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[ "Lung volume decreases in the upright position due to cranial displacement of the abdomen due to hydrostatic pressure, and resistance to air flow in the airways increases significantly because of the decrease in lung volume.\n\nHydrostatic pressure differences between the interior of the lung and the breathing gas delivery, increased breathing gas density due to ambient pressure, and increased flow resistance due to higher breathing rates may all cause increased work of breathing and fatigue of the respiratory muscles.\n", "In weight training, as with most forms of exercise, there is a tendency for the breathing pattern to deepen. This helps to meet increased oxygen requirements. Holding the breath or breathing shallowly is avoided because it may lead to a lack of oxygen, passing out, or an excessive build up of blood pressure. Generally, the recommended breathing technique is to inhale when lowering the weight (the eccentric portion) and exhale when lifting the weight (the concentric portion). However, the reverse, inhaling when lifting and exhaling when lowering, may also be recommended. Some researchers state that there is little difference between the two techniques in terms of their influence on heart rate and blood pressure. It may also be recommended that a weight lifter simply breathes in a manner which feels appropriate.\n", "There appears to be a connection between pulmonary edema and increased pulmonary blood flow and pressure which results in capillary engorgement. This may occur during higher intensity exercise while immersed or submersed.\n\nFacial immersion at the time of initiating breath-hold is a necessary factor for maximising the mammalian diving reflex in humans.\n\nSection::::Physiological response.:Thermal balance responses.\n", "Deep breathing may be specifically recommended for the lifting of heavy weights because it helps to generate intra-abdominal pressure which can help to strengthen the posture of the lifter, and especially their core.\n", "Section::::Rate and depth of breathing.\n\nEarly physiologists believed the reflex plays a major role in establishing the rate and depth of breathing in humans. While this may be true for most animals, it is not the case for most adult humans at rest. However, the reflex may determine breathing rate and depth in newborns and in adult humans when tidal volume is more than 1 L, as when exercising.\n\nSection::::Hering–Breuer deflation reflex.\n", "During exercise a person breathes deeper in order to meet higher oxygen requirements. This adoption of a deeper breathing pattern also serves a secondary function of strengthening the core of the body. This strengthening effect occurs because the thoracic diaphragm adopts a lower position than it does than when at rest; this generates increased intra-abdominal pressure which helps to strengthen the lumbar spine and the core of the body overall. For this reason, taking a deep breath, or adopting a deeper breathing pattern, is a fundamental requirement when lifting heavy weights.\n\nSection::::Related physiological processes.:Post-activation potentiation (PAP).\n", "The Valsalva maneuver is commonly believed to be the optimal breathing pattern for producing maximal force and is frequently used in powerlifting to stabilize the trunk during exercises such as the squat, deadlift, and bench press, and in both lifts of Olympic weightlifting. Additionally, competitive strongman often uses the Valsalva maneuver in things such as log press, yoke walks, and stone loading, as well as any other strongman movements. \n\nSection::::Heart.\n", "Section::::Physiological response.:Circulatory responses.:Arrhythmias.\n", "Automatic breathing can be overridden to a limited extent by simple choice, or to facilitate swimming, speech, singing or other vocal training. It is impossible to suppress the urge to breathe to the point of hypoxia but training can increase the ability to breath-hold; for example, in February 2016, a Spanish, professional freediver broke the world record for holding the breath underwater at just over 24 minutes.\n", "Cardiac arrhythmias are a common characteristic of the human diving response. As part of the diving reflex, increased activity of the cardiac parasympathetic nervous system not only regulates the bradycardia, but also is associated with ectopic beats which are characteristic of human heart function during breath-hold dives. Arrhythmias may be accentuated by neural responses to face immersion in cold water, distension of the heart due to central blood shift, and the increasing resistance to left ventricular ejection (afterload) by rising blood pressure. Arrhythmias commonly measured in the electrocardiogram during human breath-hold dives include ST depression, heightened T wave, and a positive U wave following the QRS complex, measurements associated with reduced left ventricular contractility and overall depressed cardiac function during a dive.\n", "Section::::Neural control.\n\nRespiratory adaptation begins almost immediately after the initiation of the physical stress associated with exercise. This triggers signals from the motor cortex that stimulate the respiratory center of the brain stem, in conjunction with feedback from the proprioreceptors in the muscles and joints of the active limbs.\n\nSection::::Breathing rate.\n\nWith higher intensity training, breathing rate is increased in order to allow more air to move in and out of the lungs, which enhances gas exchange. Endurance training typically results in an increase in the respiration rate.\n\nSection::::Lung capacity.\n", "The diving reflex is exhibited strongly in aquatic mammals, such as seals, otters, dolphins, and muskrats, and exists as a lesser response in other animals, including adult humans, babies up to 6 months old (see Infant swimming), and diving birds, such as ducks and penguins.\n", "Section::::Physiological response.\n", "The diving response in animals, such as the dolphin, varies considerably depending on level of exertion during foraging. Children tend to survive longer than adults when deprived of oxygen underwater. The exact mechanism for this effect has been debated and may be a result of brain cooling similar to the protective effects seen in people treated with deep hypothermia.\n\nSection::::Physiological response.:Carotid body chemoreceptors.\n", "Bradycardia is the response to facial contact with cold water: the human heart rate slows down ten to twenty-five percent. Seals experience changes that are even more dramatic, going from about 125 beats per minute to as low as 10 on an extended dive. During breath-holding, humans also display reduced left ventricular contractility and diminished cardiac output, effects that may be more severe during submersion due to hydrostatic pressure.\n", "During sustained breath-holding while submerged, blood oxygen levels decline while carbon dioxide and acidity levels rise, stimuli that collectively act upon chemoreceptors located in the bilateral carotid bodies. As sensory organs, the carotid bodies convey the chemical status of the circulating blood to brain centers regulating neural outputs to the heart and circulation. Preliminary evidence in ducks and humans indicates that the carotid bodies are essential for these integrated cardiovascular responses of the diving response, establishing a \"chemoreflex\" characterized by parasympathetic (slowing) effects on the heart and sympathetic (vasoconstrictor) effects on the vascular system.\n\nSection::::Physiological response.:Circulatory responses.\n", "Breathing is important in the Pilates method. In \"Return to Life\", Pilates devotes a section of his introduction specifically to breathing \"bodily house-cleaning with blood circulation\". He saw considerable value in increasing the intake of oxygen and the circulation of this oxygenated blood to every part of the body. This he saw as cleansing and invigorating. Proper full inhalation and complete exhalation were key to this. He advised people to squeeze out the lungs as they would wring a wet towel dry. In Pilates exercises, the practitioner breathes out with the effort and in on the return. In order to keep the lower abdominals close to the spine; the breathing needs to be directed laterally, into the lower rib cage. Pilates breathing is described as a posterior lateral breathing, meaning that the practitioner is instructed to breathe deep into the back and sides of his or her rib cage. When practitioners exhale, they are instructed to note the engagement of their deep abdominal and pelvic floor muscles and maintain this engagement as they inhale. Pilates attempts to properly coordinate this breathing practice with movement.\n", "A lunge can be performed using bodyweight alone. However, weight trainers may seek to increase the difficulty using either dumbbells or kettlebells held in each hand, or a barbell held atop the neck and shoulders. Grip strength may be an issue with the dumbbell lunge so practitioners may prefer the barbell lunge.\n\nAs a variation, plyometric lunges (also known as split squat jumps) can be performed by jumping explosively between lunge positions.\n", "The key to real core stabilization is to maintain the increased IAP while going through normal breathing cycles. […] The diaphragm then performs its breathing function at a lower position to facilitate a higher IAP.\n\nTherefore, if a person's diaphragm position is lower in general, through deep breathing, then this assists the strengthening of their core during that period. This can be an aid in strength training and other forms of athletic endeavour. For this reason, taking a deep breath or adopting a deeper breathing pattern is typically recommended when lifting heavy weights.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n", "assumes that both time and an adequate supply of breathing gas are available, and though this is often true, some situations require immediate learned responses which must be habituated by education, training and repetitive practice to overcome inappropriate instinctive and natural reflexive responses. For example, a diver should exhale whenever ascending to prevent lung overexpansion injuries, and if the diver is subject to a collision or sudden upwelling underwater, the natural reaction may be to tense up and hold his breath, particularly if the breathing gas supply is interrupted at the same time. This reaction could prove fatal if the diver is lifted sufficiently to cause lung overexpansion. Only through education training and practice, and perhaps proper selection, will the diver reflexively exhale as a response to a pressure reduction.\n", "2. Those who think that the major part of the respiratory changes result from the detection of muscle contraction, and that respiration is adapted as a consequence of muscular contraction and oxygen consumption. This would imply that the brain possesses some kind of detection mechanisms that would trigger a respiratory response when muscular contraction occurs.\n\nMany now agree that both mechanisms are probably present and complementary, or working alongside a mechanism that can detect changes in oxygen and/or carbon dioxide blood saturation.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Anaerobic respiration\n\nBULLET::::- Cellular respiration\n\nBULLET::::- Control of respiration\n\nBULLET::::- Ecosystem respiration\n\nBULLET::::- Maintenance respiration\n", "Aquatic mammals seldom dive beyond their aerobic diving limit, which is related to the myoglobin oxygen stored. The muscle mass of aquatic mammals is relatively large, so the high myoglobin content of their skeletal muscles provides a large reserve. Myoglobin-bound oxygen is only released in relatively hypoxic muscle tissue, so the peripheral vasoconstriction due to the diving reflex makes the muscles ischaemic and promotes early use of myoglobin bound oxygen.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nThe diving bradycardia was first described by Edmund Goodwyn in 1786 and later by Paul Bert in 1870.\n", "The neurological pathway of voluntary exhalation is complex and not fully understood. However, a few basics are known. The motor cortex within the cerebral cortex of the brain is known to control voluntary respiration because the motor cortex controls voluntary muscle movement. This is referred to as the corticospinal pathway or ascending respiratory pathway. The pathway of the electrical signal starts in the motor cortex, goes to the spinal cord, and then to the respiratory muscles. The spinal neurons connect directly to the respiratory muscles. Initiation of voluntary contraction and relaxation of the internal and external internal costals has been shown to take place in the superior portion of the primary motor cortex. Posterior to the location of thoracic control (within the superior portion of the primary motor cortex) is the center for diaphragm control. Studies indicate that there are numerous other sites within the brain that may be associated with voluntary expiration. The inferior portion of the primary motor cortex may be involved, specifically, in controlled exhalation. Activity has also been seen within the supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex during voluntary respiration. This is most likely due to the focus and mental preparation of the voluntary muscular movement.\n", "BULLET::::2. Those who think that the major part of the respiratory changes result from the detection of muscle contraction, and that respiration is adapted as a consequence of muscular contraction and oxygen consumption. This would imply that the brain possesses some kind of detection mechanisms that would trigger a respiratory response when muscular contraction occurs.\n\nMany now agree that both mechanisms are probably present and complementary, or working alongside a mechanism that can detect changes in oxygen and/or carbon dioxide blood saturation.\n\nSection::::Respiration.:Bony fish.\n", "Since the middle of the 2000s, a series of studies has been conducted by French researchers of Paris 13 University to propose a new approach to hypoventilation training. Dr Xavier Woorons and his team hypothesized that if breath holdings were carried out with the lungs half-full of air, rather than full of air as performed so far, it would be possible to significantly reduce body oxygenation. The results that were published confirmed the hypotheses. They demonstrated that through hypoventilation at low lung volume, that is the exhale-hold technique, it was possible, without leaving sea level, to decrease O concentrations in the blood and in the muscles at levels corresponding to altitudes above 2000 m.\n" ]

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[ "In Guatemala, Bilheimer facilitated the arrest of trafficker Ortiz by renting a car for the police to use, in order to film the arrest as part of \"Not My Life\". Bilheimer said that, during the making of the film, he and his crew were surprised to discover that traffickers employ similar methods of intimidation across the globe, \"almost as if there were ... unwritten bylaws and tactics ... The lies are the same.\"\n\nSection::::Production.:Editing.\n", "The film was funded by the Sundance Documentary Film Program, the San Francisco Foundation, the Lynn and Jules Kroll Fund for Jewish Documentary Film at the Foundation for Jewish Culture, the Pacific Pioneer Fund, the Bay Area Video Coalition, the Women in Film Foundation Film Finishing Fund supported by Netflix, the Jewish Federation of the Greater East Bay, and Jewish Family and Children's Services of San Francisco.\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "BULLET::::- February 26, 2016, Simms spoke to host Sheila Coles on CBC's Morning Edition talking about his experience with racism in Canada.\n\nSection::::Broadcast.\n\nSimms spent 10 months as a cameraman and associate producer documenting the lives of gang-involved youth from Jane and Finch for CBC's the fifth estate in the Gemini Award-nominated Lost in the Struggle. The film featured Vietnamese-Canadian rapper, Chuckie Akenz.\n\nBULLET::::- Lost in the Struggle: The Next Chapter (associate producer) (CBC Television, \"the fifth estate\", 2012)\n\nBULLET::::- If Justice Fails (actor) (CBC Television, the fifth estate, 2007)\n", "The film began as a project written and directed by Sam Fuller, \"Riata\", starring Richard Harris and Bo Hopkins. Production was halted during filming and then reassembled with a new director and cast; the only one of the original cast to return was Harris.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Drinking and Driving Wrecks Lives\": A series of 1980s–1990s PIFs targeting drink-driving offenders. An equally well-known and successful road safety campaign was \"Clunk Click Every Trip\", fronted initially by Shaw Taylor and later by Jimmy Savile.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Amber Gambler\": A film about the dangers of racing through amber traffic lights before they turn to red.\n", "In 2005, O’Sullivan worked as an Associate Producer on a series of motorsports documentaries featuring the likes of Travis Pastrana (star of MTV's \"Nitro Circus\"), Nate Adams, and Andy Bell. The films—entitled \"The Enduro at Erzberg\", \"Freestyle Prague\", and \"Travis Pastrana's Baja Diaries\"—aired on the network now known as NBCSN in 2006.\n", "Development of The Hidden Persuaders began when director Wayne Dudley was still studying at Abertay University. The Hidden Persuaders was filmed during the summer of 2010. The Hidden Persuaders was first screened 7 January 2011 in Dundee, Scotland then screened at New York's Big Mini-DV Festival in the United States, where it won the award for Best Experimental Film.\n\nThe film was written, produced, directed and edited by Wayne Dudley and was filmed entirely in Dundee.\n", "On August 26, 2014, at roughly 9:20 p.m., a \"Cops\" crew was recording in Omaha, Nebraska, with the Omaha Police Department, during their final week working in Omaha since arriving in June. A police officer pulled up to a Wendy's restaurant during an armed robbery and called for backup. One of the other responding officers had a \"Cops\" crew (consisting of an unnamed cameraman and audio technician Bryce Dion) present in their cruiser. The crew began recording the robbery inside Wendy's.\n", "The Crime Stoppers program began in the 1970s as an innovation to solve a crime that was committed with no witnesses and few leads for police investigators. The main goal is to produce televised re-enactments, offer rewards and promises of anonymity for information leading to an arrest. Detective Greg MacAleese was investigating the murder of a gas station attendant, Michael Carmen, in Albuquerque, New Mexico in 1976 when he came up with the idea.. At the time, Albuquerque had one of the highest per capita crime rates in the US. Its crime rate has since improved.\n\nSection::::Crime Stoppers in Canada.\n", "Getaway in Stockholm\n\nGetaway in Stockholm is a Swedish film series about illegal street racing filmed using mainly car mounted cameras along with some cameramen alongside the route. The videos are all shot in the streets of Stockholm, Sweden and have developed a worldwide underground cult reputation in the street racing scene.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "BULLET::::- Raymond Postgate's \"Verdict of Twelve\" (1940) is a mystery novel that draws on the author's socialist beliefs to set crime, detection and punishment within a broader social and economic context.\n\nBULLET::::- Budd Schulberg's \"What Makes Sammy Run?\" (1941) looks behind the scenes of the film industry and of individual people working in that business in Hollywood rather than England.\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Elton's \"Dead Famous\" (2001) is another example of a story where a murder is captured on film while the identity of the perpetrator remains in the dark, here in a late 20th-century \"Big Brother\"-type reality television setting.\n", "It was conceived when co-director Scott Christopherson, an assistant film professor at St. Edward's University in Austin, Texas, met retired police officer William \"Dub\" Lawrence at a baseball game and was invited to visit his hangar where he carried out his private investigations into incidents in which people were killed by police. Lawrence, the central figure in the documentary, founded Davis County, Utah's SWAT team, the first in the state, in the 1970s as a sheriff. He was motivated to begin investigating police killings after the same SWAT team he founded killed his son-in-law, Brian Wood, during a 2008 standoff.\n", "During 2007 and early 2008 Blair made \"Ochberg's Orphans\" for Rainmaker Films, about the 1921 expedition of one Isaac Ochberg who saved nearly 200 orphans from the wreckage of post-revolutionary Russia. The film was shortlisted for an Oscar for Short Documentary.\n\nIn August 2007 Blair completed \"Murder Most Foul\" a 75-minute feature documentary for More 4 about crime in South Africa with the ex-South African Shakespearean actor, Sir Antony Sher.\n", "BULLET::::- Drones in Forbidden Zones\n\nBULLET::::- Circus Girls\n\nBULLET::::- WTF is Cosplay?\n\nBULLET::::- Body Mods\n\nBULLET::::- L.A. Vice\n\nBULLET::::- Naked & Invisible, with double world body painting champion Carolyn Roper\n\nBULLET::::- Young & Minted: I Won the Lottery\n\nAdam Gee's other documentary commissions/productions include:\n\nBULLET::::- Vanished: The Surrey Schoolgirl - with Martin Bright\n\nBULLET::::- Sorry I Shot You - with Stana, about restorative justice\n\nBULLET::::- Social Media Addicts Anonymous\n\nBULLET::::- Travelling on Trash, about plastic pollution in the Mississippi river\n\nBULLET::::- Absent from our Own Wedding, about proxy marriage in Montana\n", "Section::::Filmography.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Saturday Night in Babylon\" (1983) — A look at reggae music and culture through the eyes of Jamaican migrant workers, originally broadcast in 1983 on the television series \"Vandalia Sampler\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Appalachian Junkumentary\" (1987) — In which Appalachian junkyard owners explain their business, their hopes and their dreams. Originally broadcast on the PBS television series \"Different Drummer\".\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hammer on the Slammer\" (1987) — The tale of Donald Bordenkircher, who reestablished several West Virginia state prisons that were operating on the verge of disaster. Originally broadcast on the PBS television series \"Different Drummer\".\n", "John Doe (Jamie Bamber) is an ordinary man who decides to take the law into his own hands after the unsolved murder of his wife and daughter. John Doe then exacts his justice by killing one criminal at a time, filming the process and sending it to the media. However, the mainstream media edits the films, showing only the \"killing process\" but not the reason. John Doe then gives the films to a smaller media outfit who then shows the entire films on the internet. Some sections of the public who support what he does.\n", "A South African filmmaker convinces a film crew to help him make a documentary about a 13-year-old assassin in the South African Cape Flats. Following the 13-year-old hitman (a \"bokkie\") as he goes about his daily business, the audience gains unique insight into the lives of people living on the Cape Flats, living under conditions of poverty and violence, and the gangster culture that is prevalent there.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wild Costa Rica (2015)\" - Wildlife documentary for Animal Planet; Produced by Warehouse 51 Productions; Producer/Director Ian Marsh\n\nBULLET::::- \"Return of the Giant Killers: Africa's Lion Kings (2015)\" - Wildlife documentary for BBC Natural World; Produced by Icon Films; Producer/ Director Steve Gooder\n\nBULLET::::- \"Timeshift: Castles - Britain's Fortified History (2014)\" for BBC4; Producer/Director Ben Southwell\n\nBULLET::::- \"Africa's Fishing Leopards (2014)\" - Wildlife documentary for BBC Natural World. Produced by \"Icon Films\". Producer/ Director Steve Gooder\n", "BULLET::::- Edward Woodward as Tom Weaver, a professor who represents the Neighborhood Watch Alliance and looks over the town with a number of surveillance cameras\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Bailey as Sergeant Turner, both twin-brother desk sergeants at Sandford\n\nBULLET::::- David Bradley as Arthur Webley, a farmer at Sandford who has a huge stockpile of weapons and a sea mine\n\nBULLET::::- Adam Buxton as Tim Messenger, journalist at the \"Sandford Citizen\"\n\nBULLET::::- Olivia Colman as Doris Thatcher, the sole female police officer at Sandford\n\nBULLET::::- Ron Cook as George Merchant, a land developer who has a large mansion at Sandford\n", "BULLET::::- \"Wirriya: Small Boy\" (2004, documentary, co-cinematographer, directed by Beck Cole)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Five Seasons\" (2005, documentary, directed by Steven McGregor)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Lore of Love\" (2005, documentary, directed by Beck Cole)\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Brother Vinnie\" (2006, documentary, directed by Steven McGregor)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plains Empty \" (2006, short film, directed by Beck Cole)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Green Bush\" (2006, short film, directed by Warwick Thornton)\n\nBULLET::::- \" First Australians\" (2006, television series, directed by Beck Cole & Rachel Perkins)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Samson & Delilah\" ( 2009, Feature Film, directed by Warwick Thornton)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Here I Am\" ( 2011, Feature Film, directed by Beck Cole)\n", "Potash produced \"Crime After Crime\" over a five and a half year span, gaining unprecedented access to film in a maximum-security California prison, despite strict rules that barred members of the media from filming interviews with specific inmates. The filmmaker managed to bring his cameras into the prison by becoming the \"legal videographer\" for Debbie Peagler, and by producing an entirely separate documentary about the rehabilitative and employment programs available to inmates at the prison. Potash wrote about these activities and his motivations for making the film in articles published by \"The Wall Street Journal\" and \"TheWrap\".\n", "BULLET::::- Middlesbrough – its docks were used in \"Chip Cobbs\" scenes, others scenes were shot on the Transporter Bridge and the Riverside Stadium. frequently used in other scenes.\n", "In some footage, a number of men claiming to be drug dealers address the camera, and threaten violence against anyone who reports what they know about their crimes to the authorities. This threat is directed especially towards those who inform on others to get a lighter sentence for their own crimes. NBA star Carmelo Anthony briefly appeared in the video. In subsequent interviews, Anthony claimed that his appearance in the video was a joke, the product of his neighborhood friends making a home movie. Anthony claims that the film's message should not be taken seriously.\n", "Carcasses (film)\n\nCarcasses is a Canadian docufiction film, directed by Denis Côté and released in 2009. Blending documentary and fictionalized elements, the film is a portrait of Jean-Paul Colmor, a real-life man who runs a scrapyard of old broken-down cars, with a cast consisting almost entirely of non-professional actors. \n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Dee as Steve Rawlings\n\nBULLET::::- Kerry Godliman as Nicky Rawlings\n\nBULLET::::- Miles Jupp as Matt\n\nBULLET::::- Manjinder Virk as Meena\n\nBULLET::::- Seann Walsh as Grizzo\n\nBULLET::::- Philip Jackson as Ken\n\nBULLET::::- Sue Vincent as Shannon\n\nSection::::Filming.\n\nLocation filming took place within the North York Moors National Park in spring 2017. Although seemingly part of the same village, scenes were shot at different places that are in fact several miles apart. \n" ]

[ "It's not possible or legal to film criminals doing illegal things. " ]

[ "It is not necessary to report a crime. The documentaries just ask the criminals if they would like to be in a documentary. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It's not possible or legal to film criminals doing illegal things. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is not necessary to report a crime. The documentaries just ask the criminals if they would like to be in a documentary. " ]

[ "Intensive weight training causes micro-tears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as microtrauma. These micro-tears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). It is the repair of these micro-traumas that results in muscle growth. Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout. However, as muscles become adapted to the exercises, soreness tends to decrease.\n", "The first bout does not need to be as intense as the subsequent bouts in order to confer at least some protection against soreness. For instance, eccentric exercise performed at 40% of maximal strength has been shown to confer a protection of 20 to 60% from muscle damage incurred by a 100% strength exercise two to three weeks later. Also, the repeated-bout effect appears even after a relatively small number of contractions, possibly as few as two. In one study, a first bout of 10, 20 or 50 contractions provided equal protection for a second bout of 50 contractions three weeks later.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Repeated-bout effect.\n\nAfter performing an unaccustomed eccentric exercise and exhibiting severe soreness, the muscle rapidly adapts to reduce further damage from the same exercise. This is called the \"repeated-bout effect\".\n\nAs a result of this effect, not only is the soreness reduced, but other indicators of muscle damage, such as swelling, reduced strength and reduced range of motion, are also more quickly recovered from. The effect is mostly, but not wholly, specific to the exercised muscle: experiments have shown that some of the protective effect is also conferred on other muscles.\n", "Acute inflammation of the muscle cells, as understood in exercise physiology, can result after induced eccentric and concentric muscle training. Participation in eccentric training and conditioning, including resistance training and activities that emphasize eccentric lengthening of the muscle including downhill running on a moderate to high incline can result in considerable soreness within 24 to 48 hours, even though blood lactate levels, previously thought to cause muscle soreness, were much higher with level running. This delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) results from structural damage to the contractile filaments and z-disks, which has been noted especially in marathon runners whose muscle fibers revealed remarkable damage to the muscle fibers after both training and marathon competition . The onset and timing of this gradient damage to the muscle parallels the degree of muscle soreness experienced by the runners.\n", "Delayed onset muscle soreness is one symptom of exercise-induced muscle damage. The other is acute muscle soreness, which appears during and immediately after exercise.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nThe soreness is perceived as a dull, aching pain in the affected muscle, often combined with tenderness and stiffness. The pain is typically felt only when the muscle is stretched, contracted or put under pressure, not when it is at rest. This tenderness, a characteristic symptom of DOMS, is also referred to as \"muscular mechanical hyperalgesia\".\n", "The mechanism of delayed onset muscle soreness is not completely understood, but the pain is ultimately thought to be a result of microtrauma – mechanical damage at a very small scale – to the muscles being exercised.\n", "The magnitude of the effect is subject to many variations, depending for instance on the time between bouts, the number and length of eccentric contractions and the exercise mode. It also varies between people and between indicators of muscle damage. Generally, though, the protective effect lasts for at least several weeks. It seems to gradually decrease as time between bouts increases, and is undetectable after about one year.\n", "Section::::Exercise-induced muscle pain.\n\nPhysical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle soreness. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers.\n\nMuscle pain can range from a mild soreness to a debilitating injury depending on intensity of exercise, level of training, and other factors.\n\nThere is some preliminary evidence to suggest that moderate intensity continuous training has the ability to increase someones pain threshold.\n", "For extremely powerful contractions that are close to the upper limit of a muscle's ability to generate force, neuromuscular fatigue can become a limiting factor in untrained individuals. In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve’s ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After an extended period of maximum contraction, the nerve’s signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply ‘stop listening’ and gradually cease to move, often lengthening. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout. Part of the process of strength training is increasing the nerve's ability to generate sustained, high frequency signals which allow a muscle to contract with their greatest force. It is this \"neural training\" that causes several weeks worth of rapid gains in strength, which level off once the nerve is generating maximum contractions and the muscle reaches its physiological limit. Past this point, training effects increase muscular strength through myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic fatigue becomes the factor limiting contractile force.\n", "Section::::Mechanism.:Relation to other effects.\n\nAlthough delayed onset muscle soreness is a symptom associated with muscle damage, its magnitude does not necessarily reflect the magnitude of muscle damage.\n\nSoreness is one of the temporary changes caused in muscles by unaccustomed eccentric exercise. Other such changes include decreased muscle strength, reduced range of motion, and muscle swelling. It has been shown, however, that these changes develop independently in time from one another and that the soreness is therefore not the cause of the reduction in muscle function.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.:Possible function as a warning sign.\n", "Discomfort can arise from other factors. Individuals who perform large numbers of repetitions, sets, and exercises for each muscle group may experience a burning sensation in their muscles. These individuals may also experience a swelling sensation in their muscles from increased blood flow also known as edema (the \"pump\"). True muscle fatigue is experienced as loss of power in muscles due to a lack of ATP, the energy used by our body, or a marked and uncontrollable loss of strength in a muscle, arising from the nervous system (motor unit) rather than from the muscle fibers themselves. Extreme neural fatigue can be experienced as temporary muscle failure. Some weight training programs, such as Metabolic Resistance Training, actively seek temporary muscle failure; evidence to support this type of training is mixed at best. Irrespective of their program, however, most athletes engaged in high-intensity weight training will experience muscle failure during their regimens.\n", "Although there is variance among exercises and individuals, the soreness usually increases in intensity in the first 24 hours after exercise. It peaks from 24 to 72 hours, then subsides and disappears up to seven days after exercise.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n\nThe muscle soreness is caused by eccentric exercise, that is, exercise consisting of eccentric (lengthening) contractions of the muscle. Isometric (static) exercise causes much less soreness, and concentric (shortening) exercise causes none.\n\nSection::::Mechanism.\n", "Counterintuitively, continued exercise may temporarily suppress the soreness. Exercise increases pain thresholds and pain tolerance. This effect, called exercise-induced analgesia, is known to occur in endurance training (running, cycling, swimming), but little is known about whether it also occurs in resistance training. There are claims in the literature that exercising sore muscles appears to be the best way to reduce or eliminate the soreness, but this has not yet been systematically investigated.\n", "Cortisol decreases amino acid uptake by muscle tissue, and inhibits protein synthesis. The short-term increase in protein synthesis that occurs subsequent to resistance training returns to normal after approximately 28 hours in adequately fed male youths. Another study determined that muscle protein synthesis was elevated even 72 hours following training.\n", "Soreness might conceivably serve as a warning to reduce muscle activity to prevent injury or further injury. With delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) caused by eccentric exercise (muscle lengthening), it was observed that light concentric exercise (muscle shortening) during DOMS can cause initially more pain but was followed by a temporary alleviation of soreness – with no adverse effects on muscle function or recovery being observed. Furthermore eccentric exercise during DOMS was found to not exacerbate muscle damage, nor did it have an adverse effect on recovery – considering this, soreness is not necessarily a warning sign to reduce the usage of the affected muscle. However it was observed that a second bout of eccentric exercise within one week of the initial exercise did lead to decreased muscle function immediately afterwards.\n", "Delayed onset muscle soreness\n\nDelayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is the pain and stiffness felt in muscles several hours to days after unaccustomed or strenuous exercise.\n\nThe soreness is felt most strongly 24 to 72 hours after the exercise. It is thought to be caused by eccentric (lengthening) exercise, which causes small-scale damage (microtrauma) to the muscle fibers. After such exercise, the muscle adapts rapidly to prevent muscle damage, and thereby soreness, if the exercise is repeated.\n", "For extremely powerful contractions that are close to the upper limit of a muscle's ability to generate force, neuromuscular fatigue can become a limiting factor in untrained individuals. In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve’s ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After an extended period of maximum contraction, the nerve’s signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply ‘stop listening’ and gradually cease to move, often lengthening. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout. Part of the process of strength training is increasing the nerve's ability to generate sustained, high frequency signals which allow a muscle to contract with their greatest force. It is this \"neural training\" that causes several weeks worth of rapid gains in strength, which level off once the nerve is generating maximum contractions and the muscle reaches its physiological limit. Past this point, training effects increase muscular strength through myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic hypertrophy and metabolic fatigue becomes the factor limiting contractile force.\n", "The reason for the protective effect is not yet understood. A number of possible mechanisms, which may complement one another, have been proposed. These include neural adaptations (improved use and control of the muscle by the nervous system), mechanical adaptations (increased muscle stiffness or muscle support tissue), and cellular adaptations (adaptation to inflammatory response and increased protein synthesis, among others).\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Beginners are advised to build up slowly to a weight training program. Untrained individuals may have some muscles that are comparatively stronger than others; nevertheless, an injury can result if (in a particular exercise) the primary muscle is stronger than its stabilizing muscles. Building up slowly allows muscles time to develop appropriate strengths relative to each other. This can also help to minimize delayed onset muscle soreness. A sudden start to an intense program can cause significant muscular soreness. Unexercised muscles contain cross-linkages that are torn during intense exercise. A regimen of flexibility exercises should be implemented before and after workouts. Since weight training puts great strain on the muscles, it is necessary to warm-up properly. Kinetic stretching before a workout and static stretching after are a key part of flexibility and injury prevention.\n", "DOMS was first described in 1902 by Theodore Hough, who concluded that this kind of soreness is \"fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle\". According to this \"muscle damage\" theory of DOMS, these ruptures are microscopic lesions at the Z-line of the muscle sarcomere. The soreness has been attributed to the increased tension force and muscle lengthening from eccentric exercise. This may cause the actin and myosin cross-bridges to separate prior to relaxation, ultimately causing greater tension on the remaining active motor units. This increases the risk of broadening, smearing, and damage to the sarcomere. When microtrauma occurs to these structures, nociceptors (pain receptors) within the muscle's connective tissues are stimulated and cause a sensation of pain.\n", "In novice strength trainers, the muscle's ability to generate force is most strongly limited by nerve’s ability to sustain a high-frequency signal. After a period of maximum contraction, the nerve’s signal reduces in frequency and the force generated by the contraction diminishes. There is no sensation of pain or discomfort, the muscle appears to simply ‘stop listening’ and gradually cease to move, often going backwards. As there is insufficient stress on the muscles and tendons, there will often be no delayed onset muscle soreness following the workout.\n", "Eccentric training is often associated with the terms \"muscles soreness\" and \"muscle damage\". In 1902, Theodore Hough discovered and developed the term DOMS (delayed onset muscle soreness), after he found that exercises containing negative repetitions caused athletes to have sore muscles. Hough believed this was causing a rupture within the muscle; when he looked further into the subject, he found that when performing eccentric exercise that exhibited soreness, the muscle \"quickly adapts and becomes accustomed to the increase in applied stress\". The result of this was that the muscles' soreness not only decreased, but the muscular damage did too.\n", "Delayed onset muscle soreness can be reduced or prevented by gradually increasing the intensity of a new exercise program, thereby taking advantage of the repeated-bout effect. Soreness can theoretically be avoided by limiting exercise to concentric and isometric contractions. But eccentric contractions in some muscles are normally unavoidable during exercise, especially when muscles are fatigued. Limiting the length of eccentric muscle extensions during exercise may afford some protection against soreness, but this may also not be practical depending on the mode of exercise. Static stretching or warming up the muscles before or after exercise does not prevent soreness.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n", "An earlier theory posited that DOMS is connected to the build-up of lactic acid in the blood, which was thought to continue being produced following exercise. This build-up of lactic acid was thought to be a toxic metabolic waste product that caused the perception of pain at a delayed stage. This theory has been largely rejected, as concentric contractions which also produce lactic acid have been unable to cause DOMS. Additionally, lactic acid is known from multiple studies to return to normal levels within one hour of exercise, and therefore cannot cause the pain that occurs much later.\n", "Microtrauma, which is tiny damage to the fibers, may play a significant role in muscle growth. When microtrauma occurs (from weight training or other strenuous activities), the body responds by overcompensating, replacing the damaged tissue and adding more, so that the risk of repeat damage is reduced. Damage to these fibers has been theorized as the possible cause for the symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and is why progressive overload is essential to continued improvement, as the body adapts and becomes more resistant to stress. However, work examining the time course of changes in muscle protein synthesis and their relationship to hypertrophy showed that damage was unrelated to hypertrophy. In fact, in that study the authors showed that it was not until the damage subsided that protein synthesis was directed to muscle growth.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "The webs of spiders on which \"Portia\"s prey sometimes contain dead insects and other arthropods which are uneaten or partly eaten. \"P. schultzi\" and some other \"Portia\"s such as \"P. fimbriata\" (in Queensland) and \"P. labiata\" sometimes scavenge these corpses if the corpses are not obviously decayed.\n\nA \"Portia\" typically takes 3 to 5 minutes to pursuit prey, but some pursuits can take much longer, and in extreme cases close to 10 hours when pursuing a web-based spider.\n", "The webs of spiders on which \"Portia\" species prey sometimes contain dead insects and other arthropods which are uneaten or partly eaten. \"P. fimbriata\" (in Queensland) and some other \"Portia\" species such as \"P. labiata\" and \"P. schultzi\" sometimes scavenge these corpses if the corpses are not obviously decayed.\n\nWhen using its own web to catch other species of salticids, \"P. fimbriata\" conceals its conspicuous palps, which it does not do when stalking a web-spider or occasionally a moving fly.\n", "When a \"Portia\" stalks another jumping spider, the prey generally faces the \"Portia\" and then either runs away or displays as it does to another member of its own species.\n\nThe webs of spiders on which \"Portia\" species prey sometimes contain dead insects and other arthropods which are uneaten or partly eaten. \"P. labiata\" and some other \"Portia\" species such as \"P. fimbriata\" (in Queensland) and \"P. schultzi\" sometimes scavenge these corpses if the corpses are not obviously decayed.\n", "There are numerous documented infectious and noninfectious conditions that produce wounds that have been initially misdiagnosed as recluse bites by medical professionals, including:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pyoderma gangrenosum\"\n\nBULLET::::- Infection by \"Staphylococcus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Infection by \"Streptococcus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Herpes\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetic ulcers\n\nBULLET::::- Fungal infection\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical burns\n\n| width=\"50%\" align=\"left\" valign=\"top\" style=\"border:0\"|\n\nBULLET::::- \"Toxicodendron dermatitis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Squamous cell carcinoma\n\nBULLET::::- Localized vasculitis\n\nBULLET::::- Syphilis\n\nBULLET::::- Toxic epidermal necrolysis\n\nBULLET::::- Sporotrichosis\n\nBULLET::::- Lyme disease\n", "Many types of skin wounds are mistaken for or assumed to be the result of a recluse spider bite. Several diseases can mimic the lesions of the bite, including Lyme disease, various fungal and bacterial infections, and the first sore of syphilis. It is important to associate the spider directly with the bite to avoid improper treatment, and to successfully treat common infections or other conditions if no spider was seen.\n", "Bites most often occur as a defense when the spider is trapped against the skin, in clothing, for example. Insecticides often fail to kill the spider, instead intoxicating its nervous system and inducing erratic behavior.\n\nThe bite of a recluse spider can generally be categorized into one of the following groups:\n\nBULLET::::- Unremarkable - self-healing minute damage\n\nBULLET::::- Mild reaction - self-healing damage with itchiness, redness, patterns of aggressive behavior and a mild lesion.\n", "In the initial questioning, it comes to light that the previous owner of the house, Sellon, was found dead in his shop, supposedly from a fall down the stairs, but it might have been more nefarious than that. There were suspicions of involvement in drugs and Sellon also left a note to the effect that he had come across something worth fourteen thousand pounds but no one has yet found out what the item was.\n", "The webs are permanent. Over time, they will begin gathering leaves and other debris. Double-tailed tent spiders will regularly clean their webs, usually at night, though they will retain some bits and pieces of debris for camouflage. The webs sometimes have to be rebuilt when severely damaged.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Loxosceles frizzelli\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles gaucho\" – Brazil; introduced to Tunisia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles gloria\" – Ecuador, Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles guajira\" – Colombia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles guatemala\" – Guatemala\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles guayota\" – Canary Is.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles harrietae\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles herreri\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles hirsuta\" – Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles huasteca\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles hupalupa\" – Canary Is.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles immodesta\" – Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles inca\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles insula\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles intermedia\" – Brazil, Argentina\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles jaca\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles jamaica\" – Jamaica\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles jarmila\" – Jamaica\n", "BULLET::::- \"Loxosceles surca\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles taeniopalpis\" – Ecuador\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles taino\" – Bahama Is., Jamaica, Hispaniola\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles tazarte\" – Canary Is.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles tehuana\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles tenango\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles teresa\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles tibicena\" – Canary Is.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles tlacolula\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles valdosa\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles variegata\" – Paraguay\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles virgo\" – Virgin Is.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles vonwredei\" – Namibia\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles weyrauchi\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles willianilsoni\" – Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles yucatana\" – Mexico, Belize, Guatemala\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles zapoteca\" – Mexico\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Sicariidae species\n", "The spider biting apparatus is short and bites are only possible in experimental animals with pressure on the spider's back. Thus many bites occur when a spider is trapped in a shirt or pant sleeve. There is no commercial chemical test to determine if the venom is from a brown recluse. The bite itself is not usually painful. Many necrotic lesions are erroneously attributed to the bite of the brown recluse. (See Note). Skin wounds are common and infections will lead to necrotic wounds. Thus many terrible skin infections are attributed falsely to the brown recluse. Many suspected bites occurred in areas outside of its natural habitat. A wound found one week later may be misattributed to the spider. The diagnosis is further complicated by the fact that no attempt is made to positively identify the suspected spider. Because of this, other, non-necrotic species are frequently mistakenly identified as a brown recluse. Several certified arachnologists are able to positively identify a brown recluse specimen on request.\n", "BULLET::::2. Some spider bites may lead to necrosis. In the United States, only spider bites from the brown recluse spider (genus Loxosceles) reliably progress to necrosis. In other countries, spiders of the same genus, such as the Chilean recluse in South America, are also known to cause necrosis. Claims that yellow sac spiders and hobo spiders possess necrotic venom have not been substantiated.\n", "These spiders are very sedentary, usually only sitting in their burrows waiting for a passing victim. They operate in a constant low temperature because they are underground, and they live for about 20 years. With these factors we can assume \"Cantuaria\" might have a low metabolic rate. With a low metabolic rate and a carnivorous diet, all this spider needs to do is wait for an unsuspecting victim to pass its burrow so that it can jump out and find its next meal.\n\nSection::::Predators, parasites and diseases.\n", "Many orb-weavers build a new web each day. Most orb-weavers tend to be active during the evening hours; they hide for most of the day. Generally, towards evening, the spider will consume the old web, rest for approximately an hour, then spin a new web in the same general location. Thus, the webs of orb-weavers are generally free of the accumulation of detritus common to other species, such as black widow spiders. \n", "Numerous other spiders have been associated with necrotic bites in medical literature. Other recluse species, such as the desert recluse (found in the deserts of southwestern United States), are reported to have caused necrotic bite wounds, though only rarely. The hobo spider and the yellow sac spider have also been reported to cause necrotic bites. However, the bites from these spiders are not known to produce the severe symptoms that can follow from a recluse spider bite, and the level of danger posed by these has been called into question. So far, no known necrotoxins have been isolated from the venom of any of these spiders, and some arachnologists have disputed the accuracy of spider identifications carried out by bite victims, family members, medical responders, and other non-experts in arachnology. There have been several studies questioning the danger posed by some of these spiders. In these studies, scientists examined case studies of bites in which the spider in question was identified by an expert, and found that the incidence of necrotic injury diminished significantly when \"questionable\" identifications were excluded from the sample set. (For a comparison of the toxicity of several kinds of spider bites, see the list of spiders having medically significant venom.)\n", "BULLET::::- \"Loxosceles alicea\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles amazonica\" – Peru, Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles anomala\" – Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles apachea\" – US, Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles aphrasta\" – China\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles aranea\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles arizonica\" – US\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles aurea\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles baja\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles barbara\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles belli\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles bentejui\" – Canary Is.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles bergeri\" – Namibia, South Africa\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles bettyae\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles blancasi\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles blanda\" – US\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles boneti\" – Mexico, El Salvador\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles candela\" – Mexico\n", "Back at the subway station, rats have infested the tunnels. The smell has gotten so bad that the subways were shut back down. Pest control is brought down to the source of the problem, an abandoned subway cart. Near it they find several bodies of homeless men, covered in webs filled with eggs. One of the men is then attacked by hundreds of spiders, which swarm his body.\n", "Section::::Bite.:Misdiagnosis.\n\nThere is now an ELISA-based test for brown recluse venom that can determine whether a wound is a brown recluse bite, although it is not commercially available and not in routine clinical use. Clinical diagnoses often use Occam's razor principle in diagnosing bites based on what spiders the patient likely encountered and previous similar diagnoses.\n\nA new mnemonic device, \"NOT RECLUSE\", has been suggested as a tool to help laymen and medical professionals more objectively screen and diagnose potential cases of loxoscelism.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Loxosceles carabobensis\" – Venezuela\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles caribbaea\" – Greater Antilles\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles carmena\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles chapadensis\" – Brazil\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles chinateca\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles colima\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles conococha\" – Peru\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles coquimbo\" – Chile\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles corozalensis\" – Venezuela\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles coyote\" – Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles cubana\" – Cuba, Bahama Is., HIspaniola\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles cubiroensis\" – Venezuela\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles curimaguensis\" – Venezuela\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles deserta\" – US, Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles devia\" – US, Mexico\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles fontainei\" – Guinea\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles foutadjalloni\" – Guinea\n\nBULLET::::- \"Loxosceles francisca\" – Mexico\n", "Meanwhile, back at the lodge, Dash meets up with Ranger Rick (a pun on the children's nature magazine) who asks Dash to assist him in finding two hunters who did not return to their homes. When they find the hunters' truck parked, they dismount their snowmobiles and take a look around. Dash finds a mutilated Elk and thinks it was killed by a bear. He shoots a flare to summon Rick. When Rick arrives, they find the body of one of the hunters. When they reach a huge spider web, they find the other hunter, cocooned in the web. As they turn to run, Rick is snagged by a web and is dragged to a spider that kills him as Dash watches in horror. Dash makes it back to the hunters' truck and hot-wires it to get away.\n", "As suggested by its specific epithet \"reclusa\" (recluse), the brown recluse spider is rarely aggressive, and bites from the species are uncommon. In 2001, more than 2,000 brown recluse spiders were removed from a heavily infested home in Kansas, yet the four residents who had lived there for years were never harmed by the spiders, despite many encounters with them. The spider usually bites only when pressed against the skin, such as when tangled within clothes, shoes, towels, bedding, inside work gloves, etc. Many human victims report having been bitten after putting on clothes or shoes that had not been worn recently, or had been left for many days undisturbed on the floor. The fangs of the brown recluse are not large enough to penetrate most fabric.\n", "Adventive species may or may not play a significant role in the decomposition of remains. Arthropods in this ecological role are not necessarily attracted to decaying remains, but use it as an extension of their natural habitats. Adventive species originate within the vegetation and soils surrounding decomposing remains. These insects may visit remains from time to time, or use them for concealment, but their presence can only be accounted for by chance. They may also become predators of necrophagous species found at remains. Adventive species include springtails, centipedes and spiders.\n", "Section::::Bite.:Bite treatment.\n\nFirst aid involves the application of an ice pack to control inflammation and prompt medical care. If it can be easily captured, the spider should be brought with the patient in a clear, tightly closed container so it may be identified.\n", "Like other recluse spiders, the Chilean recluse builds irregular webs that frequently include a shelter consisting of disorderly threads. Unlike most web weavers, they leave these webs at night to hunt. People get bitten when they unintentionally squeeze them in clothing and bedding. These spiders frequently build their webs in woodpiles and sheds, closets, garages, and other places that are dry and \n\ngenerally undisturbed. The spider is frequently found in human dwellings. The spiders can last a long time without food or water, a fact that encourages their worldwide spread.\n\nSection::::Habitat.\n", "A species of haemosporidian, \"Leucocytozoon\", has been noted in specimens from Malaysia.\n\nSection::::In culture.\n\nIn Sarawak, the Kayan, Kenyah and Punan people consider it a bird of good omen and when they are out collecting camphor, the men would wait until they heard the \"sit\" call of one of these spiderhunters.\n\nSection::::Other references.\n" ]

[ "Spiders that die in their webs suffer from starvation or malnourishment." ]

[ "Spiders may also die in their own webs due to old age or disease." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Spiders that die in their webs suffer from starvation or malnourishment.", "Spiders that die in their webs suffer from starvation or malnourishment." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Spiders may also die in their own webs due to old age or disease.", "Spiders may also die in their own webs due to old age or disease." ]

[ "In 2010 Melt was featured on two national food-themed television shows: The Food Network's Diners, Drive-Ins and Dives with Guy Fieri, which aired February 8, 2010, The Travel Channel's Man v. Food with Adam Richman, which aired June 22, 2010. It has been featured in Cheese Paradise on the Travel channel, which aired in 2013.\n\nIn 2011 Melt was also featured on the Food Network show \"The Best Thing I Ever Ate\", in the messy food themed episode for their \"Godfather\" lasagna grilled cheese sandwich.\n\nSection::::Locations.\n\nSection::::Locations.:Main locations.\n\nBULLET::::- Lakewood, opened in September 2006, at 14718 Detroit Avenue.\n", "Chipped chopped ham\n\nChipped chopped ham or chipped ham is a processed ham luncheon meat made from chopped ham. Chopped ham is a mixture of ham chunks and trimmings and seasonings, ground together and then packaged into loaves. By chipping or shaving the meat loaf against a commercial meat slicer blade, the resultant thinly sliced product has a different texture compared to thickly sliced ham. In western Pennsylvania, northern West Virginia and eastern Ohio, the slicing process is also referred to as \"Pittsburgh style\".\n", "Sometimes the chopped ham, once chipped, is mixed and heated with barbecue sauce before it is made into a sandwich. In the Pittsburgh region, sandwiches of \"ham barbecue\" or \"barbecued chipped ham\" are commonly served at home and available at lunch counters. The ham can also be fried before being put on a sandwich; this version is often referred to as \"frizzle fry\". The chain Isaly's helped to popularize chipped chopped ham.\n", "An upside of boneless and skinless chicken breast is that it is versatile and easy to handle.\n\nSection::::Chicken.:Boneless chicken wings.\n\nBoneless chicken wings are not actually wings, but rather are typically formed from breast meat, which is faster to cook but not as succulent as real wings, with have skin, bone and cartilage. Part of producers' incentive to make boneless chicken wings is that wholesale chicken breast can be cheaper.\n", "BULLET::::- Fool's Gold Loaf – a sandwich made by the Colorado Mine Company, a restaurant in Denver, Colorado. It consists of a single warmed, hollowed-out loaf of bread filled with the contents of one jar of creamy peanut butter and one jar of grape jelly, and a pound of bacon.\n\nBULLET::::- Peanut butter and jelly sandwich – includes one or more layers of peanut butter and one or more layers of either jelly or jam on bread\n\nBULLET::::- Candwich – a canned sandwich product, as of November 2011 it is only available in a peanut butter and jelly version\n", "The day before baking \"pīrāgi\", the cook usually spends one or two hours preparing any meat and onion that will be used. Bacon and other fatty meats (such as bacon or back bacon) do not chop well in a food processor and tend to get caught on the blade, so the cook must hand chop these into tiny cubes, about 1.5 millimetres (about 1/16 inches). This is sometimes made easier by freezing the meat for a few minutes. Other less fatty meats (such as beef) tend to turn into a paste in the food processor, so if the meat is not already ground, the cook grinds it using a hand or electric grinder.\n", "Section::::Fare.\n\nChicago Pizza and Oven Grinder Company is the original creator of their non-traditional inverted dish known as the Pizza Pot Pie. The same recipe has been used since the restaurant first opened in 1972. It is \"made up from scratch\" with a tripled-raised Sicilian bread type of dough. The pizza pot pie includes plum tomato sauces, sausage made from Boston butts, button-sized mushrooms and cheese inside the crust. They also have a vegetarian option that includes the option of white or wheat crust. The Pizza Pot Pie has individual servings that come in two sizes: half-pound or one-pound.\n", "In Mexico, thinly sliced meat, breaded and fried, known as \"milanesa\", is a popular ingredient in \"tortas\", the sandwiches sold in street stands and indoor restaurants in Mexico City.\n", "Lamb or beef (precisely 20% fat, 80% meat) is minced twice for finer consistency. Salt, garlic powder, black pepper, celery powder, sumac, very finely grated onion (the extra juice is squeezed out and saved for later) and one egg yolk per pound of meat are added. All ingredients are mixed, covered, and left to marinate in the refrigerator for at least four hours or overnight.\n", "An alternative counter-top preparation method—one more common in the U.S.—employs a toaster oven where the sandwich (toastie) is arranged open face and then toasted (grilled), which not only toasts the bread but warms the meat and melts the cheese that is the traditional content of the classic Dutch toasted sandwich. While most informal eateries in Europe offer some form of toasted sandwich very few use clamshell-makers, preferring the grill or toaster-oven methods already mentioned, however American restaurants with a high customer turnover sometimes invest in large conveyor belt toaster ovens, such as can be found at Quizno's, Subway and Boston Market.\n", "In 2006 Brittani and Al patented Bubbas's Boneless Ribs, a product and process for removing bones from an intact slab of ribs, making it possible for people to eat fully cooked deboned BBQ ribs with a knife and fork – this is not a reshaped patty. The co-inventors' patented product was featured on ABC's show \"Shark Tank\" (December 2013) where the father-daughter team partnered with branding expert and FUBU creator Daymond John. Brittani is the vice president of the company formed through the partnership with Daymond John.\n", "Section::::Preparation.\n\nSection::::Preparation.:Chicken.\n\nThe chicken wings used for Buffalo wings are usually segmented into three parts: drumette, flat, and flapper or pointer, the last of which is discarded. Tradionally, the wings are deep-fried in oil, without breading or flour until they are well browned. Alternatively, they may be baked, grilled, or broiled. \n\nSection::::Preparation.:Sauce.\n", "Roland Laurenzo, the founder of the new Bambolino's, said, as paraphrased by Allison Wollam of the \"Houston Business Journal\", that the pizza dough used to make the pizzas is \"as spongy and airy, tender on the inside and crispy on the outside and made from scratch each day.\" The fresh-squeezed lemonade was a signature item on the menu of the old Bambolino's. In regards to the new Bambolino's, Laurenzo said \"It’s our signature drink. It’s a frozen Lemonade — very tart, not too sweet, and it will give you a brain freeze when you drink it.\" The restaurant's \"frozen lemonade\" was delivered via a margarita machine. The restaurant sold the frozen lemonade by the glass, quart, and half gallon. Laurenzo also said that the chain would have a chicken fajita pizza.\n", "The galantine is prepared by skinning and boning a chicken or other poultry. The skin is laid flat, with the pounded breast laid on top. A forcemeat is then placed on top of the pounded breast. The galantine is then rolled with the ends of the breast meeting one another. The galantine is then wrapped in cheesecloth and poached in poultry stock until the proper internal temperature is reached.\n", "Open-faced versions of the sandwich, which feature hot chicken served with gravy on top of bread, are also common variations.\n\nSection::::Varieties.\n\nSection::::Varieties.:Chicken burger.\n", "Cayenne pepper, hot sauce and melted butter or margarine are the base of the Buffalo wing sauce, which may be made mild, medium, or hot. Commercial ready-to-use wing sauce is made with varying levels of spiciness. The cooked chicken wings are placed in a bowl or pot and shaken to coat the wings completely covering them in sauce before serving.\n\nSection::::Preparation.:Service.\n", "The traditional method involves serving freshly prepared cubes of lamb, chicken, or beef on soft Italian bread or a submarine roll, occasionally drizzled with fresh marinade. Spiedie meat cubes can also be eaten straight off the skewer or can be served in salads, stir fries, and a number of other dishes. The marinade recipe varies, usually involving olive oil, vinegar, and a variety of Italian spices and fresh mint.\n", "In late August 2016, Arby's introduced four chicken sandwiches that used a buttermilk-based breaded breast filet.\n\nArby's debuted a new sandwich known as Smokehouse Pork Belly Sandwich in October 2016.\n", "The cooked loaf can be sliced like a loaf of bread to make individual portions. Because the dish can become dry, various techniques aim to keep the dish moist by either covering it with sauce or wrapping it, using moisture-enhancing ingredients in the mixture, or filling it with meats, cheese, or other vegetables.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "In the classical preparation of French \"côtelettes de volaille\", the humerus bone of the wing is left attached. This also holds for their Russian versions and in particular for chicken Kiev. For serving, the bone is usually covered with a frilled paper napkin. However, industrially produced pure fillets are often used nowadays, and the cutlets are served without the bone. This is the usual way of serving chicken Kiev in the US. A spherically shaped version was developed by English chef Jesse Dunford Wood.\n\nSection::::Convenience food.\n", "On an almost annual basis, Arby's had offered some sort of a flatbread melt sandwich for a limited time. In 2007 and again in 2008, it was the Philly Cheesesteak and the Fajita Beef. The Beef Fajita returned with the new Chicken Fajita in 2009. After a six-year hiatus, Steak Fajita Flatbreads were offered for a limited time in 2015. The following year, Steak Fajita returned in 2016 with Chicken Fajita along with a choice between a hot and mild sauce.\n\nAfter a nine-year hiatus, a pork-beef mixture meatball sandwich was reintroduced in July 2016.\n", "Section::::In the United States.\n\nIn the 1930s in the United States, the term sandwich loaf referred to sliced bread. In contemporary times, U.S. consumers sometimes refer to white bread such as Wonder Bread as sandwich bread and sandwich loaf. Wonder Bread produced and marketed a bread called Wonder Round sandwich bread, which was designed to be used with round-shaped cold cuts and other fillings such as eggs and hamburgers, but it was discontinued due to low consumer demand. American sandwich breads have historically included some fat derived from the use of milk or oil to enrich the bread.\n", "The Russian \"kotleta (\"\")\" includes a variety of breaded meat products, including those based on ground meat and other fried animal products except steaks/fillets, breaded or not, even Italian meatballs, tonkatsu, hamburger patties, and vegetarian patties; even hash brown potatoes fall into the category of \"kotleta\".\n\nSection::::Scaloppine.\n\nScaloppine, an Italian dish, consists of breaded cutlets of meat, commonly veal or chicken, which is pan fried and served with a pan sauce.\n\nSection::::Schnitzel.\n", "In addition to their Pizza Pot Pies, they have a variety of salad dinners and sub sandwiches known as grinders. One of the grinders they are known for is the \"Italian Combination\" that comes in an Italian loaf. The grinders also come in a vegetarian option that includes mushrooms, egg plant, peppers, olives and three kinds of cheeses. The \"Salad Dinners\" are large portions of salads. Another well known menu item is the \"Mediterranean Bread.\"\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "Chicken Kiev is a popular breaded cutlet dish of boneless chicken breast pounded and rolled around cold garlic butter with herbs, then breaded and either fried or baked.\n\nSection::::Cordon Bleu.\n\nCordon bleu is a breaded cutlet of veal, chicken or pork stuffed with ham and cheese, then breaded and either fried or baked.\n\nSection::::Cotoletta.\n\nCotoletta originates in Italy as \"cotoletta alla milanese\" is very similar to Wiener schnitzel. However, it is a cutlet rather than an escalope, and it is traditionally cooked with its rib. Originally from Milan, it can now be found all over the country.\n" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Section::::Storage and management.\n\nThe \"chemical space\" of all possible organic chemicals is large and increases exponentially with the size of the molecule. Most chemical libraries do not typically have a fully represented chemical space mostly because of storage and cost concerns.\n", "Section::::Empirical spaces.\n\nAs of July 2009, there were 49,037,297 organic and inorganic substances registered with the Chemical Abstracts Service, indicating that they have been reported in the scientific literature. Chemical libraries used for laboratory-based screening for compounds with desired properties are examples for real-world chemical libraries of small size (a few hundred to hundreds of thousands of molecules).\n\nSection::::Generation.\n", "The study of odors is a growing field but is a complex and difficult one. The human olfactory system can detect many thousands of scents based on only very minute airborne concentrations of a chemical. The sense of smell of many animals is even better. Some fragrant flowers give off \"odor plumes\" that move downwind and are detectable by bees more than a kilometer away.\n", "Tracking and localization methods for diffusion-dominated fluid flow – which is mostly used in underground odor localization – must be designed so that olfaction machinery can operate in environments in which fluid motion is dominated by viscosity. This means that diffusion leads to the dispersal of odor flow, and the concentration of odor decreases from the source as a Gaussian distribution.\n\nThe diffusion of chemical vapor through soil without external pressure gradient is often modeled by Fick's second law:\n\nwhere is the diffusion constant, is distance in the diffusion direction, is chemical concentration and is time.\n", "The first two depend strongly on the nature of the waste. The dominant process in most landfills is the third process whereby anaerobic bacteria decompose organic waste to produce biogas, which consists of methane and carbon dioxide together with traces of other compounds. Despite the heterogeneity of waste, the evolution of gases follows well defined kinetic pattern. Formation of methane and CO commences about six months after depositing the landfill material. The evolution of gas reaches a maximum at about 20 years, then declines over the course of decades.\n\nSection::::Monitoring.\n", "Section::::VOC sensors.\n\nSection::::VOC sensors.:Principle and measurement methods.\n\nVOCs in the environment or certain atmospheres can be detected based on different principles and interactions between the organic compounds and the sensor components. In many cases, VOCs are detectable to the human nose, and odor wheels are sometimes developed to help humans classify complex odors of wine, coffee, and even paper.\n", "The sense of smell is called olfaction. All materials constantly shed molecules, which float into the nose or are sucked in through breathing. Inside the nasal chambers is the neuroepithelium, a lining deep within the nostrils that contains the receptors responsible for detecting molecules that are small enough to smell. These receptor neurons then synapse at the olfactory cranial nerve (CN I), which sends the information to the olfactory bulbs in the brain for initial processing. The signal is then sent to the remaining olfactory cortex for more complex processing.\n\nSection::::Smell modality.:Odors.\n", "Section::::Single-molecule resolution.\n", "These depend for their ability to clean up water contaminated with organic material on microorganisms that can respire dissolved substances. Respiration may be aerobic, with a well-oxygenated filter bed such as a slow sand filter. Anaerobic digestion by methanogens generate useful methane gas as a by-product.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Energy.\n\nMicroorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol, and in biogas reactors to produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels.\n\nSection::::Applications.:Chemicals, enzymes.\n", "be defined as the ratio of the mass formula_3 (in kg) of X in the box to its removal rate, which is the sum of the flow of X out of the box\n\n(formula_4),\n\nchemical loss of X\n\n(formula_5),\n\nand deposition of X\n\n(all in kg/s):\n\nformula_7.\n\nIf output of this gas into the box ceased, then after time formula_1, its concentration would decrease by about 63%.\n", "Frequent smell checks must be performed on a biogas system. If biogas is smelled anywhere windows and doors should be opened immediately. If there is a fire the gas should be shut off at the gate valve of the biogas system.\n\nSection::::Landfill gas.\n\nLandfill gas is produced by wet organic waste decomposing under anaerobic conditions in a biogas.\n", "Other microbes are decomposers, with the ability to recycle nutrients from other organisms' waste products. These microbes play a vital role in biogeochemical cycles. The nitrogen cycle, the phosphorus cycle, the sulphur cycle and the carbon cycle all depend on microorganisms in one way or another. For example, the nitrogen gas which makes up 78% of the earth's atmosphere is unavailable to most organisms, until it is converted to a biologically available form by the microbial process of nitrogen fixation.\n", "Humans leave a trace of chemicals in every place they go and on everything they touch. Other animals use signaling mechanisms to leave trails or identify each other. The sense of smell is an important sense in using these mechanisms, but it is still not well understood. Humans, compared to the rest of the animal world, do not have a good olfactory sense though we may be better than we first assume. Johannes Kepler once argued that the Earth is an immense organism itself, with chemical signals spreading across the globe through various organisms in order to keep the world functioning and well informed.\n", "The atmospheric lifetime of a species therefore measures the time required to restore equilibrium following a sudden increase or decrease in its concentration in the atmosphere. Individual atoms or molecules may be lost or deposited to sinks such as the soil, the oceans and other waters, or vegetation and other biological systems, reducing the excess to background concentrations. The average time taken to achieve this is the mean lifetime.\n\nCarbon dioxide has a variable atmospheric lifetime, and cannot be specified precisely. The atmospheric lifetime of is estimated of the order of 30–95 years.\n", "Because of the expense and effort involved in chemical synthesis, the chemicals must be correctly stored and banked away for later use to prevent early degradation. Each chemical has a particular shelf life and storage requirement and in a good-sized chemical library, there is a timetable by which library chemicals are disposed of and replaced on a regular basis. Some chemicals are fairly unstable, radioactive, volatile or flammable and must be stored under careful conditions in accordance with safety standards such as OSHA.\n", "Raw biogas produced from digestion is roughly 60% methane and 39% with trace elements of : inadequate for use in machinery. The corrosive nature of alone is enough to destroy the mechanisms.\n", "Due to the large collections of organic matter and availability of anaerobic conditions, landfills are the third largest source of atmospheric methane in the United States, accounting for roughly 18.2% of methane emissions globally in 2014. When waste is first added to a landfill, oxygen is abundant and thus undergoes aerobic decomposition; during which time very little methane is produced. However, generally within a year oxygen levels are depleted and anaerobic conditions dominate the landfill allowing methanogens to takeover the decomposition process. These methanogens emit methane into the atmosphere and even after the landfill is closed, the mass amount of decaying matter allows the methanogens to continue producing methane for years.\n", "The survival of a living organism depends on the continuous input of energy. Chemical reactions that are responsible for its structure and function are tuned to extract energy from substances that act as its food and transform them to help form new cells and sustain them. In this process, molecules of chemical substances that constitute food play two roles; first, they contain energy that can be transformed and reused in that organism's biological, chemical reactions; second, food can be transformed into new molecular structures (biomolecules) that are of use to that organism.\n", "The stability of a chemical compound is eventually limited when exposed to extreme environmental conditions such as heat, radiation, humidity, or the acidity of a solvent. Because of this chemical decomposition is often an undesired chemical reaction. However chemical decomposition is being used in a growing number of ways. \n", "As with aerobic systems the bacteria in anaerobic systems the growing and reproducing microorganisms within them require a source of elemental oxygen to survive. In an anaerobic system there is an absence of gaseous oxygen. Gaseous oxygen is prevented from entering the system through physical containment in sealed tanks. Anaerobes access oxygen from sources other than the surrounding air. The oxygen source for these microorganisms can be the organic material itself or alternatively may be supplied by inorganic oxides from within the input material. When the oxygen source in an anaerobic system is derived from the organic material itself, then the 'intermediate' end products are primarily alcohols, aldehydes, and organic acids plus carbon dioxide. In the presence of specialised methanogens, the intermediates are converted to the 'final' end products of methane, carbon dioxide with trace levels of hydrogen sulfide.In an anaerobic system the majority of the chemical energy contained within the starting material is released by methanogenic bacteria as methane.\n", "Histosols are known by various other names in other countries, such as peat or muck. In the Australian Soil Classification, Histosols are called Organosols.\n\nHistosols form whenever organic matter forms at a more rapid rate than it is destroyed. This occurs because of restricted drainage precluding aerobic decomposition, and the remains of plants and animals remain within the soil. Thus, Histosols are very important ecologically because they, and Gelisols, store large quantities of organic carbon. If accumulation continues for a long enough period, coal forms.\n", "Section::::Anaerobic respiration.:Organic terminal electron acceptors.\n\nA number of organisms, instead of using inorganic compounds as terminal electron acceptors, are able to use organic compounds to accept electrons from respiration. Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- Fumarate reduction to succinate\n\nBULLET::::- Trimethylamine \"N\"-oxide (TMAO) reduction to trimethylamine (TMA)\n\nBULLET::::- Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) reduction to Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)\n\nBULLET::::- Reductive dechlorination\n", "BULLET::::- Bacteria and archaea\n\nCertain types of bacteria can metabolize alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains.\n\nOn the other hand, certain archaea, the methanogens, produce large quantities of methane by the metabolism of carbon dioxide or other oxidized organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of hydrogen:\n", "Further, the chemical diversity in floral scent samples is challenging. The time of analysis is proportional to the range in molecular weight of VOCs present in the sample, hence a high diversity will increase analysis time. Floral scent may also be composed of very similar molecules, such as isomers and especially enantiomers, which tend to co-elute and then to be very hardly separated. Unambiguously detecting and quantifying them is of importance though, as enantiomers may trigger very different responses in pollinators.\n", "The previous discussion focussed on single aerosol particles. In contrast, \"aerosol dynamics\" explains the evolution of complete aerosol populations. The concentrations of particles will change over time as a result of many processes. External processes that move particles outside a volume of gas under study include diffusion, gravitational settling, and electric charges and other external forces that cause particle migration. A second set of processes internal to a given volume of gas include particle formation (nucleation), evaporation, chemical reaction, and coagulation.\n" ]

[ "Things that have a smell don't run out of molecules." ]

[ "Things that have a smell run out of molecules slowly." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Things that have a smell don't run out of molecules." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Things that have a smell run out of molecules slowly." ]

