop dusting division of Delta remained headquartered in Monroe until Delta ceased crop dusting in 1966. Before 1981, the Delta corporate campus, an plot of land in proximity to the old Hartsfield Airport terminal, was outside the City of Atlanta limits in unincorporated Fulton County. On August 3, 1981, the Atlanta City Council approved the annexation of of land, an area containing the Delta headquarters. As of 1981 Delta would have had to begin paying $200,000 annually to the City of Atlanta in taxes. In September 1981, the airline sued the city, challenging the annexation on the basis of the constitutionality of the 1960 City of Atlanta annexation of the Hartsfield old terminal. The City of Atlanta was only permitted to annex areas that are adjacent to areas already in the Atlanta city limits.In addition to hosting Delta's corporate headquarters, Hartsfield-Jackson is also the home of Delta TechOps, the airline's primary maintenance, repair, and overhaul arm and the largest full-service airline MRO in North America, specializing in engines, components, airframe, and line maintenance.Delta maintains a large presence in the Twin Cities, with over 12,000 employees in the region as well as significant corporate support functions housed in the Minneapolis area, including the company's information technology divisional offices.Delta's logo, often called the "widget", was originally unveiled in 1959. Its triangle shape is taken from the Greek letter delta, and recalls the airline's origins in the Mississippi Delta. It is also said to be reminiscent of the swept-wing design of the DC-8, Delta's first jet aircraft.Delta's current livery is called "Upward & Onward". It features a white fuselage with the company's name in blue lettering and a widget on the vertical stabilizer. Delta introduced its current livery in 2007 as part of a re-branding after it emerged from bankruptcy. The new livery consists of four colors, while the old one (called "colors in motion") used eight. This meant the switch saved the airline money by removing one day from each aircraft's painting cycle. The airline took four years to repaint all of its aircraft into the current scheme, including aircraft inherited from Northwest Airlines.In 2008, Delta Air Lines was given an award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Design for the Environment (DfE) program for its use of PreKote, a more environmentally friendly, non-hexavalent chromium surface pretreatment on its aircraft, replacing hazardous chemicals formerly used to improve paint adhesion and prevent corrosion. In addition, PreKote reduces water usage by two-thirds and reduces wastewater treatment.PreKote is also saving money by reducing the time needed to paint each airplane. With time savings of eight to ten percent, it will save an estimated more than $1 million annually.As part of the re-branding project, a safety video featuring a flight attendant showed up on YouTube in early 2008, getting over 1 million views and the attention of news outlets, specifically for the video's tone mixed with the serious safety message. The flight attendant, Katherine Lee, was dubbed "Deltalina" by a member of FlyerTalk for her resemblance to Angelina Jolie. Delta had considered several styles for its current safety video, including animation, before opting for a video presenting a flight attendant speaking to the audience. The video was filmed on a former Song Airlines Boeing 757-200.The following are major accidents and incidents that occurred on Delta mainline aircraft. For Northwest Airlines incidents, see Northwest Airlines accidents and incidents. For Delta Connection incidents, see Delta Connection incidents and accidents.There have been over a dozen attempted hijackings that resulted in no injuries and the surrender of the often lone hijacker. These incidents are not included. The following are notable hijackings because of fatalities or success in forcing the aircraft to fly to another country:
|
[
"Clarence Faulk",
"Daniel Carp",
"Carleton Putnam",
"Gerald Grinstein",
"Leo Mullin",
"W.T. Beebe",
"Charles H. Dolson",
"Collett E. Woolman",
"Frank Blake",
"David C. Garrett, Jr."
] |
|
Who was the chair of Delta Air Lines in 1991-10-17?
|
October 17, 1991
|
{
"text": [
"Ronald W. Allen"
]
}
|
L2_Q188920_P488_6
|
Ronald W. Allen is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1987 to Jan, 1997.
Daniel Carp is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2016.
Charles H. Dolson is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1971.
Collett E. Woolman is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1966.
Frank Blake is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Carleton Putnam is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1955.
David C. Garrett, Jr. is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1983 to Jan, 1987.
Gerald Grinstein is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Leo Mullin is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004.
W.T. Beebe is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1983.
Clarence Faulk is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1951.
|
Delta Air LinesDelta Air Lines, Inc., typically referred to as Delta, is one of the major airlines of the United States and a legacy carrier. It is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The airline, along with its subsidiaries and regional affiliates, including Delta Connection, operates over 5,400 flights daily and serves 325 destinations in 52 countries on six continents. Delta is a founding member of the SkyTeam airline alliance.Delta has nine hubs, with Atlanta being its largest in terms of total passengers and number of departures. It is ranked second among the world's largest airlines by number of scheduled passengers carried, revenue passenger-kilometers flown, and fleet size. It is ranked 69th on the Fortune 500. The company slogan is "Keep Climbing."Delta Air Lines' history begins with the world's first aerial crop dusting operation called Huff Daland Dusters, Inc. The company was founded on March 2, 1925, in Macon, Georgia, before moving to Monroe, Louisiana, in summer 1925. It flew a Huff-Daland Duster, the first true crop duster, designed to combat the boll weevil infestation of cotton crops. C.E. Woolman, general manager and later Delta's first CEO, led a group of local investors to acquire the company's assets. Delta Air Service was incorporated on December 3, 1928, and named after the Mississippi Delta region.Passenger operations began on June 17, 1929, from Dallas, Texas, to Jackson, Mississippi, with stops at Shreveport and Monroe, Louisiana. By June 1930, service had extended east to Atlanta and west to Fort Worth, Texas. Passenger service ceased in October 1930 when the airmail contract for the route Delta had pioneered was awarded to another airline, which purchased the assets of Delta Air Service. Local banker Travis Oliver, acting as a trustee, C.E. Woolman, and other local investors purchased back the crop-dusting assets of Delta Air Service and incorporated as Delta Air Corporation on December 31, 1930.Delta Air Corporation secured an air mail contract in 1934, and began doing business as Delta Air Lines over Mail Route 24, stretching from Fort Worth, Texas, to Charleston, South Carolina. Delta moved its headquarters from Monroe, Louisiana, to its current location in Atlanta in 1941. The company name officially became Delta Air Lines in 1945. In 1946, the company commenced regularly scheduled freight transport. In 1949, the company launched the first discounted fares between Chicago and Miami. In 1953, the company launched its first international routes after the acquisition of Chicago and Southern Air Lines. In 1959, it was the first airline to fly the Douglas DC-8. In 1960, it was the first airline to fly Convair 880 jets. In 1964, it launched the Deltamatic reservation systems using computers in the IBM 7070 series. In 1965, Delta was the first airline to fly the McDonnell Douglas DC-9.By 1970, Delta had an all-jet fleet, and in 1972 it acquired Northeast Airlines. Trans-Atlantic service began in 1978 with the first nonstop flights from Atlanta to London. In 1981, Delta launched a frequent-flyer program. In 1987, it acquired Western Airlines, and that same year Delta began trans-Pacific service (Atlanta-Portland, Oregon-Tokyo). In 1990, Delta was the first airline in the United States to fly McDonnell Douglas MD-11 jets. In 1991, it acquired substantially all of Pan Am's trans-Atlantic routes and the Pan Am Shuttle, rebranded as the Delta Shuttle. Delta was now the leading airline across the Atlantic.In 1997, Delta was the first airline to board more than 100 million passengers in a calendar year. Also that year, Delta began an expansion of its international routes into Latin America. In 2003, the company launched Song, a low-cost carrier.On September 14, 2005, the company filed for bankruptcy, citing rising fuel costs. It emerged from bankruptcy in April 2007 after fending off a hostile takeover from US Airways and its shares were re-listed on the New York Stock Exchange.The acquisition of Northwest Airlines was announced April 14, 2008. It was approved and consummated on October 29, 2008. Northwest continued to operate as a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta until December 31, 2009, when the Northwest Airlines operating certificate was merged into that of Delta. Delta completed integration with Northwest on January 31, 2010, when their computer reservations system and websites were combined, and the Northwest Airlines brand was officially retired.Delta and its worldwide alliance partners operate more than 15,000 flights per day. Delta is the only U.S. carrier that flies to Dakar, Lagos, and Stuttgart.In March 2020, Delta suspended all flights to continental Europe for 30 days, and cutting 40% of its capacity.Delta currently has nine hubs:Delta also has one focus-city:Delta is a member of the SkyTeam alliance and has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:, Delta operated a fleet of 750 aircraft manufactured by Airbus and Boeing. Delta operates the largest Boeing 717, Boeing 757, and Boeing 767 fleets in the world, and the largest Airbus A330 fleet of any US airline. Prior to its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines, Delta's fleet was made up of solely Boeing and McDonnell Douglas aircraft. Airbus aircraft from Northwest joined the fleet after the merger, and more have since been added.Delta often seeks to acquire and utilize older aircraft, especially narrow-bodies, and it has created an extensive MRO (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) organization, called TechOps, to support them. However, in early 2011, Delta began talks with Airbus, Boeing and Bombardier Aerospace to discuss replacing the McDonnell Douglas DC-9s, McDonnell Douglas MD-88s, and older A320 and 757-200 aircraft. On August 22, 2011, Delta placed an order for 100 Boeing 737-900ER aircraft and deferred an order of 100 small narrow-body jets until 2012.Delta underwent a cabin branding upgrade in 2015. Availability and exact details vary by route and aircraft type.Delta One is the airline's premier business class product, available on long haul international flights, as well as transcontinental service from New York JFK to Los Angeles, San Francisco and Seattle/Tacoma.Delta One features lie-flat seating on all aircraft types, and direct aisle access from every seat on all types except the Boeing 757-200 (in which only a special sub-fleet of approximately 20 aircraft feature lie-flats). The Boeing 767-300ER and Boeing 767-400ER seats, designed by James Thompson, feature a space-saving design whereby the seats are staggered such that when in the fully flat position, the foot of each bed extends under the armrests of the seat in front of it. Delta One cabins on the Boeing 777-200ER/LR fleet are configured in a herringbone layout, while Airbus A330 cabins (featuring the "Cirrus" flat-bed sleeper suite by Zodiac Seats U.S.) are configured in a reverse herringbone pattern.All seats are also equipped with a personal, on demand in-flight-entertainment (IFE) system, universal power-ports, a movable reading light, and a folding work table. Passengers also receive complimentary chef-curated meals, refreshments, alcoholic beverages, a Tumi Inc. amenity kit, premium bedding, and pre-flight Sky Club access.In August 2016, Delta announced the introduction of Delta One Suites on select widebody fleets. The suites will feature a door to the aisle for enhanced privacy, as well as improved storage space, a larger IFE screen, and updated design. The suites rolled out on the Airbus A350 fleet, first delivered in July 2017, followed by installation within the Boeing 777 fleet.In April 2016, Delta CEO Ed Bastian announced that a new Premium Economy cabin will be added. Since renamed to Premium Select, this cabin will feature extra legroom; adjustable leg rests; extra seat pitch, width, and recline; and a new premium service. Delta introduced it on its new Airbus A350, first delivered in fall 2017, to be followed by the Boeing 777. In October 2018, Delta announced that it would be selling first class seats on domestically configured Boeing 757 aircraft flying transatlantic routes as Premium Select.First Class is offered on mainline domestic flights (except those featuring Delta One service), select short- and medium-haul international flights, and Delta Connection aircraft with more than 50 seats. Seats range from wide and have between of pitch. Passengers in this class receive a wider variety of free snacks compared to Main Cabin, as well as free drinks and alcohol, and full meal service on flights and longer. Certain aircraft also feature power ports at each seat and free entertainment products from Delta Studio. First Class passengers are also eligible for priority boarding.Delta Comfort+ seats are installed on all aircraft excluding Delta's new A350s and feature of pitch; on all Delta One configured aircraft, of pitch and 50 percent more recline over standard Main Cabin seats. Additional amenities include: Sky Priority Boarding, dedicated overhead space, complimentary beer, wine, and spirits on flights or more, and complimentary premium snacks on flights or more. Complimentary premium entertainment is available via Delta Studio, with free headsets available on most flights. On transcontinental flights between JFK-LAX/SFO, Delta Comfort+ passengers also get Luvo snack wraps. Medallion members can upgrade from Main Cabin to Comfort+ for free, while other customers can upgrade for a fee or with SkyMiles.Main Cabin (Economy Class) is available on all aircraft with seats ranging from wide and of pitch. The main cabin on Boeing 737, 777, and selected Boeing 757-200 and 767-300 aircraft have an articulating seat bottom where the seat bottom moves forward in addition to the seat back tilting backwards when reclining.Main Cabin passengers receive complimentary snacks and non-alcoholic drinks on all flights or longer. Alcoholic beverages are also available for purchase. Complimentary meals and alcoholic drinks are provided on long-haul international flights as well as selected transcontinental domestic flights, such as between New York–JFK and Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego. As part of Delta's Flight Fuel buy on board program, meals are available for purchase on other North American flights or longer.Delta operated a different buy on board program between 2003 and 2005. The previous program had items from differing providers, depending on the origin and destination of the flight. Prices ranged up to $10 ($ when adjusted for inflation). The airline started the service on a few selected flights in July 2003, and the meal service was initially offered on 400 flights. Delta ended this buy on board program in 2005; instead, Delta began offering snacks at no extra charge on flights over 90 minutes to most U.S. domestic flights and some flights to the Caribbean and Latin America. Beginning in mid-March 2005 the airline planned to stop providing pillows on flights within the 48 contiguous U.S. states, Bermuda, Canada, the Caribbean, and Central America. In addition, the airline increased the price of alcoholic beverages on Delta mainline flights from $4 ($ when adjusted for inflation) to $5 ($ when adjusted for inflation); the increase in alcohol prices did not occur on Song flights.Basic Economy is a basic version of Main Cabin, offering the same services with fewer flexibility options for a lower price. Examples of fewer flexibility options include no ticket changes, no paid or complimentary upgrades regardless of frequent-flier status, and only having a seat assigned at check-in.SkyMiles is the frequent flyer program for Delta Air Lines. Miles do not expire but accounts may be deactivated by Delta in certain cases, such as the death of a program member or fraudulent activity.Delta Sky Club is the branding name of Delta's airport lounges. Membership is available through an annual membership that can be purchased with either money or miles. International passengers traveling in Delta One class get free access. Membership can also be granted through top-level Delta status or by being an American Express cardholder with certain exceptions. As of January 2019, Delta no longer offers single day passes.Originally, Delta's membership-based airport clubs were called Crown Room lounges, with Northwest's called WorldClubs.On November 27, 2001, Delta Air Lines launched SkyBonus, a program aimed toward small-to-medium businesses spending between $5,000 and $500,000 annually on air travel. Businesses can earn points toward free travel and upgrades, as well as Sky Club memberships and SkyMiles Silver Medallion status. Points are earned on paid travel based on a variety of fare amount paid, booking code, and place origin or destination. While enrolled businesses are able to earn points toward free travel, the travelling passenger is still eligible to earn SkyMiles during his or her travel.In early 2010, Delta Air Lines merged its SkyBonus program with Northwest's similar Biz Perks program.For the fiscal year 2018, Delta Air Lines reported earnings of US$5.1 billion, with an annual revenue of US$44.438 billion, an increase of 8.02% over the previous fiscal cycle. Its shares traded at over $48 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$39.182 billion in April 2019.Between its mainline operation and subsidiaries, and as of March 2015, Delta employs nearly 80,000 people. Ed Bastian is the current Chief Executive Officer and has served in this position since May 2, 2016. Joanne Smith is Executive Vice President and Chief People Officer responsible for the oversight and support of personnel needs at Delta. She was appointed on October 1, 2014, replacing Mike Campbell.Delta's 14,500 mainline pilots are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association, International and are the union's largest pilot group. The company's approximately 180 flight dispatchers are represented by the Professional Airline Flight Control Association (PAFCA). Not counting the pilots and flight dispatchers, Delta is the only one of the five largest airlines in the United States, and one of only two in the top 9 (the other being JetBlue), whose non-pilot USA domestic staff is entirely non-union. In August 2020, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, Delta Air Lines announced that it would be cutting 1,941 pilot job positions if it could not conclude a cost reduction deal with its union. In January 2021, Delta said that, thanks to the federal support, it will be able to bring back 400 pilots in full time.Delta Global Staffing (DGS) was a temporary employment firm located in Atlanta, Georgia. Delta Global Staffing was a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta Air Lines, Inc. and a division of the internal company DAL Global Services.Delta Air Lines sold majority ownership of DAL Global Services to Argenbright Holdings on December 21, 2018. As part of the sale, Delta dissolved the staffing division of DGS.It was founded in 1995 as a provider of temporary staffing for Delta primarily in Atlanta. DGS has since expanded to include customers and businesses outside the airline and aviation industries. DGS now supports customers in major US metropolitan areas.Delta Global Staffing provided contract workers for short and long term assignments, VMS partnering, VOP on-site management, temp-to-hire, direct placements, and payroll services. DGS services markets such as call centers, customer services and administrative placements, IT & professional recruiting, logistics, finance & accounting, hospitality, and aviation/airline industry.Delta's corporate headquarters is located on a corporate campus on the northern boundary of Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, within the city limits of Atlanta. This location has served as Delta's headquarters since 1941, when the company relocated its corporate offices from Monroe, Louisiana to Greater Atlanta. The crop dusting division of Delta remained headquartered in Monroe until Delta ceased crop dusting in 1966. Before 1981, the Delta corporate campus, an plot of land in proximity to the old Hartsfield Airport terminal, was outside the City of Atlanta limits in unincorporated Fulton County. On August 3, 1981, the Atlanta City Council approved the annexation of of land, an area containing the Delta headquarters. As of 1981 Delta would have had to begin paying $200,000 annually to the City of Atlanta in taxes. In September 1981, the airline sued the city, challenging the annexation on the basis of the constitutionality of the 1960 City of Atlanta annexation of the Hartsfield old terminal. The City of Atlanta was only permitted to annex areas that are adjacent to areas already in the Atlanta city limits.In addition to hosting Delta's corporate headquarters, Hartsfield-Jackson is also the home of Delta TechOps, the airline's primary maintenance, repair, and overhaul arm and the largest full-service airline MRO in North America, specializing in engines, components, airframe, and line maintenance.Delta maintains a large presence in the Twin Cities, with over 12,000 employees in the region as well as significant corporate support functions housed in the Minneapolis area, including the company's information technology divisional offices.Delta's logo, often called the "widget", was originally unveiled in 1959. Its triangle shape is taken from the Greek letter delta, and recalls the airline's origins in the Mississippi Delta. It is also said to be reminiscent of the swept-wing design of the DC-8, Delta's first jet aircraft.Delta's current livery is called "Upward & Onward". It features a white fuselage with the company's name in blue lettering and a widget on the vertical stabilizer. Delta introduced its current livery in 2007 as part of a re-branding after it emerged from bankruptcy. The new livery consists of four colors, while the old one (called "colors in motion") used eight. This meant the switch saved the airline money by removing one day from each aircraft's painting cycle. The airline took four years to repaint all of its aircraft into the current scheme, including aircraft inherited from Northwest Airlines.In 2008, Delta Air Lines was given an award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Design for the Environment (DfE) program for its use of PreKote, a more environmentally friendly, non-hexavalent chromium surface pretreatment on its aircraft, replacing hazardous chemicals formerly used to improve paint adhesion and prevent corrosion. In addition, PreKote reduces water usage by two-thirds and reduces wastewater treatment.PreKote is also saving money by reducing the time needed to paint each airplane. With time savings of eight to ten percent, it will save an estimated more than $1 million annually.As part of the re-branding project, a safety video featuring a flight attendant showed up on YouTube in early 2008, getting over 1 million views and the attention of news outlets, specifically for the video's tone mixed with the serious safety message. The flight attendant, Katherine Lee, was dubbed "Deltalina" by a member of FlyerTalk for her resemblance to Angelina Jolie. Delta had considered several styles for its current safety video, including animation, before opting for a video presenting a flight attendant speaking to the audience. The video was filmed on a former Song Airlines Boeing 757-200.The following are major accidents and incidents that occurred on Delta mainline aircraft. For Northwest Airlines incidents, see Northwest Airlines accidents and incidents. For Delta Connection incidents, see Delta Connection incidents and accidents.There have been over a dozen attempted hijackings that resulted in no injuries and the surrender of the often lone hijacker. These incidents are not included. The following are notable hijackings because of fatalities or success in forcing the aircraft to fly to another country:
|
[
"Clarence Faulk",
"Daniel Carp",
"Carleton Putnam",
"Gerald Grinstein",
"Leo Mullin",
"W.T. Beebe",
"Charles H. Dolson",
"Collett E. Woolman",
"Frank Blake",
"David C. Garrett, Jr."
] |
|
Who was the chair of Delta Air Lines in 17/10/1991?
|
October 17, 1991
|
{
"text": [
"Ronald W. Allen"
]
}
|
L2_Q188920_P488_6
|
Ronald W. Allen is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1987 to Jan, 1997.
Daniel Carp is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2016.
Charles H. Dolson is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1971.
Collett E. Woolman is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1966.
Frank Blake is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Carleton Putnam is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1955.
David C. Garrett, Jr. is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1983 to Jan, 1987.
Gerald Grinstein is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Leo Mullin is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004.
W.T. Beebe is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1983.
Clarence Faulk is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1951.
