Datasets:

---

nkasmanoff

/

wikipedia-earthquakes

like 0

17901805

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Sichuan%20earthquake

2008 Sichuan earthquake

An earthquake occurred in the province of Sichuan, China at 14:28:01 China Standard Time on May 12, 2008. Measuring at 8.0 (7.9 ), the earthquake's epicenter was located west-northwest of Chengdu, the provincial capital, with a focal depth of . The earthquake ruptured the fault for over , with surface displacements of several meters. The earthquake was also felt as far away as both Beijing and Shanghai— away, respectively—where office buildings swayed with the tremor, as well as Bangkok, Thailand and Hanoi, Vietnam. Strong aftershocks, some exceeding 6 , continued to hit the area up to several months after the main shock, causing further casualties and damage. The earthquake also caused the largest number of geohazards ever recorded, including about 200,000 landslides and more than 800 quake lakes distributed over an area of . Over 69,000 people lost their lives in the quake, including 68,636 in Sichuan province. 374,176 were reported injured, with 18,222 listed as missing as of July 2008. The geohazards triggered by the earthquake are thought to be responsible for at least one third of the death toll. The earthquake left at least 4.8 million people homeless, though the number could be as high as 11 million. Approximately 15 million people lived in the affected area. It was the deadliest earthquake to hit China since the 1976 Tangshan earthquake, which killed at least 242,000 people, and the strongest in the country since the 1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake, which registered at 8.6 . It is the 18th deadliest earthquake of all time. On November 6, 2008, the central government announced that it would spend 1 trillion RMB (about US$146.5 billion) over the next three years to rebuild areas ravaged by the earthquake, as part of the Chinese economic stimulus program. Geology According to a study by the China Earthquake Administration (CEA), the earthquake occurred along the Longmenshan Fault, a thrust structure along the border of the Indo-Australian Plate and Eurasian Plate. Seismic activities concentrated on its mid-fracture (known as Yingxiu-Beichuan fracture). The rupture lasted close to 120 seconds, with the majority of energy released in the first 80 seconds. Starting from Wenchuan, the rupture propagated at an average speed of , 49° toward north east, rupturing a total of about . Maximum displacement amounted to . The focus was deeper than . In a United States Geological Survey (USGS) study, preliminary rupture models of the earthquake indicated displacement of up to along a fault approximately long by deep. The earthquake generated deformations of the surface greater than and increased the stress (and probability of occurrence of future events) at the northeastern and southwestern ends of the fault. On May 20, USGS seismologist Tom Parsons warned that there is "high risk" of a major M>7 aftershock over the next couple weeks or months. Japanese seismologist Yuji Yagi at the University of Tsukuba said that the earthquake occurred in more than 1 stage: "The 250-kilometre (155 mi) Longmenshan Fault tore in two sections, the first one ripping about 6.5 metres (7 yd) followed by a second one that sheared 3.5 metres (4 yd)." His data also showed that the earthquake lasted about two minutes and released 30 times the energy of the Great Hanshin earthquake of 1995 in Japan, which killed over 6,000 people. He pointed out that the shallowness of the hypocenter and the density of population greatly increased the severity of the earthquake. Teruyuki Kato, a seismologist at the University of Tokyo, said that the seismic waves of the quake traveled a long distance without losing their power because of the firmness of the terrain in central China. According to reports from Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan province, the earthquake tremors lasted for "about two or three minutes". Tectonics The extent of the earthquake and after shock-affected areas lying north-east, along the Longmen Shan fault. The Longmen Shan Fault System is situated in the eastern border of the Tibetan Plateau and contains several faults. This earthquake ruptured at least two imbricate structures in Longmen Shan Fault System, i.e. the Beichuan Fault and the Guanxian–Anxian Fault. In the epicentral area, the average slip in Beichuan Fault was about vertical, horizontal-parallel to the fault, and horizontal-perpendicular to the fault. In the area about northeast of the epicenter, the surface slip on Beichuan Fault was almost purely dextral strike-slip up to about , while the average slip in Guanxian–Anxian Fault was about vertical and horizontal. According to CEA: "The energy source of the Wenchuan earthquake and Longmenshan's southeast push came from the strike of the Indian Plate onto the Eurasian Plate and its northward push. The inter-plate relative motion caused large scale structural deformation inside the Asian continent, resulting in a thinning crust of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the uplift of its landscape and an eastward extrude. Near the Sichuan Basin, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau's east-northward movement meets with strong resistance from the South China Block, causing a high degree of stress accumulation in the Longmenshan thrust formation. This finally caused a sudden dislocation in the Yingxiu-Beichuan fracture, leading to the violent earthquake of 8.0." According to the United States Geological Survey: The earthquake occurred as the result of motion on a northeast striking reverse fault or thrust fault on the northwestern margin of the Sichuan Basin. The earthquake's epicenter and focal-mechanism are consistent with it having occurred as the result of movement on the Longmenshan Fault or a tectonically related fault. The earthquake reflects tectonic stresses resulting from the convergence of crustal material slowly moving from the high Tibetan Plateau, to the west, against strong crust underlying the Sichuan Basin and southeastern China. On a continental scale, the seismicity of central and eastern Asia is a result of northward convergence of the Indian Plate against the Eurasian Plate with a velocity of about . The convergence of the two plates is broadly accommodated by the uplift of the Asian highlands and by the motion of crustal material to the east away from the uplifted Tibetan Plateau. The northwestern margin of the Sichuan Basin has previously experienced destructive earthquakes. The magnitude 7.5 earthquake of August 25, 1933, killed more than 9,300 people. According to the British Geological Survey: The earthquake occurred northwest of the city of Chengdu in eastern Sichuan province and over from Beijing, where it was also strongly felt. Earthquakes of this size have the potential to cause extensive damage and loss of life. The epicenter was in the mountains of the Eastern Margin of Qing-Tibet Plateau at the northwest margin of the Sichuan Basin. The earthquake occurred as a result of motion on a northeast striking thrust fault that runs along the margin of the basin. The seismicity of central and eastern Asia is caused by the northward movement of the India plate at a rate of and its collision with Eurasia, resulting in the uplift of the Himalaya and Tibetan plateaux and associated earthquake activity. This deformation also results in the extrusion of crustal material from the high Tibetan Plateaux in the west towards the Sichuan Basin and southeastern China. China frequently suffers large and deadly earthquakes. In August 1933, the magnitude 7.5 Diexi earthquake, about northeast of today's earthquake, destroyed the town of Diexi and surrounding villages, and caused many landslides, some of which dammed the rivers. Intensities and damage area The map of earthquake intensity published by CEA after surveying of the affected area shows a maximum liedu of XI on the China Seismic Intensity Scale (CSIS), described as "very destructive" on the European Macroseismic Scale (EMS) from which CSIS drew reference. (USGS, using the Modified Mercalli intensity scale (CC), also placed maximum intensity at XI, "extreme".) Two south-west-north-east stripes of liedu XI are centered around Yingxiu, Wenchuan (the town closest to the epicenter of the main quake) and Beichuan (the town repeatedly struck by strong aftershocks including one registering 6.1 on August 1, 2008), both in Sichuan Province, occupying a total of . The Yingxiu liedu-XI zone is about long and wide along Wenchuan–Dujiangyan–Pengzhou; the Beichuan liedu-XI zone is about long and wide along An County–Beichuan–Pingwu. The area with liedu X (comparable to X on EMS, "destructive" and X on MM, "disastrous") spans . The area affected by earthquakes exceeding liedu VI totals , occupying an oval long and wide, spanning three provinces and one autonomous region. QLARM (Quake Loss Alarms for Response and Mitigation) issues near-real-time estimates of fatalities and number of injured for earthquakes worldwide. Recent alerts can be found on the web page of the International Institute for Earth Simulation Foundation. Such an alert was issued 21 minutes after the May 12 Wenchuan earthquake of 2008. It had at first been assigned M7.5, internationally. This initial underestimate of the magnitude is a known problem with earthquakes of M8 and larger. Based on the M7.5 information, QLARM distributed an email to about 300 recipients estimating that 1,000 to 4,000 fatalities had occurred. After learning that the earthquake may measure M8, QLARM distributed a revised estimate of 40,000 to 100,000 fatalities. This information was distributed within 100 minutes of the Wenchuan earthquake. The news and official reports of fatalities are often strongly misleading. After the Wenchuan earthquake, officials led the public to believe for more than a week that the fatalities numbered only a fraction of what they really were (Figure 1). At the very beginning, everyone expects the news reports to be an initial count that will grow, not however, after one week. After such a long time, the false news reports take on a reality in their own right and the theoretical loss calculations by experts are discarded. Once the extent of the rupture of the Wenchuan earthquake became known, QLARM calculated a more detail picture of the losses. Figure 2 shows a map of the expected mean damage of the settlements affected by the Wenchuan earthquake on a scale of 5. The resistance to shaking of buildings in large cities is assumed to be stronger than in villages, therefore the damage and percentage of fatalities in large cities is less than in villages. Aftershocks Between 64 and 104 major aftershocks, ranging in magnitude from 4.0 to 6.1, were recorded within 72 hours of the main quake. According to Chinese official counts, "by 12:00 CST, November 6, 2008, there had been 42,719 total aftershocks, of which 246 ranged from 4.0 to 4.9 , 34 from 5.0 to 5.9 , and 8 from 6.0 to 6.4 ; the strongest aftershock measured 6.4 ." The latest aftershock exceeding M6 occurred on August 5, 2008. (The  6.1 earthquake on August 30, 2008, in southern Sichuan was not part of this series because it was caused by a different fault. See 2008 Panzhihua earthquake for details.) Damage and casualties The earthquake had a magnitude of 8.0 . and 7.9 . The epicenter was in Wenchuan County, Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, west/northwest of the provincial capital of Chengdu, with its main tremor occurring at 14:28:01.42 China Standard Time (06:28:01.42 UTC), on May 12, 2008, lasting for around two minutes; in the quake almost 80% of buildings were destroyed. Extent of the tremors Places ordered by distance from epicenter (or time of propagation): : All provincial-level divisions except Xinjiang, Jilin and Heilongjiang were physically affected by the quake. : Tremors were felt approximately three minutes after the quake, continuing for about half a minute. This was also the most distant earthquake known ever to be felt in Hong Kong. The intensity reached MMI III in Hong Kong. : Tremors were felt approximately three minutes after the quake. : Tremors were felt approximately five minutes after the earthquake in northern parts of Vietnam. The intensity was MMI III in Hanoi. : In parts of Thailand tremors were felt six minutes after the quake. Office buildings in Bangkok swayed for the next several minutes. : It took about eight minutes for the quake to reach Taiwan, where the tremors continued for one to two minutes; no damage or injuries were reported. The intensity was MM III in Taipei. : Tremors were felt approximately eight minutes after the earthquake in parts of Mongolia. : Tremors were felt eight and a half minutes after the quake in all parts of Bangladesh. : Tremors were felt approximately eight and a half minutes after the quake. : Tremors were felt approximately nine minutes after the earthquake in parts of India. : In parts of Northern Pakistan tremors were felt ten minutes after the quake. : Tremors were felt in Tuva, no casualties reported. : Tremors were felt in Kachin after ten minutes and in Shan after 13 minutes. Immediate aftermath Office buildings in Shanghai's financial district, including the Jin Mao Tower and the Hong Kong New World Tower, were evacuated. A receptionist at the Tibet Hotel in Chengdu said things were "calm" after the hotel evacuated its guests. Meanwhile, workers at a Ford plant in Sichuan were evacuated for about 10 minutes. Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport was shut down, and the control tower and regional radar control evacuated. One SilkAir flight was diverted and landed in Kunming as a result. Cathay Pacific delayed both legs of its quadruple daily Hong Kong to London route due to this disruption in air traffic services. Chengdu Shuangliu Airport reopened later on the evening of May 12, offering limited service as the airport began to be used as a staging area for relief operations. Reporters in Chengdu said they saw cracks on walls of some residential buildings in the downtown areas, but no buildings collapsed. Many Beijing office towers were evacuated, including the building housing the media offices for the organizers of the 2008 Summer Olympics. None of the Olympic venues were damaged. Meanwhile, a cargo train carrying 13 petrol tanks derailed in Hui County, Gansu, and caught on fire after the rail was distorted. All of the highways into Wenchuan, and others throughout the province, were damaged, resulting in delayed arrival of the rescue troops. In Beichuan County, 80% of the buildings collapsed according to Xinhua News. In the city of Shifang, the collapse of two chemical plants led to leakage of some 80 tons of liquid ammonia, with hundreds of people reported buried. In the city of Dujiangyan, south-east of the epicenter, a whole school collapsed with 900 students buried and fewer than 60 survived. The Juyuan Middle School, where many teenagers were buried, was excavated by civilians and cranes. Dujiangyan is home of the Dujiangyan Irrigation System, an ancient water diversion project which is still in use and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The project's famous Fish Mouth was cracked but not severely damaged otherwise. Both the Shanghai Stock Exchange and the Shenzhen Stock Exchange suspended trading of companies based in southwestern China. Copper rose over speculations that production in southwestern China may be affected, and oil prices dropped over speculations that demand from China would fall. Immediately after the earthquake event, mobile and terrestrial telecommunications were cut to the affected and surrounding area, with all internet capabilities cut to the Sichuan area too. Elements of telecommunications were restored by the government piece by piece over the next number of months as the situation in the Sichuan province gradually improved. Eventually, a handful of major news and media websites were made accessible online in the region, albeit with dramatically pared back webpages. China Mobile had more than 2,300 base stations suspended due to power disruption or severe telecommunication traffic congestion. Half of the wireless communications were lost in the Sichuan province. China Unicom's service in Wenchuan and four nearby counties was cut off, with more than 700 towers suspended. Initially, officials were unable to contact the Wolong National Nature Reserve, home to around 280 giant pandas. However, the Foreign Ministry later said that a group of 31 British tourists visiting the Wolong Panda Reserve in the quake-hit area returned safe and uninjured to Chengdu. Nonetheless, the well-being of an even greater number of pandas in the neighbouring panda reserves remained unknown. Five security guards at the reserve were killed by the earthquake. Six pandas escaped after their enclosures were damaged. By May 20, two pandas at the reserve were found to be injured, while the search continued for another two adult pandas that went missing after the quake. By May 28, 2008, one panda was still missing. The missing panda was later found dead under the rubble of an enclosure. Nine-year-old Mao Mao, a mother of five at the breeding center, was discovered on June 9, her body crushed by a wall in her enclosure. Panda keepers and other workers placed her remains in a small wooden crate and buried her outside the breeding centre. The Zipingpu Hydropower Plant located east of the epicenter was damaged. A recent inspection indicated that the damage was less severe than initially feared, and it remains structurally stable and safe. However, the Tulong reservoir upstream is in danger of collapse. About 2,000 troops have been allocated to Zipingpu, trying to release the pressure through spillway. In total, 391 dams, most of them small, were reported damaged by the quake. Casualties According to Chinese state officials, the quake caused 69,180 known deaths including 68,636 in Sichuan province; 18,498 people are listed as missing, and 374,176 injured. This estimate includes 158 earthquake relief workers who were killed in landslides as they tried to repair roads. One rescue team reported only 2,300 survivors from the town of Yingxiu in Wenchuan County, out of a total population of about 9,000. 3,000 to 5,000 people were killed in Beichuan County, Sichuan alone; in the same location, 10,000 people were injured and 80% of the buildings were destroyed. The old county seat of Beichuan was abandoned and preserved as part of the Beichuan Earthquake Museum. Eight schools were toppled in Dujiangyan. A 56-year-old was killed in Dujiangyan during a rescue attempt on the Lingyanshan Ropeway, where due to the earthquake 11 tourists from Taiwan had been trapped inside cable cars since May 13. A 4-year-old boy named Zhu Shaowei () was also killed in Mianzhu when a house collapsed on him and another was reported missing. Experts point out that the earthquake hit an area that has been largely neglected and untouched by China's economic rise. Health care is poor in inland areas such as Sichuan, highlighting the widening gap between prosperous urban dwellers and struggling rural people. Vice Minister of Health Gao Qiang told reporters in Beijing that the "public health care system in China is insufficient." The Vice Minister of Health also suggested that the government would pick up the costs of care to earthquake victims, many of whom have little or no insurance: "The government should be responsible for providing medical treatment to them," he said. In terms of school casualties, thousands of school children died due to shoddy construction. In Mianyang City, seven schools collapsed, burying at least 1,700 people. At least 7,000 school buildings throughout the province collapsed. Another 700 students were buried in a school in Hanwang. At least 600 students and staff died at Juyuan Elementary School. Up to 1,300 children and teachers died at Beichuan Middle School. According to Tan Zuoren, 5,600 pupils were dead or missing from the 64 schools Tan investigated in the quake zone. Tan was detained after he published such a casualties number. Tang Xuemei was in a school dormitory building during the earthquake. She was trapped for 28 hours before being rescued. Her left leg had to be amputated. She became a Paralympic sitting volleyball player and became Paralympic champion in 2012 winning the silver medal at the 2020 Summer Paralympics. Details of school casualties had been under non-governmental investigation since December 2008 by volunteers including artist and architect Ai Weiwei, who had been constantly posting updates on his blog since March 2009. The official tally of students killed in the earthquake was not released until May 7, 2009, almost a year after the earthquake. According to the state-run Xinhua news agency, the earthquake killed 5,335 students and left another 546 children disabled. Some parents believe the real figure is twice that officially cited. The executive vice governor of Sichuan Wei Hong said the student death toll is 19,065. Mr. Wei noted the toll was incomplete as the officials were still tallying the final number. In the aftermath of the earthquake, the Chinese government declared that parents who had lost their only children would get free treatment from fertility clinics to reverse vasectomies and tubal ligations conducted by family planning authorities. Property damage The earthquake left at least 5 million people without housing, although the number could be as high as 11 million. Millions of livestock and a significant amount of agriculture were also destroyed, including 12.5 million animals, mainly birds. In the Sichuan province a million pigs died out of 60 million total. Catastrophe modeling firm AIR Worldwide reported official estimates of insurers' losses at US$1 billion from the earthquake; estimated total damage exceeded US$20 billion. It values Chengdu, at the time having an urban population of 4.5 million people, at around US$115 billion, with only a small portion covered by insurance. Reginald DesRoches, a professor of civil and environmental engineering at Georgia Tech, pointed out that the massive damage of properties and houses in the earthquake area was because China did not create an adequate seismic design code until after the devastating 1976 Tangshan earthquake. DesRoches said: "If the buildings were older and built prior to that 1976 earthquake, chances are they weren't built for adequate earthquake forces." In the days following the disaster, an international reconnaissance team of engineers was dispatched to the region to make a detailed preliminary survey of damaged buildings. Their findings show a variety of reasons why many constructions failed to withstand the earthquake. News reports indicate that the poorer, rural villages were hardest hit. Swaminathan Krishnan, assistant professor of civil engineering and geophysics at the California Institute of Technology said: "the earthquake occurred in the rural part of China. Presumably, many of the buildings were just built; they were not designed, so to speak." Swaminathan Krishnan further added: "There are very strong building codes in China, which take care of earthquake issues and seismic design issues. But many of these buildings presumably were quite old and probably were not built with any regulations overseeing them." Later casualties Strong aftershocks continued to strike even months after the main quake. On May 25, an aftershock of 6.0  (6.4  according to CEA) hit northeast of the original earthquake's epicenter, in Qingchuan County, Sichuan, causing eight deaths, 1,000 injuries, and destroying thousands of buildings. On May 27, two aftershocks, one 5.2  in Qingchuan County and one 5.7 in Ningqiang County, Shaanxi, led to the collapse of more than 420,000 homes and injured 63 people. The same area suffered two more aftershocks of 5.6 and 6.0  (5.8 and 5.5 , respectively, according to USGS) on July 23, resulting in 1 death, 6 serious injuries, the collapse of hundreds of homes and damaging kilometers of highways. Pingwu County and Beichuan County, Sichuan, also northeast of Wenchuan and close to the epicenter of another earthquake in 1976, suffered a 6.1  aftershock (5.7  according to USGS) on August 1; it caused 2 deaths, 345 injuries, the collapse of 707 homes, damage to over 1,000 homes, and blocked of country roads. As late as August 5, yet another aftershock of 6.1  (6.2  according to USGS) hit Qingchuan, Sichuan, causing 1 death, 32 injuries, telecommunication interruptions, and widespread hill slides blocking roads in the area including a national highway. Government data Executive vice governor Wei Hong confirmed on November 21, 2008, that more than 90,000 people in total were dead or missing in the earthquake. He stated that 200,000 homes had been rebuilt, and 685,000 were under reconstruction, but 1.94 million households were still without permanent shelter. 1,300 schools had been reconstructed, with initial relocation of 25 townships, including Beichuan and Wenchuan, two of the most devastated areas. The government spent $441 billion on relief and reconstruction efforts. Rescue efforts General Secretary and President Hu Jintao announced that the disaster response would be rapid. Just 90 minutes after the earthquake, Premier Wen Jiabao, who has an academic background in geomechanics, flew to the earthquake area to oversee the rescue work. Soon afterward, the Ministry of Health stated that it had sent ten emergency medical teams to Wenchuan County. On the same day, the Chengdu Military Region Command dispatched 50,000 troops and armed police to help with disaster relief work in Wenchuan County. However, due to the rough terrain and close proximity of the quake's epicenter, the soldiers found it very difficult to get help to the rural regions of the province. Premier Wen ordered the People's Liberation Army by saying, "It is the people who have raised you. It's up to you to see what to do! Even if it means walking on foot, you must nonetheless walk in there anyways. (Chinese:是人民养育了你们, 你们自己看着办! 你们就是靠双腿走, 也要给我走进去)" However, PLA commander Guo Boxiong only listened to Jiang Zemin's order, neither Wen Jiabao's or Hu Jintao's. The first 72 critical rescue hours were wasted. The New York Times reported "the troops were unprepared to save lives in the first 72 hours, when thousands were buried under toppled masonry and every minute mattered." The National Disaster Relief Commission initiated a "Level II emergency contingency plan", which covers the most serious class of natural disasters. The plan rose to Level I at 22:15 CST, May 12. An earthquake emergency relief team of 184 people (consisting of 12 people from the State Seismological Bureau, 150 from the Beijing Military Area Command, and 22 from the Armed Police General Hospital) left Beijing from Nanyuan Airport late May 12 in two military transport planes to travel to Wenchuan County. Many rescue teams, including that of the Taipei Fire Department from Taiwan, were reported ready to join the rescue effort in Sichuan as early as Wednesday. However, the Red Cross Society of China said that (on May 13) "it was inconvenient currently due to the traffic problem to the hardest hit areas closest to the epicenter." The Red Cross Society of China also stated that the disaster areas need tents, medical supplies, drinking water and food; however it recommended donating cash instead of other items, as it had not been possible to reach roads that were completely damaged or places that were blocked off by landslides. Landslides continuously threatened the progress of a search and rescue group of 80 men, each carrying about 40 kg of relief supplies, from a motorized infantry brigade under commander Yang Wenyao, as they tried to reach the ethnically Tibetan village of Sier at a height of 4000 m above sea level in Pingwu county. The extreme terrain conditions precluded the use of helicopter evacuation, and over 300 of the Tibetan villagers were stranded in their demolished village for five days without food and water before the rescue group finally arrived to help the injured and stranded villagers down the mountain. Persistent heavy rain and landslides in Wenchuan County and the nearby area badly affected rescue efforts. At the start of rescue operations on May 12, 20 helicopters were deployed for the delivery of food, water, and emergency aid, and also the evacuation of the injured and reconnaissance of quake-stricken areas. By 17:37 CST on May 13, a total of over 15,600 troops and militia reservists from the Chengdu Military Region had joined the rescue force in the heavily affected areas. A commander reported from Yingxiu Town, Wenchuan, that around 3,000 survivors were found, while the status of the other inhabitants (around 9,000) remained unclear. The 1,300 rescuers reached the epicenter, and 300 pioneer troops reached the seat of Wenchuan at about 23:30 CST. By 12:17 CST, May 14, 2008, communication in the seat of Wenchuan was partly revived. On the afternoon of May 14, 15 Special Operations Troops, along with relief supplies and communications gear, parachuted into inaccessible Mao County, northeast of Wenchuan. By May 15, Premier Wen Jiabao ordered the deployment of an additional 90 helicopters, of which 60 were to be provided by the PLAAF, and 30 were to be provided by the civil aviation industry, bringing the total number of aircraft deployed in relief operations by the air force, army, and civil aviation to over 150, resulting in the largest non-combat airlifting operation in People's Liberation Army history. Beijing accepted the aid of the Tzu Chi Foundation from Taiwan late on May 13. Tzu Chi was the first force from outside the People's Republic of China to join the rescue effort. China stated it would gratefully accept international help to cope with the quake. A direct chartered cargo flight was made by China Airlines from Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport to Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport sending some 100 tons of relief supplies donated by the Tzu Chi Foundation and the Red Cross Society of Taiwan to the affected areas. Approval from mainland Chinese authorities was sought, and the chartered flight departed Taipei at 17:00 CST, May 15 and arrived in Chengdu by 20:30 CST. A rescue team from the Red Cross in Taiwan was also scheduled to depart Taipei on a Mandarin Airlines direct chartered flight to Chengdu at 15:00 CST on May 16. Francis Marcus of the International Federation of the Red Cross praised the Chinese rescue effort as "swift and very efficient" in Beijing on Tuesday. But he added the scale of the disaster was such that "we can't expect that the government can do everything and handle every aspect of the needs". The Economist noted that China reacted to the disaster "rapidly and with uncharacteristic openness", contrasting it with Burma's secretive response to Cyclone Nargis, which devastated that country 10 days before the earthquake. On May 16, rescue groups from South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Russia and Taiwan arrived to join the rescue effort. The United States shared some of its satellite images of the quake-stricken areas with Chinese authorities. During the weekend, the US sent into China two U.S. Air Force C-17's carrying supplies, which included tents and generators. Xinhua had reported a total of more than 100,000 Chinese troops, medics, and volunteers from other provinces that were involved in the rescue effort across 58 counties and cities in Sichuan. The Internet was extensively used for passing information to aid rescue and recovery efforts. For example, the official news agency Xinhua set up an online rescue request center in order to find the blind spots of disaster recovery. After knowing that rescue helicopters had trouble landing into the epicenter area in Wenchuan, a student proposed a landing spot online and it was chosen as the first touchdown place for the helicopters. Volunteers also set up several websites to help store contact information for victims and evacuees. On May 31, a rescue helicopter carrying earthquake survivors and crew members crashed in fog and turbulence in Wenchuan county. No-one survived. Rescue efforts performed by the Chinese government were praised by western media, especially in comparison with Myanmar's blockage of foreign aid during Cyclone Nargis, as well as China's previous performance during the 1976 Tangshan earthquake. China's openness during the media coverage of the Sichuan earthquake led a professor at the Peking University to say, "This is the first time [that] the Chinese media has lived up to international standards". Los Angeles Times praised China's media coverage of the quake of being "democratic". Rescue efforts also came from Jet Li's One Foundation which saw the martial arts actor Wu Jing assisting in the efforts. In Tuanshan Village, Longmenshan Town, Pengzhou, the Strong-Willed Pig was rescued suffering only skin trauma after being buried under rubble for 36 days. The pig had survived off rainwater and charcoal, but lost 100 kg from its original 150 kg weight. The Jianchuan Museum bought the pig from its original owner and gave the pig a new home on the museum premises. The pig became famous nationwide as it "illustrated the spirit of never giving up." "Quake lakes" As a result of the earthquake and the many strong aftershocks, many rivers became blocked by large landslides, which resulted in the formation of "quake lakes" behind the blockages; these massive amounts of water were pooling up at a very high rate behind the natural landslide dams and it was feared that the blockages would eventually crumble under the weight of the ever-increasing water mass, potentially endangering the lives of millions of people living downstream. As of May 27, 2008, 34 lakes had formed due to earthquake debris blocking and damming rivers, and it was estimated that 28 of them were still of potential danger to the local people. Entire villages had to be evacuated because of the resultant flooding. The most precarious of these quake-lakes was the one located in the extremely difficult terrain at Mount Tangjia in Beichuan County, Sichuan, accessible only by foot or air; an Mi-26T heavy lift helicopter belonging to the China Flying Dragon Special Aviation Company was used to bring heavy earthmoving tractors to the affected location. This operation was coupled with the work done by PLAAF Mi-17 helicopters bringing in PLA engineering corps, explosive specialists and other personnel to join 1,200 soldiers who arrived on site by foot. Five tons of fuel to operate the machinery was airlifted to the site, where a sluice was constructed to allow the safe discharge of the bottle-necked water. Downstream, more than 200,000 people were evacuated from Mianyang by June 1 in anticipation of the dam bursting. Domestic reactions The State Council declared a three-day period of national mourning for the quake victims starting from May 19, 2008; the PRC's National Flag and Regional Flags of Hong Kong and Macau Special Administrative Regions flown at half mast. It was the first time that a national mourning period had been declared for something other than the death of a state leader, and many have called it the biggest display of mourning since the death of Mao Zedong. At 14:28 CST on May 19, 2008, a week after the earthquake, the Chinese public held a moment of silence. People stood silent for three minutes while air defense, police and fire sirens, and the horns of vehicles, vessels and trains sounded. Cars and trucks on Beijing's roads also came to a halt. People spontaneously burst into cheering "Zhongguo jiayou!" (Let's go, China!) and "Sichuan jiayou" (Let's go, Sichuan!) afterwards. The Ningbo Organizing Committee of the Beijing Olympic torch relay announced that the relay, scheduled to take place in Ningbo during national mourning, would be suspended for the duration of the mourning period. The route of the torch through the country was scaled down, and there was a minute of silence when the next leg started in city of Ruijin, Jiangxi on the Wednesday after the quake. Many websites converted their home page to black and white; Sina.com and Sohu, major internet portals, limited their homepages to news items and removed all advertisements. Chinese video sharing websites Youku and Tudou displayed a black background and placed multiple videos showing earthquake footage and news reports. The Chinese version of MSN, cn.msn.com, also displayed banner ads about the earthquake and the relief efforts. Other entertainment websites, including various gaming sites, such as the Chinese servers for World of Warcraft, had shut down altogether, or had corresponding links to earthquake donations. After the moments of silence, in Tiananmen Square, crowds spontaneously burst out cheering various slogans, including "Long Live China". Casinos in Macau closed down. All Mainland Chinese television stations (along with some stations in Hong Kong and expatriate communities) cancelled all regularly-scheduled programming, displayed their logo in grayscale, and replaced their cancelled programmes with live earthquake footage from CCTV-1 for multiple days after the quake. Even pay television channels (such as Channel V) had their programmes suspended. On the evening of May 18, CCTV-1 hosted a special four-hour program called The Giving of Love (), hosted by regulars from the CCTV New Year's Gala and round-the-clock coverage anchor Bai Yansong. It was attended by a wide range of entertainment, literary, business and political figures from mainland China, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan. Donations of the evening totalled 1.5 billion Chinese Yuan (~US$208 million). Of the donations, CCTV gave the biggest corporate contribution at ¥50 million. Almost at the same time in Taiwan, a similarly themed programme was on air hosted by the sitting president Ma Ying-jeou. In June, Hong Kong actor Jackie Chan, who donated $1.57 million to the victims, made a music video alongside other artists entitled "Promise"; the song was composed by Andy Lau. The Artistes 512 Fund Raising Campaign, an 8-hour fundraising marathon, was held on June 1 in Hong Kong; it was attended by some 200 Sinosphere musicians and celebrities. In Singapore, MediaCorp Channel 8 hosted a 'live' programme 让爱川流不息 to raise funds for the victims. Collapse of schoolhouses Although the Chinese government was initially praised for its response to the quake (especially in comparison to Myanmar's ruling military junta's blockade of aid during Cyclone Nargis), it then saw an erosion in confidence over the school construction scandal. The central government estimates that over 7,000 inadequately engineered schoolrooms collapsed in the earthquake. Chinese citizens have since invented a catch phrase: "tofu-dregs schoolhouses" (), to mock both the quality and the quantity of these inferior constructions that killed so many school children. Due to the one-child policy, many families lost their only child when schools in the region collapsed during the earthquake. Consequently, Sichuan provincial and local officials have lifted the restriction for families whose only child was either killed or severely injured in the disaster. So-called "illegal children" under 18 years of age may be registered as legal replacements for their dead siblings; if the dead child was illegal, no further outstanding fines would apply. Reimbursement would not, however, be offered for fines that were already levied. On May 29, 2008, government officials began inspecting the ruins of thousands of schools that collapsed, searching for clues about why they crumbled. Thousands of parents around the province have accused local officials and builders of cutting corners in school construction, citing that after the quake other nearby buildings were little damaged. In the aftermath of the quake, many local governments promised to formally investigate the school collapses, but as of July 17, 2008, across Sichuan, parents of children lost in collapsed schools complained they had yet to receive any reports. Local officials urged them not to protest but the parents demonstrated and demanded an investigation. Furthermore, censors discouraged stories of poorly built schools from being published in the media and there was an incident where police drove the protestors away. In the China Digital Times an article reports a close analysis by an alleged Chinese construction engineer known online as "Book Blade" (), who stated: "...because of our nation's particular brand of education, our children are fed 20 years of Marxist philosophy with Chinese characteristics—a philosophy that has nothing to say about saving lives...School construction is the worst. First, there’s not enough capital. Schools in poor areas have small budgets and, unlike schools in the cities, they can’t collect huge fees, so they’re pressed for money. With construction, add in exploitation by government officials, education officials, school managers, etc. and you can imagine what’s left over for the actual building of schools. When earthquake prevention standards are raised, government departments, major businesses, etc. will all appraise and reinforce their buildings. But these schools with their 70s-era buildings, no-one pays attention to them. Because of this, the older school buildings suffer from inadequate protection while the new buildings have been shoddily constructed." On Children's Day, June 1, 2008, many parents went to the rubble of schools to mourn for their children. The surviving children, who were mostly living in relief centres, performed ceremonies marking the special day, but also acknowledging the earthquake. Ye Zhiping, the principal of Sangzao Middle School in Sangzao, one of the largest in An County, has been credited with proactive action that spared the lives of all 2,323 pupils in attendance when the earthquake happened. During a three-year period that ended in 2007, he oversaw a major overhaul of his school. During that time he obtained more than 400,000 yuan (US$60,000) from the county education department, money used to widen and strengthen concrete pillars and the balcony railing of all four storeys of his school, as well as secure its concrete floors. The AP reported that "The state-controlled media has largely ignored the issue, apparently under the propaganda bureau's instructions. Parents and volunteers who have questioned authorities have been detained and threatened." Reuters reported in June that, to date, Chinese prosecutors have joined an official inquiry into ten collapsed schools during May's devastating earthquake to gain first-hand material of construction quality at the collapsed schools, launch preliminary inquiries and prepare for possible investigations into professional crime. It was also reported that safety checks were to be carried out at schools across China after last month's earthquake. No reports on the topic were eventually made public, however. The New York Times reported that "government officials in Beijing and Sichuan have said they are investigating the collapses. In an acknowledgment of the weakness of building codes in the countryside, the National Development and Reform Commission said on May 27 that it had drafted an amendment to improve construction standards for primary and middle schools in rural areas. Experts are reviewing the draft, the commission said." To limit protests, officials pushed parents to sign a document, which forbade them from holding protests, in exchange of money, but some who refused to sign were threatened. The payment amounts varied from school to school but were approximately the same. In Hanwang, parents were offered a package valued at US$8,800 in cash and a per-parent pension of nearly US$5,600. Furthermore, officials used other methods of silencing: riot police officers broke up protests by parents; the authorities set up cordons around the schools; and officials ordered the Chinese news media to stop reporting on school collapses. Besides parents, Liu Shaokun (), a Sichuan school teacher, was detained on June 25, 2008, for "disseminating rumors and destroying social order" about the Sichuan earthquake. Liu's family was later told that he was being investigated on suspicion of the crime of inciting subversion. Liu had travelled to the Shifang, taken photos of collapsed school buildings, and put them online. He had also expressed his anger at "the shoddy tofu-dregs buildings" () in a media interview. He was ordered to serve one year of re-education through labor (RTL). According to the organization Human Rights in China, Liu has been released to serve his RTL sentence outside of the labor camp. On May 15, 2008, Geoffery York of the Globeandmail.com reported that the shoddily constructed buildings are commonly called "tofu buildings" because builders cut corners by replacing steel rods with thin iron wires for concrete re-inforcement; using inferior grade cement, if any at all; and using fewer bricks than they should. One local was quoted in the article as saying that "the supervising agencies did not check to see if it met the national standards." In January 2010, Hong Kong-based English newspaper The Standard reported that writer Tan Zuoren attempted to document shoddy construction that may have led to massive casualties in schools, was sentenced to in prison ostensibly for his writing an article in 2007 in support of the pro-democracy movement in 1989. Foreign and domestic aid Because of the magnitude of the quake, and the media attention on China, foreign nations and organizations immediately responded to the disaster by offering condolences and assistance. On May 14, UNICEF reported that China formally requested the support of the international community to respond to the needs of affected families. Mainland China By May 14, the Ministry of Civil Affairs stated that 10.7 billion yuan (approximately US$1.5 billion) had been donated by the Chinese public. Houston Rockets center Yao Ming, one of the country's most popular sports icons, gave $214,000 and $71,000 to the Red Cross Society of China. The association has also collected a total of $26 million in donations. Other multinational firms located in China have also announced large amounts of donations. The Red Cross Society of China flew 557 tents and 2,500 quilts valued at 788,000 yuan (US$113,000) to Wenchuan County. The Amity Foundation already began relief work in the region and has earmarked US$143,000 for disaster relief. The Sichuan Ministry of Civil Affairs said that they have provided 30,000 tents for those left homeless. Central State-owned enterprises have accumulatively donated more than $48.6 million. China National Petroleum Corp and Sinopec donated 10 million yuan each to the disaster area. Following the earthquake, donations were made by people from all over mainland China, with booths set up in schools, at banks, and around gas stations. People also donated blood, resulting in according to Xinhua long line-ups in most major Chinese cities. Many donated through text messaging on mobile phones to accounts set up by China Unicom and China Mobile By May 16, the Chinese government had allocated a total of $772 million for earthquake relief so far, up sharply from $159 million from May 14. On May 16 China stated it had also received $457 million in donated money and goods for rescue efforts so far, including $83 million from 19 countries and four international organizations. Saudi Arabia was the largest aid donor to China, providing close to €40,000,000 in financial assistance, and an additional €8,000,000 worth of relief materials. A total of 45.5 million members of the Chinese Communist Party contributed financially to the special fund for relief, donating a total of around US$1.37 billion. First anniversary On May 12, 2009, China marked the first anniversary of the quake with a moment of silence as people across the nation remembered the dead. The government also opened access to the sealed ruins of the Beichuan county seat for three days, after which it would be frozen in time as a state earthquake relic museum in remembrance of the disaster. There were also several concerts across the country to raise money for the survivors of the quake. Completion of works In 2008, State Council established a counterpart support plan (《汶川地震灾后恢复重建对口支援方案》). The plan is to arrange 19 eastern and central provinces and municipalities to help 18 counties, on "one province to one affected county" basis. The plan spanned 3 years, and cost no less than one percent of the province or municipality's budget. In 2012, vice governor Wei Hong announced that the restoration and reconstruction are completed: Wei said that 99.5 percent of the budget, or 865.8 billion yuan (137.5 billion U.S. dollars), has been invested in post-quake reconstruction efforts, and 99 percent of 29,692 related projects have been completed. . . . Local governments have successfully helped more than 12 million people in rural and urban areas repair their houses, and have relocated 200,000 farmers who lost their farmlands, the vice governor added. Precursors and postmortems The earthquake was the worst to strike the Sichuan area in over 30 years. Following the quake, experts and the general public sought information on whether or not the earthquake could have been predicted, and whether or not studying statistics related to the quake could result in better prediction of earthquakes in the future. Earthquake prediction is not yet established science; there was no consensus within the scientific community that earthquake "prediction" is possible. In 2002, Chinese geologist Chen Xuezhong published a Seismic Risk Analysis study in which he came to the conclusion that beginning with 2003, attention should be paid to the possibility of an earthquake with a magnitude of over 7.0 occurring in Sichuan region. He based his study on statistical correlation. That Sichuan is a seismically active area has been discussed for years prior to the quake, though few studies point to a specific date and time. In a press conference held by the State Council Information Office the day after the earthquake, geologist Zhang Xiaodong, deputy director of CEA's Seismic Monitoring Network Center, restated that earthquake prediction was a global issue, in the sense that no proven methods exist, and that no prediction notification was received before the earthquake. Seismologist Gary Gibson of Monash University in Australia told Deutsche Presse-Agentur that he also did not see anything that could be regarded as having 'predicted' the earthquake's occurrence. The earthquake also provided opportunities for researchers to retrofit data in order to model future earthquake predictions. Using data from the Intermagnet Lanzhou geomagnetic observatory, geologists Lazo Pekevski from the Ss. Cyril and Methodius University of Skopje in North Macedonia and Strachimir Mavrodiev from the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences attempted to establish a "time prediction method" through collecting statistics on geomagnetism with tidal gravitational potential. Using this method, they were said to have predicted the time of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake with an accuracy of ±1 day. The same study, however, acknowledges the limitation of earthquake prediction models, and does not mention that the location of the quake could be accurately predicted. An article in Science suggested that the construction and filling of the Zipingpu Dam may have triggered the earthquake. The chief engineer of the Sichuan Geology and Mineral Bureau said that the sudden shift of a huge quantity of water into the region could have relaxed the tension between the two sides of the fault, allowing them to move apart, and could have increased the direct pressure on it, causing a violent rupture. The effect was "25 times more" than a year's worth of natural stress from tectonic movement. The government had disregarded warnings about so many large-scale dam projects in a seismically active area. Researchers have been denied access to seismological and geological data to examine the cause of the quake further. Malaysia-based Yazhou Zhoukan conducted an interview with former researcher at the China Seismological Bureau Geng Qingguo (耿庆国), in which Geng claimed that a confidential written report was sent to the State Seismological Bureau on April 30, 2008, warning about the possible occurrence of a significant earthquake in Ngawa Prefecture region of Sichuan around May 8, with a range of 10 days before or after the quake. Geng, while acknowledging that earthquake prediction was broadly considered problematic by the scientific community, believed that "the bigger the earthquake, the easier it is to predict." Geng had long attempted to establish a correlation between the occurrence of droughts and earthquakes; Premier Zhou Enlai reportedly took an interest in Geng's work. Geng's drought-earthquake correlation theory was first released in 1972, and said to have predicted the 1975 Haicheng and 1976 Tangshan earthquakes. The same Yazhou Zhoukan article pointed out the inherent difficulties associated with predicting earthquakes. In response, an official with the Seismological Bureau stated that "earthquake prediction is widely acknowledged around the world to be difficult from a scientific standpoint." The official also denied that the Seismological Bureau had received reports predicting the earthquake. See also List of deadly earthquakes since 1900 List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in China List of earthquakes in Sichuan List of natural disasters by death toll Lists of earthquakes Natural disasters in China References External links MIT Report: Earthquake near Wenchuan, West Sichuan, China Web site about the people and the reconstruction since the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in China Lake Formation in the Aftermath of Magnitude 7.9 Earthquake (images included) M 7.9 – eastern Sichuan, China – USGS Sichuan Earthquake Pictures Archive Compilation of BBC Videos Related to the Earthquake CNN – Chinese Earthquake Entire Video Archive "China Quake" documentary produced by Natural History New Zealand China Quake Victims' Parents Sue – China Digital Times 2008 disasters in China 2008 earthquakes Earthquakes in Sichuan Landslides in China Articles containing video clips 2008 in China History of Sichuan Landslides in 2008 Landslide-dammed lakes May 2008 events in China