[ "There are many hazards that people with epilepsy, including those whose seizures are fully controlled by medication, face in the workplace. Those with active seizures face the obvious risk of loss of consciousness or muscle control, and those with side effects face diminished concentration or physical strength. Some of the hazards include:\n\nBULLET::::- Working near a body of water, a high-voltage power line, or at extreme heights\n\nBULLET::::- Working with machines, equipment, or hazardous chemicals or materials that require care in their usage\n\nBULLET::::- The supervision of other persons, where any lapse in such supervision may be hazardous\n\nSection::::Issues.:Transportation.\n", "Personal safety is a major concern for persons with epilepsy. When sudden loss of consciousness occurs without warning, the patient is at risk for personal injury and possibly causing injury to others through loss of control or awareness of one's own body.\n\nMany activities of daily living can be dangerous for people with epilepsy, such as bathing, cooking, or walking up or down steps. These can be remedied by taking showers as opposed to tub baths, cooking with a microwave oven rather than an open flame, and living on a ground level.\n", "Photosensitive epilepsy is an abnormal sensitivity of the brain to visual stimuli and is the most common trigger in reflex seizures. Reflex seizures can be induced by both flickering or non-flicking light, television, video games, or other visual patterns. Most people who have photosensitive epilepsy are sensitive to specific patterns for visual stimuli. Visual stimuli of a particular frequency (15-25 flashes/second), wavelength (red light at 660-720 nm), and at high contrast have been shown to have a higher risk of inducing seizures in people who are photosensitive. In addition, emotional excitement, fatigue, or length of exposure can all effect the risk of seizures.\n", "In some epileptics, flickering or flashing lights, such as strobe lights, can be responsible for the onset of a tonic clonic, absence, or myoclonic seizure. This condition is known as photosensitive epilepsy and, in some cases, the seizures can be triggered by activities that are harmless to others, such as watching television or playing video games, or by driving or riding during daylight along a road with spaced trees, thereby simulating the \"flashing light\" effect. Some people can suffer a seizure as a result of blinking one's own eyes. Contrary to popular belief, this form of epilepsy is relatively uncommon, accounting for just 3% of all cases.\n", "The risk of epilepsy following meningitis is less than 10%; that disease more commonly causes seizures during the infection itself. In herpes simplex encephalitis the risk of a seizure is around 50% with a high risk of epilepsy following (up to 25%). A form of an infection with the pork tapeworm (cysticercosis), in the brain, is known as neurocysticercosis, and is the cause of up to half of epilepsy cases in areas of the world where the parasite is common. Epilepsy may also occur after other brain infections such as cerebral malaria, toxoplasmosis, and toxocariasis. Chronic alcohol use increases the risk of epilepsy: those who drink six units of alcohol per day have a two and a half fold increase in risk. Other risks include Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, tuberous sclerosis, and autoimmune encephalitis. Getting vaccinated does not increase the risk of epilepsy. Malnutrition is a risk factor seen mostly in the developing world, although it is unclear however if it is a direct cause or an association. People with cerebral palsy have an increased risk of epilepsy, with half of people with spastic quadriplegia and spastic hemiplegia having the disease.\n", "Certain high-risk sports, such as swimming, scuba diving, or snorkeling are considered dangerous for people with epilepsy. But they pose a level of danger for all participants. They can be equally safe for people with epilepsy and others if carried out with proper safety precautions.\n\nSection::::Personal safety.:Driving.\n", "Some people with epilepsy who cannot drive may also be unable to safely walk, use public transportation, or otherwise independently travel safely due to their seizure risk, further preventing them from reaching a place of employment. Such persons may be at risk for suffering seizures while on or waiting for a public transport vehicle or while crossing the street.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Stigma.\n", "A routine part of the EEG test involves exposing the patient to flickering lights to attempt to induce a seizure, to determine if such lights may be triggering a seizure in the patient, and to be able to read the wavelengths when such a seizure occurs.\n\nIn rare cases seizures may be triggered by not focusing.\n\nSection::::Head injury.\n", "Epilepsy may occur as a result of a number of other conditions including tumors, strokes, head trauma, previous infections of the central nervous system, genetic abnormalities, and as a result of brain damage around the time of birth. Of those with brain tumors, almost 30% have epilepsy, making them the cause of about 4% of cases. The risk is greatest for tumors in the temporal lobe and those that grow slowly. Other mass lesions such as cerebral cavernous malformations and arteriovenous malformations have risks as high as 4060%. Of those who have had a stroke, 2–4% develop epilepsy. In the United Kingdom strokes account for 15% of cases and it is believed to be the cause in 30% of the elderly. Between 6 and 20% of epilepsy is believed to be due to head trauma. Mild brain injury increases the risk about two-fold while severe brain injury increases the risk seven-fold. In those who have experienced a high-powered gunshot wound to the head, the risk is about 50%.\n", "UK television broadcasters require all screen content to pass an Automated PSE and QC test. Previously, the Harding FPA Test was used to assess content, however this has been replaced by software such as Vidchecker. This is an objective standard of assessment of potential to trigger seizures in the susceptible population. This test is not currently required internationally.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.:Fluorescent lighting.\n", "Section::::Society and culture.:Web design.\n\nAs with video games, rapidly changing images or highly regular patterns such as flashing banner ads or irregular fonts can trigger seizures in people with photosensitive epilepsy. Two sets of guidelines exist to help web designers produce content that is safe for people with photosensitive epilepsy:\n", "BULLET::::- Photosensitive epilepsy - This is an epileptic reaction to flashing lights in susceptible persons, which can range in severity from an unusual feeling or involuntary twitch to a generalized seizure. This epileptogenic response can be triggered by lights flashing in the frequency range of 10–20 Hz, regardless of color. While individual light sources used on emergency vehicles generally have much lower flash rates than this, the Loughborough study suggests that such possibilities be minimized. It also notes that emergency workers may report distraction and eyestrain unrelated to epilepsy from working under the lights.\n", "The first case of epileptiform seizures related to a video game was reported in 1981. Since then, \"many cases of seizures triggered by video games were reported, not only in photosensitive, but also in nonphotosensitive children and adolescents with epilepsy...Specific preventive measures concerning the physical characteristics of images included in commercially available video games (flash rate, choice of colours, patterns, and contrast) can lead in the future to a clear decrease of this problem.\" Risks can be reduced through measures such as keeping a safe distance away from the screen (at least 2 meters).\n", "Jobs involving the operation of dangerous machinery may pose a problem to people with epilepsy, including construction and industrial work.\n\nMany places have laws barring those with epilepsy whose seizures are not entirely controlled from working in positions that involve a high degree of responsibility to the well-being of others. This includes police officers, teachers, and health care workers.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Occupational hazards.\n", "Television has traditionally been the most common source of seizures in PSE. For people with PSE, it is especially hazardous to view television in a dark room, at close range, or when the television is out of adjustment and is showing a rapidly flickering image (as when the horizontal hold is incorrectly adjusted). Modern digital television sets that cannot be maladjusted in this way and refresh the image on the screen at very high speed present less of a risk than older television sets.\n", "Those with photosensitive epilepsy can have seizures triggered by flashing lights. Other precipitants can trigger an epileptic seizure in patients who otherwise would be susceptible to spontaneous seizures. For example, children with childhood absence epilepsy may be susceptible to hyperventilation. In fact, flashing lights and hyperventilation are activating procedures used in clinical EEG to help trigger seizures to aid diagnosis. Finally, other precipitants can facilitate, rather than obligately trigger, seizures in susceptible individuals. Emotional stress, sleep deprivation, sleep itself, heat stress, alcohol and febrile illness are examples of precipitants cited by patients with epilepsy. Notably, the influence of various precipitants varies with the epilepsy syndrome. Likewise, the menstrual cycle in women with epilepsy can influence patterns of seizure recurrence. Catamenial epilepsy is the term denoting seizures linked to the menstrual cycle.\n", "When functioning correctly, mains-powered fluorescent lighting has a flicker rate sufficiently high (twice the mains frequency, typically 100 Hz or 120 Hz) to reduce the occurrence of problems. However, a faulty fluorescent lamp can flicker at a much lower rate and trigger seizures. Newer high-efficiency compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) with electronic ballast circuits operate at much higher frequencies (10–20 kHz) not normally perceivable by the human eye, though defective lights can still cause problems.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Even if a person with epilepsy is able to safely perform job duties him/herself, many are limited where they can work if they cannot provide their own transportation to the job site. Since some cannot drive themselves to work, they cannot travel to a place of employment.\n", "BULLET::::- Physical health and risk of other conditions\n\nBULLET::::- Patients with epilepsy face a greater risk of accidents, injury and other medical conditions than the general population. A European study showed that people with epilepsy were at greater risk for accidental injuries related to seizures such as concussions, abrasions and wounds and reported more hospitalizations and medical action than the general population. Other studies have shown that people with epilepsy are at a greater risk of seizure related drowning, suffocation, broken bones and burns and more likely to die in a fatal automobile crash.\n", "Photosensitive reflex epilepsy is usually treated with both lifestyle changes and anti-epileptic medications. Some lifestyle modifications that may be recommended are limiting the amount of time one is exposed to television or screens, watching television in a bright well-lit room at a distance of at least 2 meters, and avoiding television or video games when tired. LCD TV screens or Televisions with higher refresh rates (100 Hz) cause less flickering and thus lower the likelihood of a seizure. In addition, special blue lens Z1 glasses have been shown to reduce seizures in many people with photosensitive reflex epilepsy.\n", "Epilepsy and driving\n\nEpilepsy and driving is a personal and safety issue. A person with a seizure disorder that causes lapses in consciousness may be putting the public at risk from their operation of a motor vehicle. Not only can a seizure itself cause an accident, but anticonvulsants often have side effects that include drowsiness. People with epilepsy are more likely to be involved in a traffic accident than people who do not have the condition, although reports range from minimally more likely up to seven times more likely.\n", "Misdiagnosis is frequent (occurring in about 5 to 30% of cases). Different studies showed that in many cases seizure-like attacks in apparent treatment-resistant epilepsy have a cardiovascular cause. Approximately 20% of the people seen at epilepsy clinics have PNES and of those who have PNES about 10% also have epilepsy; separating the two based on the seizure episode alone without further testing is often difficult.\n\nSection::::Prevention.\n", "Section::::Prognosis.:Mortality.\n\nPeople with epilepsy are at an increased risk of death. This increase is between 1.6 and 4.1 fold greater than that of the general population. The greatest increase in mortality from epilepsy is among the elderly. Those with epilepsy due to an unknown cause have little increased risk.\n", "Epilepsy can have both genetic and acquired causes, with interaction of these factors in many cases. Established acquired causes include serious brain trauma, stroke, tumours and problems in the brain as a result of a previous infection. In about 60% of cases the cause is unknown. Epilepsies caused by genetic, congenital, or developmental conditions are more common among younger people, while brain tumors and strokes are more likely in older people.\n", "People with epilepsy may be barred from various types of employment, either by law, by company regulations, or by common sense, thereby lowering the pool of jobs available to the job seeker.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "Some of the hormones involved during the state of fight-or-flight include epinephrine, which regulates heart rate and metabolism as well as dilating blood vessels and air passages, norepinephrine increasing heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles and the release of glucose from energy stores, and cortisol which increases blood sugar, increases circulating neutrophilic leukocytes, calcium amongst other things.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Joan Crawford as Myra Hudson\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Palance as Lester Blaine\n\nBULLET::::- Gloria Grahame as Irene Neves\n\nBULLET::::- Bruce Bennett as Steve Kearney\n\nBULLET::::- Virginia Huston as Ann Taylor\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Connors as Junior Kearney\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical response.\n", "In regard to the characters present onstage, a reduced startle response has been associated with a passive defense, and the diminished initial heart rate response has been predicted to have a greater tendency to dissociation. \n\nFurther, note that heart rate is an accurate measure of stress and the startle response which can be easily observed to determine the effects of certain stressors.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Factors influencing heart rate.:Factors decreasing heart rate.\n", "Section::::Music history.\n", "The central brain structure through which fear-associated responses are mediated has been determined to be the amygdala, which is located in the brain's temporal lobe. When the central nucleus of the amygdala is stimulated - what is popularly referred to as the \"fight-or-flight\" response is activated - the organism in question reacts passively (is rendered frozen in its tracks, becomes hyper-vigilantly attentive, etc.), or displays a physiological reaction geared toward facilitating an aggressive reaction (e.g., increased heart-rate/pulse, rapid breathing). These fear-induced reactions result from communication between the amygdala and a variety of other brain regions (such as the brain stem and hypothalamus), resulting in a variety of physiological responses in the organism. For instance, communication between an activated amygdala and the lateral hypothalamus results in increased blood pressure and dilation of the pupils; the initiation of the central grey via communication from the amygdala results in the organism's becoming frozen in its tracks; communication between the activated amygdala and the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus releases hormones associated with stress.\n", "The perception of a \"threat\" may also trigger an associated ‘feeling of distress’.\n\nPhysiological reactions triggered by mind cannot differentiate both the physical or mental threat separately, Hence the \"fight-or-flight\" response of mind for the both reactions will be same.\n\nSection::::Duration of threat and its different physiological effects on the nervous system..\n", "Deeply related to these cases of sudden death is what Cannon termed the \"fight-or-flight response\", what has been classified as a \"neurophysiological-behavioral\" response pattern. \"Fight or flight\" is a phrase used to describe the instinctual and physiological responses to strong emotion within animals as well as humans. Cannon associates the two emotions of rage and fear because of the similar effects the emotions will have upon the mind and body—rage will encourage the response to \"fight\", while fear will encourage \"flight\". The mind, when faced with one or both of these emotions in response to a perceived threat, will emit adrenaline, and heart rate will increase; however, sometimes the system is overwhelmed by the responses, and collapse ensues as brought about by the workings of stress hormones.\n", "Relief is an emotion that is normally preceded by some other higher level of arousal, such as fear, or anxiety, that is, relief generally cannot occur without the precursor of the emotion of fear, and is a result of the removal or reduction of the fearful feeling.\n", "According to the SMH, two distinct pathways reactivate somatic marker responses. In the first pathway, emotion can be evoked by the changes in the body that are projected to the brain—called the \"body loop\". For instance, encountering a feared object like a snake may initiate the fight-or-flight response and cause fear. In the second pathway, cognitive representations of the emotions can be activated in the brain without being directly elicited by a physiological response—called the \"as-if body loop\". For instance, imagining an encounter with a snake would initiate a similar flight-or-fight response \"as-if\" you were in that particular situation (albeit perhaps a much weaker one). In other words, the brain can anticipate expected bodily changes, which allows the individual to respond faster to external stimuli without waiting for an event to actually occur.\n", "Section::::Perception.\n", "Before I experienced the horror of that attack, I was quick to call coward or yellow anyone who showed fear under any circumstances. Nevermore. I don't know these things, but they speak truth to one. I am not a psychologist, nor a statistician, and less of a philosopher; but the depth of emotion, the dreads of fear, the referees of horrors, and the concentration of self that led me to make this observation, the fear impulse, or perhaps, better said, the (impulses caused) by fear, are stronger, more demanding than either that of love or hunger ... \n", "The cranium dysfunction mechanical changes in the gut can compress the vagus nerve at any number of locations along the vagus, slowing the heart. As the heart slows, autonomic reflexes are triggered to increase blood pressure and heart rate.\n", "Section::::Behavioral basis.\n", "The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the \"fight or flight\" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness. This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. The epinephrine and norepinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart, which feeds the heart sympathetic nerve fibers in order to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction; as a result more blood gets circulated, increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system in an effort to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. Simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system in order to optimize blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. This plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The para-sympathetic response is colloquially known as the \"rest and digest\" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and more obviously by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system in order to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. In order to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system in an effort to optimize blood flow to the digestive tract causing low heart and respiratory rates. Parasympathetic plays no role in acute stress response (VanPutte Regan Russo 2014).\n", "Fear is explained to be an emotion that one might expect with alarm, it is also known as something to be afraid of or the feelings of apprehensiveness. Fear works when one senses danger, the brain reacts instantly, sending signals that activate the nervous system. This causes physical responses, such as a faster heartbeat, rapid breathing, and an increase in blood pressure. Blood pumps to muscle groups to prepare the body for physical action like running or fighting. Skin sweats to keep the body cool. Some people might notice sensations in the stomach, head, chest, legs, or hands. These physical sensations of fear can be mild or strong.\n", "Every emotional response has a behavioral component, an autonomic component, and a hormonal component. The hormonal component includes the release of adrenaline, an adrenomedullary response that occurs in response to stress and that is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. The major emotion studied in relation to adrenaline is fear. In an experiment, subjects who were injected with adrenaline expressed more negative and fewer positive facial expressions to fear films compared to a control group. These subjects also reported a more intense fear from the films and greater mean intensity of negative memories than control subjects. The findings from this study demonstrate that there are learned associations between negative feelings and levels of adrenaline. Overall, the greater amount of adrenaline is positively correlated with an arousal state of negative feelings. These findings can be an effect in part that adrenaline elicits physiological sympathetic responses including an increased heart rate and knee shaking, which can be attributed to the feeling of fear regardless of the actual level of fear elicited from the video. Although studies have found a definite relation between adrenaline and fear, other emotions have not had such results. In the same study, subjects did not express a greater amusement to an amusement film nor greater anger to an anger film. Similar findings were also supported in a study that involved rodent subjects that either were able or unable to produce adrenaline. Findings support the idea that adrenaline does have a role in facilitating the encoding of emotionally arousing events, contributing to higher levels of arousal due to fear.\n", "Negative emotions, including anger and fear, can be seen as the evolution of human adaptation to survival in life-threatening situations. For example, anger shows the sign of attack, fear shows the sign of escape. These emotional reactions interconnect with our mind and body. These negative emotions are influenced by the physiological support mechanisms, such as the physical energy, that relies on the body to mobilize at an optimal level for individual action to react. In the attack or flee situation, it produces heightened cardiovascular re-activity that redistributes blood flow to relevant skeletal muscles. However, in extreme cases, negative emotions will cause damage to people's health in their cardiovascular re-activity.\n", "Many physiological changes in the body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response. An inborn response for coping with danger, it works by accelerating the breathing rate (hyperventilation), heart rate, vasoconstriction of the peripheral blood vessels leading to blushing and sanskadania of the central vessels (pooling), increasing muscle tension including the muscles attached to each hair follicle to contract and causing \"goose bumps\", or more clinically, piloerection (making a cold person warmer or a frightened animal look more impressive), sweating, increased blood glucose (hyperglycemia), increased serum calcium, increase in white blood cells called neutrophilic leukocytes, alertness leading to sleep disturbance and \"butterflies in the stomach\" (dyspepsia). This primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger. With the series of physiological changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear.\n", "Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a theory also known as the two-factor theory of emotion, which implies emotion have two factors: physical arousal and cognitive label. This suggests that the physiological activity occurs first, then it must cognitively be distinguished as the cause of the arousal and labeled as an emotion. Using the example of someone seeing a car coming towards them in their lane, their heart would start to race and they would identify that they must be afraid if their heart is racing, and from there they would begin to feel fear.\n\nSection::::Gender differences.\n", "The amygdala, previously mentioned as a region showing high activity for the emotion of regret, is the central recipient for brain activity concerning fear-conditioning. Several streams of information from multiple brain areas converge on the lateral amygdala, allowing for the creation of associations that regulate fear-conditioning; Cells in the superior dorsal lateral amygdala are able to rapidly pair the neutral stimulus with the aversive stimulus. Cells that project from the lateral amygdala to the central amygdala allow for the initiation of an emotional response if a stimulus is deemed threatening.\n", "As with many functions of the brain, there are various regions of the brain involved in deciphering fear in humans and other nonhuman species. The amygdala communicates both directions between the prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, the sensory cortex, the hippocampus, thalamus, septum, and the brainstem. The amygdala plays an important role in SSDR, such as the ventral amygdalofugal, which is essential for associative learning, and SSDRs are learned through interaction with the environment and others of the same species. An emotional response is created only after the signals have been relayed between the different regions of the brain, and activating the sympathetic nervous systems; which controls the flight, fight, freeze, fright, and faint response. Often a damaged amygdala can cause impairment in the recognition of fear (like the human case of patient S.M.). This impairment can cause different species to lack the sensation of fear, and often can become overly confident, confronting larger peers, or walking up to predatory creatures.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n\nSection::::Biography.:\"Odd How People Shake\" (2002-2003).\n", "In vertebrates, the avoidance behaviour appears to be processed in the telencephalon. This has been shown repeatedly in goldfish, as individuals with ablated telencephalons were significantly impaired in acquiring avoidance behaviour. As a result, some researchers conclude that damage to the telencephalon can interfere with the emotion internal fear to produce an avoidance response.\n\nResearchers will often evoke an escape response to test the potency of hormones and/or medication and their relationship to stress. As such, the escape response is fundamental to anatomical and pharmacological research\n\nSection::::The role of learning in the escape response.\n", "Emotion of fear is usually characterised as an inconvenient, stressful state, triggered by impending peril and awareness of hazard.\n\nInternet bubble is not only a good example of investors' greed but also the period following the bubble can serve as a good characteristic for fear induced market.\n", "The limbic system can also significantly impact HR related to emotional state. During periods of stress, it is not unusual to identify higher than normal HRs, often accompanied by a surge in the stress hormone cortisol. Individuals experiencing extreme anxiety may manifest panic attacks with symptoms that resemble those of heart attacks. These events are typically transient and treatable. Meditation techniques have been developed to ease anxiety and have been shown to lower HR effectively. Doing simple deep and slow breathing exercises with one's eyes closed can also significantly reduce this anxiety and HR.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Factors influencing heart rate.\n" ]

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[ "In 2009, the Golden Globe statuette was redesigned (but not for the first time in its history). The New York firm Society Awards collaborated for a year with the Hollywood Foreign Press Association to produce a statuette that included a unique marble and enhanced the statuette's quality and gold content. It was unveiled at a press conference at the Beverly Hilton prior to the show.\n", "After the nominations are announced in mid-December, HFPA members receive the final ballots. The winner in each category is selected from among the nominees by plurality voting. In case of a tie, the winner is the one that had the most votes on the nomination ballot.\n\nSection::::Ceremony.\n", "Section::::Ceremony.:2008 disruption.\n", "In 2002, the Dolby Theatre (previously known as the Kodak Theatre) became the presentation's current venue.\n\nSection::::Awards of Merit categories.\n\nSection::::Awards of Merit categories.:Current categories.\n", "Traditionally, the previous year's winner for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor present the awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, while the previous year's winner for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress present the awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor.\n\nSection::::Oscar statuette.\n\nSection::::Oscar statuette.:Academy Award of Merit (Oscar statuette).\n", "BULLET::::- Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film\n\nBULLET::::- Goya Award for Best Animated Film\n\nBULLET::::- Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year\n\nBULLET::::- Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Animated Film\n\nBULLET::::- Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film\n\nBULLET::::- National Board of Review Award for Best Animated Film\n\nBULLET::::- National Film Award for Best Animated Film\n\nBULLET::::- New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Animated Film\n\nBULLET::::- Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Animated Film\n\nBULLET::::- San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Animated Film\n", "In addition to the Academy Award of Merit (Oscar award), there are nine honorary (non-competitive) awards presented by the Academy from time to time (except for the Academy Honorary Award, the Technical Achievement Award, and the Student Academy Awards, which are presented annually):\n\nBULLET::::- Governors Awards:\n\nBULLET::::- The Academy Honorary Award (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette);\n\nBULLET::::- The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (since 1938) (in the form of a bust of Thalberg);\n\nBULLET::::- The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette);\n", "In 2009, the inaugural Governors Awards were held, at which the Academy awards the Academy Honorary Award and the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award.\n", "The Grand Staircase columns at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, where the Academy Awards ceremonies have been held since 2002, showcase every film that has won the Best Picture title since the award's inception. There have been 554 films nominated for Best Picture and 91 winners.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Category name changes.\n", "Section::::Oscar statuette.:Ownership of Oscar statuettes.\n", "Section::::AFA's Statuette.\n\nSection::::AFA's Statuette.:Design.\n", "The qualifying eligibility period for all nominations is the calendar year from January 1 through December 31.\n\nVoice-over performances and cameo appearances in which persons play themselves are disqualified from all of the film and TV acting categories.\n\nFilms must be at least 70 minutes and released for at least a seven-day run in the Greater Los Angeles area, starting prior to midnight on December 31. Films can be released in theaters, on pay-per-view, or by digital delivery.\n", "At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27, 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award.\n\nThe 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.\n\nSince 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the Academy Award for Best Picture.\n", "Ballots to select the nominations are sent to HFPA members in November, along with a \"Reminder List\" of eligible film and TV programs. Each HFPA member then votes for their top five choices in each category, numbering them 5 to 1, with 5 being their top choice. The nominees in each category are then the five selections that receive the most votes. The ranked voting is only used to break ties, with number 5 worth 5 points, number 4 worth 4 points, and so on.\n", "The annual ceremony at which the awards are presented, is a major part of the film industry's awards season, which culminates each year in the Academy Awards. The eligibility period for the Golden Globes corresponds to the calendar year (i.e. January 1 through December 31). The 76th Golden Globe Awards, honoring the best in film and television in 2018, were held on January 6, 2019. The 77th Golden Globe Awards will take place on January 5, 2020.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Description and history.\n\nThe Governors Awards are one of five award ceremonies hosted by AMPAS, along with the Academy Scientific and Technical Awards, Academy Student Academy Awards, the Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting, and the main Oscars.\n", "Section::::Ceremony information.:Travel ban controversy.\n", "Section::::American film awards.:\"Golden Globe\" awards.\n\nThe American \"Golden globe\" award seeks to offer an independent view of Hollywood cinema. The award ceremony takes place in Los Angeles (USA).\n\nAmerican film award Academy of science fiction, fantasy and horror films, also known as the award \"Saturn\" (eng. \"Saturn Award\"), enjoys well-deserved popularity among fans of science fiction in the movies. Has been awarded since 1972 by the voting members of the Academy. The founder of the award is Dr. Donald A. reed (1935-2001). Initially, the award was called \"Golden scroll\" (eng. \"Golden Scroll\").\n\nBULLET::::- \"Emmi\" Awards\n\nBULLET::::- MTV Movie Awards\n", "Beginning in 1963, the trophies commenced to be handed out by one or more persons (exclusively female at first) referred to as \"Miss Golden Globe\", a title renamed on January 5, 2018 to \"Golden Globe Ambassador\". The holders of the position were, traditionally, the daughters or sometimes the sons of a celebrity, and as a point of pride, these often continued to be contested among celebrity parents.\n", "BULLET::::- Charlton Heston\n\nSection::::Awards.:Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award.\n\nBULLET::::- Walter Mirisch\n\nSection::::Awards.:Special Achievement Awards.\n\nBULLET::::- Ben Burtt for the creation of the alien, creature, and robot voices in \"Star Wars\"\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Warner for sound effects editing in \"Close Encounters of the Third Kind\"\n\nSection::::Ceremony.\n", "Section::::Awards.:Multiple nominations and awards.\n\nThese films had multiple nominations:\n\nBULLET::::- \"10 nominations\" \"Going My Way\" and \"Wilson\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"9 nominations:\" \"Since You Went Away\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"7 nominations:\" \"Double Indemnity\" and \"Gaslight\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"5 nominations:\" \"Cover Girl\" and \"Laura\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"4 nominations:\" \"Kismet\", \"Meet Me in St. Louis\" and \"None but the Lonely Heart\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"3 nominations:\" \"The Adventures of Mark Twain\", \"Brazil\", \"Casanova Brown\", \"Hollywood Canteen\", \"Lady in the Dark\" and \"Lifeboat\"\n", "BULLET::::- 1985: 7th Genie Awards, \"Paradise/Paradis\", (Ishu Patel)\n\nBULLET::::- 1982: 3rd Genie Awards, \"Top Priority\", (Ishu Patel)\n\nSection::::Awards.:Film and television awards.:Academy Awards.\n", "During its board of directors meeting in April 2019, the Academy voted to rename the \"Best Foreign Language Film\" category to \"Best International Feature Film\". Animated and documentary films will also be eligible for the renamed award, but the category will still require nominees to have the majority of their dialogue be in a language other than English.\n\nThe category of Best Makeup and Hairstyling has been expanded from seven finalists and three nominees to ten finalists and five nominees.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Oscar's Channel at YouTube (run by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences)\n", "BULLET::::- 2002: \"Opening Ceremony Salt Lake 2002 Olympic Winter Games\" by production designer Jeremy Railton\n\nBULLET::::- 2003: \"75th Academy Awards\" by production designer Roy Christopher\n\nBULLET::::- 2004: \"76th Academy Awards\" by production designer Roy Christopher\n\nBULLET::::- 2005: \"77th Academy Awards\" by production designer Roy Christopher\n\nBULLET::::- 2006: \"58th Annual Emmy Awards\" by production designer John Shaffner\n\nBULLET::::- 2007: \"Hell's Kitchen\" (for Episode #301) by production designer John R. Janavs\n\nBULLET::::- 2008: \"80th Academy Awards\" by production designer Roy Christopher\n\nBULLET::::- 2009: \"51st Grammy Awards\" by production designers Brian Stonestreet and Steve Bass\n", "A TV program must air in the United States between the prime time hours of 8:00 p.m. and 11:00 p.m (or 7:00 p.m. and 11:00 p.m on Sundays). A show can air on broadcast television, on basic or premium cable, or by digital delivery; it does not qualify if it is only on pay-per-view or via digital delivery of film. Also, a TV show must either be made in the United States or be a co-production financially and creatively between an American and a foreign production company. Furthermore, reality and non-scripted shows are disqualified.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- There were zero punts in the Packers–Bears game making it the second regular-season game in NFL history to record no punts. The other regular-season game without a punt happened on September 13, 1992, as the Buffalo Bills played the San Francisco 49ers. There has been one playoff game with no recorded punts and that occurred January 11, 2004, between the Kansas City Chiefs and the Indianapolis Colts.\n", "BULLET::::- A player attempts to return the ball, makes contact with it but cannot retain the ball in his hands and it comes loose.\n", "The Kansas City Chiefs, who played in Super Bowl I and won Super Bowl IV, bucked the trend at the time by signing Jerrel Wilson as a punting specialist in 1966. Wilson punted for the Chiefs for 13 seasons, and combined with placekicker Jan Stenerud to give the team one of the best kicking combinations in the league.\n", "BULLET::::- a ball which is allowed to land comes to rest in-bounds without being touched (American football only).\n\nOther possible results include the punt being blocked behind the line of scrimmage, and the ball being touched, but not caught or possessed, downfield by the receiving team. In both cases the ball is then \"free\" and \"live\" and will belong to whichever team recovers it.\n\nSection::::Rules.\n\nSection::::Rules.:Common to American and Canadian football.\n", "The result of a typical punt, barring any penalties or extraordinary circumstances, is a first down for the receiving team at the spot where:\n\nBULLET::::- the receiver or subsequent receiving team ball carrier is downed or goes out of bounds;\n\nBULLET::::- the ball crosses out of bounds, whether in flight or after touching the ground;\n\nBULLET::::- there is \"illegal touching\", defined as when a player from the kicking team is the first player to touch the ball after it has been punted beyond the line of scrimmage; or\n", "The frequency of punts is highly dependent upon the success, or lack thereof, of the offense. Punt returns are ubiquitous in Canadian football because the \"no-yards\" rule permits virtually every punt to be fielded and returned. Moreover, if the kicking team punts the ball out of bounds in an attempt to forestall a return and the ball goes out of bounds between the two 20-yard lines without touching the ground first, a 10-yard penalty is assessed and the ball advanced from where it left play, or the kicking team is backed up 10 yards and must replay the down. \"Shanked\" punts are therefore extremely costly to the kicking team. Though missed field goals may be returned in both national rule sets, the deeper end zone and goal post positioning make this much more common in Canadian rules. TSN on-air analysts state that they are the single play-from-scrimmage most likely to result in a touchdown. This set of special teams play (field goal return units) are rare in the American game to the point where a returner is not a standard part of a defensive field goal unit and will only be seen in unusual circumstances, with one especially notable example being the famous \"Kick Six\" college football game in 2013. Canadian kickoffs rarely result in a touchback, so special teams are more prominent in that area of the game as well. The difference in the games' final minutes procedures make comebacks — and the need for an onside kick 'hands' team, more prominent as well. The rule regarding last touch of the ball before leaving the play of field, rather than American football's last possession rule, makes the onside kick more likely to be successful as well. The most complex coaching job in Canadian football is said to be that of special teams co-ordinator. As many as 40 of a CFL roster of players may have a special teams role because of the wide variety of possible situations. In 2014 and 2015, the Edmonton Eskimos even used their third-string quarterbacks (Pat White in 2014 and Jordan Lynch in 2015) as part of their kick and kick-coverage teams. This is highly unusual, as quarterbacks are generally discouraged from making contact plays. Kick returning was a duty generally handled by a player with another role, such as receiver or defensive back. Henry \"The Gizmo\" Williams was the first player designated by telecasts as \"KR\" for a kicker returner position as his duties were almost entirely for that role, and referring to him as \"WR\" for wide receiver was increasingly seen as anachronistic. By far the greatest kick returner in professional football history, Gizmo Williams had more returns for touchdowns called back for infractions than any other player has ever scored (28 — 26 punts, 2 kick-offs). No NFL player has enjoyed similar success and the careers of such specialists (like Devin Hester) come nowhere near to matching the impact on the game that such players have in the CFL.\n", "Sports are a common use of strip photography, both for photo finishes and artistic purposes. It is particularly common for racing, where movement is largely regular and predictable, but by no means limited to it. Due to the movement in sports, which is a combination of movement at a regular rate and at a changing rate, various forms of distortion are possible. An early accidental example of distortion is \"Grand Prix de Circuit de la Seine\" (June 26, 1912) by Jacques Henri Lartigue, where the skew caused by the vertically traveling slit makes the race car appear to lean forwards, creating a sense of speed.\n", "BULLET::::- Camp Randall Stadium at the University of Wisconsin in Madison, Wisconsin – 2003, 2012\n\nBULLET::::- Capital One Field at Byrd Stadium at the University of Maryland in College Park, Maryland – 2012 – replaced natural grass\n\nBULLET::::- Cardinal Stadium at the University of Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky\n\nBULLET::::- Carrier Dome at Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York\n\nBULLET::::- Christy Mathewson–Memorial Stadium at Bucknell University in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Commonwealth Stadium at University of Kentucky in Lexington, Kentucky – 2015 – replaced natural grass\n", "BULLET::::- Scheumann Stadium at Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana\n\nBULLET::::- Schoellkopf Field at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York- 2008\n\nBULLET::::- Seth Grove Stadium at Shippensburg University in Shippensburg, Pennsylvania – 2010\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Field at Doane College in Crete, Nebraska\n\nBULLET::::- Skelly Field at H. A. Chapman Stadium at the University of Tulsa in Tulsa, Oklahoma – 2000, 2013\n\nBULLET::::- Sonny Lubick Field at Hughes Stadium at Colorado State University in Fort Collins, Colorado – 2006 – replaced natural grass\n\nBULLET::::- South Recreational Area Fields at Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia – 2015\n", "BULLET::::- The length of the punt, referred to as \"punting yards\" or \"gross punting yards\", is measured from the line of scrimmage (not the spot where the punter punts) to whichever of the following points applies: (1) the spot that a punt is caught; (2) the spot that a punt goes out of bounds; (3) the spot that a punt is declared dead because of illegal touching; or (4) the goal line, for punts that are ruled touchbacks.\n", "BULLET::::- A \"pull\" is a ball whose flight path is straight, with negligible sidespin that ends up left of the target. The incidence angle of the clubface is x° to the left of the target, and where the path of the clubface is also x° to the left of the target (outside to inside path).\n\nBULLET::::- A \"shank\" occurs when the ball is struck on the hosel of the club, and thus flies at a sharp angle to the right of the intended direction (or vice versa for a left-handed player).\n", "Muffed punt\n\nIn gridiron football, a muffed punt is defined as \"touching of the ball prior to possessing the ball.”\n\nA muffed punt occurs when there is an \"uncontrolled touch\" of the football by a player on the returning team after it is punted. This can occur when:\n\nBULLET::::- The kicking team interferes with the other team's right to catch the punt\n\nBULLET::::- A player on the kicking team is struck unaware by the football running down-field to cover the punt.\n", "BULLET::::- The length of the punt is measured from the line of scrimmage to the spot of the catch or the point where the kick goes out of bounds. The punt return is measured independently, though the value of the punt to the kicking team is determined by distance from the line of scrimmage to the end of the return.\n", "On 12 October 2008, he sustained a season-ending fracture in his kicking foot, after his first career blocked punt, which was also returned for the game-winning touchdown on the final play of an overtime loss against the Arizona Cardinals. Before the injury he was averaging 49 yards per punt and had a 38.8 net punting average.\n", "During the debut preseason game of Cowboys Stadium on August 21, 2009, a punt by Tennessee Titans punter A. J. Trapasso hit the 175 feet (53.34 m) wide screen above the field. The punt deflected backwards and was ruled in-play until Titans coach Jeff Fisher informed the officials that the punt struck the scoreboard. By rule, the down was replayed. Jerry Jones believes that Trapasso was trying to hit the scoreboard, saying, \"If you look at how you punt the football, unless you're trying to hit the scoreboard, you punt the ball to get downfield. You certainly want to get some hangtime, but you punt the ball to get downfield, and you sure don't punt the ball down the middle. You punt it off to the side.\" Whether the screen would affect an opposing team's punting strategy has been debated. For teams with strategies centered on maximizing hang-time, physicist Christopher Moore of Longwood University has shown via computer simulation that well-kicked punts have the potential to hit the screen no matter the field position. Trapasso disputed Jones' suggestion that he was intentionally trying to hit the board, and other NFL punters have suggested that the board may pose a problem for longer hang-time punts. The screen was retrofitted with 16 custom winches using 11,000 feet (3.35 km) of domestic galvanized wire rope from Tway Lifting Products to accomplish the safe, efficient transport of the video board in time to make room for U2's massive set during their 360° Tour, and was moved back down after the concert. The video board is also the primary attachment point for up to 370,000 lb (168 metric tons) of concert and theatrical rigging.\n", "BULLET::::- Adding 10 yards to an illegal punt that goes out of bounds. If a punt goes out of bounds in the air (i.e. without bouncing) between the 20-yard lines, the receiving team will have the option of taking the ball where it went out of bounds plus 10 yards or have the kicking team re-kick 10 yards further back from the original line of scrimmage.\n", "BULLET::::- The longest punt in North American pro football history is a 108-yarder by Zenon Andrusyshyn of the CFL's Toronto Argonauts (at Edmonton, October 23, 1977). This record was also tied by Christopher Milo of the Saskatchewan Roughriders on October 29, 2011, at a home game at Mosaic Stadium at Taylor Field in Regina, during which winds gusted above (this is also the site of the three longest field goals in CFL history and one of the windiest fields in professional football).\n", "A good punt snap should hit the target (namely the punter's hands at the abdomen or waistline) between .65 and .75 seconds and with a tight spiral for easy handling. A \"bad snap\" is an off-target snap which causes the delay or failure of a kick and/or forces the punter into a potentially compromising situation.\n\nSection::::In the NCAA.\n", "BULLET::::- Fake punts: In much the same way as a fake field goal (described below), a fake punt is an effort to trick the opposition and either score or gain enough yards for a first down. Fake punts are risky for the same reasons as fake field goals and are thus rarely attempted.\n", "This type of kick can also be attempted in Canadian football. The difference is that if the ball becomes dead in the endzone in Canadian football, a single point is awarded to the kicking team and the conceding team scrimmages from their 35-yard line. In most cases however, the kicking team prefers the advantageous field position, rather than the point.\n\nSection::::Career lengths.\n", "BULLET::::- The longest punt in NFL/AFL play was a 98-yarder by Steve O'Neal of the New York Jets in an American Football League regular season loss to the Denver Broncos at Mile High Stadium on September 21, 1969.\n\nBULLET::::- Jeff Feagles is the all-time NFL career punts and punt yards leader with 1,713 punts and 71,211 punt yards over 352 games.\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Cameron is the all-time CFL career punts and punt yards leader with 3,129 punts and 134,301 punt yards over 394 games.\n", "Section::::Skills.:Coffin corner.\n", "Certain punters can have exceptionally long careers, compared to other NFL position players (there is a similar tendency with kickers). One reason for this is that their limited time on the field and heavy protection by penalties against defensive players for late hits makes them far less likely to be injured than other positions. Sean Landeta, for instance, played 19 NFL seasons and three USFL seasons for eight different teams. Jeff Feagles played 22 seasons as a punter, on five different teams.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"net\" punting yardage is taken by calculating the total punting yardage and subtracting any yardage earned by the receiving team on returns, and subtracting 20 yards for each touchback.\n\nBULLET::::- Under no circumstance can the kicking team score points as the direct result of a punt. (It can score indirectly if the receiving team loses possession of the ball or runs back into its own end zone and gets tackled.)\n\nSection::::Rules.:Canadian football.\n", "Punter (football)\n\nA punter (P) in American or Canadian football is a special teams player who receives the snapped ball directly from the line of scrimmage and then punts (kicks) the football to the opposing team so as to limit any field position advantage. This generally happens on a fourth down in American football and a third down in Canadian football. Punters may also occasionally take part in fake punts in those same situations, when they throw or run the football instead of punting.\n\nSection::::Skills.\n" ]

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[ "Most raised surfaces at the appropriate height can be used as seats for humans, whether they are made for the purpose, such as chairs, stools and benches, or not. While the buttocks are nearly always rested on the raised surface, there are many differences in how one can hold one's legs and back.\n\nThere are two major styles of sitting on a raised surface. The first has one or two of the legs in front of the sitting person; in the second, sitting astride something, the legs incline outwards on either side of the body.\n", "As Sir Isaac Newton so aptly put it: if we have been able to see farther than others, it is because we have stood on the shoulders of giants. It is with this voice that we have come to be known: demonstrating against injustice; defending those around whom voices have fell silent; standing up for what we know is right; as a group and as individuals, we are multipliers of change— we are here.\n", "Experimental evidence bears out the appeal to poverty. A 2017 study by Igor Grossmann and Justin Brienza at the University of Waterloo in Canada found that poor and working-class people are more likely to show \"wisdom\", defined as the ability to consider opposing perspectives and find a compromise that defuses an interpersonal dispute, than those in higher socioeconomic classes.\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Family farms are struggling to get by so when they say we need to protect them, they must be on to something.\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"The homeless tell us it's hard to find housing. Thus it must be.\"\n", "With resistance training it's not recommended to do forward lunges in place, this is due to the shear force it can place on the rear knee once the front leg no longer provides support.\n\nSection::::Yoga.\n", "Before cars and bicycles were mass-produced, walking was the main way to travel. It was the only way to get from place to place for much of human history. In the 1930s, economic growth led to increased automobile manufacturing. Cars were also becoming more affordable, leading to the rise of the automobile during the Post–World War II economic expansion. The detrimental effects of automobile emissions soon led to public concern over pollution. Alternatives, including improved public transportation and walking infrastructure, have attracted more attention from planners and policymakers.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Health.\n", "Section::::Postural stability.\n\nCurrently, there are 3 main hypotheses suggesting how humans maintain postural stability while standing:\n", "Lordosis in the human spine makes it easier for humans to bring the bulk of their mass over the pelvis. This allows for a much more efficient walking gait than that of other primates, whose inflexible spines cause them to resort to an inefficient forward leaning \"bent-knee, bent-waist\" gait. As such, lordosis in the human spine is considered one of the primary physiological adaptations of the human skeleton that allows for human gait to be as energetically efficient as it is.\n", "Hunters use climbing stands to take the stand to different locations easily. Although not permanent like ladder stands and hanging stands, they can relocate a hunter to a different tree easily. Some hunters do leave them in the woods at the base of the tree. Climbing stands allow hunters that want to hunt from them to use a climbing stand at a location that will not allow them to keep a stand up during the whole season. Often ladder stands and hanging stands do not move easily, so they tend to stay on one tree. Because branches limit climbing stand use, ladder stands and hanging stands allow hunters more options on the trees with many branches at a lower height.\n", "Another case is Utkatasana, sometimes called chair pose, though its name, \"Utkata\", means \"fierce\". In modern yoga, it is indeed a challenging squatting pose with the thighs approaching the horizontal; in the 19th century \"Sritattvanidhi\" it is illustrated as a low squatting pose with the buttocks resting against the heels; the \"Gheranda Samhita\" II.27 is similar, but the heels are raised.\n\nSection::::Asanas.:Yoga as exercise.\n", "Two parts make up climbing stands. The bottom part is the standing platform and the top is the seat. Not all the top parts have backs for the seats. There is normally a strap that connects the two parts, so if the bottom falls while in the tree or climbing, the platform doesn’t fall all the way to the ground, stranding the hunter. Only trees that have no limbs up to the height desired for hunting will work.\n", "Energy-efficient means of standing bipedally involve constant adjustment of balance, and of course these must avoid overcorrection. The difficulties associated with simple standing in upright humans are highlighted by the greatly increased risk of falling present in the elderly, even with minimal reductions in control system effectiveness.\n\nSection::::Physiology.:Biomechanics.:Shoulder stability.\n", "A low floor in the vehicular sense is normally combined in a conceptual meaning with normal pedestrian access from a standard kerb (curb) height. However, the accessibility of a low-floor vehicle can also be utilised from slightly raising portions of kerb at bus stops, or through use of level boarding bus rapid transit stations or tram stops. The combination of access from a kerb was the technological development of the 1990s, as step-free interior layouts for buses had existed in some cases for decades, with entrance steps being introduced as chassis designs and overall height regulations changed.\n", "Short running backs are at an advantage because their shorter stature and lower center of gravity generally makes them harder to tackle effectively. In addition, they can easily \"hide\" behind large offensive linemen, making it harder for defenders to react at the beginning of a play. Thus, in the National Football League and in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football, running backs under are more common than running backs over . Former Heisman Trophy winner and Pro Football Hall of Famer Barry Sanders, thought by some to be the greatest running back in history, is a classic example of a running back with an extraordinarily low center of gravity, as he stood only .\n", "While these are the three leading hypotheses, of course there is always a possibility that there is a combination of all mechanisms that ultimately allows humans to maintain postural stability during quiet standing. Additionally, it is important to keep in mind that there are also many physiological factors such as weight, internal noise to muscles, etc. that may come into play when trying to understand the factors that contribute to postural stability.\n\nSection::::Posture abnormalities.\n", "When standing, gravity pulls the blood downwards to the lower part of the body. Body mechanisms, such as vasoconstriction and valves of the veins, assist in pumping blood upwards. As blood is pumped through the body, the valves within the veins prevent the blood from flowing backwards. After extensive, prolonged standing, these valves can become weak and eventually fail. When this happens, blood is no longer being prevented from flowing backward. Gravity will pull the blood back into an individuals legs, ankles and feet. This forces the veins to expand or \"balloon\" to accommodate this extra blood.\n", "\"Ancient pot-wallopers, and thriving shopkeepers, in their intervals of leisure, stood at their shop doors – their toes hanging over the edge of the step, and their obese waists hanging over their toes – and in discourses with friends on the pavement, formulated the course of the improvident, and reduced the children's prospects to a shadow-like attenuation.\" \n", "Human knee joints are enlarged for the same reason as the hip – to better support an increased amount of body weight. The degree of knee extension (the angle between the thigh and shank in a walking cycle) has decreased. The changing pattern of the knee joint angle of humans shows a small extension peak, called the “double knee action,” in the midstance phase. Double knee action decreases energy lost by vertical movement of the center of gravity. Humans walk with their knees kept straight and the thighs bent inward so that the knees are almost directly under the body, rather than out to the side, as is the case in ancestral hominids. This type of gait also aids balance.\n", "Standing chair\n\nA standing chair is a tall support for the body — a modified chair or stool — designed for standing work or to reduce fatigue.\n\nThe precursors of standing chairs are chairs that relieve sitting discomfort by providing a more open angle between thighs and torso: traditional architects' tall stools, bar stools, and more recent bar-height tables in restaurants.\n", "Downward dog can be supported with a strap from a secure waist-level wall anchor around the hips; or with a bolster under the forehead, combined if need be with a rolled blanket or towel under the feet.\n\nThe pose can be modified with the back horizontal and the hands on top of the back of a chair, putting less pressure on the shoulders; this is useful for people with an injury.\n\nSection::::Effects and contra-indications.\n\nDownward dog stretches the hamstring and calf muscles in the backs of the legs, and builds strength in the shoulders.\n", "Another study indicated that people who were dieting often used upward social comparisons by posting pictures of thinner people on their refrigerators. These pictures served as not only a reminder of an individuals current weight, but also as an inspiration of a goal to be reached. In simple terms, downward social comparisons are more likely to make us feel better about ourselves, while upward social comparisons are more likely to motivate us to achieve more or reach higher.\n\nSection::::Theoretical advances.:Moderators of social comparison.\n", "Auto-focused street design diminish walking and needed \"eyes on the street\" provided by the steady presence of people in an area. Walkability increases social interaction, mixing of populations, average number of friends and associates where people live, reduced crime (with more people walking and watching over neighborhoods, open space and main streets), increased sense of pride, and increased volunteerism.\n\nSocioeconomic factors contribute to willingness to choose walking over driving. Income, age, race, ethnicity, education, household status, and having children in a household all influence walking travel.\n\nSection::::Increasing walkability.\n", "Section::::Design.\n\nThis type of floor consists of a gridded metal framework or substructure of adjustable-height supports (called \"pedestals\") that provide support for removable (liftable) floor panels, which are usually 2×2 feet or 60×60 cm. The height of the legs/pedestals is dictated by the volume of cables and other services provided beneath, but typically arranged for a clearance of at least six inches or 15 cm with typical heights between 24 inches to 48 inches.\n", "Level and incline running\n\nTerrestrial locomotion by means of a running gait can be accomplished on level surfaces. However, in most outdoor environments an individual will experience terrain undulations requiring uphill running. Similar conditions can be mimicked in a controlled environment on a treadmill also. Additionally, running on inclines is used by runners, both distance and sprinter, to improve cardiovascular conditioning and lower limb strength.\n\nSection::::Gait.\n", "Training and education are important components of avoiding complications from standing. Employees trained in ergonomics experience less muscle discomfort and more productivity while using sit-stand work stations than workers not trained.\n\nSection::::Floor mats.\n\nProper floor mats can also be used to reduce stress on feet and knees. Anti-fatigue matting is recommended and launderable matting is preferred. A study investigating the effects of 4 different standing conditions on assembly workers showed that using mats and shoes with in-soles was perceived as more comfortable for the workers than without while standing on hard floors.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Neutral spine\n\nBULLET::::- Varicose veins\n", "Section::::Asanas.:Surya Namaskar.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Climate.\n", "The Greater Blue Mountains Area consists of of mostly forested landscape on a sandstone plateau inland from the Sydney central business district. The area includes vast expanses of wilderness and is equivalent in area to almost one third of Belgium, or twice the size of Brunei.\n\nThe area is called \"Blue Mountains\" based on the fact that when atmospheric temperature rise, the essential oil of various eucalyptus species evaporates and disperse in the air, then visible blue spectrum of sunlight propagates more than other colours. Therefore, the reflected landscape from mountains seems bluish by human eyes.\n", "Section::::History.:During westward expansion of the United States.\n\nIn the mid-1800s, the Blue Mountains were a formidable obstacle to settlers traveling on the Oregon Trail and were often the last mountain range American pioneers had to cross before either reaching southeast Washington near Walla Walla or passing down the Columbia River Gorge to the end of the Oregon Trail in the Willamette Valley near Oregon City.\n\nSection::::History.:Modern travel.\n", "Section::::Color of glaciers.\n\nGlaciers are large bodies of ice and snow formed in cold climates by processes involving the compaction of fallen snow. While snowy glaciers appear white from a distance, up close and when shielded from direct ambient light, glaciers usually appear a deep blue due to the long path lengths of the internal reflected light.\n", "The Blue Mountains, Ontario\n\nThe Blue Mountains is a town in Grey County, southwestern Ontario, Canada, located where the Beaver River flows into Nottawasaga Bay. It is named for the Blue Mountain, and hence the economy of the town is centred on tourism, particularly on the Blue Mountain ski resort and the private Georgian Peaks, Osler, Craigleith and Alpine Ski Clubs.\n", "Relatively small amounts of regular ice appear white because plenty of air bubbles are present, and also because small quantities of water appear to be colorless. In glaciers, on the other hand, the pressure causes the air bubbles, trapped in the accumulated snow, to be squeezed out increasing the density of the created ice. Large quantities of water appear blue, therefore a large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, would also appear blue.\n\nSection::::Color of water samples.\n", "Since the sun is below the horizon, there is no direct path for the sunlight to reach the mountain. Unlike sunrise or sunset, the light that causes alpenglow is reflected off airborne precipitation, ice crystals, or particulates in the lower atmosphere. These conditions differentiate between a normal sunrise or sunset, and alpenglow.\n\nThe term is generally confused to be any sunrise or sunset light reflected off the mountains or clouds, but true alpenglow is not direct sunlight and is only visible after sunset or before sunrise.\n", "Pan-sharpening techniques can result in spectral distortions when pan sharpening satellite images as a result of the nature of the panchromatic band. The Landsat panchromatic band for example is not sensitive to blue light. As a result, the spectral characteristics of the raw pansharpened color image may not exactly match those of the corresponding low-resolution RGB image, resulting in altered color tones. This has resulted in the development of many algorithms that attempt to reduce this spectral distortion and to produce visually pleasing images.\n", "Blue Mountain Vineyard\n\nBlue Mountain Vineyard, located on the shore of Vaseux Lake in Okanagan Falls, British Columbia is a Canadian Winery. Situated near the bottom of British Columbia's Okanagan Valley, Blue Mountain produces over 12,000 cases of wine per year. Blue Mountain's tasting room is open by appointment only.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Mount Blue (New Hampshire)\n\nMount Blue is a mountain in the White Mountains, located in Benton, New Hampshire. In spite of its height over 4,000 feet, it is not usually considered one of the four-thousand footers of New Hampshire, because its prominence is less than 200 feet, making it a sub-peak of Mount Moosilauke.\n", "Blue Mountain (Pennsylvania)\n\nBlue Mountain Ridge, Blue Mountain, or the Blue Mountains of Pennsylvania is part of the geophysical makeup of the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. It is a ridge that forms the southern and eastern edge of the Appalachian mountain range spanning over from the Delaware Water Gap as it cuts across the eastern half of the state on a slight diagonal from New Jersey tending southerly until it turns southerly curving into Maryland, and beyond.\n", "Section::::In science and nature.:Purple mountains phenomenon.\n\nIt has been observed that the greater the distance between a viewers eyes and mountains, the lighter and more blue or purple they will appear. This phenomenon, long recognized by Leonardo da Vinci and other painters, is called aerial perspective or atmospheric perspective. The more distant the mountains are, the less contrast the eye sees between the mountains and the sky.\n", "Jozo Weider was born in Žilina in 1908, in what was then Austria-Hungary present day Slovakia. In his twenties, he built a ski chalet in the Carpathian mountains and lived as an innkeeper, mountain guide and photographer through the 1930s. He also travelled abroad to England to promote the chalet, and was on such a trip in 1939 when World War II began. He telegrammed his wife, Helena, who was still in Czechoslovakia to leave the country. She met Jozo in England with their son, and the family applied for political asylum. The entire family emigrated to Canada later that year, settling in Peace River, Alberta. Later that year Jozo travelled east, working a seasonal job at the Chateau Frontenac as a ski instructor. The next year he moved the entire family to Quebec, working at the Inn in Sainte-Marguerite-du-Lac-Masson.\n", "In most mountain areas in Oregon, the ground above is covered with snow from December through April. Snow depths, which vary with elevation and time of year, average an estimated in the Cascades and in the Blue Mountains at the end of January; by the end of April, they diminish to in the Cascades and in the Blues. Glaciers remain year-round on some Cascade peaks higher than above sea level.\n", "Blüemlisalp\n\nThe Blüemlisalp is a massif of the Bernese Alps, in the territory of the municipalities of Kandersteg and Reichenbach im Kandertal.\n\nIts main peaks are:\n\nBULLET::::- Blüemlisalphorn (3,661 m)\n\nBULLET::::- Wyssi Frau (3,648 m)\n\nBULLET::::- Morgenhorn (3,623 m)\n", "Established in 1941, the ski resort was later transformed into a year-round resort in 1977. From 1999 to 2007, the resort was under the majority-ownership of Intrawest. During its ownership, the resort underwent major renovations including the installation of high-speed lifts, and a new residential village at the base of the base of the resort. The resort is owned by Alterra Mountain Company after it bought Intrawest in 2017.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "Daylight periods change as the seasons change. From May to August, darkness does not linger for long. Instead of rising or setting, the sun circles just above the horizon, turning to darkness only for a few hours when the sun circles behind the mountains. During the quick seasons of spring and autumn, the length of daylight changes by six to eight minutes each day.\n\nSection::::Flora.\n", "The entire massif is contained within the canton of Berne, as it lies north of the main crest and water divide of the Bernese Alps. To the west, it is connected with the Doldenhorn group via the Oeschinenhorn and Fründenhorn peaks; to the east, it is continued by the Gspaltenhorn. To the south, it is connected to the main crest by the Tschingel Pass.\n\nAscent is from the \"Blüemlisalphütte\" (2,840 m), over the glacier, past the Wildi Frau (3,260 m)\n\nSection::::Geography.\n", "The Blue Mountains has a host recreational activities for all the seasons. Most notably is the winter Skiing, Snowboarding, Snowshoeing and Cross-country Skiing. In the summer there is hiking, downhill/cross-country biking, an extravagant mini putt, the Ridge Runner and events such as Met Con Blue. If physical activities are not what you are looking for, The Village at Blue Mountain has a plethora of boutiques, coffee shops, restaurants, hotels and chalets, as well as golf courses within walking distance. Less than a 5-minute drive away there is the Scandinave Spa which situated on 25 acres of natural Ontario birch, as well as the Scenic Caves for those who want to experience a different kind of adventure.\n", "In 1971, Proprietor Ian completed his Agriculture degree and purchased his first parcel of land which now constitutes Blue Mountain's vineyard. Described as \"the most radically laid-out vineyard in the Okanagan Valley,\" Blue Mountain's picturesque view, overlooking Vaseux Lake, is very isolated from the main valley corridor. The local terroir provides Blue Mountain with varying \"micro-climates\" conducive for grape-growing of differing varietals. It was the unique qualities of the terroir that led Mavetys to establish the vineyard near Okanagan Falls.\n", "\"The Blue Rigi\" depicts the Rigi mountain in central Switzerland, viewed from the southwest across Lake Lucerne. The \"Queen of Mountains\" is blue in the early morning light, wreathed by veils of morning mist. The tonality is built up with layers of colour wash, with fine detail added through cross-hatching with a fine brush. The planet Venus glints in the yellow morning sky above, where paint has been scratched out with a fingernail to reveal the bright white ground. In the left foreground, drawn in with pen and brown ink, ducks can be seen rising from the lake, alarmed by a gunshot and chased by two dogs, to the right foreground.\n", "During his travels to Armenia, Soviet Russian writer Vasily Grossman observed Mount Ararat from Yerevan standing \"high in the blue sky.\" He wrote that \"with its gentle, tender contours, it seems to grow not out of the earth but out of the sky, as if it has condensed from its white clouds and its deep blue. It is this snowy mountain, this bluish-white sunlit mountain that shone in the eyes of those who wrote the Bible.\"\n", "At the top of the mountain, a rare atmospheric phenomenon known as \"Brokkensky ghost\" can be seen during sunrise. To observe the \"ghost\" appearance, several conditions must be met: Chatyr-Dag must be shrouded in mist and the area over the sea and Demerdzhi must be clear, transparent and completely permeable to sunlight. During sunrise, it is possible to see shadows projected on the background of Chatyr-Dag, shrouded in mist, surrounded by a circular rainbow halo.\n\nSection::::Climate.\n", "The first documented use of the name \"Blue Mountains\" appears in Captain John Hunter’s account of Phillip’s 1789 expedition up the Hawkesbury River. Describing the events of about 5 July, Hunter wrote: \"We frequently, in some of the reaches which we passed through this day, saw very near us the hills, which we suppose as seen from Port Jackson, and called by the governor the Blue Mountains.\" During the nineteenth century the name was commonly applied to the portion of the Great Dividing Range from about Goulburn in the south to the Hunter Valley in the north, but in time it came to be associated with a more limited area.\n" ]

[ "Mountains exclusively look blue when they have snow on them. " ]

[ "It is not the snow that makes the mountains look blue, it is the distance, in addition it isn't just mountains that look blue from afar, it's virtually everything." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Mountains exclusively look blue when they have snow on them. ", "Mountains exclusively look blue when they have snow on them. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is not the snow that makes the mountains look blue, it is the distance, in addition it isn't just mountains that look blue from afar, it's virtually everything.", "It is not the snow that makes the mountains look blue, it is the distance, in addition it isn't just mountains that look blue from afar, it's virtually everything." ]

[ "Although businesses usually maintain some kind of fax capability, the technology has faced increasing competition from Internet-based alternatives. In some countries, because electronic signatures on contracts are not yet recognized by law, while faxed contracts with copies of signatures are, fax machines enjoy continuing support in business. In Japan, faxes are still used extensively for cultural and graphemic reasons and are available for sending to both domestic and international recipients from over 81% of all convenience stores nationwide. Convenience-store fax machines commonly print the slightly re-sized content of the sent fax in the electronic confirmation-slip, in A4 paper size.\n", "In \"Friends of Lansdowne v. Ottawa\" Master MacLeod refers to the need for Sedona Canada principles and states “This is particularly true in the current information age when e-mail is ubiquitous and multiple copies or variants of messages may be held on various kinds of data storage devices including individual hard drives, e-mail and Blackberry servers. Even documents that ultimately exist in paper form normally begin their life on computers and negotiations frequently involve exchanges of electronic drafts. To find every scrap of paper and every electronic trace of relevant information has become a nightmarish task that threatens to render any kind of litigation extravagantly expensive.”\n", "Memoranda to file are used in investigations in the private sector. For example, the fraud unit of a large corporation may use memoranda to file, to report individual interviews and significant telephone conversations. Generally, \"the memorandum will show the name of the author, date of preparation, the case name or number, and the specific subject covered. It will also contain the detailed narrative of the event, interview, or other investigative activity described and should be written as close in time as circumstances permit to those events.\"\n\nSection::::History.\n", "The California Supreme Court has held that when a public official or employee uses a \"personal\" account and/or device to communicate about the conduct of public business, such as e-mails or text messages, the applicable writings may be subject to public disclosure under the California Public Records Act. Such communications may yield information relevant for voter consideration in Proposition 218 tax elections.\n", "In many corporate environments, freestanding fax machines have been replaced by fax servers and other computerized systems capable of receiving and storing incoming faxes electronically, and then routing them to users on paper or via an email (which may be secured). Such systems have the advantage of reducing costs by eliminating unnecessary printouts and reducing the number of inbound analog phone lines needed by an office.\n", "Organisations adopting an ECM/DMS often implement electronic workflow which allows the information held on paper to be included as part of an electronic business process and incorporated into a customer record file along with other associated office documents and emails.\n\nFor business critical documents, such as purchase orders and supplier invoices, digitising documents helps speed up business transactions as well as reduce manual effort involved in keying data into business systems, such as CRM, ERP and Accounting. Scanned invoices can also be routed to managers for payment approval via email or an electronic workflow.\n\nSection::::Electronic Document Capture.\n", "In the early 1990s small business PCs commonly had a PC-based fax/modem card and fax software (typically WinFax Pro). Largely replaced by email, PC-based faxing with a fax/modem declined at the turn of the century. Where faxing from a PC is required there are a number of Internet-based faxing alternatives. Where businesses still had one or more traditional fax machines churning out pages, they were usually outnumbered by PCs processing E-mail.\n\nSection::::PC faxing.\n", "In addition, the FTC requires a process similar to TPV for many orders and to have reliable documentation of their orders, and other transaction types. Third-Party Verification is now the de facto standard for transactions of all types where a legally binding authentication and confirmation are required, but a signed document is impractical or impossible. It is being applied in hospitals and else where in healthcare for records releases; in schools for parental program approvals; by local governments as notification of impending actions; by attorneys themselves for service authorizations; by service providers for work authorizations. In all cases, based upon Federal Rules and the U.S.Code, phone verifications are authorized and legally binding, assuming that the verification is recorded and available for audit for a minimum of 24 months, and that identity of the authorizing person can reasonably be verified, such as by a social security number, driver's license, date of birth, and/or other unique identifiers.\n", "Section::::Open Formats.\n\nIn early 2005, Kriss, along with state CIO Peter J. Quinn, advocated using open formats in public records: \"It is an overriding imperative of the American democratic system that we cannot have our public documents locked up in some kind of proprietary format, perhaps unreadable in the future, or subject to a proprietary system license that restricts access.\"\n", "Most nations also regulate use of electronic messaging and electronic records retention in similar fashion as the United States. The most common regulations related to IM at work involve the need to produce archived business communications to satisfy government or judicial requests under law. Many instant messaging communications fall into the category of business communications that must be archived and retrievable.\n\nSection::::Security and archiving.\n", "The security of the process guarantees the authenticity and integrity of the document, which aligns with the records management policy of the company.\n\nSection::::Benefits.:Improving customer service.\n\nThe electronic management of incoming mail improves the handling of documents within service oriented companies and agencies. It enhances the quality of the service offered to customers by allowing staff to instantly access customer files and answer questions immediately. The improvement of customer service is considered to be of fundamental importance by the majority of companies.\n\nSection::::Technologies.\n\nSection::::Technologies.:Document capture.\n", "There are a few barriers to adopting electronic data interchange. One of the most significant barriers is the accompanying business process change. Existing business processes built around paper handling may not be suited for EDI and would require changes to accommodate automated processing of business documents. For example, a business may receive the bulk of their goods by 1 or 2-day shipping and all of their invoices by mail. The existing process may therefore assume that goods are typically received before the invoice. With EDI, the invoice will typically be sent when the goods ship and will therefore require a process that handles large numbers of invoices whose corresponding goods have not yet been received.\n", "When applied to electronic communication, the principle protects not only the content of the communication, but also the information on when and to whom any messages (if any) have been sent (see: Call detail records), and in the case of mobile communication, the location information of the mobile units. As a consequence, in jurisdictions with a safeguard on secrecy of letters, location data collected from mobile phone networks has a higher level of protection than data collected by vehicle telematics or transport tickets. \n\nSection::::United States.\n", "PaperWorks\n\nPaperWorks was a computer program introduced by Xerox Corporation in 1992, which allowed a business traveler to communicate with his or her personal computer while away from the office.\n\nPaperWorks could be used to send and retrieve documents between the fixed computer system and the business traveler, by using fax machines. \n\nThe software created special machine-readable forms, similar to the type of forms used to score standardized tests. (Related topic: OMR)\n\nThe user would then fax the form back to the central computer, commanding one of several tasks to be performed. For example:\n", "Under ECPA, it is relatively easy for a government agency to demand service providers hand over personal consumer data stored on the service provider's servers. Email that is stored on a third party's server for more than 180 days is considered by the law to be abandoned. All that is required to obtain the content of the emails by a law enforcement agency is a written statement certifying that the information is relevant to an investigation, without judicial review. When the law was initially passed, emails were stored on a third party's server for only a short period of time, just long enough to facilitate transfer of email to the consumer's email client, which was generally located on their personal or work computer. Now, with online email services prevalent such as Gmail and Hotmail, users are more likely to store emails online indefinitely, rather than to only keep them for less than 180 days. If the same emails were stored on the user's personal computer, it would require the police to obtain a warrant first for seizure of their contents, regardless of their age. When they are stored on an internet server however, no warrant is needed, starting 180 days after receipt of the message, under the law. In 2013, members of the U.S. Congress proposed to reform this procedure.\n", "A disadvantage of receiving faxes through the computer is that the computer has to be turned on and running the fax software to receive any faxes. It also means that the document is no longer readable by computer applications, unless optical character recognition methods are used to read the fax image.\n\nNote: This method is distinct from Internet faxing as the information is sent directly over the telephone network, not over the Internet.\n\nThis helps to communicate from remote places to the fax machine's location.\n\nSection::::Mobile-based faxing.\n", "Facsimile machines are commonly used tools of business, whenever a client requires a hard copy of a document. They can also be simulated using web services, and made untraceable by the use of prepaid phones connected to mobile fax machines or by use of a public fax machine such as one owned by a document processing business like FedEx Office/Kinko's. Thus, scammers posing as business entities often use fax transmissions as an anonymous form of communication. This is more expensive, as the prepaid phone and fax equipment cost more than email, but to a skeptical victim, it can be more believable.\n", "One popular alternative is to subscribe to an Internet fax service, allowing users to send and receive faxes from their personal computers using an existing email account. No software, fax server or fax machine is needed. Faxes are received as attached TIFF or PDF files, or in proprietary formats that require the use of the service provider's software. Faxes can be sent or retrieved from anywhere at any time that a user can get Internet access. Some services offer secure faxing to comply with stringent HIPAA and Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act requirements to keep medical information and financial information private and secure. Utilizing a fax service provider does not require paper, a dedicated fax line, or consumable resources.\n", "The introduction of computer-based facsimile systems (combined with integrated document imaging solutions) at major corporations now means that black faxes are unlikely to cause problems for them. On the other hand, the ability of computer modems to send faxes offers new avenues for abuse. A program could be used to generate hundreds of pages of highly compressed, pure black – or huge volumes of relevant-looking, original, non-repeating high-black-density junk, just as effective but far more difficult to counteract – and send them very quickly to the target fax machine.\n", "Many United States federal agencies oversee the use of information technology. Their regulations are promulgated in the Code of Federal Regulations of the United States.\n\nOver 25 U.S. federal agencies have regulations concerning the use of digital and electronic signatures.\n\nSection::::Enforcement agencies.:India.\n\nA live example of such an enforcement agency is Cyber Crime Police Station, Bangalore, India's first exclusive Cyber Crime enforcement agency.\n\nBULLET::::- Other examples of such enforcement agencies include:\n\nBULLET::::- Cydf Crime Investigation Cell of India's Mumbai Police.\n", "In the United States alone there are over 10,000 laws and regulations related to electronic messaging and records retention. The better-known of these include the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, HIPAA, and SEC 17a-3.\n", "The protection of the Fourth Amendment has been extended beyond the home in other instances. A protection similar to that of correspondence has even been argued to extend to the contents of trash cans outside one's house, although unsuccessfully. Like all rights derived through litigation, the secrecy of correspondence is subject to interpretations. By Supreme Court precedent, rights derived from the Fourth Amendment are limited by the legal test of a \"reasonable expectation of privacy\".\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Black room\n\nBULLET::::- Data privacy\n\nBULLET::::- Dead letter\n\nBULLET::::- Electronic Communications Privacy Act\n\nBULLET::::- \"Katz v. United States\"\n\nBULLET::::- Lawful interception\n", "In the summer of 2016, Secretary Murray announced the launch of a business service which allows for the electronic filing of official documents and retrieval of records that were previously available only upon request. As a result, the time to process a business filing decreased from five days to as low as thirty minutes.\n", "In conjunction with document retention, another issue is that of the security of storage media and how well electronic documents are protected for both current and future use. The five-year record retention requirement means that current technology must be able to support what was stored five years ago. Due to rapid changes in technology, some of today’s media might be outdated in the next three or five years. Audit data retained today may not be retrievable not because of data degradation, but because of obsolete equipment and storage media.\n", "Registered faxes are stored in a secured web environment. The sender and the receiver can check the authenticity of the registered fax at any time in a secured web interface, as the fax is stored and archived for a long period of time.\n\nThe following table defines the items to which each party in the registered fax process has access:\n\nSection::::Advantages.\n\nVladimir Popesco says that, although the traditional faxing is considered a reliable and secure communication mean, the registered fax process introduces some advantages in the fax security domain:\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Reactions.\n\nSection::::Reactions.:President of the United States.\n\nOn the day President Donald Trump signed the bill into law, he issued two separate, simultaneous signing statements. In the statement meant for Congress he said:\n", "On 29 September 2017, president Donald Trump issued a presidential memorandum, which delegated certain functions and authorities under the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act as well as the 2014 Ukraine Freedom Support Act, and the 2014 Support for the Sovereignty, Integrity, Democracy, and Economic Stability of Ukraine Act to the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Director of National Intelligence.\n", "The law forbids the president from lifting earlier sanctions without first consulting Congress, giving them time to reverse such a move. It targets Russia's defense industry by harming Russia's ability to export weapon, and allows the U.S. to sanction international companies that work to develop Russian energy resources. The proposed sanctions also caused harsh criticism and threats of retaliatory measure on the part of the European Union, Germany and France. On January 29, 2018, the Trump administration notified Congress saying that it would not impose additional sanctions on Russia under 2017 legislation designed to punish Moscow's meddling in the 2016 U.S. election. The administration insisted that the mere threat of the sanctions outlined in the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act would serve as a deterrent, and that implementing the sanctions would therefore be unnecessary.\n", "After the bill was signed, the Russian Foreign Ministry attributed the sanctions to \"Russophobic hysteria\" and reserved the right to take action if it decided to. Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev wrote on August 2 that the law had ended hope for improving U.S.–Russia relations and meant \"an all-out trade war with Russia.\" His message also said, \"The American establishment has won an overwhelming victory over Trump. The president wasn't happy with the new sanctions, but he had to sign the bill.\"\n\nSection::::Reactions.:EU and EU member states.\n", "On December 29, 2016, US President Barack Obama signed an order that expels 35 Russian diplomats, locks down two Russian diplomatic compounds, and expands sanctions against Russia for its interference in the 2016 United States elections.\n\nIn August 2017, United States Congress passed the \"Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act\" that imposed new sanctions on Russia for interference in the 2016 elections and its involvement in Ukraine and Syria. The Act prevents the easing, suspending or ending of sanctions by the President without the approval of the United States Congress.\n", "At the end of November 2017, Reuters reported that a U.S. government blacklist of persons likely to be sanctioned, albeit not automatically, was to be drawn up by the Treasury Department and sent to Congress by the end of January 2018; the prospect of being included in the list already had the entire Russian business elite concerned, while the Kremlin viewed the U.S. move as an attempt to turn Putin's allies against him weeks before the presidential election. Daniel Fried, Coordinator for Sanctions Policy (January 2013–February 2017), in early December 2017 said that Congress's resolve on the Russia sanctions was sowing fear in Russia, the goal being to \"freeze them out of the U.S. system, freeze them out of the dollar and pretty much make them radioactive.\"\n", "\"While I favor tough measures to punish and deter aggressive and destabilizing behavior by Iran, North Korea, and Russia, this legislation is significantly flawed. In its haste to pass this legislation, the Congress included a number of clearly unconstitutional provisions\" — such as restrictions on executive branch′s authority that limited its flexibility in foreign policy. Among other things, the statement noted that the legislation ran afoul of the \"Zivotofsky v. Kerry\" ruling of the Supreme Court. The president appeared to indicate that he might choose not to enforce certain provisions of the legislation: \"My Administration will give careful and respectful consideration to the preferences expressed by the Congress in these various provisions and will implement them in a manner consistent with the President's constitutional authority to conduct foreign relations.\" It also said: \"Finally, my Administration particularly expects the Congress to refrain from using this flawed bill to hinder our important work with European allies to resolve the conflict in Ukraine, and from using it to hinder our efforts to address any unintended consequences it may have for American businesses, our friends, or our allies.\"\n", "The bill would subject violators of such provisions to specified penalties.\n\nThe bill would authorize the President to waive the imposition of such sanctions if in the U.S. national interest.\n\nThe bill would terminate sanctions under this Act at the earlier of: (1) 90 days after the President certifies to Congress that Ukrainian sovereignty is not being violated by the Russian Federation or any other state, or (2) 30 days after any date subsequent to January 1, 2020, on which the President submits to Congress a determination that sanctions termination is in U.S. national security interests.\n", "BULLET::::- In response to intelligence analysis alleging Russian hacking and interference with the 2016 U.S. elections, President Obama expanded presidential authority to sanction in response to cyber activity that threatens democratic elections. Given that the original order was intended to protect critical infrastructure, it can be argued that the election process should have been included in the original order. It can be further argued that democratic elections are our most critical infrastructure.\n\nSection::::Current sanctions.:Bilateral trade disputes.\n\nBULLET::::- Vietnam as a result of capitalist influences over the 1990s and having imposed sanctions against Cambodia, is accepting of sanctions disposed with accountability.\n", "Amendment of the relevant directives done by the U.S. Department of the Treasury on 29 September 2017 referred to the Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act of 2017 (CRIEEA) and further toughened the Sectoral Sanctions against Russia.\n\nOn 11 October 2017, in a joint statement, Sens. John McCain (R-Ariz.) and Ben Cardin (D-Md.) questioned the Trump administration's commitment to the sanctions bill noting that the White House had \"had plenty of time to get their act together\" after missing an October 1 deadline to identify Kremlin-linked targets.\n", "At the end of July 2017, the proposed law's Russia sanctions caused harsh criticism and threats of retaliatory measures on the part of the European Union President Jean-Claude Juncker. Germany's minister for Economics and Energy Brigitte Zypries described the sanctions as illegal under international law and urged the European Union to take appropriate counter-measures.\n\nSection::::Reactions.:India.\n", "On March 20, 2017, President Donald Trump sent a presidential memorandum to the Secretary of State delegating the functions and authorities vested in the President by section 3132 of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017 (Public Law 114-328). On September 8, 2017, President Trump sent a memorandum to the Secretary of State and Secretary of the Treasury with further delegations to the financial sanctions of certain countries on the list under section 1263 of the Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of bills in the 114th United States Congress\n", "The Act was repealed by the Export Controls Act of 2018 enacted on August 4, 2018. That law directed the President to terminate the continuation of authority under the expired Export Administration Act. However, because Congress had never previously renewed the Export Administration Act, all Presidents since Clinton have continued authority to control exports year by year under executive orders. The national emergency declared on August 17, 2001, as amended by EO 13222, had to continue in effect beyond August 17, 2017 and so President Trump continued export control authority under the EAA on August 8, 2018.\n", "BULLET::::- United States Department of Homeland Security (border crossings)\n\nBULLET::::- United States Department of Justice\n\nBULLET::::- Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives\n\nBULLET::::- Federal Bureau of Investigation\n\nBULLET::::- United States Department of State (International Traffic in Arms Regulations, ITAR)\n\nBULLET::::- United States Department of the Treasury\n\nSection::::Authorizing laws.\n\nSeveral laws delegate embargo power to the President:\n\nBULLET::::- Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917\n\nBULLET::::- Foreign Assistance Act of 1961\n\nBULLET::::- International Emergency Economic Powers Act of 1977\n\nBULLET::::- Export Administration Act of 1979\n\nSeveral laws specifically prohibit trade with certain countries:\n\nBULLET::::- Cuban Assets Control Regulations of 1963\n", "On April 27, 2017, President Donald Trump ordered a review of the aluminum imports and threats to national security under the Trade Expansion Act of 1962. On March 8, 2018, President Trump signed an order to impose the tariffs on steel and aluminum under Section 232 of the Act and citing \"national security\" grounds.\n", "On 15 June 2017, the United States Senate voted 98 to 2 for the bill (an amendment to the underlying Iran sanctions bill), which was rooted in a bill introduced in January that year by a bipartisan group of senators over Russia's continued involvement in the wars in Ukraine and Syria and its alleged interference in the 2016 election; with regard to Russia, the bill was designed to expand the punitive measures previously imposed by executive orders and convert them into law. The bill in the Senate incorporated the provisions of the \"Countering Russian Influence in Europe and Eurasia Act\" that was introduced in May 2017 by Senator Ben Cardin.\n", "The other statement by Donald Trump noted: \"[T]he bill remains seriously flawed – particularly because it encroaches on the executive branch's authority to negotiate. Congress could not even negotiate a healthcare bill after seven years of talking. By limiting the Executive's flexibility, this bill makes it harder for the United States to strike good deals for the American people, and will drive China, Russia, and North Korea much closer together.\"\n\nSection::::Reactions.:U.S. Department of State.\n", "The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) removes American and Russian ground-launched intermediate-range missiles. The NDAA 2018 includes a $25 million fund for developing a new road-mobile ground-launched cruise missile which would be prohibited by the INF Treaty. The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty Preservation Act of 2017 included within the NDAA 2018 explicitly calls for the establishment of an American missile program which violates the terms of the INF Treaty. Pentagon spokesman Thomas Crosson stated, \"We are prepared to stop such research and development if Russia returns to verifiable compliance with the Treaty.\"\n", "The Ukrainian parliament has stated that the referendum is unconstitutional. The United States and the European Union said they consider the vote to be illegal, and warned that there may be repercussions for the Crimean ballot.\n\nOn 17 March, Obama signed Executive Order 13661, \"Blocking Property of Additional Persons Contributing to the Situation in Ukraine\", which expanded the scope of the previous sanctions imposed by EO 13660, to include the freezing of certain Russian government officials' assets in the US and blocking their entry into the US.\n\nSection::::Provisions of the bill.\n", "On 17 May 2018 the European Commission announced its intention to implement the blocking statute of 1996 to declare the US sanctions against Iran null and void in Europe and ban European citizens and companies from complying with them. The Commission also instructed the European Investment Bank to facilitate European companies' investment in Iran.\n\nSection::::Legal framework.\n", "U.S. State Department spokeswoman Heather Nauert stated: \"Since the enactment of the CAATSA legislation, we estimate that foreign governments have abandoned planned or announced purchases of several billion dollars in Russian defense acquisitions. Given the long timeframes generally associated with major defense deals, the results of this effort are only beginning to become apparent.\"\n\nSecretary of State Mike Pompeo warned Egypt against purchasing Russian Sukhoi Su-35, saying \"We’ve made clear that if those systems were to be purchased, the CAATSA statute would require sanctions on the regime.\"\n\nSection::::Reactions.:U.S. Department of Defense.\n", "American wrestling champion Jordan Burroughs—who had just participated in 2017 Wrestling World Cup in Iran—voiced his opposition of the order, saying that he never felt any ill will towards him in Iran, \"the opposite actually\".\n\nSection::::Business community.\n", "BULLET::::- June 22: Judge Jackson rejects a request to toss out a money laundering charge against Manafort. His lawyers argued that receiving tens of millions of dollars for lobbying while an unregistered foreign agent was not illegal in itself. Instead, they argued, failing to register was the illegal act. The judge ruled, \"It is a crime to 'act' [as a foreign agent] 'unless' one has registered – the statute does not simply state that the failure to register is unlawful[.]\"\n", "When the President is aware of the possibility of violations of the AECA, the law requires a report to Congress on the potential violations.\n\nU.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) conducts an industry outreach program called the Project Shield America to prevent foreign adversaries, terrorists, and criminal networks from obtaining U.S. munitions and strategic technology.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "On March 22, 2017, Pruitt had dinner at the Washington Trump International Hotel with 45 board members of the American Petroleum Institute, where they asked for relief from a new regulation of methane leaks from their wells, which the industry estimates could cost it over $170 million. On June 13, Pruitt ordered the rule delayed for two years. On July 3, Judges David S. Tatel and Robert L. Wilkins of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated that delay, finding Pruitt's order was \"arbitrary\" and \"capricious\" and in violation of the Clean Air Act, over the dissent of Judge Janice Rogers Brown. In October 2017, a federal magistrate judge ordered the administration to reimpose regulations it had repealed on methane gas flares.\n" ]