|
Delta Air LinesDelta Air Lines, Inc., typically referred to as Delta, is one of the major airlines of the United States and a legacy carrier. It is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The airline, along with its subsidiaries and regional affiliates, including Delta Connection, operates over 5,400 flights daily and serves 325 destinations in 52 countries on six continents. Delta is a founding member of the SkyTeam airline alliance.Delta has nine hubs, with Atlanta being its largest in terms of total passengers and number of departures. It is ranked second among the world's largest airlines by number of scheduled passengers carried, revenue passenger-kilometers flown, and fleet size. It is ranked 69th on the Fortune 500. The company slogan is "Keep Climbing."Delta Air Lines' history begins with the world's first aerial crop dusting operation called Huff Daland Dusters, Inc. The company was founded on March 2, 1925, in Macon, Georgia, before moving to Monroe, Louisiana, in summer 1925. It flew a Huff-Daland Duster, the first true crop duster, designed to combat the boll weevil infestation of cotton crops. C.E. Woolman, general manager and later Delta's first CEO, led a group of local investors to acquire the company's assets. Delta Air Service was incorporated on December 3, 1928, and named after the Mississippi Delta region.Passenger operations began on June 17, 1929, from Dallas, Texas, to Jackson, Mississippi, with stops at Shreveport and Monroe, Louisiana. By June 1930, service had extended east to Atlanta and west to Fort Worth, Texas. Passenger service ceased in October 1930 when the airmail contract for the route Delta had pioneered was awarded to another airline, which purchased the assets of Delta Air Service. Local banker Travis Oliver, acting as a trustee, C.E. Woolman, and other local investors purchased back the crop-dusting assets of Delta Air Service and incorporated as Delta Air Corporation on December 31, 1930.Delta Air Corporation secured an air mail contract in 1934, and began doing business as Delta Air Lines over Mail Route 24, stretching from Fort Worth, Texas, to Charleston, South Carolina. Delta moved its headquarters from Monroe, Louisiana, to its current location in Atlanta in 1941. The company name officially became Delta Air Lines in 1945. In 1946, the company commenced regularly scheduled freight transport. In 1949, the company launched the first discounted fares between Chicago and Miami. In 1953, the company launched its first international routes after the acquisition of Chicago and Southern Air Lines. In 1959, it was the first airline to fly the Douglas DC-8. In 1960, it was the first airline to fly Convair 880 jets. In 1964, it launched the Deltamatic reservation systems using computers in the IBM 7070 series. In 1965, Delta was the first airline to fly the McDonnell Douglas DC-9.By 1970, Delta had an all-jet fleet, and in 1972 it acquired Northeast Airlines. Trans-Atlantic service began in 1978 with the first nonstop flights from Atlanta to London. In 1981, Delta launched a frequent-flyer program. In 1987, it acquired Western Airlines, and that same year Delta began trans-Pacific service (Atlanta-Portland, Oregon-Tokyo). In 1990, Delta was the first airline in the United States to fly McDonnell Douglas MD-11 jets. In 1991, it acquired substantially all of Pan Am's trans-Atlantic routes and the Pan Am Shuttle, rebranded as the Delta Shuttle. Delta was now the leading airline across the Atlantic.In 1997, Delta was the first airline to board more than 100 million passengers in a calendar year. Also that year, Delta began an expansion of its international routes into Latin America. In 2003, the company launched Song, a low-cost carrier.On September 14, 2005, the company filed for bankruptcy, citing rising fuel costs. It emerged from bankruptcy in April 2007 after fending off a hostile takeover from US Airways and its shares were re-listed on the New York Stock Exchange.The acquisition of Northwest Airlines was announced April 14, 2008. It was approved and consummated on October 29, 2008. Northwest continued to operate as a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta until December 31, 2009, when the Northwest Airlines operating certificate was merged into that of Delta. Delta completed integration with Northwest on January 31, 2010, when their computer reservations system and websites were combined, and the Northwest Airlines brand was officially retired.Delta and its worldwide alliance partners operate more than 15,000 flights per day. Delta is the only U.S. carrier that flies to Dakar, Lagos, and Stuttgart.In March 2020, Delta suspended all flights to continental Europe for 30 days, and cutting 40% of its capacity.Delta currently has nine hubs:Delta also has one focus-city:Delta is a member of the SkyTeam alliance and has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:, Delta operated a fleet of 750 aircraft manufactured by Airbus and Boeing. Delta operates the largest Boeing 717, Boeing 757, and Boeing 767 fleets in the world, and the largest Airbus A330 fleet of any US airline. Prior to its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines, Delta's fleet was made up of solely Boeing and McDonnell Douglas aircraft. Airbus aircraft from Northwest joined the fleet after the merger, and more have since been added.Delta often seeks to acquire and utilize older aircraft, especially narrow-bodies, and it has created an extensive MRO (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) organization, called TechOps, to support them. However, in early 2011, Delta began talks with Airbus, Boeing and Bombardier Aerospace to discuss replacing the McDonnell Douglas DC-9s, McDonnell Douglas MD-88s, and older A320 and 757-200 aircraft. On August 22, 2011, Delta placed an order for 100 Boeing 737-900ER aircraft and deferred an order of 100 small narrow-body jets until 2012.Delta underwent a cabin branding upgrade in 2015. Availability and exact details vary by route and aircraft type.Delta One is the airline's premier business class product, available on long haul international flights, as well as transcontinental service from New York JFK to Los Angeles, San Francisco and Seattle/Tacoma.Delta One features lie-flat seating on all aircraft types, and direct aisle access from every seat on all types except the Boeing 757-200 (in which only a special sub-fleet of approximately 20 aircraft feature lie-flats). The Boeing 767-300ER and Boeing 767-400ER seats, designed by James Thompson, feature a space-saving design whereby the seats are staggered such that when in the fully flat position, the foot of each bed extends under the armrests of the seat in front of it. Delta One cabins on the Boeing 777-200ER/LR fleet are configured in a herringbone layout, while Airbus A330 cabins (featuring the "Cirrus" flat-bed sleeper suite by Zodiac Seats U.S.) are configured in a reverse herringbone pattern.All seats are also equipped with a personal, on demand in-flight-entertainment (IFE) system, universal power-ports, a movable reading light, and a folding work table. Passengers also receive complimentary chef-curated meals, refreshments, alcoholic beverages, a Tumi Inc. amenity kit, premium bedding, and pre-flight Sky Club access.In August 2016, Delta announced the introduction of Delta One Suites on select widebody fleets. The suites will feature a door to the aisle for enhanced privacy, as well as improved storage space, a larger IFE screen, and updated design. The suites rolled out on the Airbus A350 fleet, first delivered in July 2017, followed by installation within the Boeing 777 fleet.In April 2016, Delta CEO Ed Bastian announced that a new Premium Economy cabin will be added. Since renamed to Premium Select, this cabin will feature extra legroom; adjustable leg rests; extra seat pitch, width, and recline; and a new premium service. Delta introduced it on its new Airbus A350, first delivered in fall 2017, to be followed by the Boeing 777. In October 2018, Delta announced that it would be selling first class seats on domestically configured Boeing 757 aircraft flying transatlantic routes as Premium Select.First Class is offered on mainline domestic flights (except those featuring Delta One service), select short- and medium-haul international flights, and Delta Connection aircraft with more than 50 seats. Seats range from wide and have between of pitch. Passengers in this class receive a wider variety of free snacks compared to Main Cabin, as well as free drinks and alcohol, and full meal service on flights and longer. Certain aircraft also feature power ports at each seat and free entertainment products from Delta Studio. First Class passengers are also eligible for priority boarding.Delta Comfort+ seats are installed on all aircraft excluding Delta's new A350s and feature of pitch; on all Delta One configured aircraft, of pitch and 50 percent more recline over standard Main Cabin seats. Additional amenities include: Sky Priority Boarding, dedicated overhead space, complimentary beer, wine, and spirits on flights or more, and complimentary premium snacks on flights or more. Complimentary premium entertainment is available via Delta Studio, with free headsets available on most flights. On transcontinental flights between JFK-LAX/SFO, Delta Comfort+ passengers also get Luvo snack wraps. Medallion members can upgrade from Main Cabin to Comfort+ for free, while other customers can upgrade for a fee or with SkyMiles.Main Cabin (Economy Class) is available on all aircraft with seats ranging from wide and of pitch. The main cabin on Boeing 737, 777, and selected Boeing 757-200 and 767-300 aircraft have an articulating seat bottom where the seat bottom moves forward in addition to the seat back tilting backwards when reclining.Main Cabin passengers receive complimentary snacks and non-alcoholic drinks on all flights or longer. Alcoholic beverages are also available for purchase. Complimentary meals and alcoholic drinks are provided on long-haul international flights as well as selected transcontinental domestic flights, such as between New York–JFK and Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego. As part of Delta's Flight Fuel buy on board program, meals are available for purchase on other North American flights or longer.Delta operated a different buy on board program between 2003 and 2005. The previous program had items from differing providers, depending on the origin and destination of the flight. Prices ranged up to $10 ($ when adjusted for inflation). The airline started the service on a few selected flights in July 2003, and the meal service was initially offered on 400 flights. Delta ended this buy on board program in 2005; instead, Delta began offering snacks at no extra charge on flights over 90 minutes to most U.S. domestic flights and some flights to the Caribbean and Latin America. Beginning in mid-March 2005 the airline planned to stop providing pillows on flights within the 48 contiguous U.S. states, Bermuda, Canada, the Caribbean, and Central America. In addition, the airline increased the price of alcoholic beverages on Delta mainline flights from $4 ($ when adjusted for inflation) to $5 ($ when adjusted for inflation); the increase in alcohol prices did not occur on Song flights.Basic Economy is a basic version of Main Cabin, offering the same services with fewer flexibility options for a lower price. Examples of fewer flexibility options include no ticket changes, no paid or complimentary upgrades regardless of frequent-flier status, and only having a seat assigned at check-in.SkyMiles is the frequent flyer program for Delta Air Lines. Miles do not expire but accounts may be deactivated by Delta in certain cases, such as the death of a program member or fraudulent activity.Delta Sky Club is the branding name of Delta's airport lounges. Membership is available through an annual membership that can be purchased with either money or miles. International passengers traveling in Delta One class get free access. Membership can also be granted through top-level Delta status or by being an American Express cardholder with certain exceptions. As of January 2019, Delta no longer offers single day passes.Originally, Delta's membership-based airport clubs were called Crown Room lounges, with Northwest's called WorldClubs.On November 27, 2001, Delta Air Lines launched SkyBonus, a program aimed toward small-to-medium businesses spending between $5,000 and $500,000 annually on air travel. Businesses can earn points toward free travel and upgrades, as well as Sky Club memberships and SkyMiles Silver Medallion status. Points are earned on paid travel based on a variety of fare amount paid, booking code, and place origin or destination. While enrolled businesses are able to earn points toward free travel, the travelling passenger is still eligible to earn SkyMiles during his or her travel.In early 2010, Delta Air Lines merged its SkyBonus program with Northwest's similar Biz Perks program.For the fiscal year 2018, Delta Air Lines reported earnings of US$5.1 billion, with an annual revenue of US$44.438 billion, an increase of 8.02% over the previous fiscal cycle. Its shares traded at over $48 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$39.182 billion in April 2019.Between its mainline operation and subsidiaries, and as of March 2015, Delta employs nearly 80,000 people. Ed Bastian is the current Chief Executive Officer and has served in this position since May 2, 2016. Joanne Smith is Executive Vice President and Chief People Officer responsible for the oversight and support of personnel needs at Delta. She was appointed on October 1, 2014, replacing Mike Campbell.Delta's 14,500 mainline pilots are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association, International and are the union's largest pilot group. The company's approximately 180 flight dispatchers are represented by the Professional Airline Flight Control Association (PAFCA). Not counting the pilots and flight dispatchers, Delta is the only one of the five largest airlines in the United States, and one of only two in the top 9 (the other being JetBlue), whose non-pilot USA domestic staff is entirely non-union. In August 2020, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, Delta Air Lines announced that it would be cutting 1,941 pilot job positions if it could not conclude a cost reduction deal with its union. In January 2021, Delta said that, thanks to the federal support, it will be able to bring back 400 pilots in full time.Delta Global Staffing (DGS) was a temporary employment firm located in Atlanta, Georgia. Delta Global Staffing was a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta Air Lines, Inc. and a division of the internal company DAL Global Services.Delta Air Lines sold majority ownership of DAL Global Services to Argenbright Holdings on December 21, 2018. As part of the sale, Delta dissolved the staffing division of DGS.It was founded in 1995 as a provider of temporary staffing for Delta primarily in Atlanta. DGS has since expanded to include customers and businesses outside the airline and aviation industries. DGS now supports customers in major US metropolitan areas.Delta Global Staffing provided contract workers for short and long term assignments, VMS partnering, VOP on-site management, temp-to-hire, direct placements, and payroll services. DGS services markets such as call centers, customer services and administrative placements, IT & professional recruiting, logistics, finance & accounting, hospitality, and aviation/airline industry.Delta's corporate headquarters is located on a corporate campus on the northern boundary of Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, within the city limits of Atlanta. This location has served as Delta's headquarters since 1941, when the company relocated its corporate offices from Monroe, Louisiana to Greater Atlanta. The crop dusting division of Delta remained headquartered in Monroe until Delta ceased crop dusting in 1966. Before 1981, the Delta corporate campus, an plot of land in proximity to the old Hartsfield Airport terminal, was outside the City of Atlanta limits in unincorporated Fulton County. On August 3, 1981, the Atlanta City Council approved the annexation of of land, an area containing the Delta headquarters. As of 1981 Delta would have had to begin paying $200,000 annually to the City of Atlanta in taxes. In September 1981, the airline sued the city, challenging the annexation on the basis of the constitutionality of the 1960 City of Atlanta annexation of the Hartsfield old terminal. The City of Atlanta was only permitted to annex areas that are adjacent to areas already in the Atlanta city limits.In addition to hosting Delta's corporate headquarters, Hartsfield-Jackson is also the home of Delta TechOps, the airline's primary maintenance, repair, and overhaul arm and the largest full-service airline MRO in North America, specializing in engines, components, airframe, and line maintenance.Delta maintains a large presence in the Twin Cities, with over 12,000 employees in the region as well as significant corporate support functions housed in the Minneapolis area, including the company's information technology divisional offices.Delta's logo, often called the "widget", was originally unveiled in 1959. Its triangle shape is taken from the Greek letter delta, and recalls the airline's origins in the Mississippi Delta. It is also said to be reminiscent of the swept-wing design of the DC-8, Delta's first jet aircraft.Delta's current livery is called "Upward & Onward". It features a white fuselage with the company's name in blue lettering and a widget on the vertical stabilizer. Delta introduced its current livery in 2007 as part of a re-branding after it emerged from bankruptcy. The new livery consists of four colors, while the old one (called "colors in motion") used eight. This meant the switch saved the airline money by removing one day from each aircraft's painting cycle. The airline took four years to repaint all of its aircraft into the current scheme, including aircraft inherited from Northwest Airlines.In 2008, Delta Air Lines was given an award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Design for the Environment (DfE) program for its use of PreKote, a more environmentally friendly, non-hexavalent chromium surface pretreatment on its aircraft, replacing hazardous chemicals formerly used to improve paint adhesion and prevent corrosion. In addition, PreKote reduces water usage by two-thirds and reduces wastewater treatment.PreKote is also saving money by reducing the time needed to paint each airplane. With time savings of eight to ten percent, it will save an estimated more than $1 million annually.As part of the re-branding project, a safety video featuring a flight attendant showed up on YouTube in early 2008, getting over 1 million views and the attention of news outlets, specifically for the video's tone mixed with the serious safety message. The flight attendant, Katherine Lee, was dubbed "Deltalina" by a member of FlyerTalk for her resemblance to Angelina Jolie. Delta had considered several styles for its current safety video, including animation, before opting for a video presenting a flight attendant speaking to the audience. The video was filmed on a former Song Airlines Boeing 757-200.The following are major accidents and incidents that occurred on Delta mainline aircraft. For Northwest Airlines incidents, see Northwest Airlines accidents and incidents. For Delta Connection incidents, see Delta Connection incidents and accidents.There have been over a dozen attempted hijackings that resulted in no injuries and the surrender of the often lone hijacker. These incidents are not included. The following are notable hijackings because of fatalities or success in forcing the aircraft to fly to another country:
|
[
"Clarence Faulk",
"Daniel Carp",
"Carleton Putnam",
"Gerald Grinstein",
"Leo Mullin",
"W.T. Beebe",
"Charles H. Dolson",
"Collett E. Woolman",
"Frank Blake",
"David C. Garrett, Jr."
] |
|
Who was the chair of Delta Air Lines in Oct 17, 1991?
|
October 17, 1991
|
{
"text": [
"Ronald W. Allen"
]
}
|
L2_Q188920_P488_6
|
Ronald W. Allen is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1987 to Jan, 1997.
Daniel Carp is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2016.
Charles H. Dolson is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1971.
Collett E. Woolman is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1966.
Frank Blake is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Carleton Putnam is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1955.
David C. Garrett, Jr. is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1983 to Jan, 1987.
Gerald Grinstein is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Leo Mullin is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004.
W.T. Beebe is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1983.
Clarence Faulk is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1951.
|
Delta Air LinesDelta Air Lines, Inc., typically referred to as Delta, is one of the major airlines of the United States and a legacy carrier. It is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The airline, along with its subsidiaries and regional affiliates, including Delta Connection, operates over 5,400 flights daily and serves 325 destinations in 52 countries on six continents. Delta is a founding member of the SkyTeam airline alliance.Delta has nine hubs, with Atlanta being its largest in terms of total passengers and number of departures. It is ranked second among the world's largest airlines by number of scheduled passengers carried, revenue passenger-kilometers flown, and fleet size. It is ranked 69th on the Fortune 500. The company slogan is "Keep Climbing."Delta Air Lines' history begins with the world's first aerial crop dusting operation called Huff Daland Dusters, Inc. The company was founded on March 2, 1925, in Macon, Georgia, before moving to Monroe, Louisiana, in summer 1925. It flew a Huff-Daland Duster, the first true crop duster, designed to combat the boll weevil infestation of cotton crops. C.E. Woolman, general manager and later Delta's first CEO, led a group of local investors to acquire the company's assets. Delta Air Service was incorporated on December 3, 1928, and named after the Mississippi Delta region.Passenger operations began on June 17, 1929, from Dallas, Texas, to Jackson, Mississippi, with stops at Shreveport and Monroe, Louisiana. By June 1930, service had extended east to Atlanta and west to Fort Worth, Texas. Passenger service ceased in October 1930 when the airmail contract for the route Delta had pioneered was awarded to another airline, which purchased the assets of Delta Air Service. Local banker Travis Oliver, acting as a trustee, C.E. Woolman, and other local investors purchased back the crop-dusting assets of Delta Air Service and incorporated as Delta Air Corporation on December 31, 1930.Delta Air Corporation secured an air mail contract in 1934, and began doing business as Delta Air Lines over Mail Route 24, stretching from Fort Worth, Texas, to Charleston, South Carolina. Delta moved its headquarters from Monroe, Louisiana, to its current location in Atlanta in 1941. The company name officially became Delta Air Lines in 1945. In 1946, the company commenced regularly scheduled freight transport. In 1949, the company launched the first discounted fares between Chicago and Miami. In 1953, the company launched its first international routes after the acquisition of Chicago and Southern Air Lines. In 1959, it was the first airline to fly the Douglas DC-8. In 1960, it was the first airline to fly Convair 880 jets. In 1964, it launched the Deltamatic reservation systems using computers in the IBM 7070 series. In 1965, Delta was the first airline to fly the McDonnell Douglas DC-9.By 1970, Delta had an all-jet fleet, and in 1972 it acquired Northeast Airlines. Trans-Atlantic service began in 1978 with the first nonstop flights from Atlanta to London. In 1981, Delta launched a frequent-flyer program. In 1987, it acquired Western Airlines, and that same year Delta began trans-Pacific service (Atlanta-Portland, Oregon-Tokyo). In 1990, Delta was the first airline in the United States to fly McDonnell Douglas MD-11 jets. In 1991, it acquired substantially all of Pan Am's trans-Atlantic routes and the Pan Am Shuttle, rebranded as the Delta Shuttle. Delta was now the leading airline across the Atlantic.In 1997, Delta was the first airline to board more than 100 million passengers in a calendar year. Also that year, Delta began an expansion of its international routes into Latin America. In 2003, the company launched Song, a low-cost carrier.On September 14, 2005, the company filed for bankruptcy, citing rising fuel costs. It emerged from bankruptcy in April 2007 after fending off a hostile takeover from US Airways and its shares were re-listed on the New York Stock Exchange.The acquisition of Northwest Airlines was announced April 14, 2008. It was approved and consummated on October 29, 2008. Northwest continued to operate as a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta until December 31, 2009, when the Northwest Airlines operating certificate was merged into that of Delta. Delta completed integration with Northwest on January 31, 2010, when their computer reservations system and websites were combined, and the Northwest Airlines brand was officially retired.Delta and its worldwide alliance partners operate more than 15,000 flights per day. Delta is the only U.S. carrier that flies to Dakar, Lagos, and Stuttgart.In March 2020, Delta suspended all flights to continental Europe for 30 days, and cutting 40% of its capacity.Delta currently has nine hubs:Delta also has one focus-city:Delta is a member of the SkyTeam alliance and has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:, Delta operated a fleet of 750 aircraft manufactured by Airbus and Boeing. Delta operates the largest Boeing 717, Boeing 757, and Boeing 767 fleets in the world, and the largest Airbus A330 fleet of any US airline. Prior to its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines, Delta's fleet was made up of solely Boeing and McDonnell Douglas aircraft. Airbus aircraft from Northwest joined the fleet after the merger, and more have since been added.Delta often seeks to acquire and utilize older aircraft, especially narrow-bodies, and it has created an extensive MRO (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) organization, called TechOps, to support them. However, in early 2011, Delta began talks with Airbus, Boeing and Bombardier Aerospace to discuss replacing the McDonnell Douglas DC-9s, McDonnell Douglas MD-88s, and older A320 and 757-200 aircraft. On August 22, 2011, Delta placed an order for 100 Boeing 737-900ER aircraft and deferred an order of 100 small narrow-body jets until 2012.Delta underwent a cabin branding upgrade in 2015. Availability and exact details vary by route and aircraft type.Delta One is the airline's premier business class product, available on long haul international flights, as well as transcontinental service from New York JFK to Los Angeles, San Francisco and Seattle/Tacoma.Delta One features lie-flat seating on all aircraft types, and direct aisle access from every seat on all types except the Boeing 757-200 (in which only a special sub-fleet of approximately 20 aircraft feature lie-flats). The Boeing 767-300ER and Boeing 767-400ER seats, designed by James Thompson, feature a space-saving design whereby the seats are staggered such that when in the fully flat position, the foot of each bed extends under the armrests of the seat in front of it. Delta One cabins on the Boeing 777-200ER/LR fleet are configured in a herringbone layout, while Airbus A330 cabins (featuring the "Cirrus" flat-bed sleeper suite by Zodiac Seats U.S.) are configured in a reverse herringbone pattern.All seats are also equipped with a personal, on demand in-flight-entertainment (IFE) system, universal power-ports, a movable reading light, and a folding work table. Passengers also receive complimentary chef-curated meals, refreshments, alcoholic beverages, a Tumi Inc. amenity kit, premium bedding, and pre-flight Sky Club access.In August 2016, Delta announced the introduction of Delta One Suites on select widebody fleets. The suites will feature a door to the aisle for enhanced privacy, as well as improved storage space, a larger IFE screen, and updated design. The suites rolled out on the Airbus A350 fleet, first delivered in July 2017, followed by installation within the Boeing 777 fleet.In April 2016, Delta CEO Ed Bastian announced that a new Premium Economy cabin will be added. Since renamed to Premium Select, this cabin will feature extra legroom; adjustable leg rests; extra seat pitch, width, and recline; and a new premium service. Delta introduced it on its new Airbus A350, first delivered in fall 2017, to be followed by the Boeing 777. In October 2018, Delta announced that it would be selling first class seats on domestically configured Boeing 757 aircraft flying transatlantic routes as Premium Select.First Class is offered on mainline domestic flights (except those featuring Delta One service), select short- and medium-haul international flights, and Delta Connection aircraft with more than 50 seats. Seats range from wide and have between of pitch. Passengers in this class receive a wider variety of free snacks compared to Main Cabin, as well as free drinks and alcohol, and full meal service on flights and longer. Certain aircraft also feature power ports at each seat and free entertainment products from Delta Studio. First Class passengers are also eligible for priority boarding.Delta Comfort+ seats are installed on all aircraft excluding Delta's new A350s and feature of pitch; on all Delta One configured aircraft, of pitch and 50 percent more recline over standard Main Cabin seats. Additional amenities include: Sky Priority Boarding, dedicated overhead space, complimentary beer, wine, and spirits on flights or more, and complimentary premium snacks on flights or more. Complimentary premium entertainment is available via Delta Studio, with free headsets available on most flights. On transcontinental flights between JFK-LAX/SFO, Delta Comfort+ passengers also get Luvo snack wraps. Medallion members can upgrade from Main Cabin to Comfort+ for free, while other customers can upgrade for a fee or with SkyMiles.Main Cabin (Economy Class) is available on all aircraft with seats ranging from wide and of pitch. The main cabin on Boeing 737, 777, and selected Boeing 757-200 and 767-300 aircraft have an articulating seat bottom where the seat bottom moves forward in addition to the seat back tilting backwards when reclining.Main Cabin passengers receive complimentary snacks and non-alcoholic drinks on all flights or longer. Alcoholic beverages are also available for purchase. Complimentary meals and alcoholic drinks are provided on long-haul international flights as well as selected transcontinental domestic flights, such as between New York–JFK and Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego. As part of Delta's Flight Fuel buy on board program, meals are available for purchase on other North American flights or longer.Delta operated a different buy on board program between 2003 and 2005. The previous program had items from differing providers, depending on the origin and destination of the flight. Prices ranged up to $10 ($ when adjusted for inflation). The airline started the service on a few selected flights in July 2003, and the meal service was initially offered on 400 flights. Delta ended this buy on board program in 2005; instead, Delta began offering snacks at no extra charge on flights over 90 minutes to most U.S. domestic flights and some flights to the Caribbean and Latin America. Beginning in mid-March 2005 the airline planned to stop providing pillows on flights within the 48 contiguous U.S. states, Bermuda, Canada, the Caribbean, and Central America. In addition, the airline increased the price of alcoholic beverages on Delta mainline flights from $4 ($ when adjusted for inflation) to $5 ($ when adjusted for inflation); the increase in alcohol prices did not occur on Song flights.Basic Economy is a basic version of Main Cabin, offering the same services with fewer flexibility options for a lower price. Examples of fewer flexibility options include no ticket changes, no paid or complimentary upgrades regardless of frequent-flier status, and only having a seat assigned at check-in.SkyMiles is the frequent flyer program for Delta Air Lines. Miles do not expire but accounts may be deactivated by Delta in certain cases, such as the death of a program member or fraudulent activity.Delta Sky Club is the branding name of Delta's airport lounges. Membership is available through an annual membership that can be purchased with either money or miles. International passengers traveling in Delta One class get free access. Membership can also be granted through top-level Delta status or by being an American Express cardholder with certain exceptions. As of January 2019, Delta no longer offers single day passes.Originally, Delta's membership-based airport clubs were called Crown Room lounges, with Northwest's called WorldClubs.On November 27, 2001, Delta Air Lines launched SkyBonus, a program aimed toward small-to-medium businesses spending between $5,000 and $500,000 annually on air travel. Businesses can earn points toward free travel and upgrades, as well as Sky Club memberships and SkyMiles Silver Medallion status. Points are earned on paid travel based on a variety of fare amount paid, booking code, and place origin or destination. While enrolled businesses are able to earn points toward free travel, the travelling passenger is still eligible to earn SkyMiles during his or her travel.In early 2010, Delta Air Lines merged its SkyBonus program with Northwest's similar Biz Perks program.For the fiscal year 2018, Delta Air Lines reported earnings of US$5.1 billion, with an annual revenue of US$44.438 billion, an increase of 8.02% over the previous fiscal cycle. Its shares traded at over $48 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$39.182 billion in April 2019.Between its mainline operation and subsidiaries, and as of March 2015, Delta employs nearly 80,000 people. Ed Bastian is the current Chief Executive Officer and has served in this position since May 2, 2016. Joanne Smith is Executive Vice President and Chief People Officer responsible for the oversight and support of personnel needs at Delta. She was appointed on October 1, 2014, replacing Mike Campbell.Delta's 14,500 mainline pilots are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association, International and are the union's largest pilot group. The company's approximately 180 flight dispatchers are represented by the Professional Airline Flight Control Association (PAFCA). Not counting the pilots and flight dispatchers, Delta is the only one of the five largest airlines in the United States, and one of only two in the top 9 (the other being JetBlue), whose non-pilot USA domestic staff is entirely non-union. In August 2020, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, Delta Air Lines announced that it would be cutting 1,941 pilot job positions if it could not conclude a cost reduction deal with its union. In January 2021, Delta said that, thanks to the federal support, it will be able to bring back 400 pilots in full time.Delta Global Staffing (DGS) was a temporary employment firm located in Atlanta, Georgia. Delta Global Staffing was a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta Air Lines, Inc. and a division of the internal company DAL Global Services.Delta Air Lines sold majority ownership of DAL Global Services to Argenbright Holdings on December 21, 2018. As part of the sale, Delta dissolved the staffing division of DGS.It was founded in 1995 as a provider of temporary staffing for Delta primarily in Atlanta. DGS has since expanded to include customers and businesses outside the airline and aviation industries. DGS now supports customers in major US metropolitan areas.Delta Global Staffing provided contract workers for short and long term assignments, VMS partnering, VOP on-site management, temp-to-hire, direct placements, and payroll services. DGS services markets such as call centers, customer services and administrative placements, IT & professional recruiting, logistics, finance & accounting, hospitality, and aviation/airline industry.Delta's corporate headquarters is located on a corporate campus on the northern boundary of Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, within the city limits of Atlanta. This location has served as Delta's headquarters since 1941, when the company relocated its corporate offices from Monroe, Louisiana to Greater Atlanta. The crop dusting division of Delta remained headquartered in Monroe until Delta ceased crop dusting in 1966. Before 1981, the Delta corporate campus, an plot of land in proximity to the old Hartsfield Airport terminal, was outside the City of Atlanta limits in unincorporated Fulton County. On August 3, 1981, the Atlanta City Council approved the annexation of of land, an area containing the Delta headquarters. As of 1981 Delta would have had to begin paying $200,000 annually to the City of Atlanta in taxes. In September 1981, the airline sued the city, challenging the annexation on the basis of the constitutionality of the 1960 City of Atlanta annexation of the Hartsfield old terminal. The City of Atlanta was only permitted to annex areas that are adjacent to areas already in the Atlanta city limits.In addition to hosting Delta's corporate headquarters, Hartsfield-Jackson is also the home of Delta TechOps, the airline's primary maintenance, repair, and overhaul arm and the largest full-service airline MRO in North America, specializing in engines, components, airframe, and line maintenance.Delta maintains a large presence in the Twin Cities, with over 12,000 employees in the region as well as significant corporate support functions housed in the Minneapolis area, including the company's information technology divisional offices.Delta's logo, often called the "widget", was originally unveiled in 1959. Its triangle shape is taken from the Greek letter delta, and recalls the airline's origins in the Mississippi Delta. It is also said to be reminiscent of the swept-wing design of the DC-8, Delta's first jet aircraft.Delta's current livery is called "Upward & Onward". It features a white fuselage with the company's name in blue lettering and a widget on the vertical stabilizer. Delta introduced its current livery in 2007 as part of a re-branding after it emerged from bankruptcy. The new livery consists of four colors, while the old one (called "colors in motion") used eight. This meant the switch saved the airline money by removing one day from each aircraft's painting cycle. The airline took four years to repaint all of its aircraft into the current scheme, including aircraft inherited from Northwest Airlines.In 2008, Delta Air Lines was given an award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Design for the Environment (DfE) program for its use of PreKote, a more environmentally friendly, non-hexavalent chromium surface pretreatment on its aircraft, replacing hazardous chemicals formerly used to improve paint adhesion and prevent corrosion. In addition, PreKote reduces water usage by two-thirds and reduces wastewater treatment.PreKote is also saving money by reducing the time needed to paint each airplane. With time savings of eight to ten percent, it will save an estimated more than $1 million annually.As part of the re-branding project, a safety video featuring a flight attendant showed up on YouTube in early 2008, getting over 1 million views and the attention of news outlets, specifically for the video's tone mixed with the serious safety message. The flight attendant, Katherine Lee, was dubbed "Deltalina" by a member of FlyerTalk for her resemblance to Angelina Jolie. Delta had considered several styles for its current safety video, including animation, before opting for a video presenting a flight attendant speaking to the audience. The video was filmed on a former Song Airlines Boeing 757-200.The following are major accidents and incidents that occurred on Delta mainline aircraft. For Northwest Airlines incidents, see Northwest Airlines accidents and incidents. For Delta Connection incidents, see Delta Connection incidents and accidents.There have been over a dozen attempted hijackings that resulted in no injuries and the surrender of the often lone hijacker. These incidents are not included. The following are notable hijackings because of fatalities or success in forcing the aircraft to fly to another country:
|
[
"Clarence Faulk",
"Daniel Carp",
"Carleton Putnam",
"Gerald Grinstein",
"Leo Mullin",
"W.T. Beebe",
"Charles H. Dolson",
"Collett E. Woolman",
"Frank Blake",
"David C. Garrett, Jr."
