 "For-profit publishers have higher cost-profiles than not-for-profit associations, because of the additional functions that they perform, in particular their much greater investment in branding, customer relationship management and content protection. The difference is particularly marked in the case of eJournals  -  a computed per-article cost of US$0,000 compared with US$000. This point is sufficiently significant that further examination is warranted....[I]t would appear that open access journal publishing is achievable through not-for-profit channels far more cheaply and efficiently than through for-profit organisations....But the primary beneficiaries of these features [higher-quality branding, more active marketing, more aggressive customer management, and content protection] are the publisher and its owners [not authors or readers]." Also see the summary of Clarke's findings by Lee C. Van and Kathleen Born in their [http://web.archive.org/web/00000000000000/http://www.libraryjournal.com/index.asp?layout=articlePrint&articleID=CA0000000 Periodicals Price Survey 0000], ''Library Journal'', April 00, 0000: "Commercial publishers have a hard time realizing the economies because they are locked into expensive practices that offset them, including higher quality branding and marketing, more aggressive customer management, and costly content protection systems. Taking those added costs into account, it takes a commercial publisher about $0000 to produce an article for an e-journal, while a nonprofit publisher could produce the equivalent article for about $000. The study suggests that it is easier for the nonprofit association to flip its business model to OA than it is for the large commercial publisher." 