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[ "Transylvania in popular culture\n\nLargely as a result of the success of Bram Stoker's \"Dracula\", Transylvania has become a popular setting for gothic horror fiction, and most particularly vampire fiction. In some later books and movies Stoker's Count Dracula was conflated with the historical Vlad Dracula, also known as Vlad III the Impaler (1431–1476), who though most likely born in the Transylvanian city of Sighișoara, ruled over neighboring Wallachia.\n\nSection::::Books.\n", "BULLET::::- Transylvania is Count von Count's birthplace.\n\nBULLET::::- Transylvania is the main setting for the animated series \"Count Duckula\".\n\nBULLET::::- Transylvania is one of the main settings for Wizards vs. Werewolves, a Wizards of Waverly Place episode.\n\nBULLET::::- Transylvania is referenced in the classic Doctor Who episode \"The Curse of Fenric.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Transylvania is the main setting for a two part episode of The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries, \"Meet Dracula\". The characters, posing as a rock group, go to Transylvania to attend a Rock Festival at the Counts Castle.\n\nSection::::Animation.\n\nBULLET::::- Transylvania is Count Duckula's residence\n", "BULLET::::- According to some versions of the story, the Pied Piper of Hamelin took the children of Hamelin to Transylvania. The story may be an attempt to explain the Ostsiedlung of the Transylvanian Saxons in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dracula\", a novel by Bram Stoker. Much of the early action is set in Transylvania, the homeland of the title character.\n", "Following the publication of Emily Gerard's \"The Land Beyond the Forest\" (1888), Bram Stoker wrote his gothic horror novel \"Dracula\" in 1897, using Transylvania as a setting. With its success, Transylvania became associated in the English-speaking world with vampires. Since then it has been represented in fiction and literature as a land of mystery and magic. For example, in Paulo Coelho's novel \"The Witch of Portobello\", the main character, Sherine Khalil, is described as a Transylvanian orphan with a Romani mother, in an effort to add to the character's exotic mystique. The so-called Transylvanian trilogy of historical novels by Miklos Banffy, \"The Writing on the Wall\", is an extended treatment of the 19th- and early 20th-century social and political history of the country. Among the first actors to portray Dracula in film was Bela Lugosi, who was born in Banat, in present-day Romania.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Transylvania\" by McFly on their third album \"Motion In The Ocean\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Welcome to Transylvania\" and \"Transylvania Mania\" are songs in the Mel Brooks musical \"Young Frankenstein\".\n\nBULLET::::- Many of Cradle of Filth's songs reference Transylvania in relation to Bram Stoker's Dracula\n\nBULLET::::- \"TRANSylvania\" by Kim Petras featured on her EP, Turn Off the Light, Vol. 1.\n\nSection::::Webcomics.\n", "BULLET::::- \"The Oil, the Baby and the Transylvanians\" (1981)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Keep\" (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1983)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania Twist\" (1989)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bram Stoker's Dracula\" (1992)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1995)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Van Helsing\" (2004)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania\", a 2006 French film about a young woman who travels to Transylvania looking for a lost love\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dracula\" (2006)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dracula Untold\" (2014)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Castlevania\" (TBA)\n\nBULLET::::- The \"Hotel Transylvania\" franchise currently consisting of three released films and several computer games. A television series airs on Disney Channel.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hotel Transylvania\" (2012)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Hotel Transylvania 2\" (2015)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2018)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (2017–)\n\nSection::::Television programs.\n", "Section::::Video games.\n\nBULLET::::- Most Castlevania games revolve around the epic struggle between the Belmont lineage and Count Dracula who resides in Transylvania.\n\nBULLET::::- In , Transylvania is said to be the ancestral home of Yuri. It is also featured as the map in the final mission of the Soviet Campaign.\n\nBULLET::::- In Bugs Bunny and Taz Time Busters, there is a Transylvanian era where the main boss is a vampire.\n\nBULLET::::- In Transylvania (computer game), the nation is the setting of the trilogy of graphic adventure games.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Transylvania\" an instrumental song by Iron Maiden, that was also covered by Iced Earth on the concept album \"Horror Show\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania 90210\" is an album and song by Wednesday 13.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvanian Concubine\" by Rasputina, remixed by Marilyn Manson, can be found on the soundtrack from \"Buffy: The Vampire Slayer\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvanian Forest\" by the Polish blackened death metal band Behemoth\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania\" by American rapper Tyler, The Creator\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transilvanian Hunger\" by the Norwegian black metal band Darkthrone\n\nBULLET::::- \"Shadows over Transylvania\" by Swedish black metal band Dark Funeral\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania Transmission Pt1\" by Rob Zombie\n", "Transylvania was named in the early 19th century by Transylvania University alumnus Dr. W. L. Richards. He bought large acreage in the northern Louisiana area and named the town after his beloved school, still in existence today in Lexington, Kentucky.\n\nAs the name of Transylvania is associated by many people in the United States with the Hollywood Dracula movies, the general store in the town sells Dracula- and bat-related merchandise to people passing through on Highway 65.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Teen Wolf cartoon, Transylvania is the origin country of main character Scott Howard's grandparents.\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Zitbag's Transylvania Pet Shop\n\nBULLET::::- In the episode: Galactic Monsters, an alien world called Anur Transyl is based on Transylvania. The inhabitants of the planet, the Transylians, resemble Frankenstein's monster, while Loboans, who live on Anur Transyl's moon, resemble werewolves. Transylians also share the planet with the mummy-like Thep Knufans and the ghost-like Ectonurites. There is another Alien species called known as Vladats, and they mostly resemble vampires, but they have long since died out before the start of the episode.\n", "BULLET::::- In Funcom's Conspiracy/Horror MMORPG The Secret World, Translyvania is included as an explorable region.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"War Thunder\", one of the aircraft available for use by the player is IAR-81C, part of the IAR 80 series. All of the 448 World War II-era aircraft of this series were produced in Transylvania, at the IAR factory in Brașov.\n\nSection::::Music.\n\nSection::::Music.:Songs and albums.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Enchanting Transylvania\", from comedian Lenny Bruce's album \"Interviews Of Our Times\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transilvania\" by Czech hard rock/gothic rock group XIII. Století.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Harry Potter series Transylvania has a Quidditch team.\n\nBULLET::::- In the Left Behind series, the head of the global government, the Global Community, is a man named Nicolae Carpathia, who reigns from the Transylvania region of Romania.\n\nSection::::Films.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nosferatu\" (1922)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dracula\" (1931) starring Bela Lugosi\n\nBULLET::::- \"Drácula\" (1931)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Dracula's Daughter\" (1936, partially)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pygmalion\" (1938) - although not shown in a horrific way, during the embassy ball the \"Royal Family of Transylvania\" makes an appearance\n\nBULLET::::- Assorted Hammer Horrors (c. 1958)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Blood of the Vampire\" (1958)\n", "BULLET::::- Überwald, a fictional region in Terry Pratchett's \"Discworld\" series that is partly based on Transylvania. The name, meaning \"across the forest,\" is a literal translation of \"Transylvania\" from Latin into German.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Historian\", a novel by Elizabeth Kostova. Part of the book is set in Transylvania, where the main characters search for clues about Dracula.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Sight\" by David Clement-Davies is set in Transylvania, the book involving a wolf pack and their quest to stop a lone wolf.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Keep\", a 1981 novel by F. Paul Wilson.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Transylvania 6-5000\", a 1963 Bugs Bunny cartoon and a 1985 horror movie parody.\n\nBULLET::::- \"My Fair Lady\" (1964)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Fearless Vampire Killers\" (1967)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Count Dracula\" (1970)\n\nBULLET::::- \"Young Frankenstein\" (1974)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Rocky Horror Picture Show\" (1975) - a parody of horror and sci-fi movies, featuring characters from a distant galaxy called Transylvania\n\nBULLET::::- \"Count Dracula\" (1977)\n\nBULLET::::- \"\" (1979)\n\nBULLET::::- The \"\" series is a trilogy of Romanian Red Western films featuring Transylvanians in the Wild West\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Prophet, the Gold and the Transylvanians\" (1978)\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Actress, the Dollars and the Transylvanians\" (1979)\n", "The Western world commonly associates Transylvania with vampires, because of the influence of Bram Stoker's novel \"Dracula\" and its many film adaptations.\n\nSection::::Etymology.\n\nHistorical names of Transylvania are:\n\nBULLET::::- ,\n\nBULLET::::- ,\n\nBULLET::::- , (hist.),\n\nBULLET::::- Transylvanian Saxon: \"Siweberjen\"\n\nBULLET::::- ,\n\nIn Romanian, the region is known as () or ; in Hungarian as ; in German as ; and in Turkish as but historically as or ; see also other denominations.\n", "BULLET::::- It is a location in , where Blade the Vampire Hunter can be found and be playable, and where Venom is fought as a boss.\n\nBULLET::::- A level in centered on a fictional castle in Transylvania.\n\nBULLET::::- The DuckTales video game has a level set in Transyvania, with ghosts and skeletons as enemies and Magica De Spell as the level boss and a vampire named Count Dracula Duck as the final boss (excluding Flintheart Glomgold).\n\nBULLET::::- Soviet Strike has a level set in an irradiated area of Transylvania, containing small \"rivers\" of radioactive material scattered around the terrain.\n", "BULLET::::- Many important figures in Hungarian and Romanian literature came from Transylvania and treated the region extensively in their works. These writers include the Hungarians Áron Tamási, Albert Wass, and Károly Kós and the Romanians Liviu Rebreanu and Ioan Slavici. The \"Transylvanian trilogy\" of historical novels by the Hungarian Miklós Bánffy is an extended treatment of the region's social and political history during the 19th and early 20th century.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Carpathian Castle\", a book by Jules Verne. The action is set in a small village of Transylvania.\n", "Section::::Legends and myths.:Regional tales and mysteries.\n", "BULLET::::- In the chapter \"Masks of Evil\" (1993) of the American television series \"The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles\" Indiana Jones encounters vampiric Vlad The Impaler in Transylvania in 1918.\n", "BULLET::::- Transilvania University of Brașov, a public university in Brașov, Romania\n\nBULLET::::- Transylvania University, a private university in Lexington, Kentucky, United States\n\nSection::::Entertainment.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania 6-5000\" (1963 film), an animated short film starring Bugs Bunny\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania 6-5000\" (1985 film), a comedy/horror movie\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania\" (film), the title of a 2006 film directed by Tony Gatlif\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania\" (board game), a 1981 game from Mayfair\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania\" (series), a computer game series of the 1980s\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania\" (song), a song by Iron Maiden on their 1980 self-titled album \"Iron Maiden\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Transylvania\" (Nox Arcana album)\n", "Section::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Prehistory of Transylvania\n\nBULLET::::- Siebenbürgenlied\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Patrick Leigh Fermor, \"Between the Woods and the Water\" (New York Review of Books Classics, 2005; ). Fermor travelled across Transylvania in the summer of 1934, and wrote about it in this account first published more than 50 years later, in 1986.\n\nBULLET::::- Zoltán Farkas and Judit Sós, Transylvania Guidebook\n\nBULLET::::- András Bereznay, \"Erdély történetének atlasza\" (\"Historical Atlas of Transylvania\"), with text and 102 map plates, the first ever historical atlas of Transylvania (Méry Ratio, 2011; )\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Radio Transsylvania International\n", "The character of Count Dracula is based upon Vlad Dracula III (Vlad the Impaler), also known as Vlad Ţepeş', a notorious 15th-century Wallachian (Romanian) warlord, or Voivode. Unlike the historical personage, however, Stoker located his Count Dracula in a castle near the Borgo Pass in Transylvania, and ascribed to that area the supernatural aura it retains to this day in the popular imagination.\"\n", "While there is a long tradition of people visiting recent and ancient settings of death, such as travel to gladiator games in the Roman colosseum, attending public executions by decapitation, and visiting the catacombs, this practice has been studied academically only relatively recently.\n\nTravel writers were the first to describe their tourism to deadly places. P. J. O'Rourke called his travel to Warsaw, Managua, and Belfast in 1988 'holidays in hell', or Chris Rojek talking about 'black-spot' tourism in 1993 or the 'milking the macabre'.\n", "BULLET::::- Bánffy Castle in Bonțida – Dubbed \"the Versailles of Transylvania\", the castle is reportedly haunted by the ghost of a young servant who paid with his life because he revealed that his mistress deceived her husband. Another variant is that the place is haunted by the ghosts of those who died in Bánffy during the Second World War, when the castle was converted by Germans into a military hospital. Legend says that there were often seen sinister shadows that seemed to be of some soldiers, while through walls were heard strange noises, groans, sounds of footsteps or indistinct voices.\n", "The peasants at the beginning are praying in Hungarian, and the signs of the village are also in Hungarian. This was because when Bram Stoker wrote the original novel, the Borgo Pass was near Transylvania and modern Hungary. This part of the world was then part of the Kingdom of Hungary and within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Now that area is part of Romania.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Therefore, circadian regulation is more than sufficient to explain periods of activity and quiescence that are adaptive to an organism, but the more peculiar specializations of sleep probably serve different and unknown functions. Moreover, the preservation theory needs to explain why carnivores like lions, which are on top of the food chain and thus have little to fear, sleep the most. It has been suggested that they need to minimize energy expenditure when not hunting.\n\nSection::::Sleep function.:Waste clearance from the brain.\n", "Bears are an exception to this rule; species in the family Ursidae are famous for their ability to survive unfavorable environmental conditions of low temperatures and limited nutrition availability during winter by means of hibernation. During that time, bears go through a series of physiological, morphological, and behavioral changes. Their ability to maintain skeletal muscle number and size during disuse is of significant importance.\n", "Naturally occurring deficiencies of myostatin of various sorts have been identified in some breeds of cattle, sheep, whippets, and humans. In each case the result is a dramatic increase in muscle mass.\n\nSection::::Structure and mechanism of action.\n", "Erect limbs increase the costs of getting up and lying down, but avoid Carrier's constraint. This indicates that dinosaurs were active animals because natural selection would have favored the retention of sprawling limbs if dinosaurs had been sluggish and spent most of their waking time resting. An active lifestyle requires a metabolism that quickly regenerates energy supplies and breaks down waste products which cause fatigue, i.e., it requires a fairly fast metabolism and a considerable degree of homeothermy.\n", "Tachyaerobic\n\nTachyaerobic is a term used in biology to describe the muscles of large animals and birds that are able to maintain high levels or physical activity because their hearts make up at least 0.5-0.6 percent of their body mass and maintain high blood pressures. A reptile displaying equal size to a tachyaerobic mammal does not have the same capabilities. Tachyaerobic animals' hearts beat more quickly, produce more oxygen, and distribute blood at a quicker rate than reptiles.\n\nThe use of tachyaerobic muscles is important to animals such as giraffes that need blood circulated through a large body size quickly.\n", "Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, accompanied by a smaller number and size of the muscle cells as well as lower protein content. In humans, prolonged periods of immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening and atrophy. Such consequences are also noted in small hibernating mammals like the golden-mantled ground squirrels and brown bats.\n", "Because their metabolism is variable and generally below that of homeothermic animals, sustained high-energy activities like powered flight in large animals or maintaining a large brain is generally beyond poikilotherm animals. The metabolism of poikilotherms favors strategies such as sit-and-wait hunting over chasing prey for larger animals with high movement cost. As they do not use their metabolisms to heat or cool themselves, total energy requirement over time is low. For the same body weight, poikilotherms need only 5 to 10% of the energy of homeotherms.\n\nSection::::Adaptations in poikilotherms.\n", "Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, a decrease in muscle mass that may be accompanied by a smaller number and size of the muscle cells as well as lower protein content. Muscle atrophy may also result from the natural aging process or from disease.\n", "However, the ratio of resting metabolic rate to total daily energy expenditure can vary between 1.6 and 8.0 between species of mammals. Animals also vary in the degree of coupling between oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production, the amount of saturated fat in mitochondrial membranes, the amount of DNA repair, and many other factors that affect maximum life span. Furthermore, a number of species with high metabolic rate, like bats and birds, are long-lived. In a 2007 analysis it was shown that, when modern statistical methods for correcting for the effects of body size and phylogeny are employed, metabolic rate does not correlate with longevity in mammals or birds.\n", "Giraffes rely solely on browsing to maintain their diet, which consists primarily of leafy material. However, they are commonly observed supplementing their diet with bones. Although the exact purpose of this behavior is unknown, it is hypothesized that the ingestion of bones serves as an additional source of calcium and phosphorus. While leaves usually serve as a sufficient source of these nutrients, calcium and phosphorus concentrations in the leaves vary seasonally with rainfall; the giraffes' osteophagic behavior has been observed to parallel this variance in mineral concentration.\n", "The programmed maintenance theory based on evolvability suggests that the repair mechanisms are controlled by a common control mechanism capable of sensing conditions, such as caloric restriction, and may be responsible for lifespan in particular species. In this theory, the survival techniques are based on control mechanisms instead of individual maintenance mechanism, which you see in the non-programmed theory of mammal ageing.\n", "Section::::Plasticity due to Age and Inactivity.\n\nAs a general rule, the opposite effects of resistance training are seen as a result of age and inactivity of the motor unit. Firing frequency, EMG amplitude, and force output all significantly decrease as a result of both age and inactivity. However, aging and inactivity are not known to produce significant decreases in neural synchronization of motor units. It is not known why synchronization does not decrease with age and inactivity.\n\nSection::::Plasticity according to Muscle Type.\n", "BULLET::::- Dinosaur bones often contain lines of arrested growth (LAGs), formed by alternating periods of slow and fast growth; in fact many studies count growth rings to estimate the ages of dinosaurs. The formation of growth rings is usually driven by seasonal changes in temperature, and this seasonal influence has sometimes been regarded as a sign of slow metabolism and ectothermy. But growth rings are found in polar bears and in mammals that hibernate. The relationship between LAGs and seasonal growth dependency remains unresolved.\n\nBULLET::::- Fibrolamellar bone is fairly common in young crocodilians and sometimes found in adults.\n", "Sauropodomorphs reached the age of sexual maturity well before they were fully-grown adults. A study by Griebeler \"et al.\" (2013) concluded that the maximum growth rates of sauropodomorphs were comparable to those of precocial birds and the black rhinoceros but lower than the growth rates of average mammals.\n", "Piedmontese beef is meat from cattle having one or two copies of the \"inactive\" myostatin gene. This attribute provides a higher lean-to-fat ratio, as well as less marbling with less connective tissue than meat from cattle having the \"active\" version of the gene. The active-myostatin gene acts as a \"governor\" on muscle growth; myostatin is a protein that instructs muscles to stop growing. In effect, when inactive, as it is with Piedmontese cattle, it no longer prevents muscle development which is what allows for the hypertrophic condition sometimes referred to as \"double muscling\".\n", "Another function of bones is the storage of certain minerals. Calcium and phosphorus are among the main minerals being stored. The importance of this storage \"device\" helps to regulate mineral balance in the bloodstream. When the fluctuation of minerals is high, these minerals are stored in bone; when it is low it will be withdrawn from the bone.\n\nSection::::The different muscles.:Muscular.\n", "Thus, it is apparent that skeletal muscle fibers of humans, monkeys, and rodents share similar patterns of myofiber alterations that, in the case of monkeys and humans, are also linked to altered motor performance in response to different states of unloading, reduced usage, and return to an Earth gravitational environment.\n\nSection::::Computer-based simulation information.\n", "Section::::Paleobiology.:Circadian rhythm.\n\nComparisons between the scleral rings of \"Sinornithosaurus\" and modern birds and reptiles indicate that it may have been cathemeral, active throughout the day and night at short intervals.\n\nSection::::Paleobiology.:Flight/gliding.\n", "Section::::Reptiles and amphibians.\n\nReptiles have quiescent periods similar to mammalian sleep, and a decrease in electrical activity in the brain has been registered when the animals have been asleep. However, the EEG pattern in reptilian sleep differs from what is seen in mammals and other animals. In reptiles, sleep time increases following sleep deprivation, and stronger stimuli are needed to awaken the animals when they have been deprived of sleep as compared to when they have slept normally. This suggests that the sleep which follows deprivation is compensatorily deeper.\n", "One group has suggested that the evolutionary basis for the failure of the body to maintain muscle mass and function with age is that the genes governing these traits were selected in a Late Paleolithic environment in which there was a very high level of obligatory muscular effort, and that these genetic parameters are therefore ill-matched to a modern lifestyle characterized by high levels of lifelong sedentary behavior.\n", "Horses with PSSM show fewer clinical signs if their exercise is slowly increased over time (i.e. they are slowly conditioned). Additionally, they are much more likely to develop muscle stiffness and rhabdomyolysis if they are exercised after prolonged stall rest.\n", "Model organisms have been used in the study of FTO function. In contrast to the findings in humans deletion, analysis of the \"Fto\" gene in mice showed loss of function is associated with no differences in energy intake but greater energy expenditure and this results in a reduction of body weight and fatness. \n", "\"Given that exercise induces myonectin expression in skeletal muscle, we next addressed whether short- and long-term changes in nutritional/metabolic state also regulate myonectin expression and circulating levels. Surprisingly, an overnight fast greatly suppressed myonectin expression, but a 2-h refeeding period (following an overnight fast) dramatically up-regulated its mRNA expression in skeletal muscle. Intriguingly, refeeding induced myonectin mRNA expression to a much greater extent in soleus than in plantaris muscle fiber of both male and female mice (data not shown), suggesting that myonectin expression may be regulated differentially depending on muscle fiber type. Consistent with the mRNA data, fasting reduced, but refeeding substantially increased, circulating levels of myonectin... As compared with mice fed an isocaloric matched low-fat diet, mice fed a high-fat diet had lower myonectin mRNA and serum levels, suggesting that obesity-induced alteration in energy balance may be linked to dysregulation of myonectin-mediated processes in the obese state... A relatively modest rise in serum myonectin levels was sufficient to lower (by 30%) nonesterified free fatty acid (NEFA) levels over time relative to vehicle-injected controls. However, no significant difference was observed in serum triacylglycerol levels between the two groups of mice. These data suggest a potential role of myonectin in regulating systemic fatty acid metabolism... Treatment of adipocytes with recombinant myonectin (5 micrograms/ml) also enhanced fatty acid uptake to the same extent as insulin... To determine whether myonectin-mediated enhancement of lipid uptake is specific to adipocytes, we also tested the effect of myonectin on lipid uptake in rat H4IIE hepatocytes. We observed a modest (25%) but consistent increase in fatty acid uptake into hepatocytes stimulated with myonectin (5 micrograms/ml), an effect similar to cells treated with a saturating dose of insulin (50 nM)... Together, these results indicate that myonectin promotes lipid uptake into adipocytes and hepatocytes via transcriptional up-regulation of genes involved in fatty acid uptake...\n", "Pangolins have also been reported to roll away from danger by self-powered methods. Witnessed by a lion researcher in the Serengeti in Africa, a group of lions surrounded a pangolin, but could not get purchase on it when it rolled into a ball, and so the lions sat around it waiting and dozing. Surrounded by lions, it would unroll itself slightly and give itself a push to roll some distance, until by doing this multiple times it could get far enough away from the lions to be safe. Moving like this would allow a pangolin to cover distance while still remaining in a protective armoured ball.\n", "Mammals have wide diversity in sleep phenomena. Generally, they go through periods of alternating non-REM and REM sleep, but these manifest differently. Horses and other herbivorous ungulates can sleep while standing, but must necessarily lie down for REM sleep (which causes muscular atony) for short periods. Giraffes, for example, only need to lie down for REM sleep for a few minutes at a time. Bats sleep while hanging upside down. Male armadillos get erections during non-REM sleep, and the inverse is true in rats. Early mammals engaged in polyphasic sleep, dividing sleep into multiple bouts per day. Higher daily sleep quotas and shorter sleep cycles in polyphasic species as compared to monophasic species, suggest that polyphasic sleep may be a less efficient means of attaining sleep’s benefits. Small species with higher BMR may therefore have less efficient sleep patterns. It follows that the evolution of monophasic sleep may hitherto be an unknown advantage of evolving larger mammalian body sizes and therefore lower BMR.\n" ]

[ "Animals are too inactive to maintain muscle mass. " ]

[ "When animals are awake the hunting, fighting and playing is enough activity to maintain muscle mass. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Animals are too inactive to maintain muscle mass. ", "Animals are too inactive to maintain muscle mass. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "When animals are awake the hunting, fighting and playing is enough activity to maintain muscle mass. ", "When animals are awake the hunting, fighting and playing is enough activity to maintain muscle mass. " ]

[ "AEG Okokombi is currently produced at Electrolux Porcia Plant (Italy), where it was designed and industrialized by local R&D, being the only heatpump washer-dryer on the European Market, while Toshiba offers a similar product (even if not compatible to European standards) in Asia.\n\nSection::::Benefits.\n", "AEG-Electrolux debuted the first heat pump washer-dryer combo unit at IFA Berlin, September 2013 (AEG Okokombi). Commercialization of this product started in April, 2014, and it is currently available in the whole of Europe. Main benefits compared to standard washer-dryers are low-temperature drying (and thus, improved fabric care); energy efficiency, since it uses 40% less electricity compared to standard A-class washer-dryers (according to EU energy label).\n", "BULLET::::- 1994 44-liter washing machines and dryers refreshed, new control panel design\n\nBULLET::::- 1995 Final year for the 44-liter top load washing machines, final refresh of the 44-liter washing machines and related tumble dryers, all models now have a internal model number ending with A (ie, 20005-WM200A) timer models now have hybrid timers, all models equipped with magnet drain pumps, control panel refreshed once again\n\nBULLET::::- 1998 50-liter machines introduced with a all-new design, still using Quattro. Door seal moved from outer tub to door\n\nBULLET::::- 2000 Takeover by Antonio Merloni\n", "In the past combo washer dryer capacity was generally smaller than that of full-size washers, and it also took much longer to process a load of laundry. Currently available washer-dryers are able to wash and dry (nominal rating); they are fully comparable to standard washing machines and tumble dryers. Since washing 11 kg of clothes is quite uncommon for ordinary customers, one can wash&dry even large loads with satisfactory performances. Nevertheless, many users say they take out some wet laundry and dry their clothes in two batches to speed drying time. User review sites such as Epinions.com are full of owners who say drying times are long (even if comparable to standard heat pump tumble dryers), and this is one reason why most washer-dryer combos get poorer reviews than full-size washers and dryers.\n", "Combination washer dryers are popular among those living in smaller urban properties as they only need half the amount of space usually required for a separate washing machine and clothes dryer, and may not require an external air vent. Additionally, combination washer dryers allow clothes to be washed and dried \"in one go\", saving time and effort from the user. Many washer dryer combo units are also designed to be portable so it can be attached to a sink instead of requiring a separate water line.\n", "Aside from the early wringer/washer machine of the mid-19th century, washing and drying machines were not combined until the fully electronic versions of the machines were better perfected in the latter half of the 20th century. Shortly after the very first completely automatic clothes washer was developed by Bendix Home Appliances in 1937, the same company also invented the first washer dryer combination unit in 1953. Throughout the years, washing machines, drying machines, and combo machines alike have received numerous improvements in technology, making for better functionality, effectiveness, and efficiency. Today, washer dryer combination units have many of the features that would be found on a typical washer and dryer. While these units are far more popular in Europe and some countries in the East, they are gaining popularity in the United States as a practical and functional laundry solution.\n", "Washer dryer combination units have most of the features found in modern washing and drying machines. Combination machines, despite being half the size of a separate washer and dryer setup, may have a similar price because they must still contain all the component parts of both.\n\nSection::::Disadvantages.\n", "Self service laundries are widely available and in use by a good percentage of the population. Due to its mild weather, Australia has a much smaller percentage of dryer owners, as the mild weather allows for hanging laundry outside for most of the year, with the exception of a few months. The brief Australian winter sees a surge in the usage of drying machines, usually easily found in self service laundries.\n\nSection::::New Zealand.\n", "Many consumers confuse the term \"washer dryer combo\" with similar washer and dryer configurations like stackable machines and laundry centers. The main design factor that distinguishes washer dryer combos from other configurations is the fact that the washer dryer combo is a single machine (typically the size of a stand-alone washing machine) that can do both washing and drying tasks in a single combo machine.\n", "BULLET::::- 1998 First fully automatic built-in coffee maker by Miele, the CVA 620. Also in that year, Miele introduced a gas-fueled dryer for domestic use, the T 478 G\n\nBULLET::::- 1999 First washing machine with a 1,800 RPM final spin and brushless FU motor, the W397. Also that year, Miele celebrated their 100th anniversary\n\nBULLET::::- 2001 Launch of the patented \"SoftCare\" honeycomb pattern drum\n\nBULLET::::- 2003 Navitronic washing machines and tumble dryers with an \"Automatic\" program\n\nBULLET::::- 2004 New G 1000/G 2000 dishwasher series using a patented production process\n", "In some cases, dryers may use spin alone. Larger gyms and swimming pools may have small spin dryers for the convenience of exiting patrons. Extracting much of the water from a swimsuit reduces the risk of damp gym bags and later, laundry hampers.\n\nSection::::Ventless dryers.:Condenser dryers.\n", "Washer dryer combinations are a type of home appliance that handles the basic laundering duties of washing and drying clothes. These machines are often called as \"combo washer dryers\" or \"all-in-one washer dryers,\" but basically the washer dryer combo is the size of a standard or compact washing machine, but is able to perform both washing and drying functions. Designed to handle different types of fabric and garments such as clothes, sheets, and towels, washer dryer combos usually have functions such as temperature controls, customizable cycle controls, and ventless systems. While combo washer dryers are not as effective and efficient as some full-sized, fully functional, separate washer and dryer machines, the combos provide a viable option for those who can benefit from having a compact machine which is able to wash and dry clothes.\n", "The first commercially available high-speed, horizontal-wiping air dryer was the Mitsubishi Jet Towel, invented in 1993 and available in the United States since 2005. There are several technical differences among electric hand dryers, such as airspeed, water containment, energy efficiency, use of heat, type of filter, motor lifespan and power usage.\n\nThe same technology is used by Dyson in the Air Multiplier fan to create a cooling air stream for personal comfort.\n\nSection::::Energy efficiency.\n", "There are also combo washer dryer machines that combine washing cycles and a full drying cycle in the same drum, eliminating the need to transfer wet clothes from a washer to a dryer machine. In principle, these machines are convenient for overnight cleaning (the combined cycle is considerably longer), but the effective capacity for cleaning larger batches of laundry is drastically reduced. The drying process tends to use much more energy than using two separate devices, because a combo washer dryer not only must dry the clothing, but also needs to dry out the wash chamber itself. These machines are used more in Europe, because they can be fitted into small spaces, and many can be operated without dedicated utility connections. In these machines, the washer and dryer functions often have different capacities, with the dryer usually having the lowest capacity. These machines should not be confused with a dryer on top of a washer installation, or with a laundry center, which is a one piece appliance offering a compromise between a washer-dryer combo and a full washer to the side of the dryer installation or a dryer on top of a washer installation. Laundry centers usually have the dryer on top of the washer, with the controls for both machines being on a single control panel. Often, the controls are simpler than the controls on a washer-dryer combo or a dedicated washer and dryer. Some implementations are patented under US Patent US6343492B1 and US Patent US 6363756B1.\n", "Japanese manufacturers have developed highly efficient clothes dryers that use microwave radiation to dry the clothes (though a vast majority of Japanese air dry their laundry). Most of the drying is done using microwaves to evaporate the water, but the final drying is done by convection heating, to avoid problems of arcing with metal pieces in the laundry. There are a number of advantages: shorter drying times (25% less), energy savings (17–25% less), and lower drying temperatures. Some analysts think that the arcing and fabric damage is a factor preventing microwave dryers from being developed for the US market.\n", "BULLET::::- Plates feeding\n\nSection::::Typical applications.\n\nBelt dryers are predominantly used in the following industries:\n\nBULLET::::- Biomass\n\nBULLET::::- Pelleting\n\nBULLET::::- Anaerobic digestate\n\nBULLET::::- Chemical industry\n\nBULLET::::- Pharmaceutical industry\n\nBULLET::::- Food and feeding-stuff industry\n\nBULLET::::- Non-metallic minerals industry\n\nBULLET::::- Plastics industry\n\nBULLET::::- Wood industry\n\nBULLET::::- Ceramics industry\n\nSection::::Typical applications.:Product examples.\n", "There is a trend of networking home appliances together, and combining their controls and key functions. For instance, energy distribution could be managed more evenly so that when a washing machine is on, an oven can go into a delayed start mode, or vice versa. Or, a washing machine and clothes dryer could share information about load characteristics (gentle/normal, light/full), and synchronize their finish times so the wet laundry does not have to wait before being put in the dryer.\n", "The \"laundry center\" is a compromise between the stackable and the combo configurations. Like the washer dryer combo, the laundry center is a one-piece appliance. Like the stackable configuration, the laundry center comprises two separate machines, the washer and the dryer. In most laundry centers, the dryer is mounted above the washer, making for a one-piece design that offers the compact footprint of a washer dryer combo with the functionality and capacity of stackable washing machines and drying machines.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "BULLET::::- 1965 Fully automatic washing machines and compact dishwasher introduced\n\nBULLET::::- 1967 Appliance export started\n\nBULLET::::- 1978 ASEA takeover, name changed to ASEA Cylinda\n\nBULLET::::- 1984 Introduction of the \"Quattro\" line of machines with four shock absorbers, no springs and a direct-connecting door, Asea starts selling washing machines and tumble dryers in The Netherlands\n\nBULLET::::- 1988 Takeover by ASKO, name changed to ASKO ASEA\n\nBULLET::::- 1992 Name change to ASKO, washing machine 20003 introduced with, a world's first for a domestic machine, frequency converter (FU) brushless motor, 44-liter machines refreshed, models 11003 and 12003 now with 1400 RPM.\n", "Another major drawback of old washer dryers combos was that they took significantly longer to dry a batch of clothes in comparison to stand-alone dryers. Stand-alone dryers make use of hot air or other heating elements to dry the clothes in a fraction of the time that it took the condensation-based drying system in combination units. This was a drawback that was inherent to the washer dryer combo design, since the dryer had to work longer to dry the drum and its enclosure as well as the clothes inside the drum. On an average, clothes that weigh between would have kept the machine working for no less than 4.5 hours. Currently available washer-dryers are much faster than they used to be and can achieve great time savings, together with improved fabric care and no shrinkage, since drying takes place at low temperatures.\n", "Research conducted in 2008 indicated that European consumers much prefer hand towels over hand dryers in public washrooms. 63% of respondents said paper towels were their preferred drying method, while just 28% preferred a hand dryer. Respondents overwhelmingly considered paper towels to offer faster hand drying than electric hand dryers (68% vs 14%). On the whole they also considered paper towels to be the most hygienic form of hand drying in public washrooms (53% vs 44%).\n\nSection::::History.\n", "World Dryer\n\nWorld Dryer Corporation is a Berkeley, Illinois based manufacturer of hand dryers and related products. Established in 1950 with the Model A, it is an ISO 9002 certified company, briefly a subsidiary of Beatrice Foods, has been a subsidiary of Carrier Corporation, and in 2017 joined the Zurn Industries brand of Rexnord Corp.\n\nSection::::Products.\n\nBULLET::::- Hand dryers\n\nBULLET::::- Changing tables\n\nBULLET::::- Hair dryers\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Some manufacturers, Namely LG Electronics, have introduced hybrid dryers, that offer the user the option of using either a heat pump or a traditional electric heating element for drying the user's clothes.\n\nSection::::Static electricity.\n\nClothes dryers can cause static cling, through the triboelectric effect. This can be a minor nuisance and is often a symptom of over-drying textiles to an extremely low humidity level. Fabric conditioners and dryer sheets are marketed to correct this condition.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "Washer dryer combo units not using a heat pump have also been criticized because they are not as efficient as some of the stand-alone machines. For these machines, longer drying times of washer dryer combos also make it difficult to increase efficiency, because the machine has to stay in operation for much longer than a stand-alone dryer does. On the other hand, in heat-pump washer dryers energy is recovered, and it enables energy saving of about 50%.\n", "The environmental impact of clothes dryers is especially severe in the US and Canada, where over 80% of all homes have a clothes dryer. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, if all residential clothes dryers sold in the U.S. were energy efficient, \"the utility cost savings would grow to more than $1.5 billion each year and more than 22 billion pounds of annual greenhouse gas emissions would be prevented”.\n\nClothes dryers are second only to refrigerators and freezers as the largest residential electrical energy consumers in America.\n" ]

[ "Washer/dryer combos are better than separate washer and dryers." ]

[ "Washer/dryer combos would slow down how quickly laundry can be done, but with separate washers and dryers a second load of laundry can be washed while the first load of laundry dries. ." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Washer/dryer combos are better than separate washer and dryers.", "Washer/dryer combos are better than separate washer and dryers." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Washer/dryer combos would slow down how quickly laundry can be done, but with separate washers and dryers a second load of laundry can be washed while the first load of laundry dries. .", "Washer/dryer combos would slow down how quickly laundry can be done, but with separate washers and dryers a second load of laundry can be washed while the first load of laundry dries. ." ]

[ "Alternative title lending exist in many states known as car title pawn or auto pawn as they are called. Similar to a traditional car title loan, a car title pawn uses both the car title and the physical vehicle (which is usually stored by the lender) to secure the loan much like any secured loan works, and there are the same risk and factors involved for the borrower but in most cases they will receive more cash in the transaction since the lender has both the vehicle and title in their possession.\n\nSection::::Process.\n", "When a vehicle is financed, the certificate of title is normally held by the lender, who must release it to the purchaser once the balance is paid off. In some states, such as New York and Maryland, the transferred title is sent directly to that individual, but the name of the lender or lienholder appears on the title as well. In order to release the lien upon full payment, the lender sends a notarized release or other complementary document to the individual.\n", "When a car is sold from one owner to another, the title must be transferred to the new owner. This is achieved by requesting approval by the state DMV.\n\nWhen the vehicle title is lost, the owner on record may replace the lost title by completing an application with the state that issued the current title. Online lost title applications are available for several states including Maine, Wisconsin, Virginia, Michigan, New York, Indiana, Maryland, South Carolina, Massachusetts, and Washington DC.\n", "A title loan (also known as a car title loan) is a type of secured loan where borrowers can use their vehicle title as collateral. Borrowers who get title loans must allow a lender to place a lien on their car title, and temporarily surrender the hard copy of their vehicle title, in exchange for a loan amount. When the loan is repaid, the lien is removed and the car title is returned to its owner. If the borrower defaults on their payments then the lender is liable to repossess the vehicle and sell it to repay the borrowers’ outstanding debt.\n", "If the borrower cannot pay back the loan or is late with his or her payments, the title loan lender may seek to take possession of the car and sell it to offset what is owed. Typically lenders choose this option as a last resort because it may take months to recover the vehicle, and repossession, auction, and court costs all decrease the amount of money they are able to recoup. During this time, the lender is not collecting payments yet the vehicle is depreciating. Most states require the title loan lender to hold the vehicle for 30 days to allow the borrower to recover it by paying the balance. Typically, any amount from the sale over the existing loan balance is returned to the defaulter.\n", "In order to assume an existing mortgage loan it is generally necessary to obtain consent from the lender prior to the assumption process. \n\nTransfer of property with an existing mortgage loan that is made without the lender's consent is sometimes referred to as a sale \"subject to\" the existing loan. In most cases, this type of transfer does not avoid the lender's right to call the loan due under the due-on-sale provision in the loan.\n\nSection::::Consent of Lender.:Exceptions.\n", "Vehicle titles are also used for car title loans, in which a car owner gives the vehicle lender their vehicle title as collateral in exchange for a loan. In addition to the vehicle title, lenders often also require the borrower to provide a set of keys for the car and/or purchase a roadside service plan. Car title loans frequently involve high interest rates, a short time to repay the loan (often 30 days), and a loan amount less than the car's monetary worth. The borrower also risks losing the car to the lender if the loan is not paid back. These type of loans are marketed as small emergency loans.\n", "A debtor borrows $10,000 from a car dealership to purchase an automobile, using the automobile itself as collateral for the loan (in other words the dealership retains a right to repossess the automobile in the event the debtor defaults on the loan). The dealership makes this loan using an authenticated security agreement - a signed agreement giving the dealership the secured right to repossess the car in the event of default of the debtor. The debtor also has two unsecured creditors who have made loans of $1000 each to the debtor. Neither of these creditors has a security agreement - their only method of recovering their money in the event that the debtor defaults on the loan is through the judicial system, whereas the secured creditor can simply repossess the car at his option (This is called self-help repossession and is completely legal provided the secured creditor does not breach the peace in doing so). The debtor is in debt $10K to the secured creditor and $2000 to the unsecured creditors. Assume the debtor defaults and his only asset is the automobile. The dealership can repossess the auto and sell it to satisfy its debt. Two things can happen here: 1) The dealership sells the collateral (car) for more than the amount of the debt (let's say $15K). In this case, the debtor would receive the excess $5K (surplus) which he would use to satisfy the debts of his unsecured creditors (and then would have $3K left over). 2) The dealership repossess the car and sells it for less than the amount of the debt, let's say $9K (more likely scenario). In this case, the secured creditor dealership keeps the $9K, and the remaining $1K (deficiency) that the dealership is owed becomes unsecured - it is on the same level of priority as the other two unsecured loans. Those three unsecured claims of $1K each will be paid off equally. Thus, if the debtor has $1500 to satisfy its debts - each unsecured creditor would get $500 (1/3 of amount each). The remaining debt will probably never be repaid because, in cases such as these with the debtor having multiple loans on default, the debtor has most likely filed for Ch. 7 Bankruptcy.\n", "The amount a borrower can be loaned is dependent on the worth of their vehicle. A lender will typically look up the auction value of the car being used as collateral and offer a loan that’s between 30% and 50% of the worth of the vehicle. This leaves lenders a cushion to make profit if ever they need to repossess the vehicle and sell it at auction, in the event the borrower defaults.\n\nSection::::States offering title loans.\n", "In the recording system, each time a land title transaction takes place, the parties record the transfer instrument with a local government recorder located in the jurisdiction (usually the county) where the land lies. The government indexes the instrument by the names of the grantor (transferor) and the grantee (transferee) and photographs it so any member of the public can find and examine it. If such a transaction goes unrecorded for any reason or length of time, an unscrupulous grantor could sell the property to another grantee. In many states, the grantee whose transaction is recorded first becomes the legal owner, and any other would-be buyers are left without recourse.\n", "Many U.S. states have enacted additional laws that apply specifically to the repossession of purchased and leased automobiles, and which are intended to afford additional consumer protections. Typical requirements include mandating that auto lenders provide consumers with opportunities to either \"reinstate\" or \"redeem\" their purchase or lease contracts after their vehicles have been repossessed. A \"reinstatement\" entails a consumer paying all of his or her past due amounts plus the creditor’s repossession expenses, and then reacquiring the automobile as if the repossession had not occurred. A \"redemption\" entails the consumer paying off the entire contract balance and then being given ownership of the vehicle free and clear of any contract obligations. \n", "Note in the UK a lender can take possession of a person's home due to default on a mortgage. This process is incorrectly often known as mortgage repossession; however assets can only be repossessed if the lender was the seller, which is often the case with cars but not usually houses. The correct terminology is possession. The process typically involves obtaining firstly an order for possession in the courts, then an eviction warrant. The eviction is carried out by bailiffs. Once the lender has obtained possession, it can then sell the home to recoup any lost arrears.\n", "If a lender finds itself in the situation of needing to repossess property while the borrower attempts to avoid this, the dealer may contract the work of repossession out to a repossession agent. Many things can be repossessed, but most repossession agencies focus on auto repossession.\n\nThe repo agent normally uses a tow truck or pickup truck with a special towing attachment called a boom, but sometimes they pick the lock or obtain the key from the car owner.\n", "Under certain circumstances, the debtor in possession may be able to keep the property by paying the creditor the fair market value, as opposed to the contract price. For example, where the property is a personal vehicle which has depreciated in value since the time of the purchase, and which the debtor needs to find or continue employment to pay off his debts, the debtor may pay the creditor for the fair market value of the car to keep it.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Debtor-in-possession financing\n\nBULLET::::- Seniority (financial)\n\nBULLET::::- Bail out (finance)\n\nBULLET::::- Default (finance)\n\nBULLET::::- Distressed securities\n\nBULLET::::- Insolvency\n", "The balloon payment is ideally structured so that it will be less than the value of the vehicle at that point in time, creating equity that may be used as a deposit on another vehicle purchase. The customer is the registered keeper and legal owner of the vehicle, whilst the finance company retains an interest in the vehicle. This interest will be noted in the car’s history whenever anyone checks it, so that the car cannot be sold without clearing the finance first. If the owner defaults on the payments, the finance company may have the legal right to repossess the vehicle. At the end of the agreement, the customer either pays the balloon payment and takes clear title of the vehicle, or the vehicle may be returned to the finance company without any further liability.\n", "Each state in the US has its own distinct process for the Certificate of Title. When filling out the title during a vehicle transaction, the rules in one state do not always apply to a different state. For example, most states do not require a notary when filling out the title, while other states in the U.S.A. make this mandatory for most parties when buying or selling a vehicle.\n\nSome states have different versions of the same title.\n\nThe certificate of title normally specifies (in most states & versions):\n", "BULLET::::- In other common law legal systems, recharacterisation usually refers to the risk that a title transfer arrangement could be treated instead as the grant of a security interest. If a transaction is recharacterised in this manner, there is a risk that the transaction may be void if it has not been registered under applicable registration laws. The title transfer arrangements that are perceived to be vulnerable to recharacterisation are transfers of margin (such as a title transfer under an English Law ISDA Credit Support Annex as collateral for a derivatives transaction), or transactions which involved an actual transfer of securities backed by cash (such a stock loan or repo transaction). Retention of title clauses may also sometimes be recharacterized in this manner. Security interests which are expressed as fixed charges are sometimes recharacterised as floating charges. However, in most common law systems, there is a resistance to recharacterisation transactions of this nature, and the law generally provides that the parties own characterisation of the transaction should be applied unless there are strong countervailing reasons to recharacterise.\n", "Replevin actions are often filed by secured creditors seeking to take possession of collateral securing loans or other debt instruments, such as retail installment contracts. A common example is where an automobile finance company initiates a replevin action to gain possession of a vehicle, following payment default. Replevin actions are usually employed when the lender cannot find the collateral, or cannot peacefully obtain it through self-help repossession. Replevin actions may also be pursued by true owners of property, e.g., consignors seeking return of consigned property that the party in possession will not relinquish for one reason or another.\n", "In all other circumstances the transfer is presumed to be by way of loan (in the case of money) or subject to a presumed resulting trust in the case of other property. Sometimes, less commonly, the presumption is referred to in the reverse, in that all other transfers are said to be subject to a presumption of loan.\n", "According to Section 43 of the Transfer of Property Act 1882, in case a person either fraudulently or erroneously represents that he is authorized to transfer certain immovable property and does some acts to transfer such property for consideration, then such a transfer will continue to operate in future. It will operate on any interest which the transferor may acquire in such property.\n", "The maximum amount of the loan is determined by the collateral. Typical lenders will offer up to half of the car's resale value, though some will go higher. Most lenders use Kelley Blue Book to find the resale value of vehicles. The borrower must hold clear title to the car; this means that the car must be paid in full with no liens or current financing. Most lenders will also require the borrower to have full insurance on the vehicle.\n", "Overage does not solely relate to land and property and could be written into any contract for a sale of goods. Therefore, if an old classic car in poor condition was to be sold to someone with the intent of refurbishing it and then selling it on, the original seller may choose to sell the car at a very low value and contract to receive a percentage of the uplift from the next sale as well.\n\nSection::::Example.\n\nA typical scenario would be:\n", "Section::::Process.:Strict and judicial.\n\nIn the United States, there are two types of foreclosure in most states described by common law. Using a \"deed in lieu of foreclosure,\" or \"strict foreclosure\", the noteholder claims the title and possession of the property back in full satisfaction of a debt, usually on contract.\n", "In the United States, vehicle ownership is documented on a certificate of title. In the United States, each state's Department of Motor Vehicles or Registry of Motor Vehicles issues such documents when a vehicle is registered. Title deeds vary by design but always include vehicle-specific information at the front of the document (such as: year, make, model, VIN, color, etc.) and several boxes for transaction information at the back where information about change of ownership is recorded (such as sale date, odometer reading, seller and buyer names and signatures, etc.). In-state vehicle sales are recorded at the back of the title as long as there are unused reassignment boxes. If a vehicle is sold out-of-state, the new owner must apply for a new title at their local DMV office.\n", "BULLET::::- Another area in which the courts have had to address recharacterization risk is in relation to the transfer of receivables, frequently in securitization transactions. To be effective a securitization normally requires a \"true sale\" of receivable, but in certain countries there is a risk of the transfer being recharacterised. If the originator retains a right or an obligation regarding the transferred assets, for example, where the transferor has agreed to assume and bear the credit risk for the transferred receivables, or where the transferor is entitled or obligated to repurchase and regain the transferred receivables, under many legal systems this would be recharacterised as either an on-loan or a collection agency arrangement.\n" ]

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[ "In the hardest difficulty levels, players are confronted with wind levels approaching that of a hurricane while the wind is almost stagnant in the easiest difficulty level. One of the drawbacks of the game is that the player must determine the angle of their flight separately from the strength of their swing and the type of golf club that they will use.\n", "\"This problem primarily concerns the flight of the golf ball, of course, which is why I thought you as golf course architects would be interested in it essentially. It is something the USGA has been working on for a good many years. Mr. Fownes, who is President here (Pinehurst), was very active as chairman of this committee when he held that position prior to his service as President of the USGA, and he did a great deal of work on this whole problem of the golf ball. I've been very much interested in it since I've been Chairman of the committee. We feel that a golf course is designed for a certain type of shot to the green, and that as you increase the length of the tee shot, you throw the golf course all out of scale. Therefore, it spoils the pleasure of the play to have this continual increase in the flight of the ball. We feel that the question involves not only the ball but also the equipment of the game; that possibly the shaft had something to do with the increased length of the ball. We've done a lot of work in Chicago with our machine there in testing the ball. Since our tests first started back in 1942 we haven't observed much increase in the flight of the ball, it's been pretty constant. The manufacturers say pretty much the same thing: that they haven't changed the ball very much, and in their opinions it hasn't increased.\n", "BULLET::::- The \"approach\" or \"3/4 swing\" is used in medium- and long-distance situations where an exact distance and good accuracy is preferable to maximum possible distance, such as to place the ball on the green or \"lay up\" in front of a hazard. The windup or \"backswing\" of such a shot typically ends up with the shaft of the club pointing straight upwards or slightly towards the player.\n", "The measured wind velocity is taken at near sea level, and does not account for effects of wind gradient with reported true wind speed of at mast head height of over . The measured sea-level wind direction shifted away from 180 degrees between the time of setting of the course and commencement of sailing of the downwind leg, by which time wind direction was reported to be at around 160 degrees. As such the ratio between downwind velocity made good and wind speed is an approximation only.\n\nSection::::Career.:America's Cup.:Race 2.\n", "Campo Alpha has normally a tendency to have a slightly higher wind speed than Campo Charlie this due to the fact that it is more Northern than Charlie so that the Southern thermal breeze is strengthened.\n\nSection::::Races.\n\nSection::::Races.:Summary.\n\nIn the 5.5 Metre five out of the planned nine races were completed.\n", "Section::::Golf simulator.:Accuracy.\n\nA key attribute of any simulator is accuracy. Ball flight is the primary determinant of a system's accuracy. Speed of the calculations and a predictable projected image of the ball in flight is one measurement of a system's accuracy. Predictability or the plausibility of prediction is a measure according to known ball flight properties among golf experts.\n", "If a player swings at the ball while driving and misses it does not count as a stroke.\n\nOnce a ball is picked up, it cannot be placed back on the ground.\n\nIf balls are hit into particularly difficult areas such as dense gardens or into a bush, the ball may be played within one step or arms reach of where it landed. Balls must be played directly above where they lay in fairways.\n", "Both turbulent and laminar airflow contribute to swing. Air in laminar flow separates from the surface of the ball earlier than air in turbulent flow, so that the \"separation point\" moves toward the front of the ball on the laminar side. On the turbulent flow side it remains towards the back, inducing a greater lift force on the turbulent airflow side of the ball. The calculated net lift force is not enough to account for the amount of swing observed. Additional force is provided by the pressure-gradient force.\n", "On difficulty A, balls that go out of bounds stay there and must be hit back in; on difficulty B, the balls stick to the edge of the area. Balls hit near the water can soar over it, or if they land into the water, the ball is placed back where the shot was taken. Balls hit into sand traps will stick to the sides of the traps, and it takes a more powerful swing to free the ball.\n", "Accuracy and consistency are typically stressed over pure distance. A player with a straight drive that travels only will nevertheless be able to accurately place the ball into a favourable lie on the fairway, and can make up for the lesser distance of any given club by simply using \"more club\" (a lower loft) on their tee shot or on subsequent fairway and approach shots. However, a golfer with a drive that may go but often doesn't fly straight will be less able to position their ball advantageously; the ball may \"hook\", \"pull\", \"draw\", \"fade\", \"push\" or \"slice\" off the intended line and land out of bounds or in the rough or hazards, and thus the player will require many more strokes to hole out.\n", "The golfer chooses a golf club, grip, and stroke appropriate to the distance:\n\nBULLET::::- The \"drive\" or \"full swing\" is used on the teeing ground and fairway, typically with a wood or long iron, to produce the maximum distance capable with the club. In the extreme, the windup can end with the shaft of the club parallel to the ground above the player's shoulders.\n", "BULLET::::- Flier: A type of lie where the ball is in the rough and grass is likely to become trapped between the ball and the club-face at the moment of impact. Flier lies often result in \"flier shots\", which have little or no spin (due to the blades of grass blocking the grooves on the club-face) and travel much farther than intended.\n", "Until 1990, it was permissible to use balls of less than 1.68 inches in diameter in tournaments under the jurisdiction of the R&A, which differed in its ball specifications rules from those of the USGA. This ball was commonly called a \"British\" ball, while the golf ball approved by the USGA was simply the \"American ball\". The smaller diameter gave the player a distance advantage, especially in high winds, as the smaller ball created a similarly smaller \"wake\" behind it.\n\nSection::::Aerodynamics.\n", "When a golf ball is hit, the impact, which lasts less than a millisecond, determines the ball’s velocity, launch angle and spin rate, all of which influence its trajectory and its behavior when it hits the ground.\n\nA ball moving through air experiences two major aerodynamic forces, lift and drag. Dimpled balls fly farther than non-dimpled balls due to the combination of these two effects.\n", "BULLET::::- Will Parker striking the buoy while rounding the final mark was taken from Chris Dickson's final race against Stars & Stripes 87 in the Louis Vuitton Cup Finals. Kiwi Magic was just six seconds back of Dennis Conner's boat when Dickson made his only major mistake of the summer, striking the buoy while rounding the final mark. He was obliged to re-round, ending all hope of catching Stars & Stripes 87.\n", "A \"pitch shot\" is a shot played with a high lofted club, typically a pitching wedge, utility wedge or sand wedge, with lofts ranging from 56° to 62° degrees. These high lofted clubs are designed to hit the ball high from short distances, usually from 40-50 yards (30-50 meters) and closer.\n\nSection::::Stroke types.:Putt.\n", "This does two things; first, the angle of launch is increased so that the ball carries higher than the comparable iron. Second, the increased loft coupled with the tighter impulse also imparts increased backspin on the ball. This increased backspin is different from both the iron and the wood of the same number, and creates a flight path similar to a higher-loft iron but at a lower angle of launch; the backspinning ball will lift itself in the air along its flight line, \"stall\" when the lift generated by the spin coupled with the ball's momentum can no longer keep it in the air, and drop relatively sharply onto the turf. The sharp drop coupled with the continuing backspin creates \"bite\"; the ball's forward momentum will be arrested sharply at its point of impact and carry only a few yards thereafter.\n", "The data about a golfers swing that is collected during a golf shot is extrapolated to provide ball flight trajectory and roll out according to certain calculated relationships to the ball's flight performance per the tracked motion of the ball or club, adding environmental aspects through which the ball is projected, including terrain, wind, rain and other such influences or obstacles. Also noted on specific height and width of the screen on the net. \n\nSection::::Golf simulator.\n", "If that angle is to high or too low, then you won't be maximizing your ball flight. Loft also affects the spin of the golf ball coming off the face, which has major impacts on the flight of the ball. There are three main types of spin that can be put on the ball.\n\nBULLET::::1. Back spin: Back spin can lead to the ball ballooning in the air, which changes its forward movement into upward movement causing the ball loose yardage.\n", "For the 2012 edition of the Vintage Yachting Games three different courses were available. The O-Jolle could only use course 3.\n\nSection::::Venue overview.:Wind conditions.\n", "Another primitive technique for measuring wind direction is to take a pinch of grass and drop it; the direction that the grass falls is the direction the wind is blowing. This last technique is often used by golfers because it allows them to gauge the strength of the wind.\n", "Section::::Golf simulator.:Dimensions.\n\nThe typical dimensions of a golf simulator are approximately wide × in length and just over in height. This allows freedom of movement whilst swinging. This space typically allows for both left- and right-handed players with backswings and follow throughs.\n\nSection::::Golf simulator.:Advantages.\n", "For the 2012 edition of the Vintage Yachting Games three different courses were available. The 5.5 Metre could use only course 2.\n\nSection::::Wind conditions.\n", "For the 2012 edition of the Vintage Yachting Games three different courses were available. The Flying Dutchman could only use course 1.\n\nSection::::Venue overview.:Wind conditions.\n", "BULLET::::- Boat motions - as the masthead is so distant from the centre of motion of the craft, inertial effect on both the wind vane and the anemometer cups can be significant when the craft is moving, especially when pitching and rolling\n\nBULLET::::- Wind shear - there can be a significant change in both wind speed and direction between the water's surface and the top of the mast, especially in conditions of unstable, light airs. The wind instruments are just measuring conditions at the masthead, and these are not necessarily the same at all heights\n" ]

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[ "Military police, in the current environment, often are in a combat role. Doctrine is catching up with reality, as in Panama, and most recently in Iraq, with the Raven 42 patrol led by Staff Sergeant Timothy Nein and Sergeant Leigh Ann Hester, where a woman, for the first time, received the Silver Star medal, and qualified for the Combat Action Badge. Raven 42, a unit of the 617th Military Police Company of the Kentucky National Guard, was on a convoy escort mission where combat was reasonable to expect, as opposed to the rear area MP units guarding prisons and POWs.\n", "This may create situations that present dilemmas for a handler. Such situations are for instance a police officer in a riot with bystanders, a civilian facing a possible intruder at night, or a soldier in a confrontation where civilians are near the enemy. Indecision or misjudgment of the handler's abilities in such a situation may cause undesired outcomes, such as injury to the handler due to hesitation, or the handler violating rules of engagement and causing unintended damage.\n", "BULLET::::1. Officer presence – the professionalism, uniform, and utility belt of the law enforcement officer and the marked vessel or vehicle the officer arrives in. The visual presence of authority is normally enough for a subject to comply with an officer's lawful demands. Depending on the totality of the circumstances, a call/situation may require additional officers or on scene officers may request assistance in order to gain better control of the situation and ensure a more safe environment for all involved. It also will depend on the circumstances of the situation. For example, depending on how many people are at the scene with the officer, a larger presence may be required. However, if 10 officers arrive at a scene with only a single suspect, the public may perceive the situation as an excessive use of officer presence within the use of force continuum.\n", "Sashi Tharoor in March 2016, wrote, that the consequences of government policy of lowering \"the status and compensation of our military personnel\", will \"inevitably be suffered by all\". And that he failed to understand what could justify a policy that equates police officers [and defence civilians], designated as deputy inspector general (DIG) of the police, with Brigadiers, for pay and protocol.\n", "There have been numerous accidental shootings, several murders, and also several cases of patrols or sentinels shooting at each other. . . . at the same time, so strict has been the supervision and training that many officers passing through our areas would remark that our men actually had the outer marks of better discipline than the other divisions. . . . Gen. Bullard asked me my estimate[,] and I said they could do anything but fight.\n", "In a report released in June 2015, Amnesty International alleged that the United States does not comply with the UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials.\n\nSection::::United States.:Concerns and responses.:Intelligence-gathering and surveillance.\n", "Section::::Officer attributes.:Other characteristics.:Split-second syndrome.\n\nSplit-second syndrome is an example of how use of force can be situation-based. Well-meaning officers may resort to the use of force too quickly under situations where they must make a rapid decision.\n\nSection::::Departmental attributes.\n", "In March 2015, an update was published called Clearing the Fog of Law by Tom Tugendhat, Professor Richard Ekins and Dr Jonathan Morgan. This further developed the argument that the expansion of “lawfare” hinders the ability of commanders on the ground to make immediate and potentially life-or-death decisions. Five former Chiefs of the General staff wrote to the Times on 8 April 2015 to support the recommendations, saying “We urge the government to recognise the primacy of the Geneva Conventions in war by derogating from the European Convention on Human Rights in time of war and redefining combat immunity through legislation to ensure that our serving personnel are able to operate in the field without fear of the laws designed for peacetime environments.”\n", "Officials directly involved in the maiming of civilians are conducting offensive military operations and do not qualify as civilians.\n\nSection::::Civilian protection under International Humanitarian Law (IHL).\n", "U.S. military personnel on guard duty are given a \"use of force briefing\" by the sergeant of the guard before being assigned to their post.\n\nFor the English law on the use of force in crime prevention, see Self-defence in English law. The Australian position on the use of troops for civil policing is set out by Michael Hood in \"Calling Out the Troops: Disturbing Trends and Unanswered Questions\"; compare \"Use of Deadly Force by the South African Police Services Re-visited\" by Malebo Keebine-Sibanda and Omphemetse Sibanda.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "What you have to remember is you can't import civilian standards into a combat situation. This isn't Chicago. This is Iraq, Indian country...\n\nSection::::Military service and controversy.:Incident, hearing and aftermath.:Recommendations.\n\nMajor Winn recommended to Major General Richard Huck, commander of Lieutenant Pantano's division, that the murder charges be dropped and Pantano be held to account for desecration of the corpses. It was his assessment that Sergeant Coburn was an uncredible witness.\n", "Almost universally, police officers are authorized the use of force, up to and including deadly force, when acting in a law enforcement capacity. Although most law enforcement agencies follow some variant of the use of force continuum, where officers are only authorized the level of force required to match situational requirements, specific thresholds and responses vary between jurisdictions. While officers are trained to avoid excessive use of force, and may be held legally accountable for infractions, the variability of law enforcement and its dependence on human judgment have made the subject an area of controversy and research.\n\nSection::::Application of force.:Accountability.\n", "The drift toward militarization concerns police officers and police policy analysts themselves. U.S. community policing grew out of the Peelian Principles of the London Metropolitan Police which emphasizes the relationship between the police and the community they serve. Police academy education patterned after a military boot camp, military-type battle dress uniforms and black color by itself may produce aggression, as do the missions named wars on crime, on drugs, and on terrorism.\n", "Police officers are legally permitted to use force, and their superiors — and the public — expect them to do so. According to Jerome Herbert Skolnick, in dealing largely with disorderly elements of the society, some people working in law enforcement may gradually develop an attitude or sense of authority over society, particularly under traditional reaction-based policing models; in some cases the police believe that they are above the law.\n", "Studies have shown that law enforcement personnel with some college education (typically two-year degrees) use force much less often than those with little to no higher education. In events that the educated officers do use force, it is usually what is considered \"reasonable\" force. Despite these findings, very little - only 1% - of police forces within the United States have education requirements for those looking to join their forces. Some argue that police work deeply requires experience that can only be gained from actually working in the field.\n\nSection::::Officer attributes.:Experience.\n", "In October 2011 Downey, California police officer Steven Gilley shot an unarmed suspect named Michael Nida, who had been mistaken for an armed robber, in the back with a submachine gun, killing him.\n\nBetween 2006 and 2014, almost 5,000 M16 rifles were distributed to local and state law enforcement agencies in Ohio under the surplus military equipment program.\n\nSection::::Effects.\n\nA 2017 study found a statistically significant positive relationship between militarization of the police and fatalities from officer-involved shootings.\n\nSection::::In popular culture.\n", "In a 2014 analysis titled, \"Coming Home to Roost: American Militarism, War Culture, and Police Brutality\" published by The Hampton Institute, Colin Jenkins provides an in-depth look at the potential cultural roots of police violence in the United States. These cultural factors include \"Objectification, Empathy Erosion, an Internalized Culture of War and Oppression, White Supremacy\" and the development of an intensely hierarchical and class-based society. Jenkins also makes a connection between the proliferation of U.S. wars abroad and the soldier-to-police officer transition that has become common, bringing veterans of foreign wars home to patrol mostly poor and working-class communities of color. Using his own experience in the U.S. military, Jenkins provides some insight on the mentality that is shaped by combat training and how these mentalities are then turned on target populations, which include American citizens.\n", "On March 23, 2015, a Department of Justice investigation into use of deadly force by the Philadelphia Police Department in the period from 2007-2013 found that the way officers are trained may be a contributing factor to excessive use of deadly force. The report found that a) many officers have the mistaken assumption that being \"in fear of their life\" is justification for the use of deadly force, but fear should not be a factor - it's a reasonable belief that deadly force is necessary to avoid death or serious injury; b) instruction about policies on the use of force is confusing; c) most training scenarios end in some type of use of force and officers are rarely, if ever, trained how to resolve confrontations peacefully; d) 80% of suspects shot by police were black - black suspects were also more than twice as likely to be shot due to a \"threat perception failure\"; and e) no consistent procedure was in place for shooting investigations, no audio or video recordings of officer interviews were being made, and officers are often interviewed months after the incidents.\n", "The daily work of a police officer involves certain paradoxes and conflicts which may be difficult to deal with, the predominant examples are\n\nBULLET::::- Interaction with the public, whether socially or officially, such as in a traffic stop, involves a risk of physical harm. Being on guard for an attack and treating every interpersonal situation with affirmative commands makes the police officer appear brutal and detached, limits his actual effectiveness with the public and engenders chronic stress.\n", "A national survey in August 2016 by the Pew Research Center found police officers who had served in the military were more likely to have fired their weapon while doing police work (32% vs. 26%).\n\nSection::::United States.:Concerns and responses.:Viewpoints.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Great Britain.:Examples.\n\nIn 2009, Ian Tomlinson was killed when he was hit in the head with a baton and shoved to the ground at the G20 protests in the City of London. PC Simon Harwood was an officer of the Territorial Support Group (TSG), a unit of the Metropolitan Police Service, until he was sacked for the altercation. The incident attracted criticism of both the \"militaristic approach\" of the TSG and the small number of complaints upheld by the Metropolitan Police despite referrals by the IPCC.\n", "An analysis in the US showed that 106 of the 771 officer killings between 1996 and 2009 occurred during domestic violence interventions. Of these, 51% were defined as unprovoked or as ambushes, taking place before officers had made contact with suspects. Another 40% occurred after contact and the remainder took place during tactical situations (those involving hostages and attempts to overcome barricades). The FBI's LEOKA system grouped officer domestic violence response deaths into the category of disturbances, along with \"bar fights, gang matters, and persons brandishing weapons,\" which may have given rise to a misperception of the risks involved.\n", "Referring to the 2011 Occupy Wall Street protests in New York City, Glen Greenwald wrote, \"The police response was so excessive, and so clearly modeled after battlefield tactics, that there was no doubt that deterring domestic dissent is one of the primary aims of police militarization.\"\n", "The documentary \"Do Not Resist\" by Craig Atkinson is also critical of the phenomenon of police militarization, as exemplified by law enforcement training courses taught by retired military officer Dave Grossman, who tells police officers, \"You are men and women of violence.\" The film won the award for \"Best Documentary Feature\" at the Tribeca Film Festival.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Military police\n\nBULLET::::- COINTELPRO\n\nBULLET::::- High policing\n\nBULLET::::- Homeland security\n\nBULLET::::- Human rights\n\nBULLET::::- Human rights in the United States\n\nBULLET::::- Indefinite detention without trial\n\nBULLET::::- Martial law\n\nBULLET::::- NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–07)\n\nBULLET::::- Patriot Act\n\nBULLET::::- Police brutality\n", "Responsibilities of a police officer are varied, and may differ greatly from within one political context to another. Typical duties relate to keeping the peace, law enforcement, protection of people and property and the investigation of crimes. Officers are expected to respond to a variety of situations that may arise while they are on duty. Rules and guidelines dictate how an officer should behave within the community, and in many contexts, restrictions are placed on what the uniformed officer wears. In some countries, rules and procedures dictate that a police officer is obliged to intervene in a criminal incident, even if they are off-duty. Police officers in nearly all countries retain their lawful powers while off duty.\n" ]