17909377

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supershear%20earthquake

Supershear earthquake

In seismology, a supershear earthquake is an earthquake in which the propagation of the rupture along the fault surface occurs at speeds in excess of the seismic shear wave (S-wave) velocity. This causes an effect analogous to a sonic boom. Rupture propagation velocity During seismic events along a fault surface the displacement initiates at the focus and then propagates outwards. Typically for large earthquakes the focus lies towards one end of the slip surface and much of the propagation is unidirectional (e.g. the 2008 Sichuan and 2004 Indian Ocean earthquakes). Theoretical studies have in the past suggested that the upper bound for propagation velocity is that of Rayleigh waves, approximately 0.92 of the shear wave velocity. However, evidence of propagation at velocities between S-wave and compressional wave (P-wave) values have been reported for several earthquakes in agreement with theoretical and laboratory studies that support the possibility of rupture propagation in this velocity range. Systematic studies indicate that supershear rupture is common in large strike-slip earthquakes. Occurrence Evidence of rupture propagation at velocities greater than S-wave velocities expected for the surrounding crust have been observed for several large earthquakes associated with strike-slip faults. During strike-slip, the main component of rupture propagation will be horizontal, in the direction of displacement, as a Mode II (in-plane) shear crack. This contrasts with a dip-slip rupture where the main direction of rupture propagation will be perpendicular to the displacement, like a Mode III (anti-plane) shear crack. Theoretical studies have shown that Mode III cracks are limited to the shear wave velocity but that Mode II cracks can propagate between the S and P-wave velocities and this may explain why supershear earthquakes have not been observed on dip-slip faults. Initiation of supershear rupture The rupture velocity range between those of Rayleigh waves and shear waves remains forbidden for a Mode II crack (a good approximation to a strike-slip rupture). This means that a rupture cannot accelerate from Rayleigh speed to shear wave speed. In the "Burridge–Andrews" mechanism, supershear rupture is initiated on a 'daughter' rupture in the zone of high shear stress developed at the propagating tip of the initial rupture. Because of this high stress zone, this daughter rupture is able start propagating at supershear speed before combining with the existing rupture. Experimental shear crack rupture, using plates of a photoelastic material, has produced a transition from sub-Rayleigh to supershear rupture by a mechanism that "qualitatively conforms to the well-known Burridge-Andrews mechanism". Geological effects The high rates of strain expected near faults that are affected by supershear propagation are thought to generate what is described as pulverized rocks. The pulverization involves the development of many small microcracks at a scale smaller than the grain size of the rock, while preserving the earlier fabric, quite distinct from the normal brecciation and cataclasis found in most fault zones. Such rocks have been reported up to 400 m away from large strike-slip faults, such as the San Andreas Fault. The link between supershear and the occurrence of pulverized rocks is supported by laboratory experiments that show very high strain rates are necessary to cause such intense fracturing. Examples Directly observed 1999 Izmit earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.6 associated with strike-slip movement on the North Anatolian Fault Zone 1999 Düzce earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.2 associated with strike-slip movement on the North Anatolian Fault Zone 2001 Kunlun earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.8 associated with strike-slip movement on the Kunlun fault 2002 Denali earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.9 associated with strike-slip movement on the Denali Fault 2008 Sichuan earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.9 associated with strike-slip movement on the Longmenshan Fault 2010 Yushu earthquake, magnitude Mw 6.9 associated with strike-slip movement on the Yushu Fault 2012 Indian Ocean earthquakes, magnitude Mw 8.6 associated with strike-slip on several fault segments - the first supershear event recognised in oceanic lithosphere. 2013 Craig, Alaska earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.6 associated with strike-slip on the Queen Charlotte Fault - the first supershear event recognised on an oceanic plate boundary. 2013 Balochistan earthquake Mw 7.7 associated with strike-slip movement on a curved fault with supershear rupture speed. 2014 Aegean Sea earthquake, magnitude Mw 6.9, supershear was recognised during the second sub-event. 2015 Tajikistan earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.2, supershear slip on two segments, with normal slip at the restraining bend linking them. 2016 Romanche fracture zone earthquake, magnitude 7.1, westwards-directed supershear rupture following an initial easterly-travelling phase on the Romanche ocean transform fault in the equatorial Atlantic 2017 Komandorsky Islands earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.7, supershear transition followed a rupture jump across a fault stepover. 2018 Swan Islands earthquake, 7.5 earthquake consisted of three sub-events with a compact rupture area and large cosesimic slip. 2018 Sulawesi earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.5, associated with strike-slip movement on the Palu-Koro Fault 2020 Caribbean Sea earthquake, magnitude Mw 7.7, unilateral rupture propagation westward from the epicenter along a 300 km section of the Oriente transform fault with two episodes of supershear rupture 2021 Maduo earthquake, 7.4 earthquake in the Tibetan Plateau. This earthquake ruptured bilaterally for a length of 170 km within the Bayan Har block. 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes, 7.8 and 7.6 earthquakes in Turkey. Supershear rupture initiated along both mainshocks, with the latter attaining a maximum velocity of per second. Inferred 1906 San Francisco earthquake, magnitude 7.8 associated with strike-slip movement on the San Andreas Fault 1979 Imperial Valley earthquake, magnitude 6.4 associated with slip on the Imperial Fault 1990 Sakhalin earthquake, 7.2 earthquake at over 600 km depth inferred to have ruptured at supershear speeds. 2013 Okhotsk Sea earthquake magnitude 6.7 aftershock was an extremely deep (640 kilometers (400 miles)) supershear as well as unusually fast at "eight kilometers per second (five miles per second), nearly 50 percent faster than the shear wave velocity at that depth." See also Slow earthquake References Further reading Wang, Dun, Jim Mori, and Kazuki Koketsu. "Fast rupture propagation for large strike-slip earthquakes." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 440 (2016): 115-126.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.02.022 Xu, Shiqing, Eiichi Fukuyama, Futoshi Yamashita, Hironori Kawakata, Kazuo Mizoguchi, and Shigeru Takizawa. "Fault strength and rupture process controlled by fault surface topography." Nature Geoscience (2023): 1-7.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-022-01093-z External links Eric Dunham's webpage on Supershear Dynamics Seismology Types of earthquake Strike-slip earthquakes

17917112

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%20Coalinga%20earthquake

1983 Coalinga earthquake

The 1983 Coalinga earthquake struck at 4:42 p.m. Monday, May 2 of that year, in Coalinga, California. The shock was felt from the Greater Los Angeles Area north to Susanville in Lassen County, and between the Pacific Coast and western Nevada. More than 5,000 aftershocks were recorded through July 31, of which 894 had a magnitude of 2.5 or larger. It measured 6.2 on the moment magnitude scale and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). Earthquake The Coalinga quake was caused by an 0.5-meter uplift of an anticline ridge northeast of Coalinga, but surface faulting was not observed. Ground and aerial reconnaissance immediately after the quake revealed ground cracks and fissures within about of the epicenter, none of which appeared to represent movement on deeply rooted fault structures. About five weeks later, on June 11, an aftershock caused surface faulting about northwest of Coalinga. Damage The earthquake caused an estimated $10 million in property damage (according to the American Red Cross) and injured 94 people. Damage was most severe in Coalinga, where the eight-block downtown commercial district was almost destroyed. Here, buildings having unreinforced brick walls sustained the heaviest damage. Newer buildings, such as the Bank of America and the Guarantee Savings and Loan, sustained only superficial damage. The most significant damage outside the Coalinga area was at Avenal, southeast of the epicenter. A disaster assessment by the American Red Cross listed the following statistics on damage in the area: almost destroyed – 309 single-family houses and 33 apartment buildings; major damage – 558 single-family houses, 94 mobile homes, and 39 apartment buildings; and minor damage – 811 single-family houses, 22 mobile homes, and 70 apartment buildings. Most public buildings, including the City Hall, hospital, schools, fire house, post office, and police station, sustained only minor damage. Six bridges of 60 in the area sustained measurable structural damage, which consisted of hairline cracks and spalling at the top of the support columns, fracturing and displacement of wing walls and parapets, and settlement of fill. All public utilities were damaged, but the water system continued to function despite many leaks in its transmission piping. Gas was shut off for several days because of broken piping and leaks, but only temporary interruptions of electric and telephone services were reported. One large section of old concrete sewerage west of the downtown area partly collapsed but continued to function. In the oil fields near Coalinga, surface facilities such as pumping units, storage tanks, pipelines, and support buildings were all damaged to some degree. One oil company administration building, about north of Coalinga, sustained major structural damage, and its two brick chimneys were toppled. Subsurface damage, including collapsed or parted well casing, was observed on fourteen of 1,725 active wells. Ground effects The earthquake triggered thousands of rock falls and rock slides as far as northwest, south, and southwest of the epicenter. Only a few slope failures occurred east of the epicenter because of the absence of steep slopes in that direction. Aftermath The California Seismic Safety Commission investigated the temblor, provided funding and expert technical assistance for planning and reconstruction and published a report on the quake. Coalinga recovered 98 percent of its expenses in repairing and rebuilding public buildings at a time when an 85 percent recovery was considered a success. The Coalinga earthquake suggested to geologists that the state of California was in worse seismological danger than had been thought. The pace of earthquake activity along the Pacific coast was identified as a relevant subject for further study, and the investigation of earthquakes stemming from unknown faults caused concern. California officials said that a predicted great quake would do far more damage than this one and that if it struck in a densely populated area the damage would be incalculable. See also List of earthquakes in 1983 List of earthquakes in California List of earthquakes in the United States References Sources Further reading The Coalinga Anticline and the Coalinga Earthquake of 1983 – San Joaquin Valley Geology External links 1983 earthquakes 1983 Earthquake 1983 History of Fresno County, California History of the San Joaquin Valley Buried rupture earthquakes 1983 in California

17932268

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922%20Vallenar%20earthquake

1922 Vallenar earthquake

The 1922 Vallenar earthquake occurred with a moment magnitude of 8.5–8.6 and a tsunami magnitude of 8.7 in the Atacama Region of Chile, near the border with Argentina on 11 November at 04:32 UTC. It triggered a destructive tsunami that caused significant damage to the coast of Chile and was observed as far away as Australia. Tectonic setting The earthquake took place along the boundary between the Nazca and South American tectonic plates, at a location where they converge at a rate of seventy millimeters a year. Chile has been at a convergent plate boundary that generates megathrust earthquakes since the Paleozoic (500 million years ago). In historical times the Chilean coast has suffered many megathrust earthquakes along this plate boundary, including the strongest earthquake ever measured. Most recently, the boundary ruptured in 2010 in central Chile. Damage and deaths The earthquake caused extensive damage in a zone extending approximately from Copiapó to Coquimbo. Newspapers estimated more than 1,000 dead as a result of the quake, at least 500 of them in Vallenar. The tsunami killed several hundred people in coastal cities, especially in Coquimbo. Total damage was estimated to be in the range of $5–25 million U.S. (1922 dollars). Characteristics Earthquake The earthquake was preceded by strong foreshocks on 3 and 7 November. The main shock lasted between thirty seconds and eight minutes according to various reports. The length of the plate boundary that ruptured during the earthquake is estimated to be 390 km (242 mi). Tsunami The epicenter of the earthquake was well inland and the tsunami may have been caused by a submarine slide triggered by the shaking. At Caldera the tsunami began about 15 minutes after the earthquake, with a maximum run-up height of 7 m (23 ft). At Chañaral the tsunami had three surges, the first about an hour after the earthquake, the maximum run-up height was 9 m (30 ft). Three surges were also seen at Coquimbo, the last being the most destructive with a maximum run-up of 7 m (23 ft). The tsunami was also observed in Callao, Peru (2.4 m, 7.9 ft), California (0.2 m, 8 in 13.0 hours delay), Hawaii (2.1 m, 6.9 ft 14.5 hours), Samoa (0.9 m, 3 ft 14.1 hours), Japan (0.3 m, 1 ft), Taiwan (0.03 m, 1 in), New Zealand (0.1 m, 3.9 in), Australia (0.2 m, 7.9 in) and the Philippines (0.1 m, 3.9 in). See also List of earthquakes in 1922 List of earthquakes in Argentina List of earthquakes in Chile References External links Megathrust earthquakes in Chile Vallenar Vallenar Earthquake, 1922 1920s tsunamis Tsunamis in New Zealand 1922 disasters in South America 1922 disasters in Oceania

17933496

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Iwate%E2%80%93Miyagi%20Nairiku%20earthquake

2008 Iwate–Miyagi Nairiku earthquake

On June 14, the 2008 Iwate earthquake struck the Tōhoku region of northeastern Honshū in Japan. Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) officially named this earthquake the . This earthquake occurred in the south of the inland of Iwate Prefecture at 8:43 JST on June 14 (23:43 UTC on June 13). The JMA magnitude was estimated at 7.2, and the moment magnitude by USGS was at 6.9. The epicenter was located at , about 85 kilometres (55 mi) north of Sendai and about 385 kilometres (240 mi) north-northeast of Tokyo. The strongest shaking was measured in the cities of Ōshū (Iwate) and Kurihara (Miyagi), both of which were measured as "strong 6" on the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale, . Peak ground acceleration readings were high, with a maximum vector sum (3 component) value of 4,278 cm/s2 (4.36g). Intensity represents the strength of ground motion. JMA uses the scales of 0 to 7: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, weak/strong 5, weak/strong 6, 7. Tremors were felt across a large area. Tectonics According to the United States Geological Survey: The Mw 6.8 Honshu earthquake of June 13th 2008 occurred in a region of convergence between the Pacific Plate and the Okhotsk section of the North American Plate in northern Japan, where the Pacific plate is moving west-northwest with respect to North America at a rate of approximately 8.3 cm/yr. The hypocenter of the earthquake indicates shallow thrusting motion in the upper (Okhotsk) plate, above the subducting Pacific plate, which lies at approximately 80 km depth at this location. The earthquake occurred in a region of upper-plate contraction, probably within the complicated tectonics of the Ou Backbone Range, known to have hosted several large earthquakes in historic times. The largest of these events occurred in 1896, approximately 70km north of the June 13th event, and killed over 200 people in the local area. Aftershocks According to JMA: Aftershocks of this earthquake were stronger than the Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995, but they happened much less frequently. Over 200 aftershocks were observed in the first 24 hours, with about 400 in total over the first seven days. The largest ones (with Mj5.0 or greater) were June 14, 9:20: Mj5.7: Max. seismic intensity reached Strong 5; June 14, 12:27: Mj5.2: Max. seismic intensity reached 4; June 16, 23:14: Mj5.3: Max. seismic intensity reached 4. From June 21 to July 1, four to 12 aftershocks were observed each day, with maximum seismic intensities of 3. Effects Landslides Landslides triggered by this earthquake crushed structures, buried people, cut off access to certain roads, and isolated some rural communities. Mud from landslides dammed up rivers to form lakes called . By June 19, the Ministry of Land had identified fifteen quake lakes in Iwate and Miyagi prefectures, and work crews began draining three of them which were at high risk of overflow or breach from rain or aftershocks. Human casualties By 17:50 JST, June 25, twelve people were confirmed dead and 358 injured, and ten still missing. In the city of Kurihara, Miyagi Pref., five people were buried in a landslide at a hot-spring inn called Komanoyu, which had stood on the mountainside of Mt. Kurikoma. A woman aged 80 who had co-managed the inn with her husband, her 58-year-old son, a woman aged 75 who had worked at the inn, a 48-year-old tourism consultant, and an attendant of the Railway Museum aged 35 were all killed in the landslide. In the city of Kurihara, along Route 398, a landslide overwhelmed and killed three workers setting a rockfall containment net on a hillside. Also in the city of Kurihara, along Route 398, a 59-year-old man was killed when his car was carried away by a landslide and buried. At a dam construction site in the city of Ōshū, Iwate Pref., a worker aged 48 was struck by falling rocks and died. In the city of Ichinoseki, Iwate Pref., a person surprised by the tremor ran out into the road and was fatally struck by a truck. In the city of Iwaki, Fukushima Pref., near a fishing port, a person aged 55 was struck by falling rocks while fishing, fell into the sea, and drowned. In the city of Ōshū, a landslide caused a group of 20 people to become temporarily trapped in an overturned bus. Eight of them were injured, including one critically and five seriously. The bus was running when overturned, and ten passengers escaped, prompted by the driver. Then an aftershock caused the bus to slip down slowly into a ravine until it was caught on some trees. One of the passengers who had escaped walked down the road with a mobile phone until he was able to get a signal, and made an emergency call. Electric power supply No nuclear power plants were shut down following this earthquake unlike the 2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake quake. Some water was found to have splashed out of a reaction container in the Fukushima II Nuclear Power Plant possibly due to the tremor, but no radioactive material was released to the environment. Expressways and railways Expressways in Tōhoku region were closed in several sections, but all reopened by nighttime, barring traffic restrictions in one section for repair work. Some train services by JR East were suspended on Shinkansen and local lines, and resumed on the following day from the first scheduled trains. On Tōhoku Shinkansen, all running trains, about 20, were stopped by an earthquake detection system. Most were soon moved to the nearest stations. However, about 2,000 passengers were temporarily trapped inside three trains before being evacuated up to nine and a half hours later, because the trains were forced to stay in place while equipment inspections were carried out. Suspensions on Tōhoku, Akita, Yamagata Shinkansen and delays on Jōetsu, Nagano Shinkansen reportedly involved 117,000 passengers. No trains derailed. See also List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in Japan References External links 2008 earthquakes 2008 Iwate–Miyagi Nairiku earthquake Tōhoku region June 2008 events in Japan 2008 disasters in Japan

18012630

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20Bou%27in-Zahra%20earthquake

2002 Bou'in-Zahra earthquake

The 2002 Bou'in-Zahra earthquake (also known as the 2002 Avaj earthquake or the 2002 Changureh earthquake) occurred on 22 June 2002. The epicenter was near the city of Bou'in-Zahra in Qazvin Province, a region of northwestern Iran which is crossed by several major faults that is known for destructive earthquakes. The shock measured 6.5 on the scale, had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), and was followed by more than 20 aftershocks. At least 230 people were killed and 1,500 more were injured. According to the International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), the earthquake was felt as far away as the capital city of Tehran, approximately east of the epicenter, although no damage was reported there. Most houses in the region were single-story masonry buildings, and virtually all of these collapsed. The public became angry due to the slow official response to victims who needed supplies. Residents of the town of Avaj resorted to throwing stones at the car of a government minister. Background and tectonics The northeastern part of Iran lies across part of the belt of active continental collision between the Arabian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. Iran is crossed by several major faults, with 90% of them being seismically active and subject to many earthquakes each year; the area around the rupture experiences minor quakes almost daily. The most seismically active parts of this area are the Zagros fold and thrust belt and the Alborz mountain range. Qazvin Province, which is located between these two zones, suffers less earthquakes, but these may be more powerful because stresses have longer to build. The Bou'in-Zahra earthquake was located in an area of active thrust faulting and folding, parallel and south of the southern edge of the Alborz mountain range, and was the 11th rupture in the previous two months in central Iran. A seismic inversion of long-period P and SH body-wave seismograms indicated a rupture on a thrust fault that dips 49 degrees to the southwest and had a centroid depth of roughly . The rupture's mechanism of faulting was reverse. Multiple-event relocation of the main shock and aftershock epicenters and discontinuous surface ruptures recorded after the earthquake are compatible with northeastward movement on a southwest-dipping thrust, although maximum recorded displacements were less than would have been expected from the observed magnitude. This suggests that most of the slip did not actually reach the Earth's surface but caused folding at the surface. A previously unmapped thrust with little surface expression, the Abdareh fault, has been identified from the disruption of earlier drainage systems by the growth of the fold in its hanging wall, and is thought to be responsible for the earthquake. Such structures are known as blind thrusts, and have been responsible for many destructive earthquakes in Iran and elsewhere. The geomorphological effects of this particular fold have been partly obscured by the presence of an earlier Neogene topography. The Qazvin region was hit by an even greater earthquake in 1962, which killed 12,200. In 1990 a rupture killed over 40,000 people, injured 60,000, and left more than 500,000 homeless. Damage and casualties The earthquake occurred at 02:58 UTC (7:28 a.m. Iran Standard Time), while many of the estimated 60 million Iranians affected were in their homes. Its duration was seven seconds, and the epicenter was near the settlement of Bou'in-Zahra in the Khar river valley, a mountainous farming region about from the provincial capital of Qazvin. The greatest damage was across an area best known for its seedless grape harvesting, a getaway for wealthy residents of Tehran. At least 230 people were killed, 1,500 injured, and 25,000 left homeless. An earlier death toll was reported as 500, but this number was believed to be inflated once it became known that some of the severely injured had been mistaken for dead. Most of the dead were women, children and the elderly, as many of the men were working in local vineyards. Over 20 aftershocks were recorded, with magnitudes up to 5.1 on the moment magnitude scale. At least three of these caused further casualties and damage, most of which were within a radius of the main shock. An estimated 5,000 buildings were damaged beyond repair. In the Qazvin province, 120 buildings were demolished and 50 villages suffered massive damage. In the neighboring Hamadan province, 45 villages were destroyed. A large majority of houses in the region were single-story masonry buildings, and virtually all of these collapsed. As non-engineered structures, these could not withstand seismic forces, with structural failure and collapse resulting from wall-to-wall separation and the lack of structural integrity and of a proper lateral system of resisting. Newer structures built in accordance with the Iranian code of practice for seismic-resistant design fared much better. Damage to the historic Kharaqan tomb towers, which were in a good state of preservation before the event, suggests that the earthquake was possibly one of the most powerful in the region for approximately 900 years. At a station from the epicenter, the maximum horizontal and vertical accelerations were recorded to be roughly 0.5 g and 0.26 g. A bridge collapsed as a result of the disaster. Water and irrigation systems were severely damaged near the epicenter, and water facilities were demolished in nine villages. Many of the main water pipelines in the affected areas were damaged or destroyed, causing inadequacies in water availability and quality. Surface cracks were observed in Ab Darreh and Changureh, the villages that suffered the heaviest damage, being roughly from the epicenter. The relatively low levels of damage in the towns of Avaj or Ab-e-Garm in comparison to Changureh and Ab Darreh suggest a focus of damage to the northwest of the epicenter due to northwest propagation. In Changureh, only two buildings were left standing and over 120 casualties occurred. Ab Darreh also fared poorly; the disaster destroyed the town's only mosque, toppled 40 homes and killed at least 20 people. North of Avaj, in the village of Esmailabad, survivors recovered 38 corpses, a ninth of the total population, while searching for the missing, feared trapped in the ruins. In another village in the vicinity, Aliabad, two shepherds were the only known survivors. In the small village of Kisse-Jin, roughly 80 corpses were recovered following the rupture. Survivors crying and beating their heads and faces over loved ones were a common sight on Iranian state television. The cost of the damage was estimated at US$91 million. The quake was felt across a wide area, including the provinces of Qazvin, Gilan, Kurdistan, Zanjan, and Hamedan. Of all these, Qazvin was the most heavily damaged, with an unnamed Qazvin official reporting that 177 had died in the province. It was also felt in the capital of Tehran, roughly east of the epicenter, although no serious damage was reported. However, Iranian journalist Borzou Daragahi reported that in Tehran he saw buildings sway and glass objects shatter. Landslides The Bou'in-Zahra earthquake triggered 59 landslides over an area of about . Landslides formed due to the quake included 47 falls and topples, nine slides, and three lateral spreads. The largest of these slides was a rockslide, 150 × 100 m (490 × 330 ft), which occurred southeast of Changureh. Landslides triggered by the quake occurred more often in the geologic areas most susceptible to damage, where there were many landslides before. Relief efforts and aftermath The Red Crescent Society sent relief workers, detection dogs, 100 tons of food, 1,000 tents, 2,500 blankets, and mobile kitchens to the earthquake-stricken area. In addition, the Iranian army supplied soldiers, machinery and water trucks. To prevent the spread of disease, villages were sprayed with disinfectants and their inhabitants were given tetanus shots, among other measures. After Iranian officials launched an appeal for assistance, the United Nations Development Programme supplied $50,000. The United Nations' Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) mobilised a United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team, deploying five members. Pope John Paul II prayed for the earthquake victims and asked for a "generous" response. United States President George W. Bush offered aid to Iran, which he had previously called part of an "axis of evil". According to him, "human suffering knows no political boundaries" and he stood "ready to assist the people of Iran as needed and as desired". However, the Iranian government refused his help, though it called for the help of non-governmental agencies. According to Hossein Rahnema, head of the Red Crescent in Changureh, the society "levelled an area to put up tents but most people wanted to stay next to their houses to look after their property". Survivors instead lit small fires amongst the rubble to protect against freezing temperatures. The Iranian President at the time, Mohammad Khatami, declared three days of mourning and visited earthquake-stricken areas on June 25. Hospitals struggled to cope with the surplus of patients, discharging non-critical ones from their wards. The Associated Press stated that 20 funerals were held on June 23, 2002 at a cemetery overlooking the village of Abdareh. A bank account was started to handle public donations for the families of the dead. Often armed with no more than shovels and spades, soldiers and civilians dug for bodies in the rubble. Other than this, rescue workers were faced with a number of obstacles, including the temperatures of the villages damaged. They were warm during the day, although the villages grew colder at night, making rescue work harder and threatening the health of the homeless and anyone alive and trapped under the debris. Many civilians were discouraged from helping due to fear of aftershocks. According to Gary Oshea of International Rescue, the volunteers did not have enough technical equipment, and the religious leaders seemed unwilling to contribute much. Official rescue work ended on June 24, 2002, when rescue workers said there were no more survivors. Public reaction Of the roughly 80 villages that suffered heavy damage, the Iranian government claimed that relief work was mostly complete. Residents of Changureh, however, complained that tents, food, and medicine had not reached them, after waiting in near-freezing temperatures. A man from Avaj stated that only locals helped uncover the body of his child. In protest at Iran's slow response to the tragedy, some 300 people blocked the main road through Avaj. On June 23, "dozens" of Avaj residents threw stones at Interior Minister Abdolvahed Mousavi-Lari's car in anger at the government's delay in providing relief. They also claimed that the death toll was higher than official reports said it was. Reconstruction Electricity was restored to affected areas by June 25. On November 9, 2002, the World Bank granted $225 million towards the reconstruction and economic rehabilitation of the area devastated by the quake. Reconstruction of housing and infrastructure by provincial authorities was interrupted for almost four months (November 2002 – February 2003) due to harsh weather conditions. In August 2003, the reconstruction was completed in all villages affected by the earthquake. See also List of earthquakes in 2002 List of earthquakes in Iran Notes [a] Several sources call the earthquake the 2002 Changureh or Avaj earthquake, as reports differ as to the quake's location. The official Islamic Republic News Agency report names Bou'in-Zahra the nearest town to the epicenter. [b] Bou'in-Zahra is a county, and a city of the same name. [c] The name of this city and county has sometimes been transliterated as Bouynzahra, Buin-Zahra, and Buyin Zahra. [d] This would cost roughly US$513,125,000 today. See Inflation Calculator. References External links Iran Bou'in-Zahra earthquake Earthquakes in Iran History of Qazvin Province June 2002 events in Asia

18078011

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Romania

List of earthquakes in Romania

This is a list of earthquakes in Romania, including any notable historical earthquakes that have epicenters within the current boundaries of Romania, or which caused significant effects in this area. Seismic hazard The seismicity of Romania is clustered in several epicentral zones: Vrancea, Făgăraș-Câmpulung, Banat, Crișana, Maramureș, and Southern Dobrogea. Other epicentral zones of local importance can be found in Transylvania, in the area of Jibou and Târnava River, in the northern and western part of Oltenia, in northern Moldova, and the Wallachian Plain. The Vrancea seismogenic zone is the most important among these seismic zones, having in mind the energy, the extent of the macroseismic effects, and the persistent and confined character of the earthquakes that occur in this area. The Vrancea area is responsible for over 90% of all earthquakes in Romania, releasing over 95% of the seismic energy. Two belts of moderate and shallower seismicity are emphasized in the other regions of the country: one along the Southern Carpathians and the eastern edge of the Pannonian Basin, the other along the Eastern Carpathians that extends towards SE on the Peceneaga–Camena line. During the last 1,000 years, according to historical data, it is thought that 17 earthquakes of 7 and over magnitude have occurred, which suggests a means for unleashing the energy every 58 years. Statistically, the magnitude 6 and over earthquakes in the Vrancea area occur approximately every 10 years, with magnitude 7 every 33 years, while those with 7.5 magnitudes every 80 years. Earthquakes Earthquakes listed in the following tables include only M6.0+ events or earthquakes with significant material damage or casualties. All seismic events are shown in detail in the ROMPLUS catalog of the National Institute for Earth Physics. It collected information from the catalog of Constantinescu and Mîrza (1980) for the period 984–1997. After 1997, the catalog was permanently filled and updated with data on seismic events produced in Romania and around national borders. Gallery See also Geology of Romania List of earthquakes in Vrancea County References External links The National Institute for Research and Development for Earth Physics - NIEP Adevărul.ro – List of the most powerful earthquakes in Romania Cutremur.net – List of earthquakes in Romania since 1800 Geodin.ro – Romanian seismology Realitatea.net – The five strongest earthquakes in Romania in the last 200 years National Institute for Earth Physics – List of earthquakes in Romania Seismic map of Bucharest Romania Earthquakes Earthquakes

18165234

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989%20Malawi%20earthquake

1989 Malawi earthquake

The 1989 Malawi earthquake occurred on 10 March in central Malawi, with a moment magnitude of 6.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). It was preceded by a number of foreshocks, the largest being a 5.7 shock on the previous day. The earthquake was felt strongly throughout central Malawi, and also felt in parts of Mozambique (Niassa and Tete Provinces) and Zambia (Eastern Province). Nine people were killed, with many others injured or left homeless. Geology The 1989 Malawi earthquake was the result of a dip-slip fault in the Malawi rift system, part of the larger East African Rift. It is believed to have occurred at a depth of about , with the lack of surface faulting being attributed to its occurrence at a relatively deep level. The International Seismological Centre (ISC) placed the epicentre of the 1989 Malawi earthquake at , although the accuracy of their determination was affected by the lack of seismic stations in the area – the closest was away, and there were only two within . It has been suggested that the margin of error for the epicentre is consequently around . The earthquake triggered landslides in the Manyani Hills, around east northeast of Kasungu. Slumping of in length and in width was observed, and attributed to heavy rainfall earlier in the year combined with deforestation-related soil exposure. There was also a large rock fall in the Chongomi Mountains of Dedza District, which resulted in hillside scarring. However, both of those areas were sparsely populated, and there were no reported casualties. Damage and casualties Nine people are known to have been killed as a result of the earthquake – six in Dedza, two in Salima, and one in Chitala. At least two of the deaths (one in Dedza and one in Chitala) were caused by roof collapses, in both cases occurring in houses with roofs built from blocks of baked clay (a non-standard method of construction). The total number of injuries from the earthquake has been estimated at 100, and the total number of people left homeless at about 50,000. Urban areas were worst affected by the quake, as houses were more likely to be built of brick and thus more susceptible to cracking. The major building with the most visible damage was the Nanjoka Railway Station complex, which developed severe cracks in its walls and was subsequently abandoned. The Chitala Farm Institute, an agricultural school, was also heavily damaged. In rural areas, most dwellings were simple huts, built by pasting mud or clay onto timber frames. These were left mostly undamaged. Aftermath In the same month as the earthquake, Malawi was hit by a cyclone and suffered severe flooding. The combination of natural disasters left over 200,000 people homeless and led to the government appealing for international assistance. A field study conducted in October 1989 concluded that the March 1989 earthquake "should be treated as an eye opener, drawing attention to the potential of medium-size earthquakes hitting major cities in Malawi". References External links M 6.2 - Malawi – United States Geological Survey Earthquakes in Africa Natural disasters in Malawi Malawi earthquake, 1989 Malawi earthquake, 1989 March 1989 events in Africa

18192621

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1946%20Nankai%20earthquake

1946 Nankai earthquake

The 1946 Nankai earthquake (昭和南海地震 Shōwa Nankai jishin) was a great earthquake in Nankaidō, Japan. It occurred on December 21, 1946, at 04:19 JST (December 20, 19:19 UTC). The earthquake measured between 8.1 and 8.4 on the moment magnitude scale, and was felt from Northern Honshū to Kyūshū. It occurred almost two years after the 1944 Tōnankai earthquake, which ruptured the adjacent part of the Nankai megathrust. Geology The Nankai Trough is a convergent boundary where the Philippine Sea Plate is being subducted beneath the Eurasian Plate. Large earthquakes have been recorded along this zone since the 7th century, with a recurrence time of 100 to 200 years. Earthquake The 1946 Nankaido earthquake was unusual in its seismological perspective, with a rupture zone estimated from long-period geodetic data that was more than twice as large as that derived from shorter period seismic data. In the center of this earthquake rupture zone, scientists used densely deployed ocean bottom seismographs to detect a subducted seamount thick by wide at a depth of . Scientists propose that this seamount might work as a barrier inhibiting brittle seismogenic rupture. Casualties and damage The earthquake caused extensive damage, destroying 36,000 homes in southern Honshū alone. The earthquake also caused a huge tsunami that took out another 2,100 homes with its waves. See also List of earthquakes in 1946 List of earthquakes in Japan References External links Nankaido Nankaido Earthquake, 1946 1940s tsunamis December 1946 events in Asia Megathrust earthquakes in Japan Occupied Japan Tsunamis in Japan Earthquakes of the Showa period 1946 disasters in Japan

18193229

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankai%20megathrust%20earthquakes

Nankai megathrust earthquakes

Nankai megathrust earthquakes are great megathrust earthquakes that occur along the Nankai megathrust – the fault under the Nankai Trough – which forms the plate interface between the subducting Philippine Sea Plate and the overriding Amurian Plate (part of the Eurasian Plate), which dips beneath southwestern Honshu, Japan. The fault is divided into five segments in three zones, which rupture separately or in combination, and depending on location, the resulting earthquakes are subdivided by zone from west to east into Nankai earthquakes, Tōnankai earthquakes, and Tōkai earthquakes. The earthquakes occur with a return period of about 90–200 years, and often occur in pairs, where a rupture along one part of the fault is followed by a rupture elsewhere on the fault, notably the 1854 Ansei-Tōkai earthquake and the 1854 Ansei-Nankai earthquake the next day, and the 1944 Tōnankai earthquake, followed by the 1946 Nankaidō earthquake. In one recorded case (the 1707 Hōei earthquake) the fault ruptured along its entire length. All of these great earthquakes have resulted in damaging tsunamis, which are particularly damaging due to the Japanese population being concentrated on the Taiheiyō Belt, especially the coastal cities of Tokyo and Osaka, the two most populous in Japan. The area remains seismically active, and future earthquakes are anticipated, with a high risk of a Nankai earthquake in the near future, which could be potentially very damaging. Tectonic setting The Nankai Trough is the surface expression of the subduction zone between the Philippine Sea and Amur plates. Honshu itself is formed from the island arc developed over the subducting plate. The megathrust boundary extends about 700 km from the southern end of Kyūshū to the triple junction with the Okhotsk Plate near Mount Fuji. At its southwestern end, there is another triple junction, where the overriding plate becomes the Okinawa Plate. Megathrust geometry The megathrust dip increases from about 5° near the surface to 10° as it passes beneath the coast of Honshu. Analysis of seismic reflection data suggests that some of the displacement is carried by a splay fault dipping at about 25°. This 'megasplay' fault system has caused an unusually thick section of fluid-rich sedimentary rocks to be deeply underthrust. The presence of this 'weak' zone may lead to shallow coseismic rupture along the megasplay faults during megathrust earthquakes, explaining the large tsunamis created by these events. Historical seismicity The Nankai megathrust is thought to have caused at least 12 major earthquakes in the last ca. 1300 years. The pattern of historical seismicity reveals that the megathrust surface is segmented, with five separate zones of rupturing identified, conventionally labelled A–E, from west to east. Earthquakes involving the A+B segments are generally referred to as Nankai (literally South Sea) earthquakes, C+D Tonankai (literally Southeast Sea) earthquakes and C+D+E Tokai (literally East Sea) earthquakes. The earthquake repeat intervals are generally in the range 90–200 years. On all but one occasion, rupture of segment C (±D ±E) has been followed by rupture of segments A+B within a few years. This behaviour has been reproduced by modelling the viscoelastic response of the megathrust fault plane with lateral variations in both convergence rate and frictional properties. Future earthquake risk The northeasternmost part of the megathrust, segment E, has not ruptured since 1854. A future great earthquake involving rupture along this and possibly other segments has been proposed as a major risk for the southern coast of Honshu. In 1999, the likelihood of the occurrence of a great earthquake in the Tokai area in the 2000-2010 period was estimated to be in the range of 0.35–0.45. Despite the uncertainty of when such an earthquake will occur, local authorities are already taking action to prepare residents for what they regard as an inevitability. Potential effects The Japanese government estimates that a major earthquake on the Nankai Trough would cause 169.5 trillion yen in direct damage and 50.8 trillion yen in economic losses for the following year. A study by the Japan Society of Civil Engineers in 2018 estimated that the long-term damage from the earthquake could result in 1,240 trillion yen in economic losses over a 20-year period. It is predicted that the economic damage is likely to be 10 times higher than for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. A death toll as high as 230,000 has been suggested for such an event. List of occurrences All the dates shown in the table use the Gregorian calendar. Some sources use the Julian calendar for the earlier earthquakes in the list. See also Tokai earthquakes List of earthquakes in Japan References Megathrust earthquakes in Japan Earthquake clusters, swarms, and sequences

18197718

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Early%20Warning%20%28Japan%29

Earthquake Early Warning (Japan)