] |
|
Who was the chair of Delta Air Lines in 10/17/1991?
|
October 17, 1991
|
{
"text": [
"Ronald W. Allen"
]
}
|
L2_Q188920_P488_6
|
Ronald W. Allen is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1987 to Jan, 1997.
Daniel Carp is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2016.
Charles H. Dolson is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1971.
Collett E. Woolman is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1966.
Frank Blake is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Carleton Putnam is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1955.
David C. Garrett, Jr. is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1983 to Jan, 1987.
Gerald Grinstein is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Leo Mullin is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004.
W.T. Beebe is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1983.
Clarence Faulk is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1951.
|
Delta Air LinesDelta Air Lines, Inc., typically referred to as Delta, is one of the major airlines of the United States and a legacy carrier. It is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The airline, along with its subsidiaries and regional affiliates, including Delta Connection, operates over 5,400 flights daily and serves 325 destinations in 52 countries on six continents. Delta is a founding member of the SkyTeam airline alliance.Delta has nine hubs, with Atlanta being its largest in terms of total passengers and number of departures. It is ranked second among the world's largest airlines by number of scheduled passengers carried, revenue passenger-kilometers flown, and fleet size. It is ranked 69th on the Fortune 500. The company slogan is "Keep Climbing."Delta Air Lines' history begins with the world's first aerial crop dusting operation called Huff Daland Dusters, Inc. The company was founded on March 2, 1925, in Macon, Georgia, before moving to Monroe, Louisiana, in summer 1925. It flew a Huff-Daland Duster, the first true crop duster, designed to combat the boll weevil infestation of cotton crops. C.E. Woolman, general manager and later Delta's first CEO, led a group of local investors to acquire the company's assets. Delta Air Service was incorporated on December 3, 1928, and named after the Mississippi Delta region.Passenger operations began on June 17, 1929, from Dallas, Texas, to Jackson, Mississippi, with stops at Shreveport and Monroe, Louisiana. By June 1930, service had extended east to Atlanta and west to Fort Worth, Texas. Passenger service ceased in October 1930 when the airmail contract for the route Delta had pioneered was awarded to another airline, which purchased the assets of Delta Air Service. Local banker Travis Oliver, acting as a trustee, C.E. Woolman, and other local investors purchased back the crop-dusting assets of Delta Air Service and incorporated as Delta Air Corporation on December 31, 1930.Delta Air Corporation secured an air mail contract in 1934, and began doing business as Delta Air Lines over Mail Route 24, stretching from Fort Worth, Texas, to Charleston, South Carolina. Delta moved its headquarters from Monroe, Louisiana, to its current location in Atlanta in 1941. The company name officially became Delta Air Lines in 1945. In 1946, the company commenced regularly scheduled freight transport. In 1949, the company launched the first discounted fares between Chicago and Miami. In 1953, the company launched its first international routes after the acquisition of Chicago and Southern Air Lines. In 1959, it was the first airline to fly the Douglas DC-8. In 1960, it was the first airline to fly Convair 880 jets. In 1964, it launched the Deltamatic reservation systems using computers in the IBM 7070 series. In 1965, Delta was the first airline to fly the McDonnell Douglas DC-9.By 1970, Delta had an all-jet fleet, and in 1972 it acquired Northeast Airlines. Trans-Atlantic service began in 1978 with the first nonstop flights from Atlanta to London. In 1981, Delta launched a frequent-flyer program. In 1987, it acquired Western Airlines, and that same year Delta began trans-Pacific service (Atlanta-Portland, Oregon-Tokyo). In 1990, Delta was the first airline in the United States to fly McDonnell Douglas MD-11 jets. In 1991, it acquired substantially all of Pan Am's trans-Atlantic routes and the Pan Am Shuttle, rebranded as the Delta Shuttle. Delta was now the leading airline across the Atlantic.In 1997, Delta was the first airline to board more than 100 million passengers in a calendar year. Also that year, Delta began an expansion of its international routes into Latin America. In 2003, the company launched Song, a low-cost carrier.On September 14, 2005, the company filed for bankruptcy, citing rising fuel costs. It emerged from bankruptcy in April 2007 after fending off a hostile takeover from US Airways and its shares were re-listed on the New York Stock Exchange.The acquisition of Northwest Airlines was announced April 14, 2008. It was approved and consummated on October 29, 2008. Northwest continued to operate as a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta until December 31, 2009, when the Northwest Airlines operating certificate was merged into that of Delta. Delta completed integration with Northwest on January 31, 2010, when their computer reservations system and websites were combined, and the Northwest Airlines brand was officially retired.Delta and its worldwide alliance partners operate more than 15,000 flights per day. Delta is the only U.S. carrier that flies to Dakar, Lagos, and Stuttgart.In March 2020, Delta suspended all flights to continental Europe for 30 days, and cutting 40% of its capacity.Delta currently has nine hubs:Delta also has one focus-city:Delta is a member of the SkyTeam alliance and has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:, Delta operated a fleet of 750 aircraft manufactured by Airbus and Boeing. Delta operates the largest Boeing 717, Boeing 757, and Boeing 767 fleets in the world, and the largest Airbus A330 fleet of any US airline. Prior to its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines, Delta's fleet was made up of solely Boeing and McDonnell Douglas aircraft. Airbus aircraft from Northwest joined the fleet after the merger, and more have since been added.Delta often seeks to acquire and utilize older aircraft, especially narrow-bodies, and it has created an extensive MRO (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) organization, called TechOps, to support them. However, in early 2011, Delta began talks with Airbus, Boeing and Bombardier Aerospace to discuss replacing the McDonnell Douglas DC-9s, McDonnell Douglas MD-88s, and older A320 and 757-200 aircraft. On August 22, 2011, Delta placed an order for 100 Boeing 737-900ER aircraft and deferred an order of 100 small narrow-body jets until 2012.Delta underwent a cabin branding upgrade in 2015. Availability and exact details vary by route and aircraft type.Delta One is the airline's premier business class product, available on long haul international flights, as well as transcontinental service from New York JFK to Los Angeles, San Francisco and Seattle/Tacoma.Delta One features lie-flat seating on all aircraft types, and direct aisle access from every seat on all types except the Boeing 757-200 (in which only a special sub-fleet of approximately 20 aircraft feature lie-flats). The Boeing 767-300ER and Boeing 767-400ER seats, designed by James Thompson, feature a space-saving design whereby the seats are staggered such that when in the fully flat position, the foot of each bed extends under the armrests of the seat in front of it. Delta One cabins on the Boeing 777-200ER/LR fleet are configured in a herringbone layout, while Airbus A330 cabins (featuring the "Cirrus" flat-bed sleeper suite by Zodiac Seats U.S.) are configured in a reverse herringbone pattern.All seats are also equipped with a personal, on demand in-flight-entertainment (IFE) system, universal power-ports, a movable reading light, and a folding work table. Passengers also receive complimentary chef-curated meals, refreshments, alcoholic beverages, a Tumi Inc. amenity kit, premium bedding, and pre-flight Sky Club access.In August 2016, Delta announced the introduction of Delta One Suites on select widebody fleets. The suites will feature a door to the aisle for enhanced privacy, as well as improved storage space, a larger IFE screen, and updated design. The suites rolled out on the Airbus A350 fleet, first delivered in July 2017, followed by installation within the Boeing 777 fleet.In April 2016, Delta CEO Ed Bastian announced that a new Premium Economy cabin will be added. Since renamed to Premium Select, this cabin will feature extra legroom; adjustable leg rests; extra seat pitch, width, and recline; and a new premium service. Delta introduced it on its new Airbus A350, first delivered in fall 2017, to be followed by the Boeing 777. In October 2018, Delta announced that it would be selling first class seats on domestically configured Boeing 757 aircraft flying transatlantic routes as Premium Select.First Class is offered on mainline domestic flights (except those featuring Delta One service), select short- and medium-haul international flights, and Delta Connection aircraft with more than 50 seats. Seats range from wide and have between of pitch. Passengers in this class receive a wider variety of free snacks compared to Main Cabin, as well as free drinks and alcohol, and full meal service on flights and longer. Certain aircraft also feature power ports at each seat and free entertainment products from Delta Studio. First Class passengers are also eligible for priority boarding.Delta Comfort+ seats are installed on all aircraft excluding Delta's new A350s and feature of pitch; on all Delta One configured aircraft, of pitch and 50 percent more recline over standard Main Cabin seats. Additional amenities include: Sky Priority Boarding, dedicated overhead space, complimentary beer, wine, and spirits on flights or more, and complimentary premium snacks on flights or more. Complimentary premium entertainment is available via Delta Studio, with free headsets available on most flights. On transcontinental flights between JFK-LAX/SFO, Delta Comfort+ passengers also get Luvo snack wraps. Medallion members can upgrade from Main Cabin to Comfort+ for free, while other customers can upgrade for a fee or with SkyMiles.Main Cabin (Economy Class) is available on all aircraft with seats ranging from wide and of pitch. The main cabin on Boeing 737, 777, and selected Boeing 757-200 and 767-300 aircraft have an articulating seat bottom where the seat bottom moves forward in addition to the seat back tilting backwards when reclining.Main Cabin passengers receive complimentary snacks and non-alcoholic drinks on all flights or longer. Alcoholic beverages are also available for purchase. Complimentary meals and alcoholic drinks are provided on long-haul international flights as well as selected transcontinental domestic flights, such as between New York–JFK and Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego. As part of Delta's Flight Fuel buy on board program, meals are available for purchase on other North American flights or longer.Delta operated a different buy on board program between 2003 and 2005. The previous program had items from differing providers, depending on the origin and destination of the flight. Prices ranged up to $10 ($ when adjusted for inflation). The airline started the service on a few selected flights in July 2003, and the meal service was initially offered on 400 flights. Delta ended this buy on board program in 2005; instead, Delta began offering snacks at no extra charge on flights over 90 minutes to most U.S. domestic flights and some flights to the Caribbean and Latin America. Beginning in mid-March 2005 the airline planned to stop providing pillows on flights within the 48 contiguous U.S. states, Bermuda, Canada, the Caribbean, and Central America. In addition, the airline increased the price of alcoholic beverages on Delta mainline flights from $4 ($ when adjusted for inflation) to $5 ($ when adjusted for inflation); the increase in alcohol prices did not occur on Song flights.Basic Economy is a basic version of Main Cabin, offering the same services with fewer flexibility options for a lower price. Examples of fewer flexibility options include no ticket changes, no paid or complimentary upgrades regardless of frequent-flier status, and only having a seat assigned at check-in.SkyMiles is the frequent flyer program for Delta Air Lines. Miles do not expire but accounts may be deactivated by Delta in certain cases, such as the death of a program member or fraudulent activity.Delta Sky Club is the branding name of Delta's airport lounges. Membership is available through an annual membership that can be purchased with either money or miles. International passengers traveling in Delta One class get free access. Membership can also be granted through top-level Delta status or by being an American Express cardholder with certain exceptions. As of January 2019, Delta no longer offers single day passes.Originally, Delta's membership-based airport clubs were called Crown Room lounges, with Northwest's called WorldClubs.On November 27, 2001, Delta Air Lines launched SkyBonus, a program aimed toward small-to-medium businesses spending between $5,000 and $500,000 annually on air travel. Businesses can earn points toward free travel and upgrades, as well as Sky Club memberships and SkyMiles Silver Medallion status. Points are earned on paid travel based on a variety of fare amount paid, booking code, and place origin or destination. While enrolled businesses are able to earn points toward free travel, the travelling passenger is still eligible to earn SkyMiles during his or her travel.In early 2010, Delta Air Lines merged its SkyBonus program with Northwest's similar Biz Perks program.For the fiscal year 2018, Delta Air Lines reported earnings of US$5.1 billion, with an annual revenue of US$44.438 billion, an increase of 8.02% over the previous fiscal cycle. Its shares traded at over $48 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$39.182 billion in April 2019.Between its mainline operation and subsidiaries, and as of March 2015, Delta employs nearly 80,000 people. Ed Bastian is the current Chief Executive Officer and has served in this position since May 2, 2016. Joanne Smith is Executive Vice President and Chief People Officer responsible for the oversight and support of personnel needs at Delta. She was appointed on October 1, 2014, replacing Mike Campbell.Delta's 14,500 mainline pilots are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association, International and are the union's largest pilot group. The company's approximately 180 flight dispatchers are represented by the Professional Airline Flight Control Association (PAFCA). Not counting the pilots and flight dispatchers, Delta is the only one of the five largest airlines in the United States, and one of only two in the top 9 (the other being JetBlue), whose non-pilot USA domestic staff is entirely non-union. In August 2020, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, Delta Air Lines announced that it would be cutting 1,941 pilot job positions if it could not conclude a cost reduction deal with its union. In January 2021, Delta said that, thanks to the federal support, it will be able to bring back 400 pilots in full time.Delta Global Staffing (DGS) was a temporary employment firm located in Atlanta, Georgia. Delta Global Staffing was a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta Air Lines, Inc. and a division of the internal company DAL Global Services.Delta Air Lines sold majority ownership of DAL Global Services to Argenbright Holdings on December 21, 2018. As part of the sale, Delta dissolved the staffing division of DGS.It was founded in 1995 as a provider of temporary staffing for Delta primarily in Atlanta. DGS has since expanded to include customers and businesses outside the airline and aviation industries. DGS now supports customers in major US metropolitan areas.Delta Global Staffing provided contract workers for short and long term assignments, VMS partnering, VOP on-site management, temp-to-hire, direct placements, and payroll services. DGS services markets such as call centers, customer services and administrative placements, IT & professional recruiting, logistics, finance & accounting, hospitality, and aviation/airline industry.Delta's corporate headquarters is located on a corporate campus on the northern boundary of Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, within the city limits of Atlanta. This location has served as Delta's headquarters since 1941, when the company relocated its corporate offices from Monroe, Louisiana to Greater Atlanta. The crop dusting division of Delta remained headquartered in Monroe until Delta ceased crop dusting in 1966. Before 1981, the Delta corporate campus, an plot of land in proximity to the old Hartsfield Airport terminal, was outside the City of Atlanta limits in unincorporated Fulton County. On August 3, 1981, the Atlanta City Council approved the annexation of of land, an area containing the Delta headquarters. As of 1981 Delta would have had to begin paying $200,000 annually to the City of Atlanta in taxes. In September 1981, the airline sued the city, challenging the annexation on the basis of the constitutionality of the 1960 City of Atlanta annexation of the Hartsfield old terminal. The City of Atlanta was only permitted to annex areas that are adjacent to areas already in the Atlanta city limits.In addition to hosting Delta's corporate headquarters, Hartsfield-Jackson is also the home of Delta TechOps, the airline's primary maintenance, repair, and overhaul arm and the largest full-service airline MRO in North America, specializing in engines, components, airframe, and line maintenance.Delta maintains a large presence in the Twin Cities, with over 12,000 employees in the region as well as significant corporate support functions housed in the Minneapolis area, including the company's information technology divisional offices.Delta's logo, often called the "widget", was originally unveiled in 1959. Its triangle shape is taken from the Greek letter delta, and recalls the airline's origins in the Mississippi Delta. It is also said to be reminiscent of the swept-wing design of the DC-8, Delta's first jet aircraft.Delta's current livery is called "Upward & Onward". It features a white fuselage with the company's name in blue lettering and a widget on the vertical stabilizer. Delta introduced its current livery in 2007 as part of a re-branding after it emerged from bankruptcy. The new livery consists of four colors, while the old one (called "colors in motion") used eight. This meant the switch saved the airline money by removing one day from each aircraft's painting cycle. The airline took four years to repaint all of its aircraft into the current scheme, including aircraft inherited from Northwest Airlines.In 2008, Delta Air Lines was given an award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Design for the Environment (DfE) program for its use of PreKote, a more environmentally friendly, non-hexavalent chromium surface pretreatment on its aircraft, replacing hazardous chemicals formerly used to improve paint adhesion and prevent corrosion. In addition, PreKote reduces water usage by two-thirds and reduces wastewater treatment.PreKote is also saving money by reducing the time needed to paint each airplane. With time savings of eight to ten percent, it will save an estimated more than $1 million annually.As part of the re-branding project, a safety video featuring a flight attendant showed up on YouTube in early 2008, getting over 1 million views and the attention of news outlets, specifically for the video's tone mixed with the serious safety message. The flight attendant, Katherine Lee, was dubbed "Deltalina" by a member of FlyerTalk for her resemblance to Angelina Jolie. Delta had considered several styles for its current safety video, including animation, before opting for a video presenting a flight attendant speaking to the audience. The video was filmed on a former Song Airlines Boeing 757-200.The following are major accidents and incidents that occurred on Delta mainline aircraft. For Northwest Airlines incidents, see Northwest Airlines accidents and incidents. For Delta Connection incidents, see Delta Connection incidents and accidents.There have been over a dozen attempted hijackings that resulted in no injuries and the surrender of the often lone hijacker. These incidents are not included. The following are notable hijackings because of fatalities or success in forcing the aircraft to fly to another country:
|
[
"Clarence Faulk",
"Daniel Carp",
"Carleton Putnam",
"Gerald Grinstein",
"Leo Mullin",
"W.T. Beebe",
"Charles H. Dolson",
"Collett E. Woolman",
"Frank Blake",
"David C. Garrett, Jr."
] |
|
Who was the chair of Delta Air Lines in 17-Oct-199117-October-1991?
|
October 17, 1991
|
{
"text": [
"Ronald W. Allen"
]
}
|
L2_Q188920_P488_6
|
Ronald W. Allen is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1987 to Jan, 1997.
Daniel Carp is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2016.
Charles H. Dolson is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1971.
Collett E. Woolman is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1965 to Jan, 1966.
Frank Blake is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 2016 to Dec, 2022.
Carleton Putnam is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1953 to Jan, 1955.
David C. Garrett, Jr. is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1983 to Jan, 1987.
Gerald Grinstein is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Leo Mullin is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2004.
W.T. Beebe is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1983.
Clarence Faulk is the chair of Delta Air Lines from Jan, 1945 to Jan, 1951.
|
Delta Air LinesDelta Air Lines, Inc., typically referred to as Delta, is one of the major airlines of the United States and a legacy carrier. It is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The airline, along with its subsidiaries and regional affiliates, including Delta Connection, operates over 5,400 flights daily and serves 325 destinations in 52 countries on six continents. Delta is a founding member of the SkyTeam airline alliance.Delta has nine hubs, with Atlanta being its largest in terms of total passengers and number of departures. It is ranked second among the world's largest airlines by number of scheduled passengers carried, revenue passenger-kilometers flown, and fleet size. It is ranked 69th on the Fortune 500. The company slogan is "Keep Climbing."Delta Air Lines' history begins with the world's first aerial crop dusting operation called Huff Daland Dusters, Inc. The company was founded on March 2, 1925, in Macon, Georgia, before moving to Monroe, Louisiana, in summer 1925. It flew a Huff-Daland Duster, the first true crop duster, designed to combat the boll weevil infestation of cotton crops. C.E. Woolman, general manager and later Delta's first CEO, led a group of local investors to acquire the company's assets. Delta Air Service was incorporated on December 3, 1928, and named after the Mississippi Delta region.Passenger operations began on June 17, 1929, from Dallas, Texas, to Jackson, Mississippi, with stops at Shreveport and Monroe, Louisiana. By June 1930, service had extended east to Atlanta and west to Fort Worth, Texas. Passenger service ceased in October 1930 when the airmail contract for the route Delta had pioneered was awarded to another airline, which purchased the assets of Delta Air Service. Local banker Travis Oliver, acting as a trustee, C.E. Woolman, and other local investors purchased back the crop-dusting assets of Delta Air Service and incorporated as Delta Air Corporation on December 31, 1930.Delta Air Corporation secured an air mail contract in 1934, and began doing business as Delta Air Lines over Mail Route 24, stretching from Fort Worth, Texas, to Charleston, South Carolina. Delta moved its headquarters from Monroe, Louisiana, to its current location in Atlanta in 1941. The company name officially became Delta Air Lines in 1945. In 1946, the company commenced regularly scheduled freight transport. In 1949, the company launched the first discounted fares between Chicago and Miami. In 1953, the company launched its first international routes after the acquisition of Chicago and Southern Air Lines. In 1959, it was the first airline to fly the Douglas DC-8. In 1960, it was the first airline to fly Convair 880 jets. In 1964, it launched the Deltamatic reservation systems using computers in the IBM 7070 series. In 1965, Delta was the first airline to fly the McDonnell Douglas DC-9.By 1970, Delta had an all-jet fleet, and in 1972 it acquired Northeast Airlines. Trans-Atlantic service began in 1978 with the first nonstop flights from Atlanta to London. In 1981, Delta launched a frequent-flyer program. In 1987, it acquired Western Airlines, and that same year Delta began trans-Pacific service (Atlanta-Portland, Oregon-Tokyo). In 1990, Delta was the first airline in the United States to fly McDonnell Douglas MD-11 jets. In 1991, it acquired substantially all of Pan Am's trans-Atlantic routes and the Pan Am Shuttle, rebranded as the Delta Shuttle. Delta was now the leading airline across the Atlantic.In 1997, Delta was the first airline to board more than 100 million passengers in a calendar year. Also that year, Delta began an expansion of its international routes into Latin America. In 2003, the company launched Song, a low-cost carrier.On September 14, 2005, the company filed for bankruptcy, citing rising fuel costs. It emerged from bankruptcy in April 2007 after fending off a hostile takeover from US Airways and its shares were re-listed on the New York Stock Exchange.The acquisition of Northwest Airlines was announced April 14, 2008. It was approved and consummated on October 29, 2008. Northwest continued to operate as a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta until December 31, 2009, when the Northwest Airlines operating certificate was merged into that of Delta. Delta completed integration with Northwest on January 31, 2010, when their computer reservations system and websites were combined, and the Northwest Airlines brand was officially retired.Delta and its worldwide alliance partners operate more than 15,000 flights per day. Delta is the only U.S. carrier that flies to Dakar, Lagos, and Stuttgart.In March 2020, Delta suspended all flights to continental Europe for 30 days, and cutting 40% of its capacity.Delta currently has nine hubs:Delta also has one focus-city:Delta is a member of the SkyTeam alliance and has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:, Delta operated a fleet of 750 aircraft manufactured by Airbus and Boeing. Delta operates the largest Boeing 717, Boeing 757, and Boeing 767 fleets in the world, and the largest Airbus A330 fleet of any US airline. Prior to its 2008 merger with Northwest Airlines, Delta's fleet was made up of solely Boeing and McDonnell Douglas aircraft. Airbus aircraft from Northwest joined the fleet after the merger, and more have since been added.Delta often seeks to acquire and utilize older aircraft, especially narrow-bodies, and it has created an extensive MRO (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) organization, called TechOps, to support them. However, in early 2011, Delta began talks with Airbus, Boeing and Bombardier Aerospace to discuss replacing the McDonnell Douglas DC-9s, McDonnell Douglas MD-88s, and older A320 and 757-200 aircraft. On August 22, 2011, Delta placed an order for 100 Boeing 737-900ER aircraft and deferred an order of 100 small narrow-body jets until 2012.Delta underwent a cabin branding upgrade in 2015. Availability and exact details vary by route and aircraft type.Delta One is the airline's premier business class product, available on long haul international flights, as well as transcontinental service from New York JFK to Los Angeles, San Francisco and Seattle/Tacoma.Delta One features lie-flat seating on all aircraft types, and direct aisle access from every seat on all types except the Boeing 757-200 (in which only a special sub-fleet of approximately 20 aircraft feature lie-flats). The Boeing 767-300ER and Boeing 767-400ER seats, designed by James Thompson, feature a space-saving design whereby the seats are staggered such that when in the fully flat position, the foot of each bed extends under the armrests of the seat in front of it. Delta One cabins on the Boeing 777-200ER/LR fleet are configured in a herringbone layout, while Airbus A330 cabins (featuring the "Cirrus" flat-bed sleeper suite by Zodiac Seats U.S.) are configured in a reverse herringbone pattern.All seats are also equipped with a personal, on demand in-flight-entertainment (IFE) system, universal power-ports, a movable reading light, and a folding work table. Passengers also receive complimentary chef-curated meals, refreshments, alcoholic beverages, a Tumi Inc. amenity kit, premium bedding, and pre-flight Sky Club access.In August 2016, Delta announced the introduction of Delta One Suites on select widebody fleets. The suites will feature a door to the aisle for enhanced privacy, as well as improved storage space, a larger IFE screen, and updated design. The suites rolled out on the Airbus A350 fleet, first delivered in July 2017, followed by installation within the Boeing 777 fleet.In April 2016, Delta CEO Ed Bastian announced that a new Premium Economy cabin will be added. Since renamed to Premium Select, this cabin will feature extra legroom; adjustable leg rests; extra seat pitch, width, and recline; and a new premium service. Delta introduced it on its new Airbus A350, first delivered in fall 2017, to be followed by the Boeing 777. In October 2018, Delta announced that it would be selling first class seats on domestically configured Boeing 757 aircraft flying transatlantic routes as Premium Select.First Class is offered on mainline domestic flights (except those featuring Delta One service), select short- and medium-haul international flights, and Delta Connection aircraft with more than 50 seats. Seats range from wide and have between of pitch. Passengers in this class receive a wider variety of free snacks compared to Main Cabin, as well as free drinks and alcohol, and full meal service on flights and longer. Certain aircraft also feature power ports at each seat and free entertainment products from Delta Studio. First Class passengers are also eligible for priority boarding.Delta Comfort+ seats are installed on all aircraft excluding Delta's new A350s and feature of pitch; on all Delta One configured aircraft, of pitch and 50 percent more recline over standard Main Cabin seats. Additional amenities include: Sky Priority Boarding, dedicated overhead space, complimentary beer, wine, and spirits on flights or more, and complimentary premium snacks on flights or more. Complimentary premium entertainment is available via Delta Studio, with free headsets available on most flights. On transcontinental flights between JFK-LAX/SFO, Delta Comfort+ passengers also get Luvo snack wraps. Medallion members can upgrade from Main Cabin to Comfort+ for free, while other customers can upgrade for a fee or with SkyMiles.Main Cabin (Economy Class) is available on all aircraft with seats ranging from wide and of pitch. The main cabin on Boeing 737, 777, and selected Boeing 757-200 and 767-300 aircraft have an articulating seat bottom where the seat bottom moves forward in addition to the seat back tilting backwards when reclining.Main Cabin passengers receive complimentary snacks and non-alcoholic drinks on all flights or longer. Alcoholic beverages are also available for purchase. Complimentary meals and alcoholic drinks are provided on long-haul international flights as well as selected transcontinental domestic flights, such as between New York–JFK and Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego. As part of Delta's Flight Fuel buy on board program, meals are available for purchase on other North American flights or longer.Delta operated a different buy on board program between 2003 and 2005. The previous program had items from differing providers, depending on the origin and destination of the flight. Prices ranged up to $10 ($ when adjusted for inflation). The airline started the service on a few selected flights in July 2003, and the meal service was initially offered on 400 flights. Delta ended this buy on board program in 2005; instead, Delta began offering snacks at no extra charge on flights over 90 minutes to most U.S. domestic flights and some flights to the Caribbean and Latin America. Beginning in mid-March 2005 the airline planned to stop providing pillows on flights within the 48 contiguous U.S. states, Bermuda, Canada, the Caribbean, and Central America. In addition, the airline increased the price of alcoholic beverages on Delta mainline flights from $4 ($ when adjusted for inflation) to $5 ($ when adjusted for inflation); the increase in alcohol prices did not occur on Song flights.Basic Economy is a basic version of Main Cabin, offering the same services with fewer flexibility options for a lower price. Examples of fewer flexibility options include no ticket changes, no paid or complimentary upgrades regardless of frequent-flier status, and only having a seat assigned at check-in.SkyMiles is the frequent flyer program for Delta Air Lines. Miles do not expire but accounts may be deactivated by Delta in certain cases, such as the death of a program member or fraudulent activity.Delta Sky Club is the branding name of Delta's airport lounges. Membership is available through an annual membership that can be purchased with either money or miles. International passengers traveling in Delta One class get free access. Membership can also be granted through top-level Delta status or by being an American Express cardholder with certain exceptions. As of January 2019, Delta no longer offers single day passes.Originally, Delta's membership-based airport clubs were called Crown Room lounges, with Northwest's called WorldClubs.On November 27, 2001, Delta Air Lines launched SkyBonus, a program aimed toward small-to-medium businesses spending between $5,000 and $500,000 annually on air travel. Businesses can earn points toward free travel and upgrades, as well as Sky Club memberships and SkyMiles Silver Medallion status. Points are earned on paid travel based on a variety of fare amount paid, booking code, and place origin or destination. While enrolled businesses are able to earn points toward free travel, the travelling passenger is still eligible to earn SkyMiles during his or her travel.In early 2010, Delta Air Lines merged its SkyBonus program with Northwest's similar Biz Perks program.For the fiscal year 2018, Delta Air Lines reported earnings of US$5.1 billion, with an annual revenue of US$44.438 billion, an increase of 8.02% over the previous fiscal cycle. Its shares traded at over $48 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$39.182 billion in April 2019.Between its mainline operation and subsidiaries, and as of March 2015, Delta employs nearly 80,000 people. Ed Bastian is the current Chief Executive Officer and has served in this position since May 2, 2016. Joanne Smith is Executive Vice President and Chief People Officer responsible for the oversight and support of personnel needs at Delta. She was appointed on October 1, 2014, replacing Mike Campbell.Delta's 14,500 mainline pilots are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association, International and are the union's largest pilot group. The company's approximately 180 flight dispatchers are represented by the Professional Airline Flight Control Association (PAFCA). Not counting the pilots and flight dispatchers, Delta is the only one of the five largest airlines in the United States, and one of only two in the top 9 (the other being JetBlue), whose non-pilot USA domestic staff is entirely non-union. In August 2020, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, Delta Air Lines announced that it would be cutting 1,941 pilot job positions if it could not conclude a cost reduction deal with its union. In January 2021, Delta said that, thanks to the federal support, it will be able to bring back 400 pilots in full time.Delta Global Staffing (DGS) was a temporary employment firm located in Atlanta, Georgia. Delta Global Staffing was a wholly owned subsidiary of Delta Air Lines, Inc. and a division of the internal company DAL Global Services.Delta Air Lines sold majority ownership of DAL Global Services to Argenbright Holdings on December 21, 2018. As part of the sale, Delta dissolved the staffing division of DGS.It was founded in 1995 as a provider of temporary staffing for Delta primarily in Atlanta. DGS has since expanded to include customers and businesses outside the airline and aviation industries. DGS now supports customers in major US metropolitan areas.Delta Global Staffing provided contract workers for short and long term assignments, VMS partnering, VOP on-site management, temp-to-hire, direct placements, and payroll services. DGS services markets such as call centers, customer services and administrative placements, IT & professional recruiting, logistics, finance & accounting, hospitality, and aviation/airline industry.Delta's corporate headquarters is located on a corporate campus on the northern boundary of Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, within the city limits of Atlanta. This location has served as Delta's headquarters since 1941, when the company relocated its corporate offices from Monroe, Louisiana to Greater Atlanta. The crop dusting division of Delta remained headquartered in Monroe until Delta ceased crop dusting in 1966. Before 1981, the Delta corporate campus, an plot of land in proximity to the old Hartsfield Airport terminal, was outside the City of Atlanta limits in unincorporated Fulton County. On August 3, 1981, the Atlanta City Council approved the annexation of of land, an area containing the Delta headquarters. As of 1981 Delta would have had to begin paying $200,000 annually to the City of Atlanta in taxes. In September 1981, the airline sued the city, challenging the annexation on the basis of the constitutionality of the 1960 City of Atlanta annexation of the Hartsfield old terminal. The City of Atlanta was only permitted to annex areas that are adjacent to areas already in the Atlanta city limits.In addition to hosting Delta's corporate headquarters, Hartsfield-Jackson is also the home of Delta TechOps, the airline's primary maintenance, repair, and overhaul arm and the largest full-service airline MRO in North America, specializing in engines, components, airframe, and line maintenance.Delta maintains a large presence in the Twin Cities, with over 12,000 employees in the region as well as significant corporate support functions housed in the Minneapolis area, including the company's information technology divisional offices.Delta's logo, often called the "widget", was originally unveiled in 1959. Its triangle shape is taken from the Greek letter delta, and recalls the airline's origins in the Mississippi Delta. It is also said to be reminiscent of the swept-wing design of the DC-8, Delta's first jet aircraft.Delta's current livery is called "Upward & Onward". It features a white fuselage with the company's name in blue lettering and a widget on the vertical stabilizer. Delta introduced its current livery in 2007 as part of a re-branding after it emerged from bankruptcy. The new livery consists of four colors, while the old one (called "colors in motion") used eight. This meant the switch saved the airline money by removing one day from each aircraft's painting cycle. The airline took four years to repaint all of its aircraft into the current scheme, including aircraft inherited from Northwest Airlines.In 2008, Delta Air Lines was given an award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Design for the Environment (DfE) program for its use of PreKote, a more environmentally friendly, non-hexavalent chromium surface pretreatment on its aircraft, replacing hazardous chemicals formerly used to improve paint adhesion and prevent corrosion. In addition, PreKote reduces water usage by two-thirds and reduces wastewater treatment.PreKote is also saving money by reducing the time needed to paint each airplane. With time savings of eight to ten percent, it will save an estimated more than $1 million annually.As part of the re-branding project, a safety video featuring a flight attendant showed up on YouTube in early 2008, getting over 1 million views and the attention of news outlets, specifically for the video's tone mixed with the serious safety message. The flight attendant, Katherine Lee, was dubbed "Deltalina" by a member of FlyerTalk for her resemblance to Angelina Jolie. Delta had considered several styles for its current safety video, including animation, before opting for a video presenting a flight attendant speaking to the audience. The video was filmed on a former Song Airlines Boeing 757-200.The following are major accidents and incidents that occurred on Delta mainline aircraft. For Northwest Airlines incidents, see Northwest Airlines accidents and incidents. For Delta Connection incidents, see Delta Connection incidents and accidents.There have been over a dozen attempted hijackings that resulted in no injuries and the surrender of the often lone hijacker. These incidents are not included. The following are notable hijackings because of fatalities or success in forcing the aircraft to fly to another country:
|
[
"Clarence Faulk",
"Daniel Carp",
"Carleton Putnam",
"Gerald Grinstein",
"Leo Mullin",
"W.T. Beebe",
"Charles H. Dolson",
"Collett E. Woolman",
"Frank Blake",
"David C. Garrett, Jr."