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[ "The BBC, Sky Sports and BT Sport show a vidiprinter during their scores and results programmes. Their vidiprinters appear at the start of the 3 pm kick-offs until 5 pm when all the results are in although Sky Sports keeps the vidiprinter onscreen whilst the channel broadcasts its classifled check and whilst presenter Jeff Stelling goes through the updated league tables.\n", "BBC Scotland broadcasts its own Saturday afternoon results programme, \"Sportscene Results\", and the vidiprinter is onscreen from the start of the programme until the start of the classified results at 5pm.\n", "BBC Scotland has historically shown its own football results programme. From 1989–2001, it was known as \"Afternoon Sportscene\" and it opted out of \"Grandstand\" at around 4:40pm when the \"Final Score\" segment of the programme was about to begin, and consequently the programme included a vidiprinter sequence which lasted for roughly the same time as it did on \"Final Score\". The programme was renamed \"Sportscene Results\" at the start of the 2001-02 season although it wasn't until the end of the decade that the vidiprinter was on-screen from the start of the programme until the classified results at 5pm.\n", "BULLET::::- Dan Glomski, Darren Styles, Nick Smith – audio record crew\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Filsinger – lighting director\n\nBULLET::::- David Rhoades – The Palace of Auburn Hills: broadcast facilities coordinator\n\nBULLET::::- Dan Brown – chief engineer\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Step – color correction\n\nBULLET::::- Jim Sobczak – technical director\n\nBULLET::::- Gary Mclenon, Tony Chrobak, Mark Gomez, Doug Maguire, Matt Regimbal, Steve Biondo, Kevin Bovee – camera\n\nBULLET::::- Dave McNutt – jib operator\n\nBULLET::::- Chris Berkenkamp, Jay Chapman – B-roll camera\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Culler, Scott Edeid – engineer in charge\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Stapleton, Kyle Clements, Victor Navarro, Keith Anderson – video technicians\n", "BULLET::::- 2012 Sports Emmy Award - Outstanding Technical Team-Remote \"Winter X Games 16\" ESPN 3D Kevin Cleary, Technical Supervisor\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Sports Emmy Award - Outstanding Technical Team-Remote \"Winter X Games 15\" ESPN 3D Kevin Cleary, Technical Supervisor\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 Eclipse Award - Outstanding National Television Live Racing Programming - \"The Breeders Cup\" ESPN Kevin Cleary, Senior Audio Producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2011 College Sports Media Awards - Professional Live Game or Event - \"2011 Rose Bowl Wisconsin vs TCU\" ESPN Kevin Cleary, Senior Audio Producer\n", "When ingesting audio or video feeds, metadata are attached to the clip. Those metadata can be attached automatically (timecode, localization, take number, name of the clip) or manually (players names, characters, in sports: red card, goal...). It is then possible to access any frame by entering directly the timecode or the descriptive metadata. An editor can, for example at the end of the day in the Olympic Games, easily retrieve all the clips related to the players who received a gold medal.\n", "The designated replay official (one of the four officials in the arena) may request different angles and/or slow motion, as well as freeze particular frames. The replay judge will use all available technology to assess the call in question and supply his ruling. This includes using his own hand-held stopwatch to time bull rides in case of a clock malfunction, as well as a graphic overlay of the official eight-second clock used in PBR competition that starts when the bull exits the bucking chute.\n", "These systems are now outdated thanks to the instantaneous nature of social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. Broadcasters and content rights holders now use cloud-based video editing technology which allows them to clip, edit and share video across multiple digital platforms such as websites and social apps within seconds rather than minutes.\n\nForscene is one of the very earliest cloud video editing applications and has been used to quickly edit and publish clips of Olympics and Wimbledon tennis action.\n", "There are three main categories of competing that WSSA-sanctioned tournaments offer:\n\nBULLET::::- Individual: Each competitor is allowed two warm-ups and three timed tries for each sequence. The best time for each sequence is recorded and compared with other competitors. In the case of a tie, the second-best times are used.\n", "In November 2007 a midweek version of \"Final Score\" was launched. This is a simulcast of BBC Radio 5 Live with the vidiprinter shown on-screen and is called \"Midweek Final Score\". This was the first time that the BBC had shown the vidiprinter on midweek evenings. Originally on air throughout the programme, the vidiprinter is now only seen when the evening's games are in progress.\n", "BULLET::::- 'Disco' Alistair 'Al' allegedly spent 4'33 dancing at the starting line which put him outside the top 12 but when the officials agreed to restart the clock, his time was 4'13 which put him in 11th place along with 'Last Twin Standing' Dan. This may have just been a joke, however, since the water that flows down the slide at the starting line was not seen starting during these scenes, implying that the air horn sound that started the clock was dubbed in.\n\nBULLET::::- Do's and Don'ts: The Sweeper\n\nSection::::Series 2.:Episode 3.\n\nBULLET::::- 18 July 2009\n", "BULLET::::- Same day edit (also called a wedding day edit, sometimes abbreviated as SDE): A short video (usually 3 to 5 minutes) produced from the footage of the wedding shot earlier in the day, usually incorporating footage from pre-ceremony (getting ready), ceremony, photoshoot, reception entrance and first dance, which is then showed near the end of the reception (usually prior to the bride & groom speeches) as a recap of the wedding. It is also possible to incorporate footage shot prior to the wedding in the same day edit.\n\nBULLET::::- Next day edit (sometimes abbreviated as NDE)\n", "BULLET::::- Just before entering the pool, a member of the team (identified as the \"Team Captain\" in the rules) is instructed on the order of the search for and what information is to be recorded from 16 ‘signal-pliers’. These are equally spaced across the bottom of the pool with 4 in each quadrant of the pool.\n\nBULLET::::- The divers enter the pool from its 4 corners and swim underwater to meet in the middle where the Team Captain communicates the task.\n", "As with BBC Scotland, BBC Northern Ireland has always produced its own results programme. However it does not start broadcasting until 5pm. Consequently, the Northern Ireland programme does not feature an on-screen vidiprinter.\n\nSection::::History.:Sky Sports.\n", "BULLET::::- Mark Petchey (Also works for BBC Sport and Prime Video)\n\nBULLET::::- Fabrice Santoro\n\nBULLET::::- Sam Smith (Also works for BBC Sport, BT Sport and Prime Video)\n\nSection::::Previous ITV Sport coverage.\n\nSection::::Previous ITV Sport coverage.:Athletics.\n", "BULLET::::- On February 17, at the Orbitz 300 at Daytona International Speedway, Brent Musburger broadcast from a separate studio between turns 3 and 4, while Chris Fowler took his place in the pit studio alongside Daugherty and Tim Brewer. Both sets were used in the program.\n", "Section::::Features.\n\nThe system is LaserDisc-based, relying on several LaserDisc players and a database system which queues up the clips in the order needed from the LaserDisc players in the most efficient way, so as to minimize skipping. This however isn't always possible. So if the edits aren't sufficiently close, the system isn't always fast enough to cue up the next clip.\n", "BULLET::::- National Hockey League's Stanley Cup Finals\n\nBULLET::::- Tennis Grand Slam tournament coverage of non-final rounds and some other major tennis tournaments\n\nBULLET::::- Formula One motor racing\n\nBULLET::::- Action from any other competition broadcast on 5 Live\n", "Following Bruce Leak's departure to Web TV, the leadership of the QuickTime team was taken over by Peter Hoddie.\n", "BULLET::::- 'Slam Dunk' James, 'Wiggly Wiggly' Andy and 'Geordie Legs' Ian are the first 3 in Series 4 to cross Rack in the Face.\n\nBULLET::::- 'Wiggly Wiggly' Andy was the 2nd person in Series 4 to cross the Big Red Balls\n\nBULLET::::- 'Slam Dunk' James was only 1 second slower the old wipeout zone record which was set by 'Drill Sergeant' James (Series 2 Episode 8 and Series 2 Champion of Champions) (1:10).\n", "BULLET::::- 2010 Eclipse Award - Outstanding National Television - Live Racing Programming - \"The Breeders Cup\" ESPN Kevin Cleary, Senior Audio Producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 Global Media Awards for College Sports - Best Live Game - College Football \"#1Texas vs #7 Texas Tech” ESPN/ABC Kevin Cleary, Senior Audio Technician\n\nBULLET::::- 2009 Eclipse Award - Outstanding National Television Live Racing Programming - \"The Belmont Stakes on ABC\" Kevin Cleary, Senior Audio Producer\n\nBULLET::::- 2008 Sports Emmy Award - Outstanding Technical Team-Studio \"ESPN Nascar\" ABC/ESPN/ESPN2 Kevin Cleary, Technical Supervisor\n", "BULLET::::- Event 2 – Men's Individual Fall Down: From left to right, Frenchman Luc Vansevenant, Australian Chris Norton, Great Briton Liam Collins and American Cory McGee. In the first shot, Collins landed first with Norton landing seconds and Vansevenant landing third and McGee landing last eliminating him. In the second shot, Collins landed first with Vansevenant landing second and Norton landing last eliminating him. In the third and final shot, Vansevenant landed faster than Collins.\n\nBULLET::::- Men's Individual Fall Down result: 1st Luc Vansevenant 4 – 2nd Liam Collins 3 – 3rd Chris Norton 2 – 4th Cory McGee 1\n", "In 2014, Quick was involved in two short film simultaneously. January saw filming begin on \"Glory Hunter\". At the same time, Chris was piecing together the final edit of \"\"Broken Record\"\", the directorial debut for Andy S. McEwan. \"\"Broken Record\"\" appeared at various film festivals including the Portobello Film Festival in London.\n", "The initial six channels was expanded to eight with the addition of a new UK exclusive Master channel, produced by FOM, incorporating additional studio programs before and after the on-track sessions, as well as cutting into the Super-Signal during the session, with in-vision interviews. An eighth dedicated highlights channel was added, showing rolling highlights up to the current point in the race.\n", "Section::::Facilities.\n\nIn 2010, BBC Studioworks made a stereoscopic 3D Strictly Come Dancing trail for \"Children in Need\" at Television Centre. Its 3D team, along with 3Ality Digitals Stereographer Scot Steele, provided full studio and post production services for the three-minute 3D film featuring an Argentinean tango.\n\nIn 2010, BBC Studioworks carried out a major technology refresh for \"EastEnders\" at its Elstree site in Hertfordshire, introducing new HD and tapeless workflows to support the show as it moved to HD in autumn 2010.\n" ]

[ "Live sports events edit the show immediately during the broadcast. " ]

[ "During sports events, everything is done in real time, therefore there is no rendering or editing involved." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Live sports events edit the show immediately during the broadcast. ", "Live sports events edit the show immediately during the broadcast. " ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "During sports events, everything is done in real time, therefore there is no rendering or editing involved.", "During sports events, everything is done in real time, therefore there is no rendering or editing involved." ]

[ "While awaiting sentencing, Madoff met with the SEC's Inspector General, H. David Kotz, who was conducting an investigation into how regulators failed to detect the fraud despite numerous red flags. Because of concerns of improper conduct by Inspector General Kotz in conducting the Madoff investigation, Inspector General David C. Williams of the U.S. Postal Service was brought in to conduct an independent outside review of Kotz's actions. The Williams Report questioned Kotz's work on the Madoff investigation, because Kotz was a \"very good friend\" with Markopolos. Investigators were not able to determine when Kotz and Markopolos became friends. A violation of the ethics rules took place if their friendship was concurrent with Kotz's investigation of Madoff.\n", "Financial analyst and whistleblower Harry Markopolos said that Kotz \"was unflagging [and h]e restored my faith,\" in the Madoff affair.\n\nSection::::SEC (2007–12).:Investigations.:Stanford.\n", "Section::::Later career and the 1992 scam.\n\nSection::::Later career and the 1992 scam.:GrowMore Research and Asset Management.\n", "Friehling was not registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, which was created under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to help detect fraud. Nor was the firm \"peer reviewed\", in which auditors check one another for quality control. According to the AICPA, Friehling was enrolled in their peer-review program, but was not required to participate because he supposedly didn't conduct audits. It later emerged that Madoff's banker, JPMorgan Chase, had known that Friehling wasn't registered with the PCAOB or subject to peer review as early as 2006. Additionally, officials at Fairfield Greenwich Group, operator of the largest Madoff feeder fund, had been aware as early as 2005 that Friehling was the firm's sole employee.\n", "Dalrymple replied: \"Writing research on quoted companies and distributing that research to financial media outlets, is neither illegal and is a daily legitimate activity on Wall Street\". The complaint did not progress and there was no SEC investigation. GEROVA Financial's share collapsed in 2011, and never recovered. On 24 September 2015, the SEC charged a number of senior executives of GEROVA, and a number of major investors in GEROVA with a \"stock fraud scheme\", for which several, including the former company Chairman and President, Gary Hirst, received jail sentences in 2017.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Krassimir Ivandjiiski\n\nBULLET::::- Daniel Ivandjiiski\n", "From 1991 to 2008, Friehling & Horowitz, a little-known accounting firm in New City, New York, a small hamlet in the Rockland County suburbs north of New York City, signed off on audits on Bernard L. Madoff Investment Securities LLC's books. Friehling falsely represented to investors and the Securities and Exchange Commission that he and the firm had audited the Madoff firm and that it was financially sound. In the meantime, Friehling and his family withdrew millions of dollars from accounts at the Madoff firm, over $5.5 million since 2000. Friehling's role in Madoff's fraud made it the largest accounting scandal ever uncovered, dwarfing the $11 billion accounting fraud masterminded by Bernard Ebbers at WorldCom.\n", "Well before Bernard Madoff's massive Ponzi scheme came to light, observers doubted whether his listed accounting firm — an unknown two-person firm in a rural area north of New York City — was competent to service a multimillion-dollar operation, especially since it had only one active accountant, David G. Friehling. Indeed, Friehling's practice was so small that for years, he operated out of his house; he only moved into an office when Madoff customers wanted to know more about who was auditing his accounts. Ultimately, Friehling admitted to simply rubber-stamping at least 18 years' worth of Madoff's filings with the SEC. He also revealed that he continued to audit Madoff even though he had invested a substantial amount of money with him (Accountants aren't allowed to audit broker-dealers with whom they're investing). He agreed to forfeit $3.18 million in accounting fees and withdrawals from his account with Madoff. His involvement makes the Madoff scheme the largest accounting fraud in world history.\n", "On July 28, 2009, he gave his first jailhouse interview to Joseph Cotchett and Nancy Fineman, attorneys from San Francisco, because they threatened to sue his wife, Ruth, on behalf of several investors who lost fortunes. During the 4 hour session, he \"answered every one of [the attorneys'] questions\", and expressed remorse, according to Cotchett.\n\nSection::::Recovery of funds.\n", "Madoff's firm paid Friehling between $12,000 and $14,500 a month for his services between 2004 and 2007.\n\nAlthough required, Friehling was not registered with the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, which was created under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to help detect fraud. Nor was the firm \"peer reviewed,\" in which auditors check out one another for quality control. According to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), Friehling was enrolled in their peer-review program, but was not required to participate because he advised the group that he had not conducted audits for 15 years.\n", "Since at least 1991, Bernard L. Madoff Investment Securities had been audited by Friehling & Horowitz CPAs, a little-known accounting firm in New City, north of New York City. The firm consisted of two principals, David G. Friehling and Jerome Horowitz, and a part-time secretary. Horowitz was semi-retired; Friehling was the sole active practitioner.\n", "After four hours of failed attempts to replicate Madoff's numbers, Markopolos believed he had mathematically proved Madoff was a fraud. He was ignored by the SEC's Boston office in 2000 and 2001, as well as by Meaghan Cheung at the SEC's New York office in 2005 and 2007 when he presented further evidence. He has since co-authored a book with Gaytri Kachroo (the leader of his legal team) titled . The book details the frustrating efforts he and his legal team made over a ten-year period to alert the government, the industry, and the press about Madoff's fraud.\n", "The company's chief financial officer, Charles Arrington, was accused of running up $91,000 in fraudulent charges against customers of his florist business. When the Feshbach brothers, a pair of short-sellers, learned that Minkow still stood behind Arrington, they did further investigating and discovered ZZZZ Best's claimed $7 million contract to clean carpets in Sacramento was likely a fraud. The Feshbachs and other short-sellers began taking positions, anticipating that the company's stock would fall. Additionally, none of the company's four outside directors had any experience running a public company.\n\nSection::::Downfall.\n", "One of his findings in his Madoff-related investigations was that the SEC's General Counsel, David M. Becker, had a conflict of interest, as his family had invested $2 million with Madoff. Kotz referred the matter to the U.S. Justice Department's criminal division. Becker's lawyer said that SEC officials knew about the investments, and did not recommend that he recuse himself. Becker said: \n", "Peter graduated from Fordham University School of Law in 1970 and was formerly director of the National Stock Exchange (Cincinnati Stock Exchange). Peter owned a home in Old Westbury, New York, valued between $3–5 million, and a $4.2 million home in Palm Beach, Florida, the title of which was transferred on November 8, 2006 to his wife, Marion, and a vintage Aston Martin.\n", "Soon after the Madoff scandal broke, it emerged that Friehling & Horowitz had informed the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants in writing since 1993 that it didn't conduct audits. An investigation into Friehling by Rockland County district attorney Thomas Zugibe was stopped in deferral to the investigation by the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York. However, he publicly claimed to have \"hundreds of clients.\"\n", "Jeffry Picower was an industrialist and philanthropist who seemed to be a favored Madoff beneficiary, and made outlandish profits from his investments with Madoff. From 1996–2007 there were 14 instances of greater than 100% yearly returns, and 25 of greater than 50%. From 1996–1999 his regular trading account made from 120–550% a year. Some evidence of backdating trades, instituted by Picower, was presented by trustee Irving Picard. \n", "Michael Chaleff, a former Justice Department lawyer, was part of a 50-member investment group named CMG that lost $75 million to $80 million it gave to Chais' Brighton Co. Chaleff filed a $250-million class action federal lawsuit against Chais in Los Angeles, as did screenwriter Eric Roth. New Jersey State Senator Loretta Weinberg lost her entire life savings in Chais' \"Arbitrage Partnerships\" fund.\n\nChais died on September 26, 2010 at age 84, in Manhattan, where he and his wife had moved to further the treatment of a blood disorder that eventually took his life.\n", "Kotz's investigation found that the SEC received more than ample information in the form of detailed and substantive complaints over the years. The OIG found that between June 1992 and December 2008 when Madoff confessed, the SEC received six substantive complaints that raised significant red flags concerning Madoff's hedge fund operations and should have led to questions about whether Madoff was actually engaged in trading.\n", "He also created fictitious Merrill Lynch account statements to show that one investor had an account balance of $9.5 million.\n", "Section::::SEC (2007–12).:Investigations.\n\nSection::::SEC (2007–12).:Investigations.:Madoff.\n", "Maxam Absolute Return Fund LP has filed a lawsuit in Connecticut Superior Court in Fairfield County against auditors Goldstein Golub Kessler LLP and McGladrey & Pullen LLP to recover losses, claiming they relied on the auditors for their expertise in examining Madoff's firm.\n", "While in jail, Teicher was running about $375 million from Merkin's investors. In January 1995, Merkin took over Teicher's staff, put Gabriel Capital's name on the door, and hired Nathan Leight to manage the money.\n\nTeicher had told Merkin not to invest with Madoff because such steady returns were impossible.\n\nYou, however, took a brilliant career and actively, willingly, wiped your ass with it when it was obvious that you (knew what you) were doing.\n", "BULLET::::- Emini tried to hide the $116 million shortfall in the accounts of Sydney lawyer-turned-investor Chris Murphy. He allegedly tried to cover up the shortfalls by manipulating stock to avoid margin calls being made on Mr Murphy and other key clients. To this end, the amount of stock available to Opes Prime and Leveraged Capital, was allegedly double-counted at least 13 times.\n", "After Madoff's arrest, the SEC was criticized for its lack of financial expertise and lack of due diligence, despite having received complaints from Harry Markopolos and others for almost a decade. The SEC's Inspector General, Kotz, found that since 1992, there had been six investigations of Madoff by the SEC, which were botched either through incompetent staff work or by neglecting allegations of financial experts and whistle-blowers. At least some of the SEC investigators doubted whether Madoff was even trading.\n", "At all times during the fraud, BLMIS had a number of clients who were not invested within the Split Strike strategy (\"Non-Split Strike clients\"). The non-Split Strike clients were told that their funds would be invested using strategies that would realize annual rates of return from at least 53 percent. From at least the early 1980s, Madoff and others allegedly took steps to make it appear as though their funds had generated these extraordinarily high returns, when, in fact, their funds had not been invested at all.\n\nSection::::Background.:\"House 05\" and Stratus systems.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Chapter 15, \"The Final Breakthrough\", presents more ballistics, especially estimating the size of the head shot entry wound and its relevance. John Davis, another possible author for the book, is contacted and is at first enthusiastic. Howard gives up his Masters studies in forensics but becomes increasingly employed as an expert witness despite this.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Henry Daniell as Dr. Emil Zurich\n\nBULLET::::- Valerie French as Alison Drake\n\nBULLET::::- Grant Richards as Lt. Rowan\n\nBULLET::::- Lumsden Hare as Rogers\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Gerstle as Coulter\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Wexler as Zutai\n\nBULLET::::- Howard Wendell as Dr. Bradford\n\nBULLET::::- Eduard Franz as Jonathan Drake\n\nBULLET::::- Paul Cavanagh as Kenneth Drake\n\nBULLET::::- Jonathan Hole as the Funeral Director\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "According to Baden's report, Brown was shot six times into his front: four of the bullets entered his right arm, one entered his right eye on a downward trajectory, and one entered the top of his skull. All of the rounds were fired from a distance of at least one foot. One of the shots shattered his right eye, traveled through his face, then exited his jaw and reentered his collarbone. The shot that entered the top of his skull caused the fatal injury. Brown could have survived the first bullet wounds, but the bullet that entered the top of his head resulted in a fatal injury.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Shane Beasley as The Killer\n\nBULLET::::- Kelsey Carlisle as Jess Hardy\n\nBULLET::::- Ellie Church as Betsy Coard\n\nBULLET::::- Dave Parker as Pete Christy\n\nBULLET::::- Jennifer Lee as The Hitchhiker\n\nSection::::Reception.\n", "BULLET::::- December 1859: An autopsy showed that a native servant in India, who suddenly fell dead for no apparent reason, was mortally wounded from a bullet fired from a distance too far for the shot to be heard. The falling bullet had sufficient energy to pass through the victim's shoulder, a rib, a lung, his heart and his diaphragm.\n\nSection::::Notable incidents.:United States.\n\nBULLET::::- July 1, 2017: A 13-year-old boy, Noah Inman, was struck in his head and killed while playing basketball in the street.\n", "\"Killed (and approximate distance from the National Guard):\"\n\nBULLET::::- Jeffrey Glenn Miller; age 20; shot through the mouth; killed instantly\n\nBULLET::::- Allison B. Krause; age 19; fatal left chest wound; died later that day\n\nBULLET::::- William Knox Schroeder; age 19; fatal chest wound; died almost an hour later in a local hospital while undergoing surgery\n\nBULLET::::- Sandra Lee Scheuer; age 20; fatal neck wound; died a few minutes later from loss of blood\n\n\"Wounded (and approximate distance from the National Guard):\"\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph Lewis, Jr.; ; hit twice in the right abdomen and left lower leg\n", "BULLET::::- Michael Nesmith as Mike\n\nBULLET::::- Annette Funicello as Teresa/Minnie\n\nBULLET::::- Timothy Carey as Lord High 'n' Low\n\nBULLET::::- Logan Ramsey as Officer Faye Lapid\n\nBULLET::::- Abraham Sofaer as Swami\n\nBULLET::::- Vito Scotti as I. Vitteloni\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Macaulay as Inspector Shrink\n\nBULLET::::- T. C. Jones as Mr. and Mrs. Ace\n\nBULLET::::- Charles Irving as Mayor Feedback\n\nBULLET::::- William Bagdad as Black Sheik\n\nBULLET::::- Percy Helton as Heraldic Messenger\n\nBULLET::::- Sonny Liston as Extra\n\nBULLET::::- Ray Nitschke as Private One\n\nBULLET::::- Carol Doda as Sally Silicone\n\nBULLET::::- Frank Zappa as The Critic\n\nBULLET::::- June Fairchild as The Jumper\n", "Surviving a self-inflicted gunshot may result in severe chronic pain for the patient as well as reduced cognitive abilities and motor function, subdural hematoma, foreign bodies in the head, pneumocephalus and cerebrospinal fluid leaks. For temporal bone directed bullets, temporal lobe abscess, meningitis, aphasia, hemianopsia, and hemiplegia are common late intracranial complications. As many as 50% of people who survive gunshot wounds directed at the temporal bone suffer facial nerve damage, usually due to a severed nerve.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Martin Lawrence as Kevin Caffery\n\nBULLET::::- Danny DeVito as Max Fairbanks\n\nBULLET::::- John Leguizamo as Berger\n\nBULLET::::- Glenne Headly as Gloria Sidell\n\nBULLET::::- Carmen Ejogo as Amber Belhaven\n\nBULLET::::- Bernie Mac as Uncle Jack\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Miller as Earl Radburn\n\nBULLET::::- Nora Dunn as Lutetia Fairbanks\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Schiff as Walter Greenbaum\n\nBULLET::::- William Fichtner as Det. Alex Tardio\n\nBULLET::::- Ana Gasteyer as Ann Marie\n\nBULLET::::- GQ as Shelly Nix\n\nBULLET::::- Sascha Knopf as Tracey Kimberly\n\nBULLET::::- Mike Jessel as Ice Cream Boy\n\nSection::::Reception.\n\nSection::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Management.\n\nInitial assessment for a gunshot wound is approached in the same way as other acute trauma using the advanced trauma life support (ATLS) protocol. These include:\n\nBULLET::::- A) Airway - Assess and protect airway and potentially the cervical spine\n\nBULLET::::- B) Breathing - Maintain adequate ventilation and oxygenation\n\nBULLET::::- C) Circulation - Assess for and control bleeding to maintain organ perfusion including focused assessment with sonography for trauma (FAST)\n\nBULLET::::- D) Disability - Perform basic neurological exam including Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Randy Wayne as Jacob \"Jake\" Taylor\n\nBULLET::::- Deja Kreutzberg as Amanda \"Amy\" Briggs\n\nBULLET::::- Joshua Weigel as Christopher \"Chris\" Vaughn\n\nBULLET::::- Sean Michael Afable as Jonathan \"Jonny\" Garcia\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Bailey Jr. as Roger Dawson\n\nBULLET::::- Steven Crowder as Douglas \"Doug\" Moore\n\nBULLET::::- D. David Morin as Marcus \"Mark\" Rivers\n\nBULLET::::- Kim Hidalgo as Andrea Stevens\n\nBULLET::::- Arjay Smith as Matt McQueen\n\nBULLET::::- Bubba Lewis as Daniel \"Danny\" Rivers\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::2. Catherine Maggio was the wife of Joseph Maggio, her throat was cut so deep that her head was nearly severed from her shoulders.\n", "BULLET::::1. There is a penetrating gunshot wound; entry near right ear, exit near the external orifice of left ear.\n\nBULLET::::2. Gunshot wound: entry 2 cm medial to right nipple, exit near left iliac crest damaging internal viscera like liver, intestine and peritonium.\n\nBULLET::::3. Compound comminuted fracture left knee.\n\nBULLET::::4. Suffered multiple punctured wounds over left and right thighs, rupture of right lung, injury to neck vessels, small intestine and left liver.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Jared Leto as Steve Prefontaine\n\nBULLET::::- Ed O'Neill as Bill Dellinger\n\nBULLET::::- R. Lee Ermey as Bill Bowerman\n\nBULLET::::- Amy Locane as Nancy Alleman\n\nBULLET::::- Breckin Meyer as Pat Tyson\n\nBULLET::::- Lindsay Crouse as Elfriede Prefontaine\n\nBULLET::::- Brian McGovern as Mac Wilkins\n\nBULLET::::- Kurtwood Smith as Curtis Cunningham\n\nBULLET::::- Laurel Holloman as Elaine Finley\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::- Unnamed White Female - Aged sixty-five to eighty. Mother of \"Phyllis Crowder.\" She was decapitated low on the cervical spine, arms and legs severed. She had been dismembered by cutting straight through the strong bones of the humerus and femur. Probably hit in the head that resulted in a basilar skull fracture. It was later discovered she was infected with a smallpox-like virus, before being killed, and she was just a copycat killing to the five unidentified victims in Dublin, Ireland and the four unidentified victims in Virginia.\n", "The following day, an associate medical examiner performed an autopsy on the deceased, which confirmed that two gunshot wounds were the cause of death. Specifically, one bullet entered the decedent's head above the right ear from a distance of three to six inches and the second bullet entered the left front region of the head. The paths of both bullets were backward, downward, and toward the right. The deceased showed further evidence of blunt force trauma to the bridge of the nose, area around the eyes, right cheek, and left shoulder. The bullet fragments recovered indicated that the bullets had been .38 caliber projectiles and could have been fired from a .357 magnum handgun.\n", "BULLET::::- Geraldine James as Vendetta Galante\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Siberry as Derek Richardson\n\nBULLET::::- Tom Rack as Zigesfeld\n\nBULLET::::- Carole Davis as Areola Canasta\n\nBULLET::::- Frederick Coffin as Lieutenant Colonel Larabee\n\nBULLET::::- Roger Daltrey as Blade\n\nBULLET::::- Oliver Dear as Kent\n\nBULLET::::- Cynthia Preston as Melissa Tyler\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Sinelnikoff as Haywood\n\nBULLET::::- Travis Swords as Kelly\n\nBULLET::::- Gerry Mendicino as Herb Corben\n\nBULLET::::- Fiona Reid as Marge Corben\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Vinokur as Brad Corben\n\nBULLET::::- David McIlwraith as Agent Michael Corben\n\nBULLET::::- Gene Mack as Agent Kramer\n\nBULLET::::- Jacques Tourangeau as Jacques Lefevre\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "BULLET::::- Ann McKee, MD\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Stern, PhD\n\nBULLET::::- Hunt Batjer, MD\n\nBULLET::::- Gary Dorshimer, MD\n\nBULLET::::- Ruben Echemendia, PhD\n\nBULLET::::- Douglas Smith, MD\n\nBULLET::::- Steven Galetta, MD\n\nBULLET::::- Laura Balcer, MD, MSCE\n\nBULLET::::- Christina Master, MD\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Willie Stewart\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Barry O'Driscoll\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. James Robson\n\nBULLET::::- Greg \"Diesel\" Williams\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Alan Pearce\n\nBULLET::::- David Dodick, MD\n\nBULLET::::- Dr. Huw Williams\n\n\"Head Games (2012)\"\n\nBULLET::::- Christopher Nowinski\n\nBULLET::::- Alan Schwarz\n\nBULLET::::- Keith Primeau\n\nBULLET::::- Cindy Parlow Cone\n\nBULLET::::- Bob Costas\n\nBULLET::::- Isaiah Kacyvenski\n\nBULLET::::- Bill Daly\n\nBULLET::::- Brendan Shanahan\n\nBULLET::::- Robert Cantu, MD\n", "BULLET::::- Margaret Whitton as Catherine Palin\n\nBULLET::::- Fay Masterson as Gloria Norstadt\n\nBULLET::::- Gaby Hoffmann as Megan Norstadt\n\nBULLET::::- Geoffrey Lewis as Chief Wayne Stark\n\nBULLET::::- Richard Masur as Prof. Carl Hartley\n\nBULLET::::- Michael DeLuise as Douglas Hall, Gloria's boyfriend\n\nBULLET::::- Ethan Phillips as Todd Lansing\n\nBULLET::::- George Martin as Sam the Barber\n\nBULLET::::- Jean De Baer as Mrs. Lansing\n\nBULLET::::- Jack De Mave as Mr. Cooper\n\nBULLET::::- Viva as Mrs. Cooper\n\nBULLET::::- Justin Kanew as Rob Lansing\n\nSection::::Release.\n", "BULLET::::- Stephen Tobolowsky as Samuel R. \"Sammy\" Jankis\n\nBULLET::::- Harriet Sansom Harris as Mrs. Jankis\n\nBULLET::::- Callum Keith Rennie as Dodd\n\nBULLET::::- Larry Holden as James F. \"Jimmy\" Grantz\n\nBULLET::::- Jorja Fox as Catherine Shelby\n\nSection::::Film structure.\n", "BULLET::::- David Asman as Jason Pitcairn\n\nBULLET::::- Scott Gibson as Travis Wheeler\n\nBULLET::::- Nigel Bennett as Dr. Rupert WhitneyThe member of 1973 Skulls class. He is now head of protocol.\n\nBULLET::::- Noah Danby as Hugh Mauberson\n\nSection::::Setting.\n\nThe film was shot in Toronto with the University of Toronto disguised as Yale University, the plot's setting. Scenes were also filmed in the city's suburban neighbourhood of Guildwood.\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Diane Lane as Carmen Colson\n\nBULLET::::- Thomas Jane as Wayne Colson\n\nBULLET::::- Mickey Rourke as Armand \"The Blackbird\" Degas\n\nBULLET::::- Joseph Gordon-Levitt as Richie Nix\n\nBULLET::::- Rosario Dawson as Donna\n\nBULLET::::- Hal Holbrook as Papa\n\nBULLET::::- Don McManus as Nelson Davies\n\nBULLET::::- Lois Smith as Lenore\n\nBULLET::::- Johnny Knoxville (\"deleted scenes\")\n\nSection::::Production.\n", "Searching the house, authorities found:\n\nBULLET::::- Whole human bones and fragments\n\nBULLET::::- A wastebasket made of human skin\n\nBULLET::::- Human skin covering several chair seats\n\nBULLET::::- Skulls on his bedposts\n\nBULLET::::- Female skulls, some with the tops sawn off\n\nBULLET::::- Bowls made from human skulls\n\nBULLET::::- A corset made from a female torso skinned from shoulders to waist\n\nBULLET::::- Leggings made from human leg skin\n\nBULLET::::- Masks made from the skin of female heads\n\nBULLET::::- Mary Hogan's face mask in a paper bag\n\nBULLET::::- Mary Hogan's skull in a box\n\nBULLET::::- Bernice Worden's entire head in a burlap sack\n", "BULLET::::- Matthias Schweighöfer as Gottfried Michaelsen\n\nBULLET::::- as Lupe\n\nBULLET::::- Hinnerk Schönemann as Keule\n\nBULLET::::- Jacob Matschenz as Nolle\n\nBULLET::::- Franziska Wulf as Bille\n\nBULLET::::- Jana Pallaske as Okka\n\nBULLET::::- Devid Striesow as Simon of Utrecht\n\nBULLET::::- as Herman Lange\n\nBULLET::::- Milan Peschel as Nicolaus Schocke\n\nBULLET::::- Detlev Buck as arms dealer\n\nBULLET::::- Peter Kurth as Keno tom Brok\n\nBULLET::::- as innkeeper\n\nBULLET::::- Simon Gosejohann as Fokko Johannson\n\nBULLET::::- Ferris MC as Beule\n\nBULLET::::- Achim Reichel as hangman\n\nBULLET::::- Kåre Johannessen as lord (credited as \"Kore Johannessen\")\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of historical drama films\n", "Section::::Cast.\n\nBULLET::::- Jack Warner as Bonsell\n\nBULLET::::- Anthony Richmond as Cliff Bonsell\n\nBULLET::::- Sean Barrett as Willy Maxted\n\nBULLET::::- Derek Farr as Detective Gray\n\nBULLET::::- Veronica Hurst as Hilda\n\nBULLET::::- Michael Medwin as Bob Carter\n\nBULLET::::- Gordon Harker as Mr. Hare\n\nBULLET::::- Beatrice Varley as Mrs. Maxted\n\nBULLET::::- Philip Saville as Ben Jones\n\nBULLET::::- John Warwick as Sgt. Gurney\n\nBULLET::::- Toke Townley as Jimmy Knuckle\n\nSection::::Reception.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "When the PLA Air Force started to test parachute extraction, these two design flaws caused a near disaster. The aircraft was flying too fast, and when the parachute started to extract cargo from the hold, the cargo rolled on the deck until it got to the 10 degree downward slope, and there it became airborne while still inside the aircraft. The cargo hit the top of the cargo door on the way out, making it clear that the Y-8 could not do parachute cargo extraction.\n", "This is a risky technique, and so is only used when other forms of landing are infeasible. Successful mid-air retrieval requires correct operation of the retrieving aircraft, favourable atmospheric conditions, and successful execution of a tricky manoeuvre, in addition to correct operation of the vehicle itself. These risks can be mitigated somewhat: for example, multiple recovery aircraft can be used. The need for human aviators to perform a manoeuvre which would normally be classed as a stunt may in the future be avoided by advances in unmanned aerial vehicles.\n\nNotable uses of the technique:\n", "A parachute was to eject the valuable Walter rocket motor from the rear, which would decelerate the aircraft and eject the pilot with inertia, but associated problems were still not fully resolved prior to the war's end.\n", "Since a sport skydiver jumps with a main and a reserve parachute, it is possible for both parachutes to deploy. This often occurs when a skydiver employing an Automatic Activation Device (AAD) deploys the main canopy at an altitude low enough for the AAD to activate. This may result in a dangerous main-reserve entanglement. More commonly, the two canopies will arrange themselves in a biplane, side-by-side, or a dangerous downplane configuration. Having two deployed parachutes side by side can create considerably more lift to the point of becoming dangerously hard to control. One should always attempt to fly the canopy more overhead.\n", "Large airliners have multiple engines and redundant systems, so forced landings are extremely rare for them, but some notable ones have occurred. A famous example is the Gimli Glider, an Air Canada Boeing 767 that ran out of fuel and glided to a safe landing in Gimli, Manitoba, Canada on July 23, 1983. On June 1982, British Airways Flight 9, a Boeing 747 en route from Kuala Lumpur to Perth flew into a plume of volcanic ash and lost power in all four engines, three of which subsequently recovered, eventually diverting to Jakarta. On April 28, 1988, Aloha Airlines Flight 243 experienced an explosive decompression when approximately 35 square-meters of aluminium skin separated from the fuselage. The flight was successfully diverted to Kahului Airport with only one casualty, flight attendant Clarabelle \"C.B.\" Lansing who was sucked out when the cabin depressurized. \n", "Another risk factor is that of \"canopy collisions\", or collisions between two or more skydivers under fully inflated parachutes. Canopy collisions can cause the jumpers' inflated parachutes to entangle with each other, often resulting in a sudden collapse (deflation) of one or more of the involved parachutes. When this occurs, the jumpers often must quickly perform emergency procedures (if there is sufficient altitude to do so) to \"cut-away\" (jettison) from their main canopies and deploy their reserve canopies. Canopy collisions are particularly dangerous when occurring at altitudes too low to allow the jumpers adequate time to safely jettison their main parachutes and fully deploy their reserve parachutes.\n", "The orientation and position of fuselages can be changed as with any other surface, but if one or more lifting surfaces are attached to it, the anchors will only work properly if the fuselage is kept in the original position and orientation (no translation nor rotation applied).\n", "Equipment failure rarely causes fatalities and injuries. Approximately one in 750 deployments of a main parachute result in a malfunction. Ram-air parachutes typically spin uncontrollably when malfunctioning, and must be jettisoned before deploying the reserve parachute. Reserve parachutes are packed and deployed differently; they are also designed more conservatively and built and tested to more exacting standards so they are more reliable than main parachutes, but the real safety advantage comes from the probability of an unlikely main malfunction multiplied by the even less likely probability of a reserve malfunction. This yields an even smaller probability of a double malfunction although the possibility of a main malfunction that cannot be cutaway causing a reserve malfunction is a very real risk.\n", "For landers that are even heavier than the \"Curiosity\" rover (which required a 4.5 meter (15 feet) diameter aeroshell), engineers are developing a combination rigid-inflatable Low-Density Supersonic Decelerator that could be 8 meters (28 feet) in diameter. It would have to be accompanied by a proportionately larger parachute.\n\nSection::::Landing Challenges.\n", "Sundby was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his test-flying work with the HZ-1, going on to test-fly the H-21 and H-34 helicopters, as well as seeing combat in the Vietnam War before retiring with the rank of colonel.\n\nSection::::Testing.:Parachute development.\n\nAn entirely new type of parachute with extremely fast opening characteristics, the \"Ultra-Fast Opening Personnel Parachute Type XMP-2\", was developed for use in testing of the HZ-1 and Hiller VZ-1 flying platforms. Designed for use from and at altitudes as low as , the XMP-2 proved to have insufficient reliability for use as a personnel parachute.\n\nSection::::Aircraft on display.\n", "If the slider hangs up midway down the lines, the canopy will inflate almost normally (and may or may not be safe to land in that condition). In this case, the slider can be usually \"worked\" the rest of the way down by pulling on the rear risers, or by releasing the steering lines (\"brakes\") and pulling them down repeatedly (\"pumping\"). If the malfunction can not be cleared sufficiently and one decides to cut away, the decision to do so must be made at a high enough altitude to allow the reserve to deploy.\n\nSection::::Low speed malfunctions.\n", "Section::::High speed malfunctions.:Bag lock.\n\nThis malfunction occurs when the deployment bag is extracted from the main container, but fails to release the canopy within. The correct procedure to clear the malfunction is to cut away the main and deploy the reserve.\n\nSection::::High speed malfunctions.:Horseshoe.\n", "Section::::Flight test.:October 28, 2009 (Launch).:Parachute malfunction.\n\nDuring the flight, a pyrotechnic charge on the reefer, which holds the chute together, was set off early while still inside the parachute, causing the parachute to overload and fail on deployment. The added stress on the second parachute caused it to overload and partially fail as well. The two remaining parachutes guided the booster to a rough landing, but it luckily sustained minimal damage. The parachute lanyard design was changed as well to prevent repeat incidents.\n", "Groundings of entire classes of aircraft out of equipment safety concerns is unusual, but this has occurred to the de Havilland Comet in 1954 after multiple crashes due to metal fatigue and hull failure, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 in 1979 after the crash of American Airlines Flight 191 due to engine loss, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner in 2013 after its battery problems, and the Boeing 737 MAX in 2019 after two crashes preliminarily tied to a flight control system.\n\nSection::::Aviation safety hazards.\n\nSection::::Aviation safety hazards.:Foreign object debris.\n", "It is still possible to lose all three hydraulic systems if serious damage occurs elsewhere, as nearly happened to a cargo airliner in 2002 during takeoff when a main-gear tire exploded in the wheel well. The damage in the left wing area caused total loss of pressure from the #1 and the #2 hydraulic systems. The #3 system was dented but not penetrated.\n", "The skydiver may attempt to extract the pilot chute or clear the entanglement. Extracting the pilot chute, while simple during the course of a normal jump, becomes a new challenge, because its location will have shifted due to the deployment of the main canopy. Skydivers may wish to practice on the ground deploying their pilot chute with the main canopy out of the container in order to gain experience with this procedure. If successfully cleared, the main parachute will likely fail to deploy correctly due to severe line twists. However, the skydiver can treat this as a normal high-speed malfunction, release the main, and deploy the reserve. Failing to clear the entanglement prior to deploying the reserve may result in a main-reserve entanglement.\n", "Against this objection, Airbus has responded that an A320 in the situation of Flight 006 \"never would have fallen out of the air\n\nin the first place: the envelope protection would have automatically kept it in level flight in spite of the drag of a stalled engine\".\n\nSection::::Incidents.:FedEx Flight 705.\n", "Only the hand-deployed pilot chute may be collapsed automatically after deployment—by a kill line reducing the in-flight drag of the pilot chute on the main canopy. Reserves, on the other hand, do not retain their pilot chutes after deployment. The reserve deployment bag and pilot chute are not connected to the canopy in a reserve system. This is known as a free-bag configuration, and the components are sometimes not recovered after a reserve deployment.\n", "Modern skydiving harness-containers have two containers; one for the main parachute, and another one for the reserve. These containers are built into a single \"backpack\", with the reserve container above the main. In case the main parachute malfunctions, it is necessary to jettison the main before deploying the reserve to avoid a main-reserve entanglement. This act of jettisoning the main is called a \"cut-away\".\n", "Section::::Development of the recovery system.\n", "AADs can malfunction and deploy the reserve parachute when the firing parameters have not been met, but this is rare even with the older mechanical AADs and almost unheard of with newer electronic models. This will result in either a premature reserve deployment if it happens prior to main deployment, or in both parachutes being deployed if it happens after main deployment. A premature reserve deployment can be dangerous if it happens while exiting the aircraft, in close proximity to other skydivers in freefall, or if the skydiver is falling faster than the safe deployment speed, which can result in catastrophic equipment failure and injury or even death of the jumper. A deployment of both canopies could result in an entanglement between the two canopies.\n", "An aircraft with reversible controls needs to have all of the complex components modeled within the control loading system. These include cables, rods, aero forces from the control surface, centering springs and trim actuators. As the control system gets more complicated they have to simulate effects such as bob-weights and feel units. Fly-by-wire systems are disconnected from the control surfaces and so do not need the complex features but add other functionality which is simulated.\n", "BULLET::::- 8 November 2006, a Swearingen SA.226TC Metro II was touching down at Norway House. The crew selected propeller reverse and the aircraft turned to the left with the main tire making contact with some loose snow. The aircraft next went over a ditch and climbed an embankment where the landing gear collapsed. The seven passengers and two crew evacuated the plane safely but it was a write off.\n", "In the early 1980s, Chinese officials saw US Army recruiting advertisements featuring parachute extraction of an Army jeep along with troops. The PLA was told to develop this kind of capability. But there were two design problems. One, Y-8 wings have very sharp leading edges, so one wing tends to stall before the other, causing the aircraft to roll inverted as it stalls. The second design flaw as that the cargo deck of the Y-8 had a 10 degree downward slope starting at the landing gear.\n", "Reason's model, commonly referred to as the Swiss cheese model, was based on Reason's approach that all organizations should work together to ensure a safe and efficient operation. From the pilot's perspective, in order to maintain a safe flight operation, all human and mechanical elements must co-operate effectively in the system. In Reason's model, the holes represent weakness or failure. These holes will not lead to accident directly, because of the existence of defense layers. However, once all the holes line up, an accident will occur.\n" ]

[ "A parachute could possibly enable a section of a falling plane to reach the ground safely.", "A parachute large enough to slow a plane could be made. " ]

[ "A parachute strong enough to stop a falling plane would result in the plane tearing itself apart.", "Parachutes large enough to slow planes could not be made. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "A parachute could possibly enable a section of a falling plane to reach the ground safely.", "A parachute large enough to slow a plane could be made. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "A parachute strong enough to stop a falling plane would result in the plane tearing itself apart.", "Parachutes large enough to slow planes could not be made. " ]

[ "Federal funds rate\n\nIn the United States, the federal funds rate is the interest rate at which depository institutions (banks and credit unions) lend reserve balances to other depository institutions overnight, on an uncollateralized basis. Reserve balances are amounts held at the Federal Reserve to maintain depository institutions' reserve requirements. Institutions with surplus balances in their accounts lend those balances to institutions in need of larger balances. The federal funds rate is an important benchmark in financial markets.\n", "The \"federal funds target rate\" is set by the governors of the Federal Reserve, which they enforce by open market operations and adjustments in the interest rate on reserves. The target rate is almost always what is meant by the media referring to the Federal Reserve \"changing interest rates.\" The actual federal funds rate generally lies within a range of that target rate, as the Federal Reserve cannot set an exact value through open market operations.\n", "The target rates are generally short-term rates. The actual rate that borrowers and lenders receive on the market will depend on (perceived) credit risk, maturity and other factors. For example, a central bank might set a target rate for overnight lending of 4.5%, but rates for (equivalent risk) five-year bonds might be 5%, 4.75%, or, in cases of inverted yield curves, even below the short-term rate. Many central banks have one primary \"headline\" rate that is quoted as the \"central bank rate\". In practice, they will have other tools and rates that are used, but only one that is rigorously targeted and enforced.\n", "In setting monetary policy, the U.S. Federal Reserve (and other central banks) uses open market operations, affecting the amounts of very short-term funds (federal funds) supplied and demanded and thus affecting the federal funds rate. By targeting this at a low rate, they can encourage borrowing and thus economic activity; or the reverse by raising the rate. Like any interest rate, there are a nominal and a real value defined as described above. Further, there is a concept called the \"equilibrium real federal funds rate\" (r*, or \"r-star\"), alternatively called the \"natural rate of interest\" or the \"neutral real rate\", which is the \"level of the real federal funds rate, if allowed to prevail for several years, [that] would place economic activity at its potential and keep inflation low and stable.\" There are various methods used to estimate this amount, using tools such as the Taylor Rule. It is possible for this rate to be negative.\n", "A typical central bank has several interest rates or monetary policy tools it can set to influence markets.\n\nBULLET::::- Marginal lending rate – a fixed rate for institutions to borrow money from the central bank. (In the USA this is called the discount rate).\n\nBULLET::::- Main refinancing rate – the publicly visible interest rate the central bank announces. It is also known as \"minimum bid rate\" and serves as a bidding floor for refinancing loans. (In the USA this is called the federal funds rate).\n", "Bank rate\n\nBank rate, also referred to as the discount rate in American English, is the rate of interest which a central bank charges on its loans and advances to a commercial bank. The bank rate is known by a number of different terms depending on the country, and has changed over time in some countries as the mechanisms used to manage the rate have changed.\n\nWhenever a bank has a shortage of funds, they can typically borrow from the central bank based on the monetary policy of the country.\n", "The federal funds rate target is decided by the governors at Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) meetings. The FOMC members will either increase, decrease, or leave the rate unchanged depending on the meeting's agenda and the economic conditions of the U.S. It is possible to infer the market expectations of the FOMC decisions at future meetings from the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) Fed Funds futures contracts, and these probabilities are widely reported in the financial media.\n\nSection::::Applications.\n", "It is defined as the proportion of an amount loaned which a lender charges as interest to the borrower, normally expressed as an annual percentage. It is the rate a bank or other lender charges to borrow its money, or the rate a bank pays its savers for keeping money in an account.\n\nThe annual interest rate is the rate over a period of one year. Other interest rates apply over different periods, such as a month or a day, but they are usually annualised.\n\nSection::::Influencing factors.\n\nInterest rates vary according to:\n", "For example, assume a particular U.S. depository institution, in the normal course of business, issues a loan. This dispenses money and decreases the ratio of bank reserves to money loaned. If its reserve ratio drops below the legally required minimum, it must add to its reserves to remain compliant with Federal Reserve regulations. The bank can borrow the requisite funds from another bank that has a surplus in its account with the Fed. The interest rate that the borrowing bank pays to the lending bank to borrow the funds is negotiated between the two banks, and the weighted average of this rate across all such transactions is the federal funds \"effective\" rate.\n", "The interest rate that the borrowing bank pays to the lending bank to borrow the funds is negotiated between the two banks, and the weighted average of this rate across all such transactions is the federal funds effective rate.\n\nThe federal funds target rate is determined by a meeting of the members of the Federal Open Market Committee which normally occurs eight times a year about seven weeks apart. The committee may also hold additional meetings and implement target rate changes outside of its normal schedule.\n", "Interest rates and Inflation are directly linked and consistently mentioned in macroeconomics. The majority of countries around the world all have a central bank. Such as in the United States, the Federal Reserve sets interest rates – the amount of interest paid by a borrower to a lender. – Similar to the United Kingdom where The Bank of England sets them.\n", "Section::::Importance in economic theory.:Real federal funds rate.\n", "Section::::Explanation of federal funds rate decisions.\n", "Section::::Conclusion.\n", "Interest rate\n\nAn interest rate is the amount of interest due per period, as a proportion of the amount lent, deposited or borrowed (called the principal sum). The total interest on an amount lent or borrowed depends on the principal sum, the interest rate, the compounding frequency, and the length of time over which it is lent, deposited or borrowed.\n", "BULLET::::- Deposit rate, generally consisting of interest on reserves and sometimes also interest on excess reserves – the rates parties receive for deposits at the central bank.\n\nThese rates directly affect the rates in the money market, the market for short term loans.\n\nSome central banks (e.g. in Denmark, Sweden and the Eurozone) are currently applying negative interest rates.\n\nSection::::Policy instruments.:Open market operations.\n", "The day before the change was announced, on October 7, 2008, Chairman Ben Bernanke of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System expressed some confusion about it, saying, \"We're not quite sure what we have to pay in order to get the market rate, which includes some credit risk, up to the target. We're going to experiment with this and try to find what the right spread is.\" The Fed adjusted the rate on October 22, after the initial rate they set October 6 failed to keep the benchmark U.S. overnight interest rate close to their policy target, and again on November 5 for the same reason.\n", "Real interest rate\n\nThe real interest rate is the rate of interest an investor, saver or lender receives (or expects to receive) after allowing for inflation. It can be described more formally by the Fisher equation, which states that the real interest rate is approximately the nominal interest rate minus the inflation rate. \n", "Based on the banking business, there are deposit interest rate and loan interest rate.\n\nBased on the relationship between supply and demand of market interest rate, there are fixed interest rate and floating interest rate.\n\nBased on the changes between different interest rates, there are base interest rate and cash interest rate.\n\nSection::::Monetary policy.\n", "In the case of an interest rate of 24 percent, the rule predicts that money will double after 72/24 = 3 years.\n\nSection::::Market interest rates.\n\nThere are markets for investments (which include the money market, bond market, as well as retail financial institutions like banks) set interest rates. Each specific debt takes into account the following factors in determining its interest rate:\n\nSection::::Market interest rates.:Opportunity cost and deferred consumption.\n\nOpportunity cost encompasses any other use to which the money could be put, including lending to others, investing elsewhere, holding cash, or spending the funds.\n", "The Federal Reserve sets monetary policy by influencing the federal funds rate, which is the rate of interbank lending of excess reserves. The rate that banks charge each other for these loans is determined in the interbank market and the Federal Reserve influences this rate through the three \"tools\" of monetary policy described in the \"Tools\" section below. The federal funds rate is a short-term interest rate that the FOMC focuses on, which affects the longer-term interest rates throughout the economy. The Federal Reserve summarized its monetary policy in 2005:\n", "Section::::Historical rates.\n\n the target range for the Federal Funds Rate is 2.25–2.50%. This represents the ninth increase in the target rate since tightening began in December 2015.\n", "In the United States, the prime rate runs approximately 300 basis points (or 3 percentage points) above the federal funds rate, which is the interest rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans made to fulfill reserve funding requirements. The Federal funds rate plus a much smaller increment is frequently used for lending to the most creditworthy borrowers, as is LIBOR, the London Interbank Offered Rate. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) meets eight times per year to set a target for the federal funds rate.\n", "Beginning December 18, 2008, the Federal Reserve System directly established interest rates paid on required reserve balances and excess balances instead of specifying them with a formula based on the target federal funds rate. On January 13, Ben Bernanke said, \"In principle, the interest rate the Fed pays on bank reserves should set a floor on the overnight interest rate, as banks should be unwilling to lend reserves at a rate lower than they can receive from the Fed. In practice, the federal funds rate has fallen somewhat below the interest rate on reserves in recent months, reflecting the very high volume of excess reserves, the inexperience of banks with the new regime, and other factors. However, as excess reserves decline, financial conditions normalize, and banks adapt to the new regime, we expect the interest rate paid on reserves to become an effective instrument for controlling the federal funds rate.\"\n", "BULLET::::- the government's directives to the central bank to accomplish the government's goals\n\nBULLET::::- the currency of the principal sum lent or borrowed\n\nBULLET::::- the term to maturity of the investment\n\nBULLET::::- the perceived default probability of the borrower\n\nBULLET::::- supply and demand in the market\n\nBULLET::::- the amount of collateral\n\nBULLET::::- special features like call provisions\n\nas well as other factors.\n\nSection::::Example.\n\nA company borrows capital from a bank to buy assets for its business. In return, the bank charges the company interest. (The lender might also require rights over the new assets as collateral.)\n" ]

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[ "The Cape Town water crisis in South Africa was a period of severe water shortage in the Western Cape region, most notably affecting the City of Cape Town. While dam water levels have been declining since 2015, the Cape Town water crisis peaked during mid-2017 to mid-2018 where water levels hovered between 15 to 30 per cent of total dam capacity. In late-2017, there were first mentions of plans for “Day Zero”, a shorthand reference for the day when the water level of the major dams supplying the City fell below 13.5 per cent. “Day Zero” would herald the start of Level 7 water restrictions, where municipal water supplies would largely be switched off and residents would have to queue for their daily ration of water, making the City of Cape Town the first major city in the world to potentially run out of water. \n", "Section::::Timeline.:2018.\n\nOn 1 January 2018 the City declared Level 6 water restrictions of 87 litres per person per day. In February 2018, the City increased restrictions to Level 6B limiting usage to 50 litres per person per day. The Provincial Cabinet also announced that it was drawing up plans with the South African Police Service for a strategy to deploy officers at water distribution points across the City after \"Day Zero\".\n", "In mid-January 2018, previous Cape Town Mayor Patricia de Lille announced that the City would be forced to shut off most of the municipal water supply if conditions did not change. Level 7 water restrictions, \"Day Zero\", would be declared when the water level of the major dams supplying the City reached 13.5 per cent. Municipal water supplies would largely be switched off, and residents would have to rely on 149 water collection points around the City to collect a daily ration of 25 litres of water per person. This would further affect Cape Town's economy, because employees would have to take time off from work to wait in line for water. Water supply would be maintained in the City's CBD, in informal settlements (where water is already collected from central locations) and to essential services such as hospitals. At the time of the announcement, \"Day Zero\" was projected to take place on 22 April 2018, but soon thereafter this was revised to 12 April. The \"Day Zero\" projections were based on the fortnightly changes in dam storage levels, assuming that the rates of decline would continue unchanged, with no further rainfall or change in water demand.\n", "By early October 2017, following a low rainfall winter, Cape Town had an estimated five months of storage available before water levels would be depleted. In the same month, the City of Cape Town issued an emergency water plan to be rolled-out in multiple phases depending on the severity of the water shortage. Phase 1 compromising \"water rationing through extreme pressure reduction\" was implemented immediately. In Phase 2, post \"Day Zero\", water would have been shut off to most of the system except to places of key water access. Phase 3 would have been the point at which the City would no longer be able to draw water from surface dams in the Western Cape Water Supply System and there would have been a limited period of time before the water supply system fails.\n", "After good rains in 2013 and 2014, the City of Cape Town began experiencing a drought in 2015, the first of three consecutive years of dry winters brought on possibly by the El Niño weather pattern and perhaps by climate change. Water levels in the City's dams declined from 71.9 percent in 2014 to 50.1 percent in 2015. On 1 January 2016, previous water restrictions of Level 1 from 2005 had been lifted to Level 2 by the City and on 1 November 2016 it elevated these to Level 3, when the Department of Water and Sanitation gazetted water restrictions for urban and agricultural use. Significant droughts in other parts of South Africa ended in August 2016 when heavy rain and flooding occurred in the interior of the country, but the drought in the Western Cape remained.\n", "The City of Cape Town implemented significant water restrictions in a bid to curb water usage, and succeeded in reducing its daily water usage by more than half to around 500 million liters (130,000,000 US gal) per day in March 2018. The fall in water usage, combined with strong rains in June 2018, led dam levels to steadily increase, and for the City to continually postpone its estimate for “Day Zero”. In September 2018, with dam levels close to 70 per cent, the city began easing water restrictions, indicating that the worst of the water crisis is over. \n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Residential and agricultural water usage declined significantly under the new restrictions. This enabled the City moved \"Day Zero\" back in stages and on 28 June postponed \"Day Zero\" indefinitely. \n", "In February 2018, at the height of the drought, the Groenland Water User Association (a representative body for farmers in the Elgin Grabouw agricultural area near Cape Town) began releasing an additional 10 million litres of water from their Eikenhof Dam at no cost. This water was transferred into the Upper Steenbras Dam.. This enabled the City to push back estimates for Day Zero from April 16 to May 11. \n\nSection::::Responses to the water crisis.:Urban water demand management.\n", "Doomsday predictions of Day Zero in Cape Town has led many individuals and businesses to seek alternative water supplies from the Western Cape Water Supply System. Many desperate locals, armed with plastic containers, can also be seen collecting water from mountain streams and natural springs around the city. This has led to long lines and even fights between citizens, and the City has also stepped up security at popular locations. \n", "Beginning in 2015, a drought resulted in a severe water shortage in the area, with dam levels declining to critically low levels, and Cape Town announcing plans for \"Day Zero\", when municipal water supply would have to be shut off. Water conservation and demand management was implemented, with increasingly severe water restrictions to both agriculture and urban use. Emergency augmentation measures including groundwater extraction from aquifers and desalination projects are underway. Through water saving and augmentation measures, by March 2018 the City had reduced its daily water consumption by more than half to around 500 million litres per day, resulting in the initial prediction of Day Zero in April 2018 being pushed back to 2019. The situation, however, remains severe, particularly if the run of record dry winters continues through 2018.\n", "Section::::Timeline.:2017.\n\nThe City increased water restrictions to Level 3B on 1 February 2017 and by the end of the dry season in May 2017, the drought was declared the City's worst in a century, with storage in dams being less than 10 percent of their usable capacity. Level 4 water restrictions were imposed on 1 June 2017, limiting the usage of water to 100 litres per person per day. Overall rainfall in 2017 was the lowest since records commenced in 1933.\n", "Section::::Controversies.\n\nThe water crisis has seen no lack of political controversies and misinformation, making it challenging to discern the true extent of the crisis, and to accurately appraise efforts at addressing the crisis. Some have even questioned the existence of a water crisis, and downplayed \"Day Zero\" as a scare tactic. \n\nSection::::Controversies.:Distributional inequalities.\n", "The City has explored various measures to ensure compliance: \n\nBULLET::::- Creation of an online map with green dots showing which houses were doing a good job saving water\n\nBULLET::::- City officials drove through neighborhoods that were using too much water with a bullhorn calling them out\n\nBULLET::::- Publishing of the names of top water users\n", "The water crisis resulted in the loss of 37,000 jobs in the Western Cape Province and an estimated 50,000 people being pushed below the poverty line due to job losses, inflation and increases in the price of food. Analysts \"estimate that the water crisis will cost some 300,000 jobs in agriculture and tens of thousands more in the service, hospitality and food sectors\". \n\nSection::::Impact.:Economic.:Agriculture.\n", "Section::::Controversies.:Comments by Premier of Western Cape, Helen Zille.\n", "Section::::Impact.:Hydrological poverty.\n", "On February 13, 2018, the country declared a national disaster in Cape Town as the city's water supply was predicted to run dry before the end of June. With its dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures were in effect that required each citizen to use less than 50 litres a day. All nine of the country's provinces were effected by what the government characterized as the \"magnitude and severity\" of a three-year drought. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town is one of eleven major world cities that are expected to run out of water.\n\nSection::::Water resources and water use.\n", "Good winter rains in 2018 resulted in dam levels rising, but the national Department of Water and Sanitation announced that bulk water restrictions would remain in place until levels reached 85 per cent. In September, with dam levels close to 70 percent towards the end of the rainy season, the city reduced consumer water restrictions from level 6B to level 5. Dam levels peaked at 76 per cent. In November, restrictions were reduced to Level 3, or 105 litres per person per day. Under Level 3 restrictions, municipal water may be used to water gardens at certain times, using a watering can or bucket but not a hose, to wash cars using a bucket, and to top up swimming pools as long as the pool is fitted with a cover to prevent evaporation.\n", "BULLET::::- Failure to comply with demand restrictions could result in the installation of a water-management device, that strictly limits consumption to 350 litres per day, with the home owner having to foot the R4,500 (US$314) installation bill. In Dec 2017, Mayor Patricia de Lille personally visited the homes of water wasters to install water management meters.\n\nBULLET::::- The law enforcement department stepped up its policing of water waste\n\nSection::::Responses to the water crisis.:Urban water demand management.:Hike in water tariffs.\n", "Section::::Controversies.:Internal fights within the Democratic Alliance.\n", "Section::::Responses to the water crisis.:Supply augmentation.\n\nThe City of Cape Town has expended significant effort in raising the supply of water. Key efforts include: \n\nBULLET::::- the buying of an additional two million and five million litres of water per day from the Molteno Reservoir in Oranjezicht and the Atlantis Aquifer respectively\n\nBULLET::::- the commissioning of three small temporary (2 year contracts) desalination plants (two of 7 megalitres per day and one of 2 megalitres per day capacities) at the Monwabisi, Strandfontein, the V&A Waterfront, and Cape Town Harbour\n\nBULLET::::- the Zandvliet water recycling project\n", "Section::::Causes.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Severe drought.\n\nThe immediate cause of the water crisis was the extreme drought from 2015-2017 that exceeded the planning norms of the Department of Water and Sanitation. Research on long-term weather data done by the Climate System Analysis Group at the University of Cape Town determined that the low rainfall between the years 2015 and 2017 was a very rare and extreme event. 2017 was the driest year since 1933, and possibly earlier, since comparable data before 1933 was not available. It also found that a drought of this severity would statistically occur approximately once every 300 years.\n", "The eastern parts of South Africa suffer from periodic droughts linked to the El Niño weather phenomenon. In early 2018, Cape Town, which has different weather patterns to the rest of the country, faced a water crisis as the city's water supply was predicted to run dry before the end of June. Water-saving measures were in effect that required each citizen to use less than a day.\n\nSection::::Demographics.\n", "This has potentially deleterious long-run consequences for water security and the municipal water supply system: first, it hampers the ability of the city to use water pricing and tariff policy to regulate use of the commons and two, given the importance of cross-subsidization of low-volume users by high-volume users in a progressive tiered-water tariff system, it raises financial sustainability concerns for a water system that is already buckling under its fiscal weight. While water regulations do not easily allow citizen and local businesses to go off the municipality’s water supply system, further changes in local by-laws may need to be implemented to enable well-off households and the private sector to contribute to augmenting water service delivery. \n", "Section::::Impact.:Public health.\n\nPublic health professionals raised concerns about diseases that could be spread via faecal-oral contamination as a result of less hand-washing. Public health companies, research centres and health providers were also worried about the impact that the water crisis could have had on health services. \n" ]

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[ "This is the case even without exercise in people with respiratory disease, challenged circulation of blood to parts of the body or any other situation when oxygen cannot be supplied to the tissues involved.\n", "Driving Force is the difference in the level of heat and humidity on one side of the material compared to the other side. Also known as the Differential Pressure. By 2nd law of thermodynamics moisture will move towards dry. Therefore, warm, moist air will flow towards cold, dry air until there is an equilibrium.\n", "Some of the important limitations of wind driven ventilation:\n\nBULLET::::- Unpredictability and difficulties in harnessing due to speed and direction variations\n\nBULLET::::- The quality of air it introduces in buildings may be polluted for example due to proximity to an urban or industrial area\n\nBULLET::::- May create a strong draught, discomfort.\n\nSection::::Buoyancy-driven ventilation.\n", "Humans, like most mammals, breathe by \"negative pressure\" breathing: the rib cage expands and the diaphragm contracts, expanding the chest cavity. This causes the pressure in the chest cavity to decrease, and the lungs expand to fill the space. This, in turn, causes the pressure of the air inside the lungs to decrease (it becomes negative, relative to the atmosphere), and air flows into the lungs from the atmosphere: inhalation. When the diaphragm relaxes, the reverse happens and the person exhales. If a person loses part or all of the ability to control the muscles involved, breathing becomes difficult or impossible.\n", "An old Chinese man practices martial arts with several younger men in front of a traditional Chinese building. Ivens, who is 90 years old, has been asthmatic since childhood, and asks the man how he manages to breathe so well. The literary character Sun Wukong, in a Peking opera appearance, watches from a tree. The man answers that \"the secret of breathing lies in the rhythm of the autumn wind\". The man begins to dance. Sun Wukong then throws a banana peel before the man, who slips and falls. Ivens helps him up.\n", "Section::::Humans.\n", "Breathing has other important functions. It provides a mechanism for speech, laughter and similar expressions of the emotions. It is also used for reflexes such as yawning, coughing and sneezing. Animals that cannot thermoregulate by perspiration, because they lack sufficient sweat glands, may lose heat by evaporation through panting.\n\nSection::::Mechanics.\n", "One of the reasons we can breathe is because of the elasticity of the lungs. The internal surface of the lungs on average in a non-emphysemic person is normally 63m2 and can hold about 5lts of air volume. Both lungs together have the same amount of surface area as half of a tennis court. Disease such as, emphysema, tuberculosis, can reduce the amount of surface area and elasticity of the lungs. Another big factor in the elasticity of the lungs is smoking because of the residue left behind in the lungs from the smoking. The elasticity of the lungs can be trained to expand further.\n", "Section::::Other animals.\n", "Section::::Commercial performance.\n", "The brain controls the rate of breathing, mainly by respiratory centres in the medulla and pons. The respiratory centres control respiration, by generating motor signals that are passed down the spinal cord, along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. This is a mixed nerve that carries sensory information back to the centres. There are four respiratory centres, three with a more clearly defined function, and an apneustic centre with a less clear function. In the medulla a dorsal respiratory group causes the desire to breathe in and receives sensory information directly from the body. Also in the medulla, the ventral respiratory group influences breathing out during exertion. In the pons the pneumotaxic centre influences the duration of each breath, and the apneustic centre seems to have an influence on inhalation. The respiratory centres directly senses blood carbon dioxide and pH. Information about blood oxygen, carbon dioxide and pH levels are also sensed on the walls of arteries in the peripheral chemoreceptors of the aortic and carotid bodies. This information is passed via the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the respiratory centres. High carbon dioxide, an acidic pH, or low oxygen stimulate the respiratory centres. The desire to breathe in is also affected by pulmonary stretch receptors in the lungs which, when activated, prevent the lungs from overinflating by transmitting information to the respiratory centres via the vagus nerve.\n", "The most important function of breathing is the supplying of oxygen to the body and the removal of its waste product of carbon dioxide. Under most conditions, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2), or concentration of carbon dioxide, controls the respiratory rate.\n", "Although many professional wind players find circular breathing highly useful, few pieces of European orchestral music composed before the 20th century actually require its use. However, the advent of circular breathing among professional wind players has allowed for the transcription of pieces originally composed for string instruments which would be unperformable on a wind instrument without the aid of circular breathing. A notable example of this phenomenon is \"Moto Perpetuo\", transcribed for trumpet by Rafael Méndez from the original work for violin by Paganini.\n", "There appears to be a connection between pulmonary edema and increased pulmonary blood flow and pressure which results in capillary engorgement. This may occur during higher intensity exercise while immersed or submersed.\n\nFacial immersion at the time of initiating breath-hold is a necessary factor for maximising the mammalian diving reflex in humans.\n\nSection::::Physiological response.:Thermal balance responses.\n", "While the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the bloodstream and the pulmonary airspace works by diffusion and requires no external work, air must be moved into and out of the lungs to make it available to the gas exchange process. In spontaneous breathing, a negative pressure is created in the pleural cavity by the muscles of respiration, and the resulting gradient between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure inside the thorax generates a flow of air.\n", "Section::::Neural control.\n\nRespiratory adaptation begins almost immediately after the initiation of the physical stress associated with exercise. This triggers signals from the motor cortex that stimulate the respiratory center of the brain stem, in conjunction with feedback from the proprioreceptors in the muscles and joints of the active limbs.\n\nSection::::Breathing rate.\n\nWith higher intensity training, breathing rate is increased in order to allow more air to move in and out of the lungs, which enhances gas exchange. Endurance training typically results in an increase in the respiration rate.\n\nSection::::Lung capacity.\n", "During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig. 8). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig. 8). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n", "Efferent signals are the motor neuronal signals descending to the respiratory muscles. The most important respiratory muscle is the diaphragm. Other respiratory muscles include the external and internal intercostal muscles, the abdominal muscles and the accessory breathing muscles.\n", "The volume of air that moves in \"or\" out (at the nose or mouth) during a single breathing cycle is called the tidal volume. In a resting adult human it is about 500 ml per breath. At the end of exhalation the airways contain about 150 ml of alveolar air which is the first air that is breathed back into the alveoli during inhalation. This volume air that is breathed out of the alveoli and back in again is known as dead space ventilation, which has the consequence that of the 500 ml breathed into the alveoli with each breath only 350 ml (500 ml - 150 ml = 350 ml) is fresh warm and moistened air. Since this 350 ml of fresh air is thoroughly mixed and diluted by the air that remains in the alveoli after normal exhalation (i.e. the functional residual capacity of about 2.5–3.0 liters), it is clear that the composition of the alveolar air changes very little during the breathing cycle (see Fig. 9). The oxygen tension (or partial pressure) remains close to 13-14 kPa (about 100 mm Hg), and that of carbon dioxide very close to 5.3 kPa (or 40 mm Hg). This contrasts with composition of the dry outside air at sea level, where the partial pressure of oxygen is 21 kPa (or 160 mm Hg) and that of carbon dioxide 0.04 kPa (or 0.3 mmHg).\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Control of ventilation.\n\nVentilation of the lungs in mammals occurs via the respiratory centers in the medulla oblongata and the pons of the brainstem. These areas form a series of neural pathways which receive information about the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. This information determines the average rate of ventilation of the alveoli of the lungs, to keep these pressures constant. The respiratory center does so via motor nerves which activate the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Other functions of the lungs.\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Other functions of the lungs.:Local defenses.\n", "Exercise increases the breathing rate due to the extra carbon dioxide produced by the enhanced metabolism of the exercising muscles. In addition passive movements of the limbs also reflexively produce an increase in the breathing rate.\n\nInformation received from stretch receptors in the lungs limits tidal volume (the depth of inhalation and exhalation).\n\nSection::::Mammals.:Responses to low atmospheric pressures.\n", "Apparently to prevent overheating, dik-diks have elongated snouts with bellows-like muscles through which blood is pumped. Airflow and subsequent evaporation cools this blood before it is recirculated to the body. However, this panting is only implemented in extreme conditions; dik-diks can tolerate air temperatures of up to .\n\nSection::::Habitat.\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Gas exchange.\n", "During heavy breathing (hyperpnea) as, for instance, during exercise, exhalation is brought about by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation, (in the same way as at rest), but, in addition, the abdominal muscles, instead of being passive, now contract strongly causing the rib cage to be pulled downwards (front and sides). This not only decreases the size of the rib cage but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax. The end-exhalatory lung volume is now less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human, there is always still at least one liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n" ]