In Japan, the is a warning issued when an earthquake is detected by multiple seismometers. These warnings are primarily issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), with guidance on how to react to them. Introduction The JMA has two EEW systems: one for the general public and another for the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services. When a P-wave is detected from two (or more) of the 4,235 seismometers installed throughout Japan, the JMA analyzes and predicts the approximate location of the earthquake's epicenter. This allows the JMA to notify people in affected prefectures by TV and radio if a strong earthquake is expected. An Earthquake Early Warning is issued to warn the general public when an earthquake of 5 or higher on the Japan seismic scale is expected. An EEW forecast (緊急地震速報(預報)) is issued to the National Meteorological and Hydrological Services when an earthquake of 3 or higher on the Japan seismic scale (or 3.5 or higher on the Richter magnitude scale) is expected, or when the amplitude of P- or S-waves measures more than 100 gals. The system was developed to minimize earthquake damage and enable people to take shelter or evacuate dangerous areas before the arrival of its strong surface waves. It is used by railways to slow trains and by factories to halt assembly lines before the earthquake hits. The effectiveness of the warning depends on the position of the receiver. After receiving a warning, a person has from a few seconds to a minute or more to take action. Areas near an epicenter may experience strong tremors before a warning is issued. After the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, the EEW system and Japan's tsunami warning system were considered effective. Although the tsunami killed over 10,000 people, it is believed that the casualties would have been much higher without the EEW system. In April 2011, the Chilean Subsecretary of Telecommunications said that their country hoped to establish a similar early-warning system. Hit rate The JMA announced the Earthquake Early Warning hit (accuracy) rate for the 2011 fiscal year on 31 May 2012. The hit rate is the percentage of warnings issued immediately on the detection of P-waves with a number (0 to 7) within one shindo number of the measured earthquake. For the fiscal years 2007–2009, the hit rate was 75 percent or higher (75 percent in 2007, 82 percent in 2008 and 76 percent in 2009). The 2010 hit rate fell to 28 percent, due to the number of aftershocks following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake (which occurred near the end of the 2010 fiscal year); before the earthquake, the hit rate was 72 percent. Measurement techniques have since been refined to ignore minor earthquakes, and the hit rate for FY2011 increased to 56 percent. The JMA intended to increase the hit rate to over 85 percent by FY2015. Inaccuracies Although EEW (Earthquake Early Warning) accuracy has been increasing, the following erroneous alarms have been issued: March 11, 2011 – The earthquake warning for the Tohoku region underestimated the quake's intensity. August 8, 2013 – Although an emergency earthquake bulletin was announced at 16:56 JST from Kanto to Kyushu, no shaking was observed. Noise from the ocean-floor seismograph off southeastern Mie Prefecture was recorded at the same time as shaking from a magnitude 2.3 earthquake in northern Wakayama Prefecture. January 5, 2018 – An 11:02 JST earthquake warning for the Kantō region and Fukushima Prefecture was an overestimation, caused by assessing concurrent earthquakes in Toyama Prefecture (magnitude 3.9) and Ibaraki Prefecture (magnitude 4.4) as a single quake. July 30, 2020 – The epicenter of a 5.8 magnitude earthquake south of Japan was miscalculated, causing the EEW to overestimate the size of the earthquake to be at a magnitude of 7.3, as well as erroneously placing the epicenter to much closer to Japan's main island, Honshū, than it actually was. There were no reports of any significant tremors. July 28, 2022 – At 16:05 JST an earthquake warning was issued for the area between the Kanto and Kyushu regions (with magnitude 5-), but no shaking was observed. The warning was quickly cancelled afterwards. It might have been caused by the noise of lightning strikes. Improvements Technical improvements are being made to increase the hit rate, including the Integrated Particle Filter (IPF) and Propagation of Local Undamped Motion (PLUM) methods. The IPF method, introduced on 14 December 2016, obtains seismic source elements with a particle filter. The PLUM method, introduced on 22 March 2018, predicts the seismic intensity directly from observed intensity without estimating the hypocenter and scale. Accurate seismic-intensity forecasts can be made for large earthquakes or those whose hypocenter is unknown. Broadcast format Television On NHK television channels and other Japanese TV broadcasters (ISDB, including 1seg), an alert is a message window on the screen with the earthquake epicenter (shown as a red X with a white outline) and areas affected by strong tremors. Two sets of chimes sound, followed by a voice announcement in Japanese: In addition to NHK, the announcement is used by Fuji TV, TV Asahi and Tokyo MX. Nippon TV and TBS shorten it to "Kinkyū Jishin Sokuhō desu" ("This is an Earthquake Early Warning"). TV Tokyo sounds a set of chimes, without a voice announcement. The alerts also inform viewers of possible landslides or a tsunami caused by the quake in the affected area. If tsunami warnings are issued, the system utilizes 1seg to automatically turn on (and tune to NHK) all radios and televisions with 1seg technology in at-risk areas. In addition to Japanese, the warnings are broadcast in English, Mandarin, Korean and Portuguese. Mobile-phone networks Japan's three major mobile phone carriers—NTT docomo, au (KDDI and Okinawa Cellular) and SoftBank Mobile—have developed Cell Broadcast systems to send multiple users an SMS of the EEW. It is mandatory for 3G cell phones sold after 2007 to receive this service, although foreign manufacturers such as Nokia, Apple, HTC, LG and Samsung are exempt. In August 2011, Apple announced that its iOS 5 iPhone platform would support EEW notification. Other NTT Docomo Inc. EEW is enabled by default on all models of the released after 26 November 2007, and on some FOMA high-speed models in the released after February 2008. au The system was enabled on all models in early 2008, including W61CA, W61H, W61K, W61SA, W61SH, W62SA and a few smartphone models, such as IS02 (TSI01). KDDI and Okinawa Cellular began free EEW broadcasts via au's SMS, , on 25 March 2008. SoftBank Mobile On 30 May 2007, SoftBank announced development of an EEW broadcast system similar to NTT docomo's and au's. Deployment of the system was originally planned for FY2008, but was postponed for two years. On 25 August 2010, EEW service began on Shikoku, in the Kansai, Tōkai, Tōhoku (seven prefectures) and Chūgoku regions, and portions of the Kantō region. The EEW broadcast network has covered the whole country since 7 December 2010. The SoftBank 831N was the only model supporting EEW in March 2011, although more models had been expected to support the system after summer 2010. Other RC Solution Company developed Yurekuru Call for iPhone, a free iPhone application to receive EEW which is distributed on the Apple App Store; the application is also available for Android. Notification of an EEW might be delayed or blocked if communication lines are congested. The Japanese version of iOS 5 for iPhone has built-in EEW functionality. Radio A specific, common chime tone from FM stations is automatically detected and turns on the radio (if in sleep mode), sounding a loud chime and broadcasting an EEW message before the quake begins by detecting S-waves. When the S-wave has been analyzed, detailed information on the earthquake (such as seismic scale and areas under threat) is announced. The following radios receive EEWs from radio stations and are free of information or connection fees: Iris Ohyama EQA-001 Iris Ohyama EQA-101 Uniden EWR200 supports EEW and the recognizes NHK Radio 1 announcers. EEW broadcasts can be received in areas without broadband Internet access. Signal quality, speed and service area may vary from station to station. Stations NHK Radio 1 and Radio 2, nationwide JOGV-FM (bayfm78), Chiba JOAU-FM (Tokyo FM), Tokyo JOAV-FM (J-Wave), Tokyo Cable television Japanese cable TV stations offer EEWs. (JCN) rents a receiver which notifies the user of the estimated Shindo scale and the time remaining (0 to 5 seconds). Some cable-TV stations also broadcast EEWs on FM community radio stations and provide free equipment to prefecture and municipal facilities. Internet , a weather-information company, began a paid EEW service (The Last 10 Seconds) on October 15, 2007. The service requires a computer running Windows 2000 or later with an always-on connection to the Internet. The EEW application can be configured to receive information on earthquakes with a JMA magnitude of 3.5 or higher or with a seismic intensity of 3 or higher. Newer versions of the program allow for the announcement of lower-intensity earthquakes. The program announces the approximate location of the epicenter, the expected JMA seismic intensity and displays a countdown to expected major shaking. , a disaster-prevention technology company which is part of the Railway Technical Research Institute Group, released an application (EQMessenger) to receive ANET Alert on 7 July 2008. This deciphers and broadcasts EEW information on the epicenter, the estimated seismic intensity at the user's location, and the time remaining before the arrival of the S-wave. When the estimated seismic intensity exceeds the preset level, EQMessenger can sound a warning and display the epicenter, intensity estimation and the arrival of the tremor on a pop-up map. A similar, free Windows program, SignalNow Express, was made available by the Strategy Corporation (ストラテジー株式会社) after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake. A free multi-platform program, that works on Windows, Mac, and Linux, JQuake, was released on February 14, 2020 as an inspiration to another program called Kiwi Monitor. JQuake tracks information in real-time, and reports any tsunami events that occur. EEW-capable devices The Earthquake Early Warning logo used by the Japan Meteorological Agency is a . Many earthquake-preparedness activities in Japan use the catfish as a mascot; in Japanese mythology earthquakes were caused by a giant catfish, or seeing catfish foretold an earthquake. See also Earthquake warning system Earthquake prediction Emergency Warning Broadcast system J-Alert Cell Broadcast Specific Area Message Encoding Weather radio ShakeAlert References External links Japan Meteorological Agency Earthquake Early Warnings 緊急地震速報について 自治体の住民向け防災気象情報提供サービス一覧表 Ministerial Meetings on EEW Public Relations Cabinet Office (Japan) Earthquake Early Warning Users Association Italian and Japanese Seismic Early Warning System by applying Data Mining Techniques An example of EEW received by a PC Real-time Earthquake Information Consortium National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) Research Project for the Practical Use of Real-time Earthquake Information Networks High Sensitivity Seismograph Network Japan (Hi-net) Seconds Before the Big One: Progress in Earthquake AlarmsScientific American, 11 March 2011 Brazil adopts Japanese TV warning system Advanced Television Ltd. 13 Jun 2011 The USGS and Partners Work to Develop an Earthquake Early Warning System for California United States Geological Survey 17 April 2012 Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation Earthquakes in Japan Emergency management in Japan Information systems Japan Meteorological Agency Public safety

18242117

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%20Iran%20earthquake

2005 Iran earthquake

The 2005 Iran earthquake may refer to: 2005 Zarand earthquake, February 22 2005 Qeshm earthquake, November 27 See also List of earthquakes in Iran

18296535

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1428%20Catalonia%20earthquake

1428 Catalonia earthquake

The Catalan earthquake of February 2, 1428, known in Catalan as the because it took place during Candlemas, struck the Principality of Catalonia, especially Roussillon, with an epicentre near Camprodon. The earthquake was one of a series of related seismic events that shook Catalonia in a single year. Beginning on February 23, 1427, tremors were felt in March, April, May 15 at Olot, June, and December. They caused relatively minor visible damage to property, notably to the monastery of Amer; but they probably caused severe weakening of building infrastructure. This would account for the massive and widespread destruction that accompanied the subsequent 1428 quake. Modern estimates of the intensity are VIII (Damaging) or IX (Destructive) on the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale. The ramparts of Prats-de-Mollo-la-Preste were destroyed. The clocktower of Arles-sur-Tech collapsed. The monastery of Fontclara at Banyuls-dels-Aspres was devastated. The damage sustained by the monastery of Saint-Martin-du-Canigou marked the commencement of its decline. The belltower and lantern tower of Sant Joan de les Abadesses fell down. The chapel at Núria was destroyed. The villages of Tortellà and Queralbs were entirely destroyed. Among the damaged structures were Santa Maria de Ripoll and Sant Llorenç prop Bagà. As far away as Perpignan and Barcelona the populace was gripped by panic. In the latter, the intensity was estimated at VI (Strong) or VII (Very strong). The rose window of the Gothic church of Santa Maria del Mar was destroyed. Robin de Molhet, lord of Peyrepertuse, who was travelling in his domains when the earthquake struck, quickly came to the aid of victims, which earned the recognition of Alfonso V of Aragon, who was away in Valencia at the time of the tremors. He was informed by the President of the Generalitat de Catalunya, Felip de Malla, in a letter. It is estimated that hundreds of people were killed in the disaster: two hundred are estimated at Camprodon, one to three hundred at Puigcerdà (due to the collapse of the church), twenty to thirty at Barcelona (in Santa Maria del Mar), and almost the entire population of Queralbs. The fallout lasted well over a year. The quake was probably the worst in the history of the Pyrenees, though the first recorded only occurred in 1373. It remains to this day a point of reference for the study of seismic risk. See also List of historical earthquakes List of earthquakes in Spain Notes Catalonia earthquake Earthquakes in Spain Earthquakes in France 15th-century earthquakes Medieval Catalonia Geography of Catalonia 15th century in Catalonia 15th century in Aragon Olot

18400450

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20Kunlun%20earthquake

2001 Kunlun earthquake

An earthquake occurred in China on 14 November 2001 at 09:26 UTC (17:26 local time), with an epicenter near Kokoxili, close to the border between Qinghai and Xinjiang in a remote mountainous region. With a magnitude of 7.8 Mw (8.0 ), it was the most powerful earthquake in China for 5 decades. No casualties were reported, presumably due to the very low population density and the lack of high-rise buildings. This earthquake was associated with the longest surface rupture ever recorded on land, ~450 km. Tectonic setting The Kunlun fault is one of the major sinistral strike-slip structures that accommodate the eastward motion of the Tibetan Plateau relative to the Eurasian Plate. This motion is caused by the lateral spreading of the zone of thickened crust associated with the collision between the Indian and Eurasian Plates. Earthquake The earthquake rupture began on a relatively small strike-slip fault segment at the western end of the Kunlun fault in the region of the mountain Buka Daban Feng. The rupture propagated to the east via an extensional stepover before following the main strand of the Kunlun fault. The region of co-seismic deformation (i.e. that occurred during the earthquake) is unusually large, with significant faulting being observed up to 60 km from the main rupture trace. This deformation occurs in two swathes, ca. 20 and 60 km from the main fault trace. Pre-existing lineaments and geomorphological features suggest that this earthquake-triggered displacement occurred on existing faults. The co-seismic surface rupture extended for more than 400 km, making it the longest zone of co-seismic surface rupture so far observed. An analysis of the propagation speed indicates that the rupture propagated at a normal velocity along the original segment, but increased in velocity to above the S wave velocity after the jump across the extensional stepover and continued at that speed until propagation stopped. This makes the Kunlun earthquake the best documented example of a supershear earthquake. It has been suggested that the unusually wide zone of co-seismic deformation is a direct result of the supershear rupture propagation. Damage Due to the remoteness of the region, most reports of damage came from areas hundreds of kilometers from the epicenter. The nearest population centre, the city of Golmud, reported severe shaking but no buildings collapsed. Some damage was reported at the construction site for the Qinghai–Tibet railway and along the Qinghai–Tibet highway. See also List of earthquakes in 2001 List of earthquakes in China References External links 2001 Kunlun Earthquakes in Qinghai Kunlun Kunlun Earthquake, 2001 Supershear earthquakes

18410161

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20Tokachi%20earthquake

2003 Tokachi earthquake

The 2003 Hokkaidō earthquake, scientifically named the , occurred off the coast of Hokkaidō, Japan on 26 September at 04:50 local time (19:50 UTC 25 September). At a focal depth of 27 km (17 mi), this great undersea earthquake measured 8.3 on the moment magnitude scale, making it the most powerful earthquake of 2003, as well as one of the most intense earthquakes to hit Japan since modern record-keeping began in 1900. The Hokkaido earthquake caused extensive damage, destroying roads all around Hokkaidō, and triggered power outages and extensive landslides. Over 800 people were injured. The earthquake also caused a tsunami reaching 4 meters in height. The earthquake's presence was felt throughout Japan, stretching all the way to Honshu and Tokyo. Tectonic setting The location and moment tensor solution of this earthquake are consistent with it being a result of thrust faulting between the North American Plate and the subducting Pacific Plate. In addition to experiencing large thrust earthquakes that originate on the interface between the plates, eastern Hokkaidō experiences great earthquakes that originate from the interior of the subducted Pacific plate. The region experienced a catastrophic earthquake and tsunami with an estimated magnitude of 9 in 1667, a magnitude 8.2 event in 1952, a 1968 quake measuring 8.3 , and one in 2008 measuring 7.1, all bearing the name Tokachi-Oki, and a 1973 quake to the immediate north along the Kuril Trench plate boundary called the 1973 Nemuro earthquake. Aftershocks As of 3 October 2003, a total of 65 aftershocks were reported near the main shock epicenter. At least one major tremor occurred, measuring magnitude 7.0 on the Richter scale. At the time, specialists assessed a 50% probability of an aftershock of magnitude 6.0 or greater to occur within the subsequent 72 hours, with a 20% chance of its magnitude exceeding 7.0. Damage and casualties Despite the earthquake's great intensity, structural damage to the region was comparatively light; the epicenter was located nearly a hundred kilometers offshore, with most structures in its vicinity reported to be resistant to earthquake shaking. The majority of the destruction was confined to coastal areas, such as sea and fishing ports, mostly inflicted by subsequent tsunami waves. Although soil liquefaction was observed over a broad geological area, it occurred in localized areas almost exclusively limited to man-made embankments. The earthquake affected a total of 36 local rivers, including the major Abashiri and Ishikari Rivers. Many properties received considerable damage, two individuals remain missing and 849 people sustained injuries. Monetary losses in Hokkaido amounted to at least ¥213 billion (2003 JPY), or $1.9 billion (2003 USD). One person died after being hit by a car after cleaning up earthquake damage. Structures The earthquake and its associated tsunami waves destroyed several oceanside home communities and damaged many others. Over 1,500 houses or buildings – the majority of which were in Kushiro city – suffered considerable damage, with of a total of 141 reported to be partially or completely destroyed. Strong shaking affected many bridges in the region, some sustaining severe damage due to relative motion between spans in excess of design standards. The center of the Rekifune Bridge, located in Taiki, Hiroo, was reported to have sunk about 0.12 m (0.39 ft) at the joint section following significant ground deformation. Some local schools were also damaged, ranging from shattered windows to severed expansion joints and columns. Two town halls in Kushiro and Taiku suffered partial collapses. At Kushiro Airport, the tremor caused the control tower ceiling to collapse, prompting officials to halt control work for several days. Small cracks were reported in the gates of the Takami Hokkaidō Dam, though no threat of dam failure existed. Harbour facilities Several sea ports in the area sustained moderate damage – such as cracks and wall collapse – due to lateral ground spreading caused by liquefaction. Some 123 coastal fishing ports and facilities in eastern Hokkaidō reported significant damage, with an additional 25 ports damaged in Iwate. At least three major ports were affected by the disaster; Kushiro Port sustained great damage to one of its piers as a result of ground displacement and sand boils. Tsunami waves stranded several small boats onshore; various ship containers and oil tanks along coastlines sustained damage. The earthquake left marine oil spills in its wake, though the conditions were quickly normalized. See also List of earthquakes in 2003 List of earthquakes in Japan References External links Hokkaido Earthquake, 2003 Hokkaido Earthquake, 2003 Earthquakes of the Heisei period Megathrust earthquakes in Japan 2003 tsunamis September 2003 events in Japan Landslides in Japan 2003 disasters in Japan

18419599

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%20Moro%20Gulf%20earthquake

1976 Moro Gulf earthquake

The 1976 Moro Gulf earthquake and tsunami took place on near the islands of Mindanao and Sulu, in the Philippines. Its magnitude was calculated as being as high as 8.0 on the moment magnitude scale. It was the deadliest and strongest earthquake in the Philippines in 58 years since the 1918 Celebes Sea earthquake. Tectonic summary Several fault zones in the region are capable of producing major earthquakes and destructive local tsunamis. The two major fault zones that are most dangerous are the Sulu Trench in the Sulu Sea and the Cotabato Trench, a region of subduction that crosses the Celebes Sea and the Moro Gulf in Southern Mindanao. According to the PHIVOLCS historical catalog of earthquakes for the last 100 years, this region of the southern Philippines is characterized by moderate to high seismicity. The most recent earthquake along the Cotabato Trench region of subduction being the March 6, 2002, earthquake in Southern Mindanao. Intensity Report Effects The initial earthquake was widespread and was felt as far as the central Philippine islands of the Visayas. A massive tsunami devastated 700 kilometers of coastline bordering the Moro Gulf in the North Celebes Sea, resulting in destruction and death in the coastal communities of the Sulu Archipelago, southern Mindanao particularly the provinces of Sultan Kudarat and Sarangani (formerly part of South Cotabato), and in the Zamboanga Peninsula including Zamboanga City and Pagadian City. The maximum height of the waves reached 9 meters at Lebak on the isla; 4.3 meters at Alicia; 3 meters at Resa Bay on the eastern coast of Basilan; and at the islands of Jolo and Sacol. At least 5,000 people died during the earthquake and tsunami, with thousands more remaining missing. Some reports say that as many as 8,000 people lost their lives in total, with ninety percent of all deaths the result of the following tsunami. Initially over 8,000 people were officially counted as killed or missing, 10,000 injured, and 90,000 homeless, making it one of the most devastating disasters in the history of the Philippine Islands. After the initial earthquake the people were unaware of the need to move to higher ground; when the tsunami hit it sucked most of the victims out to sea. Based on the investigation on the affected region it was confirmed that the waves reached up to when they hit the areas. There were reports of weak tsunami activity as far as Japan. In Zamboanga City, 14 buildings were partially damaged. Zamboanga City was spared from serious damage of the tsunami triggered by this earthquake because the Basilan Island and the Santa Cruz Islands served as a buffer and deflected waves. See also List of earthquakes in 1976 List of earthquakes in the Philippines References External links Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology The Earthquake and Tsunami of August 16, 1976, in the Philippines – The Moro Gulf Tsunami" – George Pararas-Carayannis 1976 Moro 1976 in the Philippines August 1976 events in Asia 1976 earthquakes Moro History of Zamboanga del Sur History of Maguindanao del Norte History of Maguindanao del Sur 1976 disasters in the Philippines

18446814

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Dodecanese%20earthquake

2008 Dodecanese earthquake

The 2008 Dodecanese earthquake occurred near Kattavia on the island of Rhodes in the eastern Mediterranean Sea on 15 July. The quake struck at 06:26 a.m. local time (UTC+3) and one woman was killed when she slipped and fell as she tried to flee her home. However, the earthquake did not cause any major damage. The earthquake was felt across the entire eastern Mediterranean, as far west as Libya, and inland as far as Damascus. There was a significant aftershock the next day, 16 July, at 02:52 a.m. local time, which resulted in additional injuries. The aftershock was rated 4.8 See also List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in Greece References External links Dodecanese 2008 Dodecanese Do July 2008 events in Europe

18465796

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1933%20Sanriku%20earthquake

1933 Sanriku earthquake

The occurred on the Sanriku coast of the Tōhoku region of Honshū, Japan on March 2 with a moment magnitude of 8.4. The associated tsunami caused widespread devastation. Earthquake The epicenter was located offshore, east of the city of Kamaishi, Iwate. The main shock occurred at 02:31 AM local time on March 3, 1933 (17:31 UTC March 2, 1933) and measured 8.4 on the moment magnitude scale. It was in approximately the same location as the 1896 Sanriku earthquake and it occurred far enough away from the town that shaking did little damage. Approximately three hours after the main shock there was a magnitude 6.8 aftershock, followed by 76 more aftershocks (with a magnitude of 5.0 or greater) over a period of six months. This was an intraplate event that occurred within the Pacific Plate, and the focal mechanism showed normal faulting. Damage Although little damage was produced from the shock, the tsunami, which was recorded to reach the height of at Ōfunato, Iwate, caused extensive damage, and destroyed many homes and caused numerous casualties. The tsunami destroyed over 7,000 homes along the northern Japanese coastline, of which over 4,885 were washed away. The tsunami was also recorded in Hawaii with a height of , and also resulted in slight damage. The death toll came to 1,522 people confirmed dead, 1,542 missing, and 12,053 injured. Hardest hit was the town of Tarō, Iwate (now part of Miyako city), with 98% of its houses destroyed and 42% of its population killed. See also List of earthquakes in 1933 List of earthquakes in Japan Seismicity of the Sanriku coast Notes External links Historic video footage of devastation following 1933 Sanriku Earthquake Sanriku Sanriku March 1933 events 1930s tsunamis Earthquakes in the Empire of Japan Tsunamis in Japan Earthquakes of the Showa period 1933 disasters in Japan

18490812

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20Denali%20earthquake

2002 Denali earthquake

The 2002 Denali earthquake occurred at 22:12:41 UTC (1:12 PM Local Time) November 3 with an epicenter 66 km ESE of Denali National Park, Alaska, United States. This 7.9 Mw earthquake was the largest recorded in the United States in 37 years (after the 1965 Rat Islands earthquake). The shock was the strongest ever recorded in the interior of Alaska. Due to the remote location, there were no fatalities and only one injury. Due to the shallow depth, it was felt at least as far away as Seattle and it generated seiches on bodies of water as far away as Texas and New Orleans, Louisiana. About 20 houseboats were damaged by a seiche on a lake in Washington State. Tectonic setting The Denali-Totschunda fault is a major dextral (right lateral) strike-slip system, similar in scale to the San Andreas fault system. In Alaska, moving from east to west, the plate interactions change from a transform boundary between Pacific and North American plates to a collision zone with a microplate, the Yakutat terrane, which is in the process of being accreted to the North American plate, to a destructive boundary along the line of the Aleutian islands. The Denali-Totschunda fault system is one of the structures that accommodate the accretion of the Yakutat terrane. Earthquake Foreshock On October 23, 2002, there was a magnitude 6.7 earthquake located on the Denali fault. The event's aftershocks revealed a long fault rupture along the Denali fault, but aerial reconnaissance could not locate a surface rupture. This rupture extends to west of the mainshock's epicenter. Minor avalanches of snow and rockfalls were plentiful in the area as a result. Because of its location close to the November 3 event and the fact that it preceded it by only 11 days, this earthquake is regarded as a foreshock. The calculated stress transfer from this foreshock indicates that it brought the Denali fault closer to failure at the location of the mainshock epicenter. Mainshock The initial rupture on November 3, nucleating east of the foreshock, was on a thrust fault segment, the previously unknown Susitna Glacier thrust, to the south of the Denali fault. The rupture then jumped to the main Denali Fault strand propagating for a further before jumping again onto the Totschunda Fault through a wide and complex transition zone, and then ruptured another of fault plane. The total surface rupture was ca. . Slip on the Susitna Glacier thrust peaked at with an average displacement of across the fault. Slip on the Denali fault peaked at with an average slip of . The transition zone between the Denali fault and the Totschunda fault which includes small normal faults had a peak displacement of , while the main Totschunda fault slipped an average of with a peak of found. Two areas of high seismic moment were observed and from the epicenter. Three subevents were observed during the event: the first was a 7.2 primarily thrust event along the Susitna Glacier thrust with potential simultaneous Denali fault rupture. The second, an 7.3 subevent, ruptured along the Denali fault, while the third, final, and largest 7.6 subevent continued past the second event along the Denali and Totschunda faults where the maximum displacements of was observed. The total seismic moment of this earthquake corresponds to a magnitude of 7.9. There is evidence of local supershear propagation inferred from ground motions along at least of the rupture. Aftershocks Aftershocks primarily manifested in portions of fault where surface rupture was found, and aftershocks were usually limited to very shallow depths. South of Denali, aftershocks match the inferred characteristics of the Susitna Glacier thrust. Many aftershocks were actually on faults nearby that are not known to have ruptured, and may just be accommodating stress changes. On the Denali fault itself, there were fewer and smaller aftershocks than expected, with the largest only being a 5.8 event. Earthquake damage Minor damage was reported over a wide area but the only examples of severe damage were on highways that crossed the fault trace and areas that suffered liquefaction, e.g. Northway Airport. Several bridges were damaged but none so severely that they were closed to traffic. Due to the general self-sufficiency of those living near the fault rupture, very few lifeline systems were compromised. These people tend to get water from private wells, heat their homes and cook their meals with gas furnaces and stoves, and maintain individual septic systems. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System crosses the rupture trace; the pipeline suffered some minor damage to supports. There was no oil spillage, as the pipeline at that location was designed to move laterally along beams to withstand major movement on the Denali Fault. The pipeline was shut down for three days to allow for inspections but was then reopened. See also List of earthquakes in 2002 List of earthquakes in Alaska List of earthquakes in the United States References External links The 2002 Denali Fault earthquake – United States Geological Survey M 7.9 Denali Fault earthquake of November 3, 2002 – Alaska Earthquake Center Denali 2002 earthquakes 2002 natural disasters in the United States 2002 in Alaska Supershear earthquakes

18543517

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Iwate%20earthquake

2008 Iwate earthquake

2008 Iwate earthquake may refer to: 2008 Iwate–Miyagi Nairiku earthquake on 14 June 2008, Mw 6.9 July 2008 Iwate earthquake on 24 July 2008, Mw 6.8

18621290

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake-resistant%20structures

Earthquake-resistant structures

Earthquake-resistant or aseismic structures are designed to protect buildings to some or greater extent from earthquakes. While no structure can be entirely impervious to earthquake damage, the goal of earthquake engineering is to erect structures that fare better during seismic activity than their conventional counterparts. According to building codes, earthquake-resistant structures are intended to withstand the largest earthquake of a certain probability that is likely to occur at their location. This means the loss of life should be minimized by preventing collapse of the buildings for rare earthquakes while the loss of the functionality should be limited for more frequent ones. To combat earthquake destruction, the only method available to ancient architects was to build their landmark structures to last, often by making them excessively stiff and strong. Currently, there are several design philosophies in earthquake engineering, making use of experimental results, computer simulations and observations from past earthquakes to offer the required performance for the seismic threat at the site of interest. These range from appropriately sizing the structure to be strong and ductile enough to survive the shaking with an acceptable damage, to equipping it with base isolation or using structural vibration control technologies to minimize any forces and deformations. While the former is the method typically applied in most earthquake-resistant structures, important facilities, landmarks and cultural heritage buildings use the more advanced (and expensive) techniques of isolation or control to survive strong shaking with minimal damage. Examples of such applications are the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels and the Acropolis Museum. Trends and projects Some of the new trends and/or projects in the field of earthquake engineering structures are presented. Building materials Based on studies in New Zealand, relating to Christchurch earthquakes, precast concrete designed and installed in accordance with modern codes performed well. According to the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, precast panel buildings had good durability during the earthquake in Armenia, compared to precast frame-panels. Earthquake shelter One Japanese construction company has developed a six-foot cubical shelter, presented as an alternative to earthquake-proofing an entire building. Concurrent shake-table testing Concurrent shake-table testing of two or more building models is a vivid, persuasive and effective way to validate earthquake engineering solutions experimentally. Thus, two wooden houses built before adoption of the 1981 Japanese Building Code were moved to E-Defense for testing. One house was reinforced to enhance its seismic resistance, while the other one was not. These two models were set on E-Defense platform and tested simultaneously. Combined vibration control solution Designed by architect Merrill W. Baird of Glendale, working in collaboration with A. C. Martin Architects of Los Angeles, the Municipal Services Building at 633 East Broadway, Glendale was completed in 1966. Prominently sited at the corner of East Broadway and Glendale Avenue, this civic building serves as a heraldic element of Glendale's civic center. In October 2004 Architectural Resources Group (ARG) was contracted by Nabih Youssef & Associates, Structural Engineers, to provide services regarding a historic resource assessment of the building due to a proposed seismic retrofit. In 2008, the Municipal Services Building of the City of Glendale, California was seismically retrofitted using an innovative combined vibration control solution: the existing elevated building foundation of the building was put on high damping rubber bearings. Steel plate walls system A steel plate shear wall (SPSW) consists of steel infill plates bounded by a column-beam system. When such infill plates occupy each level within a framed bay of a structure, they constitute a SPSW system. Whereas most earthquake resistant construction methods are adapted from older systems, SPSW was invented entirely to withstand seismic activity. SPSW behavior is analogous to a vertical plate girder cantilevered from its base. Similar to plate girders, the SPSW system optimizes component performance by taking advantage of the post-buckling behavior of the steel infill panels. The Ritz-Carlton/JW Marriott hotel building, a part of the LA Live development in Los Angeles, California, is the first building in Los Angeles that uses an advanced steel plate shear wall system to resist the lateral loads of strong earthquakes and winds. Kashiwazaki–Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant upgrade The Kashiwazaki–Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant, the largest nuclear generating station in the world by net electrical power rating, happened to be near the epicenter of the strongest Mw 6.6 July 2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake. This initiated an extended shutdown for structural inspection which indicated that a greater earthquake-proofing was needed before operation could be resumed. On May 9, 2009, one unit (Unit 7) was restarted, after the seismic upgrades. The test run had to continue for 50 days. The plant had been completely shut down for almost 22 months following the earthquake. Seismic test of seven-story building A destructive earthquake struck a lone, wooden condominium in Japan. The experiment was webcast live on July 14, 2009, to yield insight on how to make wooden structures stronger and better able to withstand major earthquakes. The Miki shake at the Hyogo Earthquake Engineering Research Center is the capstone experiment of the four-year NEESWood project, which receives its primary support from the U.S. National Science Foundation Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES) Program. "NEESWood aims to develop a new seismic design philosophy that will provide the necessary mechanisms to safely increase the height of wood-frame structures in active seismic zones of the United States, as well as mitigate earthquake damage to low-rise wood-frame structures," said Rosowsky, Department of Civil Engineering at Texas A&M University. This philosophy is based on the application of seismic damping systems for wooden buildings. The systems, which can be installed inside the walls of most wooden buildings, include strong metal frame, bracing and dampers filled with viscous fluid. Superframe earthquake proof structure The proposed system is composed of core walls, hat beams incorporated into the top-level, outer columns, and viscous dampers vertically installed between the tips of the hat beams and the outer columns. During an earthquake, the hat beams and outer columns act as outriggers and reduce the overturning moment in the core, and the installed dampers also reduce the moment and the lateral deflection of the structure. This innovative system can eliminate inner beams and inner columns on each floor, and thereby provide buildings with column-free floor space even in highly seismic regions. Earthquake architecture The term 'seismic architecture' or 'earthquake architecture' was first introduced in 1985 by Robert Reitherman. The phrase “earthquake architecture” is used to describe a degree of architectural expression of earthquake resistance or implication of architectural configuration, form or style in earthquake resistance. It is also used to describe buildings in which seismic design considerations impacted its architecture. It may be considered a new aesthetic approach in designing structures in seismic prone areas. History An article in Scientific American from May 1884, "Buildings that Resist Earthquakes" described early engineering efforts such as Shōsōin. See also Earthquake Baroque Emergency management Geotechnical engineering Seismic response of landfill Seismic retrofit Tsunami-proof building References External links Design Discussion Primer - Seismic Events from BC Housing Management Commission – overview of resilient building design strategies. Building Building codes Earthquake engineering Seismic vibration control Structural engineering Sustainable building

18624248

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Guatemala

List of earthquakes in Guatemala

Earthquakes are relatively frequent occurrences in Guatemala. The country lies in a major fault zone known as the Motagua and Chixoy-Polochic fault complex, which cuts across Guatemala and forms the tectonic boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the North American Plate. In addition, along Guatemala's western coast line, the Cocos plate pushes against the Caribbean Plate, forming a subduction zone known as the Middle America Trench located approximately 50 km off Guatemala's Pacific coast. This subduction zone led to the formation of the Central America Volcanic Arc, and is an important source of offshore earthquakes. Both these major tectonic processes have generated deformations within the Caribbean plate and produced secondary fault zones, like the Mixco, Jalpatagua, and Santa Catarina Pinula faults. The most destructive earthquake in recent Guatemalan history was the 1976 quake with a magnitude of 7.5 Mw and a hypocenter depth of just 5 km. This shallow-focus earthquake, originating from the Motagua Fault, caused 23,000 fatalities, leaving 76,000 injured and causing widespread material damage. Surprisingly, the 7.9 Mw earthquake of 1942, though higher in magnitude, was much less destructive, in part because of its substantially deeper hypocenter depth of 60 km. A number of earthquakes with low magnitudes caused major damage in very localized areas, which may in part be explained by their relatively shallow depth. This was the case with the 1985 Uspantán earthquake of 5.0 Mw with a depth of 5 km, which destroyed most buildings in the town of Uspantán, but caused little or no damage in the rest of the country. Earthquakes Guatemala is in constant earthquake activity. However, there are some earthquakes that are more notable due to the damage they've caused. Notable earthquakes in recent Guatemalan history include the following: MM = Intensity on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale See also Chixoy-Polochic Fault Geography of Guatemala Motagua Fault References Sources Seismic data of Guatemala, Retrieved on July 28, 2008 details on Historic Earthquakes in Guatemala. Retrieved on July 28, 2008. External links Instituto Nacional de Sismología, Vulcanología, Meteorología e Hidrolagía (INSIVUMEH) Guatemala - Earthquake information by Earthquake Engineering Research Institute Guatemala Lists of events in Guatemala

18631082

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20Enggano%20earthquake

2000 Enggano earthquake

The 2000 Enggano earthquake struck at 23:28 local time on June 4 with a moment magnitude of 7.9 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong). The event occurred off the coast of southern Sumatra, Indonesia near Enggano Island. There were more than 100 fatalities and up to 2,585 injuries. Over 730 aftershocks shook the area afterwards, one just eleven minutes after the mainshock. This was the first and southernmost in a series of very large to great Sumatran earthquakes in the 2000s to rupture almost the entire western part of the Sunda megathrust, most notably including the 9.1–9.3 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, but also the 8.7 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake, and the 7.9–8.4 September 2007 Sumatra earthquakes. Background and tectonics Indonesia is well known for strong earthquakes: the 2000 Enggano event marked the beginning of an ongoing period of seismic activity in the area, highlighted by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The 2000 Enggano earthquake took place at the southeastern end of the fault segment that ruptured during the 1833 Sumatra earthquake. This group of earthquakes, in addition to the 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake, all ruptured along the megathrust that forms the interface between the Australian and Sunda Plates. This event was the only one not to cause a tsunami. Earthquake The earthquake involved the rupture of two different faults with different mechanisms. The first subevent ruptured a north–south striking fault within the Australian Plate with a left lateral strike-slip mechanism. The earthquake rupture propagated northwards until it reached the megathrust, triggering the second subevent along the Sunda megathrust itself. The strike-slip rupture probably represents slip on a pre-existing fracture zone, similar to the likely cause of the M 7.9 earthquake that struck about 1,000 km to the south on 18 June 2000 with a similar mechanism. Damage and casualties At least 46 people were killed, 940 were injured and 1,008 affected houses were reported in the Bengkulu area. Thirty-nine deaths, 1,245 injuries and 90 percent of houses were destroyed on Enggano Island. In the village worst struck, several hundred structures were reported in ruins. An aftershock measuring 6.2 struck on June 7. Aftermath and response International relief teams arrived in the region within several days. Relief efforts were impeded by fallen telephone poles, which blocked the supplies. The main problem found in the affected areas was a lack of water supply and electricity, these facilities having been cut off by oscillation. Pope John Paul II expressed his "sincere sympathy" for those families stricken by the earthquake. He called for a rapid international response to the quake, and said he would keep its victims in his prayers. A Taiwanese rescue team was sent to help victims of the tremor, the first country to take part in rescue efforts from Asia. The United States donated US$ 25,000 instantly to relief organizations, Japan offering a grant of US$140,000 and Australia US$143,000 in addition to a two-person team of emergency relief examiners. Wharton Basin event Two weeks later on June 18, another magnitude 7.9 event occurred about to the southwest in the Wharton Basin. At the time, it was the largest intraplate earthquake in the Indian Ocean until the 2012 Indian Ocean earthquakes. See also List of earthquakes in 2000 List of earthquakes in Indonesia References Further reading External links M7.9 Enggano Island-Bengkuku Earthquake, 2000 – Amateur Seismic Centre Enggano earthquake Earthquakes in Indonesia Enggano earthquake Enggano earthquake Bengkulu Landslides in Indonesia 2000 disasters in Indonesia

18635306

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Chino%20Hills%20earthquake

2008 Chino Hills earthquake

The 2008 Chino Hills earthquake occurred at 11:42:15 am PDT (18:42:15 UTC) on July 29 in Southern California. The epicenter of the magnitude 5.4 earthquake was in Chino Hills, c. east-southeast of downtown Los Angeles. Movement on an oblique-slip fault resulted in a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong). Though there were no deaths, eight people were injured, and it caused considerable damage in numerous structures throughout the area and caused some amusement park facilities to shut down their rides. The earthquake led to increased discussion regarding the possibility of a stronger earthquake in the future. Earthquake The Chino Hills earthquake was caused by oblique-slip faulting, with components of both thrust and sinistral strike-slip displacement. Preliminary reports cited the Whittier Fault as the active cause, but the quake was later determined to have been generated by the "Yorba Linda trend," as identified by Caltech seismologist Egill Hauksson. Its epicenter was within of Chino Hills and its hypocenter was c. deep. Initial estimations of the moderate main shock reported it as magnitude 5.8, but this was later revised to magnitude 5.4. The main shock was reportedly felt as far south as San Diego, and Tijuana, Mexico, and as far east as Las Vegas, Nevada. It was the strongest earthquake to occur in the greater Los Angeles area since the 1994 Northridge earthquake. As reported by The Orange County Register, three microearthquakes, all less than magnitude 3.0, occurred in Anaheim Hills, southwest of Chino Hills, two months before the Chino Hills earthquake. There was an unusually low amount of seismic activity in Southern California in the week prior to the quake. Between July 20 and 26, 2008, there were no earthquakes in Southern California exceeding magnitude 3.0, thus there was speculation that the wane in seismic activity was a precursor to a possible larger event. Impact The Chino Hills earthquake caused no deaths or significant damage due to the physical location of its epicenter. Most of the infrastructure in the Chino Hills area is relatively new and well suited to withstand a large quake. Unlike previous earthquakes in the region—such as the 1994 Northridge earthquake and the 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake, which caused serious structural damage and fatalities—this quake caused only minor damage. However, the high volume of telephone use following the shock overloaded provider capacity and disrupted service into the afternoon. Amusement rides at Disneyland, Six Flags Magic Mountain, Universal Studios Hollywood and Knott's Berry Farm were evacuated and temporarily shut down. California State University, Fullerton suffered some damage in its older, inadequately engineered buildings. In Orange, the Chapman University School of Law was evacuated after a water pipe was ruptured. Pipes on a Macy's department store in Westfield Topanga ruptured during the tremor flooding the store which closed for a couple of days in order to be repaired. A light fixture damaged by the shock started a small fire in the Westfield MainPlace Mall in Santa Ana; since the fire was in an empty movie theater, nobody was harmed. A gap was reported on California State Route 91 near Anaheim Hills, c. southwest of the epicenter, but the California Department of Transportation concluded that the gap did not pose a danger. A minor landslide near the freeway caused some traffic congestion, but structural damage was reported. California Department of Transportation replaced an expansion joint on an Interstate 5 truck overpass at the El Toro Y Interchange. The roof of Placentia's public library nearly collapsed; afterwards, the building was closed for repairs. Electrical outages were reported in Chino, Chino Hills, Diamond Bar and Pomona. Over 2,000 people lost power after a fire broke out at a La Habra power station, but electricity was restored that afternoon. Los Angeles International Airport reported a ground radar system outage along with a broken water heater, causing flooding in the checked luggage preparation area of Terminal 7. Minor injuries from falling ceiling tiles were reported at a medical clinic in Brea. The earthquake affected candidates who were in the first day of the three-day California Bar Exam in nearby Ontario and Los Angeles. The State Bar ultimately did not count that portion of the test for or against any attorney candidates. Aftershocks Approximately 100 minor aftershocks and one presumed foreshock were reported within two days after the earthquake, 27 of which occurred within an hour after the earthquake. Four aftershocks of at least magnitude 3.0 were reported—the first, nine minutes following the initial earthquake, was the largest at magnitude 3.8; and two others, occurring over two hours later, were recorded at magnitude 3.6. Twenty-eight aftershocks of at least 2.0 were reported. Response There was speculation that the Chino Hills earthquake may have been a foreshock to a larger earthquake. The Southern California Seismic Network's Aftershock Probability Report, produced minutes after the event, stated that "Most likely, the recent mainshock will be the largest in the sequence. However, there is a small chance, c. 5–10%, of an earthquake equal to or larger than this mainshock in the next 7 days." Geologists at the United States Geological Survey and Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast suggest that an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.7 or larger will almost definitely occur somewhere in the state within the next 30 years. then-California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger said: "This earthquake reminds us to be prepared. [...] We were very fortunate that there were no serious injuries or property damage." Additionally, registration for the Great Southern California ShakeOut, a regional earthquake drill scheduled to occur on November 13, 2008, increased significantly in the aftermath of the earthquake. See also List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in California List of earthquakes in the United States References Further reading External links Chino Hills earthquake on USGS Earthquakes in California Earthquake 2008 earthquakes 2008 natural disasters in the United States Earthquake 2008 in California July 2008 events in the United States