] |
|
Which position did Lydia Mutsch hold in Dec, 2022?
|
December 09, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"deputy"
]
}
|
L2_Q6707666_P39_2
|
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of mayor in Luxembourg from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2013.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of minister of Health from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of deputy from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Lydia MutschLydia Mutsch (born 17 August 1961 in Dudelange) is a Luxembourgish politician. She served as Minister of Health and Minister for Equal Opportunities in the Bettel-Schneider ministry from December 2013 until December 2018.Lydia Mutsch studied in Göttingen. She has been a member of the national legislature, the Chamber of Deputies, in which she has sat since being first elected in 1989 until her appointment as Minister of Health. From 2000 to 2013, she was the Mayor of Esch-sur-Alzette, having previously been a member of the communal council since 1988. She has been a member of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party since 1987.
|
[
"mayor in Luxembourg",
"minister of Health"
] |
|
Which position did Lydia Mutsch hold in 2022-12-09?
|
December 09, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"deputy"
]
}
|
L2_Q6707666_P39_2
|
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of mayor in Luxembourg from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2013.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of minister of Health from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of deputy from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Lydia MutschLydia Mutsch (born 17 August 1961 in Dudelange) is a Luxembourgish politician. She served as Minister of Health and Minister for Equal Opportunities in the Bettel-Schneider ministry from December 2013 until December 2018.Lydia Mutsch studied in Göttingen. She has been a member of the national legislature, the Chamber of Deputies, in which she has sat since being first elected in 1989 until her appointment as Minister of Health. From 2000 to 2013, she was the Mayor of Esch-sur-Alzette, having previously been a member of the communal council since 1988. She has been a member of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party since 1987.
|
[
"mayor in Luxembourg",
"minister of Health"
] |
|
Which position did Lydia Mutsch hold in 09/12/2022?
|
December 09, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"deputy"
]
}
|
L2_Q6707666_P39_2
|
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of mayor in Luxembourg from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2013.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of minister of Health from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of deputy from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Lydia MutschLydia Mutsch (born 17 August 1961 in Dudelange) is a Luxembourgish politician. She served as Minister of Health and Minister for Equal Opportunities in the Bettel-Schneider ministry from December 2013 until December 2018.Lydia Mutsch studied in Göttingen. She has been a member of the national legislature, the Chamber of Deputies, in which she has sat since being first elected in 1989 until her appointment as Minister of Health. From 2000 to 2013, she was the Mayor of Esch-sur-Alzette, having previously been a member of the communal council since 1988. She has been a member of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party since 1987.
|
[
"mayor in Luxembourg",
"minister of Health"
] |
|
Which position did Lydia Mutsch hold in Dec 09, 2022?
|
December 09, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"deputy"
]
}
|
L2_Q6707666_P39_2
|
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of mayor in Luxembourg from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2013.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of minister of Health from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of deputy from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Lydia MutschLydia Mutsch (born 17 August 1961 in Dudelange) is a Luxembourgish politician. She served as Minister of Health and Minister for Equal Opportunities in the Bettel-Schneider ministry from December 2013 until December 2018.Lydia Mutsch studied in Göttingen. She has been a member of the national legislature, the Chamber of Deputies, in which she has sat since being first elected in 1989 until her appointment as Minister of Health. From 2000 to 2013, she was the Mayor of Esch-sur-Alzette, having previously been a member of the communal council since 1988. She has been a member of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party since 1987.
|
[
"mayor in Luxembourg",
"minister of Health"
] |
|
Which position did Lydia Mutsch hold in 12/09/2022?
|
December 09, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"deputy"
]
}
|
L2_Q6707666_P39_2
|
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of mayor in Luxembourg from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2013.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of minister of Health from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of deputy from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Lydia MutschLydia Mutsch (born 17 August 1961 in Dudelange) is a Luxembourgish politician. She served as Minister of Health and Minister for Equal Opportunities in the Bettel-Schneider ministry from December 2013 until December 2018.Lydia Mutsch studied in Göttingen. She has been a member of the national legislature, the Chamber of Deputies, in which she has sat since being first elected in 1989 until her appointment as Minister of Health. From 2000 to 2013, she was the Mayor of Esch-sur-Alzette, having previously been a member of the communal council since 1988. She has been a member of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party since 1987.
|
[
"mayor in Luxembourg",
"minister of Health"
] |
|
Which position did Lydia Mutsch hold in 09-Dec-202209-December-2022?
|
December 09, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"deputy"
]
}
|
L2_Q6707666_P39_2
|
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of mayor in Luxembourg from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2013.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of minister of Health from Dec, 2013 to Dec, 2018.
Lydia Mutsch holds the position of deputy from Dec, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
|
Lydia MutschLydia Mutsch (born 17 August 1961 in Dudelange) is a Luxembourgish politician. She served as Minister of Health and Minister for Equal Opportunities in the Bettel-Schneider ministry from December 2013 until December 2018.Lydia Mutsch studied in Göttingen. She has been a member of the national legislature, the Chamber of Deputies, in which she has sat since being first elected in 1989 until her appointment as Minister of Health. From 2000 to 2013, she was the Mayor of Esch-sur-Alzette, having previously been a member of the communal council since 1988. She has been a member of the Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party since 1987.
|
[
"mayor in Luxembourg",
"minister of Health"
] |
|
Which team did Steve Jones play for in Feb, 2013?
|
February 19, 2013
|
{
"text": [
"Airbus UK Broughton F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q5890965_P54_18
|
Steve Jones plays for Walsall F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Huddersfield Town A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Airbus UK Broughton F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Steve Jones plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Motherwell F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Sligo Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Leigh Genesis F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for England national association football C team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for Rochdale A.F.C. from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Steve Jones plays for AFC Telford United from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Steve Jones plays for Bradford City A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Burnley F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Droylsden F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Bury F.C. from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1997.
Steve Jones plays for Blackpool F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland B national football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Steve Jones plays for Chorley F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Nantwich Town F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Steve Jones plays for Bray Wanderers A.F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
|
Steve Jones (footballer, born 1976)Stephen Graham Jones (born 25 October 1976) is a Northern Irish footballer who plays for Sandbach United football club. He has been capped 29 times by Northern Ireland and played for 20 clubs in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.Jones was born in Derry, Northern Ireland and moved to Manchester with his family at age 13. In his late teens, he played for Chadderton in the North West Counties Division One before signing for Blackpool in July 1995. After spending time playing for Blackpool's youth and reserve teams, he signed for Bury on a free transfer in July 1996. Unable to settle at Bury and frustrated by the lack of first-team opportunities, Jones decided to move to the Republic of Ireland and sign for League of Ireland side Sligo Rovers in July 1997, stating that Rovers manager Nicky Reid's offer of a full-time contract was what ultimately made up his mind.On 30 August 1997, he made his debut for "The Bit o' Red" in the league match against Bohemians, scoring just before half-time in the 2–2 draw at The Showgrounds. He spent almost two seasons with Sligo and won the League of Ireland Cup after playing in the final against Shelbourne in February 1998. Overall, he played 46 games and scored 6 goals for Sligo before moving to Bray Wanderers in January 1999. Jones made his debut for Bray on 22 January, playing in the 0–0 league draw with Finn Harps at Carlisle Grounds. Later that year, Jones moved back to England and had a brief spell with Northern Premier League side Chorley, playing in the last four games of the season for "The Magpies".After Chorley were relegated at the end of the 1998–99 season, Jones signed for fellow Northern Premier League side Leigh RMI in August 1999. This came after he impressed RMI manager Steve Waywell in the final home game of the previous season against Chorley. He had a successful first season with "The Railwaymen", scoring 18 goals in 40 games that helped RMI gain promotion to the Football Conference.On 19 August 2000, Jones started in Leigh's first game in the Conference, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 defeat by fellow newly promoted side Dagenham & Redbridge. He won a penalty after clumsy challenge from Ashley Vickers, which led to Tony Black scoring RMI's goal. He played in the 3–0 FA Cup first round defeat by Millwall at The Den on 19 November. On 3 March 2001, Jones scored the first hat-trick of his career in the 6–2 league win against Nuneaton Borough. He finished the season with 21 goals in all competitions, these went a long way to firing RMI to a fifth-place finish in the Conference, the club's highest ever league finish. At the Conference Annual General Meeting on 2 June, Jones was named in the Football Conference Team of the Year, as voted for by the league's managers.Jones attracted interest from a number of clubs in the close season, Morecambe being the first to make a bid for the Northern Irishman in late May. "The Shrimps" had bids of £30,000 and £45,000 rejected by RMI. Tranmere Rovers were the next club to take an interest in Jones and manager Dave Watson took him on trial at the beginning of July. However, it was Crewe Alexandra who won the race for Jones' signature after manager Dario Gradi persuaded him to sign on 3 July. He signed for Crewe on a three-year contract in a deal worth £75,000 to Leigh, and £75,000 more to come after 60 appearances.Jones made his debut for Crewe in the league game against Manchester City on 25 August 2001. He replaced Rodney Jack in the 82nd minute of the 5–2 defeat at Maine Road. On 27 October, he made his first start for the club in the 1–0 defeat by Sheffield United at Brammall Lane. Despite being a regular goalscorer in the reserves, Jones found first-team opportunities scarce in his first season at Crewe, so it was decided he would join Third Division side Rochdale on a month's loan in February 2002. He returned from his loan in April and featured in two of Crewe's remaining games in the First Division, coming on as a substitute in the away defeats to Gillingham and Wimbledon.Jones made his debut for Rochdale on 5 February 2002, playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–4 win against York City at Spotland Stadium. He scored his first goal for "The Dale" on 23 February, scoring the opening goal in the 2–1 defeat at Scunthorpe United. On 7 March, Rochdale manager John Hollins confirmed that Jones would stay at the club for at least another month, but the deal would involve a 24-hour recall option for Crewe. He made his final appearance for the club on 26 March in the 3–1 defeat by Plymouth Argyle, he came off the bench in 75th minute replacing Kevin Townson.Following Crewe's relegation to the Second Division, Jones started to feature in the first-team more prominently at the start of the 2002–03 season. He made his first appearance of the season on 13 August, replacing Dave Brammer in the 60th minute of the 3–0 defeat by Notts County at Gresty Road. Jones scored his first goals for Crewe in the league match against Queens Park Rangers, he netted both goals in the 2–0 win on 5 October. He followed that up by scoring the third goal in the 4–1 win at Stockport County a week later. He scored a brace against Colchester United in January 2003 and another against Northampton Town in February, these went towards the 11 goals in all competitions he scored that helped "The Railwaymen" to a second-place finish in the Second Division, gaining them promotion back to the First Division.Prior to the 2003–04 season, Jones signed a new three-year contract with the club that would take him through to the end of the 2005–06 season. He started in Crewe's first game back in the First Division on 9 August, playing the full 90 minutes in the 3–1 defeat against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Three days later, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–0 League Cup first round win against Wrexham. A brace against West Ham United on 17 March 2004 took Jones' tally for the season to 16, this coupled with the 20 goals scored by strike partner Dean Ashton helped Crewe to an 18th-place finish in the league. His efforts throughout the season earned him the "Supporters Player of the Year" award.Jones scored on his first start of the 2004–05 season on 24 August, scoring two first half goals in the 4–1 League Cup first round win against Blackpool. Four days later, he helped Crewe to their first league win of the season, scoring two goals in the 4–2 win against Derby County at Pride Park. On 26 October, he started against Manchester United in the League Cup third round, playing 68 minutes of the 3–0 defeat at Gretsy Road. On 8 May 2005, Jones scored the winning goal in the 2–1 league win against Coventry City, the goal gave "The Alex" their first win in 19 games and saved the club from relegation on the final day of the season.At the beginning of the 2005–06 season, Jones indicated to Crewe manager Dario Gradi that he wanted to leave at the end of the season when his contract expired. In October, Preston North End manager Billy Davies declared his interest in bringing Jones to Deepdale, however Crewe were not interested in the player part-exchange offer that was being tabled. Queens Park Rangers took an interest in signing Jones in January 2006, however they were unable to meet the club's valuation of £300,000 for him. Despite the uncertainty about his future, Jones was still a regular in the team throughout the season and managed to score 5 goals overall, including a goal in his final appearance against Millwall on 30 April. Crewe were relegated at the end of the season, and despite a very good contract being offered, Jones confirmed his decision to leave. He wanted to stay in the Championship and thought he could make more money elsewhere. Overall Jones made 173 appearances for Crewe and scored 45 goals.Burnley announced on 3 May 2006 that Jones would join the club on a Bosman signing, with the move being completed on 1 July. He signed a three-year deal with the Championship side. Jones made a scoring start to his Burnley career, netting both goals in the 2–0 win against Queens Park Rangers on the opening day of the season. On 23 September, he opened the scoring in the 3–2 defeat against Southampton at Turf Moor. After a goal drought of over 6 months, he scored in the 4–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 3 April 2007, and he followed that up with a goal in the 2–0 win against Cardiff City six days later. Jones scored 5 goals in 43 appearances in the 2006–07 season, helping Burnley to a 15th-place finish in the Championship.Jones' first start of the 2007–08 season was in the League Cup first round game against Grimbsy Town at Blundell Park, he played the full 120 minutes as the game finished 1–1 and Burnley won 4–2 on penalties. On 15 September, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–2 league draw against Blackpool. After Owen Coyle replaced Steve Cotterill as Burnley manager in November, Jones was used mainly as a substitute, making his solitary league start of the season in the 1–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 12 January 2008. The following week in the 2–1 win at Coventry City, Jones suffered a medial knee ligament tear that would keep him out of action for six weeks, scuppering a pending loan move to former club Crewe Alexandra. The appearance against Coventry turned out to be his last for "The Clarets". On 27 March, it was announced that Jones would join League One side Crewe on loan until the end of the season.Jones made his re-debut for Crewe on 29 March 2008, playing 85 minutes in the 2–1 defeat by Luton Town at Kenilworth Road. Over the next month, he made two substitute appearances against Cheltenham Town and Bournemouth respectively, before he signed off his second spell at "The Railwaymen" with a goal in the 4–1 defeat by Oldham Athletic on 3 May.Despite featuring in pre-season, Jones had become surplus to requirements going into the last year of his contract at Burnley. Having not featured in the first-team at all during the opening weeks of the 2008–09 season, he joined Huddersfield Town on an initial one-month loan deal starting on 17 October. He returned to Turf Moor on 26 November and joined Bradford City on loan the next day, the initial deal running until 3 January 2009 then being extended by an extra month, and finally being extended until the end of the season by "The Bantams". On 1 June, Jones was released by Burnley alongside Gábor Király and Alan Mahon.Jones made his debut for League One side Huddersfield on 18 October 2008, playing the full 90 minutes in the 1–1 draw against Bristol Rovers at the Galpharm Stadium. He followed this up by playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–3 defeat at Hartlepool United three days later, and after two subsequent substitute appearances against Yeovil Town and former club Crewe Alexandra, he returned to Burnley on 26 November.Jones made his debut for Bradford in the FA Cup second round tie against Leyton Orient on 29 November 2008, he played the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat at Valley Parade He made his league debut a week later in the 1–1 draw against Dagenham & Redbridge. He scored his first goal for the club on 31 January 2009, netting the second goal in the 2–0 win over Grimsby Town. Two weeks later, he scored the only goal as "The Bantams" beat Wycombe Wanderers 1–0, keeping the club's promotion hopes alive. On 25 April, Jones made his final appearance for the club, scoring the third goal in the 3–0 win over Rotherham United. Overall, he made 27 appearances for Bradford and scored 3 goals.Jones signed for Walsall on 10 July 2009, penning a two-year deal with the League One club. He made his debut on 8 August in the 1–0 league win against Brighton & Hove Albion, he started the game before being substituted in the 65th minute for Richard Taundry. A week later on his home debut, he scored his first goal for the club in the 2–2 draw with Southend United when he headed in a Darryl Westlake free-kick to open the scoring in the 11th minute. On 17 October, Jones scored a brace against Exeter City, bagging two first half goals in the 3–0 win at the Bescot Stadium. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw against Swindon Town on 17 April 2010, this took his tally to 10 goals for the season that ultimately helped "The Saddlers" to a 10th place league finish.On 7 August, Jones started the opening league game of the 2010–11 season, playing the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat against Milton Keynes Dons. Two weeks later in a match against Plymouth Argyle, Jones suffered an ankle injury that would keep him out for 7 weeks. He made his return in the 1–1 draw with Dagenham & Redbridge on 16 October, replacing Julian Gray in the 69th minute at Victoria Road. Despite regaining his fitness, Jones struggled to regain his place in the first team and he was allowed to join Scottish Premier League side Motherwell on loan until the end of the season in January 2011. On 11 May, Walsall announced on their website that Jones would not be offered a new contract at the club.Jones linked up with Stuart McCall again at Motherwell, "The Steelmen" manager was in charge at Bradford City during Jones' loan-spell at Valley Parade. He made his debut in the 2–0 league win over Hibernian on 22 January, he started the game and played 63 minutes before being replaced by Jonathan Page. On 30 January, he came off the bench in the 2–1 League Cup semi-final defeat against Rangers at Hampden Park. Jones scored his first goal for the club on 5 February, netting the opening goal in the 2–0 Scottish Cup fifth-round win over Stranraer. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw with Kilmarnock on 11 May. Jones made his final appearance for Motherwell in the Scottish Cup Final on 21 May, he replaced Jamie Murphy in the 80th minute of the 3–0 defeat against Celtic. He was offered a contract at Fir Park following his release from Walsall, but he rejected the deal in favour of being with his family at his home in Crewe.Bristol Rovers offered Jones a two-year deal in the summer, but he rejected the chance to join the League Two club because he felt it was too far to travel and he wanted to stay local to his family in Crewe. He was on trial with Conference National side Newport County in July 2011, however he was unable to agree a deal with the Welsh side and he signed for Conference North side Droylsden on 12 August. Jones scored on his debut for "The Bloods", netting the opening goal in the 2–2 draw against Eastwood Town on 13 August.After a short spell with Droylsden, Jones signed for Conference National side AFC Telford United on 18 November 2011. He made his debut the following day in the 0–0 draw against Mansfield Town, he came on for Craig Farrell after 61 minutes and almost scored with his first touch, but his effort was well saved by Mansfield goalkeeper Alan Marriott. On 26 November, he came off the bench in the 1–0 win against Barrow, replacing Sean Newton after 68 minutes and scoring his first goal for the club. He headed in a Richard Davies cross on 76 minutes to give "The Bucks" their first league win in 9 outings. He made his first start for the club in the 1–1 draw against Luton Town three days later. Jones scored in the 2–2 draw with Stockport County on 24 January 2012. In the 0–0 draw with Alfreton Town on 3 March, Jones suffered a knee ligament injury that would keep him out of action for up to six weeks. He made his return from injury on 17 April, coming on as a 68th-minute substitute in the 1–0 win against Tamworth. The win secured Telford's place in the Conference National for the following season. On 4 May, it was announced on Telford's website that Jones had agreed terms to a contract extension with the club.Prior to the 2012–13 season, Jones was allocated the number 10 squad number. On 11 August, he played in the opening game of the season, playing the whole 90 minutes in the 0–0 draw with Barrow. He scored his first goal of the season in the 3–0 league win against Southport on 1 September. On 9 October, Jones scored a brace in the 4–1 league win against Dartford. He followed that up by scoring both goals in Telford's 2–2 draw against Ebbsfleet United on 6 November. Jones was sent off on 10 November, he was dismissed for a late tackle on Greg Taylor in the 0–0 draw with Tamworth and was suspended for three games. On 15 December, Jones was sent off again in only his second game back from his suspension and was subsequently banned for a further four games. He was dismissed after being booked twice within a minute in the 3–1 FA Trophy second round defeat against King's Lynn Town, firstly for a dive in the penalty area and then for an off-the-ball barge on Jordan Yong. Jones suffered a serious eye injury in the league match against Mansfield Town on 2 March 2013, he temporarily lost the sight in his left eye after being struck in the face with a heavy clearance during the first half of the 1–0 defeat at Field Mill. It was later confirmed that Jones had suffered three haemorrhages in the eye, one in the iris and two in the retina, as well as severe bruising. His vision later returned after a course of eye drops and he returned to action the following week in the 2–0 league defeat by Macclesfield Town. Jones finished the season with 11 goals as Telford finished 24th in the league and were relegated to the Conference North. On 11 May, Telford announced on their website that they would not be offering Jones terms for the following season.On 22 May 2013, Jones signed for Welsh Premier League side Airbus UK Broughton. He said the lure of European football was a major factor in agreeing a deal with "The Wingmakers". On 4 July, Jones made his debut for Airbus, coming on as a 55th-minute substitute in the Europa League first qualifying round first leg against Latvian side FK Ventspils. The match, played at the Racecourse Ground in Wrexham, ended 1–1. He made his first start for the club in the second leg, having a first half goal disallowed as Airbus drew 0–0 at the Ventspils Olimpiskais Stadions, the result meaning the Welsh club were eliminated on away goals. He scored his first goal for the club on 26 August, netting the winning goal in the 2–1 league win at Bala Town. On 7 September, Jones scored two goals as Airbus thrashed Newtown 6–1 to register their fourth straight victory of the season. A week later, he was sent off for two bookable offences in the 2–2 draw at Rhyl, the first for impeding goalkeeper Alex Ramsey, and the second just a few minutes later for something he said to the referee. On 25 February 2014, Jones scored the third goal in Airbus' 4–2 league win at Bangor City. Overall, he made 27 appearances for the club, the last in the 1–1 draw with Newtown on 26 April, and scored 5 goals, helping "The Wingmakers" to their most successful league campaign ever.On 19 May 2014, Jones signed for Northern Premier League Premier Division side Nantwich Town. He made his debut on 16 August, playing 80 minutes in the 1–0 league win at Buxton. Steve, also scored the goal of the season in the Nantwich Town team and also won top goalscorer.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League Premier Division side Whitchurch Alport in the summer of 2019.Jones left Whitchurch in February 2020 to sign for North West Counties Football League Division One South side Alsager Town. He joined the club to be closer to his home in south Cheshire.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League First Division South side Sandbach United in the summer of 2020.Jones was called up to the England C national side in March 2001 after showing good form for Leigh RMI in the Conference. England manager John Owens selected Jones after Rushden & Diamonds winger Paul Underwood had to withdraw from the squad through injury. On 22 March, Jones started the 3–0 win against the Netherlands, however he had to come off after just 18-minutes after failing to fully recover from a bout of food poisoning. He earned a second cap in May 2001 when he scored in the 3–0 win against a Highland League Select in Inverness.Jones has won a total of 29 caps for Northern Ireland. He was first called up for the friendly match against Finland in February 2003, he replaced the injured Kevin Horlock in the squad before being an unused substitute in the 1–0 defeat on 14 February. In May 2003, he got his first taste of international football when he was called up for the B international match against Scotland Future. He started the game against Scotland and managed to get on the scoresheet in the 2–1 defeat on 20 May.After impressing in the B international match against Scotland, Jones was called up to the senior squad on 23 May for the friendly against Italy and the Euro 2004 qualifying match against Spain. He made his debut in the 2–0 defeat against Italy on 3 June, he replaced Paul McVeigh on the 55th minute and almost scored in the 76th minute, but his firm header was well saved by Francesco Toldo. On 11 June, Jones made his first start for his country against Spain at Windsor Park, he played 73 minutes on the way to helping Northern Ireland to a 0–0 draw.Jones was a regular in the squad over the next three years, often being used as a substitute. He scored his first goal for his country in a 2–0 friendly win against Saint Kitts and Nevis on 2 June 2004. He played in most of Northern Ireland's unsuccessful 2006 World Cup qualifying campaign and the early stages of their Euro 2008 qualifying campaign before falling out of favour within the selection process. His last cap was a substitute appearance in the 2–1 away defeat against Iceland during Euro 2008 qualifying.Jones is a fan of Manchester United as his son (Jarvis Jones) plays for United's youth squad having 3 official caps for the first team.