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[ "Hearing loss is a common condition among ageing adults. Common conditions that can increase the risk of hearing loss in elderly people are high blood pressure, diabetes or the use of certain medications harmful to the ear. Hearing aids are commonly referred to as personal amplifying systems, which can generally improve hearing by about 50%.\n", "The risk of having cognitive impairment increased 7 percent for every 10 dB of hearing loss at baseline. No effect of hearing aids was seen in the Lin Baltimore study. \n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nThe aging process has three distinct components: physiologic degeneration, extrinsic damage (nosocusis), and intrinsic damage (sociocusis). These factors are superimposed on a genetic substrate, and may be overshadowed by general age-related susceptibility to diseases and disorders.\n", "Over time, the detection of high-pitched sounds becomes more difficult, and speech perception is affected, particularly of sibilants and fricatives. Patients typically express a decreased ability to understand speech. Once the loss has progressed to the 2–4 kHz range, there is increased difficulty understanding consonants. Both ears tend to be affected. The impact of presbycusis on communication depends on both the severity of the condition and the communication partner.\n\nOlder adults with presbycusis often exhibit associated symptoms of social isolation, depression, anxiety, frailty and cognitive decline.\n", "BULLET::::- Hair usually becomes grayer and also might become thinner. As a rule of thumb, around age 50, about 50% of Europeans have 50% grey hair. Many men are affected by balding, and women enter menopause.\n\nBULLET::::- Hearing. By age 75 and older, 48% of men and 37% of women encounter impairments in hearing. Of the 26.7 million people over age 50 with a hearing impairment, only one in seven uses a hearing aid. In the 70–79 age range, the incidence of partial hearing loss affecting communication rises to 65%, predominantly among low-income males.\n", "The cause of presbycusis is a combination of genetics, cumulative environmental exposures and pathophysiological changes related to aging. At present there are no preventative measures known; treatment is by hearing aid or surgical implant.\n\nPresbycusis is the most common cause of hearing loss, afflicting one out of three persons by age 65, and one out of two by age 75. Presbycusis is the second most common illness next to arthritis in aged people.\n", "The age effects were studied in children and older adults, to observe if children can benefit from phonemic restoration and if so, at what capacity, and if older adults maintain the restoration capacity in the face of age-related neurophysiological changes. \n", "Noise and ageing are the primary causes of presbycusis, or age-related hearing loss, the most common kind of hearing loss in industrial society.\n", "There is a progressive loss of ability to hear high frequencies with aging known as presbycusis. For men, this can start as early as 25 and women at 30. Although genetically variable it is a normal concomitant of ageing and is distinct from hearing losses caused by noise exposure, toxins or disease agents. Common conditions that can increase the risk of hearing loss in elderly people are high blood pressure, diabetes or the use of certain medications harmful to the ear. While everyone loses hearing with age, the amount and type of hearing loss is variable.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Noise.\n", "At the sensory level, changes occur to vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell, and taste. Two common sensory changes that begin in midlife include our ability to see close objects and our ability to hear high pitches. Other developmental changes to vision might include cataracts, glaucoma, and the loss of central visual field with macular degeneration . Hearing also becomes impaired in midlife and aging adults, particularly in men. In the past 30 years, hearing impairment has doubled. Hearing aids as an aid for hearing loss still leave many individuals dissatisfied with their quality of hearing. Olfaction can co-occur with changes in sense of taste. “Olfactory dysfunction can impair quality of life and may be a marker for other deficits and illnesses” and can also lead to decreased satisfaction in taste when eating. Losses to the sense of touch are usually noticed when there is a decline in the ability to detect a vibratory stimulus. The loss in sense of touch can harm a person’s fine motor skills such as writing and using utensils. The ability to feel painful stimuli is usually preserved in aging, but the process of decline for touch is accelerated in those with diabetes.\n", "Section::::Prevention.:Screening.\n\nThe United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening for all newborns.\n\nThe American Academy of Pediatrics advises that children should have their hearing tested several times throughout their schooling:\n\nBULLET::::- When they enter school\n\nBULLET::::- At ages 6, 8, and 10\n\nBULLET::::- At least once during middle school\n\nBULLET::::- At least once during high school\n", "Hearing loss is only weakly correlated with age. In preindustrial and non-industrial societies, persons retain their hearing into old age. In the Framingham cohort study, only 10% of the variability of hearing with age could be explained by age-related physiologic deterioration. Within family groups, heredity factors were dominant; across family groups, other, presumably sociocusis and nosocusis factors were dominant.\n\nBULLET::::- Heredity: factors like early aging of the cochlea and susceptibility of the cochlea for drug insults are genetically determined.\n\nBULLET::::- Oxidative stress\n\nBULLET::::- General inflammatory conditions\n\nSection::::Causes.:Sociocusis.\n", "BULLET::::- In the 60–64 age cohort, the incidence of osteoarthritis rises to 53%. Only 20% however report disabling osteoarthritis at this age.\n\nBULLET::::- Almost half of people older than 75 have hearing loss (presbycusis) inhibiting spoken communication. Many vertebrates such as fish, birds and amphibians do not suffer presbycusis in old age as they are able to regenerate their cochlear sensory cells, whereas mammals including humans have genetically lost this ability.\n\nBULLET::::- By age 80, more than half of all Americans either have a cataract or have had cataract surgery.\n", "Data from the United States in 2011-2012 found that rates of hearing loss has declined among adults aged 20 to 69 years, when compared with the results from an earlier time period (1999-2004). It also found that adult hearing loss is associated with increasing age, sex, race/ethnicity, educational level, and noise exposure.\n", "Many vertebrates such as fish, birds and amphibians do not suffer presbycusis in old age as they are able to regenerate their cochlear sensory cells, whereas mammals including humans have genetically lost this regenerative ability.\n\nSection::::Presentation.\n\nPrimary symptoms:\n\nBULLET::::- sounds or speech becoming dull, muffled or attenuated\n\nBULLET::::- need for increased volume on television, radio, music and other audio sources\n\nBULLET::::- difficulty using the telephone\n\nBULLET::::- loss of directionality of sound\n\nBULLET::::- difficulty understanding speech, especially women and children\n\nBULLET::::- difficulty in speech discrimination against background noise (cocktail party effect)\n\nSecondary symptoms:\n", "Hearing loss is most commonly caused by long-term exposure to loud noises, from recreation or from work, that damage the hair cells, which do not grow back on their own.\n\nOlder people may lose their hearing from long exposure to noise, changes in the inner ear, changes in the middle ear, or from changes along the nerves from the ear to the brain.\n\nSection::::Diagnosis.\n", "Older adults (older than 65 years) with no or minimal hearing loss show benefit from phonemic restoration. In some conditions restoration effect can be stronger in older adults than in younger adults, even when the overall speech perception scores are lower in older adults. This observation is likely due to strong linguistic and vocabulary skills that are maintained in advanced age.\n\nSection::::Factors.:Gender.\n\nIn children, there was no effect of gender on phonemic restoration. \n", "Progressive age-related loss of hearing acuity or sensitivity can start as early as age 18, primarily affecting the high frequencies, and men more than women. Such losses may not become apparent until much later in life. Presbycusis is by far the dominant cause of sensorineural hearing loss in industrialized societies. A study conducted in Sudan, with a population free from loud noise exposures, found significantly less cases of hearing loss when compared with age-matched cases from an industrialized country. Similar findings were reported by a study conducted of a population from Eastern island, which reported worse hearing among those that spent time in industrialized countries when compared with those that never left the island. Researchers have argued that factors other than differences in noise exposure, such as genetic make up, might also have contributed to the findings. Hearing loss that worsens with age but is caused by factors other than normal aging, such as noise-induced hearing loss, is not presbycusis, although differentiating the individual effects of multiple causes of hearing loss can be difficult. One in three persons have significant hearing loss by age 65; by age 75, one in two. Age-related hearing loss is neither preventable nor reversible.\n", "BULLET::::- The effects of the pharmaceutical drug Tanakan were observed when treating tympanophonia in elderly women. Tanakan was found to decrease the intensity of tympanitis and improve speech and hearing in aged patients, giving rise to the idea of recommending treatment with it to elderly patients with presbycusis or normal tonal hearing.\n", "Section::::Diagnosis.:Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).\n\nAs part of differential diagnosis, an MRI scan may be done to check for vascular anomalies, tumors, and structural problems like enlarged mastoids. MRI and other types of scan cannot directly detect or measure age-related hearing loss.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nAt present, presbycusis, being primarily sensorineural in nature, cannot be prevented, ameliorated or cured. Treatment options fall into three categories: pharmacological, surgical and management.\n\nBULLET::::- There are no approved or recommended pharmaceutical treatments for presbycusis.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Cochlear implant.\n", "Hearing loss in adolescents may be caused by loud noise from toys, music by headphones, and concerts or events. In 2017, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention brought their researchers together with experts from the World Health Organization and academia to examine the risk of hearing loss from excessive noise exposure in and outside the workplace in different age groups, as well as actions being taken to reduce the burden of the condition. A summary report was published in 2018.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Genetic.\n", "The CC of the human brain is relatively slow to mature with its size continuing to increase until the fourth decade of life. From this point it then slowly begins to shrink. LiSN-S SRT scores show that the ability to understand speech in noisy environments develops with age, is beginning to be adult like by 18 years and starts to decline between 40 and 50 years of age.\n\nSection::::Corpus callosum.:Roles of the SOC and the MOC.\n", "While the American College of Physicians indicated that there is not enough evidence to determine the utility of screening in adults over 50 years old who do not have any symptoms, the American Language, Speech Pathology and Hearing Association recommends that adults should be screened at least every decade through age 50 and at 3-year intervals thereafter, to minimize the detrimental effects of the untreated condition on quality of life. For the same reason, the US Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion included as one of Healthy People 2020 objectives: to increase the proportion of persons who have had a hearing examination.\n", "In most cases, tympanosclerosis does not cause any recognisable hearing loss up to ten years after the initial disease onset. Sclerotic changes seem to stabilise, but not resolve or dissolve, after 3 years.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.\n", "Hearing loss increases with age. In those between 20 and 35 rates of hearing loss are 3% while in those 44 to 55 it is 11% and in those 65 to 85 it is 43%.\n\nA 2017 report by the World Health Organization estimated the costs of unaddressed hearing loss and the cost-effectiveness of interventions, for the health-care sector, for the education sector and as broad societal costs. Globally, the annual cost of unaddressed hearing loss was estimated to be in the range of $750–790 billion international dollars.\n\nSection::::Epidemiology.:United States.\n", "Usually occurs after age 50, but deterioration in hearing has been found to start very early, from about the age of 18 years. The ISO standard 7029 shows expected threshold changes due purely to age for carefully screened populations (i.e. excluding those with ear disease, noise exposure etc.), based on a meta-analysis of published data. Age affects high frequencies more than low, and men more than women. One early consequence is that even young adults may lose the ability to hear very high frequency tones above 15 or 16 kHz. Despite this, age-related hearing loss may only become noticeable later in life. The effects of age can be exacerbated by exposure to environmental noise, whether at work or in leisure time (shooting, music, etc.). This is noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) and is distinct from presbycusis. A second exacerbating factor is exposure to ototoxic drugs and chemicals.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Interactions with other organisms.\n\nDespite their apparent simplicity, bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms. These symbiotic associations can be divided into parasitism, mutualism and commensalism. Due to their small size, commensal bacteria are ubiquitous and grow on animals and plants exactly as they will grow on any other surface. However, their growth can be increased by warmth and sweat, and large populations of these organisms in humans are the cause of body odour.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other organisms.:Predators.\n", "Another aspect of bacteria is the generation of body odor. Sweat is odorless however several bacteria may consume it and create byproducts which may be considered putrid by man (as in contrast to flies, for example, that may find them attractive/appealing).\n\nSeveral examples are:\n\nBULLET::::- \"Propionibacteria\" in adolescent and adult sebaceous glands can turn its amino acids into propionic acid.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\" creates body odor by breaking sweat into isovaleric acid (3-methyl butanoic acid).\n\nBULLET::::- \"Bacillus subtilis\" creates strong foot odor.\n\nSection::::Skin defenses.\n\nSection::::Skin defenses.:Antimicrobial peptides.\n", "All species and strains of \"Pseudomonas\" have historically been classified as strict aerobes. Exceptions to this classification have recently been discovered in \"Pseudomonas\" biofilms. A significant number of cells can produce exopolysaccharides associated with biofilm formation. Secretion of exopolysaccharides such as alginate makes it difficult for pseudomonads to be phagocytosed by mammalian white blood cells. Exopolysaccharide production also contributes to surface-colonising biofilms that are difficult to remove from food preparation surfaces. Growth of pseudomonads on spoiling foods can generate a \"fruity\" odor.\n\nSection::::Characteristics.:Antibiotic resistance.\n", "\"Escherichia coli\" (\"E. coli\") and enterococci are also used as indicators.\n\nSection::::Current methods of detection.\n\nSection::::Current methods of detection.:Membrane filtration and culture on selective media.\n", "The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable and has been used in waste processing and bioremediation. Bacteria capable of digesting the hydrocarbons in petroleum are often used to clean up oil spills. Fertiliser was added to some of the beaches in Prince William Sound in an attempt to promote the growth of these naturally occurring bacteria after the 1989 \"Exxon Valdez\" oil spill. These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. Bacteria are also used for the bioremediation of industrial toxic wastes. In the chemical industry, bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrichemicals.\n", "Section::::Addressing bacterial water quality problems.\n", "Micrococci have been isolated from human skin, animal and dairy products, and beer. They are found in many other places in the environment, including water, dust, and soil. \"M. luteus\" on human skin transforms compounds in sweat into compounds with an unpleasant odor. Micrococci can grow well in environments with little water or high salt concentrations, including sportswear made with synthetic fabrics. Most are mesophiles; some, like \"Micrococcus antarcticus\" (found in Antarctica) are psychrophiles.\n", "Some species of bacteria kill and then consume other microorganisms, these species are called \"predatory bacteria\". These include organisms such as \"Myxococcus xanthus\", which forms swarms of cells that kill and digest any bacteria they encounter. Other bacterial predators either attach to their prey in order to digest them and absorb nutrients, such as \"Vampirovibrio chlorellavorus\", or invade another cell and multiply inside the cytosol, such as \"Daptobacter\". These predatory bacteria are thought to have evolved from saprophages that consumed dead microorganisms, through adaptations that allowed them to entrap and kill other organisms.\n\nSection::::Interactions with other organisms.:Mutualists.\n", "There has been a significant amount of research on the role that microbes play in various odors in the built environment. For example, Diekmann et al. examined the connection between volatile organic emissions in automobile air conditioning units. They reported that the types of microbes found were correlated to the bad odors found. Park and Kim examined which microbes found in an automobile air conditioner could produce bad smelling volatile compounds and identified candidate taxa producing some such compounds.\n\nSection::::Methods Used.\n", "The environment present in the human mouth allows the growth of characteristic microorganisms found there. It provides a source of water and nutrients, as well as a moderate temperature. Resident microbes of the mouth adhere to the teeth and gums to resist mechanical flushing from the mouth to stomach where acid-sensitive microbes are destroyed by hydrochloric acid.\n", "The identification of bacteria in the laboratory is particularly relevant in medicine, where the correct treatment is determined by the bacterial species causing an infection. Consequently, the need to identify human pathogens was a major impetus for the development of techniques to identify bacteria.\n", "The so-called sulfate-reducing bacteria, by contrast, \"breathe sulfate\" instead of oxygen. They use organic compounds or molecular hydrogen as the energy source. They use sulfur as the electron acceptor, and reduce various oxidized sulfur compounds back into sulfide, often into hydrogen sulfide. They can grow on other partially oxidized sulfur compounds (e.g. thiosulfates, thionates, polysulfides, sulfites). The hydrogen sulfide produced by these bacteria is responsible for some of the smell of intestinal gases (flatus) and decomposition products.\n", "Section::::Research.:Microbial products.\n", "The main cause is foot sweat (also see focal hyperhidrosis). Sweat itself is odorless; however, it creates a beneficial environment for certain bacteria to grow, producing odorous substances. These bacteria are naturally present on our skin as part of the human flora. The front part of the foot produces the most sweat. \n", "Section::::Ecology.:Ecological significance.\n", "Section::::Associated Microorganisms.:\"Chlamydophila pneumoniae\".:Roles in asthma.\n", "\"Brevibacteria\" are considered a major cause of foot odor because they ingest dead skin on the feet and, in the process, convert the amino acid methionine into methanethiol, a colorless gas with a distinctive sulfuric aroma. The dead skin that fuels this process is especially common on the sole and between the toes. Brevibacteria also give such cheeses as Limburger, Bel Paese, Port Salut, Pálpusztai and Munster their characteristic pungency.\n\nPropionic acid (propanoic acid), a breakdown product of \"Propionibacteria\" amino acid metabolism in adolescent and adult sebaceous gland ducts, is also present in many foot sweat samples.\n", "Isovaleric acid (3-methyl butanoic acid), another other source of foot odor, is produced by \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\", a bacterial species normally resident on human skin and present in several strong-smelling varieties of cheese.\n\nOther implicated microorganisms include Micrococcaceae, \"Corynebacterium\" and \"Pityrosporum\".\n", "If bacteria form a parasitic association with other organisms, they are classed as pathogens. Pathogenic bacteria are a major cause of human death and disease and cause infections such as tetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis, cholera, foodborne illness, leprosy and tuberculosis. A pathogenic cause for a known medical disease may only be discovered many years after, as was the case with \"Helicobacter pylori\" and peptic ulcer disease. Bacterial diseases are also important in agriculture, with bacteria causing leaf spot, fire blight and wilts in plants, as well as Johne's disease, mastitis, salmonella and anthrax in farm animals.\n", "The word \"bacteria\" is the plural of the New Latin \"\", which is the latinisation of the Greek (\"bakterion\"), the diminutive of βακτηρία (\"bakteria\"), meaning \"staff, cane\", because the first ones to be discovered were rod-shaped.\n\nSection::::Origin and early evolution.\n", "Any bacteria that incidentally find their way to the culture medium will also multiply. For example, if the skin is not adequately cleaned before needle puncture, contamination of the blood sample with normal bacteria that live on the surface of the skin can occur. For this reason, blood cultures must be drawn with great attention to sterile process. The presence of certain bacteria in the blood culture, such as S\"taphylococcus aureus\", \"Streptococcus pneumoniae\", and \"Escherichia coli\" almost never represent a contamination of the sample. On the other hand, contamination may be more highly suspected if organisms like \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\" or \"Cutibacterium acnes\" grow in the blood culture.\n", "Once pathogens attach to host cells, they can cause direct damage as the pathogens use the host cell for nutrients and produce waste products. For example, \"Streptococcus mutans\", a component of dental plaque, metabolizes dietary sugar and produces acid as a waste product. The acid decalcifies the tooth surface to cause dental caries. However, toxins produced by bacteria cause most of the direct damage to host cells.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms of damage.:Direct.:Toxin production.\n", "Section::::Bioremediation.\n\nPurple sulfur bacteria can contribute to a reduction of environmentally harmful organic compounds and odour emission in manure wastewater lagoons where they are known to grow. Harmful compounds such as methane, a greenhouse gas, and hydrogen sulfide, a pungent, toxic compound, can be found in wastewater lagoons. PSB can help lower the concentration of both, and others.\n", "Section::::Bacteria.:Examples.:\"Escherichia coli\".\n", "Section::::Environment.\n" ]

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[ "The addition of antiseptic chemicals to soap (\"medicated\" or \"antimicrobial\" soaps) confers killing action to a hand-washing agent. Such killing action may be desired prior to performing surgery or in settings in which antibiotic-resistant organisms are highly prevalent.\n", "A comprehensive analysis from the University of Oregon School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are as effective as consumer-grade anti-bacterial soaps containing triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands.\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Water.\n", "An important use of hand washing is to prevent the transmission of antibiotic resistant skin flora that cause hospital-acquired infections such as Methicillin-resistant \"Staphylococcus aureus\". While such flora have become antibiotic resistant due to antibiotics there is no evidence that recommended antiseptics or disinfectants selects for antibiotic-resistant organisms when used in hand washing. However, many strains of organisms are resistant to some of the substances used in antibacterial soaps such as Triclosan.\n", "Antibacterial soaps have been heavily promoted to a health-conscious public. To date, there is no evidence that using recommended antiseptics or disinfectants selects for antibiotic-resistant organisms in nature. However, antibacterial soaps contain common antibacterial agents such as triclosan, which has an extensive list of resistant strains of organisms. So, even if antibiotic resistant strains aren't selected for by antibacterial soaps, they might not be as effective as they are marketed to be.\n", "In September 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration banned the use of the common antibacterial ingredients triclosan and triclocarban, and 17 other ingredients frequently used in \"antibacterial\" soaps and washes, due to insufficient information on the long-term health effects of their use and a lack of evidence on their effectiveness. The FDA stated \"There is no data demonstrating that over-the-counter antibacterial soaps are better at preventing illness than washing with plain soap and water\". The agency also asserted that despite requests for such information, the FDA did not receive sufficient data for manufacturers on the long-term health effects of these chemicals. This ban does not apply to hand sanitizer.\n", "In situations where hand washing with soap is not an option (e.g., when in a public place with no access to wash facilities), a water less hand sanitizer such as an alcohol hand gel can be used. They can be used in addition to hand washing to minimize risks when caring for \"at risk\" groups. To be effective, alcohol hand gels should contain not less than 60%v/v alcohol.\n", "Solid soap, because of its reusable nature, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses. A small number of studies which have looked at the bacterial transfer from contaminated solid soap have concluded transfer is unlikely as the bacteria are rinsed off with the foam. The CDC still states \"liquid soap with hands-free controls for dispensing is preferable\".\n\nSection::::Substances used.:Soap and detergents.:Antibacterial soap.\n", "Skin flora do not readily pass between people: 30 seconds of moderate friction and dry hand contact results in a transfer of only 0.07% of natural hand flora from naked with a greater percentage from gloves.\n\nSection::::Hygiene.:Removal.\n\nThe most effective (60 to 80% reduction) antimicrobial washing is with ethanol, isopropanol, and n-propanol. Viruses are most affected by high (95%) concentrations of ethanol, while bacteria are more affected by n-propanol.\n\nUnmedicated soaps are not very effective as illustrated by the following data. Health care workers washed their hands once in nonmedicated liquid soap for 30 seconds. The students/technicians for 20 times.\n", "The Center for Disease Control and Prevention in the USA recommends hand washing over hand sanitizer rubs, particularly when hands are visibly dirty. The increasing use of these agents is based on their ease of use and rapid killing activity against micro-organisms; however, they should not serve as a replacement for proper hand washing unless soap and water are unavailable.\n", "To make antibacterial soap, compounds such as triclosan or triclocarban can be added. There is some concern that use of antibacterial soaps and other products might encourage antibiotic resistance in microorganisms.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nSection::::See also.:Personal use soap.\n\nBULLET::::- African black soap, popular in West Africa\n\nBULLET::::- Aleppo soap, popular in Syria\n\nBULLET::::- Castile soap, popular in Spain\n\nBULLET::::- Lava (soap), cleaning hands from industrial grease and dirt\n\nBULLET::::- Marseille soap, popular in France\n\nBULLET::::- Nabulsi soap, popular in the West Bank\n\nBULLET::::- Saltwater soap, used to wash in seawater\n\nBULLET::::- Shaving soap, used for shaving\n", "First one should rinse hands with warm water, keeping hands below wrists and forearms, to prevent contaminated water from moving from the hands to the wrists and arms. The warm water helps to open pores, which helps with the removal of microorganisms, without removing skin oils. One should use five milliliters of liquid soap, to completely cover the hands, and rub wet, soapy hands together, outside the running water, for at least 20 seconds. The most commonly missed areas are the thumb, the wrist, the areas between the fingers, and under fingernails. Artificial nails and chipped nail polish harbor microorganisms.\n", "One survey of bar soaps in dentist clinics found they all had their own flora and on average from two to five different genera of microorganisms with those used most more likely to have more species varieties. Another survey of bar soaps in public toilets found even more flora. Another study found that very dry soaps are not infected while all are that rest in pools of water. However, research upon soap that was specially infected found that soap flora do not transmit to the hands.\n\nSection::::Hygiene.:Damaged skin.\n", "The World Health Organization (WHO) and the CDC recommends \"persistent\" antiseptics for hand sanitizers. Persistent activity is defined as the prolonged or extended antimicrobial activity that prevents or inhibits the proliferation or survival of microorganisms after application of the product. This activity may be demonstrated by sampling a site several minutes or hours after application and demonstrating bacterial antimicrobial effectiveness when compared with a baseline level. This property also has been referred to as \"residual activity.\" Both substantive and nonsubstantive active ingredients can show a persistent effect if they substantially lower the number of bacteria during the wash period.\n", "In the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) controls antimicrobial handsoaps and sanitizers as over-the-counter drugs (OTC) because they are intended for topical anti-microbial use to prevent disease in humans. The FDA requires strict labeling which informs consumers on proper use of this OTC drug and dangers to avoid, including warning adults not to ingest, not to use in the eyes, to keep out of the reach of children, and to allow use by children only under adult supervision. According to the American Association of Poison Control Centers, there were nearly 12,000 cases of hand sanitizer ingestion in 2006. If ingested, alcohol-based hand sanitizers can cause alcohol poisoning in small children. However, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control recommends using hand sanitizer with children to promote good hygiene, under supervision, and furthermore recommends parents pack hand sanitizer for their children when traveling, to avoid their contracting disease from dirty hands.\n", "On April 30, 2015, the FDA announced that they were requesting more scientific data based on the safety of hand sanitizer. Emerging science also suggests that for at least some health care antiseptic active ingredients, systemic exposure (full body exposure as shown by detection of antiseptic ingredients in the blood or urine) is higher than previously thought, and existing data raise potential concerns about the effects of repeated daily human exposure to some antiseptic active ingredients. This would include hand antiseptic products containing alcohol and triclosan.\n\nSection::::Chemistry.\n", "BULLET::::- Theme for Global Handwashing Day, 2018: Clean hands - a recipe for health.\n\nTheme for Global Handwashing Day 2018: Clean Hands- a recipe for health\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "Some cargo items are liable to be damaged if pulled at with a longshoreman’s hook: hence the \"Use No Hooks\" warning sign. \n", "The Clean Hands campaign by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) instructs the public in hand washing. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer is recommended only if soap and water are not available.\n\nThe current evidence for school hand hygiene interventions is of poor quality.\n\nSection::::Uses.:Health care.\n", "Section::::Medical use.:Effectiveness in healthcare settings.\n\nTo reduce the spread of germs, it is better to wash the hands or use a hand antiseptic before and after tending to a sick person.\n\nFor control of staphylococcal infections in hospitals, it has been found that the greatest benefit from hand-cleansing came from the first 20% of washing, and that very little additional benefit was gained when hand cleansing frequency was increased beyond 35%. Washing with plain soap results in more than triple the rate of bacterial infectious disease transmitted to food as compared to washing with antibacterial soap.\n", "BULLET::::- Dishwashing liquid has uses as an ingredient in making homemade garden pest deterrents. Oregon State University's Cooperative Extension Service notes the use of dishwashing liquid to get rid of spidermites. Dish soap has also been used to deter aphids. In some instances, the dish soap may be toxic to plant leaves and cause them to \"burn\". Use of soap or dish detergent to help spread pesticide on plants is noted by University of Georgia extension service, but not recommended.\n", "Defense Soap\n\nDefense Soap is a company that markets and sells soap, barrier cream, equipment cleaners, sanitary wipes, and essential oils intended to address grappling specific cleanliness issues.\n\nSection::::Defense Soap (Product).\n", "Continued research on handwashing habits and practices is commissioned in conjunction with GHD. In 2011, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget (SCA), sponsored a study to assess the handwashing habits of American and Canadian adults, finding that many were not using soap when washing their hands.\n\nSection::::Implementation and management.:Aims.\n\nThe aims of Global Handwashing Day are to:\n\nBULLET::::- Foster and support a general culture of handwashing with soap in all societies\n\nBULLET::::- Shine a spotlight on the state of handwashing in each country\n\nBULLET::::- Raise awareness about the benefits of handwashing with soap.\n\nSection::::Activities.\n", "Interventions that promote hand washing can reduce diarrhoea episodes by about a third, and this is comparable to providing clean water in low income areas. 48% of reductions in diarrhoea episodes can be associated with hand washing with soap.\n", "Despite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not cleanse the hands of organic material, but simply disinfect them. It is for this reason that hand sanitizers are not as effective as soap and water at preventing the spread of many pathogens, since the pathogens still remain on the hands.\n", "Antibacterial soap\n\nAntibacterial soap is a soap which contains chemical ingredients that purportedly assist in killing bacteria. The majority of antibacterial soaps contain triclosan, though other chemical additives are also common. The effectiveness of products branded as being antibacterial has been disputed by some academics as well as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). \n\nSection::::History.\n\nTriclosan and other antibacterial agents have long been used in commercial cleaning products for hospitals and other healthcare settings, however they began to be used in home cleaning products during the 1990s. \n\nSection::::Ingredients.\n" ]

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[ "Antibacterial soaps are banned." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Some soaps include antibacterial agents and hand sanitizers." ]

[ "On June 27, 2012, Claudia Cruz, Fernando Uceda, and Leobardo Reyes (a group of students from Mexico) published a paper showing a system running on reCAPTCHA images with an accuracy of 82%. The authors have not said if their system can solve recent reCAPTCHA images, although they claim their work to be intelligent OCR and robust to some, if not all changes in the image database.\n", "reCAPTCHA's slogan was \"Stop Spam. Read Books.\" After the introduction of a new version of the reCAPTCHA plugin in 2014, the slogan is now \"Easy on Humans, Hard on Bots.\" A new system featuring image verification was also introduced. In this system, users are asked to just click on a checkbox (the system will verify whether the user is a human or not, for example, with some clues such as already-known cookies or mouse movements within the ReCAPTCHA frame) or, if it fails, select one or more images from a selection of set of images. In 2018, Google started beta testing a completely invisible reCAPTCHA system which does not present any human verification visually. Instead, the new system actively monitors user actions across the entire property and returns a score which represents the probability if it is a human or a bot.\n", "The above code will move the codice_1 and codice_2 motors in parallel to make the robot head follow the human face visible on the video taken by its camera whenever a face is seen by the robot.\n\nSection::::Robot application software.\n", "BULLET::::- (HC) Computerized tests. A computer generates a problem and presents it to evaluate a user. For example, CAPTCHA tells human users from computer programs by presenting a problem that is supposedly easy for a human and difficult for a computer. While CAPTCHAs are effective security measures for preventing automated abuse of online services, the human effort spent solving them is otherwise wasted. The reCAPTCHA system makes use of these human cycles to help digitize books by presenting words from scanned old books that optical character recognition cannot decipher. (von Ahn et al., 2008).\n", "On May 26, 2012, Adam, C-P and Jeffball of DC949 gave a presentation at the LayerOne hacker conference detailing how they were able to achieve an automated solution with an accuracy rate of 99.1%. Their tactic was to use techniques from machine learning, a subfield of artificial intelligence, to analyse the audio version of reCAPTCHA which is available for the visually impaired. Google released a new version of reCAPTCHA just hours before their talk, making major changes to both the audio and visual versions of their service. In this release, the audio version was increased in length from 8 seconds to 30 seconds, and is much more difficult to understand, both for humans as well as bots. In response to this update and the following one, the members of DC949 released two more versions of Stiltwalker which beat reCAPTCHA with an accuracy of 60.95% and 59.4% respectively. After each successive break, Google updated reCAPTCHA within a few days. According to DC949, they often reverted to features that had been previously hacked.\n", "Section::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:ECCE Robot.\n", "Only words that both OCR programs failed to recognize are used as control words. Thus, any program that can recognize these words with nonnegligible probability would represent an improvement over state of the art OCR programs.\n\nSection::::Derivative projects.\n", "In 2014, reCAPTCHA began implementing behavioral analysis of the browser's interactions with the CAPTCHA to predict whether the user was a human or a bot before displaying the CAPTCHA, and presenting a \"considerably more difficult\" captcha in cases where it had reason to think the user might be a bot. By end of 2014, this mechanism started to be rolled out to most of the public Google services. \n", "The system has been reported as displaying over 100 million CAPTCHAs every day, on sites such as Facebook, TicketMaster, Twitter, 4chan, CNN.com, StumbleUpon, Craigslist (since June 2008), and the U.S. National Telecommunications and Information Administration's digital TV converter box coupon program website (as part of the US DTV transition).\n", "Software technologies :\n\nBULLET::::- CAPTCHA\n\nBULLET::::- reCAPTCHA\n\nHardware technologies :\n\nBULLET::::- Radar technology\n\nBULLET::::- Image recognition of human shapes\n\nBULLET::::- Security switch\n\nBULLET::::- Fingerprint sensors\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared detectors\n\nBULLET::::- Acoustic sensors\n\nBULLET::::- Vibration sensors\n\nSection::::Examples.\n\nBULLET::::- reCAPTCHA is a CAPTCHA-like system designed to establish that a computer user is human (normally in order to protect websites from bots) and, at the same time, assist in the digitization of books.\n", "The Neato robot travels in straight line patterns partially overlapped, with the help of a laser range finder that scans around in a full 360° circle, and the SLAM algorithm that allows it to map the room being vacuumed while it is completing its task.\n", "e-David takes in an input photograph and generates a set of brushstrokes which vary in length and width. The algorithm implements a visual feedback loop.\n\nThe loop follows these steps:\n\nBULLET::::- paints a set of computer generated strokes\n\nBULLET::::- checks to see if the painted strokes accurately represent the input image\n\nBULLET::::- generates the next set of strokes to more accurately match the input image\n", "Section::::Legacy.\n", "Section::::Outsourcing.\n\nOutsourced business processes can be categorised into two general categories: front office processes with customer facing roles in some interpersonal capacity (either face to face, on the telephone or via written correspondence); and secondly back office processes where, correspondingly, there is no customer interaction required.\n", "In 2012, reCAPTCHA began using photographs taken from Google Street View project, in addition to scanned words. As for 2019 image identification captchas - such as store fronts, buses, cross-walks, traffic lights - became the only type of captcha offered by the system.\n\nIn 2014, reCAPTCHA implemented another system in which users are asked to select one or more images from a selection of nine images.\n\nIn 2017, reCAPTCHA was improved to require no interaction for most users.\n\nSection::::Operation.:No CAPTCHA reCAPTCHA.\n", "Most methods intend to build a 3D model through vision of the environment. The proprioception sensors permit the robot to have information over its own state. This information is relative to a reference.\n", "Kismet's social intelligence software system, or synthetic nervous system (SNS), was designed with human models of intelligent behavior in mind. It contains six subsystems as follows.\n\nSection::::Software system.:Low-level feature extraction system.\n", "Section::::Application Areas.:Search and rescue.\n", "The engineering efforts to develop artificial team members include user interface design, but also the design of specialized social artificial intelligence, that enables agents to reason about whether some piece of information is worthy of sharing.\n\nSection::::Frameworks.\n\nVarious frameworks have been developed that support the software engineering effort of building human agent teams, such as KAoS, and SAIL . Engineering methodologies for human agent teaming include Coactive design\n\nSection::::Applications.\n\nHuman agent teaming is a popular paradigm to approach the interaction between humans and AI technologies in various domains such as defense, healthcare, space, disaster response. \n", "On August 1, 2010, Chad Houck gave a presentation to the DEF CON 18 Hacking Conference detailing a method to reverse the distortion added to images which allowed a computer program to determine a valid response 10% of the time. The reCAPTCHA system was modified on July 21, 2010, before Houck was to speak on his method. Houck modified his method to what he described as an \"easier\" CAPTCHA to determine a valid response 31.8% of the time. Houck also mentioned security defenses in the system, including a high-security lockout if an invalid response is given 32 times in a row.\n", "Episode 774 was the world's first programme to be shot and edited entirely on mobile devices.\n\nThe 12 March 2016 programme (#827) was broadcast in 360-degrees, and is the first entire episode of a TV programme to be broadcast as such.\n\nOn July 6th 2019, the show's 1000th episode premiered, and consisted of an interactive episode where viewers could decide what to watch next.\n\nSection::::History.:Botnet controversy.\n", "reCAPTCHA is also a barrier to Internet use in areas of the world where there is heavy Internet censorship and the underlying enabling sites are blocked.\n", "Section::::Security.\n\nThe main purpose of a CAPTCHA system is to prevent automated access to a system by computer programs or \"bots\". On December 14, 2009, Jonathan Wilkins released a paper describing weaknesses in reCAPTCHA that allowed a solve rate of 18%.\n", "In 2017, OpenAI and DeepMind applied deep learning to the cooperative inverse reinforcement learning in simple domains such as Atari games and straightforward robot tasks such as backflips. The human role was limited to answering queries from the robot as to which of two different actions were preferred. The researchers found evidence that the techniques may be economically scalable to modern systems.\n", "Programs are checked either by comparison to a known correct answer or by running a dedicated judging code, unique to each problem. This is increasingly necessary when there may be multiple answers in more complex problems. By using a computer, the marking is consistent, fair and can measure efficiency in real time, in comparison to human judging.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "There is no mention of any poems composed by Olympus. It is argued by some writers that the inseparable connection between the earliest compositions in music and poetry forbids the supposition that he composed music without words. Without entering into this difficult and extensive question, it is enough to observe that, whatever words may have been originally connected with his music, they were superseded by the compositions of later poets. Of the lyric poets who adapted their compositions to the nomes of Olympus, the chief was Stesichorus of Himera.\n", "Descriptive poetry\n\nDescriptive poetry is the name given to a class of literature that belongs mainly to the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries in Europe. From the earliest times, all poetry not subjectively lyrical was apt to indulge in ornament which might be named descriptive. But the critics of the 17th century formed a distinction between the representations of the ancients and those of the moderns. Boileau stated that, while Virgil \"paints\", Tasso \"describes\". This may be a useful indication in defining not what should, but what in practice has been called descriptive poetry.\n\nSection::::Boileau.\n", "Late Renaissance composers in particular were concerned with matching text up with music in such a way that the latter could be said to express the former. Madrigalists used a declamation technique known as word painting (aka text painting or tone painting) to make musical notes illustrate word meanings, trying literally to paint visual images with sonic materials. Thomas Weelkes' madrigal \"As Vesta was from Latmos hill descending\" uses word painting throughout to declaim textual meaning:\n\nmm 1-9: \"Latmos hill\" - \"hill\" is always set with the highest note in the phrase\n", "Section::::Literary history.\n\nThe art of occasional poetry had been cultivated in Greece from an early period—less, however, as the vehicle of personal feeling than as the recognized commemoration of remarkable individuals or events, on sepulchral monuments and votive offerings: Such compositions were termed epigrams, \"i.e.\" inscriptions. The modern use of the word is a departure from the original sense, which simply indicated that the composition was intended to be engraved or inscribed.\n", "BULLET::::- Simonides of Ceos (choral lyric, 6th century BC)\n\nBULLET::::- Bacchylides of Ceos (choral lyric, 5th century BC)\n\nBULLET::::- Pindar of Thebes (choral lyric, 5th century BC)\n", "Chausson initially called it \"Le Chant de l'amour triomphant\", then changed it to \"Poème symphonique\", and finally to simply \"Poème\". The first two rejected titles are crossed out on the extant manuscripts.\n", "The Greco-Latin doctrine of the divine origin of poetry was available to medieval authors through the writings of Horace (on Orpheus) and others, but it was the Latin translations and commentaries by the neo-platonic author Marsilio Ficino of Plato's dialogues \"Ion\" and (especially) \"Phaedrus\" at the end of the 15th century that led to a significant return of the conception of \"furor poeticus\". Ficino's commentaries explained how gods inspired the poets, and how this frenzy was subsequently transmitted to the poet's auditors through his rhapsodic poetry, allowing the listener to come into contact with the divine through a chain of inspiration. Ficino himself sought to experience ecstatic rapture in rhapsodic performances of Orphic-Platonic hymns accompanied by a lyre.\n", "Theologia Poetica\n\nTheologia Poetica (\"poetic theology\") was a designation adopted throughout the Renaissance for political philosophy independent of Biblical revelation. In Italy, discussions on \"poetic theology\" were articulated most notably by Boccaccio and Petrarch, both of whom promoted a philosophical life capable of withstanding the inquisitorial scrutiny of theological orthodoxy.\n", "Most significantly, though, special melodic, harmonic, or technical devices in music began to be associated with the figures of Classical oratory: for example, a rising or falling sequence in music was usually called climax in the literature of \"musica poetica\". However, it must be pointed out that such analogies were not always direct: terms used in \"musica poetica\" do not always correspond equivalently to their rhetorical counterparts (for example, in oratory, \"anaphora\" means a straightforward repetition of a word, but in music it can denote various kinds of repetitive device, such as the development of a subject through imitation (fugue); also, the presence of a rhetorical figure in the text being set to music did not imply an automatic application of that figure's musical equivalent (that is, it was never mandatory for composers to respond to such verbal ideas as \"going up\" with rising musical phrases (known as \"anabasis\" or \"ascensus\" in \"musica poetica\"). \n", "Since their day, however, purely descriptive poetry has gone more and more completely out of fashion and its place has been taken by the richer and more direct effects of such prose as that of John Ruskin in English or of Fromentin and Pierre Loti in French. It is almost impossible in descriptive verse to obtain those vivid and impassioned appeals to the imagination that form the essence of genuine poetry, and it is unlikely that descriptive poetry, as such, will retake a prominent place in living literature.\n", "Musica poetica\n\nMusica poetica was a term commonly applied to the art of composing music in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century German schools and universities. Its first known use was in the \"Rudimenta Musicae Planae\" (Wittenberg: 1533) of Nicolaus Listenius. Previously, music had been divided into musica theoretica and musica practica, which were categorised with the quadrivium and trivium, respectively. Since music of the time primarily meant vocal music, it was natural for theorists to make analogies between the composition of music and the composition of oratory or poetry. Hence, the term \"musica poetica\".\n", "While papyri containing fragments of collections of poetry have been found in Egypt, the earliest known anthology in Greek was compiled by Meleager of Gadara in the first century BC, under the title \"Anthologia\", or \"Flower-gathering.\" It contained poems by the compiler himself and forty-six other poets, including Archilochus, Alcaeus, Anacreon, and Simonides. In his preface to his collection, Meleager describes his arrangement of poems as if it were a head-band or garland of flowers woven together in a tour de force that made the word \"Anthology\" a synonym for a collection of literary works for future generations.\n", "Section::::After Thomson.\n\nHe was widely imitated in England, especially by Armstrong, Akenside, Shenstone (in \"The Schoolmistress\", 1742), by the anonymous author of Albania, 1737 and by Oliver Goldsmith (in \"The Deserted Village\", 1770). No better example of the more pedestrian class of descriptive poetry could be found than the last-mentioned poem with its minute and Dutch-like painting.\n", "Alcman was a 7th-century BCE poet who represents the earliest Alexandrian canon of the nine lyric poets. His choral poetry was known only through quotations by other Greek authors until 1855, when a discovery of a papyrus was found in a tomb at the Saqqara ancient burial ground in Egypt. This papyrus, now displayed at the Louvre in Paris, held the fragment with approximately 100 verses of his Partheneion (a poem sung by a chorus of adolescent girls).\n\nHere is an example of choral poetry, from Alcman's Partheneion:\n", "The Abbé Jacques Delille (1738–1813), perhaps the most ambitious descriptive poet who has ever lived, was treated as a Virgil by his contemporaries. He published \"Les Géorgiques\" in 1769, \"Les Jardins\" in 1782 and \"L' Homme des champs\" in 1803, but he went furthest in his brilliant, though artificial \"Trois règnes de la nature\" (1809), which French critics have called the masterpiece of this whole school of descriptive poetry. Delille, however, like Thomson before him, was unable to avoid monotony and want of coherency. Picture follows picture and no progress is made. The satire of Marie Joseph Chénier in his famous and witty \"Discours sur les poèmes descriptifs\", brought the vogue of this species of poetry to an end.\n", "About 60 BC, the sophist and poet Meleager of Gadara undertook to combine the choicest effusions of his predecessors into a single body of fugitive poetry. Collections of monumental inscriptions, or of poems on particular subjects, had previously been formed by Polemon Periegetes and others; but Meleager first gave the principle a comprehensive application.\n", "In the Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (تفعل \"tef'ile\") and of poetic metre (وزن \"vezin\") were imitated from Persian poetry. About twelve of the commonest Persian metres were used for writing Turkish poetry. As was the case with Persian, no use at all was made of the commonest metres of Arabic poetry (the \"tawīl\", \"basīt\", \"kāmil\", and \"wāfir\"). However, the terminology used to described the metres was indirectly borrowed from the Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the Persian language.\n", "Lovato introduced to the poets of the 14th century, through his work and influence, the importance of being precise and correct. By making the writings of the ancient world his guiding spirit, he was able to bring about a conscious intellectual change in the manner in which poets perceived the environment around them. Further, through an analysis of the grammatical component and the syntax of the works of early ages, he was able to bring about \"'a reorganization of consciousness,' habits of expressing ideas with precision and nuances that both unlocked the mentality of the classical authors and allowed the humanists themselves to approach their own work with that perspective.\"\n", "In terms of genre, poetry in this tradition frequently appears in the form of a meditation, or a sermon that employs exempla. In some cases, the poetry also took the form of a list (e.g. a list of different famous people appears within the poem). Although the list is not technically a form of genre, it is a common medieval literary convention.\n", "On the continent of Europe the example of Thomson was almost immediately fruitful. Four several translations of \"The Seasons\" into French contended for the suffrages of the public. Jean François de Saint-Lambert (1716–1803) imitated Thomson in \"Les Saisons\" (1769), a poem that enjoyed popularity for half a century, and of which Voltaire said that it was the only one of its generation that would reach posterity. Nevertheless, as Madame du Deffand told Walpole, Saint-Lambert is \"froid, fade et faux\" and the same may be said of Jean-Antoine Roucher (1745–1794) who wrote \"Les Mois\" in 1779, a descriptive poem famous in its day.\n", "In most Greek sources the word \"melikos\" (from \"melos\", \"song\") is used to refer to these poets, but the variant \"lyrikos\" (from \"lyra\", \"lyre\") became the regular form in both Latin (as \"lyricus\") and in modern languages. The ancient scholars defined the genre on the basis of the musical accompaniment, not the content. Thus, some types of poetry which would be included under the label \"lyric poetry,\" in modern criticism are excluded—namely, the elegy and iambus which were performed with flutes.\n", "Poet and literary critic Thomas Holley Chivers said that the \"only thing [Bryant] ever wrote that may be called \"Poetry\" is 'Thanatopsis', which he stole \"line for line\" from the Spanish. The fact is, that he never did anything but steal—as nothing he ever wrote is original.\" Contemporary critic Edgar Allan Poe, on the other hand, praised Bryant and specifically the poem \"June\" in his essay \"The Poetic Principle\":\n", "\"There are three pillars, insistently repeated by the poet in [his] writings, on which stands the height of his poetic thought:\n\n- The self-reference, intrareference says the poets, nature of the poetic word whose meaning and reality do not cross toward an external reference.\n\n- A poetic language filled with music ( 'The poetic thought is a thought that sings').\n\n- The poetic language enters into intelligibility under the condition of sensitive images.\"\n\n\"Antonio Gamoneda \n", "There are a wide range of names for other types of feet, right up to a choriamb, a four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is derived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry. Languages which utilize vowel length or intonation rather than or in addition to syllabic accents in determining meter, such as Ottoman Turkish or Vedic, often have concepts similar to the iamb and dactyl to describe common combinations of long and short sounds.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Mylothris\" (\"The Mill-Girl\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Mysians\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nannion\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nausicaa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neottis\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Xuthus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Odysseus\" or \"Panoptai\" (\"Men Who See Everything\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oedipus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Oenimaus\" or \"Pelops\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Olbia\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Orthannes\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pamphilus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pannychis\" (\"The All-Night Festival\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Parmeniscus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pentathlos\" (\"The Pentathlete\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Plangon\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pornoboskos\" (\"The Pimp\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Procris\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Prosousia or Cycnus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Semele or Dionysus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Skyteus\" (\"The Shoemaker\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Stephanopolides\" (\"Female Garland-Vendors\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sphingokarion\" (\"Sphinx-Carion\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Titans\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tithai\" or \"Titthe\" (\"Wet-Nurses\" or Wet-Nurse\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Phoenix\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Charites\" (\"The Graces\")\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chrysilla\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Psaltria\" (\"The Harp-Girl\")\n" ]

[ "Musical composers named their compositions.", "Musical composers gave their compositions poetic names. " ]

[ "Musicologists and others studying music named their works as they were categorized. ", "Composers never gave their compositions names, they were named by musicologists." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Musical composers named their compositions.", "Musical composers gave their compositions poetic names. " ]

[ "false presupposition", "false presupposition" ]

[ "Musicologists and others studying music named their works as they were categorized. ", "Composers never gave their compositions names, they were named by musicologists." ]

[ "Full-featured USB-C 3.1 cables are electronically marked cables that contain a full set of wires and a chip with an ID function based on the configuration data channel and vendor-defined messages (VDMs) from the USB Power Delivery 2.0 specification. USB-C devices also support power currents of 1.5 A and 3.0 A over the 5 V power bus in addition to baseline 900 mA; devices can either negotiate increased USB current through the configuration line or they can support the full Power Delivery specification using both BMC-coded configuration line and legacy BFSK-coded V line.\n", "Additional power for multiple ports on a laptop PC may be derived in the following ways:\n\nBULLET::::- Some ExpressCard-to-USB 3.0 adapters may connect by a cable to an additional USB 2.0 port on the computer, which supplies additional power.\n\nBULLET::::- The ExpressCard may have a socket for an external power supply.\n\nBULLET::::- If the external device has an appropriate connector, it can be powered by an external power supply.\n\nBULLET::::- USB 3.0 port provided by an ExpressCard-to-USB 3.0 adapter may be connected to a separately-powered USB 3.0 hub, with external devices connected to that USB 3.0 hub.\n", "Section::::Specifications.:Related USB-IF specifications.:USB Audio Device Class 3.0 Specification.\n\nUSB Audio Device Class 3.0 defines powered digital audio headsets with a USB-C plug. The standard support the transfer of both digital and analog audio signals over the USB port.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Related USB-IF specifications.:USB Power Delivery Specification.\n\nWhile it is not necessary for USB-C compliant devices to implement USB Power Delivery, for USB-C DRP/DRD (Dual-Role-Power/Data) ports, USB Power Delivery introduces commands for altering a port's power or data role after the roles have been established when a connection is made.\n\nSection::::Specifications.:Related USB-IF specifications.:USB 3.2 Specification.\n", "Section::::Hardware support.:Compatibility issues.:Compatibility with audio adapters.\n\nOn devices that have omitted the 3.5 mm audio jack, the USB-C port can be used to connect wired accessories such as headphones.\n\nThere are primarily two types of USB-C adapters (active adapters with DACs, passive adapters without DACs) and two modes of audio output from devices (phones without onboard DACs that send out digital audio, phones with onboard DACs that send out analog audio).\n", "Alternate Mode hosts and sinks can be connected with either regular full-featured USB-C cables, or converter cables/adapters:\n\nBULLET::::- USB 3.1 Type-C to Type-C full-featured cable: DisplayPort, Mobile High-Definition Link (MHL), HDMI and Thunderbolt (20Gbit/s, or 40Gbit/s with cable length up to 0.5 m) Alternate Mode USB-C ports can be interconnected with standard passive full-featured USB Type-C cables. These cables are only marked with standard \"trident\" SuperSpeed USB logo (for Gen 1 cables) or the SuperSpeed+ USB 10 Gbit/s logo (for Gen 2 cables) on both ends. Cable length should be 2.0m or less for Gen 1 and 1.0m or less for Gen 2.\n", "Examples of such active adapters include external USB sound cards/DACs that do not require special drivers, and USB-C to 3.5 mm headphone jack adapters by Apple, Google, Essential, Razer, HTC.\n", "Because there are two separate controllers in each USB 3.0 host, USB 3.0 devices transmit and receive at USB 3.0 data rates regardless of USB 2.0 or earlier devices connected to that host. Operating data rates for earlier devices are set in the legacy manner.\n\nSection::::Device classes.\n\nThe functionality of a USB device is defined by a class code sent to a USB host. This allows the host to load software modules for the device and to support new devices from different manufacturers.\n\nDevice classes include:\n\nSection::::Device classes.:USB mass storage / USB drive.\n", "On the motherboards of desktop PCs which have PCI Express (PCIe) slots (or the older PCI standard), USB 3.0 support can be added as a PCI Express expansion card. In addition to an empty PCIe slot on the motherboard, many \"PCI Express to USB 3.0\" expansion cards must be connected to a power supply such as a Molex adapter or external power supply, in order to power many USB 3.0 devices such as mobile phones, or external hard drives that have no power source other than USB; as of 2011, this is often used to supply two to four USB 3.0 ports with the full 0.9 A (4.5 W) of power that each USB 3.0 port is capable of (while also transmitting data), whereas the PCI Express slot itself cannot supply the required amount of power.\n", "BULLET::::- Android from version 6.0 onwards works with USB 3.1 and USB-C.\n\nBULLET::::- Chrome OS, starting with the Chromebook Pixel 2015, supports USB 3.1, USB-C, alternate modes, power delivery, and USB Dual-Role support.\n\nBULLET::::- FreeBSD released the Extensible Host Controller Interface, supporting USB 3.0, with release 8.2\n\nBULLET::::- iOS from version 12.1 (iPad Pro 3rd generation only) onwards works with USB-C.\n\nBULLET::::- NetBSD began supporting USB 3.0 with release 7.2\n\nBULLET::::- Linux has supported USB 3.0 since kernel version 2.6.31 and USB version 3.1 since kernel version 4.6.\n\nBULLET::::- OpenBSD began supporting USB 3.0 in version 5.7\n", "List of devices with video output over USB-C\n\nThis list provides an overview of devices that support video output over USB-C. Not all USB-C ports support video output; a device is required to specifically provide support for USB-C Alternate Mode, which dedicates some of the physical wires in a USB-C 3.1 cable for direct device-to-host transmission of alternate data protocols.\n", "BULLET::::- High-speed (HS) rate of 480 Mbit/s was introduced in 2001. All hi-speed devices are capable of falling back to full-bandwidth operation if necessary; i.e., they are backward compatible with USB 1.1 standard. Connectors are identical for USB 2.0 and USB 1.x.\n\nBULLET::::- SuperSpeed (SS) rate of 5.0 Gbit/s. The written USB 3.0 specification was released by Intel and its partners in August 2008. The first USB 3.0 controller chips were sampled by NEC in May 2009, and the first products using the USB 3.0 specification arrived in January 2010. USB 3.0 connectors are generally backward compatible, but include new wiring and full-duplex operation.\n", "USB ports and connectors are often color-coded to distinguish their different functions and USB versions. These colors are not part of the USB specification and can vary between manufacturers; for example, USB 3.0 specification mandates appropriate color-coding while it only recommends blue inserts for standard-A USB 3.0 connectors and plugs.\n\nSection::::Connectors.:Connector types.\n", "BULLET::::- USB 3.1 Type-C adapter cable (plug) or adapter (socket): These cables/adapters contain a valid DisplayPort, HDMI, or MHL plug/socket marked with the logo of the required Alternate Mode, and a USB-C plug with a \"trident\" SuperSpeed 10Gbit/s logo on the other end. Cable length should be 0.15m or less .\n\nActive cables/adapters contain powered ICs to amplify/equalise the signal for extended length cables, or to perform active protocol conversion. The adapters for video Alt Modes may allow conversion from native video stream to other video interface standards (e.g., DisplayPort, HDMI, VGA or DVI).\n", "The term \"available current\" can be misunderstood. It implies that if a low power device or a USB2 device is connected to a USB3 port it can only draw 150 mA or 500 mA from that port. However, the available current for any USB device plugged into a USB3 port is 900 mA (unless it is charging port compliant) as defined by the USB3 spec. The actual current draw is determined by the device capability. The Vbus, pin 1, and Ground, pin 4, are the same for USB 1, 2, or 3. A USB2 HDD with 2 USB2 connectors needing a total of 800 mA will draw full power from a single USB3 port. A USB2 phone will probably charge faster since 900 mA is \"available\" to it.\n", "AMD began supporting USB 3.0 with its Fusion Controller Hubs in 2011. Samsung Electronics announced support of USB 3.0 with its ARM-based Exynos 5 Dual platform intended for handheld devices.\n\nSection::::Issues.\n\nSection::::Issues.:Speed and compatibility.\n\nVarious early USB 3.0 implementations widely used the NEC/Renesas µD72020x family of host controllers, which are known to require a firmware update to function properly with some devices.\n", "Section::::Operating system support.:Other Unix-related systems.\n\nSolaris has supported devices since its version 2.8 (1998), NetBSD since its version 1.5 (2000), FreeBSD since its version 4.0 (2000) and OpenBSD since its version 2.7 (2000). Digital UNIX (later known as Tru64 UNIX), has supported USB and USB mass-storage devices since its version 4.0E (1998). AIX has supported USB mass-storage devices since its 5.3 T9 and 6.1 T3 versions; however, it is not well-supported and lacks features such as partitioning and general blocking.\n\nSection::::Operating system support.:Game consoles and embedded devices.\n", "BULLET::::- Non-standard: Existing for specific proprietary purposes, and in most cases not inter-operable with USB-IF compliant equipment. In addition to the above cable assemblies comprising two plugs, an \"adapter\" cable with a Micro-A plug and a standard-A receptacle is compliant with USB specifications. Other combinations of connectors are not compliant.There do exist A-to-A assemblies, referred to as cables (such as the Easy Transfer Cable); however, these have a pair of USB devices in the middle, making them more than just cables.\n", "V and GND provide 5 V up to 900 mA, in accordance with the USB 3.1 specification. A specific USB-C mode may also be entered, where 5 V up to 3 A is provided. A third alternative is to establish a Power Delivery contract.\n\nThe D+/D− link for USB 2.0/1.1 is \"typically\" not used when USB 3.x connection is active, but devices like hubs open simultaneous 2.0 and 3.x uplinks in order to allow operation of both type devices connected to it. Other devices may have fallback mode to 2.0, in case the 3.x connection fails.\n\nSection::::USB-C receptacle pin usage in different modes.:Alternate Mode.\n", "Various protocol converters are available that convert USB data signals to and from other communications standards.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- DockPort\n\nBULLET::::- Easy Transfer Cable\n\nBULLET::::- Extensible Host Controller Interface (XHCI)\n\nBULLET::::- LIO Target\n\nBULLET::::- List of device bit rates#Peripheral\n\nBULLET::::- Media Transfer Protocol\n\nBULLET::::- Mobile High-Definition Link\n\nBULLET::::- WebUSB\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- USB Document Library (USB 3.2, USB 2.0, Wireless USB, USB-C, USB Power Delivery)\n\nBULLET::::- Muller, Henk. \"How To Create And Program USB Devices,\" \"Electronic Design\", July 2012\n\nBULLET::::- An Analysis of Throughput Characteristics of Universal Serial Bus, June 1996, by John Garney\n", "Section::::Connectors.:Connector types.:Mini connectors.\n\nMini-USB connectors were introduced together with USB 2.0 in April 2000, for use with smaller devices such as digital cameras, smartphones, and tablet computers. The Mini-A connector and the Mini-AB receptacle connector have been deprecated since May 2007. Mini-B connectors are still supported, but are not On-The-Go-compliant; the Mini-B USB connector was standard for transferring data to and from the early smartphones and PDAs. Both Mini-A and Mini-B plugs are approximately .\n\nSection::::Connectors.:Connector types.:Micro connectors.\n", "Compared to USB, A.b had several advantages. Any device on the bus could be a master or a slave, and a protocol is defined for selecting which one a device should use under any particular circumstance. This allows devices to be plugged together with A.b without a host computer. For instance, a digital camera could be plugged directly into a printer and become the master. Under (standard) USB the computer is always the master and the devices are always slaves.\n", "The USB 3.1 specification was published in July 2013.\n\nIn December 2014, USB-IF submitted USB 3.1, USB Power Delivery 2.0 and USB-C specifications to the IEC (TC 100 – Audio, video and multimedia systems and equipment) for inclusion in the international standard IEC 62680 (\"Universal Serial Bus interfaces for data and power)\", which is currently based on USB 2.0.\n\nThe USB 3.2 specification was published in September 2017.\n\nSection::::History.:USB 1.x.\n", "The original USB 1.0 specification, which was introduced in January 1996, defined data transfer rates of 1.5 Mbit/s \"Low Speed\" and 12 Mbit/s \"Full Speed\". Microsoft Windows 95, OSR 2.1 provided OEM support for the devices. The first widely used version of USB was 1.1, which was released in September 1998. The 12 Mbit/s data rate was intended for higher-speed devices such as disk drives, and the lower 1.5 Mbit/s rate for low data rate devices such as joysticks. Apple Inc.'s iMac was the first mainstream product with USB and the iMac's success popularized USB itself. Following Apple's design decision to remove all legacy ports from the iMac, many PC manufacturers began building legacy-free PCs, which led to the broader PC market using USB as a standard.\n", "USB\n\nUniversal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard that establishes specifications for cables and connectors and protocols for connection, communication and power supply between computers, peripheral devices and other computers. Released in 1996, the USB standard is currently maintained by the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF). There have been three generations of USB specifications: USB 1.\"x\", USB 2.0 and USB 3.\"x\"; the fourth called USB4 is scheduled to be published in the middle of 2019.\n\nSection::::Overview.\n", "Several generic digital data connection standards are designed to carry audio/video data along with other data and power:\n\nBULLET::::- USB was designed as a single connector to support all needs, including any generic data, audio/video, power, and more; DisplayLink is its most successful Audio+Video protocol. Until the 3.0 revision, very low data rates meant most A/V needed alternative connectors.\n\nBULLET::::- USB-C can directly transport USB 3.1, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, HDMI, and MHL protocols, with power, and audio and many other protocols are possible.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "During 2013, the U.S. Federal Reserve is expected to purchase about $45 billion of U.S. treasury securities per month in addition to the $40 billion in mortgage debt it’s purchasing, effectively absorbing about 90 percent of net new dollar-denominated fixed-income assets. This reduces the supply of bonds available for sale to investors, raising bond prices and lowering interest rates, which helps boost the U.S. economy. During 2012, global demand for U.S. debt was strong and interest rates were near record lows.\n", "Because these bonds had the full faith and backing of the United States government, they received high credit ratings and \"paid an interest rate that was only slightly higher than Treasury bonds.\" \n", "Another study in the \"Journal of Finance\" calculated the additional interest rate or \"spread\" that corporate bonds pay over that of \"riskless\" US Treasury bonds, according to the bonds rating. (See \"Basis point spread\" in the table to right.) Looking at rated bonds from 1973 through 1989, the authors found a AAA-rated bond paid only 43 \"basis points\" (or 43/100ths of a percentage point) more than a Treasury bond (so that it would yield 3.43% if the Treasury bond yielded 3.00%). A CCC-rated \"junk\" (or speculative) bond, on the other hand, paid over 4% more than a Treasury bond on average (7.04% if the Treasury bond yielded 3.00%) over that period.\n", "Michael Hudson noted that in mid-2018 US Treasury notes were approaching an inverted yield curve - the yields for short-term US Treasury bills almost outstripped long-term ones. Hudson said, that investors increasingly had no confidence in the economy, and just wanted “to park their money safely”. The real economy wasn't growing, the only thing that was growing was debts. JP Morgan data showed that the \"global\" yield curve for bonds had already inverted (the difference in yields for bonds with 1 to 3 year maturities and those with 7 to 10 year maturities reduced to zero). The \"Financial Times\" stated that “global quantitative easing has created a seemingly insatiable demand for five- to 10-year Treasuries, pushing down yields”. Others argued that the yield curve was not yet inverted, just flat. Morgan Stanley data showed that, in 2018, foreign institutions were putting US$100 billion into Chinese government bonds. The first true inversion in the US was observed in December 2018, when the yield on five-year US Treasury notes fell below that on two-year ones. A short time later, the difference in yield between 2-year and 10-year Treasury notes (the definitive indicator) dropped below ten basis points. The \"Wall Street Journal\" advised investors explicitly not to panic, because the phenomenon could just be a “temporary kink” which had “no predictive power”\n", "Since 2010, the U.S. Treasury has been obtaining negative real interest rates on government debt. Such low rates, outpaced by the inflation rate, occur when the market believes that there are no alternatives with sufficiently low risk, or when popular institutional investments such as insurance companies, pensions, or bond, money market, and balanced mutual funds are required or choose to invest sufficiently large sums in Treasury securities to hedge against risk. Lawrence Summers, Matthew Yglesias and other economists state that at such low rates, government debt borrowing saves taxpayer money, and improves creditworthiness.\n", "Since 2010, the U.S. Treasury has been obtaining negative real interest rates on government debt. Such low rates, outpaced by the inflation rate, occur when the market believes that there are no alternatives with sufficiently low risk, or when popular institutional investments such as insurance companies, pensions, or bond, money market, and balanced mutual funds are required or choose to invest sufficiently large sums in Treasury securities to hedge against risk. Lawrence Summers and others state that at such low rates, government debt borrowing saves taxpayer money, and improves creditworthiness.\n", "Historically, the 20-year Treasury bond yield has averaged approximately two percentage points above that of three-month Treasury bills. In situations when this gap increases (e.g. 20-year Treasury yield rises much higher than the three-month Treasury yield), the economy is expected to improve quickly in the future. This type of curve can be seen at the beginning of an economic expansion (or after the end of a recession). Here, economic stagnation will have depressed short-term interest rates; however, rates begin to rise once the demand for capital is re-established by growing economic activity.\n", "Since 2010, the U.S. Treasury has been obtaining negative real interest rates on government debt. Such low rates, outpaced by the inflation rate, occur when the market believes that there are no alternatives with sufficiently low risk, or when popular institutional investments such as insurance companies, pensions, or bond, money market, and balanced mutual funds are required or choose to invest sufficiently large sums in Treasury securities to hedge against risk. Lawrence Summers, Matthew Yglesias and other economists state that at such low rates, government debt borrowing saves taxpayer money, and improves creditworthiness. In the late 1940s and then again in the early 1970s, the US and UK both reduced their debt burden by about 30% to 40% of GDP per decade by taking advantage of negative real interest rates, but there is no guarantee that government debt rates will continue to stay so low. In January 2012, the U.S. Treasury Borrowing Advisory Committee of the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association unanimously recommended that government debt be allowed to auction even lower, at negative absolute interest rates.\n", "During 2013, the U.S. Federal Reserve is expected to purchase about $45 billion of U.S. treasury securities per month in addition to the $40 billion in mortgage debt it’s purchasing, effectively absorbing about 90 percent of This reduces the supply of bonds available for sale to investors, raising bond prices and lowering interest rates, which helps boost the U.S. economy. During 2012, global demand for U.S. debt was strong and interest rates were near record lows.\n\nSection::::Analytical perspectives.\n\nSection::::Analytical perspectives.:Federal spending per capita.\n", "For the first time, in the second quarter of 2018, Foreign Direct Investment in the US was negative. Prior to the change in foreign investment trajectory, some analysts expressed concerns of exposure to potential financial or political risk should foreign banks stop buying Treasury securities or start selling them heavily. This was addressed in a June 2008 report issued by the Bank of International Settlements, which stated: \"Foreign investors in U.S. dollar assets have seen big losses measured in dollars, and still bigger ones measured in their own currency. While unlikely, indeed highly improbable for public sector investors, a sudden rush for the exits cannot be ruled out completely.\"\n", "One example of this is a comparison of assets with and without a liquid secondary market. The liquidity discount is the reduced promised yield or expected return for such assets, like the difference between newly issued U.S. Treasury bonds compared to off the run treasuries with the same term to maturity. Initial buyers know that other investors are less willing to buy off-the-run treasuries, so the newly issued bonds have a higher price (and hence lower yield).\n\nSection::::Futures.\n", "The key economic consideration for an underwriter that is considering bringing a new deal to market is whether the transaction can offer a sufficient return to the equity noteholders. Such a determination requires estimating the after-default return offered by the portfolio of debt securities and comparing it to the cost of funding the CDO's rated notes. The excess spread must be large enough to offer the potential of attractive IRRs to the equityholders.\n", "A bond yield versus equity yield comparison has been used in practice long before the Fed published the graph and Yardeni gave it a name. A variant of this, first the expected AAA bond yield from the Blue Chip survey versus the forward-earnings yield on the S&P 500, and then later versus the 10-year Treasury was developed by Dirk van Dijk at I/B/E/S in the mid-1980s.\n\nSection::::Support.\n", "Investors—buyers of CDO—include insurance companies, mutual fund companies, unit trusts, investment trusts, commercial banks, investment banks, pension fund managers, private banking organizations, other CDOs and structured investment vehicles. Investors have different motivations for purchasing CDO securities depending on which tranche they select. At the more senior levels of debt, investors are able to obtain better yields than those that are available on more traditional securities (e.g., corporate bonds) of a similar rating. In some cases, investors utilize leverage and hope to profit from the excess of the spread offered by the senior tranche and their cost of borrowing. This is true because senior tranches pay a spread above LIBOR despite their AAA-ratings. Investors also benefit from the diversification of the CDO portfolio, the expertise of the asset manager, and the credit support built into the transaction. Investors include banks and insurance companies as well as investment funds.\n", "Another study in \"Journal of Finance\" calculated the additional interest rate or \"spread\" corporate bonds pay over that of \"riskless\" US Treasury bonds, according to the bonds' rating. (See \"Basis point spread\" in table to right.) Looking at rated bonds for 1973–89, the authors found a AAA-rated bond paid 43 \"basis points\" (or 43/100 of a percentage point) over a US Treasury bond (so that it would yield 3.43% if the Treasury yielded 3.00%). A CCC-rated \"junk\" (or speculative) bond, on the other hand, paid over 7% (724 basis points) more than a Treasury bond on average over that period.\n", "The combined GSE losses of US$14.9 billion and market concerns about their ability to raise capital and debt threatened to disrupt the U.S. housing financial market. The Treasury committed to invest as much as US$200 billion in preferred stock and extend credit through 2009 to keep the GSEs solvent and operating. The two GSEs have outstanding more than US$ 5 trillion in mortgage-backed securities (MBS) and debt; the debt portion alone is $1.6 trillion. The conservatorship action has been described as \"one of the most sweeping government interventions in private financial markets in decades,\" and one that \"could turn into the biggest and costliest government bailout ever of private companies\".\n", "The Federal Open Market Committee voted to expand its quantitative easing program further on December 12, 2012. This round continued to authorize up to $40 billion worth of agency mortgage-backed securities per month and added $45 billion worth of longer-term Treasury securities. The outright Treasury purchases as part of the augmented program continued at a pace comparable to that under \"Operation Twist\"; however, the Federal Reserve could no longer sell short-dated Treasury securities to buy longer-dated ones since they had insufficient holdings of short-dated Treasuries.\n", "Alan Greenspan estimated in March 2009 that U.S. banks will require another $850 billion of capital, representing a 3-4 percentage point increase in equity capital to asset ratios.\n\nFollowing a model initiated by the United Kingdom bank rescue package, the U.S. government authorized the injection of up to $350 billion in equity in the form of preferred stock or asset purchases as part of the $700 billion Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, also called the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP).\n", "In 2005, over 80% of the principal amount of high-yield debt issued by U.S. companies went toward corporate purposes rather than acquisitions or buyouts.\n\nIn emerging markets, such as China and Vietnam, bonds have become increasingly important as term financing options, since access to traditional bank credits has always been proved to be limited, especially if borrowers are non-state corporates. The corporate bond market has been developing in line with the general trend of capital market, and equity market in particular.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Debt repackaging and subprime crisis.\n", "As of June 30, 2018, the top foreign holders of U.S. Treasury securities are:\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Chiasso financial smuggling case\n\nBULLET::::- Consol\n\nBULLET::::- Government debt\n\nBULLET::::- Interest\n\nBULLET::::- Risk\n\nBULLET::::- Strong dollar policy\n\nBULLET::::- War bond\n\nBULLET::::- War savings stamps\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Bureau of the Public Debt: US Savings Bonds Online\n\nBULLET::::- Major Foreign Holders of U.S. Treasury Bonds\n\nBULLET::::- U.S. Bureau of the Public Debt: Series A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J, and K Savings Bonds and Savings Notes.\n\nBULLET::::- Features and Risks of Treasury Inflation Protection Securities\n", "BULLET::::4. Equity purchase program: We are designing a standardized program to purchase equity in a broad array of financial institutions. As with the other programs, the equity purchase program will be voluntary and designed with attractive terms to encourage participation from healthy institutions. It will also encourage firms to raise new private capital to complement public capital.\n", "The value of speculative bonds is affected to a higher degree than investment grade bonds by the possibility of default. For example, in a recession interest rates may drop, and the drop in interest rates tends to increase the value of investment grade bonds; however, a recession tends to increase the possibility of default in speculative-grade bonds.\n\nSection::::Usage.\n\nSection::::Usage.:Corporate debt.\n\nThe original speculative grade bonds were bonds that once had been investment grade at time of issue, but where the credit rating of the issuer had slipped and the possibility of default increased significantly. These bonds are called \"fallen angels\".\n", "Treasury securities are backed by the full faith and credit of the United States, meaning that the government has promised to raise money from any available source to repay them. Although the United States is a sovereign power and may default on its debt, its strong record of repayment has given Treasury securities a reputation as one of the world's lowest-risk investments.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "New evidence, however, suggests that while the U.S. has been experiencing large, persistent current account deficits, the assets U.S. investors hold overseas are gaining more in value compared to the value of U.S. assets held by foreign investors. These positive valuation effects represent financial gains for the U.S. (some attribute this phenomenon to exorbitant privilege). Economists at the Federal Reserve estimated that during 1994-2007, the U.S. valuation effects (in stocks and bonds) are about +$1.2 trillion, about 22% of the U.S. total current account deficits.\n", "Section::::Marketable securities.\n\nSection::::Marketable securities.:Treasury bill.\n\n\"Treasury bills\" (\"T-bills\") mature in one year or less. They are zero-coupon bonds, paying no interest prior to maturity; instead they are sold at a discount of the par value to create a positive yield to maturity.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "The most common obstructions encountered are road vehicles at level crossings (grade crossings); malicious persons sometimes place materials on the rails, and in some cases relatively small objects cause a derailment by guiding one wheel over the rail (rather than by gross collision).\n\nDerailment has also been brought about in situations of war or other conflict, such as during hostility by Native Americans, and more especially during periods when military personnel and materiel was being moved by rail.\n\nSection::::Causes.:Harsh train handling.\n", "A derailment occurs when a vehicle such as a train runs off its rails. This does not necessarily mean that it leaves its track. Although many derailments are minor, all result in temporary disruption of the proper operation of the railway system, and they are potentially seriously hazardous to human health and safety. Usually, the derailment of a train can be caused by a collision with another object, an operational error, the mechanical failure of tracks, such as broken rails, or the mechanical failure of the wheels. In emergency situations, deliberate derailment with derails or catch points is sometimes used to prevent a more serious accident.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Other factors.\n", "BULLET::::- 14 November – \"India\" - The brakes on the famous Akbar Express 17161 failed near Haryana during repairs, resulting in a runaway train. The driver had to jump for his life before the locomotive derailed 70 inches from a busy junction.\n", "Section::::Chronology of events.:Derailment.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Maintenance.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Derailment following collision.\n\nIf a train collides with a massive object, it is clear that derailment of the proper running of vehicle wheels on the track may take place. Although very large obstructions are imagined, it has been known for a cow straying on to the line to derail a passenger train at speed such as occurred in the Polmont rail accident.\n", "BULLET::::- 6 November — \"Australia\" — A freight train transporting iron ore from Newman to Port Hedland, Western Australia runs away after the driver leaves the cab to inspect a wagon, travelling for over 50 minutes before being remotely derailed.\n\nBULLET::::- 20 November — \"Spain\" — A passenger train is derailed by a landslide at Vacarisses. One person is killed and 44 are injured.\n\nBULLET::::- 29 November — \"Norway\" — A passenger train collides with a truck on a level crossing near Koppang. Several passengers are injured.\n", "Section::::Causes.:Improper operation of control systems.\n\nJunctions and other changes of routing on railways are generally made by means of points (switches — movable sections capable of changing the onward route of vehicles). In the early days of railways these were moved independently by local staff. Accidents — usually collisions — took place when staff forgot which route the points were set for, or overlooked the approach of a train on a conflicting route. If the points were not correctly set for either route — set in mid-stroke — it is possible for a train passing to derail.\n", "Section::::Narrative.:Runaway wagons.\n", "There have been several other derailments in the UK due to trains entering speed-restricted sections of track at excessive speed; the causes have generally been inattention by the driver due to alcohol, fatigue or other causes. Prominent cases were the Nuneaton rail crash in 1975 (temporary speed restriction in force due to trackwork, warning sign illumination failed), the Morpeth accident in 1984 (express passenger sleeping car train took restricted sharp curve at full speed; alcohol a factor; no fatalities due to the improved crashworthiness of the vehicles)\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Guard rails\n\nBULLET::::- Lists of rail accidents\n\nBULLET::::- Train wreck\n", "BULLET::::- June 27, 1988 – \"France\" – Gare de Lyon train accident, Gare de Lyon, Paris: After brake failure, runaway train hits stationary rush-hour train in station, 56 people killed, over 50 injured.\n\nBULLET::::- July 8, 1988 – \"India\" – Peruman railway accident – According to Press Trust of India report, a Bangalore–Trivandrum Island Express derails and plunges into Ashtamudi Lake on the outskirts of Kollam, Kerala, 107 people drowned.\n", "BULLET::::- 6 April - \"Indonesia\" - A \"Sancaka\" train is in a head-on collision with a semi-truck in Ngawi. Two persons are killed and three are injured.\n\nBULLET::::- 20 April — \"Austria\" — Two passenger trains collide at Salzburg, injuring around 40 people.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 May — \"United States\" — The last two cars of a Norfolk Southern freight train carrying stone derail along Amtrak's Northeast Corridor in Ridley Township, Pennsylvania, affecting passenger service along Amtrak and SEPTA Regional Rail's Wilmington/Newark Line.\n", "Finally in this sampling, on 11 May 1858, at Utica, NY, two New York Central trains, a westbound freight and the eastbound Cincinnati Express, passed on parallel tracks on a forty-foot wooden trestle over Sauquoit Creek. It collapsed under their combined weight, utterly destroying the passenger train, killing nine and injuring 55 persons.\n\nDuring the 19th century derailments were commonplace, but progressively improved safety measures have resulted in a stable lower level of such incidents. In the US, derailments have dropped dramatically since 1980 from over 3,000 annually (1980) to 1,000 or so in 1986, to about 500 in 2010.\n", "BULLET::::- 28 February – \"Egypt\" – A head-on crash between two trains killed at least 15 people and injured dozens more near Egyptian capital Cairo.\n\nBULLET::::- 2 March — \"United Kingdom\" — 2018 Lewisham train strandings: Nine passenger trains become stranded in the , and area. Passengers abandon five of the trains due to incident management, communication and train equipment issues.\n", "BULLET::::- 17 December 2012 – \"United States\" – A BNSF intermodal train from Chicago derails when a landslide strikes it in Everett, Washington. This event is captured on video.\n\nBULLET::::- 19 December 2012 – \"Germany\" – Around 20:20 CET, two freight trains tore through a broken-down bus and then derailed at a level crossing in Düsseldorf. There were no casualties, but the bus driver had to be treated for shock.\n\nSection::::2013.\n", "BULLET::::- 2 January – \"Denmark\" – Great Belt Bridge rail accident: A DSB express passenger train is hit by a semi-trailer from a passing cargo train on the western bridge of the Great Belt Fixed Link, killing eight people and injuring 16.\n", "BULLET::::- 20 May – \"Kazakhstan\" – A collision between two freight trains near the Sino-Kazakh border derails 18 cars and damages of track, leaving several other trains stranded in the Alataw Pass.\n\nBULLET::::- 20 May – \"Switzerland\" – A high-speed train collides with a tour bus at Interlaken leaving 16 people injured.\n\nBULLET::::- 3 June – \"United States\" – A crude oil train derails due to defective track and catches fire at Mosier, Oregon. The town was evacuated.\n", "BULLET::::- 7 March – \"United Kingdom\" – 2015 Wootton Bassett SPAD incident - A charter train overruns a signal at Wootton Bassett, Wiltshire and comes to a stop foul of a junction, where an express train has passed through a minute earlier. As a direct result of the incident, West Coast Railways was banned from accessing all rail lines in the United Kingdom until remedial preventions were put in place.\n", "BULLET::::- 31 January – \"Egypt\" – Seven are killed and scores injured when a train crashes into a truck in Giza, just outside Cairo. Reports say the gatekeeper forgot about the coming passenger train until a truck pulled out in front of the crossing; the gatekeeper is now under investigation.\n\nBULLET::::- 5 February -\"India\" - 4 coaches of Kanyakumari-Bangalore City Express derail near Vellore. Few injured.\n", "BULLET::::- 10 April 2013 – \"India\" – Seven compartments of the 15228 Muzaffarpur-Yeshvantpur Weekly Express derailed near Arakkonam, 40 km from Chennai killing one passenger and leaving another seriously injured.\n\nBULLET::::- 16 April 2013 – \"France\" – At 08:30 a regional EMU travelling from Miramas to Marseille crashes at 30 kph into a crane-lorry on a level crossing. The crane driver is seriously injured and thirty two passengers have minor injuries.\n", "BULLET::::- 8 May – \"Germany\" – A passenger train collides with a lorry on a level crossing near Rendsburg. Twenty people are injured, one seriously.\n\nBULLET::::- 19 May – \"Philippines\" – An unpowered LRT Line 2 train parked on a pocket track fouled on the eastbound track of the main line and collided head-on to a loaded train. The operator of the loaded train was already notified to stop prior the collision. The operator of the unpowered train jumped onto the tracks. The collision injured 30 passengers and 4 staff.\n", "Defective or improperly-applied brakes may lead to a runaway train; in some instances this has caused train wrecks:\n\nBULLET::::- Lac-Mégantic derailment, Quebec (2013), handbrakes were improperly set on unattended parked crude oil train, runaway tank cars rolled down a slope and derailed due to excessive speed on a curve in the centre of town, spilling five million litres of oil and causing fires which killed 47 people.\n\nBULLET::::- Democratic Republic of the Congo west of Kananga (2007) - 100 killed.\n\nBULLET::::- Igandu train disaster, Tanzania (2002) – runaway backwards - 281 killed.\n", "BULLET::::- 12 June 2012 – \"Germany\" – A tram ran full speed into two waiting trams at a tramstop in Essen. The operator of the tram was unable to stop within time to avoid a collision. 28 people are injured.\n\nBULLET::::- 24 June 2012 – \"United States\" – Three crew members were killed when two Union Pacific trains slammed into each other just east of Goodwell, about 480 kilometres northwest of Oklahoma City. The crash triggered a diesel-fueled fireball that appeared to weld the locomotives together.\n", "BULLET::::- 18 November – \"Netherlands\" – A passenger train is derailed when it is in collision with a milk lorry on a level crossing at Winsum, Groningen. Eighteen people were injured, three seriously.\n\nBULLET::::- 20 November - \"India\" - Pukhrayan train derailment - Fourteen coaches of Indore–Patna Express derail near Kanpur, killing 150 people and injuring another 150 in India's deadliest rail disaster since 1999.\n" ]