18635469

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Angeles%20earthquake

Los Angeles earthquake

Los Angeles earthquake could refer to: 1933 Long Beach earthquake 1952 Kern County earthquake 1971 San Fernando earthquake 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake 1991 Sierra Madre earthquake 1992 Landers earthquake 1994 Northridge earthquake 2008 Chino Hills earthquake See also List of earthquakes in California

18795404

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952%20Severo-Kurilsk%20earthquake

1952 Severo-Kurilsk earthquake

The 1952 Severo-Kurilsk earthquake struck off the coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula. The 9.0 Mw earthquake triggered a major tsunami that hit Severo-Kurilsk, Kuril Islands, Sakhalin Oblast, Russian SFSR, USSR, on 5 November 1952 at 04:58 local time. This led to the destruction of many settlements in Sakhalin Oblast and Kamchatka Oblast, while the main impact struck the town of Severo-Kurilsk. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Russia, and the fifth most powerful earthquake ever recorded in the world since modern seismography began in 1900. Tectonic setting The earthquake occurred off the Kamchatka Peninsula's east coast, which runs parallel to the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench, the area where the Pacific and Okhotsk Sea plates converge. Being older and therefore denser, the Pacific subducts beneath the Kamchatka Peninsula, which sits on the Okhotsk Sea Plate. These two plates meet along a convergent boundary, marked by the trench. The subduction zone is seismogenic and produces Kamchatka earthquakes, which occasionally generate tsunamis. Earthquakes associated with the Kuril-Kamchatka subduction zone are of the megathrust type. The subduction zone is associated with at least two known ~9.0 earthquakes in the pre-instrumental period; 1737 and 1841. The 1737 earthquake measured 9.0–9.3, and generated the largest known tsunami (60 meters) on the peninsula. Another 9.0 earthquake struck the peninsula on May 17, 1841. It generated a tsunami up to 15 meters high and was felt with a maximum intensity of VIII–IX. Earthquake The earthquake ruptured a patch of the subduction zone which extends from the northern portion of Onekotan to Cape Shipunskii; approximately 700 km long. The rupture width is estimated at around 150–200 km. Slip on the rupture patch occurred in a direction perpendicular to the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench. Two years prior to the mainshock, a sequence of foreshocks commenced near the epicenter location, as well as the southern edge of the rupture. The aftershock sequence one month after the mainshock was used to define the northern extent of slip. Tsunami A tsunami was generated off of Kamchatka, striking Severo-Kurilsk with three waves about high. After the earthquake the majority of the Severo-Kurilsk citizens fled to the surrounding hills, where they escaped the first wave. However, most of them returned to the town and were killed by the second wave. According to the authorities, out of a population of 6,000 people, 2,336 died. The survivors were evacuated to continental Russia. The settlement was then rebuilt in another location. US property damage The main economic damage came from the tsunami waves impacting the Hawaiian Islands, where six cows were reported dead, and property damage was between $800,000 and $1,000,000 USD in 1952 dollars. The waves caused a cement barge to fly into a freighter in Honolulu harbor. In Hilo, an expensive boathouse was destroyed. A small portion of the bridge connecting Hilo to nearby Coconut Island was damaged from the strong waves along with houses in the area being stripped from their foundations. Coast guard buoys were torn from their anchors. See also List of earthquakes in 1952 List of earthquakes in Russia References Sources External links Сливное землетрясение (цунами) 1952 года 1952 in the Soviet Union Sakhalin Oblast 1952 Severo 1952 earthquakes 1952 1952 Severo November 1952 events in Asia Kuril Islands Earthquakes in the Russian Far East Earthquakes in the Soviet Union

18875765

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948%20Fukui%20earthquake

1948 Fukui earthquake

The occurred in Fukui Prefecture, Japan. The magnitude 6.8 quake struck at 5:13:31 p.m.(JDT) on June 28, 1948. The quake's hypocenter was approximately 10 km north-northeast of Fukui, in the present-day neighborhood of Maruoka, Sakai City. The strongest shaking occurred in the city of Fukui, where it was recorded as 6 (equivalent to the current 7) on the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale. Overview The earthquake devastated Fukui, which was still recovering from damage sustained during WWII air raids in July 1945. Damage across the entire Fukuiheiya flood plain into neighboring Ishikawa prefecture. Official casualty estimates totaled 3,769 dead and 22,000 wounded, with more than 36,000 buildings completely destroyed. In the Kanazugocho district (modern-day eastern Arawa); Maruoka and Harue; and Yoshida District, nearly every building was leveled. In central Fukui city, which was adjacent to the epicenter, approximately 79% of structures were completely destroyed, while the overall destruction rate across the Fukuiheiya floodplain surpassed 60%. Fires caused by the earthquake compounded the destruction. The quake also seriously damaged the embankments of the Kuzuryū River. Record-setting rain in the weeks following the quake subsequently caused the levees to burst, leading to massive flooding. Although three years of war damage, earthquake damage, fire damage, and flood damage reduced the city to ashes, it continued to rebuild. In honor of the citizens' resilience, the Fukui citizen's charter proclaims Fukui "City of the Phoenix." Geology This earthquake was caused by a previously unknown strike-slip fault. The fault stretches from Kanazu to Fukui, with a length of , and was later named the "Fukui Earthquake Fault". Shaking was felt as far as Mito in the east, and Saga in the west. Damage Damage was most reported in the Fukui plain, where the building collapse rate was more than 60%, since shaking became larger due to it being an alluvial plain, and many of the buildings were just built after the war and a little unstable. As many people were cooking when the earthquake struck, many fires spread after the quake. Since the roads and the waterworks were damaged it took five days to put out the fires and so the fires caused devastating damage. Even though the Daiwa Department Store collapsed, the Fukui Bank building right next to it had no significant damage. It is thought to have been because the Fukui Bank building had about 500 deep foundation pipes 10 meters deep in the ground. Almost all of the farmers' houses in the epicenter area collapsed, but most of the farmers were outside so there were not many casualties. Damage in Fukui City Casualties At the time, it was the deadliest earthquake after the Pacific War (now superseded by the Great Hanshin earthquake and the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami). This earthquake killed 3769 people, mainly in Sakai City (then part of Fukui City), where the death rate was more than 1%. Property damage Maruoka Castle collapsed. Hosorogi Station and Kanazu Station (now Awaraonsen Station) collapsed. The Daiwa Department Store collapsed. A theater in Fukui collapsed and caught fire, killing a few hundred people. Other Levees damaged by the earthquake and torrential rains caused Kuzuryū River to overflow. Influence The Japan Meteorological Agency added Shindo 7 to the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale. See also List of earthquakes in 1948 List of earthquakes in Japan References External links Earthquake in Japan: June 1948 – slideshow by Life magazine Fukui earthquake Fukui earthquake June 1948 events in Asia Fukui Earthquakes of the Showa period History of Fukui Prefecture Shindo 7 earthquakes 1948 disasters in Japan

18893748

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979%20Montenegro%20earthquake

1979 Montenegro earthquake

The 1979 Montenegro earthquake occurred on 15 April at 06:19 UTC with a moment magnitude of 6.9 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). It was the most devastating earthquake in SR Montenegro, then part of Yugoslavia, and was mostly felt along the Montenegrin and Albanian coastline. It was also felt in other parts of the country (in Podgorica and Dubrovnik with intensity of VII, in Sarajevo and Skopje V-VI, in Belgrade IV, in Zagreb and Ljubljana III-IV). The main earthquake was followed by more than 90 aftershocks stronger than 4.0 on Richter scale, strongest of which occurred on 24 May 1979, with a magnitude of 6.3. Damage Budva's Old Town, one of Montenegro's Cultural Heritage Sites, was heavily devastated. Of the 400 buildings in Budva's Old Town, 8 remained unscathed from the earthquake. The 15th century walls and ramparts protecting the Old Town were severely damaged as well. Praskvica Monastery, located between Miločer and Sveti Stefan in the Budva Municipality, suffered greatly too. The church inside the monastery had all but totally collapsed, whereas the frescoes in the monastery were completely damaged. The walls surrounding Stari Bar had suffered very little damage from the earthquake, in comparison to the Aqueduct in Stari Bar which was completely destroyed. Herceg Novi, the youngest town on the Montenegrin coast, suffered heavily as well. Parts of the walls of Herceg Novi's Old Town fell into the Adriatic Sea. Ulcinj's Old Town, another Montenegrin Cultural Heritage Site, was almost totally devastated. The centuries-old Balšić Tower in Ulcinj nearly collapsed as a result of the earthquake. Over 450 villages were razed to the ground. In addition, many villages in the regions of Crmnica, Grbalj, Krajina and Paštrovići were in danger of near total collapse. Further inland, Cetinje, Danilovgrad, Nikšić and Montenegro's capital city, Titograd (present Podgorica) were damaged as well, but not as severely. Even areas outside Montenegro and Albania suffered damage. 1,071 buildings were damaged in Dubrovnik, Croatia, including the Walls of Dubrovnik. In villages in Konavle and Župa Dubrovačka, south of Dubrovnik which were built on unsecured mountain slopes, 80% of houses were uninhabitable. In 1980, total damage in the Dubrovnik area was estimated at US$436,5 million. According to a 1984 UNESCO report, a total of 1,487 objects were damaged, nearly half of which consisted of households and another 40% consisting of churches and other sacred properties. Only 30% of the 1,487 objects damaged were destroyed. Over 1,000 cultural monuments were suffered, as well as thousands of works of art and valuable collections. By the end of the catastrophe, 101 people had died in Montenegro and 35 in Albania and over 100,000 people were left homeless. Aid and relief Days after the earthquake, $30,000 was made available immediately for aid work and restoration of disaster areas. On 28 May 1979, the Director-General of UNESCO issued a worldwide appeal for donations to help the nation recover for the devastation as the federal budget was insufficient for aid funding. Several months later, in October 1979, the World Heritage Committee of UNESCO decided to list the Natural and Culturo-historical Region of Kotor in the World Heritage List and in the List of World Heritage in Danger. UNESCO, through ICCROM, aided the Republic Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments in Cetinje for the restoration of frescoes in the Church of the Virgin in Podlastva Monastery. Similar help was given for the restoration of the Church of Alexander Nevsky on the island of Sveti Stefan. First estimates of the cost of damaged cultural property was about 10,527,690,000 Yugoslav dinars (US$10.5 billion), which is just under 15% of the total earthquake damage. The 1984 inflation rates put that amount at about 3,174,098,500,000 dinars (3.1 trillion), equaling to US$31,700,000,000 ($31 billion). The Yugoslav Government agreed to pay 82% of the total estimated cost of damaged cultural property, whereas the remaining 18% was to be paid by the local municipalities. To help meet the total costs of the disaster, the Government had set up a statutory fund whereby each worker across SFR Yugoslavia contributed 1% of his monthly salary towards the restoration effort in a ten-year period, from 1979 to 1989. Till September 1, 1983, the Government had budgeted for a total expenditure of 54,722,849,000 dinars (54.7 billion), of which 3.7% or 21,023,620,800 dinars (21 billion) were allocated for cultural property. By 1984, Montenegro was still under restoration, the entire Montenegrin coast, especially Budva and Kotor, and Cetinje receiving the heaviest amounts of restoration. Several objects had been fully restored by 1984, including the Memorial Museum of Jovan Tomasevic in Bar; Monastery of St. Vid and Church of St. Alexander Nevsky in Budva; Republic Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments (former Austrian embassy), State Museum (former Palace of King Nicholas), National Gallery and the Bishop's House in Cetinje; the Archives and Gallery of Josip Bepo Benkovic in Herceg Novi, Cultural Center in Kotor, Church of St. George in Orahovac (Kotor), Church of Our Lady in Krimovice (Kotor), Church of St. John in Dub (Kotor), Church of St. George in Sisici (Kotor), Church of St. George in Sutvara (Kotor), Church of St. George in Prijeradi (Kotor), Church of St. Eustacius in Dobrota (Kotor), Church of Our Lady of the Rocks in Perast (Kotor), Roman mosaics in Risan (Kotor) and twelve church buildings in Grbalj (Kotor). See also List of earthquakes in 1979 List of earthquakes in Albania List of earthquakes in Croatia References Further reading External links 1979 earthquakes 1979 in Montenegro Natural disasters in Montenegro 1979 Earthquakes in Europe Natural disasters in Albania 1979 Montenegro April 1979 events in Europe 1979 disasters in Europe

19001024

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1570%20Concepci%C3%B3n%20earthquake

1570 Concepción earthquake

The 1570 Concepción earthquake occurred at 9:00, on February 8, 1570. The strong earthquake destroyed Concepción, Chile. It was accompanied by a tsunami, and aftershocks were felt for months. According to NOAA at least 2000 lives were lost and every house was destroyed. Because of a delay between the earthquake and the tsunami, much of the population was able to escape to higher ground. The earthquake's magnitude was 8.3 Ms, located at . See also List of earthquakes in Chile References 1570 Concepción 1570s earthquakes 1570 in science 1570s in the Captaincy General of Chile 1570s in the Viceroyalty of Peru

19127886

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Panzhihua%20earthquake

2008 Panzhihua earthquake

The 2008 Panzhihua earthquake struck southern Sichuan province, China on August 30 at with a surface wave magnitude of 6.1, or 6.0 . It is also cited as the Renhe-Huili earthquake, especially in SCEA reports and early CEA reports. It was not an aftershock of the Sichuan earthquake that occurred several months prior. With more than 400 aftershocks, it caused over 40 deaths, the collapse of 10,000 homes and damage to other infrastructure in the provinces of Sichuan and Yunnan. The maximum liedu was VIII (Heavily damaging). Earthquake According to the China Earthquake Administration (CEA) and Sichuan Earthquake Administration (SCEA), the () 6.1 shock struck southern Sichuan province, China on August 30, 2008 at 16:30:50.5 China Standard Time (CST - 0730 UTC). The United States Geological Survey (USGS) reported it at () 6.0. The earthquake's epicenter was located at , in the Renhe District of Panzhihua, Sichuan, which is 50 km southeast of the city center. The epicenter is 60 km from Huili County in Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan, 30 km from Yongren County and 55 km from Yuanmou County in neighboring Yunnan province. Whereas the Sichuan earthquake two and half months earlier in the same province continues to invoke aftershocks even after August 30, the Panzhihua earthquake was not one of them because it occurred on a different fault. Impact By September 5, authorities confirmed 41 deaths (35 in Sichuan, 6 in Yunnan) and 589 injuries. CEA also reported the collapse of 10,000 homes, and damage had occurred to 190,000 more. Considerable damage to highways, bridges, and reservoirs were reported. Intensity The seismic intensity map published by SCEA shows a maximum liedu of VIII on the China Seismic Intensity Scale (CSIS), somewhat equivalent to VIII (Heavily damaging) on EMS-94 from which CSIS drew reference. The area affected by liedu VIII earthquakes covered a north-south oriented oval of 628 km2 centered around the epicenter, 39 km long and 19 km wide, including 28 km2 in Yunnan province. The total area of liedu VI (Slightly damaging) and above is 9,634 km2, of which 6,265 km2 are in Sichuan. Aftershocks A 5.6 aftershock (5.5 according to USGS) struck the same location on August 31, 2008 at 16:31:09.6 CST (08:31 UTC), causing at least two additional deaths. By midnight CST September 1, there had been 439 aftershocks including the M5.6 one and two more exceeding M4.0. Incidentally, a  3.0 earthquake very close to the main quake's epicenter preceded the main quake by 2 hours 15 minutes. Response Although the quake-stricken area is relatively low in population, reported at 118/km2, early casualties and property damage were significant. Within two hours, the CEA invoked its Level III emergency response protocol for disaster relief. 8,000 troops and para-militia were deployed to the disaster area. See also 2008 Sichuan earthquake References External links Contains a list of historic earthquakes in the area. 2008 Panzhihua Panzhihua earthquake Panzhihua earthquake August 2008 events in China History of Panzhihua

19404051

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Yingjiang%20earthquakes

2008 Yingjiang earthquakes

The 2008 Yingjiang earthquakes were a series of major earthquakes ranging from surface wave magnitude (Ms) 4.1 to 5.9 that struck Yingjiang County, Yunnan province, China between August 19 (in UTC; August 20 local time) and September 3. It caused 5 deaths, 130 injuries (21 of which were serious), and RMB 2.7 billion in direct economic damage. USGS put the magnitude of the strongest one to Mw 6.0. Earthquake According to the China Earthquake Administration (CEA) and its subordinate China Earthquake Network Center (CENC), a Ms 5.0 earthquake struck Yingjiang County, Yunnan province, China on August 20, 2008 at 05:35:09 China Standard Time (CST – 2135 UTC, August 19, 2008). A CEA report published on September 17 described two additional strong quakes of Ms 4.9 and Ms 5.9 in the same area the following day; CENC's data base, on the other hand, did not include the earthquake of Ms 4.9 at 20:20 CST on August 21 as the CEA report described, but reveals additional ones after the date. Sequence of earthquakes Note: Earthquakes #4 and after are not included in CEA summary; earthquake #2 is unaccounted for in CENC data base. Impact Casualties According to CEA, these earthquakes caused 5 deaths and 21 others were seriously hurt, as well as 109 minor injuries. Through the Yunnan Earthquake Administration (YNEA), the provincial government invoked Level IV emergence response protocol in the relief. The amount of affected people is said to be around 210,000, roughly 2/3 of the total population in the affected areas. Direct financial damage amounted to RMB 1.3 billion. In addition to building damage, the heaviest infrastructure damage occurred to water resources facilities. Intensity On the seismic intensity map published by CEA, maximum intensity of these earthquakes reached liedu VIII on China Seismic Intensity Scale (CSIS), which is somewhat equivalent to VIII (Severe) on the MMI and from which CSIS drew reference. Liedu-VIII zone spans 26 km2 near the epicenter. Total area of liedu VI (Slightly damaging) and above is a north-south oval of 4,511 km2. See also List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in Myanmar List of earthquakes in China List of earthquakes in Yunnan References External links 2008 Yingjiang Earthquakes in Myanmar Yingjiang earthquakes Yingjiang, China August 2008 events in China Earthquake clusters, swarms, and sequences Geography of Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture

19407598

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China%20Earthquake%20Administration

China Earthquake Administration

The China Earthquake Administration (CEA), () is a government agency responsible for earthquake management in China, as mandated by the Law of the People's Republic of China on Protecting Against and Mitigating Earthquake Disasters of PRC under the administration of State Council. Some English text use the name Chinese Seismic Bureau (CSB). In older text, it was also referred to by its former name, National Earthquake Bureau (NEB) or National Seismic Bureau (NSB). Bureaus CEA presently has nine bureaus, two of which directly under the control of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Administrative Office and Office of Policy Research () Bureau of Development and Finance () Bureau of Monitoring and Prediction () Bureau of Earthquake Damage Protection () Bureau of Earthquake Emergency Response and Relief () Bureau of Personnel, Education, Science and Technology and Bureau of International Cooperation () (Chinese Communist) Party Committee of Direct Subordinate Institutions () Group of (CCP) Discipline and Surveillance, a Delegation of the Central Committee of Discipline and Surveillance (of the Chinese Communist Party) and Bureau of Surveillance () Office of Welfare of Retired Personnel and Retired (CCP) Party Officials () Establishment As a country stricken by two of the world's ten most fatal earthquakes before the creation of CEA, China's first seismic monitoring stations were set up under the Chinese Academy of Sciences. A national Earthquake Affairs Office ()was created under joint administration of the National Science and Technology Commission () and Chinese Academy of Sciences after the 1966 Xingtai earthquake. A Central Task Force of Earthquakes () under the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party was created the day after a M7.4 earthquake struck Bohai Bay on July 18, 1969. In 1971, the State Council decided to create the National Earthquake Bureau (CNEB), predecessor to CEA, to replace the "Central Task Force". The State Council initially delegated administration of the CNEB to the Chinese Academy of Sciences. CNEB became directly administrated by the State Councile in 1975. Following the recommendation from the CNEB, each province, autonomous regions and centrally administrated municipalities in PRC has established its own earthquake bureau since 1977. In 1985, these local bureaus were placed under dual leadership of the local government and the national bureau. CNEB was renamed CEA in 1998. See also Tectonic summary of Qinghai Province References External links Official CEA Web site. Emergency management in China Government agencies of China Seismological observatories, organisations and projects State Council of the People's Republic of China

19621351

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Commission

Earthquake Commission

Toka Tū Ake EQC, also known as the Earthquake Commission, (), is a New Zealand Crown entity that invests in natural disaster research and education as well as providing natural disaster insurance to residential property owners. In March 2022, a bill was introduced to, among other changes, update the name of the Earthquake Commission to Toka Tū Ake – Natural Hazards Commission. It was established in its current form by the Earthquake Commission Act 1993, which was a continuation of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission, set up in 1945. It operates under the provisions of that EQC Act and of other relevant law, such as the Crown Entities Act 2004. Function of Toka Tū Ake EQC The function of Toka Tū Ake EQC is defined in s5 of the EQC Act 1993. In short, this is to provide natural disaster insurance for residential property (contents, dwellings and land); to administer the Natural Disaster Fund; and to fund research and education on natural disasters and ways of reducing their impact. Premiums are collected for Toka Tū Ake EQC through a compulsory levy added to all home insurance policies. The private insurers transfer the levy to the Natural Disaster Fund (NDF) for use when needed. Money in the NDF can be invested elsewhere to maximise return. Toka Tū Ake EQC is administered by a Board of Commissioners, whose role is defined by the EQC Act 1993 and the Crown Entities Act 2004. The board answers to the minister responsible who appoints board members. As of June 2021, Toka Tū Ake EQC had 310 permanent and fixed term staff. Claims settlement This is determined by the EQC Act 1993 and by legal precedents created over time. Settlement money comes first from the Natural Disaster Fund, then from any re-insurers, and finally from the government, under a Crown guarantee. EQCover insures the policyholders building, personal property, and land. Each claim is subject to an excess payable by the claimant and a capped maximum sum payable by Toka Tū Ake EQC, known as 'the cap'. As of 2018, the excess and cap for a building claim were 1% and $100,000; for personal property they were 1% and $20,000; and for land they were 10% and a variable cap sum determined by a formula that includes current market land prices. Tax, known as GST, is added to the cap payable. These cap amounts are subject to change but in 2018 they remained the same as they were in 1993. In 1993, $100,000 was enough to cover the cost of rebuilding most houses: in 2018, building costs had increased more than fourfold. In most cases, private home insurance policies cover the cost of natural disaster damage above the amount paid by EQC. History Following several destructive earthquakes between 1929 and 1942, the government decided to set up a statutory scheme of disaster insurance, resulting in the Earthquake & War Damage Act 1945. The act provided for the establishment of an Earthquake & War Damage Fund and the scheme was financed by a compulsory levy imposed on all fire insurance policies. Responsibility for collecting the levies was placed on the insurance companies. The act was administered by the State Insurance Office, which provided staff and accounting services; Treasury determined the fund's investment policy. The levy was set at 5 cents per $100 of value and cover was limited to indemnity value. Over time, cover was extended to other natural disasters and to cover damage to land as well as to buildings. The need to cover land damage was identified in a report that followed the 1979 Abbotsford landslip in Dunedin when 69 homes were lost. The EQC Act brought together the earlier additions and introduced new changes to the system. The insurance was known as EQCover. It was now limited to residential buildings; cover for buildings was confirmed as being for replacement (new), not indemnity, value; and war damage cover was removed. These changes reduced the government's exposure to a very large potential liability and brought the EQC system more in line with current insurance industry practices. In its first 65 years, the commission was called on to settle only relatively minor claims and the disaster fund continued to grow, reaching $6.1 billion by August 2010. The most notable natural disaster during this period was the 1979 Abbotsford landslip, near Dunedin, that caused the destruction of 69 houses. A subsequent commission of enquiry led, in 1984, to land damage being covered. Another noteworthy event was the 2007 Gisborne earthquake after which the EQC received over 3,100 claims and paid out over $16 million. Natural Hazards Insurance Bill (2022) A bill proposing to update the legislation governing the Earthquake Commission was introduced into Parliament in March 2022. The overarching objectives of its changes are "to enable better community recovery from natural hazards, to clarify the role of the Commission and the cover provided by the Bill, and to enhance the durability and flexibility of the legislation.". The Commission's name will change to Toka Tū Ake Natural Hazards Commission. The Canterbury earthquake sequence On 4 September 2010, a powerful earthquake struck near Darfield in Canterbury. It began a series of earthquakes and aftershocks lasting till around 2016. The most destructive of these was the 22 February 2011 earthquake, centered close to Christchurch, in which 185 people died. EQC received over 470,000 claims, more than 15,000 families lost their homes, and repair costs were estimated at over $40 billion. EQC acknowledged several times during this period that the scale of the disaster was unprecedented. Speculation at the time about the scale of the damage proved to be significantly incorrect. In August 2016, the Insurance Council of New Zealand (ICNZ) stated that they were still being handed earthquake claims from EQC from the Christchurch earthquakes, and were thus not able to give a final cost to the insurance industry. In July 2016, EQC had 250 complex cases from Christchurch unresolved, 364 first-time repairs yet to be finished, and 6,144-second-time repairs being handled. If the damage stays "under cap" (i.e. it is up to $100,000 plus GST), EQC assessors dealt with the claim. When the claim goes "over cap", the settlement process is handed to the commercial insurer. This situation led to much double-handling and many inefficiencies, and has been widely criticised. In 2015, the Insurance Council of New Zealand submitted to the government that the process be changed and all assessments be handled by commercial insurers instead. Following the 2016 Kaikoura earthquake, the government agreed to this proposal in December 2016. It was also stated that "under cap" claims in Christchurch that have still to be settled will remain with EQC. There is a $1.5 billion NZD excess for each earthquake event. If the required EQC payout exceeds the total of the excess and reinsurance ($4 billion NZD) the remainder of the payout is met by the EQC up to the limit of the Natural Disaster Fund. If the payout exceeds those assets, a Crown Guarantee requires that the Government pay the remainder. EQC's handling of the earthquake claims EQC's preferred method of settling claims till this point had been to make payment rather than to repair the damage. However, soon after the 4 September 2010 earthquake, EQC's then chairman, Michael Wintringham, confirmed in the commission's 2010–11 Annual Report that it had been asked by the government to settle claims by repairing buildings, (if the cost was not above cap, in which case EQC would cash settle and pass the claim to the owner's private insurance company). This preference to repair was both to prevent the predicted upward spiral in building costs if repair money flooded the market, and to reduce the inevitable stress on home owners having to manage their own repairs. The then Chief Executive, Ian Simpson, prefaced these comments by stating: "It is important that we are accurate with our claims settlement process. Not just for our customers in a very difficult and uncertain time but also for the continued confidence of the global insurance market and the protection of the EQC funds for all New Zealanders". The protection of the Disaster Fund is a core responsibility of the Commission. EQC's later response was to engage Fletcher Building, the country's largest construction company, as its agent to undertake the necessary repair work. The result was The Canterbury Home Repair Programme. In doing this, EQC indemnified Fletcher Building against any future liability. In June 2013, the Auditor-General reported on EQC's performance in managing the Canterbury Home Repair Programme. She found it had been "mixed". For building claims, EQC chose first to assess properties to determine the extent and cost of repairing any damage. This was usually carried out by a two person team comprising an assessor and an estimator. Assessors had no specific qualification other than to be seen as persons of good character with the ability to spot any unjustified or fraudulent claims. Retired police officers were often used. Estimators had building industry experience. During this period, EQC pointed out the magnitude of the task it faced, its relative success, and the external factors that hindered it from providing an even better service. In 2013, commenting on a report it had commissioned, EQC said: "(the) earthquakes involved the kind of damage you would expect in wartime". It continued: "much has been achieved by EQC throughout the process of responding to Canterbury events as assessments have been completed, contents claims settled, emergency work undertaken and managed repairs underway in Christchurch". Aside from settling claims, the commission had to deal with many litigation issues. In 2011, the High Court decided to establish an Earthquake List to handle the expected large number of earthquake related cases. By February 2018, 1,048 claims had been filed, many of them involving EQC. In March 2013, EQC was criticised after an employee accidentally sent a file containing details on more than 80,000 claims to a contractor. EQC obtained a High Court injunction preventing publication, which a disgruntled ex-employee and blogger breached by publishing an online link to the list. The blogger was found to be in contempt and fined. In 2015, an earlier finding of "incompetence" against an engineer working for EQC was dismissed by the Chartered Professional Engineers Council (CPEC). In 2015, a group of around 100 home owners launched proceedings against the EQC for not settling claims according to the standard required by the EQC Act. In April 2016, both parties agreed in a public statement that EQC's standard did comply with the act. The group then discontinued its claim. Both sides claimed success. The High Court awarded costs against the group. Results of EQC's claim handling Throughout the process, EQC praised itself and its staff. This was echoed by the unwavering support given by the minister responsible, Gerry Brownlee. This support was contrasted by countless reports of EQC mismanagement at every level. In October 2017, a new government was sworn in and the minister responsible changed. In February 2018, Megan Woods, the new minister, expressed her frustration with the EQC board and the pace of claims settlement. After seven years there were more than 2,600 claims still unresolved. She said she would appoint an independent ministerial advisor to work with the board and management who would report directly to her. The minister said: "I've made it clear I am not satisfied with where EQC is in respect of the Canterbury earthquake work seven years on from the 22 February event". In response Maarten Wevers, the chairman and a lifelong public servant, resigned. He stated: "It is clear that the minister has no confidence in the board and staff of the commission. As chair, I take responsibility for that, and have stepped aside so that the minister can appoint someone whom she assesses will be able to do a better job." A few days later, the minister announced the appointment of Annette King as an interim chairperson, and said: "I'm keen to see a broadening of skills to include people who have been at the coalface and understand the reality faced by those people at the coalface". An editorial in the Otago Daily Times, on the same day, summed up opinions expressed elsewhere. It read: It beggars belief that more than seven years on from the most damaging event – Christchurch's deadly 22 February magnitude-6.3 quake – there are still residents waiting for their claims to be completed. It is a disgraceful state of affairs, particularly when EQC was established to provide a rapid, comprehensive recovery from disaster. These quakes were its first really big test – and it failed. There are still more than 2600 claims outstanding out of more than 470,000". Public inquiry In November 2018, then Minister Megan Woods announced an independent public inquiry into EQC's handling of the Canterbury earthquake claims chaired by Silvia Cartwright. Cartwright's report, released in April 2020, found that EQC was poorly prepared for the Canterbury earthquakes. She made a number of recommendations about clarifying EQC's role and improving its processes for claims handling and communicating with claimants. Cartwright said: List of ministers The following ministers have held responsibility for the commission. Key See also Earthquake insurance References External links Earthquake Commission Act 1993 Natural Hazards Insurance Bill Government agencies established in 1945 New Zealand Crown agents Earthquakes in New Zealand 1945 establishments in New Zealand

19631265

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Kyrgyzstan%20earthquake

2008 Kyrgyzstan earthquake

The 2008 Kyrgyzstan earthquake struck on October 5 at 21:52 local time (15:52 UTC) with a moment magnitude of 6.6, killing 75 people, including 41 children, and injuring 150 people, including 93 children. The center of the earthquake was near the town of Nura, which was destroyed in the quake. The shock destroyed dozens of buildings in the area and destroyed the nearby village of Kura. Minor damage also occurred in nearby Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The quake was felt throughout Central Asia. A magnitude 5.7 aftershock in Xinjiang and a magnitude 5.1 aftershock in Kyrgyzstan followed the earthquake. Two more aftershocks above magnitude 5 in Kyrgyzstan and one in Xinjiang struck on October 13, UTC time. Victims were transported in military helicopters to hospitals in Osh. The Kyrgyzstan Emergency Ministry said that few buildings remained standing in the village: "Almost all buildings in the village have been destroyed. The only buildings remaining are the properly engineered ones which were built recently: the school and a medical clinic." Kanatbek Abdrakhmatov, head of the Institute of Seismology, attributed much of the destruction due to inferior construction of the buildings, many of which were built out of clay and straw. The injured were paid 5,000 Kyrgyzstani soms (US$ 136) and 3 tons of coal, and families of the dead received 50 kg of flour. 200 people wish to remain in Nura, and were provided with 100 6-person tents. 100 mobile homes are being transported to Nura, and the village will be rebuilt in the spring of 2009, and should be completed by August 2009. Uzbekistan pledged the equivalent of US$200,000 in humanitarian aid, including 120 tons of cement, as well as other building materials. In Kyrgyzstan, an official day of mourning was observed on October 7, 2008. See also List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in Kyrgyzstan 2011 Fergana Valley earthquake References External links Kyrgyzstan Earthquake Earthquakes in Kyrgyzstan 2008 earthquake October 2008 events in Asia

19634336

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Damxung%20earthquake

2008 Damxung earthquake

The 2008 Damxung earthquake hit Damxung County, Xizang (Tibet), west of Lhasa, in the People's Republic of China around 16:30 China Standard Time on October 6. The Chinese state media reported that the earthquake caused 10 deaths as of October 7. Three aftershocks above magnitude 5 followed. The 2008 Damxung earthquake struck further southwest than the similar 1952 Damxung earthquake. See also List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in China References External links Damxung earthquake Damxung earthquake Earthquakes in Tibet October 2008 events in China Damxung County

19659441

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20Kipawa%20earthquake

2000 Kipawa earthquake

The 2000 Kipawa earthquake (or 2000 Kipawa "Millennium" earthquake ) struck Quebec and Ontario, Canada with a moment magnitude of 5.2 at 6:22 a.m. on January 1. It occurred in the Western Quebec Seismic Zone. The main shock epicenter was located in Lake Kipawa about north of Témiscaming in southwestern Quebec and northeast of North Bay, Ontario. The shaking was strongest within of the epicenter. It was felt in Témiscaming, North Bay and as far away as Toronto, making it one of the most significant earthquakes in Canada in 2000. The earthquake was triggered by major thrust faults associated with the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben. Minor damage was reported during this earthquake, including fallen light objects, a damaged ventilation pipe and fractures in plaster. Its epicenter was very close to that of the 1935 Timiskaming earthquake and lies in a group of 76 located earthquakes since 1935. Seventeen aftershocks were recorded. See also List of earthquakes in 2000 List of earthquakes in Canada References 2000 disasters in Canada January 2000 events in Canada 2000 Kipawa 2000 Kipawa 2000 earthquakes

19661405

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1933%20Baffin%20Bay%20earthquake

1933 Baffin Bay earthquake

The 1933 Baffin Bay earthquake struck Greenland and the Northwest Territories (now Nunavut), Canada with a moment magnitude of 7.4 at on November 20. The main shock epicenter was located in Baffin Bay on the east coast of Baffin Island. Shaking was only felt at the small town of Upernavik, Greenland. The event is the largest recorded earthquake to strike the passive margin of North America and is the largest north of the Arctic Circle. No damage was reported because of its offshore location and the small population of the nearby onshore communities. Tectonic setting Canada is not typically associated with seismic activity, however, Canada does experience infrequent large earthquakes. At the location of the earthquake, there is an extinct spreading center which formed the Baffin Bay itself. This passive margin is seismic, and occasionally reactivates to slip in a strike slip manner. Regional seismicity The region around northwestern Baffin Bay and northeastern Baffin Island continues to be seismically active. Six magnitude 6 earthquakes have occurred there since 1933. Multiple small earthquakes with magnitudes ~4-5.5 still occur each year. See also List of earthquakes in 1933 List of earthquakes in Canada References Sources External links Earthquakes in Canada Natural disasters in Nunavut Earthquakes in North America Natural disasters in Greenland 1933 earthquakes 1933 disasters in Canada

19679826

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Canada

List of earthquakes in Canada

This is a list of earthquakes in Canada. List Abbreviations used: See also Hydraulic fracturing in Canada References External links Natural Resources Canada Earthquakes Canada Earthquakes Canada Recent earthquakes Earthquakes Canada Lists of disasters in Canada

19680767

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1732%20Montreal%20earthquake

1732 Montreal earthquake

The 1732 Montreal earthquake was a 5.8 magnitude earthquake that struck New France at 11:00 a.m. on September 16, 1732. The shaking associated with this earthquake shook the city of Montreal with significant damage, including destroyed chimneys, cracked walls and 300 damaged houses, as well as 185 buildings destroyed by fire following the earthquake, representing approximately 30% of the houses in the city at the time. A girl was reported killed. This was one of the major earthquakes that occurred in the Western Quebec Seismic Zone. See also List of earthquakes in Canada List of historical earthquakes References 1732 1730s earthquakes 1732 natural disasters 1730s in Canada 18th century in Montreal 1732 in New France

19698182

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Alum%20Rock%20earthquake

2007 Alum Rock earthquake

The 2007 Alum Rock earthquake occurred on in Alum Rock Park in San Jose, in the U.S. state of California. It measured 5.6 on the moment magnitude scale and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong). The event was then the largest in the San Francisco Bay Area since the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, which measured 6.9 on the moment magnitude scale, but was later surpassed by the 2014 South Napa earthquake. Ground shaking from the Alum Rock quake reached San Francisco and Oakland and other points further north. Sixty thousand felt reports existed far beyond Santa Rosa, as far north as Eugene, Oregon. Earthquake The shock originated on the Calaveras Fault and ruptured an area of the fault for a length of about beginning at the hypocenter and extending southeast. There was no evidence of any surface rupture along the fault caused by the earthquake. David Oppenheimer, a seismologist at the United States Geological Survey (USGS), said that although the quake was felt as a strong jolt over a wide region, it was more significant because it caused stress changes in the Calaveras Fault and the nearby Hayward Fault. Damage Intensity VI (Strong) effects included broken windows and items that were knocked off store shelves, but the event caused no serious damage or injuries. Some parts of the Bay Area felt the rupture for up to 15 seconds. Early warning ElarmS, an earthquake early warning system, accurately predicted the quake seconds before it struck, correctly estimating the earthquake's magnitude to within 0.5 magnitude units using only three to four seconds' worth of data. Scientists with the California Integrated Seismic Network hope to refine the system to provide a 10-second warning in a similar quake to residents of Oakland and San Francisco. See also List of earthquakes in 2007 List of earthquakes in California List of earthquakes in the United States UCERF3 References Sources External links The Alum Rock Earthquake of October 30, 2007, 08:04 pm PDT – Berkeley Seismological Laboratory 2007 2007 earthquakes 2007 natural disasters in the United States 2007 in California October 2007 events in the United States

19705610

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1663%20Charlevoix%20earthquake