|
[
"Bray Wanderers A.F.C.",
"Droylsden F.C.",
"Motherwell F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"AFC Telford United",
"Bury F.C.",
"Blackpool F.C.",
"England national association football C team",
"Leigh Genesis F.C.",
"Walsall F.C.",
"Northern Ireland national association football team",
"Burnley F.C.",
"Rochdale A.F.C.",
"Nantwich Town F.C.",
"Chorley F.C.",
"Sligo Rovers F.C.",
"Northern Ireland B national football team",
"Bradford City A.F.C.",
"Huddersfield Town A.F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Steve Jones play for in 2013-02-19?
|
February 19, 2013
|
{
"text": [
"Airbus UK Broughton F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q5890965_P54_18
|
Steve Jones plays for Walsall F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Huddersfield Town A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Airbus UK Broughton F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Steve Jones plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Motherwell F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Sligo Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Leigh Genesis F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for England national association football C team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for Rochdale A.F.C. from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Steve Jones plays for AFC Telford United from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Steve Jones plays for Bradford City A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Burnley F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Droylsden F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Bury F.C. from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1997.
Steve Jones plays for Blackpool F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland B national football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Steve Jones plays for Chorley F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Nantwich Town F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Steve Jones plays for Bray Wanderers A.F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
|
Steve Jones (footballer, born 1976)Stephen Graham Jones (born 25 October 1976) is a Northern Irish footballer who plays for Sandbach United football club. He has been capped 29 times by Northern Ireland and played for 20 clubs in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.Jones was born in Derry, Northern Ireland and moved to Manchester with his family at age 13. In his late teens, he played for Chadderton in the North West Counties Division One before signing for Blackpool in July 1995. After spending time playing for Blackpool's youth and reserve teams, he signed for Bury on a free transfer in July 1996. Unable to settle at Bury and frustrated by the lack of first-team opportunities, Jones decided to move to the Republic of Ireland and sign for League of Ireland side Sligo Rovers in July 1997, stating that Rovers manager Nicky Reid's offer of a full-time contract was what ultimately made up his mind.On 30 August 1997, he made his debut for "The Bit o' Red" in the league match against Bohemians, scoring just before half-time in the 2–2 draw at The Showgrounds. He spent almost two seasons with Sligo and won the League of Ireland Cup after playing in the final against Shelbourne in February 1998. Overall, he played 46 games and scored 6 goals for Sligo before moving to Bray Wanderers in January 1999. Jones made his debut for Bray on 22 January, playing in the 0–0 league draw with Finn Harps at Carlisle Grounds. Later that year, Jones moved back to England and had a brief spell with Northern Premier League side Chorley, playing in the last four games of the season for "The Magpies".After Chorley were relegated at the end of the 1998–99 season, Jones signed for fellow Northern Premier League side Leigh RMI in August 1999. This came after he impressed RMI manager Steve Waywell in the final home game of the previous season against Chorley. He had a successful first season with "The Railwaymen", scoring 18 goals in 40 games that helped RMI gain promotion to the Football Conference.On 19 August 2000, Jones started in Leigh's first game in the Conference, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 defeat by fellow newly promoted side Dagenham & Redbridge. He won a penalty after clumsy challenge from Ashley Vickers, which led to Tony Black scoring RMI's goal. He played in the 3–0 FA Cup first round defeat by Millwall at The Den on 19 November. On 3 March 2001, Jones scored the first hat-trick of his career in the 6–2 league win against Nuneaton Borough. He finished the season with 21 goals in all competitions, these went a long way to firing RMI to a fifth-place finish in the Conference, the club's highest ever league finish. At the Conference Annual General Meeting on 2 June, Jones was named in the Football Conference Team of the Year, as voted for by the league's managers.Jones attracted interest from a number of clubs in the close season, Morecambe being the first to make a bid for the Northern Irishman in late May. "The Shrimps" had bids of £30,000 and £45,000 rejected by RMI. Tranmere Rovers were the next club to take an interest in Jones and manager Dave Watson took him on trial at the beginning of July. However, it was Crewe Alexandra who won the race for Jones' signature after manager Dario Gradi persuaded him to sign on 3 July. He signed for Crewe on a three-year contract in a deal worth £75,000 to Leigh, and £75,000 more to come after 60 appearances.Jones made his debut for Crewe in the league game against Manchester City on 25 August 2001. He replaced Rodney Jack in the 82nd minute of the 5–2 defeat at Maine Road. On 27 October, he made his first start for the club in the 1–0 defeat by Sheffield United at Brammall Lane. Despite being a regular goalscorer in the reserves, Jones found first-team opportunities scarce in his first season at Crewe, so it was decided he would join Third Division side Rochdale on a month's loan in February 2002. He returned from his loan in April and featured in two of Crewe's remaining games in the First Division, coming on as a substitute in the away defeats to Gillingham and Wimbledon.Jones made his debut for Rochdale on 5 February 2002, playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–4 win against York City at Spotland Stadium. He scored his first goal for "The Dale" on 23 February, scoring the opening goal in the 2–1 defeat at Scunthorpe United. On 7 March, Rochdale manager John Hollins confirmed that Jones would stay at the club for at least another month, but the deal would involve a 24-hour recall option for Crewe. He made his final appearance for the club on 26 March in the 3–1 defeat by Plymouth Argyle, he came off the bench in 75th minute replacing Kevin Townson.Following Crewe's relegation to the Second Division, Jones started to feature in the first-team more prominently at the start of the 2002–03 season. He made his first appearance of the season on 13 August, replacing Dave Brammer in the 60th minute of the 3–0 defeat by Notts County at Gresty Road. Jones scored his first goals for Crewe in the league match against Queens Park Rangers, he netted both goals in the 2–0 win on 5 October. He followed that up by scoring the third goal in the 4–1 win at Stockport County a week later. He scored a brace against Colchester United in January 2003 and another against Northampton Town in February, these went towards the 11 goals in all competitions he scored that helped "The Railwaymen" to a second-place finish in the Second Division, gaining them promotion back to the First Division.Prior to the 2003–04 season, Jones signed a new three-year contract with the club that would take him through to the end of the 2005–06 season. He started in Crewe's first game back in the First Division on 9 August, playing the full 90 minutes in the 3–1 defeat against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Three days later, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–0 League Cup first round win against Wrexham. A brace against West Ham United on 17 March 2004 took Jones' tally for the season to 16, this coupled with the 20 goals scored by strike partner Dean Ashton helped Crewe to an 18th-place finish in the league. His efforts throughout the season earned him the "Supporters Player of the Year" award.Jones scored on his first start of the 2004–05 season on 24 August, scoring two first half goals in the 4–1 League Cup first round win against Blackpool. Four days later, he helped Crewe to their first league win of the season, scoring two goals in the 4–2 win against Derby County at Pride Park. On 26 October, he started against Manchester United in the League Cup third round, playing 68 minutes of the 3–0 defeat at Gretsy Road. On 8 May 2005, Jones scored the winning goal in the 2–1 league win against Coventry City, the goal gave "The Alex" their first win in 19 games and saved the club from relegation on the final day of the season.At the beginning of the 2005–06 season, Jones indicated to Crewe manager Dario Gradi that he wanted to leave at the end of the season when his contract expired. In October, Preston North End manager Billy Davies declared his interest in bringing Jones to Deepdale, however Crewe were not interested in the player part-exchange offer that was being tabled. Queens Park Rangers took an interest in signing Jones in January 2006, however they were unable to meet the club's valuation of £300,000 for him. Despite the uncertainty about his future, Jones was still a regular in the team throughout the season and managed to score 5 goals overall, including a goal in his final appearance against Millwall on 30 April. Crewe were relegated at the end of the season, and despite a very good contract being offered, Jones confirmed his decision to leave. He wanted to stay in the Championship and thought he could make more money elsewhere. Overall Jones made 173 appearances for Crewe and scored 45 goals.Burnley announced on 3 May 2006 that Jones would join the club on a Bosman signing, with the move being completed on 1 July. He signed a three-year deal with the Championship side. Jones made a scoring start to his Burnley career, netting both goals in the 2–0 win against Queens Park Rangers on the opening day of the season. On 23 September, he opened the scoring in the 3–2 defeat against Southampton at Turf Moor. After a goal drought of over 6 months, he scored in the 4–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 3 April 2007, and he followed that up with a goal in the 2–0 win against Cardiff City six days later. Jones scored 5 goals in 43 appearances in the 2006–07 season, helping Burnley to a 15th-place finish in the Championship.Jones' first start of the 2007–08 season was in the League Cup first round game against Grimbsy Town at Blundell Park, he played the full 120 minutes as the game finished 1–1 and Burnley won 4–2 on penalties. On 15 September, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–2 league draw against Blackpool. After Owen Coyle replaced Steve Cotterill as Burnley manager in November, Jones was used mainly as a substitute, making his solitary league start of the season in the 1–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 12 January 2008. The following week in the 2–1 win at Coventry City, Jones suffered a medial knee ligament tear that would keep him out of action for six weeks, scuppering a pending loan move to former club Crewe Alexandra. The appearance against Coventry turned out to be his last for "The Clarets". On 27 March, it was announced that Jones would join League One side Crewe on loan until the end of the season.Jones made his re-debut for Crewe on 29 March 2008, playing 85 minutes in the 2–1 defeat by Luton Town at Kenilworth Road. Over the next month, he made two substitute appearances against Cheltenham Town and Bournemouth respectively, before he signed off his second spell at "The Railwaymen" with a goal in the 4–1 defeat by Oldham Athletic on 3 May.Despite featuring in pre-season, Jones had become surplus to requirements going into the last year of his contract at Burnley. Having not featured in the first-team at all during the opening weeks of the 2008–09 season, he joined Huddersfield Town on an initial one-month loan deal starting on 17 October. He returned to Turf Moor on 26 November and joined Bradford City on loan the next day, the initial deal running until 3 January 2009 then being extended by an extra month, and finally being extended until the end of the season by "The Bantams". On 1 June, Jones was released by Burnley alongside Gábor Király and Alan Mahon.Jones made his debut for League One side Huddersfield on 18 October 2008, playing the full 90 minutes in the 1–1 draw against Bristol Rovers at the Galpharm Stadium. He followed this up by playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–3 defeat at Hartlepool United three days later, and after two subsequent substitute appearances against Yeovil Town and former club Crewe Alexandra, he returned to Burnley on 26 November.Jones made his debut for Bradford in the FA Cup second round tie against Leyton Orient on 29 November 2008, he played the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat at Valley Parade He made his league debut a week later in the 1–1 draw against Dagenham & Redbridge. He scored his first goal for the club on 31 January 2009, netting the second goal in the 2–0 win over Grimsby Town. Two weeks later, he scored the only goal as "The Bantams" beat Wycombe Wanderers 1–0, keeping the club's promotion hopes alive. On 25 April, Jones made his final appearance for the club, scoring the third goal in the 3–0 win over Rotherham United. Overall, he made 27 appearances for Bradford and scored 3 goals.Jones signed for Walsall on 10 July 2009, penning a two-year deal with the League One club. He made his debut on 8 August in the 1–0 league win against Brighton & Hove Albion, he started the game before being substituted in the 65th minute for Richard Taundry. A week later on his home debut, he scored his first goal for the club in the 2–2 draw with Southend United when he headed in a Darryl Westlake free-kick to open the scoring in the 11th minute. On 17 October, Jones scored a brace against Exeter City, bagging two first half goals in the 3–0 win at the Bescot Stadium. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw against Swindon Town on 17 April 2010, this took his tally to 10 goals for the season that ultimately helped "The Saddlers" to a 10th place league finish.On 7 August, Jones started the opening league game of the 2010–11 season, playing the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat against Milton Keynes Dons. Two weeks later in a match against Plymouth Argyle, Jones suffered an ankle injury that would keep him out for 7 weeks. He made his return in the 1–1 draw with Dagenham & Redbridge on 16 October, replacing Julian Gray in the 69th minute at Victoria Road. Despite regaining his fitness, Jones struggled to regain his place in the first team and he was allowed to join Scottish Premier League side Motherwell on loan until the end of the season in January 2011. On 11 May, Walsall announced on their website that Jones would not be offered a new contract at the club.Jones linked up with Stuart McCall again at Motherwell, "The Steelmen" manager was in charge at Bradford City during Jones' loan-spell at Valley Parade. He made his debut in the 2–0 league win over Hibernian on 22 January, he started the game and played 63 minutes before being replaced by Jonathan Page. On 30 January, he came off the bench in the 2–1 League Cup semi-final defeat against Rangers at Hampden Park. Jones scored his first goal for the club on 5 February, netting the opening goal in the 2–0 Scottish Cup fifth-round win over Stranraer. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw with Kilmarnock on 11 May. Jones made his final appearance for Motherwell in the Scottish Cup Final on 21 May, he replaced Jamie Murphy in the 80th minute of the 3–0 defeat against Celtic. He was offered a contract at Fir Park following his release from Walsall, but he rejected the deal in favour of being with his family at his home in Crewe.Bristol Rovers offered Jones a two-year deal in the summer, but he rejected the chance to join the League Two club because he felt it was too far to travel and he wanted to stay local to his family in Crewe. He was on trial with Conference National side Newport County in July 2011, however he was unable to agree a deal with the Welsh side and he signed for Conference North side Droylsden on 12 August. Jones scored on his debut for "The Bloods", netting the opening goal in the 2–2 draw against Eastwood Town on 13 August.After a short spell with Droylsden, Jones signed for Conference National side AFC Telford United on 18 November 2011. He made his debut the following day in the 0–0 draw against Mansfield Town, he came on for Craig Farrell after 61 minutes and almost scored with his first touch, but his effort was well saved by Mansfield goalkeeper Alan Marriott. On 26 November, he came off the bench in the 1–0 win against Barrow, replacing Sean Newton after 68 minutes and scoring his first goal for the club. He headed in a Richard Davies cross on 76 minutes to give "The Bucks" their first league win in 9 outings. He made his first start for the club in the 1–1 draw against Luton Town three days later. Jones scored in the 2–2 draw with Stockport County on 24 January 2012. In the 0–0 draw with Alfreton Town on 3 March, Jones suffered a knee ligament injury that would keep him out of action for up to six weeks. He made his return from injury on 17 April, coming on as a 68th-minute substitute in the 1–0 win against Tamworth. The win secured Telford's place in the Conference National for the following season. On 4 May, it was announced on Telford's website that Jones had agreed terms to a contract extension with the club.Prior to the 2012–13 season, Jones was allocated the number 10 squad number. On 11 August, he played in the opening game of the season, playing the whole 90 minutes in the 0–0 draw with Barrow. He scored his first goal of the season in the 3–0 league win against Southport on 1 September. On 9 October, Jones scored a brace in the 4–1 league win against Dartford. He followed that up by scoring both goals in Telford's 2–2 draw against Ebbsfleet United on 6 November. Jones was sent off on 10 November, he was dismissed for a late tackle on Greg Taylor in the 0–0 draw with Tamworth and was suspended for three games. On 15 December, Jones was sent off again in only his second game back from his suspension and was subsequently banned for a further four games. He was dismissed after being booked twice within a minute in the 3–1 FA Trophy second round defeat against King's Lynn Town, firstly for a dive in the penalty area and then for an off-the-ball barge on Jordan Yong. Jones suffered a serious eye injury in the league match against Mansfield Town on 2 March 2013, he temporarily lost the sight in his left eye after being struck in the face with a heavy clearance during the first half of the 1–0 defeat at Field Mill. It was later confirmed that Jones had suffered three haemorrhages in the eye, one in the iris and two in the retina, as well as severe bruising. His vision later returned after a course of eye drops and he returned to action the following week in the 2–0 league defeat by Macclesfield Town. Jones finished the season with 11 goals as Telford finished 24th in the league and were relegated to the Conference North. On 11 May, Telford announced on their website that they would not be offering Jones terms for the following season.On 22 May 2013, Jones signed for Welsh Premier League side Airbus UK Broughton. He said the lure of European football was a major factor in agreeing a deal with "The Wingmakers". On 4 July, Jones made his debut for Airbus, coming on as a 55th-minute substitute in the Europa League first qualifying round first leg against Latvian side FK Ventspils. The match, played at the Racecourse Ground in Wrexham, ended 1–1. He made his first start for the club in the second leg, having a first half goal disallowed as Airbus drew 0–0 at the Ventspils Olimpiskais Stadions, the result meaning the Welsh club were eliminated on away goals. He scored his first goal for the club on 26 August, netting the winning goal in the 2–1 league win at Bala Town. On 7 September, Jones scored two goals as Airbus thrashed Newtown 6–1 to register their fourth straight victory of the season. A week later, he was sent off for two bookable offences in the 2–2 draw at Rhyl, the first for impeding goalkeeper Alex Ramsey, and the second just a few minutes later for something he said to the referee. On 25 February 2014, Jones scored the third goal in Airbus' 4–2 league win at Bangor City. Overall, he made 27 appearances for the club, the last in the 1–1 draw with Newtown on 26 April, and scored 5 goals, helping "The Wingmakers" to their most successful league campaign ever.On 19 May 2014, Jones signed for Northern Premier League Premier Division side Nantwich Town. He made his debut on 16 August, playing 80 minutes in the 1–0 league win at Buxton. Steve, also scored the goal of the season in the Nantwich Town team and also won top goalscorer.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League Premier Division side Whitchurch Alport in the summer of 2019.Jones left Whitchurch in February 2020 to sign for North West Counties Football League Division One South side Alsager Town. He joined the club to be closer to his home in south Cheshire.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League First Division South side Sandbach United in the summer of 2020.Jones was called up to the England C national side in March 2001 after showing good form for Leigh RMI in the Conference. England manager John Owens selected Jones after Rushden & Diamonds winger Paul Underwood had to withdraw from the squad through injury. On 22 March, Jones started the 3–0 win against the Netherlands, however he had to come off after just 18-minutes after failing to fully recover from a bout of food poisoning. He earned a second cap in May 2001 when he scored in the 3–0 win against a Highland League Select in Inverness.Jones has won a total of 29 caps for Northern Ireland. He was first called up for the friendly match against Finland in February 2003, he replaced the injured Kevin Horlock in the squad before being an unused substitute in the 1–0 defeat on 14 February. In May 2003, he got his first taste of international football when he was called up for the B international match against Scotland Future. He started the game against Scotland and managed to get on the scoresheet in the 2–1 defeat on 20 May.After impressing in the B international match against Scotland, Jones was called up to the senior squad on 23 May for the friendly against Italy and the Euro 2004 qualifying match against Spain. He made his debut in the 2–0 defeat against Italy on 3 June, he replaced Paul McVeigh on the 55th minute and almost scored in the 76th minute, but his firm header was well saved by Francesco Toldo. On 11 June, Jones made his first start for his country against Spain at Windsor Park, he played 73 minutes on the way to helping Northern Ireland to a 0–0 draw.Jones was a regular in the squad over the next three years, often being used as a substitute. He scored his first goal for his country in a 2–0 friendly win against Saint Kitts and Nevis on 2 June 2004. He played in most of Northern Ireland's unsuccessful 2006 World Cup qualifying campaign and the early stages of their Euro 2008 qualifying campaign before falling out of favour within the selection process. His last cap was a substitute appearance in the 2–1 away defeat against Iceland during Euro 2008 qualifying.Jones is a fan of Manchester United as his son (Jarvis Jones) plays for United's youth squad having 3 official caps for the first team.
|
[
"Bray Wanderers A.F.C.",
"Droylsden F.C.",
"Motherwell F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"AFC Telford United",
"Bury F.C.",
"Blackpool F.C.",
"England national association football C team",
"Leigh Genesis F.C.",
"Walsall F.C.",
"Northern Ireland national association football team",
"Burnley F.C.",
"Rochdale A.F.C.",
"Nantwich Town F.C.",
"Chorley F.C.",
"Sligo Rovers F.C.",
"Northern Ireland B national football team",
"Bradford City A.F.C.",
"Huddersfield Town A.F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Steve Jones play for in 19/02/2013?
|
February 19, 2013
|
{
"text": [
"Airbus UK Broughton F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q5890965_P54_18
|
Steve Jones plays for Walsall F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Huddersfield Town A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Airbus UK Broughton F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Steve Jones plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Motherwell F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Sligo Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Leigh Genesis F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for England national association football C team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for Rochdale A.F.C. from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Steve Jones plays for AFC Telford United from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Steve Jones plays for Bradford City A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Burnley F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Droylsden F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Bury F.C. from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1997.