[ "Train derailments occur with many modern trains even today." ]

[ "Train derailments are extraordinarily rare and trains are among the safest modes of transport." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Train derailments occur with many modern trains even today.", "Train derailments occur with many modern trains even today." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "Train derailments are extraordinarily rare and trains are among the safest modes of transport.", "Train derailments are extraordinarily rare and trains are among the safest modes of transport. " ]

[ "Before the patient leaves the operating room there is a further check, usually conducted by the nursing staff. The instrument, sponge and needle counts are checked, equipment is checked and specimens are checked as appropriately labelled. The surgeon, anaesthetist and nursing staff then must discuss any key concerns for recovery management of the patient.\n\nSection::::I AM FOR SAFETY Surgical Checklist.\n", "At some point before surgery a health care provider conducts a preoperative assessment to verify that a person is fit and ready for the surgery. For surgeries in which a person receives either general or local anesthesia, this assessment may be done either by a doctor or a nurse trained to do the assessment. The available research does not give insight about any differences in outcomes depending on whether a doctor or nurse conducts this assessment.\n\nSection::::Technique.:Addressing anxiety.\n\nPlaying calming music to patients immediately before surgery has a beneficial effect in addressing anxiety about the surgery.\n\nSection::::Technique.:Surgical site preparation.\n", "Surgical emergency\n\nSurgical emergency is a medical emergency for which immediate surgical intervention is the only way to solve the problem successfully.\n\nThe following conditions are surgical emergencies:\n\nBULLET::::- Acute trauma\n\nCardiothoracic\n\nBULLET::::- Cardiac tamponade\n\nBULLET::::- Acute airway obstruction\n\nBULLET::::- Pneumothorax\n\nGastrointestinal\n\nBULLET::::- Acute appendicitis\n\nBULLET::::- Bowel obstruction\n\nBULLET::::- Gastrointestinal perforation\n\nBULLET::::- Intestinal volvulus\n\nBULLET::::- Acute mesenteric ischemia\n\nBULLET::::- Peritonitis\n\nBULLET::::- Stercoral perforation\n\nGenitourinary\n\nBULLET::::- Testicular torsion\n\nBULLET::::- Urinary retention\n\nBULLET::::- Paraphimosis\n\nBULLET::::- Priapism\n\nGynaecological\n\nBULLET::::- Bleeding ectopic pregnancy\n\nBULLET::::- Retained abortion\n\nNeurological/Ophthalmic\n\nBULLET::::- Acute subdural hematoma\n\nBULLET::::- Retinal detachment\n\nVascular\n\nBULLET::::- Ruptured aortic aneurysm\n\nBULLET::::- Aortic dissection\n", "The easy-to-remember \"I AM FOR SAFETY\" checklist incorporated key patient safety exercises that should be performed during distinctly critical and vulnerable peri-operative time periods for surgical patients: \n\nSection::::I AM FOR SAFETY Surgical Checklist.:\"Sign in\".\n\nFrom the moment that the patient checks until they are wheeled into the operative suite, the following safety checks are verified: Joint Commission two identifiers, medication allergy and reconciliation, site markings requirements, Anesthesiology fasting, oxygen, and airway status, transfusion and fluid requirements, and equipment availability before taking the patient into the operative suite.\n\nSection::::I AM FOR SAFETY Surgical Checklist.:\"Time out\".\n", "To examine scheduling challenges, consider three possible surgical scenarios: elective (e.g. cosmetic procedures, stable situations not increasing in severity), imminent (e.g. inflamed gall bladder removal, potential for worsening harm if situations not surgically corrected,) and emergency surgeries (e.g. burst appendix, situations in which death or disability is possible or likely). The majority of operative time is a combination of elective and imminent surgeries. Albeit a smaller percentage, emergency surgical cases must always be handled promptly in order to ensure patient safety. Emergency surgeries are often unforeseeable and present a scheduling challenge as a result. Therefore, from a management perspective, one must use the elective and imminent surgical cases as a guideline for pre-determining operative schedules, while allowing flexibility for the emergency situations that indubitably arise.\n", "Before preparing a procedure, it may be appropriate to carry out a risk assessment, estimating how likely it is for an emergency event to occur and if it does, how serious or damaging the consequences would be. The emergency procedure should provide an appropriate and proportionate response to this situation. A risk assessment is usually in the style of a table, which rates a risk on its likelihood and severity.\n\nSection::::Testing and training.\n", "Preoperative care\n\nPreoperative care refers to health care provided before a surgical operation. The aim of preoperative care is to do whatever is right to increase the success of the surgery.\n\nAt some point before the operation the health care provider will assess the fitness of the person to have surgery. This assessment should include whatever tests are indicated, but not include screening for conditions without an indication.\n\nImmediately before surgery the person's body is prepared, perhaps by washing with an antiseptic, and whenever possible their anxiety is addressed to make them comfortable.\n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "The checklist essentially identifies three distinct phases of an operation, each corresponding to a specific period in the normal flow of work: Before the induction of anaesthesia, before the incision of the skin, and before the patient leaves the operating facility. In each phase, a 'checklist coordinator' must confirm that the surgical team has completed the listed tasks before it proceeds with the procedure.\n", "An increased amount of chaos and distractions lead to a higher risk of a surgeon forgetting a tool. Mark Hulse from North Shore Medical Center said the following about surgery; “It’s a process that’s definitely subject to interruption and can be prone to errors. You’re doing a hundred other things at the same time, and as much as you try to keep your attention on it [sponge counts] if the surgeon needs something, it’s easy to get distracted.” Some aspects of surgery that can add to chaos are performing unforeseen changes in the procedure and undergoing emergency surgery. Consequently, the emergency room is the place most likely to make mistakes.\n", "Section::::Risks/complications.\n\nAlthough infrequent, there can be complications such as bleeding, swelling, infection, nausea and vomiting. Infection rates of up to 7% are reported after orthognathic surgery; antibiotic prophylaxis reduces the risk of surgical site infections when the antibiotics are given during surgery and continued for longer than a day after the operation.\n", "In his book \"Fifty Years; A Surgeon\" he gives a clear and complete description of hospital conditions at that time before the entrance of antisepsis in the world of surgery as a normal and necessary routine.\n", "Preoperative teaching is usually undertaken before the day of surgery. This can be delivered by verbal and/or written instructions. Patients may also have an appointment scheduled with the perioperative nurse to talk over any concerns regarding the procedure. Teaching is further discussed on the day of surgery and also before the patient is discharged to leave the hospital.\n\nSection::::Potential Careers.\n", "Section::::Limitations.\n", "By contrast, an urgent surgery is one that can wait until the patient is medically stable, but should generally be done within 2 days, and an emergency surgery is one that must be performed without delay; the patient has no choice other than immediate surgery, if they do not want to risk permanent disability or death.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nMost surgeries necessary for medical reasons are elective, that is, scheduled at a time to suit the surgeon, hospital, and patient. These include inguinal hernia surgery, cataract surgery, mastectomy for breast cancer, and the donation of a kidney by a living donor.\n", "BULLET::::3. Tasks. There are procedures only the physician can perform, but many others are done by the emergency nurse. These include inserting intravenous (\"IV\") lines, urinary catheters and nasogastric (\"NG\") tubes; drawing blood samples from veins and arteries; dressing wounds; applying splints, administering medications; and in certain jurisdictions RNs can be trained to suture wounds. In some cases, emergency nurses may order certain tests and medications following \"collaborative practice guidelines\" or \"standing orders\" set out by the hospital's emergency physician staff.\n", "The intention of such a checklist is to systematically and efficiently ensure that all conditions are optimum for patient safety, and that all staff are identifiable and accountable, and errors in patient identity, site and type of procedure are avoided completely. By following a few critical steps, health care professionals can minimize the most common and avoidable risks endangering the lives and well-being of surgical patients.\n\nIt is important to increase awareness of this safety initiative.\n\nSection::::Overview.:\"Before induction of anaesthesia\".\n", "Section::::Definitions.:Types of surgery.\n\nSurgical procedures are commonly categorized by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, the degree of invasiveness, and special instrumentation.\n\nBULLET::::- Based on timing: Elective surgery is done to correct a non-life-threatening condition, and is carried out at the patient's request, subject to the surgeon's and the surgical facility's availability. A semi-elective surgery is one that must be done to avoid permanent disability or death, but can be postponed for a short time. Emergency surgery is surgery which must be done promptly to save life, limb, or functional capacity.\n", "In 2009, SCOAP rolled out its most visible initiative—the Surgical Checklist. Modeled after the checklist used by pilots on commercial airlines, this checklist is now in every Washington State hospital. This list assures the entire surgical team reviews each step in the upcoming surgery at the same time and prior to the surgery itself. The checklist initiative was widely implemented and received support from Washington State governor, Christine Gregoire.\n", "\"Waiting time\" and \"operating room scheduling\" are the two key preoperative determinates.\n\nWaiting time prior to operation The time from surgical scheduling to check-in for the procedure is defined, for these purposes, as “preoperative wait time.”\n", "Many surgeries can be performed as either elective or emergency surgeries, depending on the patient's needs. A sudden worsening of gallbladder disease may require immediate removal of the gallbladder by emergency surgery, but this surgery is more commonly scheduled in advance. An appendectomy is considered emergency surgery, but depending upon how early the diagnosis was made, the patient may have more time before the appendix risks rupturing or the infection spreads. Also, in certain emergency conditions, even ones like a heart attack or stroke, surgery may or may not need to be utilized.\n", "When a condition is worsening but has not yet reached the point of a true emergency, surgeons speak of semi-elective surgery: the peccant part must be dealt with, but a delay is not expected to affect the outcome.\n", "Section::::Need.\n\nOrganizations are frequently required to have written emergency procedures in place to comply with statutory requirements; demands from their insurers, their regulatory agency, shareholders, stakeholders and unions; to protect staff, the public, the environment, the business, their property and their reputation.\n\nSection::::Risk assessment.\n", "When a patient is brought into the emergency department, he or she is usually sent to triage first. The patient may be triaged by an emergency physician, a paramedic, or a nurse; in the United States, triage is usually performed by a registered nurse. If the patient is admitted to the hospital, another physician such as a cardiologist or neurologist takes over from the emergency physician.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Ambulance\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency department\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency medical services\n\nBULLET::::- Emergency medicine\n\nBULLET::::- Fellow of American College of Emergency Physicians - professional certification for emergency physicians\n\nBULLET::::- Primary care physician\n\nSection::::References.\n", "At a hospital, modern surgery is often performed in an operating theater using surgical instruments, an operating table for the patient, and other equipment. Among United States hospitalizations for nonmaternal and nonneonatal conditions in 2012, more than one-fourth of stays and half of hospital costs involved stays that included operating room (OR) procedures. The environment and procedures used in surgery are governed by the principles of aseptic technique: the strict separation of \"sterile\" (free of microorganisms) things from \"unsterile\" or \"contaminated\" things. All surgical instruments must be sterilized, and an instrument must be replaced or re-sterilized if, it becomes contaminated (i.e. handled in an unsterile manner, or allowed to touch an unsterile surface). Operating room staff must wear sterile attire (scrubs, a scrub cap, a sterile surgical gown, sterile latex or non-latex polymer gloves and a surgical mask), and they must scrub hands and arms with an approved disinfectant agent before each procedure.\n", "In 2009, Yisrael Mordecai Safeek authored and published \"I AM FOR SAFETY\" safe surgery checklist in Physician Executive Journal based upon his experience as an anesthesiologist overseeing operating rooms in several states. The checklist is a modified version of the World Health Organization surgical safety checklist and includes safety checks required by the American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) and Joint Commission. It utilizes the easy-to-remember mnemonic \"I AM FOR SAFETY\" that documents the sequence of patient safety exercises that caregivers should employ.\n" ]

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[ "In many species of jellyfish, the rhopalia include ocelli, light-sensitive organs able to tell light from dark. These are generally pigment spot ocelli, which have some of their cells pigmented. The rhopalia are suspended on stalks with heavy crystals at one end, acting like gyroscopes to orient the eyes skyward. Certain jellyfish look upward at the mangrove canopy while making a daily migration from mangrove swamps into the open lagoon, where they feed, and back again.\n", "When a photon is absorbed by the chromophore, a chemical reaction causes the photon's energy to be transduced into electrical energy and relayed, in higher animals, to the nervous system. These photoreceptor cells form part of the retina, a thin layer of cells that relays visual information, including the light and day-length information needed by the circadian rhythm system, to the brain. However, some jellyfish, such as \"Cladonema\" (Cladonematidae), have elaborate eyes but no brain. Their eyes transmit a message directly to the muscles without the intermediate processing provided by a brain.\n", "Box jellyfish have more advanced vision than the other groups. Each individual has 24 eyes, two of which are capable of seeing colour, and four parallel information processing areas that act in competition, supposedly making them one of the few kinds of animal to have a 360-degree view of its environment.\n\nSection::::Largest and smallest.\n\nJellyfish range from about one millimeter in bell height and diameter, to nearly in bell height and diameter; the tentacles and mouth parts usually extend beyond this bell dimension.\n", "CNE systems work within a closed-loop environment; that is, they perceive their (perhaps artificial) environment directly, rather than through human input, as is typical in AI systems. For example, Barlow et al. developed a time-dependent model for the retina of the horseshoe crab \"Limulus polyphemus\" on a Connection Machine (Model CM-2). Instead of feeding the model retina with idealized input signals, they exposed the simulation to digitized video sequences made underwater, and compared its response with those of real animals.\n\nSection::::Model systems.\n", "Section::::Vision.\n\nThis species has one type of single cone (SC), with visual pigment peaking in sensitivity at 413 nm (S), and a double cone with different visual pigments in each member peaking at 480 nm (M) and 530 nm (L) respectively. Behavioural research has provided evidence that individual members of the double cones can act as independent channels of colour information, aiding in understanding double cone function. This research suggests the species has trichromatic vision, like humans.\n", "Section::::Relation to humans.:Aquarium display.\n", "Section::::Mormyrid electric fish.\n", "In common with other box jellyfish, \"C. fleckeri\" has four eye-clusters with 24 eyes. Some of these eyes seem capable of forming images, but whether they exhibit any object recognition or object tracking is debated; it is also unknown how they process information from their sense of touch and eye-like light-detecting structures due to their lack of a central nervous system. During a series of tests by marine biologists including Australian jellyfish expert Jamie Seymour, a single jellyfish was put in a tank. Then, two white poles were lowered into the tank. The creature appeared unable to see them and swam straight into them, thus knocking them over. Then, similar black poles were placed into the tank. This time, the jellyfish seemed aware of them, and swam around them in a figure-eight. Finally, to see if the specimen could see colour, a single red pole was stood in the tank. When the jellyfish apparently became aware of the object in its tank, it was seemingly repelled by it and remained at the far edge of the tank. Following these experiments, the Australian researchers put forward the idea of red safety nets for beaches (these nets are usually used to keep the jellyfish away, but many still get through its mesh). The test was repeated, with similar results, on Irukandji jellyfish, another toxic species of box jelly.\n", "Section::::Examples.:Dolphins.\n\nDolphins have evolved electroreception in structures different from those of fish, amphibians and monotremes. The hairless vibrissal crypts on the rostrum of the Guiana dolphin (\"Sotalia guianensis\"), originally associated with mammalian whiskers, are capable of electroreception as low as 4.8 μV/cm, sufficient to detect small fish. This is comparable to the sensitivity of electroreceptors in the platypus. To date (June 2013), these cells have been described from only a single dolphin specimen.\n\nSection::::Examples.:Bees.\n", "Species from other phyla than vertebrates, such as arthropods and sponges, do not possess a hypothalamus. Hormones that influence the behaviour of insects are excreted by neurosecretory cells (NCS) in the corpora cardiaca. Sponges, despite not having a neurosystem, do show signs of behaviour in response to external stimuli, but not much is known about neuro-sensory mechanisms in sponges and whether they possess all four of these drives.\n\nSection::::Related experiments.\n", "Section::::Model systems.:Drosophila melanogaster.\n\n\"Drosophila melanogaster\" is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured en masse from the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable.\n\nArthropods have a central brain with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing. The brain of a fruit fly contains several million synapses, compared to at least 100 billion in the human brain. Approximately two-thirds of the Drosophila brain is dedicated to visual processing.\n", "BULLET::::- The sea slug \"Aplysia californica\" was chosen by Nobel Prize-winning neurophysiologist Eric Kandel as a model for studying the cellular basis of learning and memory, because of the simplicity and accessibility of its nervous system, and it has been examined in hundreds of experiments.\n\nSection::::Anatomy.:Evolution.:Vertebrates.\n", "Another, well-studied example of biofluorescence in the ocean is the hydrozoan \"Aequorea victoria\". This jellyfish lives in the photic zone off the west coast of North America and was identified as a carrier of green fluorescent protein (GFP) by Osamu Shimomura. The gene for these green fluorescent proteins has been isolated and is scientifically significant because it is widely used in genetic studies to indicate the expression of other genes.\n\nSection::::Fluorescence in nature.:Aquatic biofluorescence.:Photic zone.:Mantis shrimp.\n", "Some jellyfish, sea stars, flatworms, and ribbonworms bear the simplest eyes, pigment spot ocelli, which have pigment distributed randomly and which have no additional structures such as a cornea and lens. The apparent eye color in these animals is therefore red or black. However, other cnidaria have more complex eyes, including those of Cubomedusae which have distinct retina, lens, and cornea.\n", "Section::::Life cycle.:Biological immortality.\n\nMost jellyfish species have a relatively fixed life-span, which varies by species from hours to many months (long-lived mature jellyfish spawn every day or night; the time is also fairly fixed and species-specific). The medusa of \"Turritopsis dohrnii\" is the only form known to have developed the ability to return to a polyp state, by a specific transformation process that requires the presence of certain cell types (tissue from both the jellyfish bell surface and the circulatory canal system).\n", "In mormyrid fish (a family of weakly electrosensitive freshwater fish), the cerebellum is considerably larger than the rest of the brain put together. The largest part of it is a special structure called the \"valvula\", which has an unusually regular architecture and receives much of its input from the electrosensory system.\n\nSection::::Memory.\n", "The rhopalia contain rudimentary sense organs which are able to detect light, water-borne vibrations, odour and orientation. A loose network of nerves called a \"nerve net\" is located in the epidermis. Although traditionally thought not to have a central nervous system, nerve net concentration and ganglion-like structures could be considered to constitute one in most species. A jellyfish detects stimuli, and transmits impulses both throughout the nerve net and around a circular nerve ring, to other nerve cells. The rhopalial ganglia contain pacemaker neurones which control swimming rate and direction.\n", "Cephalopods are able to communicate visually using a diverse range of signals. To produce these signals, cephalopods can vary four types of communication elements: chromatic (skin coloration), skin texture (e.g. rough or smooth), posture, and locomotion. Changes in body appearance such as these are sometimes called polyphenism. Some cephalopods are capable of rapid changes in skin colour and pattern through nervous control of chromatophores. This ability almost certainly evolved primarily for camouflage, but squid use color, patterns, and flashing to communicate with each other in various courtship rituals. Caribbean reef squid can even discriminate between recipients, sending one message using color patterns to a squid on their right, while they send another message to a squid on their left.\n", "Other behavioral aspects of \"Drosophila\" such as eclosion activity have been monitored with ectopic expression of \"pdf\", which in this case is concentrated in the dorsal central brain. These alterations in expression caused severely altered rhythmic behavior in eclosion of larvae, further substantiating the evidence that PDF modulates the rhythmic control of \"Drosophila\" behavior.\n\nSection::::Role in the circadian pathways.:The PDF receptor.\n", "Octopuses are highly intelligent, possibly more so than any other order of invertebrates. The level of their intelligence and learning capability are debated, but maze and problem-solving studies show they have both short- and long-term memory. Octopus have a highly complex nervous system, only part of which is localized in their brain. Two-thirds of an octopus' neurons are found in the nerve cords of their arms. Octopus arms show a variety of complex reflex actions that persist even when they have no input from the brain. Unlike vertebrates, the complex motor skills of octopuses are not organized in their brain using an internal somatotopic map of their body, instead using a non-somatotopic system unique to large-brained invertebrates. Some octopuses, such as the mimic octopus, move their arms in ways that emulate the shape and movements of other sea creatures.\n", "Section::::Description.:Skull.\n", "Jellyfish, comb jellies, and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system. In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth. The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons, which pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals; motor neurons, which can activate contractions of the body wall; and intermediate neurons, which detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and, in response, send signals to groups of motor neurons. In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete ganglia.\n", "Masashi's F.R.I.E.N.D. 38 cm tall. The only F.R.I.E.N.D. able to exist without a Device, it is a standout among them. In a pinch, it displays brilliant combat capability that belies its goofy appearance. Its fighting technique has elements of kung-fu moves. Having encountered Masashi, full of sorrow, it continues to enhance its power by transforming adversity into energy.\n\nBULLET::::- Luxor\n", "Jellyfish, comb jellies, and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system. In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth. The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons that pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals, motor neurons that can activate contractions of the body wall, and intermediate neurons that detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and send signals to groups of motor neurons as a result. In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete ganglia.\n", "In the channel catfish, while a communication signal is directed toward the receiver and contains a specific message, an information signal is a part of the general existence of the individual or the group. For example, release of an alarm signal will communicate danger, but the individual’s recognition odor is only an information signal identifying one fish from another. With regards to the function and contents of the club cells, the club cells may serve different functions throughout the fish’s lifecycle. Variation in the contents of the club cells’ information signals therefore may change with the species’ needs at different stages of life.\n" ]

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[ "In 2005, researchers from the University of Huelva developed XML Smell, a protocol of XML that can transmit smells. The researchers also developed a scent-generating device and worked on miniaturising its size. Also in 2005, Thanko launched P@D Aroma Generator, a USB device that comes with 3 different cartridges for different smells.\n\nIn 2005, Japanese researchers announced that they are working on a 3D television with touch and smell that would be commercially available on the market by the year 2020.\n\nSection::::History.:2010s.\n\nDuring ThinkNext 2010, the Israeli company Scentcom featured a demo of its scent-generating device.\n", "In 2010, the Norwegian film \"Kurt Josef Wagle And The Legend of the Fjord Witch\" by director Tommy Wirkola was released to cinemas with scratch and sniff cards that the audience could use while watching the movie. One year later, the American film \"\" by director Robert Rodriguez used the same idea, advertised as \"4D Aroma-Scope\".\n\nThere have been further attempts to develop similar systems for the use with television or advertising screens using gel pellets or inkjet printers to spray small amounts of scent.\n\nSection::::Portrayals.\n\nSection::::Portrayals.:April Fools' joke.\n", "The research for the creation of \"World Sensorium\" established smells from natural flora that triggered olfactory memory for the majority of people of each nation, with the goal of interpreting the relationship between world flora and human numbers on earth, and to bring new awareness of the living world and its influence on the human spirit and psyche. Through this work, Nalls has sought to foster an understanding of the larger evolutionary social construct of knowledge we share with others via the senses.\n", "In July 2013, Raul Porcar (Spain), engineer and inventor developed and patented Olorama Technology, a wireless system with the aim to incorporate scents into movies, Virtual Reality, and all kind of audiovisual experiences.:\n\nIn December 2013 Amos Porat inventor and CTO Of scent2you Israel Company has built several prototypes that can control scents.\n\nAt GDC 2015, FeelReal unveiled its odor generator VR peripheral.\n\nIn 2016 Surina Hariri, Nur Ain Mustafa, Kasun Karunanayaka and Adrian David Cheok from Imagineering Institute, Iskandar Puteri, Malaysia experimented with Electrical stimulation of olfactory receptors.\n", "In 2006, NTT Communications, a Japanese telecom giant, developed a new way to display odors during the release of Terrence Malick's \"The New World\". During 7 key moments throughout the film, scents were emitted by an internet server that was linked to the reel of film, effectively downloading the scent. The scents used were supposed to evoke from the audience the emotions that were trying to be expressed in the film. including an illustrated schematic for a visual representation for how it worked. Scents included floral for romance scenes, peppermint, and rosemary for tear-jerking moments; orange and grapefruit for joyful sequences; and eucalyptus, tea tree, and herbs for angry scenes.\n", "A major issue that different technologies in this area attempt to overcome is sensory overload. The amount of information that can be quickly related via touch is less than that of vision and is limited by current technology. As a result, multi-modal approaches, converting the visual information into both haptic and auditory output, often have the best results. For example, an electronic pen can be drawn across a tablet mapped to the screen and produce different vibrations and sounds depending on what is at that location.\n\nSection::::Olfactory cues.\n", "In 2013, Amy Radcliffe, a Master's student in the Textile Futures department of Central Saint Martins, London introduced a prototype of a desktop device to record aromas. For the project, she drew on headspace technology pioneered in the 1980s by Roman Kaiser to capture smells in the air around certain objects.\n", "In the late 1950s, Hans Laube invented the Smell-O-Vision, a system which released odor during the projection of a film so that the viewer could \"smell\" what was happening in the movie. The Smell-O-Vision faced competition with AromaRama, a similar system invented by Charles Weiss that emitted scents through the air-conditioning system of a theater. \"Variety\" dubbed the competition \"the battle of the smellies\".\n", "Smell-O-Vision did not work as intended. According to a \"Variety\" review of the mystery comedy film \"Scent of Mystery\" (1960), which featured the one and only use of Smell-O-Vision, aromas were released with a distracting hissing noise and audience members in the balcony complained that the scents reached them several seconds after the action was shown on the screen. In other parts of the theater, the odors were too faint, causing audience members to sniff loudly in an attempt to catch the scent. These technical problems were mostly corrected after the first few showings, but the poor word of mouth, in conjunction with generally negative reviews of the film itself, led to the decline of Smell-O-Vision.\n", "\"The Sensation of Sight\" made its world premiere at the San Sebastian International Film Festival in 2006 and was an official selection in 19 film festivals on five continents, including the Durban International Film Festival, where it won the festival's Best Cinematography award for cinematographer Christoph Lanzenberg. \"The Sensation of Sight\" has been shown in festivals in Brazil, China, Lithuania, and Poland, and made its U.S. premiere at the Denver Film Festival, followed by festival showings throughout the U.S.\n", "In the \"Lopez Ostra v Spain\", the European Court of Human Rights ruled that odor does in fact have an effect on privacy and human rights.\n\nSection::::Technology and privacy.:Camera surveillance and the future of facial recognition.\n", "Peter de Cupere is as tutor affiliated to the ″PXL-MAD School of Arts″ in Hasselt, Belgium and a researcher. He's doing a PhD research at the PXL MAD School of Arts in Hasselt, BE in collaboration with the University of Hasselt, BE and the Free University of Brussels, BE. He has two master's degrees and a Laureate degree in Fine Arts. As a tutor he is the joint founder of the Open Lab where he teaches the use of the approximative senses, smell, taste and touch in the Senses Lab.\n", "With intimate media now becoming increasingly digitalized, its potential for mobility, sharing, and copying is increasing drastically. Not only can a person transfer intimate media from one person or household to another, but the same intimate media can also be viewed simultaneously in a limitless number of locations. This opens up a new realm: ambient intelligence. Now intimate media is no longer confined to bookshelves, mantles, closets, and coffee tables. It can travel with a person in her/his pocket, via cell phone or other digital device, wherever s/he goes.\n", "The film was released in Cinerama under the title Holiday in Spain, without Smell-O-Vision. In 2012, the film was restored, reconstructed, and re-released by David Strohmaier. In 2015, a version complete with reconstructed scents was presented at screenings in Los Angeles, Denmark, and England. \n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "The experiments supported Vugo's hypothesis that \"smell precedes the direct mouthing information on odor or smell of food.\" Her work demonstrated the natural tendency of primates to use scent to assess an object they assume fragrant.\n\nSection::::Research.:Taste.\n", "Section::::US policies and regulations.:Surveillance policies.\n\nIf cameras and drones become part of everyday life, the importance of privacy and security are more important than ever. With devices that are constantly sensing and recording, the security measures used to protect the privacy of the people in its proximity also need to be adaptable and advanced.\n\nSection::::US policies and regulations.:Notice posting.\n", "In 2004, Tsuji Wellness and France Telecom developed a scent-generating device called Kaori Web, which comes with 6 different cartridges for different smells. The Japanese firm, K-Opticom, had placed special units of this device in their internet cafes and other venues until the end of the experiment on March 20, 2005. Also in 2004, the Indian inventor Sandeep Gupta founded SAV Products, LLC and claimed to show a scent-generating device prototype at CES 2005.\n", "Humans leave a trace of chemicals in every place they go and on everything they touch. Other animals use signaling mechanisms to leave trails or identify each other. The sense of smell is an important sense in using these mechanisms, but it is still not well understood. Humans, compared to the rest of the animal world, do not have a good olfactory sense though we may be better than we first assume. Johannes Kepler once argued that the Earth is an immense organism itself, with chemical signals spreading across the globe through various organisms in order to keep the world functioning and well informed.\n", "Section::::Cooperation partners.\n", "In 2003, researchers at the Human Media Lab helped shape the paradigm Attentive User Interfaces, demonstrating how groups of computers could use human social cues for considerate notification. Amongst HML's early inventions was the eye contact sensor, first demonstrated to the public on ABC Good Morning America. Attentive User Interfaces developed at the time included an early iPhone prototype that used eye tracking electronic glasses to determine whether users were in a conversation, an attentive television that play/paused contents upon looking away, mobile Smart Pause and Smart Scroll (adopted in Samsung's Galaxy S4) as well as a technique for calibration-free eye tracking by placing invisible infrared markers in the scene.\n", "There are hopes that advanced technology could do everything from testing perfumes to helping detect cancer or explosives by detecting specific scents, but artificial noses are still problematic. The complex nature of the human nose, its ability to detect even the most subtle of scents, is at the present difficult to replicate.\n", "The sense of touch was first utilized as a medium for communication in the late 1950s. It is not only a promising but also a unique communication channel. In contrast to vision and hearing, the two traditional senses employed in HCI, the sense of touch is proximal: it senses objects that are in contact with the body, and it is bidirectional in that it supports both perception and acting on the environment.\n", "There are some people who process smells differently, hearing them as sounds. It is believed that we all possess a small degree of synesthesia according to Dr Jamie Ward — quality of intermixing images, sounds and other sensations. The Russian painter Wassily Kandinsky is believed to have employed four senses of touch, smell, color and sound.\n\nThere are many instances of literature that may have portrayed synesthesia. For example, the famous poet William Blake (1757–1827) was probably a synesthete. In his poem “Wild Flower Song”, he writes: \n\nSection::::Effects of aromachology.\n", "BULLET::::- The Tate created something called a Sensorium, an art display that included all 5 senses.\n\nBULLET::::- teamLab Borderless Digital Art Museum\n", "Scentography\n\nScentography is the technique of creating and storing odor by artificially recreating a smell using chemical and electronic means.\n\nDigiScents Inc was among the more recent pioneers of the technology, developing DigiScent (later iSmell) in 1999 as a device that would plug into a computer's USB port and generate scents dependent on the online content being viewed. The company ceased trading in 2011.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Treatment.\n\nAfter exclusion of neck injury, observation should be continued for several hours. If repeated vomiting, worsening headache, dizziness, seizure activity, excessive drowsiness, double vision, slurred speech, unsteady walk, or weakness or numbness in arms or legs, or signs of basilar skull fracture develop, immediate assessment in an emergency department is warranted. After this initial period has passed, there is debate as to whether it is necessary to awaken the person several times during the first night, as has traditionally been done, or whether there is more benefit from uninterrupted sleep.\n", "In April 2012, Easterling was found dead from a self-inflicted gunshot wound in his home. An autopsy report concluded Easterling's brain had evidence of CTE, a degenerative brain disease associated with frequent blows to the head.\n\nOne month later, former San Diego Chargers player Junior Seau also died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound, and a brain autopsy showed he suffered from CTE.\n\nLike Easterling and Seau, an autopsy of Bears safety Dave Duerson's brain after he committed suicide earlier that year revealed he also suffered from the same degenerative brain disease.\n", "People may be released after assessment from hospital or emergency room to the care of a trusted person with instructions to return if they display worsening symptoms or those that might indicate an emergent condition such as change in consciousness, convulsions, severe headache, extremity weakness, vomiting, new bleeding or deafness in either or both ears.\n\nSection::::Prognosis.\n", "The findings of the study were consistent with previous autopsy studies of individuals with CTE. The important distinction to make, however, is that the patients in Small's study were not on the slab and walked out after testing was completed. This is monumental in the field of brain trauma and concussion research.\n", "Those with concussion are generally prescribed rest, including adequate nighttime sleep as well as daytime rest. Rest includes both physical and cognitive rest until symptoms clear and a gradual return to normal activities at a pace that does not cause symptoms to worsen is recommended. Education about symptoms, their management, and their normal time course, can lead to an improved outcome.\n\nFor persons participating in athletics, the 2008 Zurich Consensus Statement on Concussion in Sport recommends that participants be symptom-free before restarting and then progress through a series of graded steps. These steps include:\n\nBULLET::::- complete physical and cognitive rest\n", "In order to make a diagnosis, a subjective evaluation and objective sleep tests are assessed. Subjective evaluations include self-report questionnaires and sleep diaries to assess the sleep pattern from the patient's perspective. Objective sleep tests include mental and physical examinations and laboratory tests to test the medical background, such as Polysomnography (PSG) and Actigraphy. It is typically not possible to assess these tests prior to an injury. Therefore, it is often not clear whether the sleeping disorder is a result of pre-existing disorders. Careful assessment of patients and determining the nature of their sleeping disorder is essential for finding the most effective treatment.\n", "Medications may be prescribed to treat sleep problems and depression. Analgesics such as ibuprofen can be taken for headaches, but paracetamol (acetaminophen) is preferred to minimize the risk of intracranial hemorrhage. Concussed individuals are advised not to use alcohol or other drugs that have not been approved by a doctor as they can impede healing. Activation database-guided EEG biofeedback has been shown to return the memory abilities of the concussed individual to levels better than the control group.\n", "Since then, various organizations such as the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine and the American Psychiatric Association in its \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" have defined MTBI using some combination of loss of consciousness (LOC), post-traumatic amnesia (PTA), and the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS).\n", "Sleep disorders are more frequently reported when patients suffer from mild TBI (mTBI). Reasons for that could be the increased awareness of postinjury changes in mild TBI patients because they may be more determined to return to their preinjury life situation. All age groups can be affected from sleep disorders after TBI, including children and adolescents.\n\nThere are several risk factors that are associated with occurring sleep disorders, such as lower years of education, severity of head injury and occurrence of residuals symptoms, for example headache or dizziness.\n", "Until the 17th century, a concussion was usually described by its clinical features, but after the invention of the microscope, more physicians began exploring underlying physical and structural mechanisms. However, the prevailing view in the 17th century was that the injury did not result from physical damage, and this view continued to be widely held throughout the 18th century. The word \"concussion\" was used at the time to describe the state of unconsciousness and other functional problems that resulted from the impact, rather than a physiological condition. In 1839, Guillaume Dupuytren described brain contusions, which involve many small hemorrhages, as \"contusio cerebri\" and showed the difference between unconsciousness associated with damage to the brain parenchyma and that due to concussion, without such injury. In 1941, animal experiments showed that no macroscopic damage occurs in concussion.\n", "This debate resurfaces in some of the best-known concussion grading scales, in which those episodes involving loss of consciousness are graded as being more severe than those without.\n\nDefinitions of mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) were inconsistent until the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) provided a consistent, authoritative definition across specialties in 1992.\n", "About one percent of people who receive treatment for MTBI need surgery for a brain injury. Observation to monitor for worsening condition is an important part of treatment. Health care providers recommend that those suffering from concussion return for further medical care and evaluation 24 to 72 hours after the concussive event if the symptoms worsen. Athletes, especially intercollegiate or professional, are typically followed closely by team athletic trainers during this period but others may not have access to this level of health care and may be sent home with minimal monitoring.\n", "However, although no structural brain damage occurs according to the classic definition, some researchers have included injuries in which structural damage has occurred and the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence definition includes physiological or physical disruption in the brain's synapses. Also, by definition, concussion has historically involved a loss of consciousness. However, the definition has evolved over time to include a change in consciousness, such as amnesia, although controversy continues about whether the definition should include only those injuries in which loss of consciousness occurs.\n", "The NFL spent years trying to deny and cover up any link that emerged connecting head injuries sustained while playing football with long-term brain disorders. The NFL Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (MTBI) Committee, first formed in 1994, reported in December 1999 that the number of head injuries had remained \"remarkably the same over the course of four years.\" The committee went a step further in 2004 when it suggested in an article published in \"Neurosurgery\" that \"NFL players have evolved to a state where their brains are less susceptible to injury.\" Two months after that, MTBI publishes another article that concludes \"Players who are concussed and return to the same game have fewer initial signs and symptoms than those removed from play. Return to play does not involve a significant risk of a second injury either in the same game or during the season.\" However, when Dr. Bennet Omalu examined the brain of former Pittsburgh Steeler Mike Webster, he discovered a new brain disease, which he called chronic traumatic encephalopathy, or CTE. He outlined his findings in a scientific paper published in \"Neurosurgery\" in July 2005. The NFL's MTBI committee wrote in May 2006 that the article be retracted. Dr. Omalu instead wrote a second paper in the same magazine, this time about former Pittsburgh Steeler Terry Long. Dr. Ira Casson, who was then co-chair of MTBI, denied in a televised interview that there was any link between head injuries sustained playing in the NFL and long-term brain damage. His repeated denials won him the nickname \"Dr. No.\" In September 2009, \"The New York Times\" published an article of an NFL-funded study stating that former players are 19 times more likely than the general population to have dementia, Alzheimer's or other memory-related diseases. The NFL's spokesperson, Greg Aiello, publicly said, \"the study did not formally diagnose dementia, that it was subject to shortcomings of telephone surveys.\" Two months later, Aiello told \"New York Times\" reporter Alan Schwarz that \"it's quite obvious from the medical research that's been done that concussions can lead to long-term problems.\" It was the first time any League official had acknowledged a link between the two.\n", "On September 15, 2013, during a Week 2 game against the Philadelphia Eagles, Floyd was again carted off the field after an undisclosed head injury. He had feeling in all limbs and was awake and alert in the hospital, and it was announced he would fly to back to San Diego with his team, not needing to stay overnight at the hospital. He was placed on injured reserve on October 1, 2013 as a result of this neck injury.\n", "There is the potential of post-concussion syndrome, defined as a set of symptoms that may continue after a concussion is sustained. Post-concussion symptoms can be classified into physical, cognitive, emotional, and sleep symptoms. Physical symptoms include a headache, nausea, and vomiting. Athletes may experience cognitive symptoms that include speaking slowly, difficulty remembering and concentrating. Emotional and sleep symptoms include irritability, sadness, drowsiness, and trouble falling asleep.\n", "For a period of minutes to days after a concussion, the brain is especially vulnerable to changes in intracranial pressure, blood flow, and anoxia. According to studies performed on animals (which are not always applicable to humans), large numbers of neurons can die during this period in response to slight, normally innocuous changes in blood flow.\n", "Zackery Lystedt is a former youth football player who, in 2006, spent 31 days in a coma following a brain injury sustained during a middle school football game. Lystedt, then 13, returned to the field after banging his helmet hard on the ground, and collapsed into his father’s arms following the game as a result of his injuries. Lystedt spent the next month in a coma, and was unable to speak for nine months, unable to move for thirteen months. Lystedt’s story inspired Washington state lawmakers to enact legislation in his name protecting student-athletes from repeated brain trauma.\n", "If the Glasgow coma scale is less than 15 at two hours or less than 14 at any time, a CT is recommended. In addition, a CT scan is more likely to be performed if observation after discharge is not assured or intoxication is present, there is suspected increased risk for bleeding, age greater than 60, or less than 16. Most concussions, without complication, cannot be detected with MRI or CT scans. However, changes have been reported on MRI and SPECT imaging in those with concussion and normal CT scans, and post-concussion syndrome may be associated with abnormalities visible on SPECT and PET scans. Mild head injury may or may not produce abnormal EEG readings. A blood test known as the Brain Trauma Indicator was approved in the United States in 2018 and may be able to rule out the risk of intracranial bleeding and thus the need for a CT scan.\n", "The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) and the American Psychiatric Association's \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" have set out criteria for post-concussion syndrome (PCS) and post-concussional disorder (PCD), respectively.\n\nThe ICD-10 established a set of diagnostic criteria for PCS in 1992. In order to meet these criteria, a patient has had a head injury \"usually sufficiently severe to result in loss of consciousness\" and then develop at least three of the eight symptoms marked with a check mark in the table at right under \"ICD-10\" within four weeks.\n", "Signs and symptoms of concussions can be hard to determine because they may not present strongly and because they may not present for several hours after the incident has occurred. There are 4 categories that symptoms of a concussion can be classified within: physical, cognitive, emotional and sleep disturbance. The most common symptom is a headache as well as the feeling of being “fog like”. Other, more subtle symptoms that can accompany headaches are emotional changes, irritability, slowed reaction times and drowsiness. Accompanying symptoms can include sensitivity to light, and noise, fatigue, dizziness, nausea and vomiting. The loss of consciousness is another identifiable characteristic of concussions but it is not a required symptom to diagnose it. The loss of consciousness occurs in only 10% of concussions, so it cannot be a reliable sign of a concussion. Other distinguishing characteristics of concussions are retrograde amnesia (loss of memory just prior to injury) and posttraumatic amnesia (impaired recall of time between the injury or resumption of consciousness and the point at which new memories are stored and retrieved).\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Nonpharmacological treatments.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Animal studies.\n\nAnimals studies showed that sleep deprivation prior to a brain injury might have healthy effects. Five days of complete sleep deprivation in rats before the traumatic brain injury, acted as protection against ischemic injury and a habitual deceased in total amount of sleep time before TBI reduced the severity.\n", "The Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of medical works from ancient Greece, mentions concussion, later translated to \"commotio cerebri\", and discusses loss of speech, hearing and sight that can result from \"commotion of the brain\". This idea of disruption of mental function by \"shaking of the brain\" remained the widely accepted understanding of concussion until the 19th century. In the 10th century, the Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi was the first to write about concussion as distinct from other types of head injury. He may have been the first to use the term \"cerebral concussion\", and his definition of the condition, a transient loss of function with no physical damage, set the stage for the medical understanding of the condition for centuries. \n", "The nature of these injuries are complicated and pose significant rehabilitation challenges. These, symptoms at first technically mild, though significant, head injuries were often overlooked during active playing days, and it has become painfully apparent that following release from the NFL the debilitating effects of TBI have continued. The HPN Neurologic Clinical Treatment Trial Studies have shown significant clinical improvement in Retired NFL Players with the symptoms of Post-Concussion Syndrome, TBI/CTE.\n" ]

[ "It is bad if someone falls asleep after a concussion." ]

[ "Sleep is good to heal a concussion." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "It is bad if someone falls asleep after a concussion." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Sleep is good to heal a concussion." ]

[ "Originally two sequences were produced, an opening sequence and end sequence. However, only the end sequence was used.\n\n\"Yes, Joe liked the opening credits we did but after their edit they felt it slowed the momentum of the introduction. That seems to be a big concern for filmmakers now – they’re aware of the short attention span of audiences and don’t want to delay the story. As a designer, I am not sure I would agree, of course. I think that if credit sequences are good and entertaining, they can hold an audience’s attention\".\n\nSection::::Soundtrack.\n", "By the 1990s, some films had moved all billing to the film's end, with the exception of company logos and the title. Although popularised by the \"Star Wars\" series (see below) and used sporadically in films such as \"The Godfather\" and \"Ghostbusters\", this \"title-only\" billing became an established form for summer blockbusters in 1989, with \"Ghostbusters II\", \"Lethal Weapon 2\", and \"The Abyss\" following the practice. Occasionally, even the title is left to the end, such as in \"Avatar\", \"The Passion of the Christ\", \"Inception\", and the \"Dark Knight\" trilogy.\n\nSection::::Films.:Billing order.\n", "After the studio system's collapse in the 1950s, actors and their agents fought for billing on a film-by-film basis. This, combined with changes in union contracts and copyright laws, led to more actors and crew members being included in the credits sequence, expanding its size significantly. As a result, since the late 1960s, a significant amount of the billing is reserved for the closing credits of the film, which generally includes a recap of the billing shown at the beginning. In addition, more stars began to demand top billing.\n", "Some movies come to a formal ending, followed by the rolling of the credits, which is almost universally used to indicate that the film has ended, only to have the actors reappear in one or more mid-credits scenes. In comedy films, these sequences may be bloopers or outtakes. In other types of films, the mid-credit scenes may continue the narrative set out in the movie. The Marvel Cinematic Universe movies have become notorious for this, in some cases featuring a mid-credits scene and an end-credits scene in the same movie.\n\nSection::::Video games.\n", "On Father's Day, \"Big Brother UK\" credits everyone using their father's name. For example, Steve Jones would be billed as \"Adam Jones' son\". The 2006 film \"Clerks 2\" by Kevin Smith features an extended closing credits that included a list of anyone who joined Smith's \"friends network\" on MySpace in the months building up to the film's release. The very long list of credits (in multi-column format) has forced some theaters to either stop the projector early or to cut out sections of the film reel so that the theater could be cleaned in time for the following showing. Upon the film's release, Smith announced that he would continue the MySpace friends credit list through 2006 and would include any new names on the DVD credits when the film is released on DVD, which he did. On the 1969–1974 version of \"Beat the Clock\", the closing credits were known as a \"boss list\": the executive producer, for example, was the \"Super Boss\", the producer, \"Boss\", the stunt coordinator \"Stunt Boss\" and the host's assistant \"Pretty Girl Boss\".\n", "List of films with post-credit scenes\n\nMany films since the 1980s and earlier have featured mid- and post-credit scenes, also known as credit cookies. Such scenes often include humour, plot revelations or hints for sequels. Since the late 2000s, Marvel Cinematic Universe superhero movies commonly employ post-credit scenes. \n\nSection::::2000s.\n\nSection::::2000s.:2008.\n", "The \"credits,\" or \"end credits,\" is a list that gives credit to the people involved in the production of a film. Films from before the 1970s usually start a film with credits, often ending with only a title card, saying \"The End\" or some equivalent, often an equivalent that depends on the language of the production. From then onward, a film's credits usually appear at the end of most films. However, films with credits that end a film often repeat some credits at or near the start of a film and therefore appear twice, such as that film's acting leads, while less frequently some appearing near or at the beginning only appear there, not at the end, which often happens to the director's credit. The credits appearing at or near the beginning of a film are usually called \"titles\" or \"beginning titles.\" A post-credits scene is a scene shown after the end of the credits. \"Ferris Bueller's Day Off\" has a post-credit scene in which Ferris tells the audience that the film is over and they should go home.\n", "The sequence was traditionally placed at the start of each film until the 2006 instalment \"Casino Royale\", where it appears after the cold open and is incorporated into the plot; in the 2008 film, \"Quantum of Solace\", the sequence was placed at the end of the film and incorporates the film's title in its design.\n", "Note: While the Marvel Cinematic Universe film \"The Incredible Hulk\" technically does not have an end-credits scene, the final scene directly before the credits (where Tony Stark approaches Gen. Ross) is structured like many similar scenes that do take place during or after the credits in an MCU movie, planting seeds for future films (although Ross would not be seen again until \"\").\n", "Some films have both an \"and-as\" credit and a separate last billing credit, such as the Irwin Allen 1978 disaster film \"The Swarm\", the opening credits of which, after listing an already large cast of stars, concludes with \"Fred MacMurray as Clarence ... and Henry Fonda\".\n\nSection::::Films.:Unbilled appearances.\n\nAn actor may go uncredited, and not be listed in either or both of the opening and closing credits. Reasons for this may vary. Some examples include:\n", "After the credits, it would just have the closing variant of the movie company which is a still version of it or a silent version or a short version. Sometimes, the MPAA screen would appear in the end. Many Universal films produced at Universal Studios in Hollywood or Orlando would have a plug for the studios, inviting moviegoers to visit; in the film \"Animal House\", this plug included a brief reminder to \"ask for Babs\", in reference to Delta House foe Babs Jansen, who, after the events in the film, was hired as a tour guide for Universal Studios in Hollywood.\n", "George Lucas is credited with popularizing this with his \"Star Wars\" films which display only the film's title at the start. His decision to omit opening credits in his films \"Star Wars\" (1977) and \"The Empire Strikes Back\" (1980) led him to resign from the Directors Guild of America after being fined $250,000 for not crediting the director during the opening title sequence. However, Hollywood had been releasing films without opening credits for many years before Lucas came along, most notably \"Citizen Kane\", \"West Side Story\", \"\" and \"The Godfather\".\n", "Many theatrical motion pictures feature bloopers during the end credits. For example, many Jackie Chan movies end with footage of failed stunts, blown dialogue, and other mishaps; Chan was inspired to do this by Burt Reynolds' films of the early 1980s (in particular \"Smokey and the Bandit II\" and \"The Cannonball Run\") that also featured end-credits bloopers. As an homage to its inspiration, the closing-credits blooper reel for \"\" actually featured one outtake from \"Smokey and the Bandit II\".\n", "Up until the 1970s, closing credits for films usually listed only a reprise of the cast members with their roles identified, or even simply just said \"The End,\" requiring opening credits to normally contain the details. For instance, the title sequence of the 1968 film \"Oliver!\" runs for about three-and-a-half minutes, and while not listing the complete cast, does list nearly all of its technical credits at the beginning of the film, all set against a background of what appear to be, but in fact are not, authentic 19th-century engravings of typical London life. The only credit at film's end is a listing of most of the cast, including cast members not listed at the beginning. These are set against a replay of some of the \"'Consider Yourself\" sequence.\n", "For \"Skyfall\", director Sam Mendes had wanted to return the Gunbarrel to the start of the film but in editing realised that the sequence was similar to his opening shot of the film. Because of this, the sequence was placed at the end of the film fading into a 50th Anniversary logo.\n", "Even when post-credit scenes started to be used by films with little comedy development, the same format of giving closure to incomplete storylines or inconsequential characters remained in use. Using humor in such scenes is also still common for more serious films, as in the film \"Daredevil\", in which Bullseye is shown after his defeat by Daredevil in a full body cast. Other films eschew the comedy in favor of a twist or revelation that would be out of place elsewhere in the film, as in \"\"s post-credits scene, where Professor X is shown to be alive after his apparent death by the hands of the Phoenix. Another example is the stinger at the end of \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" which features a post-memory loss Lockhart. A third example occurs in \"Young Sherlock Holmes\": during the entire credits, Rathe is shown traveling to an Alpine inn, where he signs the register as \"Moriarty\".\n", "Some opening credits are presented over the opening sequences of a film, rather than in a separate title sequence. The opening credits for the 1993 film \"The Fugitive\" continued intermittently over several opening scenes, and did not finish until fifteen minutes into the film. The opening credits for the 1968 film \"Once Upon a Time in the West\" lasted for fourteen minutes.\n", "With the rise of pre-planned film franchises, post-credit scenes have been adopted in order to prepare the audience for upcoming sequels, sometimes going so far as to include a cliffhanger ending where the main film is largely stand-alone. The cinematic release of \"The Matrix Reloaded\" demonstrated the sequel set-up use of stingers by featuring the trailer for \"The Matrix Revolutions\".\n", "Some live action/animated films' end credits later ran from seven to eight minutes in length, such as \"Who Framed Roger Rabbit\" (1988) \"Space Jam\" (1996), \"Scooby-Doo\" (2002) and \"The Lego Movie\" (2014). \n\nThe 2016 movie \"Assassin's Creed\" end credits extends for almost 15 minutes.\n", "The use of closing credits in film to list complete production crew and cast was not firmly established in American film until the 1970s. Before this decade, most movies were released with no closing credits at all. Films generally had opening credits only, which consisted of just major cast and crew, although sometimes the names of the cast and the characters they played would be shown at the end, as in \"The Wizard of Oz\", \"Mary Poppins\", \"Oliver!\" , the 1964 \"Fail Safe\" and \"Orca\". Two of the first major films to contain extensive closing credits – but almost no opening credits – were the blockbusters \"Around the World in 80 Days\" (1956) and \"West Side Story\" (1961). \"West Side Story\" showed only the title at the beginning of the film, and \"Around the World in 80 Days\" had no opening credits at all.\n", "Some films, including Richard Linklater's \"School of Rock\", take the idea of the post-credits scene to its limit by running the credits during the main action of the film. In this example, the characters perform a song in the last minutes of the film, and the credits run inconspicuously until one character sings the line \"the movie is over/but we're still on screen\".\n", "A characteristic of pre-credit scenes in the horror genre is a character (seemingly a main character) who is killed quickly, as a heralding \"warning kill\" of the antagonist. For example, \"Cube\".\n\nThe James Bond franchise has become well known for elaborate high-concept pre-credit sequences, sometimes over ten minutes in length. \n", "François Truffaut's 1966 film \"Fahrenheit 451\" uses spoken opening credits instead of written ones, in keeping with the film's story of a world without reading matter.\n\nSection::::Trends of the 2000s.\n\nMany major American motion pictures have done away with opening credits, with many films, such as \"Van Helsing\" in 2004 and \"Batman Begins\" in 2005, not even displaying the film title until the closing credits begin.\n", "Nevertheless, \"title-only\" billing became an established form for summer blockbusters in 1989, with \"Ghostbusters II\", \"Lethal Weapon 2\" and \"The Abyss\" following the practice. Clint Eastwood has omitted opening credits (except for the title) in every film that he has directed since approximately 1982.\n\nSection::::Credit only.\n", "Closing credits are usually shown on the screen in small characters, which either flip very quickly from page to page or scroll from bottom to top of the screen. Credits which scroll either left to right or up and down are also known as \"staff rolls\", which comes from pre-digital days when the names were literally on a roll of paper and would pass in front of the camera. Standard film credits move from bottom to top and are often called \"credit crawls.\" Industry traditions, guild rules, and union rules generally dictate the order and placement of specific names and job titles. Increasingly, post-credits scenes are being added to the end of films. Still, short or full logos appear at the end of films (with the exception of Universal Pictures).\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

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[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "However, if the spring is too weak to always move the rooster comb to the bottom of the trough between the teeth, the vehicle can be left between gears. On certain U.S. car manufacturers' vehicles, the problem is made worse as there is a flat spot between \"Park\" and \"Reverse\" detents where the ball can rest, also resulting in a \"false park\".\n\nSection::::Park to reverse lawsuits.\n\nBULLET::::- Mraz vs. DaimlerChrysler (2007)\n", "If the driver has exited the vehicle with the engine running (to for example retrieve an item, open a gate or close a garage door, etc.), a vehicle in false park can shift into powered reverse from a few seconds to several minutes or longer, after the driver has exited, and then run over the driver or a bystander.\n\nSection::::NHTSA.\n\nNHTSA (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) refers to the \"Park to Reverse\" issue using various terms including \"Unintended Powered Roll-Away\" and has opened numerous investigations of these events over the last 35 years.\n\nSection::::Mechanical cause.\n", "From this false park position, slight movements in the vehicle, vibration, or the build up of hydraulic pressure in the transmission can then cause the vehicle to reengage powered reverse after a delay from a few seconds to longer periods of time (what is called a \"self shift\"). This will cause the vehicle to suddenly and without warning move backwards unexpectedly under engine power.\n", "Parallel parking is considered to be one of the hardest skills for new drivers to learn and is a required part of most road tests. Parallel parking enables the driver to park a vehicle in a smaller space than would be true of forward parking. Driving forward into a parking space on the side of a road is typically not possible unless two successive parking spaces are empty. Reversing into the spot via the parallel parking technique allows one to take advantage of a single empty space not much longer than the car (in order to complete the parking within three wheel-turns the parking space would generally need to be about one and a half car-length long).\n", "Often, in car parking lots using perpendicular parking, two rows of parking spaces may be arranged front to front, with aisles in between. If no other cars are blocking, a driver may perform a \"pullthrough\" by driving through one parking space into the connecting space to avoid having to reverse out of a parking space upon their return.\n\nSometimes, a single row of perpendicular car parking spaces is marked in the center of a street. This arrangement eliminates reversing from the manoeuvre; cars are required to drive in forwards and drive out forwards.\n\nSection::::Patterns.:Angle parking/echelon parking.\n", "Park-to-Reverse issues are nearly always caused by several possible design flaws in a vehicle's transmission which makes it possible for a driver to unknowingly place the vehicle's shift selector into a position in between the \"park\" and \"reverse\" gear positions. Yet rather than being in \"park', this area is a transitional zone between gears, which is sometimes called \"false park\".\n", "New drivers learn to use reference points to align themselves in relation to the car in front of the space, to determine the proper angle for backing, and to determine when to turn the steering wheel while backing. They may find it easier to briefly stop at each reference point and turn for the next step.\n\nSection::::Steps.\n", "Two major types of parallel parking technique differ in whether they will use two or three positions of the steering wheel while backing. A skilled driver is theoretically able to parallel park by having their car move along two arcs, the first having its center on the parking side of the car and the second having its center on the other side. There will be a point in the transition between these curves where all the car's wheels will be parallel with each other. Less-confident drivers may choose to drive further while transitioning, making it a pronounced middle step of three. Such a step allows greater tolerances to avoid hitting anything, but forces the car to start further from the road's edge and requires more space to the rear.\n", "Parallel parking\n\nParallel parking is a method of parking a vehicle parallel to the road (hence the term 'Parallel Parking'), in line with other parked vehicles. Parallel parking usually requires initially driving slightly past the parking space, parallel to the parked vehicle in front of that space, keeping a safe distance, then followed by reversing into that space. Subsequent position adjustment may require the use of forward and reverse gears.\n\nSection::::Techniques.\n", "A case against Chrysler for the death of an infant due to the park-to-reverse defect. The case resulted in a $7.2 million verdict in St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.\n\nBULLET::::- Mundy vs. Ford Motor Company and Legacy Ford Mercury, Inc. (2009)\n\nA case which was centered Jessica Mundy becoming paralyzed as a result of her Ford Explorer going into false-park. The verdict concluded that $40 million be paid by the defendants. $30 million of the verdict was attributed to punitive damages.\n", "Back-in angle parking\n\nBack-in angle parking, also called \"back-in diagonal parking\", \"reverse angle parking\", \"reverse diagonal parking\", or (in the United Kingdom) \"reverse echelon parking,\" is a traffic engineering technique intended to improve the safety of on-street parking. \n", "A park-to-reverse situation involves a driver who believes that they have shifted into \"park\" and believing so, proceeds to exit the vehicle. There can then be a delay in vehicle movement sufficient for the driver to either fully or partially exit the vehicle before the vehicle moves. Typically, the vehicle will move backwards. However, when on certain vehicles the shift selector can be placed \"between\" the detented park and reverse gear positions; i.e. in false park the transmission is in hydraulic neutral, without the parking pawl engaged. As such the vehicle can also roll either forward or back in neutral. While less common, transmissions with the defect, can also be shifted to between \"neutral\" and \"drive\", and then self shift into \"drive\" or roll (called a \"neutral to drive\" accident).\n", "When considering the effects of friction on the system, once again we need to note which way the friction force is pointing. When calculating a maximum velocity for our automobile, friction will point down the incline and towards the center of the circle. Therefore, we must add the horizontal component of friction to that of the normal force. The sum of these two forces is our new net force in the direction of the center of the turn (the centripetal force):\n", "For back-in parking, vehicles preparing to enter a parking space drive slightly past the space, signal, and then back into the space. When leaving the space, drivers have an unobstructed view of traffic and can enter the traffic stream directly. In comparison, drivers using traditional pull-in angle parking often have difficulty seeing other traffic as they back out of the space, resulting in traffic delays and considerable risk of collisions with pedestrians, bicyclists, and vehicles.\n", "With perpendicular parking, also known as bay parking, cars are parked side to side, perpendicular to an aisle, curb, or wall. This type of car parking fits more cars per length of road (or curb) than parallel parking, and is therefore commonly used in car parking lots and car parking structures.\n", "A case involving the death of a Los Angeles dockworker killed by a park-to-reverse defect in a Dodge Dakota. The jury returned a verdict of $55.2 million, including $50 million in punitive damages. California Lawyer Attorney of the Year (CLAY) Award called the Mraz victory against DaimlerChrysler, \"“one of the year's largest personal injury verdicts,: and noted that \"this was the first park-to-reverse case against Chrysler in 25 years to make it to trial.\"”\n\nBULLET::::- Guillot vs. Chrysler (2008)\n", "George and Elaine look for a parking space near Jerry's building so they can meet him at his apartment to watch a big televised boxing match. George spends a good deal of time positioning himself perfectly (bragging to Elaine about his ability to parallel park) to back into a space. Mike, also there for the fight at Jerry's, enters the same space, front first. The two argue over who is entitled to the space, all the while blocking traffic. Mike argues that he entered the space first, while George argues that he saw it first and that entering front first instead of using the prescribed parallel parking method is illegitimate. People walking by on the street witness the altercation and begin debating the merits of each side. A truck carrying a supply of ice-cream needs to get through, but the two cars are blocking his away, so the driver orders them to move the cars. George and Mike get neutral people to move the cars (since they don't trust each other to do so) and reposition them after the truck is past.\n", "Park-to-reverse\n\nA park-to-reverse defect is a scenario in which cars with automatic transmission can fail to properly engage the parking mechanism, causing the vehicle to unintentionally roll, sometimes resulting in injury or vehicular accidents. This has significance in product liability law, and a number of major cases in the United States have been brought in which car manufacturers were accused of negligence for not addressing an alleged dangerous flaw in the transmission.\n", "The expression on the right hand side is the centripetal acceleration multiplied by mass, the force required to turn the vehicle. The left hand side is the maximum frictional force, which equals the coefficient of friction \"μ\" multiplied by the normal force. Rearranging the maximum cornering speed is\n\nNote that \"μ\" can be the coefficient for static or dynamic friction. In the latter case, where the vehicle is skidding around a bend, the friction is at its limit and the inequalities becomes equations. This also ignores effects such as downforce which can increase the normal force and cornering speed.\n", "Section::::Patterns.:Parallel parking.\n\nWith parallel parking of cars, these are arranged in a line, with the front bumper of one car facing the back bumper of an adjacent one. This is done parallel to a curb, when one is provided. Parallel parking is the most common mode of streetside parking for cars. It may also be used in parking lots and parking structures, but usually only to supplement parking spaces that use the other modes.\n\nSection::::Patterns.:Perpendicular parking.\n", "According to the Pedestrian & Bicycle Information Center, back-in angle parking provides motorists with better vision of pedestrians, bicyclists, motor vehicles, and other road users as they exit a parking space and enter moving traffic. Back-in angle parking also eliminates much of the difficulty that drivers, especially older drivers, have when backing into moving traffic.\n", "When a vehicle's transmission is in false park, it may appear to the driver that the vehicle is fully locked in \"park\". However, on vehicles with this defect the transmission is neither in park nor in hydraulic reverse. Instead, it is in neutral, an unstable position between the two gears.\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "It is easier to initiate this with some cars by applying a flick of the steering wheel the wrong way initially, before turning it in the direction the driver wants to go. This maneuver (known in racing as a Scandinavian flick) increases the load transfer to the outer wheels. \n", "As in all situations where the vehicle experiences loss of traction on the road surface, the proper maneuver to recover is to turn the steering wheel in the opposite direction of the spin (Countersteering). e.g. If the front of the vehicle is spinning to the left, countersteering to the right will help recover control. More specifically aiming the wheels in the desired direction of travel. In the case of a very violent spin the safest thing to do is turn the wheel so the tires are pointing straight forward with respect to the vehicle. This is often easier to accomplish for inexperienced/panicked drivers.\n", "High unsprung mass also exacerbates wheel control issues under hard acceleration or braking. If the vehicle does not have adequate wheel location in the vertical plane (such as a rear-wheel drive car with Hotchkiss drive, a live axle supported by simple leaf springs), vertical forces exerted by acceleration or hard braking combined with high unsprung mass can lead to severe wheel hop, compromising traction and steering control.\n" ]