1663 Charlevoix earthquake

The 1663 Charlevoix earthquake occurred on February 5 in New France (now the Canadian province of Quebec), and was assessed to have a moment magnitude of between 7.3 and 7.9. The earthquake occurred at 5:30 p.m. local time and was estimated to have a maximum perceived intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The main shock epicentre is suggested to have occurred along the Saint Lawrence River, between the mouth of the Malbaie River on the north and the mouth of the Ouelle River on the south. A large portion of eastern North America felt the effects. Landslides and underwater sediment slumps were a primary characteristic of the event with much of the destruction occurring near the epicentral region of the St. Lawrence estuary and also in the area of the Saguenay Graben. The event occurred during the early European settlement of North America and some of the best recorded first hand accounts were from Catholic missionaries that were working in the area. These records were scrutinized to help determine the scale of damage and estimate the magnitude of the quake in the absence of abundant records from that time period. Tectonic setting The Charlevoix Seismic Zone (CSZ) lies along the St. Lawrence River, northeast of Quebec City. Although eastern Canada has relatively infrequent earthquakes, due to its location away from active plate boundaries, the CSZ is its most active part, with five earthquakes of estimated magnitude of 6 or greater since historical records began. Focal mechanisms for earthquakes in this zone are consistent with rupture on both reverse faults and strike-slip faults of varied orientation. The main structures of the area are faults of the Saint Lawrence rift system that run parallel to the river, formed during the break-up of the supercontinent Rodinia in the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic. The greatest seismicity occurs where the rift is overprinted by a ~300 Ma meteorite impact structure, the Charlevoix impact structure. Most CSZ earthquakes have hypocenters within the Grenvillian basement at depths between 7 and 15 km. Many of the smaller earthquakes do not appear to be located on the rift faults, but within the volumes of rock between them. Larger events lie outside the impact structure and have inferred nodal planes consistent with reactivation of the rift faults. The relatively weak impact structure is interpreted to cause a perturbation of the regional stress field, affecting the stability of the rift faults. The estimated length of the most active portion of the CSZ was and the fault area was put at . By comparison, the 7 February 1812 New Madrid event, which was thought to have taken place on the Reelfoot fault and was the largest event in that series, had a rupture zone that was less than that of the Charlevoix earthquake and caused chimney damage at distances of more than . These things together suggest that the Charlevoix earthquake was similar in size to the largest of the New Madrid earthquakes and was at least a magnitude 6.8 event. The estimation of the earthquake's intensity was based on the condition of the soil where the damage occurred. A lower magnitude range would be preferred if the soil in the area was soft and loosely compacted and a range based on firm ground or bedrock would be proportionately higher. Effects The earthquake was felt sharply in New England, though the date recorded for the event was 26 January 1663, as New England was using the Julian calendar at the time. A church record entry made by Reverend S. Danforth from Roxbury, Massachusetts (~ 600 km from the CSZ) indicated the initial shock was felt around 6 pm that evening and several more shocks followed the next morning. On the shores of Massachusetts Bay, the tops of chimneys were broken on houses and pewter (a malleable metal alloy) was jarred from shelves. This level of damage is consistent with a modified Mercalli intensity of VI though this may have been because the early colonials had the capability of producing only relatively weak mortar. Using this MMI value and the distance from the epicenter one can estimate the magnitude of the earthquake using published intensity-attenuation relations. In a June 2011 report on the earthquake that was published in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, John E. Ebel, a professor and researcher at Boston College, used these known relations that apply to earthquakes in northeastern North America and determined the magnitude to be 7.3 – 7.9. Great landslides along the Saint Lawrence, Saint-Maurice, and Batiscan Rivers made these rivers muddy after the shock, with the waters of the St. Lawrence being affected for up to one month. Near Trois-Rivières several waterfalls were transformed by these landslides, and one waterfall on the St. Maurice River near Les Grès was said to have been nearly leveled. At Saint-Jean-Vianney, Quebec, there was a large earthflow landslide in a sensitive clay, interpreted to have been caused by the 1663 earthquake. In 1971 this was the site of another much smaller earthflow that destroyed 41 houses and killed 31 people. Multibeam bathymetry data and high resolution seismic reflection data acquired in the Saguenay Fjord has been used to identify a series of landslide deposits that were probably triggered by the 1663 earthquake. The Saguenay region is the site of a geological graben and has been subject to several natural disasters since the turn of the seventeenth century. In 1996 it was the site of the largest flood in 20th-century Canadian history, which led to the investigation of the fjord bottom using bathymetric data to determine slope stability. Historical records The inhabitants of the land were the Algonquin and Iroquois people as well as several thousand French settlers. Religious groups like the Ursulines (a Roman Catholic religious institute for women) and the Augustinians left good records of the event. These groups accredited the earthquake to God as a retaliation for disobedience and the sale of alcohol to Indigenous people. Some very detailed, though inconsistent, summaries were given by several Jesuits, most notably Jérôme Lalemant who provided relatively reserved written accounts of the strong effects of the earthquake back to his superiors in Europe. Lalemant was said to have been a disciplined priest with diverse experience and following his time in Canada was brought back to France to be posted the provincial superior of the Society of Jesus. Father Charles Simon, on the other hand, was said to have limited training and some written records of his were not received as readily or without hesitation. Father Simon seemed to not be of the same mind as the bulk of the devoted, saying "...the Earthquake was rather a Scheme of Divine Mercy than a scourge of Justice,— especially since, in so great a confusion of affairs and perturbations of the elements, no one lost life or fortune. Fear came to all, penalty to none." Aftermath Immediately after the earthquake, the missionaries, once it had become clear that no lives had been lost, regarded the earthquake not only as a timely warning to the population of New France for their sinfulness, but also as a sign of God's protection. They described it as "miraculous" rather than a disaster, regarding the date of the earthquake as particularly important, coming on the last day of the carnival, just before Mardi Gras. They were pleased to see all the colonists attending church regularly in the following days and that even the traffickers in wine and brandy appeared to repent. These effects were short-lived and Lalemant and other missionaries were soon left wishing for another great earthquake to help them in their cause. See also List of earthquakes in Canada List of earthquakes in the United States List of historical earthquakes References Bibliography 1663 Charlevoix 1663 in science 1660s earthquakes 1663 natural disasters 1660s in Canada 1663 in New France 1663 in the Thirteen Colonies Landslides in Canada Landslides in 1663

19707293

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985%20Nahanni%20earthquakes

1985 Nahanni earthquakes

The 1985 Nahanni earthquakes is the name for a continuous sequence of earthquakes that began in 1985 in the Nahanni region of the Northwest Territories, Canada. The largest of these earthquakes occurred on December 23, reaching 6.9 on the moment magnitude scale. This is one of the most significant earthquakes in Canada during the 20th century. The earthquakes had a long succession of aftershocks and jolts. The earthquakes amazed both the general public and the earth science community and have been felt in the Yukon, Alberta, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, and southeastern Alaska. See also List of earthquakes in 1985 List of earthquakes in Canada References Sources External links 1985 in Canada Earthquakes in Canada Natural disasters in the Northwest Territories 1985 earthquakes Natural history of Alaska Natural history of Yukon Natural history of Alberta Natural history of Saskatchewan Natural history of British Columbia December 1985 events in Canada 1985 in the Northwest Territories Earthquake clusters, swarms, and sequences 1985 disasters in Canada 1985 natural disasters in the United States

19715571

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925%20Charlevoix%E2%80%93Kamouraska%20earthquake

1925 Charlevoix–Kamouraska earthquake

The 1925 Charlevoix–Kamouraska earthquake struck northeastern North America on February 28, reaching 6.2 on the moment magnitude scale. It was one of the most powerful measured in Canada in the 20th century, with a maximum perceived intensity of VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale at its epicentre in the area of Charlevoix-Kamouraska along the Saint Lawrence River near île aux Lièvres and not greater than VI (Strong) in the United States. The quake was felt in Quebec City, Shawinigan, Montreal, as far south as Virginia, and as far west as the Mississippi River. Damage It caused damage in three separate areas. The first had extreme damage constricted to a narrow belt long on both shores of the Saint Lawrence River near the epicentre. In this area, damage at the villages of Baie-Saint-Paul, Saint-Urbain, Les Éboulements, Pointe-au-Pic, La Malbaie, Tadoussac and the other nearby villages of Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière, Saint-Pacôme, Rivière-Ouelle, Saint-Philippe, Saint-Denis, and Saint-Pascal on the south shore, was mostly related to the magnitude of the earthquake itself, and to some extent by the deep grainy soil on which many of the destroyed buildings were built. The two other damaged areas were Quebec City and in the Trois-Rivières – Shawinigan area, where the destruction was more extensive, not so much due to the strength of the earthquake, but rather to the uneven nature of the landscape. Aftermath A total of 55 aftershocks were recorded, which lasted for weeks, ranging from magnitude 5 to 2. Over the years, several studies were published on the 1925 Charlevoix–Kamouraska earthquake, some as recently as 1999. A foreshock occurred in the St. Lawrence valley the prior year on September 30. It was rated at 6.1 and was felt from Rockland, Ontario to Portland, Maine. See also Charlevoix Seismic Zone List of earthquakes in 1925 List of earthquakes in Canada List of earthquakes in the United States References Bibliography External links 1925 earthquakes 1925 in Quebec 1925 Charlevoix-Kamouraska 1925 Charlevoix-Kamouraska February 1925 events

19730274

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Chechnya%20earthquake

2008 Chechnya earthquake

The 2008 Chechnya earthquake occurred October 11 at 09:06:10 UTC in Chechnya, Russia, with a magnitude of 5.8. At least 13 people from the districts of Gudermes, Shalinsky and Kurchaloyevsky were killed. The mainshock and a series of aftershocks were felt throughout the North Caucasus, and even in Armenia and Georgia. About 116 people were injured. Dagestan, Ingushetia, North Ossetia and Stavropol also experienced the tremors, with a total of 16 shocks between 3 and 6 on the Richter magnitude scale. Some tremors lasted up to 30 seconds, causing serious structural damage in two Chechen districts, and left 52,000 people without power in three districts. Communications and roads in Chechnya were also disrupted. Five-hundred families in the heavily affected town of Kurchaloy needed tent shelters, and the local hospital in that town was evacuated. There was only minimal damage in the Chechnya capital of Grozny, consisting mostly of broken windows. Ramzan Kadyrov, the President of Chechnya said, "We have received information on damage from various districts... each and every [victim] will receive the necessary help and support." A magnitude 5.3 aftershock struck the region approximately 16 minutes after the initial quake. See also List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in Russia References External links Chechnya earthquake Chechnya earthquake Earthquakes in Russia Chechnya October 2008 events in Russia 2008 in Chechnya

19779874

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%20Saguenay%20earthquake

1988 Saguenay earthquake

The 1988 Saguenay earthquake struck Quebec, Canada with a moment magnitude of 5.9 on November 25. It is one of the largest recorded earthquakes in eastern Canada and eastern North America during the 20th century. The earthquake was felt by millions, and damaged some buildings. It could be felt as far as Toronto, Halifax, and Boston. The earthquake was triggered by faults associated with the Saguenay Graben. Aftershocks were felt as far south in Pennsylvania, USA, and as far west in Michigan See also List of earthquakes in Canada References External links 1988 in Canada 1988 1988 earthquakes History of Saguenay, Quebec 1988 in Quebec Laurentides Wildlife Reserve 1988 disasters in Canada

19786092

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1868%20Hayward%20earthquake

1868 Hayward earthquake

The 1868 Hayward earthquake occurred in the San Francisco Bay Area, California, United States on October 21. With an estimated moment magnitude of 6.3–6.7 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), it was the most recent large earthquake to occur on the Hayward Fault Zone. It caused significant damage and a number of deaths throughout the region, and was known as the "Great San Francisco earthquake" prior to the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire. Earthquake The earthquake occurred at 7:53 a.m. on October 21, 1868. Its epicenter was likely located near Hayward, California, and its magnitude has been estimated to have been 6.3–6.7 on the moment magnitude scale. At the surface, ground rupture was traced for , from San Leandro to what is now the Warm Springs District in Fremont. Damage The town of Hayward experienced the most damage, with nearly every building destroyed or significantly damaged in the earthquake. The Alameda County Courthouse in San Leandro was destroyed, which resulted in the re-location of the County Seat to Oakland, its current site. The adobe chapel of Mission San José in what is now Fremont was also destroyed, as were several buildings in San Jose, San Francisco and throughout Alameda County. Damage was reported from Santa Rosa in the north to Gilroy and Santa Cruz in the south. Thirty deaths were attributed to the earthquake. Intensity The United States Geological Survey estimates that Hayward experienced shaking measuring IX (Violent) on the modified Mercalli scale. San Leandro experienced shaking measuring VIII (Severe), while San Francisco and Oakland experienced shaking measuring VII (Very strong). See also List of earthquakes in California List of earthquakes in the United States List of historical earthquakes References Further reading External links 1868 Hayward Earthquake Alliance Images from the 1868 earthquake aftermath – The Bancroft Library Photos of damage in San Francisco following the 1868 earthquake – San Francisco Public Library Prepare for big ruptures on Hayward fault, scientists say – Stanford University The 150th Anniversary of the Damaging 1868 Hayward Earthquake: Why It Matters and How We Can Prepare for Its Repeat – Tom Brocher (USGS) 1868 Hayward earthquake History of the San Francisco Bay Area Hayward earthquake History of Hayward, California October 1868 events 1868 natural disasters in the United States

19831185

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20Qayen%20earthquake

1997 Qayen earthquake

The Qayen earthquake, also known as the Ardekul or Qaen earthquake, struck northern Iran's Khorasan Province in the vicinity of Qaen on May 10, 1997 at 07:57 UTC (12:57 local time). The largest in the area since 1990, the earthquake registered 7.3 on the moment magnitude scale and was centered approximately south of Mashhad on the village of Ardekul. The third earthquake that year to cause severe damage, it devastated the Birjand–Qayen region, killing 1,567 and injuring more than 2,300. The earthquake—which left 50,000 homeless and damaged or destroyed over 15,000 homes—was described as the deadliest of 1997 by the United States Geological Survey. Some 155 aftershocks caused further destruction and drove away survivors. The earthquake was later discovered to have been caused by a rupture along a fault that runs underneath the Iran–Afghanistan border. Damage was eventually estimated at $100 million, and many countries responded to the emergency with donations of blankets, tents, clothing, and food. Rescue teams were also dispatched to assist local volunteers in finding survivors trapped under the debris. The destruction around the earthquake's epicenter was, in places, almost total; this has been attributed to poor construction practices in rural areas, and imparted momentum to a growing movement for changes in building codes for earthquake-safe buildings. With 1 in 3,000 deaths in Iran attributable to earthquakes, a US geophysicist has suggested that a country-wide rebuilding program would be needed to address the ongoing public safety concerns. Background and geology Iran experiences regular earthquakes, with 200 reported in 1996 alone. Like dozens that had preceded it, the 1997 Qayen event was of significant magnitude. It occurred on Saturday, May 10, 1997 at 12:57 IRST in the Sistan region, one of the most seismically active areas of the country. The first major earthquake in that region since 1979, it registered 7.3 on the moment magnitude scale (), 7.2 on the surface wave magnitude scale (), 7.7 on the energy magnitude scale (Me), and had a maximum perceived intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The earthquake was caused by a rupture along the Abiz Fault, part of the Sistan suture zone of eastern Iran. Located northeast of the main collision zone between the Arabian and Eurasian tectonic plates, the Sistan zone marks the eastern boundary of the Iranian microplate where it intersects with the Afghan crustal block. Most of Iran is contained on one microplate, causing seismic activity mainly along its borders. Both the 1968 Dasht-e-Bayez earthquake (magnitude 7.3, resulting in 12,000–20,000 deaths) and the Qayen earthquake were the results of strike-slip faults, meaning that the crustal blocks on either side of the faults shifted against each other horizontally. The Qayen earthquake was caused by right lateral movement along the Abiz Fault. In addition to the dominant strike-slip displacement, there was also local evidence of reverse faulting. The average displacement of about 2 m indicates a low static stress drop, more consistent with an interplate earthquake than an intraplate event. The maximum horizontal acceleration during the quake was approximately 6.9 meters per second—nearly three-quarters of the acceleration an object would have in free fall—and occurred near the earthquake's epicenter. The crustal layer involved in the rupture was thick. The ground rupture for the earthquake extended for , which was longer than would be expected given the earthquake's magnitude. There were at least 155 aftershocks, reaching a magnitude of up to 5.5 on the Richter magnitude scale. Many of the aftershocks occurred along the rupture up to below the surface. The earthquake's epicenter was within the village of Ardekul in South Khorasan Province, which borders Afghanistan. The village is isolated between mountains and hills. Although the Iranian government had distributed more than 800 seismographs throughout the country, few had been placed in the Qayen region due to its desert climate and the remoteness of the area. As a result of the dry climate, timber—a main component in building earthquake-resistant homes—is scarce in Qayen; homes are instead constructed of adobe. The inhabitants of the poverty-stricken region rely on subsistence farming, raising livestock and crops such as wheat and saffron. When the earthquake struck, much of the population was already working in the fields; for the most part, these people survived. Many of those treated for injuries were found to be undernourished. Damage and casualties The earthquake was felt over an area of , including in the cities of Mashhad, Kerman and Yazd. Destruction was most severe within a strip between the epicenter and Birjand. The tremors triggered landslides across the region and proved highly destructive to the region's mud-hut buildings. Entire streets were reduced to rubble, and in one village, 110 young girls were killed when their elementary school collapsed. An initial report in The New York Times claimed that more than 2,000 people had died in the worst-affected area, with a further 394 in Birjand and two in the small town of Khavaf. The earthquake was also said to have caused five fatalities in Afghanistan. As rescue efforts proceeded these figures were revised; the United States Geological Survey states that 1,572 people were killed and as many as 2,300 injured. As bodies were retrieved, they were buried in mass graves. Officials worried that a temperature fluctuation—from on the day of the earthquake—would cause the corpses to rot more quickly, spreading infection. Many villages lost both power and water, leaving survivors unable to fend for themselves. The injured were often up to away from the nearest hospital. One doctor, highlighting the desperate need for physicians to treat the injured, said "I don't know how many casts I have done today, but it seems like hundreds." The extensive aftershocks prompted survivors to leave the vicinity of their homes and take to tents. Several days later, another earthquake of magnitude 4.8 struck. In the wake of the earthquake and its aftershocks, every one of the 700 houses in the tiny village of Abiz, east of Qayen, was destroyed, and 400 of its 1,200 residents killed. According to an Iranian radio station report, 200 villages sustained severe damage or were totally destroyed. The United States Geological Survey estimated that 10,533 houses were destroyed; an additional 5,474 homes sustained varying degrees of damage. Fifty thousand people were left homeless. Local officials initially estimated the cost of the damage at $67 million 1997 US$ (roughly 89.5 million 2008 USD). The estimate was later raised to 100 million 1997 USD (roughly 133.6 million 2008 USD). One hundred schools and many health centers in the stricken areas were discovered to be in need of repair work. Many of the more seriously damaged homes were of simple construction, with walls made of mud, adobe, or brick packed thick. These materials are generally more vulnerable to the force of the earthquake, but some of the traditionally constructed homes sustained little or no damage. This was due to a range of factors, possibly including the height-to-width ratio, the lack of windows, and the quality of the materials used. In general, reinforced concrete-framed homes, built after the 1979 earthquake, were better able to withstand the earthquake. Those near the epicenter still sustained severe damage due to the weight of the roofs and the weak joint connections between major structural elements of the buildings. Relief efforts Several thousand volunteers were brought in to join the search for survivors buried under mounds of brick and cement debris. Many volunteers used their hands. Local organizations, including the Iranian Red Crescent, sent 9,000 tents, more than 18,000 blankets, canned food, rice, and dates. An additional of supplies were sent by the Iranian government to Mashhad, from where the relief efforts were being coordinated. The United Nations Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, pleaded that the international community "respond promptly and with generosity". France dispatched a cargo plane filled with blankets, tents, clothing, and food, while Swiss authorities sent a rescue team with dogs trained in search-and-rescue. Several aircraft carrying tents, blankets, and kerosene stoves from European and Arab countries arrived in Mashad on May 14. Representatives from the United States, calling the disaster a "humanitarian issue", said that despite their strong differences with Iran they would donate supplies and other aid if requested. The Mennonite Central Committee, an American relief agency stationed in Akron, Pennsylvania, redirected to the relief effort of lentils and cooking oils intended for immigrant refugees. A specialist British disaster rescue organisation, the International Rescue Corps, offered to send a team but were refused visas (with the reasoning that "enough rescue crews had already arrived at the disaster site"), and a Swiss offer of additional assistance was also turned down. Several countries within the Persian Gulf political region sent condolences to the families of victims and the government in the area. Because the affected area is extremely remote, distributing the relief supplies was difficult. Reaching some villages would require a five-hour drive over unpaved roads, some of which had collapsed or had been covered by landslides during the earthquake. Helicopters were used to provide supplies to some otherwise inaccessible areas. Although aid operations continued for some time, the Iranian government ceased rescue work on May 14. No more survivors were expected to be found in the rubble. Future threats Iran was listed as "the worst offender" in a 2004 report on countries with poor earthquake engineering. Professor Roger Bilham of the University of Colorado at Boulder, a geophysicist who specializes in earthquake-related deformation and hazards, blames construction practices for the fact that since the start of the 20th century, 1 in 3,000 Iranians has died in an earthquake-related incident. Bilham argues that "Most of Iran needs rebuilding." The United Nations have prepared a Common Country Assessment for Iran, which likewise states that "While adequate building regulations exist for large cities, it is generally believed that they are not rigorously adhered to... most of those who have suffered in recent major earthquakes have lived in small towns and villages. Earthquake-proof construction is very rare in those areas and adequate building regulations are not yet in place". An analysis of the performance of traditional buildings during the earthquake concluded that several factors, including high construction costs, poor materials, a shortage of skills in rural areas, and a lack of building regulations governing traditional construction techniques, have led to a deterioration in the quality of such buildings. The study recommended regulations to govern the construction of traditional arches and domes. The earthquakes of Iran are a large concern to the populace and are an impediment to economic development. Twelve earthquakes with a Richter magnitude of over seven have occurred within the last century. Three-quarters of the major cities of Iran are in areas prone to major earthquakes. The 1990 Manjil–Rudbar earthquake, with at least 42,000 fatalities, cost Iran roughly 7.2 percent of its Gross National Product (GNP) for that year and wiped out two years of economic growth. In 2007, the Asian Centre on Seismic Risk Reduction was formed in response to the regular earthquakes experienced by the southern, southwestern, and central Asian areas. This organization exists to "encourage regional and inter-regional networking and partnerships to reduce seismic damage". Earthquakes account for 73 percent of natural disaster deaths in the area. See also List of earthquakes in 1997 List of earthquakes in Iran List of earthquakes in Afghanistan Bojnurd earthquake and Ardabil earthquake – two other earthquakes affecting Iran in 1997 Footnotes References External links Qayen Qayen earthquake May 1997 events in Asia Earthquakes in Iran Earthquakes in Afghanistan History of South Khorasan Province 1997 disasters in Iran 1997 disasters in Afghanistan

19833109

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20Iran%20earthquake

1997 Iran earthquake

1997 Iran earthquake may refer to: 1997 Bojnurd earthquake 1997 Ardabil earthquake 1997 Qayen earthquake

19834070

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%20Ardabil%20earthquake

1997 Ardabil earthquake

The 1997 Ardabil earthquake occurred on 28 February with a moment magnitude of 6.1 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). The strike-slip earthquake occurred in northern Iran, near the city of Ardabil. Background and tectonics Ardabil and the surrounding province which bears its name are agricultural lands, primarily populated by Azeris. Two other earthquakes damaged northern Iran the month before, killing at least 79 people. Damage and casualties The earthquake occurred at 12:57 UTC (4:27 p.m. Iran Standard Time) and lasted for 15 seconds. At least 1,100 people were killed, 2,600 injured, 36,000 homeless, 12,000 houses damaged or destroyed and 160,000 livestock killed in the Ardabil area of northwestern Iran. Severe damage was observed to roads, electrical power lines, communications and water distribution systems around Ardabil. Hospitals and other medical buildings were overflowing with patients as a result of the earthquake. More than 83 villages experienced some form of damage. Within the village of Villadareh, 85 corpses were recovered from the rubble. In Varania, another small village near the epicenter that had previously had a population of 85, all but 20 residents had perished. Aftershocks Roughly 350 aftershocks followed the main Ardabil earthquake. The largest one had a magnitude of 5.2 on the Richter scale. Aid workers and rescuers approximate death toll as high as 3,000. Aftermath and relief efforts In the aftermath of the tremor, of snow fell, hampering rescue efforts. The Iranian government declared three days of mourning to honor victims. Iranian president visited the damaged area on 4 March. Rescue workers at the scene disputed the official government death toll, claiming it was as much as three times higher. Nonetheless, head of the Iranian Branch of Red Crescent Seifollah Vahid Dastjerdi was satisfied with the pace of relief work. More than 8,700 tents, 21,800 blankets, 15,300 heaters and lanterns, 2,000 bottles of baby formula and 80 tons of bread were given to the victims. Additionally, 60 ambulances, 127 trucks and vans and two helicopters transported victims, relief workers, and supplies to and from the affected region. Air crash On 3 March, a small aircraft on a relief mission crashed about 16 miles (25 km) northeast of Ardabil. Its wreckage was discovered the following day. There were four people on board the Falcon aircraft but no survivors. The crash was blamed on poor weather and heavy snowfall. See also 1997 Bojnurd earthquake – An earlier earthquake affecting Iran that same month List of earthquakes in 1997 List of earthquakes in Iran References Further reading External links 1997 Ardabil Ardabil Ardabil earthquake History of Ardabil Province February 1997 events in Asia 1997 disasters in Iran

19926557

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980%20Oaxaca%20earthquake

1980 Oaxaca earthquake

The 1980 Oaxaca earthquake occurred on October 24 at with a moment magnitude of 7.2 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). This dip-slip shock left up to 300 dead, many injured, and about 150,000 homeless. While it was felt throughout southern Mexico and in Guatemala, damage (totaling $5 million) was focused in the Huajuapan de León region of the state of Oaxaca. See also List of earthquakes in 1980 List of earthquakes in Mexico References External links Central Mexico Earthquake, 1980 Earthquakes in Mexico Central Mexico October 1980 events in Mexico 1980 disasters in Mexico

19933727

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1888%20North%20Canterbury%20earthquake

1888 North Canterbury earthquake

The 1888 North Canterbury earthquake occurred at on 1 September following a sequence of foreshocks that started the previous evening, and whose epicentre was in the North Canterbury region of the South Island of New Zealand. The epicentre was approximately west of Hanmer. In Christchurch, about southeast of the epicentre, shaking lasted for 40 to 50 seconds. The magnitude of the earthquake is estimated to be in the range 7.0–7.3. Severe damage to farm buildings in the epicentral region was reported and the top of the spire of ChristChurch Cathedral collapsed. It was the first earthquake observed to be associated with mainly horizontal fault displacement. Tectonic setting New Zealand lies along the boundary between the Australian and Pacific Plates. In the South Island, most of the relative displacement between these plates is taken up along a single dextral (right lateral) strike-slip fault with a major reverse component, the Alpine Fault. In the North Island, displacement is mainly taken up along the Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone, although the remaining dextral strike-slip component is accommodated by the North Island Fault System. Earthquake The earthquake occurred on the Hope Fault, one of the group of dextral strike-slip structures known as the Marlborough Fault System that transfer displacement between the mainly transform and convergent type plate boundaries in a complex zone at the northern end of South Island. Alexander McKay, a geologist working for the geological survey, observed horizontal offsets in farm fences between along the fault. He was the first to associate a strike-slip displacement with an earthquake. Damage In the North Canterbury region many buildings were severely damaged, particularly in the Hope Valley and Hanmer areas. Landslides occurred in unconsolidated sediment and fissures up to wide were observed. In Christchurch, the top of the Cathedral spire fell down and minor damage, such as broken chimneys, affected many houses. The Durham Street Methodist Church, Christchurch's first church build with permanent materials, suffered some damage to its stonework. Another building affected was the Christchurch Normal School, where chimneys fell down and ceilings were cracked. Damage was greatest in the northern and northwestern suburbs, probably due to the peaty sub-soil. One person died of a heart attack during the earthquake. See also 1848 Marlborough earthquake 1901 Cheviot earthquake 2013 Lake Grassmere earthquake 2013 Seddon earthquake 2016 Kaikōura earthquake List of earthquakes in New Zealand List of historical earthquakes References Earthquakes in New Zealand North Canterbury Earthquake, 1888 North Canterbury, New Zealand History of Canterbury, New Zealand September 1888 events 1888 disasters in New Zealand

19982743

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Ziarat%20earthquakes

2008 Ziarat earthquakes

The 2008 Ziarat earthquakes hit the Pakistani province of Balochistan on October 29 with a moment magnitude of 6.4. The US Geological Survey reported that the first earthquake occurred north of Quetta and southeast of the Afghanistan city of Kandahar at 04:09 local time (28 October, 23:09 UTC) at a depth of , at 30.653°N, 67.323°E. It was followed by another shallower magnitude 6.4 earthquake at a depth of approximately 12 hours after the initial shock, at 30.546°N, 67.447°E. 215 people were confirmed dead. More than 200 were injured (according to Mohammed Zaman, assistant to the Balochistan chief secretary, Nasir Khosa), and 120,000 were homeless (according to Dilawar Khan Kakar, Ziarat, Balochistan mayor and chief administrator). Qamar Zaman Chaudhry, director general of Pakistan Meteorological Department, stated the quake epicenter was north of Quetta, and about southwest of Islamabad. Tectonic summary Western and northern Pakistan lie across the complex plate boundary where the Indian Plate is colliding with the Eurasian Plate. In this area the convergence is highly oblique, with the relative northward movement of the Indian Plate of 40 mm/yr (1.6 inches/yr) being at a low angle to the plate boundary. The main active faults are dominated by sinistral (left-lateral) strike-slip motion, with the Chaman Fault being the most important structure, accommodating a large proportion of the plate boundary displacement. The shortening component of the convergence is mainly accommodated by the Kirthar and Sulaiman fold and thrust belts. There is a sharp change in orientation of these two thrust belts near Quetta, known as the Quetta Syntaxis, where the north–south trending Kirthar ranges meet the west–east trending Sulaiman ranges. This area is the most seismically active part of this oblique segment of the plate margin, producing major earthquakes such as the 1935 Quetta event, which caused at least an estimated 30,000 deaths. Earthquake sequence The earthquake sequence began at 22:33 UTC on October 28, with a magnitude 5.3 foreshock. This was followed just over 30 minutes later at 23:09 by the first of the M 6.4 doublet earthquakes. The second M 6.4 doublet earthquake occurred at 11:32 on October 29. There were five significant aftershocks in the period up to December 12, including three M>5 earthquakes on that day. The observed focal mechanisms were almost all strike-slip in type, but it remained unclear which faults ruptured during the sequence, with both southwest–northeast trending sinistral (left lateral) and northwest–southeast trending dextral (right lateral) faults being proposed. Investigations using InSAR data supported activity on multiple faults in both of these orientations. Damage Most of the casualties were from two villages on the outskirts of Ziarat town. Balochistan chief minister Nawab Aslam Khan Raisani ordered declaration of emergency in the hospitals of the affected areas. These areas, situated on steep terrain, were badly damaged by landslides caused by the quake. Hundreds of mud houses were destroyed. The tremors were felt in Quetta, Ziarat, Pishin, Qila Abdullah, Mastung, Sibi, Bolan, Kuchlak and Loralai areas. Response Dilawar Khan, mayor of Ziarat District, stated that his office had requested support from the local government. Pakistani military helicopters and troops were dispatched to assess damage and aid victims. See also List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in Pakistan 1935 Quetta earthquake 2005 Kashmir earthquake 2013 Balochistan earthquakes References Further reading External links Crisis briefing Pakistan quake 2008 From Reuters Alertnet REUTERS, CHRONOLOGY-Major earthquakes in recent years BBC, In pictures: Pakistan quake BBC, History of deadly earthquakes Pakistan earthquake Earthquakes in Pakistan Earthquake History of Balochistan, Pakistan (1947–present) October 2008 events in Asia

19982758

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan%20earthquake

Balochistan earthquake

Balochistan earthquake may refer to: 2008 Ziarat earthquakes 2013 Balochistan earthquakes 2021 Balochistan earthquake

19997008

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1894%20Tokyo%20earthquake

1894 Tokyo earthquake

The occurred in Tokyo, Japan at 14:04 PM on June 20. It affected downtown Tokyo and neighboring Kanagawa prefecture, especially the cities of Kawasaki and Yokohama. The earthquake's epicenter was in Tokyo Bay, with a magnitude of 6.6 on the Richter magnitude scale. The depth of the 1894 earthquake has not been determined, but it is thought to have occurred within the subducting Pacific Plate under the Kantō region. The death toll was 31 killed and 157 injured. The earthquake was mentioned by author Ichiyō Higuchi in her work Mizu-no-ue no nikki, in which she described damage to buildings in Yotsuya, and soil liquefaction in the Mita area of downtown Tokyo. She also commented on an aftershock which occurred at 22:00 that night. The earthquake is also mentioned by author Jun'ichirō Tanizaki in his autobiographical work, Yosho-jidai, in which he described how his family's house collapsed during the earthquake, a traumatic event to which he attributed his lifelong phobia of earthquakes. By 1894, Tokyo and Yokohama had numerous foreign residents, many of whom commented on the earthquake in their writings and diaries. The National Science Museum of Japan in Tokyo has a collection of twenty two photographs of the earthquake in the form of albumen papers, lantern slides and dry plates. A considerable number of photographs were taken just after the event for the use at the former Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee in its official reports of the 1894 earthquake, but almost all of the original plates have been lost. See also List of earthquakes in Japan List of historical earthquakes References Further reading Clancey, Gregory. (2006). Earthquake Nation: The Cultural Politics of Japanese Seismicity. Berkeley: University of California Press. (cloth) Danly, Robert Lyons. In the Shade of Spring Leaves: The Life of Higuchi Ichiyo, with Nine of Her Best Short Stories. Norton & Company (1992). Tanizaki, Jun'ichirō. Childhood Years: A Memoir. Kodansha International (1998). 1894 earthquakes 1894 in Japan Natural disasters in Tokyo Meiji period 19th century in Tokyo June 1894 events Earthquakes of the Meiji period 1894 disasters in Japan

19997383

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1943%20Tottori%20earthquake

1943 Tottori earthquake

The occurred in Tottori prefecture, Japan at 17:36 local time on September 10, 1943. Although the earthquake occurred during World War II, information about the disaster was not censored, and relief volunteers and supplies came from many parts of the Empire of Japan, including Manchukuo. The Tottori earthquake had its epicenter offshore from Ketaka District, now part of Tottori, and registered a magnitude of 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale. The seismic intensity was recorded as 6 in Tottori city, and 5 as far away as Okayama on the Inland Sea. The center of Tottori city, with many antiquated buildings was the hardest hit, with an estimated 80% of its structures damaged or destroyed. As the earthquake struck in the evening when most kitchens had fires lit in preparation for the evening meal, fires broke out in 16 locations around the city. With water mains damaged, citizens formed bucket brigades to prevent fires from spreading. The number of fatalities was 1,083, including numerous Zainichi Koreans working in the nearby Aragane Copper Mines. Two magnitude 6.2 earthquakes had occurred in the same area earlier that year on March 4 and 5, but did not cause significant damage. See also List of earthquakes in 1943 List of earthquakes in Japan Notes External links Tottori Tottori September 1943 events Earthquakes in the Empire of Japan History of Tottori Prefecture Earthquakes of the Showa period 1943 disasters in Japan Zainichi Korean history

20011849

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953%20Yenice%E2%80%93G%C3%B6nen%20earthquake

1953 Yenice–Gönen earthquake

The 1953 Yenice–Gönen earthquake occurred at 21:06 local time (19:06 UTC on 18 March in the province of Çanakkale and Balıkesir in the Marmara Region at western Turkey. It had a surface wave magnitude of 7.5 and a maximum felt intensity of IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused widespread damage, killing 1,070 and causing damage that was estimated at US$3,570,000 repair value. Tectonic setting The tectonics of northern and eastern Turkey are dominated by the two strike-slip fault zones that accommodate the west to southwestward movement of the Anatolian Plate relative to the Eurasian Plate and the Arabian Plate as it is effectively being squeezed out by convergence between them. The quake occurred along the Yenice–Gönen Fault, which is a southern extension of the North Anatolian Fault Zone. Damage and casualties The quake had a surface wave magnitude of 7.5 and it killed at least 1,070; 998 of those deaths were in Yenice, with another 50 in Gönen, 20 in Çan, and 3 in Manyas. The cost of repair was estimated at US$3,570,000. Several thousand buildings were affected in the Can-Yenice-Gonen area. Damage of intensity VI occurred at Sakarya (Adapazari), Bursa, Edirne, Istanbul and Izmir. The quake was felt throughout the Aegean Islands and in much of mainland Greece, with damage occurring as far away as Crete. Shaking was also recorded in Bulgaria. Although officials predicted the earthquake would cause only 265 deaths, it multiplied with a death toll seven times the number as expected. Characteristics Approximately of surface faulting occurred, with as much as of strike-slip (horizontal) faulting was observed by geologists east of Yenice. Aftermath The damage caused by this earthquake led to a new national reconstruction law in Turkey. In Greece the damage was severe enough that new building codes were introduced. Future seismic hazard Trenching and other fieldwork along the trace of the Yenice–Gönen Fault has identified three earthquakes before the 1953 event, about 1440 AD, between 620 and 1270 AD, and another event of uncertain age. These past events give a mean recurrence interval for large earthquakes of 660±160 years. This indicates that there is no significant current threat from ruptures along this fault zone. See also List of earthquakes in 1953 List of earthquakes in Turkey Notes Further reading External links 1953 Yenice 1953 earthquakes 1953 in Turkey History of Çanakkale Province History of Balıkesir Province March 1953 events in Europe 1953 disasters in Turkey Strike-slip earthquakes

20038242

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1855%20Wairarapa%20earthquake

1855 Wairarapa earthquake

The 1855 Wairarapa earthquake occurred on 23 January at about 9.17 p.m., affecting much of the Cook Strait area of New Zealand, including Marlborough in the South Island and Wellington and the Wairarapa in the North Island. In Wellington, close to the epicentre, shaking lasted for at least 50 seconds. The moment magnitude of the earthquake has been estimated as 8.2, the most powerful recorded in New Zealand since systematic European colonisation began in 1840. This earthquake was associated with the largest directly observed movement on a strike-slip fault, maximum . This was later revised upward to about slip, with a local peak of vertical displacement on lidar studies. It has been suggested that the surface rupture formed by this event helped influence Charles Lyell to link earthquakes with rapid movement on faults. Tectonic setting New Zealand lies along the boundary between the Australian and Pacific Plates. In the South Island most of the relative displacement between these plates is taken up along a single dextral (right lateral) strike-slip fault with a major reverse component, the Alpine Fault. In the North Island the displacement is mainly taken up along the Kermadec subduction zone, although the remaining dextral strike-slip component of the relative plate motion is accommodated by the North Island Fault System (NIFS). A group of dextral strike-slip structures, known as the Marlborough Fault System, transfer displacement between the mainly transform and convergent type plate boundaries in a complex zone at the northern end of the South Island. The earthquake occurred on the Wairarapa Fault which is part of the NIFS. Earthquake characteristics The earthquake was associated with the rupturing of approximately of the Wairarapa Fault. A horizontal displacement of up to was accompanied by uplift and tilting of the Rimutaka Range on the northwestern side of the fault with vertical offsets of about 6 metres near the fault reducing to almost nothing on the western coast of the Wellington Peninsula. The estimated magnitude of about 8.2 is unusually large for an earthquake associated with movement on a mainly strike-slip fault, and the coseismic offset would have been the largest known for such an event. It has been suggested that this was caused by the rupture propagating down to where the fault links through to the top of the subducting Pacific Plate. That such megathrust coupling with overlying surface faults is possible was subsequently observed with the 2016 Kaikōura earthquake, and a new model for a subset of shallow megathrust earthquakes, including this earthquake, was developed. Other evidence for this hypothesis is geomorphological evidence, particularly the uplifted beach ridges observed at Turakirae Head, that appear to record three previous coseismic uplifts of the Rimutaka Range caused by earthquakes similar in magnitude to the 1855 event, with a recurrence interval of about 2200 years. Damage Wellington experienced severe shaking but the resulting damage was reduced as the city had been extensively rebuilt following the 1848 Marlborough earthquake using mainly wooden structures; only one recorded fatality (by collapse of a brick chimney) occurred, though several other buildings were damaged. Reports identify at least another four people (possibly as many as eight) as having died in the Wairarapa during the earthquake and a bridge over the Hutt River was wrecked. Numerous landslides were associated with the earthquake, including the harbour-side cliffs near Newlands and numerous events along the slopes of the Rimutaka Range. Minor damage was recorded in places as far away as New Plymouth, Lyttelton and Christchurch. The uplift of the northwestern side of Wellington Harbour rendered many of the jetties in the harbour unusable, although this new area of land provided a new rail and road route to the north. Much of modern Wellington's central business district is formed by reclamations on land raised from the harbour by the event, as shown by the series of "Shoreline 1840" plaques. At Turakirae Head the newest raised beach was formed by an uplift of in the 1855 quake. Along with other historic earthquakes in the Wellington region, the severe uplift and landslides along the coastline caused by the 1855 Wairarapa earthquake would have likely extirpated local populations of Durvillaea antarctica southern bull kelp. For comparison, a large-scale die off of Durvillaea was observed following the 2016 Kaikōura earthquake. The removal of D. antarctica along the Wellington coastline in 1855 (or earlier) would have created an ecological opportunity, which may have facilitated a northward range expansion for Durvillaea poha from the South Island. Tsunami The earthquake generated New Zealand's largest historical locally generated tsunami, with a maximum run-up of . New Zealand's National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research created an animated tsunami simulation model based on the 1855 Wairarapa event, which was screened on the television tele-drama "Aftershock". See also 1843 Wanganui earthquake 1888 North Canterbury earthquake List of earthquakes in New Zealand List of historical earthquakes List of historical tsunamis References Further reading Earthquakes in New Zealand Wairarapa earthquake Wairarapa earthquake Wairarapa History of the Wellington Region Tsunamis in New Zealand 19th-century tsunamis 1855 natural disasters January 1855 events 1850s in Wellington 1855 disasters in New Zealand