Steve Jones plays for Blackpool F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland B national football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Steve Jones plays for Chorley F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Nantwich Town F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Steve Jones plays for Bray Wanderers A.F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
|
Steve Jones (footballer, born 1976)Stephen Graham Jones (born 25 October 1976) is a Northern Irish footballer who plays for Sandbach United football club. He has been capped 29 times by Northern Ireland and played for 20 clubs in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.Jones was born in Derry, Northern Ireland and moved to Manchester with his family at age 13. In his late teens, he played for Chadderton in the North West Counties Division One before signing for Blackpool in July 1995. After spending time playing for Blackpool's youth and reserve teams, he signed for Bury on a free transfer in July 1996. Unable to settle at Bury and frustrated by the lack of first-team opportunities, Jones decided to move to the Republic of Ireland and sign for League of Ireland side Sligo Rovers in July 1997, stating that Rovers manager Nicky Reid's offer of a full-time contract was what ultimately made up his mind.On 30 August 1997, he made his debut for "The Bit o' Red" in the league match against Bohemians, scoring just before half-time in the 2–2 draw at The Showgrounds. He spent almost two seasons with Sligo and won the League of Ireland Cup after playing in the final against Shelbourne in February 1998. Overall, he played 46 games and scored 6 goals for Sligo before moving to Bray Wanderers in January 1999. Jones made his debut for Bray on 22 January, playing in the 0–0 league draw with Finn Harps at Carlisle Grounds. Later that year, Jones moved back to England and had a brief spell with Northern Premier League side Chorley, playing in the last four games of the season for "The Magpies".After Chorley were relegated at the end of the 1998–99 season, Jones signed for fellow Northern Premier League side Leigh RMI in August 1999. This came after he impressed RMI manager Steve Waywell in the final home game of the previous season against Chorley. He had a successful first season with "The Railwaymen", scoring 18 goals in 40 games that helped RMI gain promotion to the Football Conference.On 19 August 2000, Jones started in Leigh's first game in the Conference, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 defeat by fellow newly promoted side Dagenham & Redbridge. He won a penalty after clumsy challenge from Ashley Vickers, which led to Tony Black scoring RMI's goal. He played in the 3–0 FA Cup first round defeat by Millwall at The Den on 19 November. On 3 March 2001, Jones scored the first hat-trick of his career in the 6–2 league win against Nuneaton Borough. He finished the season with 21 goals in all competitions, these went a long way to firing RMI to a fifth-place finish in the Conference, the club's highest ever league finish. At the Conference Annual General Meeting on 2 June, Jones was named in the Football Conference Team of the Year, as voted for by the league's managers.Jones attracted interest from a number of clubs in the close season, Morecambe being the first to make a bid for the Northern Irishman in late May. "The Shrimps" had bids of £30,000 and £45,000 rejected by RMI. Tranmere Rovers were the next club to take an interest in Jones and manager Dave Watson took him on trial at the beginning of July. However, it was Crewe Alexandra who won the race for Jones' signature after manager Dario Gradi persuaded him to sign on 3 July. He signed for Crewe on a three-year contract in a deal worth £75,000 to Leigh, and £75,000 more to come after 60 appearances.Jones made his debut for Crewe in the league game against Manchester City on 25 August 2001. He replaced Rodney Jack in the 82nd minute of the 5–2 defeat at Maine Road. On 27 October, he made his first start for the club in the 1–0 defeat by Sheffield United at Brammall Lane. Despite being a regular goalscorer in the reserves, Jones found first-team opportunities scarce in his first season at Crewe, so it was decided he would join Third Division side Rochdale on a month's loan in February 2002. He returned from his loan in April and featured in two of Crewe's remaining games in the First Division, coming on as a substitute in the away defeats to Gillingham and Wimbledon.Jones made his debut for Rochdale on 5 February 2002, playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–4 win against York City at Spotland Stadium. He scored his first goal for "The Dale" on 23 February, scoring the opening goal in the 2–1 defeat at Scunthorpe United. On 7 March, Rochdale manager John Hollins confirmed that Jones would stay at the club for at least another month, but the deal would involve a 24-hour recall option for Crewe. He made his final appearance for the club on 26 March in the 3–1 defeat by Plymouth Argyle, he came off the bench in 75th minute replacing Kevin Townson.Following Crewe's relegation to the Second Division, Jones started to feature in the first-team more prominently at the start of the 2002–03 season. He made his first appearance of the season on 13 August, replacing Dave Brammer in the 60th minute of the 3–0 defeat by Notts County at Gresty Road. Jones scored his first goals for Crewe in the league match against Queens Park Rangers, he netted both goals in the 2–0 win on 5 October. He followed that up by scoring the third goal in the 4–1 win at Stockport County a week later. He scored a brace against Colchester United in January 2003 and another against Northampton Town in February, these went towards the 11 goals in all competitions he scored that helped "The Railwaymen" to a second-place finish in the Second Division, gaining them promotion back to the First Division.Prior to the 2003–04 season, Jones signed a new three-year contract with the club that would take him through to the end of the 2005–06 season. He started in Crewe's first game back in the First Division on 9 August, playing the full 90 minutes in the 3–1 defeat against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Three days later, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–0 League Cup first round win against Wrexham. A brace against West Ham United on 17 March 2004 took Jones' tally for the season to 16, this coupled with the 20 goals scored by strike partner Dean Ashton helped Crewe to an 18th-place finish in the league. His efforts throughout the season earned him the "Supporters Player of the Year" award.Jones scored on his first start of the 2004–05 season on 24 August, scoring two first half goals in the 4–1 League Cup first round win against Blackpool. Four days later, he helped Crewe to their first league win of the season, scoring two goals in the 4–2 win against Derby County at Pride Park. On 26 October, he started against Manchester United in the League Cup third round, playing 68 minutes of the 3–0 defeat at Gretsy Road. On 8 May 2005, Jones scored the winning goal in the 2–1 league win against Coventry City, the goal gave "The Alex" their first win in 19 games and saved the club from relegation on the final day of the season.At the beginning of the 2005–06 season, Jones indicated to Crewe manager Dario Gradi that he wanted to leave at the end of the season when his contract expired. In October, Preston North End manager Billy Davies declared his interest in bringing Jones to Deepdale, however Crewe were not interested in the player part-exchange offer that was being tabled. Queens Park Rangers took an interest in signing Jones in January 2006, however they were unable to meet the club's valuation of £300,000 for him. Despite the uncertainty about his future, Jones was still a regular in the team throughout the season and managed to score 5 goals overall, including a goal in his final appearance against Millwall on 30 April. Crewe were relegated at the end of the season, and despite a very good contract being offered, Jones confirmed his decision to leave. He wanted to stay in the Championship and thought he could make more money elsewhere. Overall Jones made 173 appearances for Crewe and scored 45 goals.Burnley announced on 3 May 2006 that Jones would join the club on a Bosman signing, with the move being completed on 1 July. He signed a three-year deal with the Championship side. Jones made a scoring start to his Burnley career, netting both goals in the 2–0 win against Queens Park Rangers on the opening day of the season. On 23 September, he opened the scoring in the 3–2 defeat against Southampton at Turf Moor. After a goal drought of over 6 months, he scored in the 4–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 3 April 2007, and he followed that up with a goal in the 2–0 win against Cardiff City six days later. Jones scored 5 goals in 43 appearances in the 2006–07 season, helping Burnley to a 15th-place finish in the Championship.Jones' first start of the 2007–08 season was in the League Cup first round game against Grimbsy Town at Blundell Park, he played the full 120 minutes as the game finished 1–1 and Burnley won 4–2 on penalties. On 15 September, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–2 league draw against Blackpool. After Owen Coyle replaced Steve Cotterill as Burnley manager in November, Jones was used mainly as a substitute, making his solitary league start of the season in the 1–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 12 January 2008. The following week in the 2–1 win at Coventry City, Jones suffered a medial knee ligament tear that would keep him out of action for six weeks, scuppering a pending loan move to former club Crewe Alexandra. The appearance against Coventry turned out to be his last for "The Clarets". On 27 March, it was announced that Jones would join League One side Crewe on loan until the end of the season.Jones made his re-debut for Crewe on 29 March 2008, playing 85 minutes in the 2–1 defeat by Luton Town at Kenilworth Road. Over the next month, he made two substitute appearances against Cheltenham Town and Bournemouth respectively, before he signed off his second spell at "The Railwaymen" with a goal in the 4–1 defeat by Oldham Athletic on 3 May.Despite featuring in pre-season, Jones had become surplus to requirements going into the last year of his contract at Burnley. Having not featured in the first-team at all during the opening weeks of the 2008–09 season, he joined Huddersfield Town on an initial one-month loan deal starting on 17 October. He returned to Turf Moor on 26 November and joined Bradford City on loan the next day, the initial deal running until 3 January 2009 then being extended by an extra month, and finally being extended until the end of the season by "The Bantams". On 1 June, Jones was released by Burnley alongside Gábor Király and Alan Mahon.Jones made his debut for League One side Huddersfield on 18 October 2008, playing the full 90 minutes in the 1–1 draw against Bristol Rovers at the Galpharm Stadium. He followed this up by playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–3 defeat at Hartlepool United three days later, and after two subsequent substitute appearances against Yeovil Town and former club Crewe Alexandra, he returned to Burnley on 26 November.Jones made his debut for Bradford in the FA Cup second round tie against Leyton Orient on 29 November 2008, he played the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat at Valley Parade He made his league debut a week later in the 1–1 draw against Dagenham & Redbridge. He scored his first goal for the club on 31 January 2009, netting the second goal in the 2–0 win over Grimsby Town. Two weeks later, he scored the only goal as "The Bantams" beat Wycombe Wanderers 1–0, keeping the club's promotion hopes alive. On 25 April, Jones made his final appearance for the club, scoring the third goal in the 3–0 win over Rotherham United. Overall, he made 27 appearances for Bradford and scored 3 goals.Jones signed for Walsall on 10 July 2009, penning a two-year deal with the League One club. He made his debut on 8 August in the 1–0 league win against Brighton & Hove Albion, he started the game before being substituted in the 65th minute for Richard Taundry. A week later on his home debut, he scored his first goal for the club in the 2–2 draw with Southend United when he headed in a Darryl Westlake free-kick to open the scoring in the 11th minute. On 17 October, Jones scored a brace against Exeter City, bagging two first half goals in the 3–0 win at the Bescot Stadium. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw against Swindon Town on 17 April 2010, this took his tally to 10 goals for the season that ultimately helped "The Saddlers" to a 10th place league finish.On 7 August, Jones started the opening league game of the 2010–11 season, playing the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat against Milton Keynes Dons. Two weeks later in a match against Plymouth Argyle, Jones suffered an ankle injury that would keep him out for 7 weeks. He made his return in the 1–1 draw with Dagenham & Redbridge on 16 October, replacing Julian Gray in the 69th minute at Victoria Road. Despite regaining his fitness, Jones struggled to regain his place in the first team and he was allowed to join Scottish Premier League side Motherwell on loan until the end of the season in January 2011. On 11 May, Walsall announced on their website that Jones would not be offered a new contract at the club.Jones linked up with Stuart McCall again at Motherwell, "The Steelmen" manager was in charge at Bradford City during Jones' loan-spell at Valley Parade. He made his debut in the 2–0 league win over Hibernian on 22 January, he started the game and played 63 minutes before being replaced by Jonathan Page. On 30 January, he came off the bench in the 2–1 League Cup semi-final defeat against Rangers at Hampden Park. Jones scored his first goal for the club on 5 February, netting the opening goal in the 2–0 Scottish Cup fifth-round win over Stranraer. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw with Kilmarnock on 11 May. Jones made his final appearance for Motherwell in the Scottish Cup Final on 21 May, he replaced Jamie Murphy in the 80th minute of the 3–0 defeat against Celtic. He was offered a contract at Fir Park following his release from Walsall, but he rejected the deal in favour of being with his family at his home in Crewe.Bristol Rovers offered Jones a two-year deal in the summer, but he rejected the chance to join the League Two club because he felt it was too far to travel and he wanted to stay local to his family in Crewe. He was on trial with Conference National side Newport County in July 2011, however he was unable to agree a deal with the Welsh side and he signed for Conference North side Droylsden on 12 August. Jones scored on his debut for "The Bloods", netting the opening goal in the 2–2 draw against Eastwood Town on 13 August.After a short spell with Droylsden, Jones signed for Conference National side AFC Telford United on 18 November 2011. He made his debut the following day in the 0–0 draw against Mansfield Town, he came on for Craig Farrell after 61 minutes and almost scored with his first touch, but his effort was well saved by Mansfield goalkeeper Alan Marriott. On 26 November, he came off the bench in the 1–0 win against Barrow, replacing Sean Newton after 68 minutes and scoring his first goal for the club. He headed in a Richard Davies cross on 76 minutes to give "The Bucks" their first league win in 9 outings. He made his first start for the club in the 1–1 draw against Luton Town three days later. Jones scored in the 2–2 draw with Stockport County on 24 January 2012. In the 0–0 draw with Alfreton Town on 3 March, Jones suffered a knee ligament injury that would keep him out of action for up to six weeks. He made his return from injury on 17 April, coming on as a 68th-minute substitute in the 1–0 win against Tamworth. The win secured Telford's place in the Conference National for the following season. On 4 May, it was announced on Telford's website that Jones had agreed terms to a contract extension with the club.Prior to the 2012–13 season, Jones was allocated the number 10 squad number. On 11 August, he played in the opening game of the season, playing the whole 90 minutes in the 0–0 draw with Barrow. He scored his first goal of the season in the 3–0 league win against Southport on 1 September. On 9 October, Jones scored a brace in the 4–1 league win against Dartford. He followed that up by scoring both goals in Telford's 2–2 draw against Ebbsfleet United on 6 November. Jones was sent off on 10 November, he was dismissed for a late tackle on Greg Taylor in the 0–0 draw with Tamworth and was suspended for three games. On 15 December, Jones was sent off again in only his second game back from his suspension and was subsequently banned for a further four games. He was dismissed after being booked twice within a minute in the 3–1 FA Trophy second round defeat against King's Lynn Town, firstly for a dive in the penalty area and then for an off-the-ball barge on Jordan Yong. Jones suffered a serious eye injury in the league match against Mansfield Town on 2 March 2013, he temporarily lost the sight in his left eye after being struck in the face with a heavy clearance during the first half of the 1–0 defeat at Field Mill. It was later confirmed that Jones had suffered three haemorrhages in the eye, one in the iris and two in the retina, as well as severe bruising. His vision later returned after a course of eye drops and he returned to action the following week in the 2–0 league defeat by Macclesfield Town. Jones finished the season with 11 goals as Telford finished 24th in the league and were relegated to the Conference North. On 11 May, Telford announced on their website that they would not be offering Jones terms for the following season.On 22 May 2013, Jones signed for Welsh Premier League side Airbus UK Broughton. He said the lure of European football was a major factor in agreeing a deal with "The Wingmakers". On 4 July, Jones made his debut for Airbus, coming on as a 55th-minute substitute in the Europa League first qualifying round first leg against Latvian side FK Ventspils. The match, played at the Racecourse Ground in Wrexham, ended 1–1. He made his first start for the club in the second leg, having a first half goal disallowed as Airbus drew 0–0 at the Ventspils Olimpiskais Stadions, the result meaning the Welsh club were eliminated on away goals. He scored his first goal for the club on 26 August, netting the winning goal in the 2–1 league win at Bala Town. On 7 September, Jones scored two goals as Airbus thrashed Newtown 6–1 to register their fourth straight victory of the season. A week later, he was sent off for two bookable offences in the 2–2 draw at Rhyl, the first for impeding goalkeeper Alex Ramsey, and the second just a few minutes later for something he said to the referee. On 25 February 2014, Jones scored the third goal in Airbus' 4–2 league win at Bangor City. Overall, he made 27 appearances for the club, the last in the 1–1 draw with Newtown on 26 April, and scored 5 goals, helping "The Wingmakers" to their most successful league campaign ever.On 19 May 2014, Jones signed for Northern Premier League Premier Division side Nantwich Town. He made his debut on 16 August, playing 80 minutes in the 1–0 league win at Buxton. Steve, also scored the goal of the season in the Nantwich Town team and also won top goalscorer.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League Premier Division side Whitchurch Alport in the summer of 2019.Jones left Whitchurch in February 2020 to sign for North West Counties Football League Division One South side Alsager Town. He joined the club to be closer to his home in south Cheshire.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League First Division South side Sandbach United in the summer of 2020.Jones was called up to the England C national side in March 2001 after showing good form for Leigh RMI in the Conference. England manager John Owens selected Jones after Rushden & Diamonds winger Paul Underwood had to withdraw from the squad through injury. On 22 March, Jones started the 3–0 win against the Netherlands, however he had to come off after just 18-minutes after failing to fully recover from a bout of food poisoning. He earned a second cap in May 2001 when he scored in the 3–0 win against a Highland League Select in Inverness.Jones has won a total of 29 caps for Northern Ireland. He was first called up for the friendly match against Finland in February 2003, he replaced the injured Kevin Horlock in the squad before being an unused substitute in the 1–0 defeat on 14 February. In May 2003, he got his first taste of international football when he was called up for the B international match against Scotland Future. He started the game against Scotland and managed to get on the scoresheet in the 2–1 defeat on 20 May.After impressing in the B international match against Scotland, Jones was called up to the senior squad on 23 May for the friendly against Italy and the Euro 2004 qualifying match against Spain. He made his debut in the 2–0 defeat against Italy on 3 June, he replaced Paul McVeigh on the 55th minute and almost scored in the 76th minute, but his firm header was well saved by Francesco Toldo. On 11 June, Jones made his first start for his country against Spain at Windsor Park, he played 73 minutes on the way to helping Northern Ireland to a 0–0 draw.Jones was a regular in the squad over the next three years, often being used as a substitute. He scored his first goal for his country in a 2–0 friendly win against Saint Kitts and Nevis on 2 June 2004. He played in most of Northern Ireland's unsuccessful 2006 World Cup qualifying campaign and the early stages of their Euro 2008 qualifying campaign before falling out of favour within the selection process. His last cap was a substitute appearance in the 2–1 away defeat against Iceland during Euro 2008 qualifying.Jones is a fan of Manchester United as his son (Jarvis Jones) plays for United's youth squad having 3 official caps for the first team.
|
[
"Bray Wanderers A.F.C.",
"Droylsden F.C.",
"Motherwell F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"AFC Telford United",
"Bury F.C.",
"Blackpool F.C.",
"England national association football C team",
"Leigh Genesis F.C.",
"Walsall F.C.",
"Northern Ireland national association football team",
"Burnley F.C.",
"Rochdale A.F.C.",
"Nantwich Town F.C.",
"Chorley F.C.",
"Sligo Rovers F.C.",
"Northern Ireland B national football team",
"Bradford City A.F.C.",
"Huddersfield Town A.F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Steve Jones play for in Feb 19, 2013?
|
February 19, 2013
|
{
"text": [
"Airbus UK Broughton F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q5890965_P54_18
|
Steve Jones plays for Walsall F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Huddersfield Town A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Airbus UK Broughton F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Steve Jones plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Motherwell F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Sligo Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Leigh Genesis F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for England national association football C team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for Rochdale A.F.C. from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Steve Jones plays for AFC Telford United from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Steve Jones plays for Bradford City A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Burnley F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Droylsden F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Bury F.C. from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1997.
Steve Jones plays for Blackpool F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland B national football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Steve Jones plays for Chorley F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Nantwich Town F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Steve Jones plays for Bray Wanderers A.F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
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Steve Jones (footballer, born 1976)Stephen Graham Jones (born 25 October 1976) is a Northern Irish footballer who plays for Sandbach United football club. He has been capped 29 times by Northern Ireland and played for 20 clubs in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.Jones was born in Derry, Northern Ireland and moved to Manchester with his family at age 13. In his late teens, he played for Chadderton in the North West Counties Division One before signing for Blackpool in July 1995. After spending time playing for Blackpool's youth and reserve teams, he signed for Bury on a free transfer in July 1996. Unable to settle at Bury and frustrated by the lack of first-team opportunities, Jones decided to move to the Republic of Ireland and sign for League of Ireland side Sligo Rovers in July 1997, stating that Rovers manager Nicky Reid's offer of a full-time contract was what ultimately made up his mind.On 30 August 1997, he made his debut for "The Bit o' Red" in the league match against Bohemians, scoring just before half-time in the 2–2 draw at The Showgrounds. He spent almost two seasons with Sligo and won the League of Ireland Cup after playing in the final against Shelbourne in February 1998. Overall, he played 46 games and scored 6 goals for Sligo before moving to Bray Wanderers in January 1999. Jones made his debut for Bray on 22 January, playing in the 0–0 league draw with Finn Harps at Carlisle Grounds. Later that year, Jones moved back to England and had a brief spell with Northern Premier League side Chorley, playing in the last four games of the season for "The Magpies".After Chorley were relegated at the end of the 1998–99 season, Jones signed for fellow Northern Premier League side Leigh RMI in August 1999. This came after he impressed RMI manager Steve Waywell in the final home game of the previous season against Chorley. He had a successful first season with "The Railwaymen", scoring 18 goals in 40 games that helped RMI gain promotion to the Football Conference.On 19 August 2000, Jones started in Leigh's first game in the Conference, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 defeat by fellow newly promoted side Dagenham & Redbridge. He won a penalty after clumsy challenge from Ashley Vickers, which led to Tony Black scoring RMI's goal. He played in the 3–0 FA Cup first round defeat by Millwall at The Den on 19 November. On 3 March 2001, Jones scored the first hat-trick of his career in the 6–2 league win against Nuneaton Borough. He finished the season with 21 goals in all competitions, these went a long way to firing RMI to a fifth-place finish in the Conference, the club's highest ever league finish. At the Conference Annual General Meeting on 2 June, Jones was named in the Football Conference Team of the Year, as voted for by the league's managers.Jones attracted interest from a number of clubs in the close season, Morecambe being the first to make a bid for the Northern Irishman in late May. "The Shrimps" had bids of £30,000 and £45,000 rejected by RMI. Tranmere Rovers were the next club to take an interest in Jones and manager Dave Watson took him on trial at the beginning of July. However, it was Crewe Alexandra who won the race for Jones' signature after manager Dario Gradi persuaded him to sign on 3 July. He signed for Crewe on a three-year contract in a deal worth £75,000 to Leigh, and £75,000 more to come after 60 appearances.Jones made his debut for Crewe in the league game against Manchester City on 25 August 2001. He replaced Rodney Jack in the 82nd minute of the 5–2 defeat at Maine Road. On 27 October, he made his first start for the club in the 1–0 defeat by Sheffield United at Brammall Lane. Despite being a regular goalscorer in the reserves, Jones found first-team opportunities scarce in his first season at Crewe, so it was decided he would join Third Division side Rochdale on a month's loan in February 2002. He returned from his loan in April and featured in two of Crewe's remaining games in the First Division, coming on as a substitute in the away defeats to Gillingham and Wimbledon.Jones made his debut for Rochdale on 5 February 2002, playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–4 win against York City at Spotland Stadium. He scored his first goal for "The Dale" on 23 February, scoring the opening goal in the 2–1 defeat at Scunthorpe United. On 7 March, Rochdale manager John Hollins confirmed that Jones would stay at the club for at least another month, but the deal would involve a 24-hour recall option for Crewe. He made his final appearance for the club on 26 March in the 3–1 defeat by Plymouth Argyle, he came off the bench in 75th minute replacing Kevin Townson.Following Crewe's relegation to the Second Division, Jones started to feature in the first-team more prominently at the start of the 2002–03 season. He made his first appearance of the season on 13 August, replacing Dave Brammer in the 60th minute of the 3–0 defeat by Notts County at Gresty Road. Jones scored his first goals for Crewe in the league match against Queens Park Rangers, he netted both goals in the 2–0 win on 5 October. He followed that up by scoring the third goal in the 4–1 win at Stockport County a week later. He scored a brace against Colchester United in January 2003 and another against Northampton Town in February, these went towards the 11 goals in all competitions he scored that helped "The Railwaymen" to a second-place finish in the Second Division, gaining them promotion back to the First Division.Prior to the 2003–04 season, Jones signed a new three-year contract with the club that would take him through to the end of the 2005–06 season. He started in Crewe's first game back in the First Division on 9 August, playing the full 90 minutes in the 3–1 defeat against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Three days later, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–0 League Cup first round win against Wrexham. A brace against West Ham United on 17 March 2004 took Jones' tally for the season to 16, this coupled with the 20 goals scored by strike partner Dean Ashton helped Crewe to an 18th-place finish in the league. His efforts throughout the season earned him the "Supporters Player of the Year" award.Jones scored on his first start of the 2004–05 season on 24 August, scoring two first half goals in the 4–1 League Cup first round win against Blackpool. Four days later, he helped Crewe to their first league win of the season, scoring two goals in the 4–2 win against Derby County at Pride Park. On 26 October, he started against Manchester United in the League Cup third round, playing 68 minutes of the 3–0 defeat at Gretsy Road. On 8 May 2005, Jones scored the winning goal in the 2–1 league win against Coventry City, the goal gave "The Alex" their first win in 19 games and saved the club from relegation on the final day of the season.At the beginning of the 2005–06 season, Jones indicated to Crewe manager Dario Gradi that he wanted to leave at the end of the season when his contract expired. In October, Preston North End manager Billy Davies declared his interest in bringing Jones to Deepdale, however Crewe were not interested in the player part-exchange offer that was being tabled. Queens Park Rangers took an interest in signing Jones in January 2006, however they were unable to meet the club's valuation of £300,000 for him. Despite the uncertainty about his future, Jones was still a regular in the team throughout the season and managed to score 5 goals overall, including a goal in his final appearance against Millwall on 30 April. Crewe were relegated at the end of the season, and despite a very good contract being offered, Jones confirmed his decision to leave. He wanted to stay in the Championship and thought he could make more money elsewhere. Overall Jones made 173 appearances for Crewe and scored 45 goals.Burnley announced on 3 May 2006 that Jones would join the club on a Bosman signing, with the move being completed on 1 July. He signed a three-year deal with the Championship side. Jones made a scoring start to his Burnley career, netting both goals in the 2–0 win against Queens Park Rangers on the opening day of the season. On 23 September, he opened the scoring in the 3–2 defeat against Southampton at Turf Moor. After a goal drought of over 6 months, he scored in the 4–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 3 April 2007, and he followed that up with a goal in the 2–0 win against Cardiff City six days later. Jones scored 5 goals in 43 appearances in the 2006–07 season, helping Burnley to a 15th-place finish in the Championship.Jones' first start of the 2007–08 season was in the League Cup first round game against Grimbsy Town at Blundell Park, he played the full 120 minutes as the game finished 1–1 and Burnley won 4–2 on penalties. On 15 September, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–2 league draw against Blackpool. After Owen Coyle replaced Steve Cotterill as Burnley manager in November, Jones was used mainly as a substitute, making his solitary league start of the season in the 1–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 12 January 2008. The following week in the 2–1 win at Coventry City, Jones suffered a medial knee ligament tear that would keep him out of action for six weeks, scuppering a pending loan move to former club Crewe Alexandra. The appearance against Coventry turned out to be his last for "The Clarets". On 27 March, it was announced that Jones would join League One side Crewe on loan until the end of the season.Jones made his re-debut for Crewe on 29 March 2008, playing 85 minutes in the 2–1 defeat by Luton Town at Kenilworth Road. Over the next month, he made two substitute appearances against Cheltenham Town and Bournemouth respectively, before he signed off his second spell at "The Railwaymen" with a goal in the 4–1 defeat by Oldham Athletic on 3 May.Despite featuring in pre-season, Jones had become surplus to requirements going into the last year of his contract at Burnley. Having not featured in the first-team at all during the opening weeks of the 2008–09 season, he joined Huddersfield Town on an initial one-month loan deal starting on 17 October. He returned to Turf Moor on 26 November and joined Bradford City on loan the next day, the initial deal running until 3 January 2009 then being extended by an extra month, and finally being extended until the end of the season by "The Bantams". On 1 June, Jones was released by Burnley alongside Gábor Király and Alan Mahon.Jones made his debut for League One side Huddersfield on 18 October 2008, playing the full 90 minutes in the 1–1 draw against Bristol Rovers at the Galpharm Stadium. He followed this up by playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–3 defeat at Hartlepool United three days later, and after two subsequent substitute appearances against Yeovil Town and former club Crewe Alexandra, he returned to Burnley on 26 November.Jones made his debut for Bradford in the FA Cup second round tie against Leyton Orient on 29 November 2008, he played the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat at Valley Parade He made his league debut a week later in the 1–1 draw against Dagenham & Redbridge. He scored his first goal for the club on 31 January 2009, netting the second goal in the 2–0 win over Grimsby Town. Two weeks later, he scored the only goal as "The Bantams" beat Wycombe Wanderers 1–0, keeping the club's promotion hopes alive. On 25 April, Jones made his final appearance for the club, scoring the third goal in the 3–0 win over Rotherham United. Overall, he made 27 appearances for Bradford and scored 3 goals.Jones signed for Walsall on 10 July 2009, penning a two-year deal with the League One club. He made his debut on 8 August in the 1–0 league win against Brighton & Hove Albion, he started the game before being substituted in the 65th minute for Richard Taundry. A week later on his home debut, he scored his first goal for the club in the 2–2 draw with Southend United when he headed in a Darryl Westlake free-kick to open the scoring in the 11th minute. On 17 October, Jones scored a brace against Exeter City, bagging two first half goals in the 3–0 win at the Bescot Stadium. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw against Swindon Town on 17 April 2010, this took his tally to 10 goals for the season that ultimately helped "The Saddlers" to a 10th place league finish.On 7 August, Jones started the opening league game of the 2010–11 season, playing the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat against Milton Keynes Dons. Two weeks later in a match against Plymouth Argyle, Jones suffered an ankle injury that would keep him out for 7 weeks. He made his return in the 1–1 draw with Dagenham & Redbridge on 16 October, replacing Julian Gray in the 69th minute at Victoria Road. Despite regaining his fitness, Jones struggled to regain his place in the first team and he was allowed to join Scottish Premier League side Motherwell on loan until the end of the season in January 2011. On 11 May, Walsall announced on their website that Jones would not be offered a new contract at the club.Jones linked up with Stuart McCall again at Motherwell, "The Steelmen" manager was in charge at Bradford City during Jones' loan-spell at Valley Parade. He made his debut in the 2–0 league win over Hibernian on 22 January, he started the game and played 63 minutes before being replaced by Jonathan Page. On 30 January, he came off the bench in the 2–1 League Cup semi-final defeat against Rangers at Hampden Park. Jones scored his first goal for the club on 5 February, netting the opening goal in the 2–0 Scottish Cup fifth-round win over Stranraer. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw with Kilmarnock on 11 May. Jones made his final appearance for Motherwell in the Scottish Cup Final on 21 May, he replaced Jamie Murphy in the 80th minute of the 3–0 defeat against Celtic. He was offered a contract at Fir Park following his release from Walsall, but he rejected the deal in favour of being with his family at his home in Crewe.Bristol Rovers offered Jones a two-year deal in the summer, but he rejected the chance to join the League Two club because he felt it was too far to travel and he wanted to stay local to his family in Crewe. He was on trial with Conference National side Newport County in July 2011, however he was unable to agree a deal with the Welsh side and he signed for Conference North side Droylsden on 12 August. Jones scored on his debut for "The Bloods", netting the opening goal in the 2–2 draw against Eastwood Town on 13 August.After a short spell with Droylsden, Jones signed for Conference National side AFC Telford United on 18 November 2011. He made his debut the following day in the 0–0 draw against Mansfield Town, he came on for Craig Farrell after 61 minutes and almost scored with his first touch, but his effort was well saved by Mansfield goalkeeper Alan Marriott. On 26 November, he came off the bench in the 1–0 win against Barrow, replacing Sean Newton after 68 minutes and scoring his first goal for the club. He headed in a Richard Davies cross on 76 minutes to give "The Bucks" their first league win in 9 outings. He made his first start for the club in the 1–1 draw against Luton Town three days later. Jones scored in the 2–2 draw with Stockport County on 24 January 2012. In the 0–0 draw with Alfreton Town on 3 March, Jones suffered a knee ligament injury that would keep him out of action for up to six weeks. He made his return from injury on 17 April, coming on as a 68th-minute substitute in the 1–0 win against Tamworth. The win secured Telford's place in the Conference National for the following season. On 4 May, it was announced on Telford's website that Jones had agreed terms to a contract extension with the club.Prior to the 2012–13 season, Jones was allocated the number 10 squad number. On 11 August, he played in the opening game of the season, playing the whole 90 minutes in the 0–0 draw with Barrow. He scored his first goal of the season in the 3–0 league win against Southport on 1 September. On 9 October, Jones scored a brace in the 4–1 league win against Dartford. He followed that up by scoring both goals in Telford's 2–2 draw against Ebbsfleet United on 6 November. Jones was sent off on 10 November, he was dismissed for a late tackle on Greg Taylor in the 0–0 draw with Tamworth and was suspended for three games. On 15 December, Jones was sent off again in only his second game back from his suspension and was subsequently banned for a further four games. He was dismissed after being booked twice within a minute in the 3–1 FA Trophy second round defeat against King's Lynn Town, firstly for a dive in the penalty area and then for an off-the-ball barge on Jordan Yong. Jones suffered a serious eye injury in the league match against Mansfield Town on 2 March 2013, he temporarily lost the sight in his left eye after being struck in the face with a heavy clearance during the first half of the 1–0 defeat at Field Mill. It was later confirmed that Jones had suffered three haemorrhages in the eye, one in the iris and two in the retina, as well as severe bruising. His vision later returned after a course of eye drops and he returned to action the following week in the 2–0 league defeat by Macclesfield Town. Jones finished the season with 11 goals as Telford finished 24th in the league and were relegated to the Conference North. On 11 May, Telford announced on their website that they would not be offering Jones terms for the following season.On 22 May 2013, Jones signed for Welsh Premier League side Airbus UK Broughton. He said the lure of European football was a major factor in agreeing a deal with "The Wingmakers". On 4 July, Jones made his debut for Airbus, coming on as a 55th-minute substitute in the Europa League first qualifying round first leg against Latvian side FK Ventspils. The match, played at the Racecourse Ground in Wrexham, ended 1–1. He made his first start for the club in the second leg, having a first half goal disallowed as Airbus drew 0–0 at the Ventspils Olimpiskais Stadions, the result meaning the Welsh club were eliminated on away goals. He scored his first goal for the club on 26 August, netting the winning goal in the 2–1 league win at Bala Town. On 7 September, Jones scored two goals as Airbus thrashed Newtown 6–1 to register their fourth straight victory of the season. A week later, he was sent off for two bookable offences in the 2–2 draw at Rhyl, the first for impeding goalkeeper Alex Ramsey, and the second just a few minutes later for something he said to the referee. On 25 February 2014, Jones scored the third goal in Airbus' 4–2 league win at Bangor City. Overall, he made 27 appearances for the club, the last in the 1–1 draw with Newtown on 26 April, and scored 5 goals, helping "The Wingmakers" to their most successful league campaign ever.On 19 May 2014, Jones signed for Northern Premier League Premier Division side Nantwich Town. He made his debut on 16 August, playing 80 minutes in the 1–0 league win at Buxton. Steve, also scored the goal of the season in the Nantwich Town team and also won top goalscorer.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League Premier Division side Whitchurch Alport in the summer of 2019.Jones left Whitchurch in February 2020 to sign for North West Counties Football League Division One South side Alsager Town. He joined the club to be closer to his home in south Cheshire.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League First Division South side Sandbach United in the summer of 2020.Jones was called up to the England C national side in March 2001 after showing good form for Leigh RMI in the Conference. England manager John Owens selected Jones after Rushden & Diamonds winger Paul Underwood had to withdraw from the squad through injury. On 22 March, Jones started the 3–0 win against the Netherlands, however he had to come off after just 18-minutes after failing to fully recover from a bout of food poisoning. He earned a second cap in May 2001 when he scored in the 3–0 win against a Highland League Select in Inverness.Jones has won a total of 29 caps for Northern Ireland. He was first called up for the friendly match against Finland in February 2003, he replaced the injured Kevin Horlock in the squad before being an unused substitute in the 1–0 defeat on 14 February. In May 2003, he got his first taste of international football when he was called up for the B international match against Scotland Future. He started the game against Scotland and managed to get on the scoresheet in the 2–1 defeat on 20 May.After impressing in the B international match against Scotland, Jones was called up to the senior squad on 23 May for the friendly against Italy and the Euro 2004 qualifying match against Spain. He made his debut in the 2–0 defeat against Italy on 3 June, he replaced Paul McVeigh on the 55th minute and almost scored in the 76th minute, but his firm header was well saved by Francesco Toldo. On 11 June, Jones made his first start for his country against Spain at Windsor Park, he played 73 minutes on the way to helping Northern Ireland to a 0–0 draw.Jones was a regular in the squad over the next three years, often being used as a substitute. He scored his first goal for his country in a 2–0 friendly win against Saint Kitts and Nevis on 2 June 2004. He played in most of Northern Ireland's unsuccessful 2006 World Cup qualifying campaign and the early stages of their Euro 2008 qualifying campaign before falling out of favour within the selection process. His last cap was a substitute appearance in the 2–1 away defeat against Iceland during Euro 2008 qualifying.Jones is a fan of Manchester United as his son (Jarvis Jones) plays for United's youth squad having 3 official caps for the first team.