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[ "While this positioning was of paramount importance in boxing, which involved only upright striking (with the eyes facing straight), it was also important in pankration, especially in the beginning of the competition and as long as the athletes remained standing.\n\nSection::::Techniques.:Strategy and tactics.:Remaining standing versus going to the ground.\n", "The triangle choke was first shown in mixed martial arts on December 16, 1994, when Royce Gracie used a front triangle to defeat Dan Severn and win the UFC 4 tournament. This variation has remained as the most commonly seen in MMA, although the side or inverted triangle has been also used; on September 26, 1995, Shooto fighter Rumina Sato submitted Isamu Osugi with a flying inverted triangle choke, while many years later, Toby Imada won 2009 Submission of the Year with an inverted triangle choke over Jorge Masvidal. Even more complex holds, like Chris Lytle's inverted mounted triangle/straight armbar combination at UFC 116 in 2010, have also surfaced.\n", "According to the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts, an MMA competition or exhibition may be held in a ring or a fenced area. The fenced area can be round or have at least six sides. Cages vary: some replace the metal fencing with a net, others have a different shape from an octagon, as the term \"the Octagon\" is trademarked by the UFC (though the 8-sided shape itself is not trademarked). The fenced area is called a cage generically, or a hexagon, an octagon or an octagon cage, depending on the shape.\n\nSection::::Common disciplines.\n", "Especially used by fighters with strong wrestling background when facing a highly skilled grappler, or by wrestlers who prefer stand-up fights. Usually fighters who adopt this strategy use takedowns only for scoring, allowing the adversary to stand up and continue the fight. They also want to land clear strikes and control the octagon. In order to win the fight by decision all score oriented fighters have to have strong defensive techniques and avoid takedowns.\n\nSection::::Strategies.:Clinch-Fighting.\n", "Wide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in.\n", "Other fighters may use the clinch to push their opponent against the cage or ropes, where they can effectively control their opponent's movement and restrict mobility while striking them with punches to the body or stomps also known as \"dirty boxing\" or \"Wall and Maul\". Randy Couture used his Greco Roman wrestling background to popularize this style en route to six title reigns in the Ultimate Fighting Championship.\n", "Traditionally, breakers dance within a \"cypher\" or an \"Apache Line\". A cypher is a circular shaped dance space formed by spectators that breakers use to perform or battle in. Cyphers work well for one-on-one b-boy or b-girl (break-boy/break-girl) battles; however, Apache Lines are more appropriate when the battle is between two crews—teams of street dancers. In contrast to the circular shape of a cypher, competing crews face each other in an Apache Line, challenge each other, and execute their \"burns\" (a move intended to humiliate the opponent, i.e. crotch grabbing).\n\nSection::::Main styles.:Locking.\n", "The new hybridization of fighting styles can be seen in the technique of \"ground and pound\" developed by wrestling-based UFC pioneers such as Dan Severn, Don Frye and Mark Coleman. These wrestlers realized the need for the incorporation of strikes on the ground as well as on the feet, and incorporated ground striking into their grappling-based styles. Mark Coleman stated at UFC 14 that his strategy was to \"Ground him and pound him\", which may be the first televised use of the term.\n", "Covering in the Spanish influenced Keysi Fighting Method or KFM, utilizes the defensive covering technique in an offensive manner. KMF utilizes a double arm covering stance called \"The Pensador\" which uses the arms that are defending to strike while still maintaining the covering position in front of the face. The strikes used while in \"The Pensador\" position range from elbow strikes to punches to head-butts, with each strike executed while maintaining the covering position of the arms in front of the head.\n", "Because the steppers were not under direct sponsorship of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity and were not registered under the national Sigma Beta Club guidelines, the team began to run into complications using the name \"Sigma Beta\". Therefore, prior to the start of the 2004-2005 school year, the team was reformed under the name \"Showtime Steppers\". The name is based on one of their original routines in which they called out, \"It's showtime in the house tonight and it's our time to get it hype!\"\n", "Punching distance: The punching distance refers to the zone where punches can be thrown, and this is the distance from the furthest jab to the closest hook, as long as no grappling is taking place. In addition to punches, this distance often also allows for elbows and knees. Boxing is a combat sport that concerns itself exclusively with the punching distance. However many martial arts, particularly those that employ extreme close range fighting (for example Wing Chun and Southern Praying Mantis) train ranges within punch range, but do not necessarily employ clinching techniques. This collection of ranges is often called the in-fighting range.\n", "Time limits were established to avoid long fights on the ground with little perceivable action. No time limit matches also complicated the airing of live events. Similar motivations produced the \"stand up\" rule, where the referee can stand fighters up if it is perceived both are resting on the ground or are not advancing toward a dominant position.\n\nSection::::Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts.\n", "MMA is often referred to as \"cage fighting\" in the US as it is associated with the UFC's octagonal caged fighting area. Most major MMA promotions in the US, Canada and Britain use the \"cage\" as a result of directly evolving from the first UFC events. There are variations on the cage such as replacing the metal fencing with a net, or using a different shape for the area other than an octagon, as the term \"The Octagon\" is trademarked by the UFC (though the 8-sided shape itself is not trademarked). In Japan, Brazil and some European countries such as the Netherlands an area similar to a standard boxing ring is used, but with tighter ropes and sometimes a barrier underneath the lowest rope to keep grappling athletes from rolling out of the ring. The usage of the ring in these countries is derived from the history of Vale Tudo, Japanese pro-wrestling and other MMA related sports such as kickboxing.\n", "Left-handed boxers are usually taught to fight in a southpaw stance, but right-handed fighters can also fight in the southpaw stance for many reasons. Fighting in a southpaw stance is believed to give the fighter a strategic advantage because of the tactical and cognitive difficulties of coping with a fighter who moves in a mirror-reverse of the norm. Left-handed fighters are often taught to fight in orthodox stance despite their dominant side being their left, either because of the overriding need to best counter a fighter who uses an orthodox stance, or because of the (real or perceived) limited number of trainers who specialize in training the southpaw stance.\n", "Sometimes referred to as full guard, the closed guard is the typical guard position. In this guard the legs are hooked behind the back of the opponent, preventing them from standing up or moving away. The opponent needs to open the legs up to be able to improve positioning. The bottom combatant might transit between the open and closed guard, as the open guard allows for better movement, but also has a bigger risk of the opponent passing the guard.\n\nSection::::Open Guard.\n", "There are 3 main defensive positions (guards or styles) used in boxing:\n\nAll fighters have their own variations to these styles. Some fighters may have their guard higher for more head protection while others have their guard lower to provide better protection against body punches. Many fighters don't strictly use a single position, but rather adapt to the situation when choosing a certain position to protect them.\n", "In-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called \"pressure fighters\") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. Mainly Mexican, Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican, and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style. A successful in-fighter often needs a good \"chin\" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting.\n", "While rare, the reverse is also true for left-handers; left-hand dominant fighters like Oscar De La Hoya and Miguel Cotto who fight from an orthodox stance give up the so-called \"southpaw advantage\" strategically, but are gifted with heavier lead hands. Consequently, in MMA if one stands in a southpaw stance (strongside forward), one must train one's cross and left low kick to make it fast, hard and dangerous.\n\nWhile rare, cross-dominant MMA fighters and kickboxers could also benefit from fighting from a southpaw stance.\n\nSection::::Previous uses of the term southpaw.\n", "Small Circle JuJitsu\n\nSmall Circle Jujitsu is a style of jujutsu developed by Wally Jay that focuses on employing dual simultaneous push/pull actions and smooth transitions.\n\nSection::::History.\n", "A reversal from a dominant or top position is called a \"sweep\"; these are usually the aim of a fighter in the bottom position, though there are some submissions that can be executed from the bottom, most commonly from the \"guard\". While a position may be considered dominant in one sport, that may not be the case in another: for example, the closed guard in BJJ may be dominant in terms of submission; in mixed martial arts (MMA), however, where striking is allowed, while the guard still offers submission opportunities and defence, the fighter on top can strike better than the one on the bottom so the position is usually viewed as neutral in MMA and Budo Moussaraa MMA. Wrestling is different again, viewing the guard as inferior due to the risk of being pinned.\n", "The key points of infighting are the control of the enemy's angle of attack, i.e., to control and limit the ways or angles through which an opponent may find an opening in one's guard to counterattack or get past a block or guard. This is attained by controlling the opponent's attacking limb, transferring momentum and debilitating his stability by forcing his posture/position and shifting his mass on his center line. Examples include:\n\nBULLET::::- Chi sao drills in Wing Chun\n\nBULLET::::- Tui shou in Tai Chi\n\nBULLET::::- Joint-lock flow in Small Circle JuJitsu\n\nBULLET::::- Hubud-Lubud of Filipino Martial Arts\n", "Despite the fact that the weapons are deadly, fights are rarely fatal. Combat ceases when one man is obviously defeated, either because he cannot defend himself or because he has left the circle, voluntarily or otherwise.\n\nCombat can also be between teams, either fighting together in pairs or in multiple single matches. In the latter case, strategy can become involved choosing who to put in the circle against a particular opponent.\n\nSection::::Names.\n", "The movement was introduced in mixed martial arts in 2009 by Brazilian fighter Marcus \"Lelo\" Aurelio (also known as Professor Barraozinho), who knocked out his opponent Keegan Marshall with it. He was followed in 2011 by Cairo Rocha, who knocked out Francesco Neves with a meia lua de compasso. \n\nSection::::Technique.\n", "BULLET::::6. Dominant angle of attack: Achieving a positional advantage relative to your opponent. UFC champion Anderson Silva wrote: \"The ultimate goal in fighting is to utilize footwork to acquire a dominant angle of attack.\" He defines this as \"...a position from which you can strike your opponent, and your opponent is out of position to hit you with a strike...you want your hips facing your opponent and your opponents hips facing away from yours.\"\n\nSection::::Risks.\n", "Section::::Biography.\n\nThe Showtime Steppers originated in the late 1990s at Eastern Hills High School in Fort Worth. They were then known as the high school step team \"Alpha and Omega\" and later as the \"Sigma Beta Steppers\". After the first year, they were guided by Anthony Arnold, a member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity and sponsored by Caprice Williams, a former teacher at the school. During the 2003-2004 school year, the group was undefeated, winning first place in over 20 step shows including that year's state championship step show.\n" ]

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[ "The push switch marked \"Train Stop Override\" is used to pass a signal at danger with authority - It ignores the TPWS TSS loops for around 20 seconds or until the loops have been passed, whichever is sooner.\n\nThe AWS system and the TPWS system are inter-linked and if either of these has initiated a brake application, the \"Brake Demand\" indicator lamp will flash.\n\nThe \"Temporary Isolation/Fault\" indicator lamp will flash if there is a TPWS system fault, or will show a steady illumination if the \"Temporary Isolation Switch\" has been activated.\n", "At many crossings, there will be a gate added to the signal. The gates will be fully lowered 15 to 20 seconds before the train arrives. The gates will rise and the signals will shut off once the end of the train clears the island circuit. \n\nThe time interval may be controlled by a grade crossing predictor, an electronic device which is connected to the rails of a railroad track, and activates the crossing's warning devices (lights, bells, gates, etc.) at a consistent interval prior to the arrival of a train at a grade crossing.\n", "The technology works by having the state of a track mounted \"shoe\" read by a receiver mounted to a truck on the leading locomotive or car. In the standard implementation the shoe is mounted to the ties a few inches outside the right hand running rail, although in theory the shoe could be mounted anywhere on the ties. The system is binary with the shoe presenting either an \"on\" or \"off\" state to the receiver. In order to be failsafe when the shoe is energized it presents an \"off\" state to the receiver, while the non-energized state presents an \"on\" state which triggers an action. This allows things like permanent speed restrictions or other hazards to be protected by non-active devices.\n", "When Loco ACDs receive 'Gate Open' transmissions from Gate ACDs provided at non-interlocked level crossings, they brake to decelerate to 30 km/h or an alternative predetermined speed. Gate ACDs at manned and unmanned level crossings also warn passengers with the message 'Train Approach'.\n\nIf a Loco ACD receives a manual 'SOS' message from other train bound ACDs or a station ACD that is within three kilometres of its radial range, it applies brakes automatically to bring the train to a stop.\n", "ACSES also enforces a positive stop at signals displaying an absolute Stop indication. The transponder information allows the train to keep track of when it is approaching an absolute signal and then determine if a positive stop is required depending on cab signal indication and information provided via a local data radio. The system is calibrated to stop the train somewhere within in the \"Positive Stop Zone\", which extends up to 1000 feet from the absolute stop signal itself. To pass the stop signal or otherwise move the train in absence of a more favorable signal indication a \"Stop Release\" button must be engaged by the engineer before the brakes can be released.\n", "All public crossings in the United States are required to be marked by at least a crossbuck. The 2009 Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices requires passive crossings (crossings without actuated flashing lights or gates) to have either stop signs or yield signs in addition to the crossbuck, unless a flagger will stop traffic every time a train approaches. Normally a yield sign is used, unless it is determined that all vehicles should stop at the crossing, such as a location with poor sight distance. All passive crossings must be upgraded to meet this standard by 31 December 2019.\n", "Section::::Common signaling practices.\n\nSection::::Common signaling practices.:Signal types.\n\nNorth American signals are commonly of three types.\n\nBULLET::::- Absolute - Absolute signals are usually connected to an interlocking controlled by a block operator or train dispatcher. Their most restrictive aspect is \"Stop\" and trains cannot pass them at Stop unless they obtain special authority. Absolute signals will default to displaying Stop unless expressly cleared by a control authority. In older practice, multiple signal heads are directly above and below each other on the mast.\n", "These are able to measure the height and width of rolling stock, so that cars and loads which won't fit under bridges or through tunnels are stopped. Most often they are optical line of sight devices that trigger an alarm when the beam is broken. They are often seen at a bearing temperature scanning locations, they then report out as part of the detectors regular train inspection report. Mounted on poles or a bridge structure, the optical line is adjusted for a set height and width, it can then send an alarm when something too big to fit the clearance limits ahead passes its view.\n", "If any of the signals beyond the first stop signal are at 'danger', the previous signals will also be held at 'danger' until the train is almost at a stand, to indicate to the driver that the next signal is at 'danger'. This can be enforced by instruction or by electrical interlocking, which requires the provision of a track circuit on the approach to the signal.\n", "On the UK mainline, TPWS consists of an on-board receiver/timer connected to the emergency braking system of a train, and radio frequency transmitter loops located on the track. The 'Overspeed Sensor System' pair of loops is located on the approach to the signal, and will activate the train's emergency brake if it approaches faster than the 'trigger speed' when the signal is at \"danger\". The 'Train Stop System' pair of loops is located at the signal, and will activate the emergency brake if the train passes over them at any speed when the signal is at \"danger\".\n", "This CPL was first deployed on the Staten Island Railroad (a B&O subsidiary) in the 1920s, and deployed system-wide shortly thereafter. Parts of the Chicago and Alton Railroad received CPLs later, when the B&O gained control of that line. In the 1980s both Amtrak's Chicago Union Station and Metra's Chicago Northwestern Station installed dwarf CPLs to replace earlier signals in those terminals.\n", "Because of the long distance required to bring a moving train to a stand, distant signals must be located on the approach to the corresponding stop signal by at least the braking distance of the worst braked train to use the route. This is particularly important on high-speed routes. At one time it was practice to take sighting distance into account when positioning distant signals; the distant signal could therefore be positioned at less than braking distance to the corresponding stop signal.\n", "BULLET::::- About 30 seconds before arriving at the crossing, the train trips a track circuit near the crossing, triggering the crossing signals. The lights begin to flash alternately, and a bell (or bells) mounted at the crossing begins ringing. After several seconds of flashing lights and ringing bells, the crossing gates (if equipped) begin to lower, which usually takes 5–10 seconds. Some AWDs silence the bell once the gates are fully lowered (typically seen on most Norfolk Southern and CSX crossings); most continue ringing the bells throughout (Union Pacific, BNSF Railway). Some crossings will not sound the bell at all after dark in the case that it is installed near a residential area. The lights continue to flash throughout regardless.\n", "Distant signals are often referred to as Approach Signals as the signal block before the interlocking is known as the approach block. When a train enters the approach block any route lined up at the interlocking will become locked in place until a timer is run to prevent routing a conflicting movement without giving the approaching train adequate time to come to a stop.\n", "If the crossing has more than one railroad track, the crossbuck is required to have a small sign beneath it denoting the number of tracks.\n\nAs traffic on the road crossing or the rail crossing increases, safety features are increased accordingly. More heavily trafficked crossings have \"automatic warning devices\" (AWDs), with alternately flashing red lights to warn automobile drivers and a bell to warn pedestrians. Additional safety is attained through crossing gates that block automobiles' approach to the tracks when activated. Increasingly, crossings are being fitted with four-quadrant gates to prevent circumventing the gates.\n", "Whilst the ideal safety system would prevent a SPAD from occurring, most equipment in current use does not stop the train before it has passed the Danger signal. However, provided that the train stops within the designated overlap beyond that signal, a collision should not occur.\n\nSection::::Collision prevention systems.:Train stops.\n\nOn the London Underground (for example), mechanical train stops are fitted beside the track at signals to stop a train, should a SPAD occur.\n", "BULLET::::- After the train has cleared the crossing, the bells (if silenced) may begin ringing again (such as the Florida East Coast Railway), and the gates (if equipped) begin to rise. Once the gates have completely risen back to their fully raised position, all warning signals, including the lights and bells, are suppressed.\n\nSome AWD track circuits are equipped with motion detectors that deactivate the crossing signal if the train stops or slows significantly before arriving at the crossing.\n", "In June 2018, the FRA approved a plan to remove the flaggers monitoring the crossing gates along the A line. This approval also allows local jurisdictions to submit requests to the FRA to establish \"quiet zones\", removing the need for trains crossing through the gates to blow their horns.\n\nSection::::Route.\n", "A distant signal can either be an automatic signal before an interlocking, or the interlocking signal itself when interlockings are back to back. Distant signals typically display more aspects than a typical block or interlocking signal to warn trains of diverging movements at the next interlocking however this is not always the case if there are no diverging paths available.\n", "Single use systems typically involve a frangible engagement bar or a stainless steel wire/braid strung between the rails and typically outside the rails as well, fastened to the sleepers. If the bar or braid is hit by something it breaks, and the circuit break alerts that there is a dragging item. \n\nAuto-resetting systems typically involve a pivot pin system to allow the target to reset itself after a hit.\n\nSection::::Sensors.:High Car or Shifted Load Detectors.\n", "BULLET::::- In 2017, a teenage girl who was hiking with her family was killed after she was hit by a Virginia Rail Express commuter train while walking on the tracks on the Bull Run Bridge in Manassas, Virginia\n", "BULLET::::- Level junctions and gauntlet track\n\nA signal cannot display a 'proceed' aspect unless the infrastructure item(s) that it protects are in the correct position for the passage of a train or, in the case of flat junctions and gauntlet track, no other signal is cleared for a conflicting move. This is enforced by interlocking.\n\nSection::::Protection of following trains.\n", "In 1910 the Pennsylvania and Long Island Rail Roads installed a mechanical ATS system covering various lines to New York Penn Station using the patented Hall trip value which was designed to prevent inadvertent activations from debris, however the system was only installed on locomotives and multiple units traveling to Penn Station and did not see further adoption.\n\nWhile similar in operation mechanical systems around the world are generally incompatible due to the wide variety of vehicle dimensions and track gauge which will result in the mechanical stopping devices not engaging the onboard valve.\n\nSection::::Overview.:Electronic systems.\n", "BULLET::::- Diverge to Stop - Same as above only the train can expect to stop at the signal after the interlocking. These signals include Medium Approach, Slow Approach and Diverging Approach.\n", "Like the manual block systems outlined above, automatic systems divide the route into fixed blocks. At the end of each block, a set of signals is installed, along with a track-side sensor. When a train passes the sensor, the signals are triggered to display the \"block occupied\" aspect on the signals at either end of that block. In most systems the signals do not immediately return to the \"block empty\" aspect when the train leaves, instead there is some sort of mechanical delay that retains the block occupied aspect, or more commonly, presents a \"proceed with caution\" aspect.\n" ]

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[ "normal" ]

[ "Railroad crossing signs are not active when a train stops ten feet away from the crossing." ]

[ "false presupposition", "normal" ]

[ "It's not that the crossing signs are not active - the train may not be sitting on one of the detectors that activates them." ]

[ "Many of these practices are also present in Hindu cultures. However, unlike the dominant Hindu practice of burning the dead, Romani culture requires that the dead must be buried. Notable deviations from this practice exist among German Roma and British Romanichal, the latter holding a tradition of cremation similar to that of some Hindu cultures. Up until the mid-20th century they invariably burned the deceased person and all their earthly belongings, including the dwelling place, all which was considered spiritually impure. During the latter half of the 20th century British Romanichal began adopting the burial customs of their Continental cousins. It is believed the soul of the deceased does not officially enter Heaven until after the burial.\n", "In some countries, including India and Nepal, cremation on an open-air pyre is an ancient tradition. Starting in the 19th century, cremation was introduced into other parts of the world. In modern times, cremation is commonly carried out with a closed furnace (crematory) at a crematorium.\n\nSection::::History.\n\nSection::::History.:Ancient.\n\nCremation dates from at least 17,000 years ago in the archaeological record, with the Mungo Lady, the remains of a partly cremated body found at Lake Mungo, Australia. \n\nAlternative death rituals emphasizing one method of disposal of a body—inhumation (burial), cremation, or exposure—have gone through periods of preference throughout history.\n", "The Scamozzina culture, clearly distinct from the coeval Terramare culture, saw the establishment of the funeral rite of cremation in which also a set of ornaments was deposed with the bones in the cinerary urn, an early phenomenon, ahead of other Italian regions but also of most of Europe who knew of this development only from the earliest phases of the Urnfield culture. \n", "The origins of the cremation rite are commonly believed to be in Hungary, where it was widespread since the first half of the second millennium BC. The neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture of modern-day northeastern Romania and Ukraine were also practicing cremation rituals as early as approximately 5500 BC. Some cremations begin to be found in the Proto-Lusatian and Trzciniec culture.\n\nSection::::Distribution and local groups.\n\nThe Urnfield culture was located in an area stretching from western Hungary to eastern France, from the Alps to near the North Sea.\n\nLocal groups, mainly differentiated by pottery, include:\n", "Cremation rates in the Nordic countries vary from Norway's 36% to Finland's 51%, Sweden's 70% and Denmark's 76%. Cremation is most common in the older larger cities, which are running out of cemetery plots, and rarest in the countryside and small towns where burial places are readily available. In all countries the cremation rate in large towns is generally between 70% and 90%.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Netherlands.\n\nThe first cremation in the Netherlands was performed in 1914. In the hundred years since the cremation rate has risen to 63% in 2014.\n\nSection::::Europe.:France.\n", "Section::::Europe.:Spain.\n\nThe cremations in Spain are booming; in 2006, just 16% of deaths involved cremation, and by 2016, that figure had risen to 36%. Around half of all deceased are cremated in Barcelona.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Hungary.\n\nCremation recently became more popular than burial in Hungary: in 1996, the cremation rate was 27.01%, and in 2016, it was around 60%, with 70%-90% in Budapest.\n\nSection::::North America.\n\nSection::::North America.:Canada.\n", "Open air funeral pyres were made illegal in Britain by the 1930 issue of the Cremation Act. Prior to this but after the 1902 Act, open air cremations had occurred in limited numbers, including several Hindu and Sikh soldiers cremated in Brighton, having died after fighting for the British Empire in World War I. The last open air pyre was believed to have occurred in 1934, when the British Government gave special permission to Nepal's ambassador to cremate his wife outdoors in Surrey.\n", "Marathi Hindu people dispose their dead by cremation. The deceased's son carries the corpse to the cremation ground atop a bier. The eldest son lights the fire for the corpse at the head for males and at the feet for females. The ashes are gathered in an earthen pitcher and immersed in a river on the third day after death. This is a 13-day ritual with the \"pinda\" being offered to the dead soul on the 11th and a \"Śrāddha\" ceremony followed by a funeral feast on the 13th. Cremation is performed according to Vedic rites, usually within a day of the individual's death. Like all other Hindus, the preference is for the ashes to be immersed in the Ganges river or Godavari river. \"Śrāddha\" becomes an annual ritual in which all forefathers of the family who have passed on are remembered. These rituals are expected to be performed only by male descendants, preferably the eldest son of the deceased.\n", "Individuals who are buried at the expense of the local authorities and buried in potter's fields may be buried in mass graves. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was once believed to have been buried in such a manner, but today it is known that such burials were never allowed in Mozart's Vienna whose Magistrate refused to agree to the burial regulations decreed by Joseph II. In some cases, the remains of unidentified individuals may be buried in mass graves in potter's fields, making exhumation and future identification troublesome for law enforcement.\n", "Cremation is also an old custom; it was the usual mode of disposing of a corpse in ancient Rome (along with graves covered with heaped mounds, also found in Greece, particularly at the Karameikos graveyard in Monastiraki). Vikings were occasionally cremated in their longships, and afterwards the location of the site was marked with standing stones.\n", "In the Finnish language, Christian cremation is called \"tuhkaus\" (incineration), while \"polttohautaus\" (burial by burning) refers to Pagan ritual on pyre.\n\nIn the American Episcopal Church, cremation has become accepted so much so that many parishes have built columbaria into their churches, chapels and gardens.\n\nSection::::The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism).\n", "On February 2010, A Hindu man named Davender Ghai was granted permission to be cremated on a traditional open-air pyre, when a court of appeals in the United Kingdom ruled them legal inside of a building with an open roof and away from roads or homes. In the U.S., a group in Crestone, Colorado, a part of the Crestone End of Life Project, obtained legal permission to perform \"open-air cremations\". Others have attempted to open up more outdoor funeral pyres but have faced disapproval. Crestone, Colorado is the only place where open-air cremations are legal in the United States. They can perform around 12 a year, regardless of religion and families can be involved in the process if they would like. At this time, the group only allows people who are part of the local community to choose this alternative burial.\n", "The Únětice culture was discovered by Czech surgeon and amateur archaeologist Čeněk Rýzner (1845–1923), who in 1879 found a cemetery of over 50 inhumations on Holý Vrch, the hill overlooking the village of Únětice. At about the same time, the first Úněticean burial ground was unearthed in Southern Moravia in Měnín by A.Rzehak. Following these initial discoveries and until the 1930s, many more sites, primarily cemeteries, were identified, including Němčice nad Hanou (1926), sites in vicinity of Prague, Polepy (1926–1927), and Šardičky (1927).\n", "In passing from the 2nd to 1st millennium BC in the period of the late Bronze Age, we find a unique way of burial in a large part of the Middle and Southern Europe in the framework of which also enters our country. At those times the ashes of the dead were burned and placed with different items in large clay pot, and then they were placed in the ground. Such an urn was discovered randomly in Varosh village of Ferizaj.\n", "Discussions about the post-war massacres were forbidden in Yugoslavia, so the investigations of mass grave locations began only in the 1990s, after the fall of communism. In 1992, 1163 bodies were excavated from 23 mass graves in the forests of Macelj, leaving around 130 possible mass grave locations unexplored. In 2002, the Slovenian government established the Governmental Committee for Settlement of Questions on Secret Mass Graves, with the assignment of \"recording of data about the number and locations of mass graves\" after the end of World War II.\n", "Other foibe and mass graves were discovered in more recent times; for instance, human remains were discovered in the Idrijski Log \"foiba\" near Idrija, Slovenia, in 1998; four skeletons were found in the foiba of Plahuti near Opatija in 2002; in the same year, a mass grave containing the remains of 52 Italians and 15 Germans was discovered in Slovenia, not far from Gorizia; in 2005, the remains of about 130 people killed between the 1940s and the 1950s were recovered from four \"foibe\" located in northeastern Istria.\n\nSection::::Background.\n", "In Scandinavia, approximately 30 to 70 percent (in large cities up to 90 percent) of the dead were cremated around the mid 1980s. However, in later years the high frequency has peaked and fallen; one explanation is the immigration from Muslim, Catholic and Orthodox nations.\n", "The first child of William Price, a Welsh Neo-Druidic priest, died in 1884. Believing that it was wrong to bury a corpse, and thereby pollute the earth, Price decided to cremate his son's body, a practice which had been common in Celtic societies. \n", "BULLET::::- Men are buried facing east (direction of Bajju origin) while women were buried facing west.\n\nBULLET::::- Those who died as a result of falling off a tree, falling off the roof of a house, or shot during hunting, were buried where the incident took place, and do not receive a burial ceremony.\n\nBULLET::::- Women who died during child birth were buried at the backyard of their home.\n\nBULLET::::- Someone with small pox was isolated because they believed he was a wizard. They are not given a burial ceremony after dying.\n", "Cremation remains a minority practice in rural France where burial places are available, but is increasingly common in urban areas. In 1979 just 1% of funerals involved cremation: in 2012 it was 32%, rising to 45% in Paris.\n\nSection::::Europe.:Ireland.\n", "Marathi Hindu people dispose their dead by cremation. The ashes are gathered in an earthen pitcher and immersed in a river on the third day after death. This is a 13-day ritual with the \"pinda\" being offered to the dead soul on the 11th and a \"Śrāddha\" ceremony followed by a funeral feast on the 13th. Cremation is performed according to vedic rites, usually within a day of the individual's death. \"Śrāddha\" becomes an annual ritual in which all forefathers of the family who have passed on are remembered.\n", "Gjâma e Burrave, () is a death rite performed only by men and for men only, in Albania, exclusively in the highlands of Dukagjin, Gjakovë and Iballë, Pukë. To perform this rite, a quorum of ten or more men is needed. During the ritual, the men strike their chests and scratch their faces, repeating: \"O i mjeri unë për ty o biri/nipi/miku jem\", (Oh poor me, o my son/nephew/friend), depending on the deceased. \n", "Section::::International.\n\nIn the earliest part of the bronze age, tribal leaders and other important people were buried in the mounds encased in a hollowed out oak log. Often the mounds were used multiple times, with both early oak log burials and later urn burials found in the same mound. The Bronze Age in what is now Denmark was in many ways an international affair with import of copper and tin from far away for bronze production, and export of cattle. Archeologists reckon that the burials changed from coffin burials to cremation due to international influence.\n", "In the Murasing community, funeral rites are perform in two ways. Non-vegetarian are cremated and vegetarians are buried. The body is cleaned with water and dressed in new clothes. Relatives take a last look at the body. After that the body is carried with \"waying\" and holy song, and buried or cremated.\n\nMale non-vegetarians are cremated on seven stages of wood. Female non-vegetarian are cremate on five stages of wood. The deceased's youngest child or another relative gives them water. Then the deceased's eldest child, or a relatives sets the fire.\n", "It is pertinent to observe here that Kenya has not enacted any law with regard to burial of deceased persons. Nor is there is a statute of general application, in England, in that regard which was in force by 12th August 1897, which would by dint of section 3(1) of the Judicature Act, cap 8 Laws of Kenya, be applied to Kenya.\n" ]

[ "Cremation is only common in Slovenian customs." ]

[ "Cremation is pretty common in the UK as well as other places around the world. " ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Cremation is only common in Slovenian customs." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Cremation is pretty common in the UK as well as other places around the world. " ]

[ "Landfills are created by land dumping. Land dumping methods vary, most commonly it involves the mass dumping of waste into a designated area, usually a hole or sidehill. After the waste is dumped, it is then compacted by large machines. When the dumping cell is full, it is then \"sealed\" with a plastic sheet and covered in several feet of dirt. This is the primary method of dumping in the United States because of the low cost and abundance of unused land in North America. Landfills are regulated in the US by the Environmental Protection Agency, which enforces standards provided in the Resource Conservation Recovery Act, such as requiring liners and groundwater monitoring. This is because landfills pose the threat of pollution and can intoxicate ground water. The signs of pollution are effectively masked by disposal companies and it is often hard to see any evidence. Usually landfills are surrounded by large walls or fences hiding the mounds of debris. Large amounts of chemical odor eliminating agent are sprayed in the air surrounding landfills to hide the evidence of the rotting waste inside the plant.\n", "In a study at the Hyperion (Los Angeles) sewage treatment works, disposer use showed minimal to no impact on the total biosolids byproduct from sewage treatment and similarly minimal impact on handling processes as the high volatile solids destruction (VSD) from food waste yield a minimum amount of solids in residue.\n", "The initial and very integral step of sorting the trash is the responsibility of Zabbaleen community members who own pigs. The pigs are fed the organic waste. After the organic waste has been eaten by the pigs, the rest of the trash is sorted into different categories such, as PT plastic, paper, cans, etc. Thus, as Engi Wassef, the director of \"Marina of the Zabbaleen\" notes, \"One of the reasons why Coptic Christians are given a kind of monopoly status on the garbage collection and sorting system is because the Muslim religion does not allow for breeding or eating or living near pigs. It's considered a dirty animal.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Garbage Dump: The Garbage Dump is just a big pile of rubbish. As soon as it is made, rats start to produce from it and inhabit your park. The only way to get rid of the garbage dump is to put water on it or place lots of garbage-eating animals such as rats and black bears, around the garbage dump.\n\nBULLET::::- Fire\n\nBULLET::::- Kudzu\n", "Food scraps range from 10% to 20% of household waste, and are a problematic component of municipal waste, creating public health, sanitation and environmental problems at each step, beginning with internal storage and followed by truck-based collection. Burned in waste-to-energy facilities, the high water-content of food scraps means that their heating and burning consumes more energy than it generates; buried in landfills, food scraps decompose and generate methane gas, a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change.\n", "A 2005 report by the state of North Carolina concluded that \"a surveillance program of humans living near application sites should be developed to determine if there are adverse health effects in humans and animals as a result of biosolids application.\"\n\nSection::::Disposal.\n\nAfter treatment, and dependent upon the quality of sludge produced (for example with regards to heavy metal content), sewage sludge is most commonly either disposed of in landfills, dumped in the ocean or applied to land for its fertilizing properties, as pioneered by the product Milorganite.\n\nSection::::Disposal.:Ocean dumping.\n", "One result is larger amounts of solid residue from the waste-water treatment process. According to a study at the East Bay Municipal Utility District’s wastewater treatment plant funded by the EPA, food waste produces three times the biogas as compared to municipal sewage sludge. The value of the biogas produced from anaerobic digestion of food waste appears to exceed the cost of processing the food waste and disposing of the residual biosolids (based on a LAX Airport proposal to divert 8,000 tons/year of bulk food waste).\n", "Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium – found in rechargeable batteries, and lead – found in lead paint, aviation fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of press reports culminating in a book called \"Fateful Harvest\" unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called \"dioxins\" for simplicity, such as TCDD.\n", "Plastic bottles, plastic bags, inflatable toys, baseballs and environmental debris like tree limbs, are all skimmed from the waterways and deposited into oversized dumpsters for removal. In decades past, there used to be larger items, such as sofas and refrigerators. But over the years, the skimmer boats have removed most of those. Still, there is the occasional unlikely item, such as the live deer that was recently rescued to dry ground.\n", "In virtually all engineered onsite sewage facilities, recycling and decomposition by natural organisms is still the primary mechanism of sewage disposal. Giving the organisms the time they need to decompose wastes is accomplished by establishing minimum sewage retention and settling times, and minimum liquid flow distances between sewage disposal sites and surface water or water wells.\n\nSection::::Process description.:Differences.\n", "The primary mechanism of biological waste recycling in the natural environment is performed by other organisms such as animals, insects, soil microorganisms, plants, and fungi, which consume all available nutrients in the waste, leaving behind fully decomposed solids that become part of topsoil, and pure drinking water that has been stripped of everything that can possibly be consumed and utilized. This natural biological purification requires time and space to process wastes.\n", "Increasingly, there have been efforts to use technology to monitor areas prone to dumping. In Japan, a study used Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map areas of dumping based on site characteristics.\n\nAnother study used satellite images to detect possible illegal dumping sites. \n\nSection::::Solutions.:Container deposit legislation.\n", "Section::::Technologies.:Excavation or dredging.\n\n\"Excavation\" processes can be as simple as hauling the contaminated soil to a regulated landfill, but can also involve aerating the excavated material in the case of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Recent advancements in bioaugmentation and biostimulation of the excavated material have also proven to be able to remediate semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) onsite. If the contamination affects a river or bay bottom, then dredging of bay mud or other silty clays containing contaminants (including sewage sludge with harmful microorganisms) may be conducted.\n", "The premise behind the proper use of a disposer is to effectively regard food scraps as liquid (averaging 70% water, like human waste), and use existing infrastructure (underground sewers and wastewater treatment plants) for its management. Modern wastewater plants are effective at processing organic solids into fertilizer products (known as biosolids), with advanced facilities also capturing methane for energy production.\n\nSection::::Operation.\n", "Elsewhere, \"trash traps\" are installed on small rivers to capture waterborne debris before it reaches the sea. For example, South Australia's Adelaide operates a number of such traps, known as \"trash racks\" or \"gross pollutant traps\" on the Torrens River, which flows (during the wet season) into Gulf St Vincent.\n\nIn lakes or near the coast, manual removal can also be used. Project AWARE for example promotes the idea of letting dive clubs clean up litter, for example as a diving exercise.\n", "BULLET::::- Gulf of California; an interview with Charles J. Moore about the Great Pacific garbage patch of plastic, chemical sludge (chemicals like flame retardants, pesticides, herbicides, dioxins among other are often hydrophobic and thus are attracted by the plastic) and other waste which are affecting the sea life, and by the food chain the humans.\n\nBULLET::::- Plymouth in England; the microparticles of plastic are affecting shellfish.\n\nBULLET::::- Great Cumbrae in Scotland; the microparticles of plastic are affecting crabs, and shrimp (up to 83%).\n", "Since this process of composting produces high volumes of biogas, there are potential safety issues such as explosion and poisoning. These interactions require proper maintenance and personal protective equipment is utilized. Certain U.S. states, such as Oregon, have implemented the requirement for permits on such facilities, based on the potential danger to the population and surrounding environment.\n\nFood waste coming through the sanitary sewers from garbage disposal units is treated along with other sewage and contributes to sludge.\n\nSection::::Disposal.:Commercial liquid food waste.\n", "Section::::Disposal or use as fertilizer.:Examples.:New York City, U.S..\n", "The sorting component of the plants typically resemble a materials recovery facility. This component is either configured to recover the individual elements of the waste or produce a refuse-derived fuel that can be used for the generation of power.\n\nThe components of the mixed waste stream that can be recovered include:\n\nBULLET::::- Ferrous metal\n\nBULLET::::- Non-ferrous metal\n\nBULLET::::- Plastic\n\nBULLET::::- Glass\n\nSection::::Terminology.\n", "BULLET::::- Industrial waste: for commercial and industrial waste. Other related landfills include Construction and Demolition Debris Landfills and Coal Combustion Residual Landfills.\n\nBULLET::::- Hazardous waste or PCB waste: Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) landfills that are monitored in the United States by the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (TSCA).\n\nSection::::Microbial topics.\n\nThe status of a landfill's microbial community may determine its digestive efficiency.\n\nBacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills.\n\nSection::::Reclaiming materials.\n", "Section::::Environmental and social effects.\n\nPlastic pollution from illegal dumping poses health risks to wildlife. Animals often mistake plastics for food, resulting in intestinal entanglement. Slow-degrading chemicals, like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), nonylphenol (NP), and pesticides also found in plastics, can release into environments and subsequently also be ingested by wildlife.\n", "Current solutions to dealing with the amount of plastic being thrown away include burning the plastics and dumping them into large fields or landfills. Burning plastics leads to significant amounts of air pollution, which is harmful to human and animal health. When dumped into fields or landfills, plastics can cause changes in the pH of the soil, leading to soil infertility. Furthermore, plastic bottles and plastic bags that end up in landfills are frequently consumed by animals, which then clogs their digestive systems and leads to death.\n", "Section::::Process steps.:Pretreatment.:Fat and grease removal.\n\nIn some larger plants, fat and grease are removed by passing the sewage through a small tank where skimmers collect the fat floating on the surface. Air blowers in the base of the tank may also be used to help recover the fat as a froth. Many plants, however, use primary clarifiers with mechanical surface skimmers for fat and grease removal.\n\nSection::::Process steps.:Primary treatment.\n", "In the 1950s or earlier hydrology transport models appeared to calculate surface runoff, primarily for flood forecasting. Beginning in the early 1970s computer models were developed to analyze the transport of runoff carrying water pollutants, which considered dissolution rates of various chemicals, infiltration into soils and ultimate pollutant load delivered to receiving waters. One of the earliest models addressing chemical dissolution in runoff and resulting transport was developed in the early 1970s by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. This computer model formed the basis of much of the regulatory framework that led to strategies for water pollution control via land use and chemical handling techniques. People produce so much trash that half of it goes in water sources.\n", "A garden centre in Faversham, UK, has started to prevent plastic plant pots from being passed down to customers. Instead, it reuses the plastic pots only locally in the garden center, but upon selling it to its customers it repots the plants in paper plant pots. It also sells plants wrapped in hessian, and uses a variety of techniques to prevent handing down (single-use) plastics to customers\n\nSection::::Significance of dump capacity.:Re-use or rot of waste.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

[]

[ "Almost all Uralic languages, such as Finnish, Hungarian and Estonian have a distinctive moraic chroneme as a phoneme (also arguably called archiphoneme or epenthetic vowel/consonant). The etymology of the vocalic chroneme has been traced to a voiced velar fricative in the hypothetical Proto-Uralic language, such that becomes . For example, \"taka-\" \"back-\", \"takka\" \"fireplace\" and \"taakka\" \"burden\" are unrelated words. It is also grammatically important; the third person marker is a chroneme (\"menee\" \"s/he goes\"), and often in the spoken Finnish of the Helsinki area there are grammatical minimal pairs, e.g. nominative \"Stadi\" \"Helsinki\" vs. partitive \"Stadii\" \"at Helsinki\".\n", "Increased muscular activity results in the generation of heat as a byproduct. Most often, when the purpose of the muscle activity is to produce motion, the heat is wasted energy. In shivering, the heat is the main intended product and is utilized for warmth.\n", "I See Ice\n\nI See Ice is a 1938 British comedy film directed by Anthony Kimmins and starring George Formby, Kay Walsh and Betty Stockfeld. The film depicts the adventures of a photographer working for a London newspaper. It features the songs \"In My Little Snapshot Album\", \"Noughts And Crosses\" and \"Mother What'll I Do Now\".\n\nSection::::Plot.\n", "BULLET::::- United States Secretary of Commerce Robert P. Lamont issued a statement predicting that 1930 would mark \"a continuance of prosperity and progress.\" Secretary of the Treasuary Andrew W. Mellon likewise issued an optimistic statement: \"During the winter months there may be some slackness or unemployment, but hardly more than is usual at this season each year. I have every confidence that there will be a revival of activity in the spring and that during the coming year the country will make steady progress.\"\n\nBULLET::::- Born: Mies Bouwman, television presenter, in Amsterdam, Netherlands\n", "Teething may cause a slightly elevated temperature, but not rising into the fever range of greater than . Higher temperatures during teething are due to some form of infection, such as a herpes virus, initial infection of which is extremely widespread among children of teething age.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "Burke spent five seasons as the voice of the American Hockey League's Peoria Rivermen, who were purchased by the NHL's Vancouver Canucks and moved to Utica in 2013. During the 2011-12 NHL season, he filled in for select games as the play-by-play broadcaster for the NHL's St. Louis Blues on KMOX radio. In July 2013, he was hired by the Utica Comets as the play-by-play broadcaster and head of public relations.\n", "Michael J. Sheridan\n\nMichael J. 'Mike' Sheridan (born September 17, 1958) is a former Speaker of the Wisconsin State Assembly, the lower house of the Wisconsin legislature, and a former Democratic member of the Wisconsin State Assembly, who represented the 44th Assembly District from 2005 to 2011. He was a member of the Committees on Rules and Assembly Organization and was elected to serve as Speaker by the Democratic caucus on November 12, 2008, following the November 4, 2008 election in which the Democratic Party gained a majority in the Assembly.\n", "BULLET::::- When unstressed, the bisyllabic combination of \"o/ö/e + a/ä\" is smoothed to a monosyllabic long vowel. E.g. \"ruskee\" for \"ruskea\" \"brown\", \"kyntöö\" for \"kyntöä\" \"plowing (partitive case)\". (This change is not specific to Savonian dialects and is found in most forms of spoken Finnish today.)\n\nBULLET::::- Word-medial simple consonants are geminated after a short initial syllable. A native Savonian doesn't say he speaks \"savoa\", he says he speaks \"savvoo\".\n", "Shivering can also appear after surgery. This is known as postanesthetic shivering. \n\nIn humans, shivering can also be caused by mere cognition . This is known as psychogenic shivering .\n\nSection::::Shivering and the elderly.\n", "On May 22, 2014, Luke Strand was formally introduced as the Madison Capitols head coach and general manager. He was joined on the bench by fellow Eau Claire native Keith Paulsen and longtime NHL veteran and Stanley Cup Champion Tony Hrkac.\n\nFollowing the tragic passing of Bob Suter in September, the Capitols honored the lifelong Madison native and gold medalist with stickers on team helmets, a banner bearing his jersey number 20 inside the Coliseum, and the ice rink named in his honor (Bob Suter Memorial Rink).\n", "This effect is more important to humans than what was initially thought. Linguists have pointed out that at least the English language has many false starts and extraneous sounds. The phonemic restoration effect is the brain's way of resolving those imperfections in our speech. Without this effect interfering with our language processing, there would be a greater need for much more accurate speech signals and human speech could require much more precision. For experiments, white noise is necessary because it takes the place of these imperfections in speech. One of the most important factors in language is continuity and in turn intelligibility.\n", "Section::::Description.:Call and flight.\n\nThis bird's call is a sustained laugh, \"ki ki ki ki\", quite different from that of the pileated woodpecker. One may also hear a constant knocking as they often drum on trees or even metal objects to declare territory. Like most woodpeckers, northern flickers drum on objects as a form of communication and territory defense. In such cases, the object is to make as loud a noise as possible, so woodpeckers sometimes drum on metal objects.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Blarina\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Cryptotis\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tribe Nectogalini\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chimarrogale\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Chodsigoa\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Episoriculus\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Nectogale\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Neomys\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"†Nesiotites\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Soriculus\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tribe Notiosoricini\n\nBULLET::::- \"Megasorex\"\n\nBULLET::::- \"Notiosorex\"\n\nBULLET::::- Tribe Soricini\n\nBULLET::::- \"Sorex\"\n\nSection::::Further reading.\n\nBULLET::::- Buchler, E.R. 1973. The use of echolocation by the wandering shrew, Sorex vagrans Baird. Diss. Abstr. Int. B. Sci. Eng. 33(7): 3380–3381.\n\nBULLET::::- Busnel, R.-G. (Ed.). 1963. Acoustic Behaviour of Animals. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company.\n\nBULLET::::- Gould, E. 1962. Evidence for echolocation in shrews.Ph.D. Thesis, Tulane University.\n", "Teething has not been shown to cause fever or diarrhea; however, the belief that teething causes fever is extremely common among parents. Whilst there is some evidence that teething can cause an elevated temperature, it does not cause fever (medically defined as rectal temperature greater than . One small 1992 study found a significant rise in temperature on the day of eruption of the first tooth. Another study in 2000 found \"mild temperature elevation\" but not fever over .\n", "The Yana basin is the site of the so-called Pole of Cold of Russia, where the lowest recorded temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere are found. In the winter, temperatures in the centre of the basin average as low as and have reached as low as though in the mountains it is believed that temperatures have reached . Yakut folklore says that, at such temperatures, if you shout to a friend and they cannot hear you, it is because the words have frozen in the air. However, when spring comes the words \"thaw\" and one can hear everything that was said months ago.\n", "Although standard and known elsewhere, the usage of verb compounds is particularly prevalent in Savo Finnish and a prolific source of creative expressions. The first verb is in the infinitive and indicates the action, and the second verb is declined and indicates the manner. For example, \"seistä toljotat\" \"you stand there gawking\" consists of words meaning \"to-stand you-gawk\".\n\nSection::::Features.:Northern Savonian dialects.\n", "During the 2005–06 NHL season, McSorley worked for Fox Sports West in Los Angeles, providing in-studio analysis of games involving the Los Angeles Kings or the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. He provided color commentary for the San Jose Sharks games on FSN Bay Area during 2006–07 NHL season. McSorley's time in that role ended mysteriously midway through the Sharks playoff series with Detroit, when the Sharks announced McSorley would not return for a Game 3 broadcast for personal reasons. No further explanation was given.\n", "BULLET::::- Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), energy expended for everything that is not sleeping, eating or sports-like exercise.\n\nBULLET::::- Diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT)\n\nSection::::Types.:Shivering.\n\nOne method to raise temperature is through shivering. It produces heat because the conversion of the chemical energy of ATP into kinetic energy causes almost all of the energy to show up as heat. Shivering is the process by which the body temperature of hibernating mammals (such as some bats and ground squirrels) is raised as these animals emerge from hibernation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Non-shivering.\n", "Recordings of U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who came from a privileged New York City family and was educated at Groton, a private Massachusetts preparatory school, had a number of characteristic patterns. His speech is non-rhotic; one of Roosevelt's most frequently heard speeches has a falling diphthong in the word \"fear\", which distinguishes it from other forms of surviving non-rhotic speech in the United States. \"Linking \"r\"\" appears in Roosevelt's delivery of the words \"The only thing we have to fear is fear itself\"; this pronunciation of \"r\" is also famously recorded in his Pearl Harbor speech, for example, in the phrase \"naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan\".\n", "BULLET::::- Both intervocalic and may commonly be realized as (a nasalized lateral flap) or simply , making \"winter\" and \"winner\" homophones in fast or non-careful speech.\n", "Patients report that myotonia congenita may present itself in the following ways (this is from first hand experience). If the person is sedentary and then decides to walk up a set of stairs, by the third or fourth step their leg muscles begin to stiffen significantly, requiring them to slow down almost to a complete stop. But as the muscles loosen up, a few steps later, they can once again begin to climb the steps at a normal pace. If this person plays any kind of a sport, a good warm-up is mandatory. Otherwise if they need to quickly and intensively use their muscles, such as in a sprint race or a basketball game, their muscles will freeze up, causing them to slow down or almost come to a complete stop. But once the muscles are warmed up, they can once again function normally. This can happen in various muscles, even in muscles such as the tongue. For example, if a person has not spoken for awhile and then wants to speak, their tongue may be stiff at first causing the words to come out a little garbled, but after a few seconds of trying to speak, the tongue muscle will loosen up and then they can speak normally for the remainder of the time that they are conversing.\n", "BULLET::::- Phoneme deletion, also referred to as phoneme elision: e.g., \"Say \"coat\". Now say it again but don't say /k/\"\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme segmentation with words or non-words: e.g., \"How many sounds can you hear in the word \"it\"?\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme reversal: e.g., \"Say \"na\" (as in \"nap\"). Now say na backwards\"\n\nBULLET::::- Phoneme manipulation: e.g., \"Say \"dash\". Now say it again, but instead of /æ/ say /I/\"\n\nBULLET::::- Spoonerism: e.g., \"felt made\" becomes \"melt fade\"\n\nSection::::Development.\n", "BULLET::::- a regular three consonant cluster: ingam(a)sxakum 'after a short while (he)'\n\nIn some frequently encountered syncopated forms, which otherwise result in irregular three consonant clusters, the middle uvular fricative is deleted along with the preceding vowel. For example, (h)iis(ax̂)talix 'saying' and (h)iil(ax̂)talix 'being said'.\n\nAt slower speeds of speech, the syncopation may not be realized. Compare txin saakutikux̂txin 'you are getting skinny' beside ting saak(u)tikuqing 'I am getting skinny'.\n\nSection::::Phonology.:Stress.\n", "One research group has reported that TRPM8 is activated by chemical cooling agents (such as menthol) or when ambient temperatures drop below approximately 26 °C, suggesting that it mediates the detection of cold thermal stimuli by primary afferent sensory neurons of afferent nerve fibers.\n", "Shoshoni syllables are of the form (C)V(V)(C). For instance: \"nkka\" \"dance\" (CVC CV), \"kkoi\" \"sleep\" (VC CVV), and \"paa\" \"water\" (CVV). Shoshoni does not allow onset clusters.\n\nTypical Shoshoni roots are of the form CV(V)CV(V). Examples include \"kasa\" \"wing\" and \"papi\" \"older brother.\"\n\nSection::::Phonology.:Stress.\n" ]

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[ "Bone marrow transplants can be conducted to treat severe diseases of the bone marrow, including certain forms of cancer such as leukemia. Additionally, bone marrow stem cells have been successfully transformed into functional neural cells, and can also potentially be used to treat illnesses such as inflammatory bowel disease.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "Because the bone marrow is the manufacturing center of blood cells, the suppression of bone marrow activity causes a deficiency of blood cells. This condition can rapidly lead to life-threatening infection, as the body cannot produce leukocytes in response to invading bacteria and viruses, as well as leading to anaemia due to a lack of red blood cells and spontaneous severe bleeding due to deficiency of platelets.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation.\n\nTransplantation of stem cells are taken from the bone marrow, peripheral blood or umbilical cord of healthy, matched donors. Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (HSCT) involves intravenous infusion of stem cells to those who have either a damaged bone marrow or defective immune system. Transplantation is a simple process. Bone marrow product is infused through a central vein over a period of several hours. The hematopoietic cells are able to go to the bone marrow through tracking mechanisms. Patients who suffer from RD will now have more stem cells that can differentiate into immune cells.\n\nSection::::Treatment.:Cytokine Therapy.\n", "The NMDP receives annually about US$23 million from the US government through the Health Resources and Services Administration. The US Navy also provides some funding.\n", "Bone marrow and PBSCs come from living adult donors. Bone marrow is extracted from the donor's pelvic bones while the donor is under general or local anesthesia. PBSCs are collected from the donor's blood after five or six days of taking a drug that causes hematopoietic cells in the bone marrow to move into the circulating blood. In both cases, recovery is usually swift and donors typically have fully restored marrow and blood cell counts in under two weeks.\n", "The Be The Match Registry is the world's largest hematopoietic cell registry, listing nearly 16 million individuals and nearly 238,000 cord blood units. Hematopoietic cells from NMDP donors or cord blood units are used to transplant patients with a variety of blood, bone marrow or immune system disorders. As of September 2016, the NMDP had facilitated more than 80,000 transplants worldwide.\n\nSection::::Activities.\n", "Section::::History.:National Marrow Donor Program (NMDP).\n\nIn 1986, the U.S. Navy established the National Bone Marrow Donor Registry with one full-time employee housed at the St. Paul, MN, American Red Cross and a sub-contract with the University of Minnesota for computer support and data management. The first donor search was processed in September 1987, and the first National Marrow Donor Program (NMDP)-facilitated transplant took place in December 1987.\n", "Gift of Life was founded following a successful bone marrow registration drive to save the life of Jay Feinberg, a 23-year-old analyst with the Federal Reserve.\n", "Follow-up recipient data\n\nCollected at 100 days, 6 months, and annually after HCT (biennially after year 6):\n\nBULLET::::- Information collected about all recipients\n\nBULLET::::- Survival (and cause of death, when applicable)\n\nBULLET::::- Subsequent HCT or cellular therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Initial neutrophil and platelet recovery\n\nBULLET::::- Graft vs. Host Disease (acute and chronic) - severity and treatment status\n\nBULLET::::- New malignancy, lymphoproliferative, or myelopoliferative disease/disorder\n\nBULLET::::- Chimerism studies\n\nBULLET::::- Disease assessment at the time of best response to HCT\n\nBULLET::::- Post-HCT therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Relapse or progression post-HCT\n\nBULLET::::- Disease status at time of most recent assessment\n", "BULLET::::- DKMS US, in New York City is part of the larger DKMS donor center based in Germany and hosts donor drives nationwide and lists those who register on the Be The Match registry, run by the NMDP.\n\nIn May 2004, the Gift of Life Marrow Registry and the NMDP formed an associate donor registry partnership.\n\nIn July 2007, the Caitlin Raymond International Registry became an affiliated registry with the NMDP. Caitlin Raymond closed its doors a few years later.\n\nSection::::Finances.\n", "The type of treatment depends on the severity of the patient’s bone marrow failure disease. Blood transfusion is one treatment. Blood is collected from volunteer donors who agree to let doctors draw blood stem cells from their blood or bone marrow for transplantation. Blood that is taken straight from collected blood stem cells is known as peripheral blood stem cell donation. A peripheral stem cell donor must have the same blood type as the patient receiving the blood cells. Once the stem cells are in the patient’s body through an IV, the cells mature and become blood cells. Before donation, a drug is injected into the donor, which increases the number of stem cells into their body. Feeling cold and lightheaded, having numbness around the mouth and cramping in the hands are common symptoms during the donation process. After the donation, the amount of time for recovery varies for every donor, “But most stem cell donors are able to return to their usual activities within a few days to a week after donation”.\n", "BULLET::::- Additional information collected about \"research-track\" recipients\n\nBULLET::::- Growth factor and cytokine therapy\n\nBULLET::::- Hematologic findings at time of most recent assessment\n\nBULLET::::- Immune reconstitution\n\nBULLET::::- Engraftment syndrome\n\nBULLET::::- Graft vs. Host Disease (acute and chronic) - symptoms, prophylaxis, and treatment drugs\n\nBULLET::::- Infection prophylaxis\n\nBULLET::::- Infection\n\nBULLET::::- Organ function/impairments\n\nBULLET::::- Functional status\n\nFollow-up donor data\n\nCollected at 2 days, 1 week and weekly until donor reports full recovery, then at 1 month, 6 months and annually after donation:\n\nBULLET::::- Donor outcomes – post-donation CBC and differential, post-donation toxicities, adverse events\n\nBULLET::::- Product analysis – cell counts, viability, volume\n", "The NMDP coordinates the collection of hematopoietic (\"blood-forming\") cells that are used to perform what used to be called bone marrow transplants, but are now more properly called hematopoietic cell transplants. Patients needing a hematopoietic cell transplant but who lack a suitably matched donor in their family can search the Be The Match registry for a matched unrelated donor or cord blood unit.\n", "National Marrow Donor Program\n\nThe National Marrow Donor Program (NMDP) is a nonprofit organization founded in 1986 and based in Minneapolis, Minnesota that operates the Be The Match Registry of volunteer hematopoietic cell donors and umbilical cord blood units in the United States.\n", "An immune response against an allograft or xenograft is termed rejection. An allogenic bone marrow transplant can result in an immune attack, called graft-versus-host disease.\n\nSection::::Procedure.\n\nMaterial is obtained from a donor who is a living person, or a deceased person's body receiving mechanical support or ventilation, or a deceased person's body whose heart stopped beating. Screening for pathology and risk factors for communicable diseases such as HIV and Hepatitis B and C is then conducted.\n", "A 2011 overview of six randomized trials concluded:\n", "It is possible to be cured, by a bone marrow transplantation (BMT) from compatible donor. In low-risk young people, the thalassemia-free survival rate is 87%; the mortality risk is 3%. The drawback is that this method requires an HLA-matched compatible donor.\n\nIf the person does not have an HLA-matched compatible donor, there is another method called bone marrow transplantation from haploidentical mother to child (mismatched donor), in which the donor is the mother. The results are these: thalassemia-free survival rate 70%, rejection 23%, and mortality 7%. The best results are with very young people.\n", "Section::::Reception.\n", "Stem cell transplantation was pioneered using bone-marrow-derived stem cells by a team at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center from the 1950s through the 1970s led by E. Donnall Thomas, whose work was later recognized with a Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. Thomas' work showed that bone marrow cells infused intravenously could repopulate the bone marrow and produce new blood cells. His work also reduced the likelihood of developing a life-threatening complication called graft-versus-host disease.\n\nThe first physician to perform a successful human bone marrow transplant was Robert A. Good.\n", "If the NMDP finds a match with an adult donor, they notify the donor. After educating the potential donor about the donation process, the NMDP asks them to donate. If the potential donor wishes to proceed, they receive a medical exam, which includes testing the blood for infectious diseases. If the potential donor meets all requirements, the NMDP collects their bone marrow or peripheral blood stem cells and sends them by courier to the patient.\n", "BULLET::::- Stem cell harvesting – circulating bone marrow cells are harvested to use in bone marrow transplantation.\n\nSection::::Types.:Donation.:Donor safety.\n\nBULLET::::- Single use kits – Apheresis is done using single-use kits, so there is no risk of infection from blood-contaminated tubing or centrifuge.\n\nBULLET::::- Immune system effects – \"the immediate decreases in blood lymphocyte counts and serum immunoglobulin concentrations are of slight to moderate degree and are without known adverse effects. Less information is available regarding long-term alterations of the immune system\"\n\nSection::::Types.:Donation.:Donor safety.:Kit problems.\n\nTwo apheresis kit recalls were:\n", "Although based in the United States, the NMDP has worldwide connections. More than 50 percent of the transplants arranged by the NMDP involve either a foreign patient or a foreign donor. The NMDP contracts with seven donor centers (where donors are recruited) outside of the United States. These are located in The Netherlands, Israel, Sweden, Norway, and Germany (three centers).\n\nIn addition, the NMDP is affiliated with many transplant centers (where patients can receive transplants using cells from NMDP donors) outside of the United States.\n\nSection::::Other United States registries.\n", "Bone Marrow: Marrow is found in the hollow cavities of the body's large bones. Donation involves withdrawing 2-3 percent of the donor's total marrow from the iliac crest of the hip, posterior aspect of the donor's pelvic bone. There is no cutting or stitching. The procedure involves a needle aspiration, performed using an anesthetic. Typically, the donor enters a medical center’s outpatient facility in the morning and goes home in the afternoon. Today, bone marrow is requested approximately 20 percent of the time.\n", "When late in the disease progression an attempt is made to take a sample of bone marrow by aspiration, it may result in a dry tap, meaning that where the needle can normally suck out a sample of semi-liquid bone marrow, it produces no sample because the marrow has been replaced with collagen fibers. A bone marrow biopsy will reveal collagen fibrosis, replacing the marrow that would normally occupy the space.\n\nSection::::Treatment.\n\nThe one known curative treatment is allogeneic stem cell transplantation, but this approach involves significant risks.\n", "Peripheral Blood Stem Cells (PBSC): It is possible to collect stem cells from the peripheral blood rather than the bone marrow. In order to collect a sufficient quantity of stem cells, injections of a medication called filgrastim must be administered. This mobilizes stem cells to travel from the bone marrow into the circulating blood. The stem cells are collected through a procedure called apheresis, which is similar to the process used in platelet donation. A cell separating machine filters out the stem cells, which can then be infused into the recipient. Today, PBSC is requested approximately 80 percent of the time.\n" ]

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[ "While renewables have been very successful in their ever-growing contribution to electrical power there are no countries dominated by fossil fuels who have a plan to stop and get that power from renwables. Only Scotland and Ontario have stopped burning coal, largely due to good natural gas supplies. In the area of transportation, fossil fuels are even more entrenched and solutions harder to find. It's unclear if there are failures with policy or renewable energy, but twenty years after the Kyoto Protocol fossil fuels are still our primary energy source and consumption continues to grow.\n\nSection::::Geopolitics of renewable energy.\n", "The obstacles to the widespread commercialization of renewable energy technologies are primarily political, not technical, and there have been many studies which have identified a range of \"non-technical barriers\" to renewable energy use. These barriers are impediments which put renewable energy at a marketing, institutional, or policy disadvantage relative to other forms of energy. Key barriers include:\n", "With the increasing consumption levels of energy, it is projected that the levels would increase by 21% in 2030. The cost of the renewables was relatively cheaper at $2.5m/MW as compared to the non-renewables & 2.7m/MW. Evidently, the use of renewable energy is a cost effective method of obtaining energy. Additionally, their use also dispenses with the trade-off that has existed between environmental conservation and economic growth.\n\nSection::::Research.:Mechanical energy.\n", "As of 2012, renewable energy plays a major role in the energy mix of many countries globally. Renewables are becoming increasingly economic in both developing and developed countries. Prices for renewable energy technologies, primarily wind power and solar power, continued to drop, making renewables competitive with conventional energy sources. Without a level playing field, however, high market penetration of renewables is still dependent on robust promotional policies. Fossil fuel subsidies, which are far higher than those for renewable energy, remain in place and quickly need to be phased out.\n", "The most significant barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low carbon energy strategies are primarily political and not technological. According to the 2013 \"Post Carbon Pathways\" report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are: climate change denial, the fossil fuels lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial constraints.\n\nSection::::Emerging technologies.\n", "Other renewable energy technologies are still under development, and include cellulosic ethanol, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and marine energy. These technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and research, development and demonstration (RD&D) funding.\n", "Renewable energy production from some sources such as wind and solar is more variable and more geographically spread than technology based on fossil fuels and nuclear. While integrating it into the wider energy system is feasible, it does lead to some additional challenges. In order for the energy system to remain stable, a set of measurements can be taken. Implementation of energy storage, using a wide variety of renewable energy technologies, and implementing a smart grid in which energy is automatically used at the moment it is produced can reduce risks and costs of renewable energy implementation.\n", "Renewable energy and energy efficiency are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that sustainable energy has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable resources decline. This is reinforced by climate change concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste, high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government support for renewable energy. These factors are commercializing renewable energy, enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.\n", "Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that \"sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs … Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand.\" .\n", "The most significant barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low carbon energy strategies are primarily political and not technological. According to the 2013 \"Post Carbon Pathways\" report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are: climate change denial, the fossil fuels lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial constraints.\n\nSection::::Energy efficiency.\n", "Second-generation technologies have gone from being a passion for the dedicated few to a major economic sector in countries such as Germany, Spain, the United States, and Japan. Many large industrial companies and financial institutions are involved and the challenge is to broaden the market base for continued growth worldwide.\n\nSection::::Second-generation technologies.:Solar heating.\n", "Climate change, pollution, and energy insecurity are significant problems, and addressing them requires major changes to energy infrastructures. Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to world energy security, reduce dependency on fossil fuels, and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. Climate-disrupting fossil fuels are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy:\n", "Mark Z. Jacobson says that there is no shortage of renewable energy and a \"smart mix\" of renewable energy sources can be used to reliably meet electricity demand:\n\nBecause the wind blows during stormy conditions when the sun does not shine and the sun often shines on calm days with little wind, combining wind and solar can go a long way toward meeting demand, especially when geothermal provides a steady base and hydroelectric can be called on to fill in the gaps.\n\nAs physicist Amory Lovins has said:\n", "Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that \"sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs … Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand.\"\n", "The incentive to use 100% renewable energy for electricity, transport, or even total primary energy supply globally, has been motivated by global warming and other ecological as well as economic concerns. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of the total global energy demand. In reviewing 164 recent scenarios of future renewable energy growth, the report noted that the majority expected renewable sources to supply more than 17% of total energy by 2030, and 27% by 2050; the highest forecast projected 43% supplied by renewables by 2030 and 77% by 2050. Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply.\n", "Due to advancements in technology, and with mass production, renewable sources other than hydroelectricity (solar power, wind energy, tidal power, etc.) experienced decreases in cost of production, and the energy is now in many cases cost-comparative with fossil fuels. Many governments around the world provide subsidies to offset the higher cost of any new power production, and to make the installation of renewable energy systems economically feasible. However, their use is frequently limited by their intermittent nature; sometimes less than demand, sometimes more than transmission constraints allow, in which case their production may be curtailed.\n\nSection::::Generating equipment.\n", "Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas without cheap fossil fuels. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where “oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today”. Indicative, levelised, economic costs for renewable power (exclusive of subsidies or policy incentives) are shown in the Table below.\n", "Climate change and global warming concerns, coupled with the continuing fall in the costs of some renewable energy equipment, such as wind turbines and solar panels, are driving increased use of renewables. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors. , however, according to the International Renewable Energy Agency, renewables overall share in the energy mix (including power, heat and transport) needs to grow six times faster, in order to keep the rise in average global temperatures \"well below\" during the present century, compared to pre-industrial levels.\n", "The 2014 REN21 Global Status Report says that renewable energies are no longer just energy sources, but ways to address pressing social, political, economic and environmental problems:\n\nToday, renewables are seen not only as sources of energy, but also as tools to address many other pressing needs, including: improving energy security; reducing the health and environmental impacts associated with fossil and nuclear energy; mitigating greenhouse gas emissions; improving educational opportunities; creating jobs; reducing poverty; and increasing gender equality... Renewables have entered the mainstream.\n\nSection::::Background.:Growth of renewables.\n", "Hydroelectric power has been the most predominant source of renewable energy for quite some time due to the fact that it has been proven to be reliable and has been in use for quite some time. This source of energy has provided the majority of renewable energy and has been a significant source of overall energy production in the United States. The problem with traditional hydroelectric power has been the requirement of damming rivers and other sources of water. The problem created by damming is that the natural environment of the area is disrupted due to the formation of a lake caused by the damming of the water source. This creates uproar by environmentalists and a large obstacle to clear before being able to build a hydroelectric plant. However, new forms of hydroelectric power that harness wave energy from the oceans have been in development in recent years. Although these power sources still need much development before they become economically viable, they do have potential to become significant sources of energy.\n", "According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS) data from 2006, hydroelectric power accounted for most of the renewable energy production in the United States. However, increasing government funding, grants, and incentives have been drawing many companies towards the biofuel, wind, and solar energy production industries.\n\nSection::::Moving towards renewable energy.\n", "Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies, which are already mature and economically competitive, include biomass, hydroelectricity, geothermal power and heat. Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time; they include solar heating, photovoltaics, wind power, solar thermal power stations, and modern forms of bioenergy. Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy. As of 2012, renewable energy accounts for about half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed and costs are continuing to fall.\n", "As of 2011, new evidence has emerged that there are considerable risks associated with traditional energy sources, and that major changes to the mix of energy technologies is needed: \n", "Although most of today’s electricity comes from large, central-station power plants, new technologies offer a range of options for generating electricity nearer to where it is needed, saving on the cost of transmitting and distributing power and improving the overall efficiency and reliability of the system.\n", "Hydro-electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP) and some biomass technologies. Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where \"oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today\". A series of studies by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory modeled the \"grid in the Western US under a number of different scenarios where intermittent renewables accounted for 33 percent of the total power.\" In the models, inefficiencies in cycling the fossil fuel plants to compensate for the variation in solar and wind energy resulted in an additional cost of \"between $0.47 and $1.28 to each MegaWatt hour generated\"; however, the savings in the cost of the fuels saved \"adds up to $7 billion, meaning the added costs are, at most, two percent of the savings.\"\n" ]