20086525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20Yunnan%20earthquake

2000 Yunnan earthquake

The 2000 Yunnan earthquake occurred on January 14 at 23:37 UTC, in Yunnan, China. The earthquake killed 7 people, and caused much damage in central Yunnan Province. The quake was moderate, with a magnitude of 5.9; however, it left 2,528 injured, 92,479 homeless and destroyed over 41,000 homes. It was preceded by a magnitude 5.5 foreshock at 22:09 on the same day. Tectonic setting Yunnan lies within the area affected by the continuing collision between the India Plate and the Eurasian Plate that has led to the formation of the Tibetan Plateau. Lateral eastward spreading of this zone of thickened crust is impeded by the presence of the South China Block and this causes clockwise rotation of the Sichuan–Yunnan block, accommodated by left-lateral strike-slip faults on its eastern margin and right lateral strike-slip faults to the west. Earthquake The earthquake sequence started with two foreshocks at 22:09 (M5.5) and 22:23 (M3.9) on January 14. The mainshock, which occurred soon afterwards at 23:37, had an estimated magnitude of 5.9 (ANSS), 6.0 or 6.5 . It was followed within the hour by a 4.5 aftershock. Based on the aftershock distribution, the earthquake was the result of rupture along a fault with a strike of N50°W. The causative fault was most likely the right lateral Maweiqing fault, one of the faults that forms the western boundary of the Sichuan-Yunnan block. See also List of earthquakes in 2000 List of earthquakes in Yunnan List of earthquakes in China References External links 2000 Yunnan 2000 earthquakes 2000 in China January 2000 events in Asia 2000 disasters in China Geography of Chuxiong Yi Autonomous Prefecture Yao'an County

20094342

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970%20Tonghai%20earthquake

1970 Tonghai earthquake

The 1970 Tonghai earthquake () occurred at with a moment magnitude of 7.1 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). The strike-slip rupture originated on the Red River Fault, which had not experienced an earthquake above magnitude 7 since 1700, and affected Tonghai County, Yunnan province, China. At least 10,000 people were killed, making it one of the deadliest in its decade. The tremor caused between US$5 and $25 million in damage, felt over an area of . In Hanoi, North Vietnam, almost from the epicenter, victims left their homes as the rupture rumbled through the city. Occurring during the height of the Cultural Revolution, it was not widely publicized by the Chinese government for well over a decade. The amount of aid and finances distributed was described by the Beijing Morning Post as "pathetically small". Much of the aid provided to survivors was in "spiritual" form, including Mao Zedong badges and condolence letters. Nevertheless, the earthquake was among the first to be studied over a long term by the Chinese government. It was cited as one of the reasons behind creating the largest earthquake monitoring system in China, 25 years later. Background and tectonics Yunnan, the epicentral region, is one of the more seismically active Chinese provinces. The earliest earthquake recorded there was in the 9th century; however, moderate to strong ones have been observed since the 15th century. Since the 9th century, 32 earthquakes with a magnitude of 7 or greater have occurred in the province. Shallow strike-slip faulting is a characteristic of Yunnan quakes. Earthquakes in southwestern Yunnan, such as the 1970 Tonghai event, are less frequent than in other parts of the province. The Red River Fault, the fault on which this quake is alleged to have occurred, has lacked seismological activity as a whole. Red River temblors generally rise at high angles, as shown in a 1962 Ministry of Geology report. Marking in sedimentary rocks indicate that several large earthquakes formed on the fault during the Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Until this quake, no earthquake above magnitude 7.0 on the Richter scale had occurred on this fault since about 1700, and the fault was believed to be "dead". Since the 1970 Tonghai rupture, it is believed that the Red River fault is instead experiencing a long seismic gap similar to that of the Japan Median Tectonic Line, on which no major temblor has formed since 700 but produced massive ones during the Holocene epoch. Damage and casualties The epicenter of the quake was about southwest of Kunming and northwest of Gejiu; this area was mainly a tobacco-growing region. Effects of the rupture were felt over an area of . In Hanoi, North Vietnam, almost from the epicenter, victims left their homes as the rupture rumbled through the city. The earthquake measured 7.1 on the moment magnitude scale. It may have killed more than 15,000 people, making it the third deadliest in China during the 20th century, and injured an additional 26,783. The tremor caused between US$5 to $25 million in damage. A Reuters news report, the only one in the immediate aftermath, mentioned the recording of a "severe" quake by Hong Kong's Royal Observatory and cited an unconfirmed report that it might have destroyed part of Kunming. It caused of visible surface faulting on the Tonghai Fault. There was a maximum horizontal offset of 2.5 m (8 ft) and vertical offset of about 0.5 m (1.5 ft). As a result of inversion techniques, scientists were able to decide that several events comprised the surface faulting. This further confirmed that the earthquake, along with a later earthquake in Yunnan in 1973, corresponded to a fault within the area. Aftermath Scientific study The earthquake was among the first to be studied over a long term by the Chinese government. More than 40 Chinese seismologists, engineers, and geologists visited the disaster zone to conduct research into the cause and damage of the earthquake; some spending as much as a year collecting soil samples and recording other primary research evidence for future study. Such data was collected over a broad area of almost 1,400 towns within the area. Reaction According to the Reuters report, the survivors came together to "fight against the disaster". Much of the aid provided to survivors was in "spiritual" form. The Chinese government sent tens of thousands of Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong books and badges in his honor to victims as part of the relief effort, and survivors also received 14,350 sympathy letters. However, the amount of aid and finances distributed was described by the Beijing Morning Post 30 years later as "pathetically small." The details of the earthquake were not widely publicized by Chinese authorities until about 18 years after its occurrence. In China's first decades of Communist rule, its policy was to not disclose natural disasters or accidents unless foreigners were injured. While the Chinese official press had not released a comprehensive report, Reuters and the Royal Hong Kong Observatory both released information soon after the disaster. At the time of the quake, Xinhua News Agency briefly mentioned a smaller magnitude quake but did not provide information on damage or casualties. On 19 November 1988, nearly 19 years later, Chen Zhangli of the State Seismology Bureau, speaking at a news conference for another earthquake that had recently occurred, estimated the death toll of the 1970 quake to be 10,000. He did not give a reason why his government had not previously disclosed this knowledge. Government officials from China released a different estimate in 2000, putting the death toll at 15,621. China published the estimate after a memorial service for survivors and relatives was held in Yuxi on 5 January. A Yuxi Seismology Bureau official noted that the information had been classified for "political reasons" and the death toll estimate had been known among bureaucrats as early as 1997. Twenty-five years after the earthquake, the largest earthquake-monitoring network nationally was established in Yunnan. It set up earthquake offices in every county to prepare for another large rupture. The 1970 Tonghai earthquake was cited as one of the reasons behind creating the monitoring system. See also List of earthquakes in 1970 List of earthquakes in Yunnan List of earthquakes in China Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links 1970 earthquakes 1970 Tonghai 1970 in China January 1970 events in Asia Geography of Yuxi 1970 disasters in China

20110714

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906%20San%20Francisco%20earthquake

1906 San Francisco earthquake

At 05:12 Pacific Standard Time on Wednesday, April 18, 1906, the coast of Northern California was struck by a major earthquake with an estimated moment magnitude of 7.9 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). High-intensity shaking was felt from Eureka on the North Coast to the Salinas Valley, an agricultural region to the south of the San Francisco Bay Area. Devastating fires soon broke out in San Francisco and lasted for several days. More than 3,000 people died, and over 80% of the city was destroyed. The event is remembered as the deadliest earthquake in the history of the United States. The death toll remains the greatest loss of life from a natural disaster in California's history and high on the lists of American disasters. Tectonic setting The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that forms part of the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The strike-slip fault is characterized by mainly lateral motion in a dextral sense, where the western (Pacific) plate moves northward relative to the eastern (North American) plate. This fault runs the length of California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino in the north, a distance of about . The maximum observed surface displacement was about 20 feet (6 m); geodetic measurements show displacements of up to 28 feet (8.5 m). Earthquake The 1906 earthquake preceded the development of the Richter magnitude scale by three decades. The most widely accepted estimate for the magnitude of the quake on the modern moment magnitude scale is 7.9; values from 7.7 to as high as 8.3 have been proposed. According to findings published in the Journal of Geophysical Research, severe deformations in the Earth's crust took place both before and after the earthquake's impact. Accumulated strain on the faults in the system was relieved during the earthquake, which is the supposed cause of the damage along the segment of the San Andreas plate boundary. The 1906 rupture propagated both northward and southward for a total of . Shaking was felt from Oregon to Los Angeles, and as far inland as central Nevada. A strong foreshock preceded the main shock by about 20 to 25 seconds. The strong shaking of the main shock lasted about 42 seconds. There were decades of minor earthquakes – more than at any other time in the historical record for northern California – before the 1906 quake. Previously interpreted as precursory activity to the 1906 earthquake, they have been found to have a strong seasonal pattern and are now believed to be caused by large seasonal sediment loads in coastal bays that overlie faults as a result of the erosion caused by hydraulic mining in the later years of the California Gold Rush. For years, the epicenter of the quake was assumed to be near the town of Olema, in the Point Reyes area of Marin County, due to local earth displacement measurements. In the 1960s, a seismologist at UC Berkeley proposed that the epicenter was more likely offshore of San Francisco, to the northwest of the Golden Gate. The most recent analyses support an offshore location for the epicenter, although significant uncertainty remains. An offshore epicenter is supported by the occurrence of a local tsunami recorded by a tide gauge at the San Francisco Presidio; the wave had an amplitude of approximately and an approximate period of 4045 minutes. Analysis of triangulation data before and after the earthquake strongly suggests that the rupture along the San Andreas Fault was about in length, in agreement with observed intensity data. The available seismological data support a significantly shorter rupture length, but these observations can be reconciled by allowing propagation at speeds above the S-wave velocity (supershear). Supershear propagation has now been recognized for many earthquakes associated with strike-slip faulting. Recently, using old photographs and eyewitness accounts, researchers were able to estimate the location of the hypocenter of the earthquake as offshore from San Francisco or near San Juan Bautista, confirming previous estimates. Intensity The most important characteristic of the shaking intensity noted in Andrew Lawson's 1908 report was the clear correlation of intensity with underlying geologic conditions. Areas situated in sediment-filled valleys sustained stronger shaking than nearby bedrock sites, and the strongest shaking occurred in areas of former bay where soil liquefaction had occurred. Modern seismic-zonation practice accounts for the differences in seismic hazard posed by varying geologic conditions. The shaking intensity as described on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale reached XI (Extreme) in San Francisco and areas to the north like Santa Rosa where destruction was devastating. Aftershocks The main shock was followed by many aftershocks and some remotely triggered events. As with the 1857 Fort Tejon earthquake, there were fewer aftershocks than would have been expected for a shock of that size. Very few of them were located along the trace of the 1906 rupture, tending to concentrate near the ends of the rupture or on other structures away from the San Andreas Fault, such as the Hayward Fault. The only aftershock in the first few days of near M 5 or greater occurred near Santa Cruz at 14:28 PST on April 18, with a magnitude of about 4.9 . The largest aftershock happened at 01:10 PST on April 23, west of Eureka with an estimated magnitude of about 6.7 , with another of the same size more than three years later at 22:45 PST on October 28 near Cape Mendocino. Remotely triggered events included an earthquake swarm in the Imperial Valley area, which culminated in an earthquake of about 6.1 at 16:30 PST on April 18, 1906. Another event of this type occurred at 12:31 PST on April 19, 1906, with an estimated magnitude of about 5.0 , and an epicenter beneath Santa Monica Bay. Damage Early death counts ranged from 375 to over 500. However, hundreds of fatalities in Chinatown went ignored and unrecorded. The total number of deaths is still uncertain, but various reports presented a range of 700–3,000+. In 2005, the city's Board of Supervisors voted unanimously in support of a resolution written by novelist James Dalessandro ("1906") and city historian Gladys Hansen ("Denial of Disaster") to recognize the figure of 3,000+ as the official total. Most of the deaths occurred within San Francisco, but 189 were reported elsewhere in the Bay Area; nearby cities such as Santa Rosa and San Jose also suffered severe damage. In Monterey County, the earthquake permanently shifted the course of the Salinas River near its mouth. Where previously the river emptied into Monterey Bay between Moss Landing and Watsonville, it was diverted south to a new channel just north of Marina. Between 227,000 and 300,000 people were left homeless out of a population of about 410,000; half of those who evacuated fled across the bay to Oakland and Berkeley. Newspapers described Golden Gate Park, the Presidio, the Panhandle and the beaches between Ingleside and North Beach as covered with makeshift tents. More than two years later, many of these refugee camps were still in operation. The earthquake and fire left long-standing and significant pressures on the development of California. At the time of the disaster, San Francisco had been the ninth-largest city in the United States and the largest on the West Coast. Over a period of 60 years, the city had become the financial, trade, and cultural center of the West, operating the busiest port on the West Coast. It was the "gateway to the Pacific", through which growing U.S. economic and military power was projected into the Pacific and Asia. Over 80% of the city was destroyed by the earthquake and fire. Though San Francisco rebuilt quickly, the disaster diverted trade, industry, and population growth south to Los Angeles, which during the 20th century became the largest and most important urban area in the West. Many of the city's leading poets and writers retreated to Carmel-by-the-Sea where, as "The Barness", they established the arts colony reputation that continues today. The 1908 Lawson Report, a study of the 1906 quake led and edited by Professor Andrew Lawson of the University of California, showed that the same San Andreas Fault which had caused the disaster in San Francisco ran close to Los Angeles as well. The earthquake was the first natural disaster of its magnitude to be documented by photography and motion picture footage and occurred at a time when the science of seismology was blossoming. Other cities Although the impact of the earthquake on San Francisco was the most famous, the earthquake also inflicted considerable damage on several other cities. These include San Jose and Santa Rosa, the entire downtown of which was essentially destroyed. Fires As damaging as the earthquake and its aftershocks were, the fires that burned out of control afterward were far more destructive. It has been estimated that up to 90% of the total destruction was the result of the subsequent fires. Within three days, over 30 fires, caused by ruptured gas mains, destroyed approximately 25,000 buildings on 490 city blocks. The fires cost an estimated $350 million at the time (equivalent to $ billion in ). The Ham and Eggs fire, in the morning on the 18th, at Hayes and Gough Streets, in Hayes Valley, was started by a woman who lit her stove to prepare breakfast, unaware of the badly damaged chimney, destroying a 30-block area, including a college, the Hall of Records and City Hall. Some of the fires were started when San Francisco Fire Department firefighters, untrained in the use of dynamite, attempted to demolish buildings to create firebreaks. The dynamited buildings often caught fire. The city's fire chief, Dennis T. Sullivan, who would have been responsible for coordinating firefighting efforts, had died from injuries sustained in the initial quake. In total, the fires burned for four days and nights. Most of the destruction in the city was attributed to the fires, since widespread practice by insurers was to indemnify San Francisco properties from fire but not from earthquake damage. Some property owners deliberately set fire to damaged properties to claim them on their insurance. Captain Leonard D. Wildman of the U.S. Army Signal Corps reported that he "was stopped by a fireman who told me that people in that neighborhood were firing their houses...they were told that they would not get their insurance on buildings damaged by the earthquake unless they were damaged by fire". One landmark building lost in the fire was the Palace Hotel, subsequently rebuilt, which had many famous visitors including royalty and celebrated performers. It was constructed in 1875 primarily financed by Bank of California co-founder William Ralston, the "man who built San Francisco". In April 1906, the tenor Enrico Caruso and members of the Metropolitan Opera Company came to San Francisco to give a series of performances at the Grand Opera House. The night after Caruso's performance in Carmen, the tenor was awakened in the early morning in his Palace Hotel suite by a strong jolt. Clutching an autographed photo of President Theodore Roosevelt, Caruso made an effort to get out of the city, first by boat and then by train, and vowed never to return to San Francisco. Caruso died in 1921, having remained true to his word. The Metropolitan Opera Company lost all of its traveling sets and costumes in the earthquake and ensuing fires. Some of the greatest losses from fire were in scientific laboratories. Alice Eastwood, the curator of botany at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, is credited with saving nearly 1,500 specimens, including the entire type specimen collection for a newly discovered and extremely rare species, before the remainder of the largest botanical collection in the western United States was destroyed in the fire. The entire laboratory and all the records of Benjamin R. Jacobs, a biochemist who was researching the nutrition of everyday foods, were destroyed. The original California flag used in the 1846 Bear Flag Revolt at Sonoma, which at the time was being stored in a state building in San Francisco, was also destroyed in the fire. Response The city's fire chief, Dennis T. Sullivan, was gravely injured when the earthquake first struck and later died from his injuries. The interim fire chief sent an urgent request to the Presidio, a United States Army post on the edge of the stricken city, for dynamite. General Frederick Funston had already decided that the situation required the use of federal troops. Telephoning a San Francisco Police Department officer, he sent word to Mayor Eugene Schmitz of his decision to assist and then ordered federal troops from nearby Angel Island to mobilize and enter the city. Explosives were ferried across the bay from the California Powder Works in what is now Hercules. During the first few days, soldiers provided valuable services like patrolling streets to discourage looting and guarding buildings such as the U.S. Mint, post office, and county jail. They aided the fire department in dynamiting to demolish buildings in the path of the fires. The Army also became responsible for feeding, sheltering, and clothing the tens of thousands of displaced residents of the city. Under the command of Funston's superior, Major General Adolphus Greely, Commanding Officer of the Pacific Division, over 4,000 federal troops saw service during the emergency. Police officers, firefighters, and soldiers would regularly commandeer passing civilians for work details to remove rubble and assist in rescues. On July 1, 1906, non-military authorities assumed responsibility for relief efforts, and the Army withdrew from the city. On April 18, in response to riots among evacuees and looting, Mayor Schmitz issued and ordered posted a proclamation that "The Federal Troops, the members of the Regular Police Force and all Special Police Officers have been authorized by me to kill any and all persons found engaged in Looting or in the Commission of Any Other Crime". Accusations of soldiers engaging in looting also surfaced. Retired Captain Edward Ord of the 22nd Infantry Regiment was appointed a special police officer by Schmitz and liaised with Greely for relief work with the 22nd Infantry and other military units involved in the emergency. Ord later wrote a long letter to his mother on April 20 regarding Schmitz's "Shoot-to-Kill" order and some "despicable" behavior of certain soldiers of the 22nd Infantry who were looting. He also made it clear that the majority of soldiers served the community well. Aftermath Property losses from the disaster have been estimated to be more than $400 million in 1906 dollars. This is equivalent to $ in dollars. An insurance industry source tallies insured losses at $235 million, the equivalent to $ in dollars. Political and business leaders strongly downplayed the effects of the earthquake, fearing loss of outside investment in the city which was badly needed to rebuild. In his first public statement, California Governor George Pardee emphasized the need to rebuild quickly: "This is not the first time that San Francisco has been destroyed by fire, I have not the slightest doubt that the City by the Golden Gate will be speedily rebuilt, and will, almost before we know it, resume her former great activity". The earthquake is not even mentioned in the statement. Fatality and monetary damage estimates were manipulated. Almost immediately after the quake (and even during the disaster), planning and reconstruction plans were hatched to quickly rebuild the city. Rebuilding funds were immediately tied up by the fact that virtually all the major banks had been sites of the conflagration, requiring a lengthy wait of seven to ten days before their fire-proof vaults could cool sufficiently to be safely opened. The Bank of Italy (now Bank of America) had evacuated its funds and was able to provide liquidity in the immediate aftermath. Its president also immediately chartered and financed the sending of two ships to return with shiploads of lumber from Washington and Oregon mills which provided the initial reconstruction materials and surge. In an article written in 1913, John C. Banner, who was the first to begin study of the San Andreas fault in 1891 complained that the Federal Government of the United States had not conducted the serious studies that were needed to gather data about earthquakes on the west coast. He said public discussion was being stifled by fears that acknowledgement of earthquakes would drive away business and investors, and that geologists were told not to gather information about the 1906 earthquake, and certainly to not publish it. Some people went as far as to deny that an earthquake had happened. Branner argued that preparation for earthquakes was possible and necessary: The only way we know of to deal successfully with any natural phenomenon is to get acquainted with it, to find out all we can about it, and thus to meet it on its own grounds. That is the way mankind has succeeded thus far, and it is safe to conclude that it is the only way it will ever succeed. Eleven days after the earthquake a rare Sunday baseball game was played in New York City (which would not allow regular Sunday baseball until 1919) between the Highlanders (soon to be the Yankees) and the Philadelphia Athletics to raise money for quake survivors. William James, the pioneering American psychologist, was teaching at Stanford at the time of the earthquake and traveled into San Francisco to observe first-hand its aftermath. He was most impressed by the positive attitude of the survivors and the speed with which they improvised services and created order out of chaos. This formed the basis of the chapter "On some Mental Effects of the Earthquake" in his book Memories and Studies. H. G. Wells had just arrived in New York on his first visit to America when he learned of the San Francisco earthquake. What struck him about the reaction of those around him was that "it does not seem to have affected any one with a sense of final destruction, with any foreboding of irreparable disaster. Every one is talking of it this afternoon, and no one is in the least degree dismayed. I have talked and listened in two clubs, watched people in cars and in the street, and one man is glad that Chinatown will be cleared out for good; another's chief solicitude is for Millet's Man with a Hoe. 'They'll cut it out of the frame,' he says, a little anxiously. 'Sure.' But there is no doubt anywhere that San Francisco can be rebuilt, larger, better, and soon. Just as there would be none at all if all this New York that has so obsessed me with its limitless bigness was itself a blazing ruin. I believe these people would more than half like the situation." Reconstruction The earthquake was crucial in the development of the University of California, San Francisco and its medical facilities. Until 1906, the school faculty had provided care at the City-County Hospital (now the San Francisco General Hospital), but did not have a hospital of its own. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, more than 40,000 people were relocated to a makeshift tent city in Golden Gate Park and were treated by the faculty of the Affiliated Colleges. This brought the school, which until then was located on the western outskirts of the city, in contact with significant population and fueled the commitment of the school towards civic responsibility and health care, increasing the momentum towards the construction of its own health facilities. In April 1907, one of the buildings was renovated for outpatient care with 75 beds. This created the need to train nursing students, and the UC Training School for Nurses was established, adding a fourth professional school to the Affiliated Colleges. The grandeur of citywide reconstruction schemes required investment from Eastern monetary sources, hence the spin and de-emphasis of the earthquake, the promulgation of the tough new building codes, and subsequent reputation sensitive actions such as the official low death toll. One of the more famous and ambitious plans came from famed urban planner Daniel Burnham. His bold plan called for, among other proposals, Haussmann-style avenues, boulevards, arterial thoroughfares that radiated across the city, a massive civic center complex with classical structures, and what would have been the largest urban park in the world, stretching from Twin Peaks to Lake Merced with a large atheneum at its peak. But this plan was dismissed during the aftermath of the earthquake. For example, real estate investors and other land owners were against the idea because of the large amount of land the city would have to purchase to realize such proposals. While the original street grid was restored, many of Burnham's proposals inadvertently saw the light of day, such as a neoclassical civic center complex, wider streets, a preference of arterial thoroughfares, a subway under Market Street, a more people-friendly Fisherman's Wharf, and a monument to the city on Telegraph Hill, Coit Tower. Limestone used to reconstruct city buildings was quarried at the nearby Rockaway Quarry. City fathers likewise attempted at the time to eliminate the Chinese population and export Chinatown (and other poor populations) to the edge of the county where the Chinese could still contribute to the local taxbase. The Chinese occupants had other ideas and prevailed instead. Chinatown was rebuilt in the newer, modern, Western form that exists today. The destruction of City Hall and the Hall of Records enabled thousands of Chinese immigrants to claim residency and citizenship, creating a backdoor to the Chinese Exclusion Act, and bring in their relatives from China. The earthquake was also responsible for the development of the Pacific Heights neighborhood. The immense power of the earthquake had destroyed almost all of the mansions on Nob Hill except for the James C. Flood Mansion. Others that had not been destroyed were dynamited by the Army forces aiding the firefighting efforts in attempts to create firebreaks. As one indirect result, the wealthy looked westward where the land was cheap and relatively undeveloped, and where there were better views. Constructing new mansions without reclaiming and clearing rubble simply sped attaining new homes in the tent city during the reconstruction. Reconstruction was swift, and largely completed by 1915, in time for the 1915 Panama–Pacific International Exposition which celebrated the reconstruction of the city and its "rise from the ashes". Since 1915, the city has officially commemorated the disaster each year by gathering the remaining survivors at Lotta's Fountain, a fountain in the city's financial district that served as a meeting point during the disaster for people to look for loved ones and exchange information. Housing The Army built 5,610 redwood and fir "relief houses" to accommodate 20,000 displaced people. The houses were designed by John McLaren, and were grouped in eleven camps, packed close to each other and rented to people for two dollars per month until rebuilding was completed. They were painted navy blue, partly to blend in with the site and partly because the military had large quantities of navy blue paint on hand. The camps had a peak population of 16,448 people, but by 1907 most people had moved out. The camps were then re-used as garages, storage spaces or shops. The cottages cost on average $100 to build. The $2 monthly rents went towards the full purchase price of $50. Most of the shacks have been destroyed, but a small number survived. One of the modest homes was purchased in 2006 for more than $600,000. The last official refugee camp was closed on June 30, 1908. A 2017 study found that the fire had the effect of increasing the share of land used for nonresidential purposes: "Overall, relative to unburned blocks, residential land shares on burned blocks fell while nonresidential land shares rose by 1931. The study also provides insight into what held the city back from making these changes before 1906: the presence of old residential buildings. In reconstruction, developers built relatively fewer of these buildings, and the majority of the reduction came through single-family houses. Also, aside from merely expanding nonresidential uses in many neighborhoods, the fire created economic opportunities in new areas, resulting in clusters of business activity that emerged only in the wake of the disaster. These effects of the fire still remain today, and thus large shocks can be sufficient catalysts for permanently reshaping urban settings." Relief During the first few days after news of the disaster reached the rest of the world, relief efforts reached over $5,000,000. London raised hundreds of thousands of dollars. Individual citizens and businesses donated large sums of money for the relief effort: Standard Oil and Andrew Carnegie each gave $100,000; the Dominion of Canada made a special appropriation of $100,000; and even the Bank of Canada in Ottawa gave $25,000. The U.S. government quickly voted for one million dollars in relief supplies which were immediately rushed to the area, including supplies for food kitchens and many thousands of tents that city dwellers would occupy the next several years. These relief efforts were not enough to get families on their feet again, and consequently the burden was placed on wealthier members of the city, who were reluctant to assist in the rebuilding of homes they were not responsible for. All residents were eligible for daily meals served from a number of communal soup kitchens, and citizens as far away as Idaho and Utah were known to send daily loaves of bread to San Francisco as relief supplies were coordinated by the railroads. Insurance payments Insurance companies, faced with staggering claims of $250 million, paid out between $235 million and $265 million on policyholders' claims, often for fire damage only, since shake damage from earthquakes was excluded from coverage under most policies. At least 137 insurance companies were directly involved and another 17 as reinsurers. Twenty companies went bankrupt. Lloyd's of London reports having paid all claims in full, more than $50 million, thanks to the leadership of Cuthbert Heath. Insurance companies in Hartford, Connecticut, report paying every claim in full, with the Hartford Fire Insurance Company paying over $11 million and Aetna Insurance Company almost $3 million. The insurance payments heavily affected the international financial system. Gold transfers from European insurance companies to policyholders in San Francisco led to a rise in interest rates, subsequently to a lack of available loans and finally to the Knickerbocker Trust Company crisis of October 1907 which led to the Panic of 1907. After the 1906 earthquake, global discussion arose concerning a legally flawless exclusion of the earthquake hazard from fire insurance contracts. It was pressed ahead mainly by re-insurers. Their aim: a uniform solution to insurance payouts resulting from fires caused by earthquakes. Until 1910, a few countries, especially in Europe, followed the call for an exclusion of the earthquake hazard from all fire insurance contracts. In the U.S., the question was discussed differently. But the traumatized public reacted with fierce opposition. On August 1, 1909, the California Senate enacted the California Standard Form of Fire Insurance Policy, which did not contain any earthquake clause. Thus the state decided that insurers would have to pay again if another earthquake was followed by fires. Other earthquake-endangered countries followed the California example. Centennial commemorations The 1906 Centennial Alliance was set up as a clearing-house for various centennial events commemorating the earthquake. Award presentations, religious services, a National Geographic TV movie, a projection of fire onto the Coit Tower, memorials, and lectures were part of the commemorations. The USGS Earthquake Hazards Program issued a series of Internet documents, and the tourism industry promoted the 100th anniversary as well. Eleven survivors of the 1906 earthquake attended the centennial commemorations in 2006, including Irma Mae Weule (1899–2008), who was the oldest survivor of the quake at the time of her death in August 2008, aged 109. Vivian Illing (1900–2009) was believed to be the second-oldest survivor at the time of her death, aged 108, leaving Herbert Hamrol (1903–2009) as the last known remaining survivor at the time of his death, aged 106. Another survivor, Libera Armstrong (1902–2007), attended the 2006 anniversary but died in 2007, aged 105. Shortly after Hamrol's death, two additional survivors were discovered. William Del Monte, then 103, and Jeanette Scola Trapani (1902–2009), 106, stated that they stopped attending events commemorating the earthquake when it became too much trouble for them. Del Monte and another survivor, Rose Cliver (1902–2012), then 106, attended the earthquake reunion celebration on April 18, 2009, the 103rd anniversary of the earthquake. Nancy Stoner Sage (1905–2010) died, aged 105, in Colorado just three days short of the 104th anniversary of the earthquake on April 18, 2010. Del Monte attended the event at Lotta's Fountain in 2010. 107-year-old George Quilici (1905–2012) died in May 2012, and 113-year-old Ruth Newman (1901–2015) in July 2015. William Del Monte (1906–2016), who died 11 days shy of his 110th birthday, was thought to be the last survivor. In 2005 the National Film Registry added San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, April 18, 1906, a newsreel documentary made soon after the earthquake, to its list of American films worthy of preservation. Panoramas In popular culture Will Irwin, The City That Was, a series of 1906 articles for The Sun, in New York City, and later as a booklet. The earthquake is a major event in Tony Kushner's play Angels in America. See also Arnold Genthe, earthquake photographer George R. Lawrence, earthquake photographer Committee of Fifty (1906) Earthquake engineering List of earthquakes in 1906 List of earthquakes in California List of earthquakes in the United States List of disasters in the United States by death toll List of fires Notes References Double Cone Quarterly, Fall Equinox, volume VII, Number 3 (2004). Winchester, Simon, A Crack in the Edge of the World: America and the Great California Earthquake of 1906. HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 2005. Contemporary disaster accounts London, Jack. "The Story of An Eyewitness". London's report from the scene. Originally published in Collier's Magazine, May 5, 1906. External links The Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake – United States Geological Survey The 1906 Earthquake and Fire – National Archives Before and After the Great Earthquake and Fire: Early Films of San Francisco, 1897–1916 – American Memory at the Library of Congress A geologic tour of the San Francisco earthquake, 100 years later – American Geological Institute The Great 1906 Earthquake and Fire – Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco website The Great 1906 Earthquake and Fire – Bancroft Library Mark Twain and the San Francisco Earthquake – Shapell Manuscript Foundation Several videos of the aftermath – Internet Archive San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, April 18, 1906 Seismographs of the earthquake taken from the Lick Observatory from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections Timeline of the San Francisco Earthquake April 18 – 23, 1906 – The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco JB Monaco Photography – Photographic account of earthquake and fire aftermath from well-known North Beach photographer Tsunami Record from the Great 1906 San Francisco Earthquake – USGS San Francisco earthquake, 1906 1906 San Francisco, 1906 Fires in California San Francisco earthquake 1900s in San Francisco 1906 natural disasters in the United States 1900s tsunamis April 1906 events Supershear earthquakes Articles containing video clips

20120719

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998%20Afghanistan%20earthquake

1998 Afghanistan earthquake

There were two major earthquakes in Afghanistan in 1998: February 1998 Afghanistan earthquake May 1998 Afghanistan earthquake See also Afghanistan earthquake (disambiguation)

20220514

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1909%20Wabash%20River%20earthquake

1909 Wabash River earthquake

The 1909 Wabash River earthquake occurred at 04:45 local time on September 27 with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (Very strong). It measured 5.1 on a seismic scale that is based on an isoseismal map or the event's felt area. With moderate damage in the Wabash River Valley, it is currently the strongest earthquake recorded in the U.S. state of Indiana. The earthquake occurred somewhere along a fault within the Wabash Valley Seismic Zone. Damage The earthquake was felt over an area of 30,000 square miles. In Terre Haute, the earthquake toppled two chimneys, cracked plaster, and knocked pictures from walls. Nearby Covington, north of Terre Haute in Fountain County, experienced several fallen chimneys and some broken windows. Chimneys were "jarred loose" in Princeton, Indiana, and one chimney was even "shaken to pieces" at Olivette, Missouri (a suburb of St. Louis). A brick wall was also "shook" down within St. Louis, Missouri. Reports came from various states, including Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Ohio, and Tennessee. See also 1947 Wisconsin earthquake List of earthquakes in 1909 List of earthquakes in the United States References 1909 earthquakes Earthquakes in the United States Natural disasters in Indiana Natural disasters in Missouri 1909 in Indiana 1909 in Missouri 1909 natural disasters in the United States September 1909 events

20220712

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1783%20New%20Jersey%20earthquake

1783 New Jersey earthquake

The 1783 New Jersey earthquake occurred on November 29 in New Jersey. With a magnitude estimated at 5.3, it stands as the most powerful earthquake to occur in the state. Damage Shaking was felt from New Hampshire to Pennsylvania. A brief foreshock occurred at 9:00 PM on November 29 (02:00 UTC on November 30) and an aftershock five hours later were reported only in New York City and in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The earthquake caused intensity VII damage on the Mercalli intensity scale. George Washington was sleeping at Fraunces Tavern when the earthquake struck, but he was not woken by the tremors. References 1780s earthquakes 1783 natural disasters Earthquake Earthquakes in the United States Natural disasters in New Jersey

20240809

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Sulawesi%20earthquake

2008 Sulawesi earthquake

The 2008 Sulawesi earthquake struck Sulawesi, Indonesia, on 16 November at 17:02:31 UTC. A 7.4 earthquake, it was followed by seven aftershocks higher than 5.0 . Tsunami warnings were issued for the region, but later cancelled. Four people were killed in the quake and 59 injured. Effects The earthquake caused four fatalities and nearly 60 injuries. Over 700 houses were destroyed, and several buildings collapsed, one of which killed a man in the city of Gorontalo. The assessment of damage in rural areas with unreliable communication led officials to believe that the extent of the damage was greater than their initial evaluations. See also List of earthquakes in 2008 List of earthquakes in Indonesia References External links 2008 in Indonesia 2008 earthquakes Earthquakes in Indonesia History of Sulawesi November 2008 events in Asia 2008 disasters in Indonesia

20320381

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1117%20Verona%20earthquake

1117 Verona earthquake

An earthquake, rated at IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale, struck northern Italy and Germany on 3 January 1117. The epicentre of the first shock was near Verona, the city which suffered the most damage. The outer wall of the Verona Arena partially collapsed, and the standing portion was damaged in a later earthquake of 1183. After the first shock of 3 January, seismic activity persisted for months, striking on 12 January 4 June, 1 July 1 October, and 30 December. A single earthquake or several? Recent studies, however, suggest that it was not a major, single event, but instead a series of shocks in the areas of Verona (west Veneto) and Cremona (Lower Lombardy), which happened over a period of a few days or within a few hours. Other earthquakes may have hit as far south as Pisa (northwest Tuscany) and as north as Augsburg (southwest Bavaria), as distinct events, on the same days. The earthquake was recorded in the catalogs of 7 countries: Italy, Germany, Austria, France, Belgium, Switzerland, and the Iberian Peninsula. In a study published in 2005 in one of the leading scientific journals in the field, the Verona earthquake was shown to be a sequence of 3 different earthquakes, unrelated to each other, in different sub-regions that occurred on the same date - 3 January 1117: the first occurred between 02:00 and 03:00 in the morning (UTC). The earthquake mainly affected the area of southern Germany and Salzburg, Austria today. Its magnitude was about 6.4 and the maximum seismic intensity was VII-VIII on the MCS scale. The second was that of Verona, which was the largest and most powerful of the three, and it took place in the afternoon around 14:30 - 15:30 (UTC). Its magnitude was approximately a level 7, and the maximum seismic intensity was IX on the MCS scale. The third earthquake also occurred at a similar time to the second earthquake, but in the area of Pisa in northern Tuscany. The earthquake caused the collapse of many towers, buildings, and bell towers in Pisa, which resulted in the loss of life. The distance between the second and third earthquake zones is about 180 kilometers, and the Apennine mountain range separates them. For this reason, some scientists [need citation] believe that it is a separate earthquake, despite the coincidence of the time of the earthquake and the area. The maximum seismic intensity in the third quake was VII-VIII on the MCS scale. The magnitude of the quake could not be estimated. This earthquake was preceded by a foreshock early in the morning that did not cause any damage. Damage The earthquake in Verona in 1117 was the strongest recorded in the history of northern Italy. It was not only felt in Verona, but across northern Italy, from Cividale to Pavia, south to Pisa and north to Switzerland. Outside of Verona, the most damaged areas were Milan, Bergamo, Brescia, Venice, Treviso, Modena, Parma, and Cremona. The main churches of Padua all suffered major damage. News of the earthquake reached Montecassino and Reims. The Milanese chronicler Landolfo Iuniore reported that the church synods needed to be carried out in the open air due to the destruction. In Germany, damage was also extensive. The Michaelskirche in Bamberg, the abbey at Brauweiler, and buildings in Rottenburg am Neckar, Constance, Meersburg, and Fénis were all reported damaged. Many churches, monasteries, and ancient monuments were destroyed or seriously damaged in Verona itself, eliminating much of Verona's early medieval architecture and providing space for a massive Romanesque rebuilding. In the province of Veneto, many churches were severely damaged: in Brescia, Cremona, in the northern part of the Emilia plain and along the central route of the Adige river, and partial collapse of churches in Padua, Piacenza, Parma, and Modena. See also List of earthquakes in Italy List of historical earthquakes Verona Arena Church of San Giovanni in Valle Notes Sources External links Page on the 1117 Verona earthquake from the CFTI5 Catalogue of Strong Earthquakes in Italy (461 BC – 1997) and Mediterranean Area (760 B.C. – 1500) Guidoboni E., Ferrari G., Mariotti D., Comastri A., Tarabusi G., Sgattoni G., Valensise G. (2018) (in Italian) 12th-century earthquakes 1117 Verona 1117 in Europe 12th century in Italy 1110s in the Holy Roman Empire History of Verona

20327111

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953%20Ionian%20earthquake

1953 Ionian earthquake

The 1953 Ionian earthquake (also known as the Great Kefalonia earthquake) struck the southern Ionian Islands in Greece on August 12. In mid-August, there were over 113 recorded earthquakes in the region between Kefalonia and Zakynthos, and the most destructive was the August 12 earthquake. The event measured 6.8 on the moment magnitude scale, raised the whole island of Kefalonia by , and caused widespread damage throughout the islands of Kefalonia and Zakynthos. The maximum felt intensity of shaking was X (extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. Between 445 and 800 people were killed. Earthquake The earthquake struck at 09:23:55 (UTC) or 11:23:55 (local time); the Royal Navy vessels HMS Gambia and HMS Bermuda were among the first on the scene. In addition, four Israeli warships received calls for help coming from the island of Kefalonia and the ships headed to the island. The sailors provided emergency medical aid, food, and water. This was the first time Israel provided aid to a disaster-stricken area. Although known as the "Great Kefalonia earthquake", damage was very heavy in Zakynthos' eponymous capital city. Only two buildings survived there; the rest of the island's capital had to be rebuilt. Argostoli, the capital of Kefalonia, suffered substantial damage and all of Kefalonia's buildings were flattened except for those in Fiskardo in the far north. Damage As well as causing major destruction on the two islands, the economic impact was far greater, and damage was estimated to have totaled billions of drachmas. Many people fled the island: some people temporarily moved to the capital, however the majority emigrated out of Greece entirely to countries such as Canada, USA, Australia or the UK, leaving both the islands and their economy in ruins. On November 15, 1953 The Greek state issued a special set of 2 stamps dedicated to the earthquake. One stamp was of 300 drachmas value depicting the collapsing bell tower of the Faneromeni Church at Zakynthos. The other stamp, denominated at 500 drachmas, showed the damage to the famous De Bosset stone bridge at the Argostoli bay. The stamp set was issued in order to support financially the earthquake fund for the relief of those who had suffered. An Italian mission of the National Fire and rescue Services (Corpo Nazionale dei Vigili del Fuoco) was sent to help people and save heritage artifacts. Aftermath Earthquakes still regularly affect the islands of Zakynthos and Kefalonia, including several 2006 earthquakes in Zakynthos and others in 2003 and 2005. There were also several large earthquakes on January 26 and February 3, 2014, measuring 6.1 and 6.0 on the Richter scale. The epicenters of both were in Kefalonia at very shallow depths and caused damage in the island. On October 25, 2018 there was a 6.8 magnitude earthquake off the coast that damaged parts of the Zante port docks. Following that quake, there were more than 50 additional quakes over 4 magnitude in the Ionian Sea between the 25th and the end of October. See also List of earthquakes in 1953 List of earthquakes in Greece References Further reading External links The earthquake of Kefalonia in 1953 – Natural History Museum of Crete Ionian Earthquake, 1953 Earthquakes in Greece Earthquake clusters, swarms, and sequences Ionian Earthquake, 1953 History of Cephalonia August 1953 events in Europe 1953 disasters in Greece