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[
"Bray Wanderers A.F.C.",
"Droylsden F.C.",
"Motherwell F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"AFC Telford United",
"Bury F.C.",
"Blackpool F.C.",
"England national association football C team",
"Leigh Genesis F.C.",
"Walsall F.C.",
"Northern Ireland national association football team",
"Burnley F.C.",
"Rochdale A.F.C.",
"Nantwich Town F.C.",
"Chorley F.C.",
"Sligo Rovers F.C.",
"Northern Ireland B national football team",
"Bradford City A.F.C.",
"Huddersfield Town A.F.C."
] |
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Which team did Steve Jones play for in 02/19/2013?
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February 19, 2013
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{
"text": [
"Airbus UK Broughton F.C."
]
}
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L2_Q5890965_P54_18
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Steve Jones plays for Walsall F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Huddersfield Town A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Airbus UK Broughton F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Steve Jones plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Motherwell F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Sligo Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Leigh Genesis F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for England national association football C team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for Rochdale A.F.C. from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Steve Jones plays for AFC Telford United from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Steve Jones plays for Bradford City A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Burnley F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Droylsden F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Bury F.C. from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1997.
Steve Jones plays for Blackpool F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland B national football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Steve Jones plays for Chorley F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Nantwich Town F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Steve Jones plays for Bray Wanderers A.F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
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Steve Jones (footballer, born 1976)Stephen Graham Jones (born 25 October 1976) is a Northern Irish footballer who plays for Sandbach United football club. He has been capped 29 times by Northern Ireland and played for 20 clubs in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.Jones was born in Derry, Northern Ireland and moved to Manchester with his family at age 13. In his late teens, he played for Chadderton in the North West Counties Division One before signing for Blackpool in July 1995. After spending time playing for Blackpool's youth and reserve teams, he signed for Bury on a free transfer in July 1996. Unable to settle at Bury and frustrated by the lack of first-team opportunities, Jones decided to move to the Republic of Ireland and sign for League of Ireland side Sligo Rovers in July 1997, stating that Rovers manager Nicky Reid's offer of a full-time contract was what ultimately made up his mind.On 30 August 1997, he made his debut for "The Bit o' Red" in the league match against Bohemians, scoring just before half-time in the 2–2 draw at The Showgrounds. He spent almost two seasons with Sligo and won the League of Ireland Cup after playing in the final against Shelbourne in February 1998. Overall, he played 46 games and scored 6 goals for Sligo before moving to Bray Wanderers in January 1999. Jones made his debut for Bray on 22 January, playing in the 0–0 league draw with Finn Harps at Carlisle Grounds. Later that year, Jones moved back to England and had a brief spell with Northern Premier League side Chorley, playing in the last four games of the season for "The Magpies".After Chorley were relegated at the end of the 1998–99 season, Jones signed for fellow Northern Premier League side Leigh RMI in August 1999. This came after he impressed RMI manager Steve Waywell in the final home game of the previous season against Chorley. He had a successful first season with "The Railwaymen", scoring 18 goals in 40 games that helped RMI gain promotion to the Football Conference.On 19 August 2000, Jones started in Leigh's first game in the Conference, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 defeat by fellow newly promoted side Dagenham & Redbridge. He won a penalty after clumsy challenge from Ashley Vickers, which led to Tony Black scoring RMI's goal. He played in the 3–0 FA Cup first round defeat by Millwall at The Den on 19 November. On 3 March 2001, Jones scored the first hat-trick of his career in the 6–2 league win against Nuneaton Borough. He finished the season with 21 goals in all competitions, these went a long way to firing RMI to a fifth-place finish in the Conference, the club's highest ever league finish. At the Conference Annual General Meeting on 2 June, Jones was named in the Football Conference Team of the Year, as voted for by the league's managers.Jones attracted interest from a number of clubs in the close season, Morecambe being the first to make a bid for the Northern Irishman in late May. "The Shrimps" had bids of £30,000 and £45,000 rejected by RMI. Tranmere Rovers were the next club to take an interest in Jones and manager Dave Watson took him on trial at the beginning of July. However, it was Crewe Alexandra who won the race for Jones' signature after manager Dario Gradi persuaded him to sign on 3 July. He signed for Crewe on a three-year contract in a deal worth £75,000 to Leigh, and £75,000 more to come after 60 appearances.Jones made his debut for Crewe in the league game against Manchester City on 25 August 2001. He replaced Rodney Jack in the 82nd minute of the 5–2 defeat at Maine Road. On 27 October, he made his first start for the club in the 1–0 defeat by Sheffield United at Brammall Lane. Despite being a regular goalscorer in the reserves, Jones found first-team opportunities scarce in his first season at Crewe, so it was decided he would join Third Division side Rochdale on a month's loan in February 2002. He returned from his loan in April and featured in two of Crewe's remaining games in the First Division, coming on as a substitute in the away defeats to Gillingham and Wimbledon.Jones made his debut for Rochdale on 5 February 2002, playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–4 win against York City at Spotland Stadium. He scored his first goal for "The Dale" on 23 February, scoring the opening goal in the 2–1 defeat at Scunthorpe United. On 7 March, Rochdale manager John Hollins confirmed that Jones would stay at the club for at least another month, but the deal would involve a 24-hour recall option for Crewe. He made his final appearance for the club on 26 March in the 3–1 defeat by Plymouth Argyle, he came off the bench in 75th minute replacing Kevin Townson.Following Crewe's relegation to the Second Division, Jones started to feature in the first-team more prominently at the start of the 2002–03 season. He made his first appearance of the season on 13 August, replacing Dave Brammer in the 60th minute of the 3–0 defeat by Notts County at Gresty Road. Jones scored his first goals for Crewe in the league match against Queens Park Rangers, he netted both goals in the 2–0 win on 5 October. He followed that up by scoring the third goal in the 4–1 win at Stockport County a week later. He scored a brace against Colchester United in January 2003 and another against Northampton Town in February, these went towards the 11 goals in all competitions he scored that helped "The Railwaymen" to a second-place finish in the Second Division, gaining them promotion back to the First Division.Prior to the 2003–04 season, Jones signed a new three-year contract with the club that would take him through to the end of the 2005–06 season. He started in Crewe's first game back in the First Division on 9 August, playing the full 90 minutes in the 3–1 defeat against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Three days later, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–0 League Cup first round win against Wrexham. A brace against West Ham United on 17 March 2004 took Jones' tally for the season to 16, this coupled with the 20 goals scored by strike partner Dean Ashton helped Crewe to an 18th-place finish in the league. His efforts throughout the season earned him the "Supporters Player of the Year" award.Jones scored on his first start of the 2004–05 season on 24 August, scoring two first half goals in the 4–1 League Cup first round win against Blackpool. Four days later, he helped Crewe to their first league win of the season, scoring two goals in the 4–2 win against Derby County at Pride Park. On 26 October, he started against Manchester United in the League Cup third round, playing 68 minutes of the 3–0 defeat at Gretsy Road. On 8 May 2005, Jones scored the winning goal in the 2–1 league win against Coventry City, the goal gave "The Alex" their first win in 19 games and saved the club from relegation on the final day of the season.At the beginning of the 2005–06 season, Jones indicated to Crewe manager Dario Gradi that he wanted to leave at the end of the season when his contract expired. In October, Preston North End manager Billy Davies declared his interest in bringing Jones to Deepdale, however Crewe were not interested in the player part-exchange offer that was being tabled. Queens Park Rangers took an interest in signing Jones in January 2006, however they were unable to meet the club's valuation of £300,000 for him. Despite the uncertainty about his future, Jones was still a regular in the team throughout the season and managed to score 5 goals overall, including a goal in his final appearance against Millwall on 30 April. Crewe were relegated at the end of the season, and despite a very good contract being offered, Jones confirmed his decision to leave. He wanted to stay in the Championship and thought he could make more money elsewhere. Overall Jones made 173 appearances for Crewe and scored 45 goals.Burnley announced on 3 May 2006 that Jones would join the club on a Bosman signing, with the move being completed on 1 July. He signed a three-year deal with the Championship side. Jones made a scoring start to his Burnley career, netting both goals in the 2–0 win against Queens Park Rangers on the opening day of the season. On 23 September, he opened the scoring in the 3–2 defeat against Southampton at Turf Moor. After a goal drought of over 6 months, he scored in the 4–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 3 April 2007, and he followed that up with a goal in the 2–0 win against Cardiff City six days later. Jones scored 5 goals in 43 appearances in the 2006–07 season, helping Burnley to a 15th-place finish in the Championship.Jones' first start of the 2007–08 season was in the League Cup first round game against Grimbsy Town at Blundell Park, he played the full 120 minutes as the game finished 1–1 and Burnley won 4–2 on penalties. On 15 September, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–2 league draw against Blackpool. After Owen Coyle replaced Steve Cotterill as Burnley manager in November, Jones was used mainly as a substitute, making his solitary league start of the season in the 1–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 12 January 2008. The following week in the 2–1 win at Coventry City, Jones suffered a medial knee ligament tear that would keep him out of action for six weeks, scuppering a pending loan move to former club Crewe Alexandra. The appearance against Coventry turned out to be his last for "The Clarets". On 27 March, it was announced that Jones would join League One side Crewe on loan until the end of the season.Jones made his re-debut for Crewe on 29 March 2008, playing 85 minutes in the 2–1 defeat by Luton Town at Kenilworth Road. Over the next month, he made two substitute appearances against Cheltenham Town and Bournemouth respectively, before he signed off his second spell at "The Railwaymen" with a goal in the 4–1 defeat by Oldham Athletic on 3 May.Despite featuring in pre-season, Jones had become surplus to requirements going into the last year of his contract at Burnley. Having not featured in the first-team at all during the opening weeks of the 2008–09 season, he joined Huddersfield Town on an initial one-month loan deal starting on 17 October. He returned to Turf Moor on 26 November and joined Bradford City on loan the next day, the initial deal running until 3 January 2009 then being extended by an extra month, and finally being extended until the end of the season by "The Bantams". On 1 June, Jones was released by Burnley alongside Gábor Király and Alan Mahon.Jones made his debut for League One side Huddersfield on 18 October 2008, playing the full 90 minutes in the 1–1 draw against Bristol Rovers at the Galpharm Stadium. He followed this up by playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–3 defeat at Hartlepool United three days later, and after two subsequent substitute appearances against Yeovil Town and former club Crewe Alexandra, he returned to Burnley on 26 November.Jones made his debut for Bradford in the FA Cup second round tie against Leyton Orient on 29 November 2008, he played the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat at Valley Parade He made his league debut a week later in the 1–1 draw against Dagenham & Redbridge. He scored his first goal for the club on 31 January 2009, netting the second goal in the 2–0 win over Grimsby Town. Two weeks later, he scored the only goal as "The Bantams" beat Wycombe Wanderers 1–0, keeping the club's promotion hopes alive. On 25 April, Jones made his final appearance for the club, scoring the third goal in the 3–0 win over Rotherham United. Overall, he made 27 appearances for Bradford and scored 3 goals.Jones signed for Walsall on 10 July 2009, penning a two-year deal with the League One club. He made his debut on 8 August in the 1–0 league win against Brighton & Hove Albion, he started the game before being substituted in the 65th minute for Richard Taundry. A week later on his home debut, he scored his first goal for the club in the 2–2 draw with Southend United when he headed in a Darryl Westlake free-kick to open the scoring in the 11th minute. On 17 October, Jones scored a brace against Exeter City, bagging two first half goals in the 3–0 win at the Bescot Stadium. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw against Swindon Town on 17 April 2010, this took his tally to 10 goals for the season that ultimately helped "The Saddlers" to a 10th place league finish.On 7 August, Jones started the opening league game of the 2010–11 season, playing the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat against Milton Keynes Dons. Two weeks later in a match against Plymouth Argyle, Jones suffered an ankle injury that would keep him out for 7 weeks. He made his return in the 1–1 draw with Dagenham & Redbridge on 16 October, replacing Julian Gray in the 69th minute at Victoria Road. Despite regaining his fitness, Jones struggled to regain his place in the first team and he was allowed to join Scottish Premier League side Motherwell on loan until the end of the season in January 2011. On 11 May, Walsall announced on their website that Jones would not be offered a new contract at the club.Jones linked up with Stuart McCall again at Motherwell, "The Steelmen" manager was in charge at Bradford City during Jones' loan-spell at Valley Parade. He made his debut in the 2–0 league win over Hibernian on 22 January, he started the game and played 63 minutes before being replaced by Jonathan Page. On 30 January, he came off the bench in the 2–1 League Cup semi-final defeat against Rangers at Hampden Park. Jones scored his first goal for the club on 5 February, netting the opening goal in the 2–0 Scottish Cup fifth-round win over Stranraer. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw with Kilmarnock on 11 May. Jones made his final appearance for Motherwell in the Scottish Cup Final on 21 May, he replaced Jamie Murphy in the 80th minute of the 3–0 defeat against Celtic. He was offered a contract at Fir Park following his release from Walsall, but he rejected the deal in favour of being with his family at his home in Crewe.Bristol Rovers offered Jones a two-year deal in the summer, but he rejected the chance to join the League Two club because he felt it was too far to travel and he wanted to stay local to his family in Crewe. He was on trial with Conference National side Newport County in July 2011, however he was unable to agree a deal with the Welsh side and he signed for Conference North side Droylsden on 12 August. Jones scored on his debut for "The Bloods", netting the opening goal in the 2–2 draw against Eastwood Town on 13 August.After a short spell with Droylsden, Jones signed for Conference National side AFC Telford United on 18 November 2011. He made his debut the following day in the 0–0 draw against Mansfield Town, he came on for Craig Farrell after 61 minutes and almost scored with his first touch, but his effort was well saved by Mansfield goalkeeper Alan Marriott. On 26 November, he came off the bench in the 1–0 win against Barrow, replacing Sean Newton after 68 minutes and scoring his first goal for the club. He headed in a Richard Davies cross on 76 minutes to give "The Bucks" their first league win in 9 outings. He made his first start for the club in the 1–1 draw against Luton Town three days later. Jones scored in the 2–2 draw with Stockport County on 24 January 2012. In the 0–0 draw with Alfreton Town on 3 March, Jones suffered a knee ligament injury that would keep him out of action for up to six weeks. He made his return from injury on 17 April, coming on as a 68th-minute substitute in the 1–0 win against Tamworth. The win secured Telford's place in the Conference National for the following season. On 4 May, it was announced on Telford's website that Jones had agreed terms to a contract extension with the club.Prior to the 2012–13 season, Jones was allocated the number 10 squad number. On 11 August, he played in the opening game of the season, playing the whole 90 minutes in the 0–0 draw with Barrow. He scored his first goal of the season in the 3–0 league win against Southport on 1 September. On 9 October, Jones scored a brace in the 4–1 league win against Dartford. He followed that up by scoring both goals in Telford's 2–2 draw against Ebbsfleet United on 6 November. Jones was sent off on 10 November, he was dismissed for a late tackle on Greg Taylor in the 0–0 draw with Tamworth and was suspended for three games. On 15 December, Jones was sent off again in only his second game back from his suspension and was subsequently banned for a further four games. He was dismissed after being booked twice within a minute in the 3–1 FA Trophy second round defeat against King's Lynn Town, firstly for a dive in the penalty area and then for an off-the-ball barge on Jordan Yong. Jones suffered a serious eye injury in the league match against Mansfield Town on 2 March 2013, he temporarily lost the sight in his left eye after being struck in the face with a heavy clearance during the first half of the 1–0 defeat at Field Mill. It was later confirmed that Jones had suffered three haemorrhages in the eye, one in the iris and two in the retina, as well as severe bruising. His vision later returned after a course of eye drops and he returned to action the following week in the 2–0 league defeat by Macclesfield Town. Jones finished the season with 11 goals as Telford finished 24th in the league and were relegated to the Conference North. On 11 May, Telford announced on their website that they would not be offering Jones terms for the following season.On 22 May 2013, Jones signed for Welsh Premier League side Airbus UK Broughton. He said the lure of European football was a major factor in agreeing a deal with "The Wingmakers". On 4 July, Jones made his debut for Airbus, coming on as a 55th-minute substitute in the Europa League first qualifying round first leg against Latvian side FK Ventspils. The match, played at the Racecourse Ground in Wrexham, ended 1–1. He made his first start for the club in the second leg, having a first half goal disallowed as Airbus drew 0–0 at the Ventspils Olimpiskais Stadions, the result meaning the Welsh club were eliminated on away goals. He scored his first goal for the club on 26 August, netting the winning goal in the 2–1 league win at Bala Town. On 7 September, Jones scored two goals as Airbus thrashed Newtown 6–1 to register their fourth straight victory of the season. A week later, he was sent off for two bookable offences in the 2–2 draw at Rhyl, the first for impeding goalkeeper Alex Ramsey, and the second just a few minutes later for something he said to the referee. On 25 February 2014, Jones scored the third goal in Airbus' 4–2 league win at Bangor City. Overall, he made 27 appearances for the club, the last in the 1–1 draw with Newtown on 26 April, and scored 5 goals, helping "The Wingmakers" to their most successful league campaign ever.On 19 May 2014, Jones signed for Northern Premier League Premier Division side Nantwich Town. He made his debut on 16 August, playing 80 minutes in the 1–0 league win at Buxton. Steve, also scored the goal of the season in the Nantwich Town team and also won top goalscorer.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League Premier Division side Whitchurch Alport in the summer of 2019.Jones left Whitchurch in February 2020 to sign for North West Counties Football League Division One South side Alsager Town. He joined the club to be closer to his home in south Cheshire.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League First Division South side Sandbach United in the summer of 2020.Jones was called up to the England C national side in March 2001 after showing good form for Leigh RMI in the Conference. England manager John Owens selected Jones after Rushden & Diamonds winger Paul Underwood had to withdraw from the squad through injury. On 22 March, Jones started the 3–0 win against the Netherlands, however he had to come off after just 18-minutes after failing to fully recover from a bout of food poisoning. He earned a second cap in May 2001 when he scored in the 3–0 win against a Highland League Select in Inverness.Jones has won a total of 29 caps for Northern Ireland. He was first called up for the friendly match against Finland in February 2003, he replaced the injured Kevin Horlock in the squad before being an unused substitute in the 1–0 defeat on 14 February. In May 2003, he got his first taste of international football when he was called up for the B international match against Scotland Future. He started the game against Scotland and managed to get on the scoresheet in the 2–1 defeat on 20 May.After impressing in the B international match against Scotland, Jones was called up to the senior squad on 23 May for the friendly against Italy and the Euro 2004 qualifying match against Spain. He made his debut in the 2–0 defeat against Italy on 3 June, he replaced Paul McVeigh on the 55th minute and almost scored in the 76th minute, but his firm header was well saved by Francesco Toldo. On 11 June, Jones made his first start for his country against Spain at Windsor Park, he played 73 minutes on the way to helping Northern Ireland to a 0–0 draw.Jones was a regular in the squad over the next three years, often being used as a substitute. He scored his first goal for his country in a 2–0 friendly win against Saint Kitts and Nevis on 2 June 2004. He played in most of Northern Ireland's unsuccessful 2006 World Cup qualifying campaign and the early stages of their Euro 2008 qualifying campaign before falling out of favour within the selection process. His last cap was a substitute appearance in the 2–1 away defeat against Iceland during Euro 2008 qualifying.Jones is a fan of Manchester United as his son (Jarvis Jones) plays for United's youth squad having 3 official caps for the first team.
|
[
"Bray Wanderers A.F.C.",
"Droylsden F.C.",
"Motherwell F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"AFC Telford United",
"Bury F.C.",
"Blackpool F.C.",
"England national association football C team",
"Leigh Genesis F.C.",
"Walsall F.C.",
"Northern Ireland national association football team",
"Burnley F.C.",
"Rochdale A.F.C.",
"Nantwich Town F.C.",
"Chorley F.C.",
"Sligo Rovers F.C.",
"Northern Ireland B national football team",
"Bradford City A.F.C.",
"Huddersfield Town A.F.C."