20361954

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Institute%20of%20Earthquake%20Engineering%20and%20Seismology

International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology

International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES) is an international earthquake engineering and seismology institute based in Iran. It was established as a result of the 24th UNESCO General Conference Resolution DR/250 under Iranian government approval in 1989. It was founded as an independent institute within the Iran's Ministry of Science, Research and Technology. On its establishment, the IIEES drew up a seismic code in an attempt to improve the infrastructural response to earthquakes and seismic activity in the country. Its primary objective is to reduce the risk of seismic activity on buildings and roads and provide mitigation measures both in Iran and the region. The institute is responsible for research and education in this field along with several universities and institutes in Iran by conducting research and providing education and knowledge in seismotectonic studies, seismology and earthquake engineering. In addition conducts research and educates in risk management and generating possibilities for an effective earthquake response strategy. The IIEES is composed of the following research Centers: Seismology, Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Structural Earthquake Engineering, Risk Management; National center for Earthquake Prediction, and Graduate School, Public Education and Information Division. See also 2003 Bam earthquake Bahram Akasheh Earthquake Engineering Research Institute National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering References External links Official site (Persian) Official site (English) Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation Earthquake engineering Research institutes in Iran Science and technology in Iran Scientific organisations based in Iran

20414822

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915%20Pleasant%20Valley%20earthquake

1915 Pleasant Valley earthquake

The 1915 Pleasant Valley earthquake occurred at in north-central Nevada. With a moment magnitude of 6.8, a surface wave magnitude of 7.7, and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme), it was the strongest earthquake ever recorded in the state. Earthquake The earthquake remains as one of the best examples ever for evidence of creating fault scarps along the west side of the Tobin Range. It produced four scarps, with a total length of , and re-ruptured Holocene scarps located at the bottom of the base of the mountain blocks. Among the scarps, the average vertical displacement among the affected areas was , and the maximum displacement of occurred near the old Pierce School site on Buskee Creek Canyon. The rupture originated along an unnamed fault somewhere in the eastern side of Pleasant Valley, in north-central Nevada. The epicentral region was mostly uninhabited, so there was little property damage considering the very large magnitude. Damage The earthquake's damage was confined to within of the epicenter. Damage in Kennedy destroyed two adobe houses, collapsed several mine tunnels, and cracked concrete mine foundations. Winnemucca experienced damage to adobe buildings as well, and several multistory brick buildings lost coping and upper wall parts. Many chimneys were destroyed if they were above roof lines. Water tanks were knocked over in Battle Mountain, Kodiak, Lovelock, and Parran. Several ranches reported damage, all by the southern end of Pleasant Valley. More adobe houses were knocked down by the shaking; a masonry chicken house and a hog pen were destroyed; and houses were displaced from their foundations. Aftershocks The earthquake had several aftershocks which disturbed a significant amount of land in Northern Nevada. See also List of earthquakes in 1915 List of earthquakes in the United States List of earthquakes in Nevada References Further reading External links Airel photographs and videos of the ridge. 1915 earthquakes 1915 1915 in Nevada 1915 natural disasters in the United States October 1915 events

20535383

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Great%20Los%20Angeles%20Earthquake

The Great Los Angeles Earthquake

The Great Los Angeles Earthquake is a 1990 American made-for-television disaster film about a massive earthquake that strikes Los Angeles, California. The movie stars Joanna Kerns in the movie's lead role, seismologist Clare Winslow, who tries to warn city leaders of the possibility that a powerful earthquake may strike southern California. The film aired on NBC on November 11–12, 1990. Plot The movie opens with a small tremor occurring in the hills outside Los Angeles near a United States Geological Survey (USGS) research post, cutting to a scene of a teenage girl on a date with her boyfriend at the Earthquake Ride at Universal Studios Hollywood. The girl is later revealed to be Heather, daughter of Clare Winslow (Joanna Kerns), a seismologist with the USGS. Clare and her staff, among whom is her assistant Jerry Soloway (Ed Begley, Jr.), have been studying a series of tremors near Los Angeles. With this information, she concludes that there is a better-than-average chance that a massive earthquake will strike along the San Andreas Fault and cause severe damage to Los Angeles, and such an earthquake appears imminent. Against her will, she conducts an interview with Kevin Conrad (Richard Masur), a sensationalist television reporter who prematurely airs it after altering the interview to shock instead of inform, creating a political firestorm and causing tension between Clare and her husband Steve (Dan Lauria). Steve works closely with high-powered and wealthy real estate developer Wendell Cates (Robert Ginty) who faces losing money and his socio-political reputation from public fear of the possibility of the earthquake. Wendell threatens Clare and attempts to have her fired from her job. Nevertheless, Clare tries to alert the more skeptical city and state government officials including Chad Spaulding (Joe Spano) of the Office of Emergency Management. Fearing political fallout and possible panic, they decide to ignore her warnings. As this unfolds, Clare's family dynamic is further explored through her strained relationship with teenage daughter Heather (Holly Fields), which is mirrored by the relationship of Clare's mother Anita Parker (Bonnie Bartlett) and Clare's sister Laurie (Lindsay Frost), who are estranged from each other due to Anita's open resentment of Laurie's romantic relationship with LAPD officer Matt (Alan Autry). When tremors are detected along the smaller, lesser-known Newport-Inglewood fault, city officials call a news conference to alert citizens of the threat. For most residents, however, it will already be too late. Not long after preparations and evacuations begin, the long-feared earthquake strikes, reaching 8.0 in magnitude and quickly followed by a 7.2 aftershock, causing massive damage and killing thousands; among the victims is Anita, who had been trapped in a high-rise condominium elevator with Laurie during the quake. During the time that they are trapped they reconcile shortly before Laurie is rescued by other survivors, but Anita is less fortunate and dies when the elevator crashes to the bottom of the shaft. Another victim is Miguel, son of Clare's housekeeper Sonia, who is fatally injured during the collapse of his high school gymnasium at his graduation rehearsal. Steve Winslow is thought to be dead after being crushed by a wall at the airport, but he is revealed to have survived the quake at the end of the film. Other deaths include those of Wendell Cates, who is thrown to his death from his skyscraper window, and Chad Spaulding, who is electrocuted while attempting to escape from the USGS safety bunker beneath City Hall. A more redeeming storyline is that of Kevin Conrad, who is transformed from a cut-throat reporter looking for a hot story into a more sensitive and humanitarian character deeply affected by the tragedy and devastation. The remainder of the movie centers on the political and social fallout following the earthquake, and Winslow's attempts to reunite with her family. Production Notes/Broadcast History According to an interview in The Los Angeles Times, the film's theme was inspired by the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, based on the idea of someone raising the alarm with no action being taken. Executive producer Frank von Zerneck quoted NBC studio executives as saying “L.A., so what?  Our network covers 50 states.  The attitude of most of the people in the country is, ‘Good for them.  It deserves to fall off into the Pacific.  People in California are crazy anyway.’” The film was made over a 3-year period for an estimated $9.2 million. Action scenes were filmed on "New York Street" at the Universal Studios lot, the same location used in Earthquake. Speaking about the production, actress Joanna Kerns said, “The technical advisers thoroughly scared me. I wound up bolting my house to the foundation.  I have all my furniture bolted to the walls.  I have earthquake kits everywhere-cars, dressing rooms, homes. Lots of water.  Emergency numbers.” Reception The Washington Post wrote, “Bad as it is, "The Big One" does seem an improvement over the 1974 theatrical release "Earthquake," which also fantasized the destruction of L.A. Why do filmmakers keep returning to this topic? Guilt. They feel sheepish about all the money they make from mediocre entertainment and are haunted by the fear that there's biblical-scale retribution in the works.” Michael Hill of The Baltimore Sun praised the special effects and compared it to the poignancy of The Day After.  He also described it as “a throwback to TV films of more than a decade ago, "The Big One" is a well-made mess of a melodrama, hitting every one of its predictable notes with force and clarity, adding the bombastic percussion of nearly-spectacular special effects to an appropriately responsible cautionary message." See also Dante's Peak Volcano References External links 1990 television films 1990 films 1990s disaster films American disaster films Disaster television films Films about earthquakes NBC network original films Films directed by Larry Elikann Films scored by David Shire 1990s English-language films 1990s American films

20574023

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983%20Borah%20Peak%20earthquake

1983 Borah Peak earthquake

The 1983 Borah Peak earthquake occurred on October 28, at in the western United States, in the Lost River Range at Borah Peak in central Idaho. The shock measured 6.9 on the moment magnitude scale and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). It was the most violent earthquake in the lower 48 states in over 24 years, since the 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake in nearby southwestern Earthquake The Friday morning earthquake was caused by a slip on the preexisting Lost River Fault. The event is the largest and most significant to strike in the state of Idaho. Two children were killed by falling masonry while walking to school in about northeast of Boise, the state capital. Twelve-and-a-half million dollars in damage took place in the Challis-Mackay region in Custer County. As a result of extreme surface faulting, a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent) was decided upon, while vibrational damage was at a Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong) to VII (Very strong). Three weeks later on November 18, President Ronald Reagan declared the earthquake a Aftershocks were felt for a year afterwards; nearly ten months later, a 5.4 aftershock was recorded on Surface faulting The rupture caused clear surface faulting; a long northwest-trending zone of fresh scarps and ground ruptures was present on a slope of the Lost River Range. Extensive breakage occurred along a zone between West Spring and Cedar Creek; ground surface was literally "shattered" into tilted blocks, each several meters in width. These scarps were as broad as . The ground breakage was , and the throw on the faulting ranged from . Damage The Challis-Mackay region experienced rather thorough damage, with eleven commercial buildings and 39 homes sustaining major damage while another 200 houses suffered minor to moderate damage. Mackay in particular, about southeast of Challis, experienced the most severe damage. Most of the city's large buildings on its Main Street were damaged, to some extent; eight of these buildings were deemed condemned and closed down. Most of these buildings were built from materials such as brick, concrete block, and stone, each varying. An estimated $12.5 million in property damage was recorded. In some places, the water grounds shifted. Fatalities and injuries In Challis, two children were killed when a stone storefront collapsed on them while walking to school; two others suffered minor injuries. In Mackay, a woman was hospitalized due to her injuries. Old Faithful After the earthquake and aftershocks, the eruption intervals of Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone National Park, about east, were noticeably lengthened. Sand blows Near Chilly Buttes of Thousand Springs Valley, a series of artesian fountains/sand blows erupted immediately after the main shock. Groundwater gushed from these fountains forming small craters and depositing aprons of light-colored sandy sediment around each crater. The blows were noted largely along waterways, especially where draws, or small streams, enter into larger ones. Observers noted that some blows have black, sediment-laden water while others ran mostly clear. Some blows continued for several minutes after the shaking stopped. The Big Lost River rose several inches as a result of this water being expelled from the ground. The eruptions were likely a response to liquefaction of a water-laden underground sediment layer. See also List of earthquakes in 1983 List of earthquakes in the United States Geology of Idaho 2020 Central Idaho earthquake References Further reading Suzette M. Jackson, John Boatwright; Strong ground motion in the 1983 Borah Peak, Idaho, earthquake and its aftershocks. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America ; 77 (3): 724–738. External links Borah Peak earthquake – Idaho Geological Survey M 6.9 - southern Idaho – United States Geological Survey Two children die as quake hits northwest and Canada – The New York Times Borah Peak Earthquake, 1983 Earthquakes in the United States Natural disasters in Idaho 1983 in Idaho Borah Peak earthquake Borah Peak earthquake

20641000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%20Friuli%20earthquake

1976 Friuli earthquake

The 1976 Friuli earthquake, also known in Italy as Terremoto del Friuli (Friulian earthquake), occurred on 6 May 1976, at 21:00:13 (20:00:13 UTC) with a moment magnitude of 6.5 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme) The shock occurred in the Friuli region in northeast Italy near the town of Gemona del Friuli. 990 people were killed, up to about 3,000 were injured, and more than 157,000 were left homeless. Damage Seventy-seven villages in the Friuli region were affected. Gemona del Friuli was greatly damaged, with about 400 people killed in the town itself. Despite extensive emergency measures and international aid by the end of 1976, 15,000 people were still living in camping trailers, 1,000 in tents and 25,000 in evacuation centres. The damage was estimated at $4.25 million. Much of the town has since been reconstructed. The tremor was felt in Venice, as well as neighbouring Austria, Switzerland and Slovenia (at the time part of Yugoslavia) and Germany. In Slovenia, the upper Soča valley and the Brda area was particularly affected, with the village of Breginj nearly completely demolished. The earthquake damaged several buildings in Nova Gorica and was felt also in the Slovenian capital, Ljubljana. A total of 4,000 buildings were destroyed and 16,000 others were damaged across Slovenia, with around 80 percent of the population in the affected areas left homeless. The Italian Government nominated Chamber of Deputies member Giuseppe Zamberletti as coordinator of aid efforts on behalf of the regional administration. The national funds were assigned to the reconstruction of the damaged buildings by Zamberletti and the regional council of Friuli Venezia Giulia. From September to December 1976 all the earthquake victims were accommodated into prefabricated buildings, in order to better cope with the winter. Many local inhabitants lived in the Government supplied trailers for many years while homes were rebuilt. After Zamberletti's mandate the regional government of Friuli Venezia Giulia was able to completely rebuild many towns, thanks to an accurate resource management, however some towns took over a decade to fully recover. Nowadays, many years after the tragedy, the State's intervention, the earthquake management and reconstruction in Friuli Venezia Giulia are seen as a great example of efficiency and reliability. Aftershocks There were many aftershocks, with two sets of strong shocks on 11 September (16:31, 5.5 and 16:35, 5.4 ) and again on 15 September (03:15, 6.0 and 9:21, 5.9 ) 1976. Aftermath This event also spurred the foundation of the Protezione Civile (the Italian Civil Defence body that deals with nationwide prevention and management of emergencies and catastrophic events). See also List of earthquakes in 1976 List of earthquakes in Italy List of earthquakes in Slovenia References Further reading External links 1976: More bodies found after Italy quake – BBC 1976 Friuli 1976 Friuli 1976 earthquakes 1976 in Italy 1976 Earthquake 1976 in Yugoslavia May 1976 events in Europe 1976 disasters in Europe 1976 disasters in Italy

20668503

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Engineering%20Research%20Institute

Earthquake Engineering Research Institute

The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) is a leading technical society in dissemination of earthquake risk and earthquake engineering research both in the U.S. and globally. EERI members include researchers, geologists, geotechnical engineers, educators, government officials, and building code regulators. Their mission, as stated in their 5-year plan published in 2006, has three points: "Advancing the science and practice of earthquake engineering; Improving understanding of the impact of earthquakes on the physical, social, economic, political, and cultural environment; and Advocating comprehensive and realistic measures for reducing the harmful effects of earthquakes". Goals In the 2006 5-year plan, the EERI has identified four main goals towards fulfilling their mission and planned strategies to carry them out. "Enhance and expand educational materials and technical programs." They will hold two seminars per year on topics intended to interest a wide audience. They will also post many of their publications online, such as their journal Earthquake Spectra. "Outreach and Advocacy" They will continue to release their findings on earthquake risks, including the costs of potential disasters. They hope to influence policymakers to increase funds for preventing these risks. They hope also to include earthquake safety into the "green" building design movement. "Maintain a strong program of international activities." They serve as an inflow point in the U.S. for earthquake research from other countries. They also serve as an outflow, translating their research into languages other than English. "Expand and broaden financial resource base." They wish to raise $1 million in donations by 2010, and increase worldwide membership to 3,000. They wish to expand their programs and partnerships with other organizations with more workshops and seminars. In February, 2010, the EERI entered a partnership with the Geo-Institute of American Society of Civil Engineers, increasing their collaboration to reduce earthquake hazards. History The EERI was formed in 1948 as an advising committee on the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. It quickly became its own independent, nonprofit organization, with the purpose of studying why buildings fail under earthquake disasters, and what methods can prevent these failures. At first they conducted their research in laboratories of different University or Government groups. As the EERI grew, they began to more often send research funds to the Universities, and have the University conduct the research. EERI focused more on identifying and investigating areas in need of research, and policymaking based on the university's lab results. In 1952 the EERI organized the first Conference on Earthquake Engineering, at UCLA. In 1955, they held the first World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. In 1984, the 8th World Conference was held in San Francisco. This conference brought in scientists from 54 countries. At first, membership to the EERI was limited to invite-only engineers and scientists. In 1973, they began to hire members by application, and increased their membership from 126 to 721 by 1978. In 1991, EERI began receiving funding from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), to continue publishing information on how to reduce damage from earthquakes. After a number of location changes, the EERI headquarters settled in Oakland, California. Their quarterly journal, Earthquake Spectra, covers current research on earthquake engineering and is available online or by subscription. Its target audience is any geologist, seismologist, or related engineer. EERI also publishes many other types of information, including a monthly newsletter, an oral history series, and field investigation reports. California earthquake assessments EERI performs risk assessments on earthquake potential sites around the world. This is a quick summary of two reports on California cities. In 2006 an engineering firm related to the EERI has projected over $122 billion in damage, if a repeat of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake occurs. This number includes damage to homes and structures, excluding fire damage. The EERI lobbies for government funding to prevent natural disasters. The money is best spent before loss of life and large-scale structural damage, though often it is not seen until afterward, as evidenced by Hurricane Katrina. The EERI and the USGS have identified that a potential large earthquake in Los Angeles would cause more damage than Katrina at New Orleans, with up to $250 billion in total damage and 18,000 deaths. Student involvement EERI has a student chapter in 29 colleges across the U.S. to further promote interest in earthquake engineering. A few representatives from each chapter make up the Student Leadership Council (SLC). Since 2008 the EERI and SLC have held the Undergraduate Seismic Design Competition, which was previously run by the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER). In this competition a team of undergraduate college students must design and construct a structure made of balsa wood. The structure is limited by many rules, such as a weight limit, the individual heights of each floor, total height limit, and more. The structure is subjected to extra weight and placed on a shake table, which moves to simulate an earthquake. An accelerometer is placed on top of the building to measure how fast the top of the building shakes. Students’ structures are judged on a number of criteria, including the height of the structure, number of floors, the accelerometer readings, and whether the structure breaks. Students will want to make a building close to the height limit because the higher floors are worth more points. The 8th annual competition is to be held in Portland, OR, March 7 through 10, along with the 63rd EERI annual meeting. References External links EERI's Website EERI Student Leadership Council's Website Earthquake Spectra's Website Engineering research institutes Earthquake engineering

20723154

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918%20Shantou%20earthquake

1918 Shantou earthquake

The 1918 Shantou earthquake occurred in Shantou, Guangdong, Republic of China. Serious damage and high casualty numbers were reported in Guangdong and the surrounding provinces. It also caused some damage in colonial Hong Kong. Earthquake The event was a large intraplate earthquake occurring within the Eurasian Plate, at the margin of the South China Sea. It displayed a strike-slip focal mechanism. This location hosts a rift zone, and was previously the site of subduction and collision during the Mesozoic. During the Cenozoic, extensional tectonics occurred. At least 14 earthquakes greater than magnitude 6.0 have been recorded historically. Offshore is the Littoral Fault Zone, a NE–ENE trending fault zone which runs parallel to the coast. Another fault, the Huanggangshui Fault, intersects the Littoral Fault Zone in a NE direction. In 1600, another magnitude 7.0 earthquake occurred in the same location as the 1918 event. Damage The earthquake occurred on February 13, 1918, at 14:07 in the afternoon. The epicenter location is believed to be centered off Nan'ao Island or about 300 km northeast of the territory of Hong Kong, where the quake caused only minor damage and cracks to buildings in the territory. Nearer to the epicenter area, the earthquake had a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). The eight provinces that were affected by the earthquake were Fujian, Guangdong, Hunan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, and Hubei. Shaking was strong enough to cause damage to be felt over a 500,000 km2 area, covering 130 counties. In Zhao'an, Fujian Province alone, more than 3,000 homes collapsed, trapping or killing many residents. The Chao'an District of Chaozhou City in Guangdong Province saw 20% of all residential buildings completely destroyed and another 40% partially collapsed. In the prefectural-level city of Jieyang, almost all of the homes in the area were damaged, with at least half of them completely destroyed. Many pagodas, homes and temples in Suzhou, Guangzhou and Nanjing partially collapsed or were damaged due to the earthquake. The death toll from the disasters was at least a thousand, with many more wounded. The casualties included foreign traders and diplomats. It is the only earthquake in Hong Kong's history to have caused damage. It was estimated to reach intensity VII on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale, Since the Royal Observatory, Hong Kong did not start operating long-period seismographs until 1921 According to the Hongkong Telegraph, the quake threw the whole Central District into a state of panic. The shock lasted about half a minute and could be felt over the entirety of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon. As a result of the earthquake, numerous fissures opened in the ground, most of them several meters long and tens of centimeters wide. However, larger cracks up to many tens of meters long and up to one meter wide also formed. One crack along a coastal road in Shantou measured up to 330 meters long, and began blasting hot water. In Zhangpu County numerous cracks as wide as 33 centimeters and 100 meters long erupted black and yellow mud but closed up after the tremor was over. See also List of earthquakes in 1918 List of earthquakes in China 1994 Taiwan Strait earthquake References External links Seismicity of Hong Kong The contents of the publications of the Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee Shantou Earthquakes in Guangdong Shantou Earthquake, 1918 Shantou Earthquake, 1918 Shantou 1910s tsunamis Tsunamis in China 1918 disasters in Asia 1918 disasters in China

20724472

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Sk%C3%A5ne%20County%20earthquake

2008 Skåne County earthquake

The 2008 Skåne County earthquake occurred at 06.20am CET (05.20 UTC) on 16 December and affected the southern part of Sweden and eastern parts of Denmark. The epicenter was 5 km southwest of Sjöbo and 60 km east of Malmö. The earthquake was considered "moderately strong" with a moment magnitude calculated at 4.2–4.3 . Strong shaking was reported widely in Sweden from Skåne to Östergötland, in Denmark, and in northern Poland. The Skåne region is known for extremely low seismic activity, with only three small earthquakes (each less than 2.8) detected between 1970 and 2008, and only 14 earthquakes since 1375. Roadways in Sweden and Denmark were reported with cracks but investigations did not determine if any were caused by the earthquake. See also List of earthquakes in 2008 Geology of Sweden References External links Earthquake Information, European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre 2008 earthquakes Natural disasters in Sweden Earthquakes in Europe Natural disasters in Denmark 2008 in Sweden 2008 in Denmark 21st century in Skåne County December 2008 events in Europe 2008 disasters in Sweden 2008 disasters in Denmark

20769619

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975%20Morris%20earthquake

1975 Morris earthquake

The 1975 Morris earthquake occurred in western Minnesota on July 9 at 14:54:15 UTC, or 9:54 a.m. local time. The strongest instrumentally recorded rupture in the history of the state, it registered at magnitude 4.6 Mn and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong). It was the first earthquake to be recorded on any seismic instrument in the state since 1917. Tremors were felt over much of Minnesota, northern Iowa, and the eastern Dakotas. Setting Minnesota is not a very tectonically active state but there is at least one fault zone in it, the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone, stretching from Big Stone County and Traverse County to Duluth. Seventeen earthquakes have occurred along the fault, the two largest being the Morris quake and the Staples event of 1917. Plotting of the earthquakes suggests that there may be another hidden fault in the state somewhat adjacent to it. Damage The earthquake caused moderate damage and was defined as intensity VI on the Mercalli intensity scale. Minor damage to walls and basement foundations was reported around the epicenter in Stevens County. Damage consisted of cracked plaster, falling items, and pictures being knocked off walls. The quake also cracked the foundations of two homes on East Fifth Street in Morris. Many reports included extremely loud "bangs" and "explosions". These sounds led one to man think that a nearby gas plant had exploded. It was the most intense earthquake recorded in the region; had it occurred in a more populated area it may have caused a larger amount of damage. See also List of earthquakes in 1975 List of earthquakes in the United States References External links Today in Earthquake History – United States Geological Survey 1975 earthquakes Earthquakes in the United States Natural disasters in Minnesota Morris earthquake Morris earthquake Morris earthquake

20817124

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945%20Mikawa%20earthquake

1945 Mikawa earthquake

The occurred off Aichi prefecture, Japan at 03:38 AM on January 13. As it occurred during World War II, information about the disaster was censored. Efforts at keeping the disaster secret hampered relief efforts and contributed to the high death toll. Earthquake The Mikawa earthquake's epicenter was offshore in Mikawa Bay at a depth of eleven kilometers. The city of Tsu recorded a magnitude of 6 on the Richter Scale; however, areas in southern Aichi prefecture were closer to the epicenter and suffered significant damage. The earthquake created the Fukozu Fault, named after the village in the middle of the fault trace, in an area adjoining the west of the Tōkaidō Main Line railway between Okazaki and Gamagōri, Aichi Prefecture. The fault's total visible distance is little more than 9 km, but is of great interest to geologists as it has a right-angle bend in its middle part, rather than being straight or at a gentle curve. It is also remarkable in that ground displacement at the fault is up to one meter in places; however, the Tokaido Railway Line, although only 150 meters from the fault line in places, suffered no damage. Damage Hardest hit were what is now Hazu District: Nishio city, Kira town, Anjō city, Hekinan city and Gamagōri city. The confirmed death toll was 1,180, with an additional 1,126 missing and 3,866 injured. As the earthquake occurred in the middle of the night, and towards the end of the war when fuel supplies were very low, only two houses were lost to fire, but 7,221 houses were destroyed, and 16,555 were severely damaged. Previous events Similar large earthquakes have occurred in the same location in 1685 and 1686, and the large 1944 Tōnankai earthquake was also in the same area. See also List of earthquakes in 1945 List of earthquakes in Japan References Sources External links 1945 earthquakes 1945 in Japan January 1945 events in Asia Earthquakes in the Empire of Japan History of Aichi Prefecture Earthquakes of the Showa period Shindo 7 earthquakes

20878206

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%20Xingtai%20earthquakes

1966 Xingtai earthquakes

The Xingtai earthquake () was a sequence of major earthquakes that took place between March 8 and March 29, 1966, in the area administered by the prefecture-level city of Xingtai in southern Hebei province, People's Republic of China. The first earthquake with magnitude 6.0 on the moment magnitude scale and epicenter in Longyao County occurred in the early morning of March 8, 1966. It was followed by a sequence of five earthquakes above magnitude 6 that lasted until March 29, 1966. The strongest of these quakes had a magnitude of 6.8 and took place in the southeastern part of Ningjin County on March 22. The earthquake damage included 8,064 dead, 38,000 injured and more than 5 million destroyed houses. Earthquakes See also List of earthquakes in 1966 List of earthquakes in China References Earthquakes in Hebei Xingtai Xingtai

20939996

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1934%20Nepal%E2%80%93India%20earthquake

1934 Nepal–India earthquake

The 1934 Nepal–India earthquake or 1934 Bihar–Nepal earthquake was one of the worst earthquakes in India's history. The towns of Munger and Muzaffarpur were completely destroyed. This 8.0 magnitude earthquake occurred on 15 January 1934 at around 2:13 pm IST (08:43 UTC) and caused widespread damage in northern Bihar and in Nepal. Earthquake The epicentre for this event was located in eastern Nepal about south of Mount Everest. The areas where the most damage to life and property occurred extended from Purnea in the east to Champaran in the west (a distance of nearly ), and from Kathmandu in the north to Munger in the south (a distance of nearly ). The impact was reported to be felt in Lhasa to Bombay, and from Assam to Punjab. The earthquake was so severe that in Kolkata, around 650 km (404 mi) from epicenter, many buildings were damaged and the tower of St. Paul's Cathedral collapsed. Ground effects A particular phenomenon of the earthquake was that sand and water vents appeared throughout the central vents of the earthquake area. The ground around these sand fissures subsided, causing more damage. Extensive liquefaction of the ground took place over a length of 300 km (called the slump belt) during the earthquake, in which many structures went afloat. In Muzaffarpur, sand fissures erupted at several places in town. The wells were choked with sand, while water levels in tanks became shallower due to sand deposited in the tank beds. Most of the buildings in Muzzafarpur were damaged. All the kutcha (ramshackle) buildings collapsed, while other pukka (solidly built) buildings suffered damage due to sinking and cracking of the ground. Damage The three major towns of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal—Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Patan—were severely affected and almost all the buildings collapsed. Large cracks appeared in the ground and several roads were damaged in Kathmandu; however, the temple of Pashupatinath, the guardian deity of Nepal, escaped any damage. The 1618-meter-long Kosi Rail Bridge on the Metre Gauge Railway line connecting Darbhanga Raj with Forbesganj was washed away and the River Kosi changed it path eastward. In Sitamarhi, not a single house was left standing. In Bhagalpur district many buildings collapsed. In Patna, many buildings in the bazaar were destroyed and damage was particularly severe along the river. In Rajnagar, near Madhubani, all the Kutcha buildings collapsed. The buildings of Darbhanga Raj, including the famous Navlakha Palace, were severely damaged. In Jharia the earthquake led to further spread of underground fire. The town of Birgunj was destroyed, along with its telephone line to Kathmandu. The number of deaths was 10,700–12,000 with 7,253 recorded in Bihar. A 1935 work by Major General Brahma Shamsher documenting the event, Nepalko Maha Bhukampa 1990, stated that this was Nepal's most destructive earthquake in living memory, and praised the Nepalese Army for its work in relief efforts. Aftermath Mahatma Gandhi visited the Bihar state. He wrote that the Bihar earthquake was providential retribution for India's failure to eradicate untouchability. Rabindranath Tagore took offence to the irrationality in his statement and accused Gandhi of superstition, even though he was totally in agreement with Gandhi on the issue of untouchability. In Bihar, Sri Babu (Shri Krishna Sinha) and the other great leader Anugrah Babu (Anugrah Narayan Sinha), threw themselves into relief work. Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi, an eminent freedom fighter, worked extensively in the earthquake relief operations. He operated several relief camps providing the affected people with food and shelter. See also 1833 Bihar–Nepal earthquake 1988 Nepal earthquake April 2015 Nepal earthquake May 2015 Nepal earthquake List of earthquakes in 1934 List of earthquakes in India References Further reading External links 1934 Mw 8.1 Bihar/Nepal earthquake 15 January 1934 – Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences Intensity Map (Archived) – Amateur Seismic Centre Earthquakes in India Bihar Earthquake, 1934 Earthquakes in Nepal Bihar Earthquake, 1934 Natural disasters in Bihar 1934 in Nepal January 1934 events Megathrust earthquakes in India 1934 disasters in India 1934 disasters in Nepal

20945519

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20Papua%20earthquakes

2009 Papua earthquakes

The 2009 Papua earthquakes occurred on January 4 local time in Indonesia's West Papua province. The very large earthquake doublet comprised a 7.6 initial shock that had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong) and a second event measuring 7.4 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (Very strong). The events took place less than three hours apart to the east-northeast of Sorong on the Bird's Head Peninsula and left at least four people dead and dozens injured. An official of World Vision International, a humanitarian aid organization, said ten buildings had been destroyed, including several hotels and the house of a government official. Officials said three people, who had been staying at the Mutiara hotel in the city of Manokwari, were pulled alive from the rubble and taken to a hospital. Two hotels collapsed in the quake. There have been twenty-three aftershocks above magnitude 5.0 and another at magnitude 6.0. The earthquakes were also felt in nearby Papua New Guinea and Darwin, Australia. See also List of earthquakes in 2009 List of earthquakes in Indonesia References External links Earthquake in Papua, Indonesia – NASA Earth Observatory 2009 tsunamis Papua earthquake Papua (province) West Papua (province) Papua earthquake Earthquakes in Indonesia Tsunamis in Indonesia January 2009 events in Asia

20946559

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20Indonesia%20earthquake

2009 Indonesia earthquake

2009 Indonesia earthquake may refer to: 2009 Papua earthquakes (4 January), very large doublet in West Papua 2009 Talaud Islands earthquake (12 February), large earthquake in North Sulawesi 2009 West Java earthquake (2 September), by the south-west coast of Java 2009 Sumatra earthquakes (30 September), west of Sumatra See also List of earthquakes in Indonesia

20960124

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967%20Koynanagar%20earthquake

1967 Koynanagar earthquake

The 1967 Koynanagar earthquake occurred near Koynanagar town in Maharashtra, India on 11 December local time. The magnitude 6.6 shock hit with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). It occurred near the site of Koyna dam, raising questions about induced seismicity, and claimed at least 177 lives and injured over 2,200. Damage More than 80% of the houses were damaged in Koyana Nagar Township, but it did not cause any major damage to the dam except some cracks which were quickly repaired. There have been several earthquakes of smaller magnitude there since 1967. The earthquake caused a fissure in the ground which spread over a length of . Some geologists believe that the earthquake was due to reservoir-triggered seismic activity, but senior project officials have repeatedly denied this conclusion. See also List of earthquakes in 1967 List of earthquakes in India References External links 1967 Koynangar Koynanagar Earthquake, 1967 History of Maharashtra (1947–present) Koynanagar Earthquake, 1967 1967 disasters in India

21008465

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939%20Chill%C3%A1n%20earthquake

1939 Chillán earthquake

The 1939 Chillán earthquake occurred in south-central Chile on 24 January with a surface wave magnitude of 8.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). With a death toll of around 28,000, compared to the 2,231–6,000 (official estimates vary greatly) of the Great Chilean earthquake of 1960, it is the single deadliest earthquake in Chile. Earthquake At 23:32, the earth began to shake strongly underneath Chillán, destroying more than half of it, including around 3,500 homes and the recently constructed Casa Rabié which then was in the city. Aftershocks followed although they were less intense, which left the city completely destroyed. Until then, the Cathedral of Chillán had been one of the principal buildings of the area, but it was completely destroyed. The church that was built to replace it was designed specifically to withstand future earthquakes. At 23:35, Concepción was violently hit. Almost all of the buildings (around 95% of the houses) were completely destroyed. There was a show going on in the theater where the large chandelier started to swing. The people inside were terrified, so they fled down the stairs, but the spiral staircase cracked, causing many people to fall into the gap. In the intersection of O’Higgins and Aníbal Pinto avenue, the bodies accumulated, which were later brought to the cemetery, and interred in large strips of land. The electricity was cut in all of the city and tens of fires were reported in various points of the city. The potable water supply was also seriously affected. The material damage in all of the city was evaluated to be more than three thousand million pesos. Various emblematic buildings of the city were destroyed, like the central market, Correos de Chile, but the most emblematic was the plaza of independence, which was seriously damaged. Its two towers leaned dangerously, and because of this, they had to be demolished. Another building that was affected was the first building of the old Central Station of Concepción. In 1941, the construction of a second station building began. Geology The community of Chillán is situated in the continental territory of Chile. The city of Chillán was built on a tectonic structure at the end of the Tertiary Period in the part of the Longitudinal Valley which is identified with the Central level. Morphologically, the land corresponds to an alluvial plain, which predominates with fluvioglacial sediments, conformed during the Cuaternario by the action of the Rivers Nuble and Cato in the north and the River Chillán in the south, both tributary streams of the large drainage basin of Itata. The natural flow of the enclave of Chillán is confirmed by later geological studies, found the root of the earthquake of 1939, when a prospection of more than 80 meters was carried out, without finding the bedrock. Response At the start of February 1939, Major Caleb V. Haynes of the U.S. Army Air Corps commanded a special "flight of mercy" with medical supplies from the American Red Cross loaded in the experimental prototype Boeing XB-15 bomber. The airplane departed from Langley Field, Virginia for Santiago, Chile, and covered a distance 4,933 miles in 49 hours and 18 minutes, with only two stops to refuel in the Panama Canal Zone and in Lima, Peru. The crew was also awarded the Mackay Trophy for 1939 for the "most meritorious flight of the year" made by members of the Air Corps. In the aftermath, the Chilean government created CORFO (Spanish acronym for Production Development Corporation) to help in the reconstruction of the country and to industrialize the country, mechanize the agriculture and help mining to develop. Gallery See also List of earthquakes in 1939 List of earthquakes in Chile References Further reading External links Megathrust earthquakes in Chile History of Biobío Region Chillan Concepción, Chile History of Ñuble Region 1939 disasters in South America

21012986

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918%20Vancouver%20Island%20earthquake

1918 Vancouver Island earthquake

The 1918 Vancouver Island earthquake occurred in British Columbia, Canada at 12:41 a.m. Pacific Standard Time on December 6. The earthquake was most likely of the strike-slip type, and was estimated to have a maximum perceived intensity of VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The epicenter was located east of the Stewardson inlet on the west coast of Vancouver Island, with damage occurring at the Estevan Point lighthouse on the Hesquiat Peninsula. The event registered 7.2 on the moment magnitude scale and was felt as far as northern Washington state and the interior of British Columbia. The earthquake took place in the vicinity of the Cascadia subduction zone where the Juan de Fuca Plate and the Explorer Plate are being subducted under the North American Plate at a rate of and less than per year respectively, but the event was a crustal intraplate earthquake and was produced from the complicated interaction between the plates in the area. The source of the earthquake was the Nootka transform fault, which separates the Juan de Fuca and Explorer plates and has been the origin of at least five additional moderate to large events since 1918. See also List of earthquakes in 1918 List of earthquakes in Canada 1946 Vancouver Island earthquake References Bibliography External links Vancouver Island Earthquake, 1918 Vancouver Island Earthquake, 1918 1918 Vancouver 1918 disasters in Canada

21022855

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20Cinchona%20earthquake

2009 Cinchona earthquake

The 2009 Cinchona earthquake occurred at on January 8 with an magnitude of 6.1 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (Very strong). The shock took place in northern Costa Rica, north-northwest of San José and was felt throughout Costa Rica and in southern central Nicaragua. Damage The earthquake took at least 34 lives, including at least three children, left about 64 people missing, and injured at least 91. Hundreds of people were trapped and two villages were cut off. Most of the victims died when a landslide occurred near the La Paz waterfall by the Poás Volcano, and 452 people including 369 tourists were evacuated from the area in helicopters. 1,244 people were displaced in the immediate aftermath. In addition, a hotel, houses, roads, and vehicles were damaged, and several bridges were also destroyed. The town of Cinchona was heavily hit, and all of the buildings there were heavily damaged. Power was temporarily disrupted in San José. Aftermath The Costa Rican Red Cross sent at least 400 people to assist in the recovery. The agency said, "Some 42 communities were affected and sustained serious impacts on civil and electrical infrastructure... [They] are going to need a lot of help." Four helicopters were also dispatched in order to help aid efforts. The (National Emergency Commission) requested private helicopters to help with the aid. Additionally, the United States and Colombia dispatched helicopters with aid to assist with the relief and recovery efforts. About 2,000 aftershocks were felt throughout Costa Rica. On January 12, President Oscar Arias declared a five-day period of national grieving out of respect for the victims, and asked the organizers of the Fiestas de Palmares to postpone them. On January 13, the Banco de Costa Rica announced that it would offer home financing credit to homeowners who want to rebuild or fix their home. See also List of earthquakes in 2009 List of earthquakes in Costa Rica References External links Costa Rica Costa Rica Earthquakes in Costa Rica January 2009 events in North America

21046950

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20India

List of earthquakes in India

The Indian subcontinent has a history of earthquakes. The reason for the intensity and high frequency of earthquakes is the Indian plate driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year. The following is a list of major earthquakes which have occurred in India, including those with epicentres outside India that caused significant damage or casualties in the country. Earthquakes * Bold refers to Pre-Independence See also Earthquake zones of India Geology of India References Sources Further reading External links Earthquake Reports, India Meteorological Department (on line) Earthquake India Earthquakes Tsunamis in India

21047036

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Iceland

List of earthquakes in Iceland

See also Geology of Iceland Lists of earthquakes References Sources Further reading External links Earthquakes in Iceland magnitude 4 and greater, 1706–1990 Iceland Earthquakes in Europe Natural disasters in Iceland Earthquakes Earthquakes Earthquakes

21161124

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Japan

List of earthquakes in Japan

This is a list of earthquakes in Japan with either a magnitude greater than or equal to 7.0 or which caused significant damage or casualties. As indicated below, magnitude is measured on the Richter magnitude scale (ML) or the moment magnitude scale (Mw), or the surface wave magnitude scale (Ms) for very old earthquakes. The present list is not exhaustive, and furthermore reliable and precise magnitude data is scarce for earthquakes that occurred before the development of modern measuring instruments. History Although there is mention of an earthquake in Yamato in what is now Nara Prefecture on August 23, 416, the first earthquake to be reliably documented took place in Nara prefecture on May 28, 599 during the reign of Empress Suiko, destroying buildings throughout Yamato province. Many historical records of Japanese earthquakes exist. The Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee was created in 1892 to conduct a systematic collation of the available historical data, published in 1899 as the Catalogue of Historical Data on Japanese Earthquakes. Following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, the Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee was superseded by the Earthquake Research Institute in 1925. In modern times, the catalogues compiled by Tatsuo Usami are considered to provide the most authoritative source of information on historic earthquakes, with the 2003 edition detailing 486 that took place between 416 and 1888. Earthquake measurement In Japan, the Shindo scale is commonly used to measure earthquakes by seismic intensity instead of magnitude. This is similar to the Modified Mercalli intensity scale used in the United States or the Liedu scale used in China, meaning that the scale measures the intensity of an earthquake at a given location instead of measuring the energy an earthquake releases at its epicenter (its magnitude) as the Richter scale does. Unlike other seismic intensity scales, which normally have twelve levels of intensity, as used by the Japan Meteorological Agency is a unit with ten levels, ranging from shindo zero, a very light tremor, to shindo seven, a severe earthquake. Intermediate levels for earthquakes with shindo five and six are "weak" or "strong", according to the degree of destruction they cause. Earthquakes measured at shindo four and lower are considered to be weak to mild, while those measured at five and above can cause heavy damage to furniture, wall tiles, wooden houses, reinforced concrete buildings, roads, gas and water pipes. Earthquakes See also Category: Japanese seismologists Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction Geology of Japan Japan Meteorological Agency Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale List of disasters in Japan by death toll List of volcanoes in Japan Kantō earthquakes Nankai megathrust earthquakes Seismicity of the Sanriku coast Tōkai earthquakes Tōnankai earthquakes References Further reading External links Disaster Preparedness in Japan (bilingual booklet, 3-2015 PDF from Government of Japan Cabinet Office, Director General for Disaster Management) Earthquakes in Japan Since 1900 | Tableau Public Japanese disasters interactive map from 416 CE to 2013 (labels in Japanese) One Week of Japanese Earthquakes | Tableau Public Japan Earthquakes Tsunamis in Japan

21169320

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1812%20Caracas%20earthquake

1812 Caracas earthquake

The 1812 Caracas earthquake took place in Venezuela on March 26 (on Maundy Thursday) at 4:37 p.m. It measured 7.7 on the Richter magnitude scale. It caused extensive damage in Caracas, La Guaira, Barquisimeto, San Felipe, and Mérida. An estimated 15,000–20,000 people perished as a result, in addition to incalculable material damage. The seismic movement was so significant that in a zone named Valecillo, a new lake was formed and the river Yurubí was dammed up. Numerous rivulets changed their course in the Caracas valley, which was flooded with dirty water. Based on contemporary descriptions, the earthquake is believed to have consisted of two seismic shocks occurring within the span of 30 minutes. The first destroyed Caracas and the second Mérida, where it was raining when the shock occurred. Tectonic setting Northern Venezuela lies across the complex boundary between the Caribbean Plate and the South American Plate. The main motion between these two plates is lateral, with South America moving relatively westwards relative to the Caribbean Plate, but these is also a component of shortening with South America moving northwards relative to the Caribbean Plate. To the west of Venezuela, the Caribbean Plate is subducting beneath the South American Plate along the South Caribbean Deformed Belt. The lateral motion is accommodated by a series of dextral (right lateral) strike-slip faults, of which the Oca-Ancón fault system and the Boconó-San Sebastián-El Pilar fault system are the most important. The Boconó Fault trends SW-NE until it reaches the coast and links with the Oca-Ancón fault system, continuing coast parallel as the San Sebastián Fault. The Boconó-San Sebastián-El Pilar fault system is the most seismically active structure in Venezuela. Earthquake The precise details of the earthquake sequence remain uncertain. There is evidence of two separate sub-events, one to the southwest and another with an epicentre just offshore near Caracas. It is unclear which of these two events came first, or whether there was a significant time gap between them. One sub-event ruptured the northeasternmost segment of the Boconó Fault, with an estimated magnitude of 7.4 while the second sub-event ruptured the San Sebastián Fault offshore Caracas, with an estimated magnitude of 7.1 . Response The destruction in Caracas was so widespread that the Gazeta de Caracas suggested founding a new capital city in "the beautiful [...] Catia where pure air may be breathed". Since the earthquake occurred on Maundy Thursday while the Venezuelan War of Independence was raging, it was explained by royalist authorities as divine punishment for the rebellion against the Spanish Crown. The archbishop of Caracas, Narciso Coll y Prat, referred to the event as "the terrifying but well-deserved earthquake" which "confirms in our days the prophecies revealed by God to men about the ancient impious and proud cities: Babylon, Jerusalem and the Tower of Babel". This prompted the widely quoted answer of Simón Bolívar: "If Nature is against us, we shall fight Nature and make it obey". The first international assistance received by Venezuela in response to the earthquake came from the United States, "...when the congress convened in Washington decreed unanimously the sending of five ships loaded with flour, to the coasts of Venezuela to be distributed among the most indigent of its inhabitants." This $50,000 was the first-ever instance of U.S. foreign aid. See also List of earthquakes in Venezuela List of historical earthquakes References 1812 1812 earthquakes 1812 in Venezuela March 1812 events 19th century in Caracas 1812 disasters in South America 19th-century disasters in Venezuela

21236394

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929%20Kopet%20Dag%20earthquake

1929 Kopet Dag earthquake

The 1929 Kopet Dag earthquake (also called the 1929 Koppeh Dagh earthquake) took place at 15:37 UTC on 1 May with a moment magnitude of 7.2 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). It occurred in the Kopet Dag area of Iran and caused up to 3,800 casualties along the Iran-Turkmenistan border. More than 1,100 were injured. Damage and casualties Within the epicentral area, 3,250 people were killed. Eighty-eight villages in the region were damaged or destroyed, along with damage at Bojnourd. Aftershocks occurred for more than four years after, including one in July 1929 that killed several more people, before finally subsiding in 1933. Fifty-seven diverse locations reported damage, including casualties in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. Surface faulting occurred along the Baghan-Germab fault for a length of . See also List of earthquakes in 1929 List of earthquakes in Iran References External links Koppeh Dagh Earthquake, 1929 Earthquakes in Iran Koppeh Dagh Earthquake, 1929 20th century in Iran History of Razavi Khorasan Province History of North Khorasan Province Earthquakes in Asia Natural disasters in Turkmenistan Earthquakes in the Soviet Union 1929 in the Soviet Union May 1929 events 1929 disasters in Iran 1929 disasters in the Soviet Union

21271853

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009%20Xinjiang%20earthquake

2009 Xinjiang earthquake

The 2009 Xinjiang earthquake occurred in the Xinjiang of the People's Republic of China. It occurred at 9:47 a.m in Qapqal on January 25, 2009. Location The epicenter was at 43.3 degrees north latitude and 80.9 degrees east longitude at a depth of according to the China Earthquake Administration. The quake occurred from the regional capital Ürümqi. Damage It has affected more than 4,500 people and caused house collapses and other damage. In total, 4,549 people in the Xibe Autonomous County of Qapqal and Zhaosu County were affected. They have been relocated to schools, government buildings and tents, said a regional civil affairs department official. No casualties have been reported so far. A total of 198 houses collapsed and 2,928 were damaged. The direct economic loss was estimated at 21 million yuan ($US 3.1 million). See also List of earthquakes in 2009 List of earthquakes in China References External links 2009 Xinjiang Xinjiang earthquake Xinjiang earthquake

21437124

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1848%20Marlborough%20earthquake

1848 Marlborough earthquake

The 1848 Marlborough earthquake was a 7.5 () earthquake that occurred at 1:40 a.m. on 16 October 1848 and whose epicentre was in the Marlborough region of the South Island of New Zealand. In Wellington, the shaking lasted for about two minutes and caused widespread damage, especially to brick or stone structures. Most of the buildings damaged in the earthquake were rebuilt in wood and this contributed to the relatively low level of damage and loss of life in the more powerful Wairarapa earthquake that hit Wellington seven years later. Tectonic setting New Zealand lies along the boundary between the Australian and Pacific Plates. In the South Island most of the relative displacement between these plates is taken up along a single dextral (right lateral) strike-slip fault with a major reverse component, the Alpine Fault. In the North Island, the displacement is mainly taken up along the Kermadec subduction zone, although the remaining dextral strike-slip component of the relative plate motion is accommodated by the North Island Fault System (NIFS). A group of dextral strike-slip structures, known as the Marlborough Fault System, transfer displacement between the mainly transform and convergent type plate boundaries in a complex zone at the northern end of South Island. Earthquake characteristics The earthquake was associated with the rupturing of a minimum of 105 km of the Awatere Fault, which is part of the Marlborough Fault System. A horizontal displacement of about 6 metres was accompanied by smaller vertical movements of varying sense. A shallow epicentral depth is inferred from the large number of felt aftershocks. A moment magnitude of about 7.5 has been estimated from the rupture length and measured displacements. Damage In Wellington, almost all buildings of brick or stone construction were damaged, including homes, churches, the jail, and the Colonial Hospital. Most wooden buildings were undamaged, although many lost their brick chimneys. Barrack Sergeant James Harris Lovel of the 65th Regiment and two of his young children, Amelia aged 4, and William aged 6, died after being crushed by falling bricks from a wall in Farish Street, Wellington. They are buried at Bolton Street Cemetery. In the Marlborough region itself, a number of homesteads were badly damaged. Several buildings damaged in the main shock were destroyed during strong aftershocks over the next few days. The only fatalities from the earthquake occurred when a damaged building collapsed during one of the aftershocks the following day. See also List of earthquakes in New Zealand List of historical earthquakes References External links Geonet page on the 1848 Marlborough earthquake Earthquakes in New Zealand History of the Marlborough Region Marlborough Marlborough October 1848 events 1848 disasters in New Zealand

21471917

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958%20Lituya%20Bay%20earthquake%20and%20megatsunami

1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami

The 1958 Lituya Bay earthquake occurred on PST with a moment magnitude of 7.8 to 8.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). The strike-slip earthquake took place on the Fairweather Fault and triggered a rockslide of 30 million cubic meters (40 million cubic yards) and about 90 million tons into the narrow inlet of Lituya Bay, Alaska. The impact was heard away, and the sudden displacement of water resulted in a megatsunami that washed out trees to a maximum elevation of at the entrance of Gilbert Inlet. This is the largest and most significant megatsunami in modern times; it forced a re-evaluation of large-wave events and the recognition of impact events, rockfalls, and landslides as causes of very large waves. Event outline Lituya Bay is a fjord located on the Fairweather Fault in the northeastern part of the Gulf of Alaska. It is a T-shaped bay with a width of and a length of . Lituya Bay is an ice-scoured tidal inlet with a maximum depth of . The narrow entrance of the bay has a depth of only . The two arms that create the top of the T-shape of the bay are the Gilbert and Crillon inlets and are a part of a trench on the Fairweather Fault. In the past 170 years Lituya Bay has had four tsunamis over 100 ft: 1854 (), 1899 (), 1936 (), and 1958 (). Near the crest of the Fairweather Mountains sit the Lituya and the North Crillon glaciers. They are each about long and wide with an elevation of . The retreats of these glaciers form the present "T" shape of the bay, the Gilbert and Crillon inlets. Earthquake The major earthquake that struck on the Fairweather Fault had a moment magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum perceived intensity of XI (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The epicenter of the quake was at latitude 58.37° N, longitude 136.67° W near the Fairweather Range, east of the surface trace of the Fairweather fault, and southeast of Lituya Bay. This earthquake had been the strongest in over 50 years for this region: the Cape Yakataga earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of 8.2 on the Richter scale, occurred on September 4, 1899. The shock was felt in southeastern Alaskan cities over an area of , as far south as Seattle, Washington, and as far east as Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada. Rockfall The earthquake caused a subaerial rockfall in the Gilbert Inlet. Over 30 million cubic meters of rock fell from a height of several hundred meters into the bay, creating the megatsunami. The impact of the rockslide included the creation of wave run up that shaved up to 400m of ice off the front of the Lituya Glacier and eroded or completely eradicated its rocky deltas. After the earthquake it was observed that a subglacial lake, located northwest of the bend in the Lituya Glacier at the head of Lituya Bay, had dropped . This proposed another possible cause to the production of the wave which caused destruction as high as above the surface of the bay as its momentum carried it upslope. The wave caused damage to the vegetation up the headlands around the area where the rockfall occurred, up to a height of 524 meters, as well as along the shoreline of the bay. It is possible that a good amount of water drained from the glacial lake through a glacial tunnel flowing directly in front of the glacier, though neither the rate of drainage nor the volume of water drained could produce a wave of such magnitude. Even if a large enough drainage were to take place in front of the Gilbert Glacier, the run-off would have been projected to be on the opposite side in Crillon Inlet. After these considerations it was determined that glacial drainage was not the mechanism that caused the giant wave. Megatsunami The Lituya Bay tsunami caused damage at higher elevations than any other tsunami, being powerful enough to push water up the tree covered slopes of the fjord with enough force to clear trees to a reported height of . A total of 5 people were killed during the tsunami, which left many people injured and many homes destroyed. Two people from a fishing boat died as a result of being caught by a wave in the bay. Two more individuals, a fishing boat captain and his seven-year-old son, were struck by the wave and lifted hundreds of feet into the air by the swell. Remarkably, both survived with minimal injuries. In Yakutat, the only permanent outpost close to the epicenter at the time, infrastructure such as bridges, docks, and oil lines all sustained damage. A wave tower collapsed and a cabin was damaged beyond repair. Sand boils and fissures occurred near the coast southeast of there, and underwater cables that supported the Alaska Communication System were cut. Lighter damage was also reported in Pelican and Sitka. It ripped limbs off trees and swept many away, decimating the shoreline's surrounding forest and leaving the high tide line barren and with few upright surviving trees except on the northern and southern edges. The megatsunami flooded the entire bay and created a damage line up to around the outline of the bay, with evidence of this damage line still visible from space to this day. Eyewitness accounts Swanson account At 22:15 hours PST on July 9, 1958, which was still daylight at that time of year, an earthquake with a magnitude of 7.8 struck the Lituya Bay area. The tide was ebbing at about plus 1.5 m and the weather was clear. Anchored in a cove near the west side of the entrance of the bay, Bill and Vivian Swanson were on their boat fishing when the earthquake hit: Ulrich account When the earthquake struck, Howard G. Ulrich and his 7-year-old son were in Lituya Bay aboard their boat, the Edrie. They were anchored in a small inlet on the southern side of the bay. The two had gone out on the water at 20:00 hours PST and when the earthquake hit, the resulting rocking of his boat woke Ulrich up. He observed the wave's formation from the deck, hearing a very loud smash at the base of Lituya Bay. In his record of the wave he notes the appearance of it and how it formed: The wave made its way to his boat 2–3 minutes after he saw it and carried the Edrie down to the southern shore and then back near the center of the bay. Ulrich was able to control the boat once the main wave passed, maneuvering through subsequent waves up to 20 ft high until he could finally exit the bay. Evidence of past events Four or five megatsunamis are believed to have occurred at Lituya Bay during a 150-year period: Reports by early explorers of the loss of all trees and vegetation along the shore, and cut tree-lines. One example is the log of Jean-François de Galaup who was the first European person to discover the bay in 1786. "At least one and possibly two waves" between 1854 and 1916, based on photographic evidence. A further event that erased the above evidence and uprooted trees over up the sides of the bay, in 1936. The 1958 event. Ongoing debate There is an ongoing debate in scholarly circles regarding whether the megatsunami was a result of the rockfall generated by the earthquake, or a result of the earthquake itself. Various analyses to determine the true cause have been conducted. 1999 analysis The mechanism giving rise to megatsunamis was analyzed for the Lituya Bay event in a study presented at the Tsunami Society in 1999. Although the earthquake which caused the megatsunami was very energetic and involved strong ground movements, several possible mechanisms were not likely or able to have caused the resulting megatsunami. Neither water drainage from a lake, nor landslide, nor the force of the earthquake itself led to the megatsunami, although all of these may have contributed. Instead, the megatsunami was caused by a massive and sudden impulsive impact when about 40 million cubic yards of rock several hundred meters above the bay was fractured from the side of the bay, by the earthquake, and fell "practically as a monolithic unit" down the almost vertical slope and into the bay. The rockfall also caused air to be dragged along due to viscosity effects, which added to the volume of displacement, and further impacted the sediment on the floor of the bay, creating a large crater. The study concluded that: The giant wave runup of at the head of the Bay and the subsequent huge wave along the main body of Lituya Bay which occurred on July 9, 1958, were caused primarily by an enormous subaerial rockfall into Gilbert Inlet at the head of Lituya Bay, triggered by dynamic earthquake ground motions along the Fairweather Fault. The large mass of rock, acting as a monolith (thus resembling high-angle asteroid impact), struck with great force the sediments at bottom of Gilbert Inlet at the head of the bay. The impact created a large crater and displaced and folded recent and Tertiary deposits and sedimentary layers to an unknown depth. The displaced water and the displacement and folding of the sediments broke and uplifted of ice along the entire front of the Lituya Glacier at the north end of Gilbert Inlet. Also, the impact and the sediment displacement by the rockfall resulted in an air bubble and in water splashing action that reached the elevation on the other side of the head of Gilbert Inlet. The same rockfall impact, in combination with the strong ground movements, the net vertical crustal uplift of about , and an overall tilting seaward of the entire crustal block on which Lituya Bay was situated, generated the giant solitary gravity wave which swept the main body of the bay. This was the most likely scenario of the event – the "PC model" that was adopted for subsequent mathematical modeling studies with source dimensions and parameters provided as input. Subsequent mathematical modeling at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (Mader, 1999, Mader & Gittings, 2002) supported the proposed mechanism – as there was indeed sufficient volume of water and an adequately deep layer of sediments in the Lituya Bay inlet to account for the giant wave runup and the subsequent inundation. The modeling reproduced the documented physical observations of runup. 2010 analysis A 2010 model examined the amount of infill on the floor of the bay, which was many times larger than that of the rockfall alone, as well as the energy and height of the waves. Scientists concluded that there had been a "dual slide" involving a rockfall which also triggered a release of 5 to 10 times its volume of sediment trapped by the adjacent Lituya Glacier, a ratio comparable with other events where this "dual slide" effect is known to have happened. Lituya Bay has a history of megatsunami events, but the 1958 event was the first for which sufficient data was captured and was responsible for the deaths of 5 people. A subsequent analysis to the 1999 one that examined the wider impact of the event found that the rockfall itself was inadequate to explain the resulting accounts and evidence. In particular, the amount of sediment apparently added to the bay, judging by the sea-floor shape, was much greater than could be explained by the rockfall alone, or even the rockfall and sediment disturbed by it, and the energy of the resulting waves from the rockfall and stirred-up sediment would not have been sufficient. The study concluded that, instead, a "dual slide" event was more likely – the rockfall, impacting very close to the head of the Lituya Glacier, caused around of ice from the glacial toe to break off (as shown in photographs from the time), and possibly injected considerable water under the glacier. The glacier, lightened, rose before stabilizing in the water, and a large amount of trapped infill (subglacial and proglacial sediment) that was trapped under the glacier and had already been loosened by the earthquake was released as an almost immediate and many times larger second slide. The debris released was estimated by the study as being between 5 and 10 times the volume of the initial rockfall, a bulking ratio comparable with that of other events such as the September 2002 Kolka-Karmadon rock ice slide (estimated ratio between 5 and 10), the November 1987 Parraguirre landslide (est. ratio 2.5) and the May 1970 Huascarán landslide (est. ratio 4). This additional volume would explain the large changes in the underwater shape of the sea floor in the bay, and the additional energy of waves, especially at the western end of the bay. The paper's authors suggest that core samples may show a deep layer of reworked sediment if this model is correct. See also Icy Bay (Alaska) for a very similar event in 2015 List of earthquakes in 1958 List of earthquakes in Alaska List of earthquakes in the United States List of tsunamis Lituya Mountain References Further reading External links Gary Griggs, "Our Ocean Backyard: Tsunami rocked Alaska's Lituya Bay in 1958", Santa Cruz Sentinel, April 9, 2011 Dave Kiffer, "Surviving the Biggest Wave Ever 50 Years Ago, 1,700 Foot Wave Devastated Lituya Bay", SitNews, July 8, 2008. Sonny and Howard Ulrich, Video retelling of their surviving the event & simulated megatsunami Horizon, BBC, first broadcast October 12, 2000. (Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction) Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami Lituya Floods in the United States Tsunamis in the United States Lituya Bay megatsunami Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami Megatsunamis Strike-slip earthquakes

21582024

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970%20Gediz%20earthquake

1970 Gediz earthquake

The 1970 Gediz earthquake (also known as the 1970 Kütahya-Gediz earthquake) struck western Turkey on 28 March at about 23:02 local time, with an estimated magnitude of 7.2 on the scale. The event killed 1,086 people, injured 1,260 people, and left many thousands homeless in Gediz, a district of Kütahya Province situated southeast of Kütahya. Many people were burned alive as fires broke out from overturned stoves, and 9,452 buildings in the region were severely damaged or destroyed. The town of Gediz, home to repeated natural disasters like earthquakes and floods, was relocated following a government resolution soon after the destruction to a new place away on the road to Uşak under the name "Yeni Gediz" (literally: New Gediz). The residents moved in their newly built, earthquake-resistant homes. Neighboring towns and villages were also rebuilt at places with relative minimum earthquake risk. Other major earthquakes occurred in Gediz in 1866 and 1896, and on June 25, 1944, at 07:20 local time, a magnitude 6.0 earthquake occurred in Gediz, killing 20 people and damaging around 3,500 buildings. See also List of earthquakes in 1970 List of earthquakes in Turkey References External links 1970 Gediz 1970 in Turkey 1970 earthquakes History of Kütahya Province March 1970 events in Europe 1970 disasters in Turkey

21639058

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962%20Buin%20Zahra%20earthquake

1962 Buin Zahra earthquake

The 1962 Buin Zahra earthquake occurred on September 1 in the area of Buin Zahra, Qazvin Province, Iran. The shock had a Richter magnitude of 7.1 and resulted in 12,225 fatalities. Qazvin Province lies in an area of Iran that experiences large earthquakes. The 1962 event originated on one of many faults in the area, called the Ipak Fault. The fault is believed to have been reactivated multiple times. Geology Iran is a seismically active zone, lying between the converging Eurasian and Arabian Plates. Because it has both strike-slip and reverse faults, earthquakes often proceed so that if one fault is overwhelmed by movement, the movement will branch off to another fault, creating a separate earthquake. Buin Zahra County lies within a zone of active thrust faults, complemented by folds, that extends south from the Alborz mountains. Despite the presence of faults, Qazvin Province does not regularly experience earthquakes. However, the space between earthquakes allows pressure to build up on faults, increasing the power – and magnitude – of the earthquakes. Specifically, the 1962 event originated on the Ipak Fault of northern Iran, along which it and aftershocks cut roughly of west-northwest trending surface faulting. A feature that extends for with its connected, smaller faults, the fault runs from the village of Ipak to Takhrijin. Iranian geologist Manuel Berberian's research indicates that the Ipak Fault is at least as old as the Carboniferous period, and has probably been reactivated several times since its formation. On the fault's south side, Carboniferous material is visible; this debris is not evident on the north side, which suggests that the fault was acting as a "dividing fault" while the area around it underwent sedimentation. Berberian could find no trace of Upper Guadalopian or Julfian sediments north of the fault. Another possible reason for this anomaly could be erosion; uplift could have exposed the northern portion of the fault but not the south. Damage and casualties 12,225 fatalities resulted from the earthquake. An additional 2,776 people were injured, along with 21,310 houses either destroyed or too damaged to repair. 35 percent of domestic livestock was also killed, and several landslides and rock falls followed the rupture. 21,000 houses were destroyed, mainly because they were made up of mud and brick. Over 7,500 were buried in 31 individual villages, followed by reports from 60 additional villages. In these villages, however, 26,618 survived. One hospital in Tehran was "packed" with over 2,500 victims. Slight damage was experienced in Tehran, the nation's capital. Cities as far away as Tabriz, Esfahan and Yazd reported the tremor. Sandblows also formed along the rupture zone. The earthquake was also declared the largest rupture in the region since approximately 1630. Multiple reports came from the Rudak area of earthquake lights. Relief efforts Rescue operators suggested that an aerial and on-land search should be initiated to help victims. Officials expressed worries that people had gone for over a week with no aid. Iranian wrestling star Gholamreza Takhti gathered blankets, money, and food for victims and transported them by trucks. Because government response was slow, students at the University of Tehran took matters into their own hands. After gathering supplies, the students organized an effort to dispatch medical students and interns to the site of the disaster. Their teams were however blocked by Iranian National Guard members who had been commanded to kill any civilians who tried to help victims; writer Marcello di Cintio cites in Poets and Pahlevans: A Journey into the Heart of Iran that the "Shah was not about to let a crowd of students draw attention to his inept relief efforts". Future threats Since roughly 90 percent of Iran lies within seismically active land, the threat from earthquakes is high. In 2002, an earthquake in Buin Zahra killed more than 250 people and left roughly 25,000 without homes. In addition to its geological threat, Iran has poor earthquake engineering. In a 2004 report by ScienceDaily, it was listed as "the worst offender" globally for poor earthquake engineering. Professor Roger Bilham of the University of Colorado at Boulder, a geophysicist who specializes in earthquake-related deformation and hazards, blames construction practices for the fact that since the start of the 20th century, 1 in 3,000 Iranians has died in an earthquake-related incident. Bilham adds, "Most of Iran needs rebuilding. If the population of Iran had a choice between spending oil revenues on munitions or houses that won't kill them, I suspect they would choose a safe home. It's all a matter of earthquake education." A Common Country Assessment by The United Nations for Iran has similar results, stating that, "While adequate building regulations exist for large cities, it is generally believed that they are not rigorously adhered to... most of those who have suffered in recent major earthquakes have lived in small towns and villages. Earthquake-proof construction is very rare in those areas and adequate building regulations are not yet in place". See also List of earthquakes in 1962 List of earthquakes in Iran Bibliography References External links Bouin-zahra Earthquake, 1962 1962 disasters in Iran September 1962 events in Asia 1962 Bou'in-Zahra History of Qazvin Province

21646609

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1843%20Wanganui%20earthquake

1843 Wanganui earthquake

The 1843 Whanganui earthquake occurred on 8 July at 16:45 local time with an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the scale. The maximum perceived intensity was IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and possibly reaching X (Extreme). The epicentre is estimated to have been within a zone extending 50 km northeast from Whanganui towards Taihape. GNS Science has this earthquake catalogued and places the epicentre 35 km east of Taihape, near the border of Hawke's Bay. This was the first earthquake in New Zealand over magnitude 7 for which written records exist, and the first for which deaths were recorded. Tectonic setting New Zealand lies along the boundary between the Australian and Pacific Plates. In South Island most of the relative displacement between these plates is taken up along a single dextral (right lateral) strike-slip fault with a major reverse component, the Alpine Fault. In North Island the displacement is mainly taken up along the Kermadec subduction zone, although the remaining dextral strike-slip component of the relative plate motion is accommodated by the North Island Fault System (NIFS). A group of dextral strike-slip structures, known as the Marlborough Fault System, transfer displacement between the mainly transform and convergent type plate boundaries in a complex zone at the northern end of South Island. The presumed epicentre of the 1843 earthquake is not, however, associated with any known fault. Earthquake characteristics The shock was felt over much of North Island and was reported as lasting for three minutes near Mokoia. A magnitude of 7.5 was estimated from the extent of the area that was subject to a shaking level of at least VIII (Severe). At least ten aftershocks were reported on the same day as the mainshock and further shocks were reported until January 1845. Damage Damage in the Whanganui area reached IX–X on the Mercalli intensity scale. Many houses were damaged, and a brick church at Putiki was destroyed. There was extensive lateral spreading of the terrace margin to the Whanganui River, and a section of Shakespeare Cliff fell into the river. Two people were killed when their house was swept away by one of the landslides caused by the earthquake. See also 1848 Marlborough earthquake List of earthquakes in New Zealand List of historical earthquakes References Earthquakes in New Zealand History of Manawatū-Whanganui Wanganui 1843 in New Zealand July 1843 events 1843 disasters in New Zealand

21656971

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1909%20Borujerd%20earthquake

1909 Borujerd earthquake

The 1909 Borujerd earthquake also known as Silakhor earthquake occurred in Silakhor plain (in the south of today's Borujerd County), Persia (modern day Iran) on January 23. Around 8,000 fatalities were caused directly from the magnitude 7.3 earthquake. An indefinite number of aftershocks continued for six months after the main shock. The section on this fault ruptured was the same as the main rupture zone of the 2006 Borujerd earthquake. Earthquake Occurring on the local Dorood Fault, the tremor caused of visible surface faulting. Damage Sixty villages within the region were either completely destroyed or damaged beyond repair. Casualties were extensive, occurring in 130 individual villages. However, damage was contained within a area. Eight thousand were killed in this sector along with several thousand animals. Damage was worst within the epicentral area (Silakhor Valley) and surrounding valleys populated by domestic tribes. Signs of ground failure and landslides was evident for another southeast of the epicenter. See also List of earthquakes in 1909 List of earthquakes in Iran References External links M 6.1 - western Iran – United States Geological Survey Darb e Astaneh (Silakhor) Earthquake Report: March 31, 2006; ML=6.1 – IIEES 1909 Borujerd 1909 in Iran Borujerd History of Lorestan Province Borujerd County Borujerd January 1909 events 1909 disasters in Iran

21667375

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1929%20Arthur%27s%20Pass%20earthquake

1929 Arthur's Pass earthquake

The 1929 Arthur's Pass earthquake occurred at on 9 March. The sparsely settled region around Arthur's Pass of the Southern Alps shook for four minutes. Tremors continued almost continuously until midnight and sporadic strong aftershocks were felt for several days. The earthquake was measured at 7.1 on the Richter magnitude scale and the intensity of shaking in the epicentral region has been assessed from historical records as VIII (Severe) on the Modified Mercalli Scale. Intensities of VI (Strong) were observed in Christchurch and Westport. The earthquake occurred on the Poulter Fault, which was not identified and mapped until 2001. Tectonic setting New Zealand lies along the boundary between the Australian and Pacific plates. In the South Island most of the relative displacement between these plates is taken up along a single dextral (right lateral) strike-slip fault with a major reverse component, the Alpine Fault. In the North Island the displacement is mainly taken up along the Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone, although the remaining dextral strike-slip component is accommodated by the North Island Fault System. The Poulter Fault runs for approximately 50 km east-north-east from near the confluence of the Bealey and Mingha rivers to the valley of the South Hurunui River. Between 16 km and 36 km of the fault ruptured, with dextral displacement of up to 4 metres and dip-slip displacement of 1–2 metres (North side up). Effects Numerous landslides were triggered, damaging the Midland Railway and blocking roads. The highway connecting Canterbury and the West Coast via Arthur's Pass was closed for several months. Many water tanks and chimneys were damaged or toppled. Two years after the earthquake, trampers in the Otahake Valley discovered that a 900m high section of the side of a mountain had collapsed, blocking the valley and sending debris 5 km downstream. Although () this is one of the ten largest land-based earthquakes to strike New Zealand since European settlement, it was overshadowed by the more deadly 1929 Murchison earthquake a few months later. See also List of earthquakes in 1929 List of earthquakes in New Zealand References External links Photograph of Falling Mountain landslip – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand 1929 Arthur's Pass Arthurs Pass Earthquake, 1929 New Zealand – Arthur's Pass History of Canterbury, New Zealand

21701790

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930%20Salmas%20earthquake

1930 Salmas earthquake

The 1930 Salmas earthquake occurred on in West Azerbaijan Province, Iran. The earthquake, which was among Iran's largest, measured 7.1 on the moment magnitude scale and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). A damaging foreshock occurred fifteen hours prior to the main event and served as a warning to the people that felt it strongly. Reports from seismologists and seismological organizations indicate that up to 3,000 fatalities may have occurred in northwest Iran and southeast Turkey. Sixty villages (including the large settlement of Dilman, which was relocated and rebuilt as Salmas) were destroyed in the Salmas Plain and in the surrounding mountainous regions. A destructive aftershock sequence affected many villages, and in some cases, damage was inflicted on some that had escaped devastation during the mainshock. An inspection of the region was undertaken, but not until decades later, at which time substantial surface faulting and other ground effects were documented. Preface The epicentral area in the Salmas Plain covers and is positioned northwest of Lake Urmia. This area had been inhabited primarily by Christians for about a thousand years prior to the event (which was one of the largest earthquakes to occur in Iran since 1900). The mountainous areas surrounding the plain are extremely isolated with villages (comprising mainly Kurdish people) that are spread far apart. Montane villagers sustained themselves primarily on wheat and cattle farming. To the west, near the Turkish border, lies Aravil Dagi, a volcano that is the highest peak in the region. Foreshock A relatively strong foreshock occurred at about on May 6 in the same area as the mainshock. This destructive event caused 25 fatalities and was felt as far as northwestern Azerbaijan and southeastern Turkey. Damage to adobe homes was substantial. Roofs and walls collapsed and in some instances whole homes were demolished. Many of the villagers in the valley spent the following night outdoors and were spared during the main event, but in the mountainous villages where the shock was not felt as strongly (Shekar Yazi, Sheydan, Ashnak, Aslanik, and others) the population was not as concerned. Many slept indoors and this led to high casualties in those areas during the mainshock a little more than 15 hours later. Earthquake The earthquake was a result of oblique-slip faulting, and was felt over a very wide area, from Leninakan in Armenia and Tbilisi in Georgia in the north, and Baghdad and Kirkuk in Iraq to the south. Dextral strike-slip motion, along with dip-slip motion (normal faulting, northeast side down) occurred on a fault trending west-northwest. The United States' National Geophysical Data Center lists 1,360 fatalities for the event, while the Belgian Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters' EM-DAT database and both list 2,500. , the USGS' PAGER loss estimate database, and all state 2,514. The Utsu list also acknowledges other estimates of 1,360 and 3,000. Damage Sixty villages and about 40 churches were destroyed in the southwest Salmas Plain and the surrounding mountainous regions. In the zone of heaviest damage (bounded by the villages of Kohneh Shahr, Payajuk and Zaviehjuk) all the homes and all but one of the churches were destroyed. To the east of this area, the large village of Dilman reportedly had 1,100 casualties, but seismologists J. S. Tchalenko and M. Berberian questioned the reliability of this figure. In smaller villages, survivors provided an accurate count of those lost because they remembered the victims by name, but in a village of 18,000, survivors were unable to grasp the extent of the losses. Only two homes remained standing there, and the village was renamed Salmas and moved to a new location to the west. The villages in the mountains to the south, west, and north of the Salmas Plain were generally smaller, and accounted for about half of the total number of villages that were lost. The foreshock was not felt at Borusliqalan (the westernmost village that was destroyed) and the losses were high. The foreshock was also not strongly felt to the east of Lake Urmia (and to the southwest of Tabriz) where the village of Mamaqan was completely destroyed and 85 people were killed. Other nearby villages went almost unscathed, with the differing amounts of damage being attributed to soil type. Ground effects A post-earthquake survey of the land was undertaken by seismologists N. N. Ambraseys and C. P. Melville, but it was not completed until the mid 1970s. At that time, of surface breaks with right-lateral offsets between were located between the villages of Shurgil and Kuhneh Shahr. Substantial vertical movement of the west-northwest trending fault was also seen, with even greater maximum displacements of , but the average vertical slip was about throughout the extent of the observed surface faulting. They estimated that about of visible fault breaks were present immediately following the shocks, but by the time they had completed their survey 45 years later about half of the surface features had succumbed to erosion. Other effects included disturbed stream and spring flow, water table fluctuations, and landslides. Aftershocks A series of strong and damaging aftershocks persisted for about three-and-a-half months. The largest in the sequence came on May 8. The event caused additional destruction to the northeast of the initial meizoseismal area. Qatur, which had been nearly destroyed by the mainshock, took another serious hit. Other villages (Chaliyan, Givaran, Mir 'Umar, and Ravyan) also experienced major destruction. Shekar Yazi was a village in the southeast region that had not been seriously affected by the mainshock, but experienced heavy damage during the May 8 event. This shock resulted in four additional deaths. See also Geography of Iran Hakkâri Iranian plateau List of earthquakes in 1930 List of earthquakes in Iran List of earthquakes in Turkey References Sources External links 1930 Salmas Salmas Earthquake, 1930 Salmas Earthquake, 1930 20th century in Iran History of West Azerbaijan Province May 1930 events 1930 disasters in Turkey 1930 disasters in Iran

21743200

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1751%20Concepci%C3%B3n%20earthquake

1751 Concepción earthquake

The 1751 Concepción earthquake was one of the strongest and most destructive recorded quakes in Chilean history. It struck the Central Valley of the country, destroying the cities of Concepción, Chillán, Cauquenes, Curicó and Talca, probably on May 24, 1751, although there is currently a debate among scholars as to the exact date of the earthquake (see also "Other dates"). Background The city of Concepción had already been hit by several earthquakes. On this occasion the city was still in the process of recovering from the earthquake and tsunami that completely destroyed the city in 1730. Hours before the earthquake, on the night of May 23, there were several tremors. This had caused some Concepción residents, accustomed to earthquakes, to prepare for the worst. Development The disaster was composed of two parts: the earthquake itself, and a series of tsunamis some 10 to 40 minutes later. Earthquake The earthquake began around one o'clock in the morning. According to one chronicle of a resident of Valparaíso and another of a resident of Concepción, the quake lasted about six minutes, although in Valparaíso there was no major damage recorded. During the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami, all of the buildings in the city of Concepción were destroyed. The records indicate that the earthquake was so intense that "the residents could not remain standing." The earthquake was felt in the rest of the Chilean Central Valley, but with less intensity. One of the most affected cities near Concepción was Chillán, where the entire city was destroyed and the river changed its course, ending up nearly 15 blocks from its original location. In Santiago, the tower of the cathedral was destroyed by the tremor, although no other major damage was reported in the rest of the city. Tsunami Between 1:05 and 1:45, the sea receded more than 1 km, and then three to five tsunami waves struck land. The height and force of each wave increased, and the last was the most disastrous. Swells were observed as far away as the port of El Callao in Peru. The tsunami also destroyed the new settlement at the Juan Fernández Islands, where 35 people died, including the first governor, Navarro Santaella, and his wife. Consequences The major consequence of the earthquake was the relocation of the city (14 years after the quake) from its original location, in part as a response by the residents to the successive destructions by the tsunamis of 1730 and 1751. The chosen location (after a long controversy between the civil authorities and the church, headed by Bishop José de Toro y Zambrano Romo) was the Valle de la Mocha, where Concepción presently lies. Despite this, the demonym "penquista" (referring to the original location of the city, at Penco) was kept, and is still used today. Aftershocks The earthquake had enough aftershocks that they prevented any immediate attempts at rebuilding, including the emergency shelters. One of the strongest occurred on June 26, 1751. Approximately half a month later, the aftershocks ceased. Other dates Although the majority of sources and accounts make reference to the early morning of May 25, 1751, as the date of the earthquake, other records indicate that it was on the night of May 24. And although the majority of historians say that the foreshocks of the earthquake occurred on the night of May 23, there exist records that indicate that they happened during the 23rd and 24th, with the earthquake happening on the 25th. See also List of earthquakes in Chile List of historical earthquakes References 1751 Concepcion 18th-century tsunamis 1751 natural disasters 1750s earthquakes Concepción, Chile 1751 disasters in South America

21901199

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%20Tarapac%C3%A1%20earthquake

2005 Tarapacá earthquake

The 2005 Tarapacá earthquake occurred on June 13 at 22:44:33 UTC (18:44:33 local time). Its epicenter was located near Mamiña, in northern Chile about 125 km east-northeast of Iquique, affecting the Tarapacá Region and adjacent parts of Bolivia. It had a magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum felt intensity of VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. Tectonic setting Chile lies above the destructive plate boundary, where the Nazca Plate is being subducted beneath the South American Plate. In the Tarapacá region the plates converge at a rate of 78 mm per year. This boundary is associated with many large earthquakes, both along the plate interface and within the downgoing slab (Nazca Plate). Earthquake The earthquake was an intermediate-depth event, with a hypocentral depth of 115.6 km. The focal mechanism shows that this was a normal fault event, within the subducted Nazca Plate. Finite-fault modelling of the earthquake suggests that the fault plane responsible dips to the west at about 15°. Damage The greatest damage occurred in northern Chile, although parts of southern Peru and western Bolivia were also affected. The earthquake triggered many landslides, blocking roads and hindering relief efforts. 550 houses were completely destroyed, with at least a further 9,350 damaged. Adobe houses on the plateau in the Andes were particularly badly affected, with more than 80% destroyed in some villages. 11 people were killed and at least a further 200 injured. Aftermath Initial efforts concentrated on repairing infrastructure affected by the earthquake. By June 2006 the government reported that most of the repairs to roads and irrigation canals was complete, but that, although work had started on repairing houses and schools, more needed to be done. The effects of this earthquake on pregnant women were used to investigate the effects of acute stress on child development. The results showed that amongst poorer families, children affected by the earthquake in utero were at least six months behind in cognitive development seven years later compared to their peers in a control group in areas unaffected by the earthquake. See also 2007 Tocopilla earthquake 2007 Aysen Fjord earthquake 2007 Peru earthquake Great Chilean earthquake List of earthquakes in Chile List of earthquakes in Peru References External links Tarapaca 2005 Tarapacá Tarapaca History of Tarapacá Region Tarapacá earthquake Taracapa earthquake