] |
|
Which team did Steve Jones play for in 19-Feb-201319-February-2013?
|
February 19, 2013
|
{
"text": [
"Airbus UK Broughton F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q5890965_P54_18
|
Steve Jones plays for Walsall F.C. from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Huddersfield Town A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Airbus UK Broughton F.C. from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2014.
Steve Jones plays for Crewe Alexandra F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Steve Jones plays for Motherwell F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Sligo Rovers F.C. from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Leigh Genesis F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for England national association football C team from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Steve Jones plays for Rochdale A.F.C. from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Steve Jones plays for AFC Telford United from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2013.
Steve Jones plays for Bradford City A.F.C. from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Burnley F.C. from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2009.
Steve Jones plays for Droylsden F.C. from Jan, 2011 to Jan, 2011.
Steve Jones plays for Bury F.C. from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1997.
Steve Jones plays for Blackpool F.C. from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland national association football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Steve Jones plays for Northern Ireland B national football team from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2003.
Steve Jones plays for Chorley F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
Steve Jones plays for Nantwich Town F.C. from Jan, 2014 to Dec, 2022.
Steve Jones plays for Bray Wanderers A.F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 1999.
|
Steve Jones (footballer, born 1976)Stephen Graham Jones (born 25 October 1976) is a Northern Irish footballer who plays for Sandbach United football club. He has been capped 29 times by Northern Ireland and played for 20 clubs in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.Jones was born in Derry, Northern Ireland and moved to Manchester with his family at age 13. In his late teens, he played for Chadderton in the North West Counties Division One before signing for Blackpool in July 1995. After spending time playing for Blackpool's youth and reserve teams, he signed for Bury on a free transfer in July 1996. Unable to settle at Bury and frustrated by the lack of first-team opportunities, Jones decided to move to the Republic of Ireland and sign for League of Ireland side Sligo Rovers in July 1997, stating that Rovers manager Nicky Reid's offer of a full-time contract was what ultimately made up his mind.On 30 August 1997, he made his debut for "The Bit o' Red" in the league match against Bohemians, scoring just before half-time in the 2–2 draw at The Showgrounds. He spent almost two seasons with Sligo and won the League of Ireland Cup after playing in the final against Shelbourne in February 1998. Overall, he played 46 games and scored 6 goals for Sligo before moving to Bray Wanderers in January 1999. Jones made his debut for Bray on 22 January, playing in the 0–0 league draw with Finn Harps at Carlisle Grounds. Later that year, Jones moved back to England and had a brief spell with Northern Premier League side Chorley, playing in the last four games of the season for "The Magpies".After Chorley were relegated at the end of the 1998–99 season, Jones signed for fellow Northern Premier League side Leigh RMI in August 1999. This came after he impressed RMI manager Steve Waywell in the final home game of the previous season against Chorley. He had a successful first season with "The Railwaymen", scoring 18 goals in 40 games that helped RMI gain promotion to the Football Conference.On 19 August 2000, Jones started in Leigh's first game in the Conference, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 defeat by fellow newly promoted side Dagenham & Redbridge. He won a penalty after clumsy challenge from Ashley Vickers, which led to Tony Black scoring RMI's goal. He played in the 3–0 FA Cup first round defeat by Millwall at The Den on 19 November. On 3 March 2001, Jones scored the first hat-trick of his career in the 6–2 league win against Nuneaton Borough. He finished the season with 21 goals in all competitions, these went a long way to firing RMI to a fifth-place finish in the Conference, the club's highest ever league finish. At the Conference Annual General Meeting on 2 June, Jones was named in the Football Conference Team of the Year, as voted for by the league's managers.Jones attracted interest from a number of clubs in the close season, Morecambe being the first to make a bid for the Northern Irishman in late May. "The Shrimps" had bids of £30,000 and £45,000 rejected by RMI. Tranmere Rovers were the next club to take an interest in Jones and manager Dave Watson took him on trial at the beginning of July. However, it was Crewe Alexandra who won the race for Jones' signature after manager Dario Gradi persuaded him to sign on 3 July. He signed for Crewe on a three-year contract in a deal worth £75,000 to Leigh, and £75,000 more to come after 60 appearances.Jones made his debut for Crewe in the league game against Manchester City on 25 August 2001. He replaced Rodney Jack in the 82nd minute of the 5–2 defeat at Maine Road. On 27 October, he made his first start for the club in the 1–0 defeat by Sheffield United at Brammall Lane. Despite being a regular goalscorer in the reserves, Jones found first-team opportunities scarce in his first season at Crewe, so it was decided he would join Third Division side Rochdale on a month's loan in February 2002. He returned from his loan in April and featured in two of Crewe's remaining games in the First Division, coming on as a substitute in the away defeats to Gillingham and Wimbledon.Jones made his debut for Rochdale on 5 February 2002, playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–4 win against York City at Spotland Stadium. He scored his first goal for "The Dale" on 23 February, scoring the opening goal in the 2–1 defeat at Scunthorpe United. On 7 March, Rochdale manager John Hollins confirmed that Jones would stay at the club for at least another month, but the deal would involve a 24-hour recall option for Crewe. He made his final appearance for the club on 26 March in the 3–1 defeat by Plymouth Argyle, he came off the bench in 75th minute replacing Kevin Townson.Following Crewe's relegation to the Second Division, Jones started to feature in the first-team more prominently at the start of the 2002–03 season. He made his first appearance of the season on 13 August, replacing Dave Brammer in the 60th minute of the 3–0 defeat by Notts County at Gresty Road. Jones scored his first goals for Crewe in the league match against Queens Park Rangers, he netted both goals in the 2–0 win on 5 October. He followed that up by scoring the third goal in the 4–1 win at Stockport County a week later. He scored a brace against Colchester United in January 2003 and another against Northampton Town in February, these went towards the 11 goals in all competitions he scored that helped "The Railwaymen" to a second-place finish in the Second Division, gaining them promotion back to the First Division.Prior to the 2003–04 season, Jones signed a new three-year contract with the club that would take him through to the end of the 2005–06 season. He started in Crewe's first game back in the First Division on 9 August, playing the full 90 minutes in the 3–1 defeat against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Three days later, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–0 League Cup first round win against Wrexham. A brace against West Ham United on 17 March 2004 took Jones' tally for the season to 16, this coupled with the 20 goals scored by strike partner Dean Ashton helped Crewe to an 18th-place finish in the league. His efforts throughout the season earned him the "Supporters Player of the Year" award.Jones scored on his first start of the 2004–05 season on 24 August, scoring two first half goals in the 4–1 League Cup first round win against Blackpool. Four days later, he helped Crewe to their first league win of the season, scoring two goals in the 4–2 win against Derby County at Pride Park. On 26 October, he started against Manchester United in the League Cup third round, playing 68 minutes of the 3–0 defeat at Gretsy Road. On 8 May 2005, Jones scored the winning goal in the 2–1 league win against Coventry City, the goal gave "The Alex" their first win in 19 games and saved the club from relegation on the final day of the season.At the beginning of the 2005–06 season, Jones indicated to Crewe manager Dario Gradi that he wanted to leave at the end of the season when his contract expired. In October, Preston North End manager Billy Davies declared his interest in bringing Jones to Deepdale, however Crewe were not interested in the player part-exchange offer that was being tabled. Queens Park Rangers took an interest in signing Jones in January 2006, however they were unable to meet the club's valuation of £300,000 for him. Despite the uncertainty about his future, Jones was still a regular in the team throughout the season and managed to score 5 goals overall, including a goal in his final appearance against Millwall on 30 April. Crewe were relegated at the end of the season, and despite a very good contract being offered, Jones confirmed his decision to leave. He wanted to stay in the Championship and thought he could make more money elsewhere. Overall Jones made 173 appearances for Crewe and scored 45 goals.Burnley announced on 3 May 2006 that Jones would join the club on a Bosman signing, with the move being completed on 1 July. He signed a three-year deal with the Championship side. Jones made a scoring start to his Burnley career, netting both goals in the 2–0 win against Queens Park Rangers on the opening day of the season. On 23 September, he opened the scoring in the 3–2 defeat against Southampton at Turf Moor. After a goal drought of over 6 months, he scored in the 4–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 3 April 2007, and he followed that up with a goal in the 2–0 win against Cardiff City six days later. Jones scored 5 goals in 43 appearances in the 2006–07 season, helping Burnley to a 15th-place finish in the Championship.Jones' first start of the 2007–08 season was in the League Cup first round game against Grimbsy Town at Blundell Park, he played the full 120 minutes as the game finished 1–1 and Burnley won 4–2 on penalties. On 15 September, he scored his first goal of the season in the 2–2 league draw against Blackpool. After Owen Coyle replaced Steve Cotterill as Burnley manager in November, Jones was used mainly as a substitute, making his solitary league start of the season in the 1–0 win against Plymouth Argyle on 12 January 2008. The following week in the 2–1 win at Coventry City, Jones suffered a medial knee ligament tear that would keep him out of action for six weeks, scuppering a pending loan move to former club Crewe Alexandra. The appearance against Coventry turned out to be his last for "The Clarets". On 27 March, it was announced that Jones would join League One side Crewe on loan until the end of the season.Jones made his re-debut for Crewe on 29 March 2008, playing 85 minutes in the 2–1 defeat by Luton Town at Kenilworth Road. Over the next month, he made two substitute appearances against Cheltenham Town and Bournemouth respectively, before he signed off his second spell at "The Railwaymen" with a goal in the 4–1 defeat by Oldham Athletic on 3 May.Despite featuring in pre-season, Jones had become surplus to requirements going into the last year of his contract at Burnley. Having not featured in the first-team at all during the opening weeks of the 2008–09 season, he joined Huddersfield Town on an initial one-month loan deal starting on 17 October. He returned to Turf Moor on 26 November and joined Bradford City on loan the next day, the initial deal running until 3 January 2009 then being extended by an extra month, and finally being extended until the end of the season by "The Bantams". On 1 June, Jones was released by Burnley alongside Gábor Király and Alan Mahon.Jones made his debut for League One side Huddersfield on 18 October 2008, playing the full 90 minutes in the 1–1 draw against Bristol Rovers at the Galpharm Stadium. He followed this up by playing the full 90 minutes in the 5–3 defeat at Hartlepool United three days later, and after two subsequent substitute appearances against Yeovil Town and former club Crewe Alexandra, he returned to Burnley on 26 November.Jones made his debut for Bradford in the FA Cup second round tie against Leyton Orient on 29 November 2008, he played the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat at Valley Parade He made his league debut a week later in the 1–1 draw against Dagenham & Redbridge. He scored his first goal for the club on 31 January 2009, netting the second goal in the 2–0 win over Grimsby Town. Two weeks later, he scored the only goal as "The Bantams" beat Wycombe Wanderers 1–0, keeping the club's promotion hopes alive. On 25 April, Jones made his final appearance for the club, scoring the third goal in the 3–0 win over Rotherham United. Overall, he made 27 appearances for Bradford and scored 3 goals.Jones signed for Walsall on 10 July 2009, penning a two-year deal with the League One club. He made his debut on 8 August in the 1–0 league win against Brighton & Hove Albion, he started the game before being substituted in the 65th minute for Richard Taundry. A week later on his home debut, he scored his first goal for the club in the 2–2 draw with Southend United when he headed in a Darryl Westlake free-kick to open the scoring in the 11th minute. On 17 October, Jones scored a brace against Exeter City, bagging two first half goals in the 3–0 win at the Bescot Stadium. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw against Swindon Town on 17 April 2010, this took his tally to 10 goals for the season that ultimately helped "The Saddlers" to a 10th place league finish.On 7 August, Jones started the opening league game of the 2010–11 season, playing the full 90 minutes in the 2–1 defeat against Milton Keynes Dons. Two weeks later in a match against Plymouth Argyle, Jones suffered an ankle injury that would keep him out for 7 weeks. He made his return in the 1–1 draw with Dagenham & Redbridge on 16 October, replacing Julian Gray in the 69th minute at Victoria Road. Despite regaining his fitness, Jones struggled to regain his place in the first team and he was allowed to join Scottish Premier League side Motherwell on loan until the end of the season in January 2011. On 11 May, Walsall announced on their website that Jones would not be offered a new contract at the club.Jones linked up with Stuart McCall again at Motherwell, "The Steelmen" manager was in charge at Bradford City during Jones' loan-spell at Valley Parade. He made his debut in the 2–0 league win over Hibernian on 22 January, he started the game and played 63 minutes before being replaced by Jonathan Page. On 30 January, he came off the bench in the 2–1 League Cup semi-final defeat against Rangers at Hampden Park. Jones scored his first goal for the club on 5 February, netting the opening goal in the 2–0 Scottish Cup fifth-round win over Stranraer. He scored the opening goal in the 1–1 draw with Kilmarnock on 11 May. Jones made his final appearance for Motherwell in the Scottish Cup Final on 21 May, he replaced Jamie Murphy in the 80th minute of the 3–0 defeat against Celtic. He was offered a contract at Fir Park following his release from Walsall, but he rejected the deal in favour of being with his family at his home in Crewe.Bristol Rovers offered Jones a two-year deal in the summer, but he rejected the chance to join the League Two club because he felt it was too far to travel and he wanted to stay local to his family in Crewe. He was on trial with Conference National side Newport County in July 2011, however he was unable to agree a deal with the Welsh side and he signed for Conference North side Droylsden on 12 August. Jones scored on his debut for "The Bloods", netting the opening goal in the 2–2 draw against Eastwood Town on 13 August.After a short spell with Droylsden, Jones signed for Conference National side AFC Telford United on 18 November 2011. He made his debut the following day in the 0–0 draw against Mansfield Town, he came on for Craig Farrell after 61 minutes and almost scored with his first touch, but his effort was well saved by Mansfield goalkeeper Alan Marriott. On 26 November, he came off the bench in the 1–0 win against Barrow, replacing Sean Newton after 68 minutes and scoring his first goal for the club. He headed in a Richard Davies cross on 76 minutes to give "The Bucks" their first league win in 9 outings. He made his first start for the club in the 1–1 draw against Luton Town three days later. Jones scored in the 2–2 draw with Stockport County on 24 January 2012. In the 0–0 draw with Alfreton Town on 3 March, Jones suffered a knee ligament injury that would keep him out of action for up to six weeks. He made his return from injury on 17 April, coming on as a 68th-minute substitute in the 1–0 win against Tamworth. The win secured Telford's place in the Conference National for the following season. On 4 May, it was announced on Telford's website that Jones had agreed terms to a contract extension with the club.Prior to the 2012–13 season, Jones was allocated the number 10 squad number. On 11 August, he played in the opening game of the season, playing the whole 90 minutes in the 0–0 draw with Barrow. He scored his first goal of the season in the 3–0 league win against Southport on 1 September. On 9 October, Jones scored a brace in the 4–1 league win against Dartford. He followed that up by scoring both goals in Telford's 2–2 draw against Ebbsfleet United on 6 November. Jones was sent off on 10 November, he was dismissed for a late tackle on Greg Taylor in the 0–0 draw with Tamworth and was suspended for three games. On 15 December, Jones was sent off again in only his second game back from his suspension and was subsequently banned for a further four games. He was dismissed after being booked twice within a minute in the 3–1 FA Trophy second round defeat against King's Lynn Town, firstly for a dive in the penalty area and then for an off-the-ball barge on Jordan Yong. Jones suffered a serious eye injury in the league match against Mansfield Town on 2 March 2013, he temporarily lost the sight in his left eye after being struck in the face with a heavy clearance during the first half of the 1–0 defeat at Field Mill. It was later confirmed that Jones had suffered three haemorrhages in the eye, one in the iris and two in the retina, as well as severe bruising. His vision later returned after a course of eye drops and he returned to action the following week in the 2–0 league defeat by Macclesfield Town. Jones finished the season with 11 goals as Telford finished 24th in the league and were relegated to the Conference North. On 11 May, Telford announced on their website that they would not be offering Jones terms for the following season.On 22 May 2013, Jones signed for Welsh Premier League side Airbus UK Broughton. He said the lure of European football was a major factor in agreeing a deal with "The Wingmakers". On 4 July, Jones made his debut for Airbus, coming on as a 55th-minute substitute in the Europa League first qualifying round first leg against Latvian side FK Ventspils. The match, played at the Racecourse Ground in Wrexham, ended 1–1. He made his first start for the club in the second leg, having a first half goal disallowed as Airbus drew 0–0 at the Ventspils Olimpiskais Stadions, the result meaning the Welsh club were eliminated on away goals. He scored his first goal for the club on 26 August, netting the winning goal in the 2–1 league win at Bala Town. On 7 September, Jones scored two goals as Airbus thrashed Newtown 6–1 to register their fourth straight victory of the season. A week later, he was sent off for two bookable offences in the 2–2 draw at Rhyl, the first for impeding goalkeeper Alex Ramsey, and the second just a few minutes later for something he said to the referee. On 25 February 2014, Jones scored the third goal in Airbus' 4–2 league win at Bangor City. Overall, he made 27 appearances for the club, the last in the 1–1 draw with Newtown on 26 April, and scored 5 goals, helping "The Wingmakers" to their most successful league campaign ever.On 19 May 2014, Jones signed for Northern Premier League Premier Division side Nantwich Town. He made his debut on 16 August, playing 80 minutes in the 1–0 league win at Buxton. Steve, also scored the goal of the season in the Nantwich Town team and also won top goalscorer.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League Premier Division side Whitchurch Alport in the summer of 2019.Jones left Whitchurch in February 2020 to sign for North West Counties Football League Division One South side Alsager Town. He joined the club to be closer to his home in south Cheshire.Jones signed for North West Counties Football League First Division South side Sandbach United in the summer of 2020.Jones was called up to the England C national side in March 2001 after showing good form for Leigh RMI in the Conference. England manager John Owens selected Jones after Rushden & Diamonds winger Paul Underwood had to withdraw from the squad through injury. On 22 March, Jones started the 3–0 win against the Netherlands, however he had to come off after just 18-minutes after failing to fully recover from a bout of food poisoning. He earned a second cap in May 2001 when he scored in the 3–0 win against a Highland League Select in Inverness.Jones has won a total of 29 caps for Northern Ireland. He was first called up for the friendly match against Finland in February 2003, he replaced the injured Kevin Horlock in the squad before being an unused substitute in the 1–0 defeat on 14 February. In May 2003, he got his first taste of international football when he was called up for the B international match against Scotland Future. He started the game against Scotland and managed to get on the scoresheet in the 2–1 defeat on 20 May.After impressing in the B international match against Scotland, Jones was called up to the senior squad on 23 May for the friendly against Italy and the Euro 2004 qualifying match against Spain. He made his debut in the 2–0 defeat against Italy on 3 June, he replaced Paul McVeigh on the 55th minute and almost scored in the 76th minute, but his firm header was well saved by Francesco Toldo. On 11 June, Jones made his first start for his country against Spain at Windsor Park, he played 73 minutes on the way to helping Northern Ireland to a 0–0 draw.Jones was a regular in the squad over the next three years, often being used as a substitute. He scored his first goal for his country in a 2–0 friendly win against Saint Kitts and Nevis on 2 June 2004. He played in most of Northern Ireland's unsuccessful 2006 World Cup qualifying campaign and the early stages of their Euro 2008 qualifying campaign before falling out of favour within the selection process. His last cap was a substitute appearance in the 2–1 away defeat against Iceland during Euro 2008 qualifying.Jones is a fan of Manchester United as his son (Jarvis Jones) plays for United's youth squad having 3 official caps for the first team.
|
[
"Bray Wanderers A.F.C.",
"Droylsden F.C.",
"Motherwell F.C.",
"Crewe Alexandra F.C.",
"AFC Telford United",
"Bury F.C.",
"Blackpool F.C.",
"England national association football C team",
"Leigh Genesis F.C.",
"Walsall F.C.",
"Northern Ireland national association football team",
"Burnley F.C.",
"Rochdale A.F.C.",
"Nantwich Town F.C.",
"Chorley F.C.",
"Sligo Rovers F.C.",
"Northern Ireland B national football team",
"Bradford City A.F.C.",
"Huddersfield Town A.F.C."
] |
|
Which political party did Takeo Miki belong to in Jan, 1953?
|
January 07, 1953
|
{
"text": [
"Kaishintō"
]
}
|
L2_Q317675_P102_3
|
Takeo Miki is a member of the Kaishintō from Jan, 1952 to Jan, 1954.
Takeo Miki is a member of the National Democratic Party (Japan) from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1952.
Takeo Miki is a member of the National Cooperative Party from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1950.
Takeo Miki is a member of the Liberal Democratic Party from Jan, 1955 to Jan, 1988.
Takeo Miki is a member of the Japan Democratic Party from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1955.
Takeo Miki is a member of the Cooperative Democratic Party from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1947.
|
Takeo MikiBorn in Awa, Tokushima, Miki graduated from Meiji University in Tokyo. He attended the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, and was awarded an honorary doctorate in law from the institution in 1966.During 1937 Miki was elected to the Diet; he remained there for the rest of his life, winning re-election no fewer than 19 times over 51 years. In the 1942 general election he openly voiced opposition to the military government under Hideki Tojo and still managed to win a seat; his efforts at this time were assisted by Kan Abe, the grandfather of Prime Minister Shinzō Abe.Miki took over from Kakuei Tanaka as Prime Minister on 9 December 1974, following the latter's implication in the corruption concerning real-estate and construction companies. The attractiveness of Miki to the LDP bosses was chiefly due to his personal integrity, and his weak power base from his small faction. In fact, Miki had neither expected nor wanted to be prime minister at all, as was reflected when upon his election he murmured "a bolt from the blue".While Miki was at the funeral of ex-PM Eisaku Sato in 1975, he was assaulted by a right-wing extremist: Hiroyoshi Fudeyasu, the secretary-general of the Great Japan Patriotic Party with foreign dignitaries nearby. This caused criticism of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police over not doing enough to ensure his safety.After being elected, Miki attempted to reform the LDP, relentlessly investigating the Lockheed bribery scandals, which made him a large number of enemies within the party. A campaign literally called "Down with Miki" ("Miki oroshi") was started by influential faction leaders. Despite Miki's personal popularity with the public, the Lockheed scandal reflected poorly on the party, which lost its overall majority in the 1976 election to the Diet and had to make deals with minor parties to remain in power. Embarrassed by the result, Miki resigned and was succeeded on 24 December 1976, by Takeo Fukuda.In Mao Zedong's final days, he took a great interest in Miki's political condition, as Miki was suffering a coup d'état from amongst his own party. Mao had never shown any interest in Miki before, or even mentioned him.He held many other posts during his career in addition to being prime minister.NFL player Takeo Spikes was named after Miki.During his time in Seattle, Miki spent a period as a dishwasher at noted Japanese restaurant Maneki.To commemorate the ties of Japan to America, and Seattle in particular, Miki gave 1,000 cherry trees to Seattle to commemorate the United States Bicentennial in 1976. This gift gave birth to the , still running annually.In Hong Kong, the name "Takeo Miki" (三木武夫) is sometimes used to describe actors or actresses with wooden or no emotional expressions during movies or TV dramas. Some have said that the origin for the slang term stems from Miki's wooden expression during his appearance in news reports.
|
[
"National Democratic Party (Japan)",
"Cooperative Democratic Party",
"Japan Democratic Party",
"Liberal Democratic Party",
"National Cooperative Party"
] |
|
Which political party did Takeo Miki belong to in 1953-01-07?
|
January 07, 1953
|
{
"text": [
"Kaishintō"
]
}
|
L2_Q317675_P102_3
|
Takeo Miki is a member of the Kaishintō from Jan, 1952 to Jan, 1954.
Takeo Miki is a member of the National Democratic Party (Japan) from Jan, 1950 to Jan, 1952.
Takeo Miki is a member of the National Cooperative Party from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1950.
Takeo Miki is a member of the Liberal Democratic Party from Jan, 1955 to Jan, 1988.
Takeo Miki is a member of the Japan Democratic Party from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1955.
Takeo Miki is a member of the Cooperative Democratic Party from Jan, 1946 to Jan, 1947.
|
Takeo MikiBorn in Awa, Tokushima, Miki graduated from Meiji University in Tokyo. He attended the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, and was awarded an honorary doctorate in law from the institution in 1966.During 1937 Miki was elected to the Diet; he remained there for the rest of his life, winning re-election no fewer than 19 times over 51 years. In the 1942 general election he openly voiced opposition to the military government under Hideki Tojo and still managed to win a seat; his efforts at this time were assisted by Kan Abe, the grandfather of Prime Minister Shinzō Abe.Miki took over from Kakuei Tanaka as Prime Minister on 9 December 1974, following the latter's implication in the corruption concerning real-estate and construction companies. The attractiveness of Miki to the LDP bosses was chiefly due to his personal integrity, and his weak power base from his small faction. In fact, Miki had neither expected nor wanted to be prime minister at all, as was reflected when upon his election he murmured "a bolt from the blue".While Miki was at the funeral of ex-PM Eisaku Sato in 1975, he was assaulted by a right-wing extremist: Hiroyoshi Fudeyasu, the secretary-general of the Great Japan Patriotic Party with foreign dignitaries nearby. This caused criticism of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police over not doing enough to ensure his safety.After being elected, Miki attempted to reform the LDP, relentlessly investigating the Lockheed bribery scandals, which made him a large number of enemies within the party. A campaign literally called "Down with Miki" ("Miki oroshi") was started by influential faction leaders. Despite Miki's personal popularity with the public, the Lockheed scandal reflected poorly on the party, which lost its overall majority in the 1976 election to the Diet and had to make deals with minor parties to remain in power. Embarrassed by the result, Miki resigned and was succeeded on 24 December 1976, by Takeo Fukuda.In Mao Zedong's final days, he took a great interest in Miki's political condition, as Miki was suffering a coup d'état from amongst his own party. Mao had never shown any interest in Miki before, or even mentioned him.He held many other posts during his career in addition to being prime minister.NFL player Takeo Spikes was named after Miki.During his time in Seattle, Miki spent a period as a dishwasher at noted Japanese restaurant Maneki.To commemorate the ties of Japan to America, and Seattle in particular, Miki gave 1,000 cherry trees to Seattle to commemorate the United States Bicentennial in 1976. This gift gave birth to the , still running annually.In Hong Kong, the name "Takeo Miki" (三木武夫) is sometimes used to describe actors or actresses with wooden or no emotional expressions during movies or TV dramas. Some have said that the origin for the slang term stems from Miki's wooden expression during his appearance in news reports.
|
[
"National Democratic Party (Japan)",
"Cooperative Democratic Party",
"Japan Democratic Party",
"Liberal Democratic Party",
"National Cooperative Party"
] |
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