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[ "The wetness of skin in different areas also affects perceived thermal comfort. Humidity can increase wetness on different areas of the body, leading to a perception of discomfort. This is usually localized in different parts of the body, and local thermal comfort limits for skin wettedness differ by locations of the body. The extremities are much more sensitive to thermal discomfort from wetness than the trunk of the body. Although local thermal discomfort can be caused from wetness, the thermal comfort of the whole body will not be affected by the wetness of certain parts.\n", "Bone conduction plays a major role in underwater hearing when the head is in contact with the water (not inside a helmet), but human hearing underwater, in cases where the diver’s ear is wet, is less sensitive than in air.\n", "Skin wettedness is defined as \"the proportion of the total skin surface area of the body covered with sweat.\"\n", "Section::::Mammals.:Pinnipeds.:Seals.\n\nResearch on the ability of pinnipeds to detect hydrodynamic stimuli was first done on harbor seals (\"Phoca vitulina\"). It had been unclear how seals could find food in dark waters. It was found that a harbor seal that could use only its whiskers for sensory information (due to being blindfolded and wearing headphones), could respond to weak hydrodynamic stimuli produced by an oscillating sphere within the range of frequencies that fish would generate. As with active touch, whiskers are not moved during sensing, but are projected forward and remain in that position.\n", "While not well studied, the Rakali (Australian water rat) may also be able to detect water movements with its vibrissae as these have a large amount of innervation, though further behavioral studies are needed to confirm this.\n\nWhile tying the presence of whiskers to hydrodynamic reception has allowed the list of mammals with this special sense to grow, more research still needs to be done on the specific neural circuits involved.\n", "Section::::Ideal solid surfaces.:Minimization of energy, three phases.\n\nFigure 3 shows the line of contact where three phases meet. In equilibrium, the net force per unit length acting along the boundary line between the three phases must be zero. The components of net force in the direction along each of the interfaces are given by:\n", "Section::::Effects unaccounted for.\n\nSection::::Effects unaccounted for.:The hydrophobic effect.\n", "This sense is common in aquatic animals, the most cited example being the lateral line system, the array of hydrodynamic receptors found in fish and aquatic amphibians. Arthropods (including crayfish and lobsters) and some mammals (including pinnipeds and manatees) can use sensory hairs to detect water movements. Systems that detect hydrodynamic stimuli are also used for sensing other stimuli. For example, sensory hairs are also used for the tactile sense, detecting objects and organisms up close rather than via water disturbances from afar. Relative to other sensory systems, our knowledge of hydrodynamic sensing is rather limited. This could be because humans do not have hydrodynamic receptors, which makes it difficult for us to understand the importance of such a system. Generating and measuring a complex hydrodynamic stimulus can also be difficult.\n", "For [[Desmond Morris]], water on the skin is seen as mimicking the sweat of sexual arousal.\n\nSection::::Fashion and pop.\n\nThe [[Sixties]] success of the [[Merseybeat]] saw wetlook pvc coats coming down from Liverpool to enter the London fashion scene. A few decades later, a pop [[Ladette]] might feel ambivalent to find herself posing in a pvc catsuit.\n\nSection::::Classical prototypes.\n\nBULLET::::- [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] poetry has a girl telling her lover: “It is pleasant to go to the pool...That I may let you see my beauty in my tunic of finest royal linen When it is wet”.\n", "In general a vest's textile material temporarily degrades when wet. Neutral water at room temp does not affect para-aramid or UHMWPE but acidic, basic and some other solutions can permanently reduce para-aramid fiber tensile strength. (As a result of this, the major test standards call for wet testing of textile armor.) Mechanisms for this wet loss of performance are not known. Vests that will be tested after ISO-type water immersion tend to have heat-sealed enclosures and those that are tested under NIJ-type water spray methods tend to have water-resistant enclosures.\n", "Hearing threshold and the ability to localize sound sources are reduced underwater in humans, but not in aquatic animals, including whales, seals, and fish which have ears adapted to process water-borne sound.\n\nSection::::In vertebrates.\n", "Research has tested the model against experimental data and found it tends to overestimate skin temperature and underestimate skin wettedness. Fountain and Huizenga (1997) developed a thermal sensation prediction tool that computes SET.\n\nSection::::Models.:PMV/PPD method.:Local thermal discomfort.\n", "As such, even tennis balls and handballs, stress balls can be used as waterball and perform, admitted poorly, depending on force and angle to the water etc.\n", "The moisture given off by the human body, even when not exercising and sweating, will condense against the inside of the dry suit, and the way this condensate is handled by the underwear material will influence the comfort of the diver. If the underwear soaks up this moisture it will feel cold and clammy, particularly if this layer is against the skin. Materials which wick the moisture away from the skin and do not soak up the condensate will be more comfortable. Early thermal undersuits for drysuits were commonly made from wool, as it retains its insulating properties better when wet than most other natural fibres.\n", "Section::::DRY vs WET solutions.\n", "In 1952, UC Berkeley and subsequent UC San Diego SIO physicist Hugh Bradner, who is considered to be the original inventor and \"father of the modern wetsuit,\" had the insight that a thin layer of trapped water could be tolerated between the suit fabric and the skin, so long as insulation was present in the fabric in the form of trapped bubbles. In this case, the water would quickly reach skin temperature and the air in the fabric would continue to act as the thermal insulation to keep it that way. In the popular mind, the layer of water between skin and suit has been credited with providing the insulation. However, Bradner clearly understood that the suit did not need to be wet because it was not the water that provided the insulation but rather the gas in the suit fabric. He initially sent his ideas to Lauriston C. \"Larry\" Marshall who was involved in a U.S. Navy/National Research Council Panel on Underwater Swimmers. However, it was Willard Bascom, an engineer at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California, who suggested neoprene as a feasible material to Bradner.\n", "Section::::Development and release.:\"Hydrophobia Pure\".\n", "One specific definition of \"waterproof/breathable\" requires the fabric to withstand a pressure of over 1,000 millimetres of water (9.8 kPa) pressure without leaking (see hydrostatic head).\n", "Section::::Plot.\n", "Section::::Development and release.\n", "Only certain types of fiber can be wet felted successfully. Most types of fleece, such as those taken from the alpaca or the Merino sheep, can be put through the wet felting process. One may also use mohair (goat), angora (rabbit), or hair from rodents such as beavers and muskrats. These types of fiber are covered in tiny scales, similar to the scales found on a strand of human hair. Heat, motion, and moisture of the fleece causes the scales to open, while agitating them causes them to latch onto each other, creating felt. There is an alternative theory that the fibers wind around each other during felting. Plant fibers and synthetic fibers will not wet felt.\n", "Section::::Hearing.\n\nHearing is an important sensory system for most species of fish. Hearing threshold and the ability to localize sound sources are reduced underwater, in which the speed of sound is faster than in air. Underwater hearing is by bone conduction, and localization of sound appears to depend on differences in amplitude detected by bone conduction. As such, aquatic animals such as fish have a more specialized hearing apparatus that is effective underwater.\n", "With the exception of bare, polished metals, the appearance of a surface to the eye is not a good guide to emissivities near room temperature. Thus white paint absorbs very little visible light. However, at an infrared wavelength of 10x10 metres, paint absorbs light very well, and has a high emissivity. Similarly, pure water absorbs very little visible light, but water is nonetheless a strong infrared absorber and has a correspondingly high emissivity.\n\nSection::::Absorptivity.:Directional spectral emissivity.\n", "Although water is nearly transparent in the range of visible light, it becomes absorbing over the near-infrared region. Water is a critical component since its concentration is high in human tissue. The absorption spectrum of water in the range from 250 to 1000 nm is shown in Figure 2. Although absorption is rather low in this spectral range, it still contributes to the overall attenuation of tissue.\n\nOther tissue components with less significant contributions to the total absorption spectrum of tissue are melanin and fat.\n\nSection::::Absorption properties of tissue components.:Melanin.\n", "In the absence of interstitial materials, as in a vacuum, the contact resistance will be much larger, since flow through the intimate contact points is dominant.\n\nSection::::Factors influencing contact conductance.:Surface roughness, waviness and flatness.\n" ]

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[ "In humans, temperature sensation from thermoreceptors enters the spinal cord along the axons of Lissauer's tract that synapse on second order neurons in grey matter of the dorsal horn. The axons of these second order neurons then decussate, joining the spinothalamic tract as they ascend to neurons in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus.\n\nA study in 2017 shows that the thermosensory information passes to the lateral parabrachial nucleus rather than to the thalamus and this drives thermoregulatory behaviour.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared sensing in snakes\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared sensing in vampire bats\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "A particularly specialized form of thermoception is used by Crotalinae (pit viper) and Boidae (boa) snakes, which can effectively see the infrared radiation emitted by hot objects. The snakes' face has a pair of holes, or pits, lined with temperature sensors. The sensors indirectly detect infrared radiation by its heating effect on the skin inside the pit. They can work out which part of the pit is hottest, and therefore the direction of the heat source, which could be a warm-blooded prey animal. By combining information from both pits, the snake can also estimate the distance of the object.\n", "Thermoreceptors are sensory receptors, which respond to varying [temperature]s. While the mechanisms through which these receptors operate is unclear, recent discoveries have shown that mammals have at least two distinct types of thermoreceptors.\n\nThe bulboid corpuscle, is a cutaneous receptor a \"cold-sensitive\" receptor, that detects cold temperatures. The other type is a warmth-sensitive receptor.\n\nSection::::Types and function.:External.:Mechanoreceptors.\n\nMechanoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to mechanical forces, such as pressure or distortion.\n", "In mammals, temperature receptors innervate various tissues including the skin (as cutaneous receptors), cornea and urinary bladder. Neurons from the pre-optic and hypothalamic regions of the brain that respond to small changes in temperature have also been described, providing information on core temperature. The hypothalamus is involved in thermoregulation, the thermoreceptors allowing feed-forward responses to a predicted change in core body temperature in response to changing environmental conditions.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n\nThermoreceptors have been classically described as having 'free' non-specialized endings; the mechanism of activation in response to temperature changes is not completely understood.\n\nSection::::Function.\n", "Thermoception\n\nThermoception or thermoreception is the sense by which an organism perceives temperature, or more accurately, temperature differences inferred from heat flux. The details of how temperature receptors work are still being investigated. Ciliopathy is associated with decreased ability to sense heat, thus cilia may aid in the process. Transient receptor potential channels (TRP channels) are believed to play a role in many species in sensation of hot, cold, and pain. Vertebrates have at least two types of sensor: those that detect heat and those that detect cold.\n", "The cutaneous somatosensory system detects changes in temperature. The perception begins when thermal stimuli from a homeostatic set-point excite temperature specific sensory nerves in the skin. Then with the help of sensing range, specific thermosensory fibers respond to warmth and to cold. Then specific cutaneous cold and warm receptors conduct units that exhibit a discharge at constant skin temperature.\n\nSection::::Temperature modality.:Nerve fibers for temperature.\n", "In general, external temperature does not influence endothermic animal behavior or circadian rhythm because of the ability of these animals to keep their internal body temperature constant through homeostatic thermoregulation; however, peripheral oscillators (see Circadian rhythm) in mammals are sensitive to temperature pulses and will experience resetting of the circadian clock phase and associated genetic expression, suggesting how peripheral circadian oscillators may be separate entities from one another despite having a master oscillator within the SCN. Furthermore, when individual neurons of the SCN from a mouse were treated with heat pulses, a similar resetting of oscillators was observed, but when an intact SCN was treated with the same heat pulse treatment the SCN was resistant to temperature change by exhibiting an unaltered circadian oscillating phase. In ectothermic animals, particularly the ruin lizard \"Podacris sicula\", temperature has been shown to affect the circadian oscillators within the SCN. This reflects a potential evolutionary relationship among endothermic and ectothermic vertebrates, in how ectotherms rely on environmental temperature to affect their circadian rhythms and behavior and endotherms have an evolved SCN to essentially ignore external temperature and use photoreception as a means for entraining the circadian oscillators within their SCN. In addition, the differences of the SCN between endothermic and ectothermic vertebrates suggest that the neuronal organization of the temperature-resistant SCN in endotherms is responsible for driving thermoregulatory behaviors in those animals differently from those of ectotherms, since they rely on external temperature for engaging in certain behaviors.\n", "In 2006, Networked Robotics announced the introduction of \"Tempurity™\", a network-based, real-time temperature monitoring system, designed to collect temperatures over a wide area network. \"Tempurity\" includes an alarm system in which a user is notified by phone, text messaging, or e-mail when the area or device to be monitored falls outside of a set environmental range. The software was developed to meet FDA standards and works with rooms, ovens, incubators, refrigerators, freezers and commercial ultra low temperature freezers.\n\nSection::::Information.\n", "Section::::Calibration.\n\nSection::::Calibration.:Temperature sensors.\n", "BULLET::::- Shibire, which shuts neurons off, but only at higher temperatures (30 °C and above). Flies with this gene can be raised and tested at lower temperatures where their neurons will behave normally. Then the body temperature of the flies can be raised (since they are cold-blooded), and these neurons turn off. If the fly's behavior changes, this gives a strong clue to what those neurons do.\n", "Thermography by definition is by means of an instrument (artifact), but some living creatures have natural organs that function as counterparts to bolometers, and thus possess a crude type of thermal imaging capability (thermoception). One of the best known examples is infrared sensing in snakes.\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Infrared Tube, infrared imaging science demonstrations\n\nBULLET::::- Compix, Some uses of thermographic images in electronics\n\nBULLET::::- Thermographic Images, Infrared pictures\n\nBULLET::::- Uncooled thermal imaging works round the clock by Lawrence Mayes\n\nBULLET::::- IR Thermometry & Thermography Applications Repository , IR Thermometry & Thermography Applications Repository\n", "Section::::Lego Sensors.:Temperature Sensors.\n\nFor the temperature sensors, there are two versions: an open version and a protected version. The sensors come with a two meter long cord. The temperature sensors are thermistor-based; they are read as an analog sensor by the NXT.\n\nSection::::Lego Sensors.:Pressure Sensor.\n\nThe dPressure sensor is made specifically for the Lego NXT Mindstorms system. It is capable of measuring up to 250 kPa (30 psi) and 500 kPa (70 psi) of pressure and gauge vacuum.\n\nSection::::Lego Sensors.:Solar Sensor.\n", "After that, the two of them transcribed Grant's thumbprint onto various mediums and then tested whether the biometric fingerprint lock could be cracked by...\n\nSection::::Episode 59 – \"Crimes and Myth-Demeanors 2\".:Thermal Motion Sensor.\n\nThermographic cameras note any changes in the temperature gradient within its field of view (as seen in the 1992 film \"Sneakers\"). Kari, Tory and Grant tested whether a thermal motion sensor can be fooled by...\n\nSection::::Episode 59 – \"Crimes and Myth-Demeanors 2\".:Ultrasonic Motion Sensor.\n", "The sensing of temperature in cells is known as thermoception and is primarily mediated by transient receptor potential channels. Additionally, animal cells contain a conserved mechanism to prevent high temperatures from causing cellular damage, the heat-shock response. Such response is triggered when high temperatures cause the dissociation of inactive HSF1 from complexes with heat shock proteins Hsp40/Hsp70 and Hsp90. With help from the ncRNA \"hsr1\", HSF1 then trimerizes, becoming active and upregulating the expression of its target genes. Many other thermosensory mechanisms exist in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.\n\nSection::::Stimuli.:Light.\n", "Section::::Physiology.\n\nThermography, a method which produces pictures of the distribution of temperatures on an object, was used to investigate temperature variation across facial structures of the common vampire bat. The nasal structure has a temperature of 9 °C lower than the rest of the face. The thermal insulation of the nasal structure and maintained temperature difference may possibly prevent interference of self-emitted thermal radiation. Warm receptors located in the nose may then optimally detect outside sources of infrared radiation.\n", "Some physiological activities, particularly responses such as fever, in human beings and other warm-blooded animals can also be monitored with thermographic imaging. Cooled infrared cameras can be found at major astronomy research telescopes, even those that are not infrared telescopes.\n\nSection::::Types.\n\nThermographic cameras can be broadly divided into two types: those with cooled infrared image detectors and those with uncooled detectors.\n\nSection::::Types.:Cooled infrared detectors.\n", "BULLET::::- Cardiac Frequency The heartbeat is recorded through a frequency sensor placed on the index finger of the left hand, and its data is monitored and recorded through the entire duration of the experience.\n\nBULLET::::- Body Temperature A temperature sensor is placed on the palm of the right hand and communicates to the biofeedback machine through the recording of micro thermal variations.\n\nSection::::Peretti's work.\n", "The nerve fibers in the pit organ are constantly firing at a very low rate. Objects that are within a neutral temperature range do not change the rate of firing; the neutral range is determined by the average thermal radiation of all objects in the receptive field of the organ. The thermal radiation above a given threshold causes an increase in the temperature of the nerve fiber, resulting in stimulation of the nerve and subsequent firing, with increased temperature resulting in increased firing rate. The sensitivity of the nerve fibers is estimated to be 0.001 °C.\n", "Section::::Anatomy.:Molecular mechanism.\n", "Vampire bats, like snakes, have developed highly sensitive thermosensation, with specialized systems for detecting infrared radiation. Snakes co-opt a non-heat-sensitive channel, vertebrate TRPA1 (transient receptor potential cation channel A1), to produce an infrared detector, However vampire bats tune a channel that is already heat-sensitive, TRPV1, by lowering its thermal activation threshold to about 30 °C, which allows them to sense the target.\n", "Section::::Phylogeny and evolution.\n", "Thermoreceptors can be separated into two groups for warmth and cold detection. A subset of unmyelinated fibers are responsible for warmth detection. They are mechano-insensitive, low in number, and innervate small receptive fields. Aδ fibers are responsible for cold detection. However, there seems to be a subset of C-fibers that may function as cold-receptors along with A-fibers. Remarkably, these C-cold fibers seem to produce a sensation of unpleasant heat when there is no input from A-fibers. Altogether thermoreceptive afferents have not been studied as much as other systems.\n\nSection::::Autonomic efferent activity.\n", "BULLET::::- Mice: Among vertebrates, it is known that mammals are endotherms that are capable of homeostatic thermoregulation. Mice have been shown to have some thermosensitivity within the SCN, although the regulation of body temperature by mice experiencing hypothermia is more sensitive to whether they are in a bright or dark environment; it has been shown that mice in darkened conditions and experiencing hypothermia maintain a stable internal body temperature, even while fasting. In light conditions, mice showed a drop in body temperature under the same fasting and hypothermic conditions. Through analyzing genetic expression of \"Clock\" genes in wild-type and knockout strains, as well as analyzing the activity of neurons within the SCN and connections to proximate nuclei of the hypothalamus in the aforementioned conditions, it has been shown that the SCN is the center of control for circadian body temperature rhythm. This circadian control, thus, includes both direct and indirect influence of many of the thermoregulatory behaviors that mammals engage in to maintain homeostasis.\n", "A thermoreceptor is a non-specialised sense receptor, or more accurately the receptive portion of a sensory neuron, that codes absolute and relative changes in temperature, primarily within the innocuous range. In the mammalian peripheral nervous system, warmth receptors are thought to be unmyelinated C-fibres (low conduction velocity), while those responding to cold have both C-fibers and thinly myelinated A delta fibers (faster conduction velocity). The adequate stimulus for a warm receptor is warming, which results in an increase in their action potential discharge rate. Cooling results in a decrease in warm receptor discharge rate. For cold receptors their firing rate increases during cooling and decreases during warming. Some cold receptors also respond with a brief action potential discharge to high temperatures, i.e. typically above 45°C, and this is known as a paradoxical response to heat. The mechanism responsible for this behavior has not been determined.\n", "Cold-sensitive thermoreceptors give rise to the sensations of cooling, cold and freshness.\n\nIn the cornea cold receptors are thought to respond with an increase in firing rate to cooling produced by evaporation of lacrimal fluid 'tears' and thereby to elicit a blink reflex.\n\nSection::::Distribution.\n" ]

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[ "The amount of moving parts in a machine is a factor in its mechanical efficiency. The greater the number of moving parts, the greater the amount of energy lost to heat by friction between those parts. For example, in a modern automobile engine, roughly 7% of the total power obtained from burning the engine's fuel is lost to friction between the engine's moving parts.\n", "Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any heat that is not translated into work is normally considered a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.\n", "Neither the gross heat of combustion nor the net heat of combustion gives the theoretical amount of mechanical energy (work) that can be obtained from the reaction. (This is given by the change in Gibbs free energy, and is around 45.7 MJ/kg for gasoline.) The actual amount of mechanical work obtained from fuel (the inverse of the specific fuel consumption) depends on the engine. A figure of 17.6 MJ/kg is possible with a gasoline engine, and 19.1 MJ/kg for a diesel engine. See Brake specific fuel consumption for more information.\n\nSection::::Fuel efficiency of motor vehicles.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 - Michigan State University builds the first wave disk engine. An internal combustion engine which does away with pistons, crankshafts and valves, and replaces them with a disc-shaped shock wave generator.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of rocket and missile technology - Rockets can be considered to be heat engines. The heat of their exhaust gases is converted into mechanical energy.\n\nBULLET::::- History of thermodynamics\n\nBULLET::::- History of the internal combustion engine\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of motor and engine technology\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of steam power\n\nBULLET::::- Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Sources.\n", "BULLET::::1. Chemical energy in the fuel converted to kinetic energy of expanding gas via combustion\n\nBULLET::::2. Kinetic energy of expanding gas converted to linear piston movement\n\nBULLET::::3. Linear piston movement converted to rotary crankshaft movement\n\nBULLET::::4. Rotary crankshaft movement passed into transmission assembly\n\nBULLET::::5. Rotary movement passed out of transmission assembly\n\nBULLET::::6. Rotary movement passed through differential\n\nBULLET::::7. Rotary movement passed out of differential to drive wheels\n\nBULLET::::8. Rotary movement of drive wheels converted to linear motion of the vehicle\n\nSection::::Examples.:Other energy conversions.\n", "Note: The amount of work generated by the vehicle's power source (energy delivered by the engine) would be exactly proportional to the amount of fuel energy consumed by the engine if the engine's efficiency is the same regardless of power output, but this is not necessarily the case due to the operating characteristics of the internal combustion engine.\n\nFor a vehicle whose source of power is a heat engine (an engine that uses heat to perform useful work), the amount of fuel energy that a vehicle consumes per unit of distance (level road) depends upon:\n", "Section::::Kinetic energy of the moving parts of a machine.\n\nThe kinetic energy of a machine is the sum of the kinetic energies of its individual moving parts. A machine with moving parts can, mathematically, be treated as a connected system of bodies, whose kinetic energies are simply summed. The individual kinetic energies are determined from the kinetic energies of the moving parts' translations and rotations about their axes.\n", "Until the mid-1930s, the study of the theory of heat transfer from a moving source was neglected, and temperature distribution due to moving heat sources could only be calculated approximately. In 1935, Daniel Rosenthal published the first literature applying the exact theory of heat flow from a moving source to arc welding. Rosenthal's theoretical model included several assumptions:\n\nBULLET::::- Material properties are constant,\n\nBULLET::::- The heat source is a point source,\n\nBULLET::::- The surface of the work piece does not lose heat to the atmosphere,\n\nBULLET::::- Heat created by the Joule effect is neglected\n", "Since the total force opposing the vehicle's motion (at constant speed) multiplied by the distance through which the vehicle travels represents the work that the vehicle's engine must perform, the study of fuel economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of distance traveled) requires a detailed analysis of the forces that oppose a vehicle's motion. In terms of physics, Force = rate at which the amount of work generated (energy delivered) varies with the distance traveled, or:\n", "Machines converting energy contained in fuels to mechanical work or electric energy produce heat as a by-product.\n\nSection::::Sources.\n", "Energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy. Approximately 90% of the energy from the battery is converted to mechanical energy, the losses being in the motor and drivetrain.\n\nUsually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.\n", "Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products—hot gases—have more available thermal energy than the original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons.\n", "BULLET::::- Nachträge zur Broschüre (\"Supplement of the brochure\")\n\nSection::::Theory of combustion and construction of the ideal motor.\n\nSection::::Theory of combustion and construction of the ideal motor.:The principle.\n", "Kinetic energy may be best understood by examples that demonstrate how it is transformed to and from other forms of energy. For example, a cyclist uses chemical energy provided by food to accelerate a bicycle to a chosen speed. On a level surface, this speed can be maintained without further work, except to overcome air resistance and friction. The chemical energy has been converted into kinetic energy, the energy of motion, but the process is not completely efficient and produces heat within the cyclist.\n", "All real machines have friction, which causes some of the input power to be dissipated as heat. If formula_19 is the power lost to friction, from conservation of energy\n\nThe mechanical efficiency formula_21 of a machine (where formula_22) is defined as the ratio of power out to the power in, and is a measure of the frictional energy losses\n\nAs above, the power is equal to the product of force and velocity, so\n\nTherefore,\n", "Energy from the fuel is lost in air drag and gravity drag and is used for the rocket to gain altitude and speed. However, much of the lost energy ends up in the exhaust.\n\nIn a chemical propulsion device, the engine efficiency is simply the ratio of the kinetic power of the exhaust gases and the power available from the chemical reaction:\n", "BULLET::::4. Constant-pressure heat rejection. In this step, heat is removed from the working fluid while the fluid remains at constant pressure. In open-cycle engines this process usually represents expulsion of the gas from the engine, where it quickly equalizes to ambient pressure and slowly loses heat to the atmosphere, which is considered to be an infinitely large reservoir for heat storage, with constant pressure and temperature.\n", "Section::::Theory of combustion and construction of the ideal motor.:The third process.\n", "Section::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.:Honda.\n\nHonda also develops a module based on a Rankine Cycle to improve overall efficiency of hybrid vehicles, by recovering the heat of the engine and turning it into electricity for the battery pack.\n\nIn the US highway cycle, the Rankine cycle system regenerated three times as much energy as the vehicle's regenerative braking system.\n\nSection::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.:Exoès.\n", "Section::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.\n\nFacing the new American, European, Japanese or Chinese regulation, more and more stringent concerning CO2 emissions, exhaust heat recovery sounds like one of the most efficient ways to recover a free energy, since heat is generated in many ways by the engine. Numerous companies develop system based upon a Rankine Cycle:\n\nSection::::Exhaust Heat Recovery on internal combustion engines with Rankine Cycle Systems.:Passenger cars.:BMW.\n\nThe German company has been one of the first major to study exhaust heat recovery with a Rankine system called Turbosteamer.\n", "Another commonly considered model is the heat pump or refrigerator. Again there are four bodies: the working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the work reservoir. A single cycle starts with the working body colder than the cold reservoir, and then energy is taken in as heat by the working body from the cold reservoir. Then the work reservoir does work on the working body, adding more to its internal energy, making it hotter than the hot reservoir. The hot working body passes heat to the hot reservoir, but still remains hotter than the cold reservoir. Then, by allowing it to expand without doing work on another body and without passing heat to another body, the working body is made colder than the cold reservoir. It can now accept heat transfer from the cold reservoir to start another cycle.\n", "The above states that the system (the mass of gas) returns to the original thermodynamic state it was in at the start of the cycle.\n\nWhere formula_5is energy added to the system from 1–2–3 and formula_6 is energy is removed from 3–4–1. In terms of work and heat added to the system\n\nEquation 1b:\n\nEach term of the equation can be expressed in terms of the internal energy of the gas at each point in the process:\n\nThe energy balance Equation 1b becomes\n\nTo illustrate the example we choose some values to the points in the illustration:\n", "Today, many technological devices convert mechanical energy into other forms of energy or vice versa. These devices can be placed in these categories:\n\nBULLET::::- An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.\n\nBULLET::::- A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.\n\nBULLET::::- A hydroelectric powerplant converts the mechanical energy of water in a storage dam into electrical energy.\n\nBULLET::::- An internal combustion engine is a heat engine that obtains mechanical energy from chemical energy by burning fuel. From this mechanical energy, the internal combustion engine often generates electricity.\n", "Recharging with electricity generated by newer, 58% efficiency CCGT power plants, changes the factor to 21,763  in the above equation and yields a fuel efficiency of 77.7 mpg.\n\nRecharging with non-fossil fuel electricity sources such as hydroelectric, solar power, wind or nuclear, the petroleum equivalent efficiency can be even higher as fossil fuel is not directly used in refueling.\n\nSection::::Service.\n", "If the units used were MKS the cycle would have produced one joule of energy in the form of work. For an engine of a particular displacement, such as one liter, the mass of gas of the system can be calculated assuming the engine is operating at standard temperature (20 °C) and pressure (1 atm). Using the Universal Gas Law the mass of one liter of gas is at room temperature and sea level pressure:\n\nAt an engine speed of 3000 RPM there are 1500 work-strokes/minute or 25 work-strokes/second.\n\nPower is 25 times that since there are 25 work-strokes/second\n" ]

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[ "Section::::The disc.\n\nThe disc for cooking the meats is usually a disc harrow made of either iron or steel. Shaped like a Chinese Wok, the disc provides an even heat distribution ideal for cooking. The cast iron also provides a robust, earthy flavor to food cooked in this fashion. The original concave disc shape is unaltered, however the disc can have handles or a tripod welded to it for easy access.\n\nSection::::The process.\n", "This is the point where the neck meets the body. In the traditional Spanish neck joint the neck and block are one piece with the sides inserted into slots cut in the block. Other necks are built separately and joined to the body either with a dovetail joint, mortise or flush joint. These joints are usually glued and can be reinforced with mechanical fasteners. Recently many manufacturers use bolt on fasteners. Bolt on neck joints were once associated only with less expensive instruments but now some top manufacturers and hand builders are using variations of this method. Some people believed that the Spanish style one piece neck/block and glued dovetail necks have better sustain, but testing has failed to confirm this.\n", "BULLET::::- . At p. 303, \"The hobbing process conceived in 1856 by Christian Schiele became a practical one for production work as soon as involute-shaped gear teeth superseded the cycloidal type in the 1880s, since the involute hob, like the involute rack, has straight sides (for the worm is a form of continuous rack) so that to make a hob from a worm all one has to do is to gash some teeth in the worm so that it will cut the blank as it is rotated.\"\n", "BULLET::::- The third and fourth regions bear the second and third pairs of legs. Here, too, there are shorter transverse furrows on the back, which run out laterally to the leg shoulder. They are, however, shifted forward against the center line of the segment.\n\nBULLET::::- In the fifth region there is a transverse furrow on the abdomen, which runs out slightly laterally on the back line.\n\nThe length ratio of the segments 2 to 5 is indicated as 1: 1.3: 1.3: 2.\n", "Fretless bowed-string fingerboards are usually scooped lengthwise in a smooth curve, so that if a straight edge is held next to the board parallel to a string, some daylight shows between them, towards the centre of the board. Usually the scoop is slightly greater on the bass side, less on the treble side of the fingerboard. Different string materials or different styles of playing may call for differing amounts of scoop. Nylon or gut strings require the most, and solid steel-core strings the least. A typical full-size (4/4) violin with synthetic-core G, D, and A strings shows 0.75 mm of scoop under the G string, and between 0.5 mm and zero scoop under the E, which is usually a solid steel core on modern instruments.\n", "Surface gratings, consisting on ordered surface features due exposure of ordered muscle cells on cuts of meat. The structural coloration on meat cuts appears only after the ordered pattern of muscle fibrils is exposed and light is diffracted by the proteins in the fibrils. The coloration or wavelength of the diffracted light depends on the angle of observation and can be enhanced by covering the meat with translucent foils. Roughening the surface or removing water content by drying causes the structure to collapse, thus, the structural coloration to disappear.\n\nSection::::Mechanisms.:Variable structures.\n", "As the pH drops, proteins in the myofibers are denatured, leading to abnormal cell structure. The result is a pale tissue color, and a soft, almost mushy texture. The sarcomeres collapse excessively, and less water is held within the cell membrane and proteins. Subsequently, the myofibers will continue to lose water content as the meat is cooled and stored, leading to excessive drip loss.\n", "No ascending or palatal process can be found on the specimen, and nor can the 'rear forking prong' mentioned above. Indeed, the prong mentioned can only be found on a single specimen of \"Ornithosuchus.\" \n\nSection::::Features.:Pterygoid (ELGNM 15).\n", "The particle motion is also entirely perpendicular or entirely parallel to the plane of the plate, at a mode's nascent frequency. Close to the nascent frequencies of modes corresponding to longitudinal-wave resonances of the plate, their particle motion will be almost entirely perpendicular to the plane of the plate; and near the shear-wave resonances, parallel.\n", "A tapered peg is simply a smooth peg with a string wound around it. The tension of the string is controlled by turning the peg, and the peg is held in place by friction in its hole (in contrast to tuning machines, below). \n", "One method of distributing groundbait close to the hookbait is by using a method feeder. The method feeder is a wire container that holds compact, moistened groundbait and other particle baits above the hook bait on the fishing line. When the line is cast out, the method feeder disperses its contents right over the bait, attracting fish from a wider area. Another method is to simply squeeze the ball of groundbait onto the line just above the hook.\n\nSection::::Regulation.\n", "Sometimes, bits of string are present in the meat, having been tied around the meat to compress it and hold it together as it is being smoked; the strings are not eaten.\n\nThere are several types of hangikjöt. The meat can come from various parts of the sheep, but the most common is the hind legs. A whole leg on the bone, with an adequate layer of fat, is by many considered the best of all, although others prefer the convenience of a boned roll of meat or want most of the fat trimmed off.\n\nSection::::Commercial form.\n", "However, even in the absence of a solution, it is possible to note that decay of the partials is connected with the merit factor (Q) of their resonance, and provokes a widening of the spectral line—always more marked the more the relative mode is damped. The internal frictions are proportional to the velocity of variation of the local curvature, which increases with the frequency. It can therefore be presumed that, similarly to stretched strings, damping of the modes increases with their frequency. Consequently, in the upper spectral areas, where the modes are close together and massed (see Figs. 9 & 10), the transfer function of the membrane is more continuous than discrete, with moderate peaks on the modal frequencies. In these areas the modes which can be excited are less precisely definable and depend on the loop gain and on the frequency characteristics of the negative feedback electronic circuit. Conversely, the passage from one mode to another of adjacent frequency has little influence on the resultant frequency.\n", "Section::::Tapered pegs and pins.:Peg dope.\n\n\"Peg dope\" (also peg paste, peg stick, peg compound) is a substance used to coat the bearing surfaces of the tapered tuning pegs of string instruments (mainly violins, violas, cellos, viols and lutes ). Manufactured varieties are generally sold in either a small stick (resembling lipstick), a block, or as a liquid in a bottle. Commonly used home expedient treatments may include soap, graphite, or talc.\n", "The deadbeat escapement has two faces to the pallets, a 'locking' or 'dead' face, with a curved surface concentric with the axis on which the anchor rotates, and a sloping 'impulse' face. When an escape wheel tooth is resting against one of the dead faces, its force is directed through the anchor's pivot axis, so it gives no impulse to the pendulum, allowing it to swing freely. When the pallet on the other side releases the escape wheel, a tooth lands on this \"dead\" face first, and remains resting against it for most of the pendulum's outward swing and return. For this period the escape wheel is \"locked\" and unable to turn. Near the bottom of the pendulum's swing the tooth slides off the dead face onto the slanted 'impulse' face of the pallet, allowing the escape wheel to turn and give the pendulum a push, before dropping off the pallet. It is still a frictional rest escapement because the sliding of the escape tooth on the dead face adds friction to the pendulum's swing, but it has less friction than the recoil escapement because there is no recoil force.\n", "Six bridge saddles are held against this plate by string tension, individually adjustable both for height and intonation. The tailpiece consists of a solid block of metal, secured to the base plate by three machine screws and residing in a cavity routed all the way through the guitar's body. In a chamber routed into the back of the guitar, up to five coil springs tether the end of the tailpiece block to the body, counteracting the pull of the strings.\n", "This relative displacement between the racks causes additional loading on the leg members, which induces additional stresses between\n\nBULLET::::- the rack and pinion teeth that are meshing during the jacking operation, which increases rack and pinion wear\n\nBULLET::::- the rack teeth and the upper and lower leg guides, which increases rack wear on the tips\n\nBULLET::::- the welded connections between bracings and chords\n", "The number of vacancies does not directly affect the PLC start point. It was found if a material is pre-strained to a value ½ of that required to initiate jerky flow and then rested at the test temperature or annealed to remove vacancies (but low enough that the dislocation structure is not affected), the total critical strain is only slightly decreased as well as the types of serrations that do occur.\n\nSection::::Serrations descriptors.\n", "In theory, pressure on any two points of the membrane could create constraints incompatible with any mode.\n\nHowever, all these considerations are better limited to modes of relatively low order. In fact it can be presumed that the approximation of the non-rigid membrane results less valid with the increase of the mode order, since the node base tends to become comparable with the thickness of the membrane itself.\n", "Some unscrupulous purveyors have taken advantage of the improved appearance in an attempt to pass it off as the higher-quality naturally marbled meat, especially in environments such as restaurants, where the meat's packaging and labelling are not visible to customers.\n\nSection::::Manufacturing process.\n", "In the whip and tongue variation, a notch is cut downwards into the sliced face of the stock and a similar cut upwards into the face of the scion cut. These act as the tongues and it requires some skill to make the cuts so that the scion and the stock marry up neatly. The elongated \"Z\" shape adds strength, removing the need for a companion rod in the first season (see illustration).\n", "The lid can be flexed, which will bend the pitch. While many stringed instruments can pitch bend, others bend along only one direction, altering the pitch of only a single set of strings, and by changing the tension of all strings together, their musical interval relationships stay constant. By having two courses of strings which are not parallel, the pitch bending changes the tonal relationships between the two sets of strings. If the instrument is flexed parallel to one set of strings, that set of strings remains unaltered, but the perpendicular set of strings deepens in pitch. If the instrument is flexed at an angle to both sets of strings, the pitch of both sets varies in a mathematically related fashion. Past a certain degree of flex, the two courses of strings touch and dampen each other, and the sounds produced by the spring dominate.\n", "Jones and associates using the well known sheep model, which is a rapidly, universally and highly calcifying model, implanted porcine and pericardial valves either 'standard' or pre-treated with the Hancock T6 or the Edwards PV2 processes. The results showed that these processes mitigated the calcification of porcine valves but did not have any effect on the pericardial valves. Gallo conducted similar experiments using the same model as Jones and Ferrans and implanted Hancock porcine valves, with and without the T6 treatment, in the mitral and tricuspid positions of sheep. He found no significant difference in the amount of cusp calcification between the standard and the T6 treated valves, whether in the mitral or in the tricuspid position.\n", "Section::::Production.\n\nBurrata starts out much like mozzarella and many other cheeses, with rennet used to curdle the warm milk. But then, unlike other cheeses, fresh mozzarella curds are plunged into hot whey or lightly salted water, kneaded, and pulled to develop the familiar stretchy strings (pasta filata), then shaped in whatever form is desired.\n", "By using a baking sheet pan placed above the grill surface, as well as a drip pan below the surface, it is possible to combine grilling and roasting to cook meats that are stuffed or coated with breadcrumbs or batter, and to bake breads and even casseroles and desserts. When cooking stuffed or coated meats, the foods can be baked first on the sheet pan, and then placed directly on the grilling surface for char marks, effectively cooking twice; the drip pan will be used to capture any crumbs that fall off from the coating or stuffing.\n\nSection::::Methods.:Gridironing.:Grill-braising.\n" ]

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[ "BULLET::::- 1970 July 12: The central mast of the Orlunda radio transmitter in central Sweden collapsed after a lightning strike destroyed its foundation insulator.\n\nBULLET::::- 1994 November 2: A lightning incident led to the explosion of fuel tanks in Dronka, Egypt, causing 469 fatalities.\n", "BULLET::::- British journalist and TV presenter Jeremy Clarkson borrowed a Lightning (serial \"XM172\") which was temporarily placed in his garden and documented on Clarkson's TV show \"Speed\".\n\nBULLET::::- Professor Brian Cox used a South African Lightning (\"XS451\") in an episode of the BBC TV programme \"Wonders of the Solar System\". The Lightning climbed to a very high altitude, allowing the Professor to show the curvature of the Earth and the relative dimensions of the atmosphere. This aircraft crashed a month later at the Overberg Airshow after developing mechanical problems.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nSection::::References.:Sources.\n", "BULLET::::- T-26 mod. 1939 in the Parola Tank Museum, (Finland): the Finnish war-time modernization (Finnish tactical number Ps 164–7); a hull from a KhT-133 flame-throwing tank with a mounted turret from the T-26 mod. 1938/1939 and a ball mount for the DT tank machine gun in a hull front armoured plate.\n\nBULLET::::- KhT-130 flame-throwing tank in the Kubinka Tank Museum, Moscow Oblast (Russia): in reality this is the TU-26 teletank control vehicle with a dummy flame-thrower.\n", "BULLET::::- 2011 June 8: A lightning strike sent 77 Air Force cadets to the hospital when it struck in the middle of a training camp at Camp Shelby, Mississippi.\n\nBULLET::::- 2013 February: Nine South African children were hospitalized after a lightning incident occurred on a cricket field at their school, injuring five children on the pitch and four girls who were walking home.\n", "High-voltage transformer fire barriers are often required to defeat ballistics from small arms as well as projectiles from transformer bushings and lightning arresters, which form part of large electrical transformers, per NFPA 850. Such fire barriers may be designed to inherently function as armour, or may be passive fire protection materials \"augmented by armour\", where care must be taken to ensure that the armour's reaction to fire does not cause issues with regards to the fire barrier being armoured to defeat explosions and projectiles in addition to fire, especially since both functions must be provided simultaneously, meaning they must be fire-tested together to provide realistic evidence of fitness for purpose.\n", "BULLET::::- \"XN782\" Lightning F.2A at the Flugausstellung Hermeskeil, Germany.\n\nSection::::Surviving aircraft.:Kuwait.\n\nBULLET::::- On display\n\nBULLET::::- \"53–418\" Lightning F.53 at the Kuwait Science and Natural History Museum, Kuwait City. It can be seen from surrounding buildings and is located at .\n\nBULLET::::- Lightning F.53 at the Abdullah Al-Mubarak Air Base.\n\nBULLET::::- Three Lightnings on stands at Al Jaber Air Base\n\nSection::::Surviving aircraft.:Netherlands.\n\nBULLET::::- On display\n\nBULLET::::- \"XN784\" Lightning F.2A at Baarlo.\n\nSection::::Surviving aircraft.:Saudi Arabia.\n\nBULLET::::- On display\n\nBULLET::::- \"XN770\" Lightning F.52 at the Royal Saudi Air Force Museum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.\n", "BULLET::::- The International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp Blanding, Florida typically uses rocket triggered lightning in their research studies.\n\nBULLET::::- Laser-triggered\n\nBULLET::::- Since the 1970s, researchers have attempted to trigger lightning strikes by means of infrared or ultraviolet lasers, which create a channel of ionized gas through which the lightning would be conducted to ground. Such triggering of lightning is intended to protect rocket launching pads, electric power facilities, and other sensitive targets.\n", "BULLET::::- Electrical damage: the load cells can be damaged by induced or conducted current. Lightning hitting the construction, or arc welding performed near the cells, can overstress the fine resistors of the strain gauges and cause their damage or destruction. For welding nearby, it is suggested to disconnect the load cell and short all its pins to the ground, nearby the cell itself. High voltages can break through the insulation between the substrate and the strain gauges.\n", "BULLET::::- \"XN767\" Lightning F.52 pylon mounted at the Aeromedical centre on King Abdulaziz Air Base Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.\n\nBULLET::::- Unidentified Lightning at entrance to Taif Heart Mall in downtown Taif, Saudi Arabia.\n\nBULLET::::- \"224\" Lightning Mark F.53 on display at Royal Saudi Air Force, King Khalid Airbase in Khamis Mushyt, Saudi Arabia. GPS 18.260764, 42.795216\n\nBULLET::::- Unidentified Lightning mounted in a static display on the Royal Saudi Air Force, King Khalid Airbase in Khamis Mushyt, Saudi Arabia. GPS 18.272086, 42.805935\n", "BULLET::::- In 2005, an incident occurred in Guernsey, where an apparent lightning strike on an aircraft led to multiple fireball sightings on the ground.\n", "Janjaweed militias use technicals on their raids against civilian villages in Darfur, Sudan, as do the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebel troops in defense of their areas of operations. Light vehicles such as technicals are often thought to be more mobile than armored vehicles, but on one occasion an African peace-keeper driving a \"Grizzly\" AVGP whose guns had jammed, succeeded in catching up with, ramming and rolling over a fleeing Sudanese technical.\n\nSection::::History.:Lebanon.\n", "The protection against small arms, missiles, rocket-propelled grenades and anti-tank mines was shown during the UN operations in Bosnia. Two Warriors were destroyed during the First Gulf War, with nine soldiers killed, in a friendly fire incident when hit by an AGM-65 Maverick launched in error by an American A-10 Thunderbolt II.\n\nAs of 17 November 2008, 22 soldiers had been killed while travelling in Warrior IFVs in Afghanistan or Iraq.\n\nOn 7 March 2012, six British soldiers were killed in an explosion that hit a Warrior IFV in Helmand.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n", "In the early years of the Shuttle there were problems with APU reliability, with malfunctions on three of the first nine Shuttle missions.\n\nSection::::Armor.\n\nAPUs are fitted to some tanks to provide electrical power without the high fuel consumption and large infrared signature of the main engine. As far back as World War II, the American M4 Sherman had a small, piston-engine powered APU for charging up the tank's batteries, a feature the Soviet-produced T-34 tank, did not have.\n\nSection::::Commercial vehicles.\n", "Electrically charged armour is a recent development in the United Kingdom by the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory. A vehicle is fitted with two thin shells, separated by insulating material. The outer shell holds an enormous electric charge, while the inner shell is at ground. If an incoming HEAT jet penetrates the outer shell and forms a bridge between the shells, the electrical energy discharges through the jet, disrupting it. Trials have so far been extremely promising, and it is hoped that improved systems could protect against KE penetrators. The developers of the Future Rapid Effect System (FRES) series of armoured vehicles are considering this technology.\n", "BULLET::::- Unidentified Lightning on display in a small air park just inside the main gate of King Faisal Air Base in Tabuk, Saudi Arabia. GPS 28.380036, 36.605270\n\nSection::::Surviving aircraft.:South Africa.\n\nBULLET::::- Airworthy\n\nBULLET::::- \"ZU-BBD\" (former XS452) Lightning T.5 based at Cape Town.\n\nBULLET::::- Stored or under restoration\n\nBULLET::::- \"ZU-BEW\" (former XR773) Lightning F.6 stored in Cape Town.\n\nBULLET::::- \"ZU-BEY\" (former XP693) Lightning F.6 stored in Cape Town.\n\nSection::::Surviving aircraft.:United Kingdom.\n\nBULLET::::- On display\n\nBULLET::::- \"WG760\", the first prototype P.1A at the RAF Museum Cosford, England.\n\nBULLET::::- \"WG763\", the second prototype P.1A at the Museum of Science and Industry, Manchester, England.\n", "Lightning arresters can form part of large electrical transformers and can fragment during transformer ruptures. High-voltage transformer fire barriers are required to defeat ballistics from small arms as well as projectiles from transformer bushings and lightning arresters, per NFPA 850.\n\nSection::::Components.\n", "Many modern tanks (for instance, the M1 Abrams, Leopard 2, Challenger 2 and Leclerc series, to name a few) feature ammunition compartments designed to fail safely under fire as a firepower kill—when damaged, vents open to channel ignited propellants and explosives away from the crew cabin. The intact crew can then return the tank to a maintenance center or, at least, escape their disabled vehicle.\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- \"The Eve of Destruction: The Untold Story of the Yom Kippur War\", Howard Blum, Harper Perennial, 2004\n\nBULLET::::- \"Tanks of World War II\"; Jane's Information Group, HarperResource, 1995\n", "In Budapest on 23 October 2006, the 2006 protests in Hungary climaxed during the 50th anniversary of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Protesters managed to start an unarmed T-34 tank which was part of a memorial exhibit, and used it in riots against police forces. The tank drove a few hundred metres, then stopped in front of the police, causing no personal injury.\n\nSection::::Variants.\n", "BULLET::::- \"XM989\" Lightning T.54 at the main entrance to King Abdul-Aziz Air Base, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.\n\nBULLET::::- \"55–716\" Lightning T.55 at the Royal Saudi Air Force Museum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.\n\nBULLET::::- “227” Lightning pylon-mounted on static display in a traffic circle outside the main gate of King Faisal Air Base in Tabuk, Saudi Arabia. GPS 28.387229, 36.594182\n\nThe following are on display but with no public access:\n\nBULLET::::- \"XG313\" Lightning F.1 at the VIP terminal on King Abdulaziz Air Base Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.\n", "BULLET::::- In the film \"Severance\" (2006), a black comedy involving a weapons manufacturer team-building trip to Eastern Europe, a reference is made to their CRM-114 antipersonnel land mine that is apparently doing quite well.\n\nBULLET::::- In the game HorrorClix (2006), the unit called \"Carnage Bot\" is also known by the code \"CRM114\", confirmed by game designer Seth Johnson to be a Kubrick reference.\n", "BULLET::::- Ex nA II T3 X (Type n, non-sparking, Group 2 gases, Temperature class 3, special conditions apply).\n", "Flame tanks have been superseded by thermobaric weapons such as the Russian TOS-1.\n\nSection::::Modern classification by type and role.:Tank.:Infantry tank.\n", "BULLET::::- 1 July 1987 – Lightning F6 \"XR763\" of No. 5 Squadron RAF was abandoned on approach to RAF Akrotiri following engine failure after it had ingested a target drogue.\n\nBULLET::::- 1988\n\nBULLET::::- 11 April 1988 – Lightning F6 \"XR769\" of No. 5 Squadron RAF was abandoned five miles off Spurn Head after engine fire.\n\nSection::::2000s.\n\nBULLET::::- 2009\n", "BULLET::::- Sparker can be best described as a living lightning bolt that was first seen in \"how to unplug a Sparker\" when the Plunket family rented it to power their house and eventually through one of the pranks by the twins via kite in a lightning storm the second time it came out as a hero when it plugged itself into a monster computer virus and in the process saved the town when it shorted out the Virus.\n", "BULLET::::- 12 December 1962 – Royal Air Force Lightning T4 \"XM994\" of the Lightning Conversion Flight was destroyed by fire after the landing gear collapsed on landing at RAF Middleton St. George.\n\nBULLET::::- 1963\n\nBULLET::::- 26 April 1963 – Lighting F1 \"XM142\" of No. 74 Squadron RAF was abandoned off Cromer, Norfolk following hydraulic failure.\n\nBULLET::::- 6 June 1963 – Lighting F1A \"XM179\" of No. 56 Squadron RAF was abandoned after it collided with \"XM181\" over Great Bricett, Suffolk.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Background.\n", "This \"upset\" has been seen in experiments in which human subjects were given clinical tests of the vestibular system before and after ingesting alcohol. The alcohol apparently causes the ampullary cupula in the semicircular canal to become lighter than the surrounding fluid (endolymph), which causes the system to become sensitive to gravity in addition to rotational acceleration.\n\nThe spins are often reported when alcohol is mixed with cannabis, since both may cause dizziness and magnify each other's effects. Smoking after drinking especially intensifies the effects of the alcohol, often resulting in nausea.\n\nSection::::Treatment and prevention.\n", "One of the main effects of alcohol is severely impairing a person's ability to shift attention from one thing to another, \"without significantly impairing sensory motor functions.\" This indicates that people who are intoxicated are not able to properly shift their attention without affecting the senses. People that are intoxicated also have a much more narrow area of usable vision than people who are sober. The information the brain receives from the eyes \"becomes disrupted if eyes must be turned to the side to detect stimuli, or if eyes must be moved quickly from one point to another.\"\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n", "Section::::Release and promotion.\n", "Swingin' with My Eyes Closed\n\n\"Swingin’ with My Eyes Closed\" is a song written and performed by Canadian singer-songwriter, Shania Twain. It was released on August 18, 2017, and serves as the second single from Twain's fifth studio album \"Now\".\n\nSection::::Live performances.\n", "Mixing alcohol with normal soft drinks, rather than diet drinks delays the dizzying effects of alcohol because the sugary mixture slows the emptying of the stomach, so that drunkenness occurs less rapidly.\n\nThe dizzying effects of alcohol upset the fragile mechanism that the inner ear uses to balance.\n\nBalance in the body is monitored principally by two systems, both of which are affected by alcohol sending abnormal impulses to the brain, [which tells it] that the body is rotating, causing disorientation and making the eyes spin round to compensate.\n", "Alcohol can also cause alterations in the vestibular system for short periods and will result in vertigo and possibly nystagmus due to the variable viscosity of the blood and the endolymph during the consumption of alcohol. The common term for this type of sensation is the \"bed spins\". \n\nBULLET::::- PAN I - The alcohol concentration is higher in the blood than in the vestibular system, hence the endolymph is relatively dense.\n\nBULLET::::- PAN II - The alcohol concentration is lower in the blood than in the vestibular system, hence the endolymph is relatively dilute.\n", "Section::::Critical reception.\n\nLarry Flick of \"Billboard\" wrote \"Walker has played a hell of a good game at radio, and urged along by a relentless rhythm track, he hits this one right out of the park. It'll take a few more innings to know for sure, but with the right coaching Walker could become the next country music MVP.\"\n", "Section::::Risky behavior.\n", "CEV does not involve the liquid and air bubbles on the surface of the cornea, which can also be seen by extremely nearsighted people when looking at bright point-light sources with glasses/contacts removed. Also called \"floaters\", they often appear as cells floating across the eye. Full-closing and reopening the eyelids creates a very definite wiper-ridge in the corneal liquid that is readily visible. Fully closing and reopening the eyelids also stirs up the corneal liquid which settles down after a brief moment. The motion of waking-consciousness CEV noise is not so directly and physically controllable and repeatable. This is not necessarily only associated with extreme nearsightedness.\n", "Kxng Crooked has battled alcohol abuse on and off for years and told MTV News, “I’ve been in several dark places in my life. Betrayed by those closest to me or feelings of hopelessness in situations I can’t control or even others trying to remove me from this earth… It takes its toll. I have to rise above and keep moving forward for myself and my loved ones. I like to meditate and read a lot so that helps. Music is my ultimate medicine, though.\"\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "This is their first song after the firing of their drummer Jimmy Chamberlin.\n\nSection::::Song history.\n", "On December 15, 2014 it was announced that lead vocalist Sam Robinson had decided to leave the band and to continue his music career with a different project. Later that day it was announced that Close Your Eyes would be attending South By So What festival 2015 with the return of their original lead vocalist Shane Raymond.\n", "In April 1985, the single was discussed by Molly Meldrum and Queen singer Freddie Mercury on the Australian music show \"Countdown\". Mercury was impressed and predicted the band would be \"very, very big\".\n\nThe \"Total Overhang Club Mix\" was later included on the 1985 compilation \"Bangs & Crashes\". The standard version appeared again on \"Aces and Kings: The Best of Go West\" in 1993.\n", "Alcohol can alleviate the drinker’s feelings of stress or anxiety. Alcohol myopia limits those under the influence of alcohol to see the world through a nearsighted lens; in other words, consumption of alcohol will lead individuals to temporarily forget about previous worries or problems, for these feelings lay outside of the restricted set of immediate cues that the drinker can respond to. By depriving the individual of the attention capacity necessary to process undesirable thoughts, alcohol myopia can bring the drinker a sense of relief.\n\nSection::::Three classes of myopia.:Excess.\n", "The accompanying music video for the song was directed by Peter Zavadil and is a sequel to Moore's previous single \"Point at You\", with Jessica Ahlberg reprising her role as his girlfriend and going out in the town at night.\n\nSection::::Critical reception.\n\nThe song received a favorable review from \"Taste of Country\", which said that \"the specifics are what set the song apart from others that borrow from the same spice rack of country song cooking.\" It concluded that \"the singer isn’t veering from a course that’s clearly working for him.\"\n\nSection::::Music video.\n", "When Spindler awakens, he is still in the bar—but it is now dark, desolate, and abandoned. Through the glass door, he observes what has truly happened. The somber-faced man was the man he ran off the road and killed. The gloomy woman, meanwhile, is the man's widow. When Spindler tries to get out he finds the doors locked and through a window he sees his own dead body being loaded into an ambulance. Screaming to be let out, Spindler turns around and sees the image of the bartender in the mirror. The bartender laughs and cries out: \"It's yours. It's all yours!\" Spindler is left alone with nothing but empty bottles to comfort him for eternity.\n", "The video for \"Alcoholic\" starts outside of a house in the night with an image of James in front of a car that has its lights on. The shot then change showing the band playing in a garage with an introspective air in the scene. Later the video shows some scenes inside the house where everything is not in order and it's raining and thundering while the camera moves around simulating the state of an alcoholized person. After all, it's seen from a window on the last bedroom Walsh singing the last sentences of the song dramatically while the rain falls.\n", "The album's tenth track, entitled \"Open Your Eyes,\" was used in the season 4 finale of CBS's \"Cold Case\" and in the season 12 finale of \"ER\", the closing scenes of the pilot of \"The Black Donnellys\" and also in the second episode of the third season of \"Grey's Anatomy\".\n", "Section::::Risky behavior.:Drunk driving.\n", "The first sessions for the album occurred in August 2011 at the band's Los Angeles-based rehearsal space, the \"Clubhouse,\" where the song \"Burnt Out Town\" was recorded. The album marks a stylistic return to the band's first two albums, \"Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers\" (1976) and \"You're Gonna Get It!\" (1978).\n\nSection::::Promotion.\n", "The music video was directed by Peter Zavadil and premiered in December 2013. The video is a sequel to the music video of Moore's song \"Point at You.\" Jesica Ahlberg, who played Moore's girlfriend in the \"Point at You\" video, reprises her role in this video. The video shows Moore and his girlfriend acting out the song's lyrics by driving around town late at night and running from the police. In between these scenes Moore is shown standing in middle of the hallway of closed high school, singing the song.\n\nSection::::Chart performance.\n", "During an interview, Walker stated, \"On my very first CD there was a song called \"Dreaming with My Eyes Open\"--an up-tempo, fast-beat song. I almost considered not recording it. It didn't strike me as a song I could sing great, but my producer talked me into it. It became one of the most played songs of that year, and today, every time I sing it, it gets more and more special to me. It says I'm going to do my dreaming with my eyes wide open. That's what we all have to do with MS. Dreaming with eyes open is a vision. When you close 'em, it's just a dream.\"\n", "The Kentucky Rye is alight with laughter, camaraderie, and wonderful drinks. Spindler finds his head is no longer bleeding—with no injury and no blood on the rag—and he instantly fits into the bar's intoxicating atmosphere. As he cajoles, Spindler notices a somber-faced man and a gloomy-faced woman in the bar, but doesn't worry about it as he consumes beer after beer.\n" ]

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[ "Airliners frequently make emergency landings, and almost all of them are uneventful. However, because of their inherent uncertain nature, they can quickly become crash landings or worse. Some notable instances include United Airlines Flight 232, which broke up while landing at Sioux City, Iowa, United States on July 19, 1989; and Air Canada Flight 797, which burned after landing at Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport on June 2, 1983 after a fire started in the cabin.\n", "There are several different types of emergency landings for powered aircraft: planned landing or unplanned landing\n", "Emergency landing\n\nAn emergency landing is a prioritised landing made by an aircraft in response to an emergency containing an imminent or ongoing threat to the safety and operation of the aircraft or involving a sudden need for a passenger or crew on board to be on land, such as a medical emergency. \n\nIt is usually a forced diversion to the nearest or most suitable airport or airbase, in which air traffic control must prioritise and give way immediately upon the declaration of the emergency.\n\nSection::::Types.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Precautionary landing\" may result from a planned landing at a location about which information is limited, from unanticipated changes during the flight, or from abnormal or even emergency situations. This may be as a result of problems with the aircraft, or a medical or police emergency. The sooner a pilot locates and inspects a potential landing site, the less the chance of additional limitations being imposed by worsening aircraft conditions, deteriorating weather, or other factors.\n", "Large airliners have multiple engines and redundant systems, so forced landings are extremely rare for them, but some notable ones have occurred. A famous example is the Gimli Glider, an Air Canada Boeing 767 that ran out of fuel and glided to a safe landing in Gimli, Manitoba, Canada on July 23, 1983. On June 1982, British Airways Flight 9, a Boeing 747 en route from Kuala Lumpur to Perth flew into a plume of volcanic ash and lost power in all four engines, three of which subsequently recovered, eventually diverting to Jakarta. On April 28, 1988, Aloha Airlines Flight 243 experienced an explosive decompression when approximately 35 square-meters of aluminium skin separated from the fuselage. The flight was successfully diverted to Kahului Airport with only one casualty, flight attendant Clarabelle \"C.B.\" Lansing who was sucked out when the cabin depressurized. \n", "If there is a suitable landing spot within the aircraft's gliding or autorotation distance, an unplanned landing will often result in no injuries or significant damage to the aircraft, since powered aircraft generally use little or no power when they are landing. Light aircraft can often land safely on fields, roads, or gravel river banks (or on the water, if they are float-equipped); but medium and heavy aircraft generally require long, prepared runway surfaces because of their heavier weight and higher landing speeds. Glider pilots routinely land away from their base and so most cross-country pilots are in current practice.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Forced landing\" – the aircraft is forced to make a landing due to technical problems. Landing as soon as possible is a priority, no matter where, since a major system failure has occurred or is imminent. It is caused by the failure of or damage to vital systems such as engines, hydraulics, or landing gear, and so a landing must be attempted where a runway is needed but none is available. The pilot is essentially trying to get the aircraft on the ground in a way which minimizes the possibility of injury or death to the people aboard. This means that the forced landing may even occur when the aircraft is still flyable, in order to prevent a crash or ditching situation.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Ditching\" is the same as a forced landing, only on water. After the disabled aircraft makes contact with the surface of the water, the aircraft will most likely sink if it is not designed to float, although it may float for hours, depending on damage.\n\nSection::::Procedures.\n", "A less successful crash landing involved Southern Airways Flight 242 on April 4, 1977. The DC-9 lost both of its engines due to hail and heavy rain in a thunderstorm and, unable to glide to an airport, made a forced landing on a highway near New Hope, Georgia, United States. The plane made a hard landing and was still carrying a large amount of fuel, so it burst into flames, killing the majority of the passengers and several people on the ground.\n", "In a multi-engine aircraft, failure of a single engine usually results in a precautionary landing being performed, for example landing at a diversion airport instead of continuing to the intended destination. Failure of a second engine (e.g. US Airways Flight 1549) or damage to other aircraft systems caused by an uncontained engine failure (e.g. United Airlines Flight 232) may, if an emergency landing is not possible, result in the aircraft crashing.\n\nSection::::Aviation safety hazards.:Structural failure of the aircraft.\n", "One year later, United Airlines Flight 811, a Boeing 747, suffered a cargo door failure in-flight, separating a section of fuselage with 9 passengers and resulted in cabin depressurization. The plane made a successful emergency landing at Honolulu International Airport. More recently, Air Transat Flight 236 ran out of fuel over the Atlantic Ocean on August 24, 2001 and made a successful forced landing in the Azores. On November 1, 2011 a Boeing 767 LOT Polish Airlines Flight 016 made a belly landing after a central hydraulic system failure at Warsaw, Poland's Frederic Chopin International Airport, with no injuries.\n", "Hard landings can cause extensive damage to aircraft if not carried out safely or properly. On 20 June 2012, a Boeing 767 of All Nippon Airways landed with such force that a large crease formed in the aircraft's skin.\n\nWhen the final approach isn't stabilised, the crew should abort and go around, as expressed by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau after investigating the hard landing of a Malaysia Airlines Airbus A330 in Melbourne Airport coming from Kuala Lumpur on March 14, 2015.\n", "Emergency situations are evaluated as a normal part of all flight test program. Examples are: engine failure during various phases of flight (takeoff, cruise, landing), systems failures, and controls degradation. The overall operations envelope (allowable gross weights, centers-of-gravity, altitude, max/min airspeeds, maneuvers, etc.) is established and verified during flight testing. Aircraft are always demonstrated to be safe beyond the limits allowed for normal operations in the Flight Manual.\n", "Emergency aircraft evacuation\n\nEmergency aircraft evacuation refers to emergency evacuation from an aircraft which may take place on the ground, in water, or mid-flight. There are standard evacuation procedures and special evacuation equipment.\n\nSection::::Commercial airplanes.\n\nCommercial aircraft are equipped with aircraft safety cards detailing evacuation procedures. These include locating and using emergency exits, using slides and flotation devices for water landings, etc.\n", "In the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Part 23, § 23.200, states, for the purposes of this part, the following definition applies: “Continued safe flight and landing means an airplane is capable of continued controlled flight and landing, possibly using emergency procedures, without requiring exceptional pilot skill or strength. Upon landing, some airplane damage may occur as a result of a failure condition.”\n\nSection::::Canadian regulations.\n\nIn Canada Canadian Aviation Regulations, CAR 101.01, Subpart 1 - Interpretation Content last revised: 2007/12/30\n", "BULLET::::- United Airlines Flight 634, operated by Airbus A319-131 N816UA made an emergency landing at Newark Liberty International Airport when the right main landing gear failed to deploy. The aircraft sustained some damage when the right engine contacted the runway. The 53 passengers and crew evacuated the aircraft via the emergency chutes without injury. Initial fears that the wing had been damaged in the accident later proved groundless, with damage being confined to the engine and nacelle.\n\nBULLET::::- 13 January\n\nBULLET::::- German airline Blue Wings ceased operations.\n\nBULLET::::- 15 January\n", "Engine failure on take-off\n\nEngine failure on take-off (EFTO) is a situation, when flying an aircraft, where an engine has failed, or is not delivering sufficient power, at any time between brake release and the wheels leaving the ground / V. The phases of flight are de-lineated to allow simplified standard procedures for different aircraft types to be developed. If an aircraft suffered engine failure on takeoff, the standard procedure for most aircraft would be to abort the takeoff.\n", "Forced landing\n\nA forced landing is a landing by an aircraft made under factors outside the pilot's control, such as the failure of engines, systems, components or weather which makes continued flight impossible. For a full description of these, see article on \"emergency landing\". However the term also means a landing that has been forced by interception.\n", "Hard landings can be caused by weather conditions, mechanical problems, over-weight aircraft, pilot decision and/or pilot error. The term \"hard landing\" usually implies that the pilot still has total or partial control over the aircraft, as opposed to an uncontrolled descent into terrain (a crash). Hard landings can vary in their consequences, from mild passenger discomfort to vehicle damage, structural failure, injuries, and/or loss of life. When an aircraft has a hard landing, it must be inspected for damage before its next flight.\n", "In both cases, the pilot in command must make a clear and unequivocal Yes/No decision upon arrival at the MAP point – either the runway (or its specified environment) is positively visible and accessible for landing using a safe and \"stabilized approach\" (i.e. no excessively steep bank or descent angles required), in which case the approach to landing may be continued, or else the approach must be discontinued and the published missed approach procedure must be initiated immediately.\n\nSection::::Visual descent point (U.S.).\n", "BULLET::::- On February 27, 2012, a Shuttle America Embraer E-170 aircraft operating as United Express flight 5124 from Atlanta made an emergency landing at Newark Liberty International Airport after the pilots received an unsafe nose gear indication on approach; a fly-by of the tower confirmed the nose gear was retracted. The aircraft subsequently came to rest on runway 22L supported only by its main landing gear. The 66 passengers and 4 crew, none of them injured, were evacuated using slides and bussed to the terminal.\n", "BULLET::::- D-ALCO, a McDonnell-Douglas MD-11 operated by Lufthansa Cargo is severely damaged in a heavy landing at Mexico City International Airport. Post landing inspection revealed that there were wrinkles in the fuselage skin and the nose gear was bent. It is reported that the aircraft may be written off.\n\nBULLET::::- 14 September\n\nBULLET::::- Lufthansa Flight 288, a Fokker 100 operated by Contact Air, registration D-AKFE, makes an emergency belly landing at Stuttgart Airport, Germany, after the undercarriage fails to deploy correctly.\n\nBULLET::::- 18 September\n", "If there is no engine power available during a forced landing, a fixed-wing aircraft glides, while a rotary winged aircraft (helicopter) autorotates to the ground by trading altitude for airspeed to maintain control. Pilots often practice \"simulated forced landings\", in which an engine failure is simulated and the pilot has to get the aircraft on the ground safely, by selecting a landing area and then gliding the aircraft at its best gliding speed.\n", "As the subsequent investigation determined, when the aircraft attempted to depart, it was over its maximum take-off weight by and was carrying one excess passenger, according to its certification.\n", "Less than a month later, another 737, TACA Flight 110, lost both engines due to bad weather but was able to make a successful deadstick landing on a grass levee on the grounds of NASA's Michoud Assembly Facility outside New Orleans, with minor injuries to the passengers and minor damage to the aircraft. Investigations drove the engine manufacturer, CFM International, to modify the engine design to prevent future power loss.\n" ]

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[ "An example of an NP-hard problem is the decision subset sum problem, which is this: given a set of integers, does any non-empty subset of them add up to zero? That is a decision problem, and happens to be NP-complete. Another example of an NP-hard problem is the optimization problem of finding the least-cost cyclic route through all nodes of a weighted graph. This is commonly known as the traveling salesman problem.\n", "Hidden-surface algorithms can be used for hidden-line removal, but not the other way around. Reif and Sen proposed an \"O\"(log \"n\")-time algorithm for the hidden-surface problem, using \"O\"((\"n\" + \"v\")/log \"n\") CREW PRAM processors for a restricted model of polyhedral terrains, where \"v\" is the output size.\n\nIn 2011 Devai published an \"O\"(log \"n\")-time hidden-surface, and a simpler, also \"O\"(log \"n\")-time, hidden-line algorithm. The hidden-surface algorithm, using \"n\"/log \"n\" CREW PRAM processors, is work-optimal.\n", "Section::::NP-hardness.\n\nThe NP-hardness of the unweighted longest path problem can be shown using a reduction from the Hamiltonian path problem: a graph \"G\" has a Hamiltonian path if and only if its longest path has length \"n\" − 1, where \"n\" is the number of vertices in \"G\". Because the Hamiltonian path problem is NP-complete, this reduction shows that the decision version of the longest path problem is also NP-complete. In this decision problem, the input is a graph \"G\" and a number \"k\"; the desired output is \"yes\" if \"G\" contains a path of \"k\" or more edges, and \"no\" otherwise.\n", "There are decision problems that are \"NP-hard\" but not \"NP-complete\", for example the halting problem. This is the problem which asks \"given a program and its input, will it run forever?\" That is a \"yes\"/\"no\" question, so this is a decision problem. It is easy to prove that the halting problem is NP-hard but not NP-complete. For example, the Boolean satisfiability problem can be reduced to the halting problem by transforming it to the description of a Turing machine that tries all truth value assignments and when it finds one that satisfies the formula it halts and otherwise it goes into an infinite loop. It is also easy to see that the halting problem is not in \"NP\" since all problems in NP are decidable in a finite number of operations, while the halting problem, in general, is undecidable. There are also NP-hard problems that are neither \"NP-complete\" nor \"Undecidable\". For instance, the language of True quantified Boolean formulas is decidable in polynomial space, but not in non-deterministic polynomial time (unless NP = PSPACE).\n", "The above example can be generalized for any decision problem. Given any instance I of problem P and witness W, if there exists a \"verifier\" V so that given the ordered pair (I, W) as input, V returns \"yes\" in polynomial time if the witness proves that the answer is \"yes\" and \"no\" in polynomial time otherwise, then P is in NP.\n", "If one defines the analogue to NP-complete with Turing reductions instead of many-one reductions, the resulting set of problems won't be smaller than NP-complete; it is an open question whether it will be any larger.\n", "Every decision problem in P (the class of polynomial-time decision problems) may be reduced to every other nontrivial decision problem (where nontrivial means that not every input has the same output), by a polynomial-time many-one reduction. To transform an instance of problem \"A\" to \"B\", solve \"A\" in polynomial time, and then use the solution to choose one of two instances of problem \"B\" with different answers.\n\nTherefore, for complexity classes within P such as L, NL, NC, and P itself, \n", "Here, φ(\"a\", ..., \"a\") is φ with \"a\" to \"a\" substituted for \"x\" to \"x\". Thus \"f\" is the truth value of ψ. In order to arithmetize ψ we must use the following rules:\n\nwhere as before we define \"x\" ∗ \"y\" = 1 − (1 − \"x\")(1 − \"y\").\n\nBy using the method described in #SAT, we must face a problem that for any \"f\" the degree of the resulting polynomial may double with each quantifier. In order to prevent this, we must introduce a new reduction operator \"R\" which will reduce the degrees of the polynomial without changing their behavior on Boolean inputs.\n", "The \"no\"-answer version of this problem is stated as: \"given a finite set of integers, does every non-empty subset have a nonzero sum?\". The verifier-based definition of NP does \"not\" require an efficient verifier for the \"no\"-answers. The class of problems with such verifiers for the \"no\"-answers is called co-NP. In fact, it is an open question whether all problems in NP also have verifiers for the \"no\"-answers and thus are in co-NP.\n\nIn some literature the verifier is called the \"certifier\" and the witness the \"certificate\".\n\nSection::::Background.:Machine-definition.\n", "In example 5b, the NP \"the problem\" is not complex enough to be shifted.\n\nSection::::Heavy NP shift in different languages.:Heavy NP shift in Japanese.\n", "Many problems in NP, including many NP-complete problems, ask whether a particular object exists, such as a satisfying assignment, a graph coloring, or a clique of a certain size. The FNP versions of these problems ask not only if it exists but what its value is if it does. This means that the FNP version of every NP-complete problem is NP-hard. Bellare and Goldwasser showed in 1994 using some standard assumptions that there exist problems in NP such that their FNP versions are not self-reducible, implying that they are harder than their corresponding decision problem.\n", "The Subgraph Isomorphism problem is NP-complete. The graph isomorphism problem is suspected to be neither in P nor NP-complete, though it is in NP. This is an example of a problem that is thought to be hard, but is not thought to be NP-complete.\n\nThe easiest way to prove that some new problem is NP-complete is first to prove that it is in NP, and then to reduce some known NP-complete problem to it. Therefore, it is useful to know a variety of NP-complete problems. The list below contains some well-known problems that are NP-complete when expressed as decision problems.\n", "If, and only if, P = NP, then this is a polynomial-time algorithm accepting an NP-complete language. \"Accepting\" means it gives \"yes\" answers in polynomial time, but is allowed to run forever when the answer is \"no\" (also known as a \"semi-algorithm\").\n\nThis algorithm is enormously impractical, even if P = NP. If the shortest program that can solve SUBSET-SUM in polynomial time is \"b\" bits long, the above algorithm will try at least other programs first.\n\nSection::::Formal definitions.\n\nSection::::Formal definitions.:P and NP.\n", "Based on the definition alone it is not obvious that NP-complete problems exist; however, a trivial and contrived NP-complete problem can be formulated as follows: given a description of a Turing machine \"M\" guaranteed to halt in polynomial time, does there exist a polynomial-size input that \"M\" will accept? It is in NP because (given an input) it is simple to check whether \"M\" accepts the input by simulating \"M\"; it is NP-complete because the verifier for any particular instance of a problem in NP can be encoded as a polynomial-time machine \"M\" that takes the solution to be verified as input. Then the question of whether the instance is a yes or no instance is determined by whether a valid input exists.\n", "Conversely, suppose we have a nondeterministic TM called A accepting a given language L. At each of its polynomially many steps, the machine's computation tree branches in at most a finite number of directions. There must be at least one accepting path, and the string describing this path is the proof supplied to the verifier. The verifier can then deterministically simulate A, following only the accepting path, and verifying that it accepts at the end. If A rejects the input, there is no accepting path, and the verifier will always reject.\n\nSection::::Relationship to other classes.\n", "It is also NP-easy. If we had a black box that solved SUBSET-SUM in unit time, then we could use it to solve FIND-SUBSET-SUM. If it returns \"false\", we immediately return the empty set. Otherwise, we visit each element in order and remove it provided that SUBSET-SUM would still return \"true\" after we remove it. Once we've visited every element, we will no longer be able to remove any element without changing the answer from \"true\" to \"false\"; at this point the remaining subset of the original elements must sum to zero. This requires us to note that later removals of elements do not alter the fact that removal of an earlier element changed the answer from \"true\" to \"false\". In pseudocode:\n", "NP-equivalent\n\nIn computational complexity theory, the complexity class NP-equivalent is the set of function problems that are both NP-easy and NP-hard. NP-equivalent is the analogue of NP-complete for function problems.\n", "BULLET::::- \"\"Solving NP-complete problems requires exponential time.\"\" First, this would imply P ≠ NP, which is still an unsolved question. Further, some NP-complete problems actually have algorithms running in superpolynomial, but subexponential time such as O(2\"n\"). For example, the independent set and dominating set problems for planar graphs are NP-complete, but can be solved in subexponential time using the planar separator theorem.\n", "The definition of NP-easy uses a Turing reduction rather than a many-one reduction because the answers to problem \"Y\" are only TRUE or FALSE, but the answers to problem \"X\" can be more general. Therefore, there is no general way to translate an instance of \"X\" to an instance of \"Y\" with the same answer. \n", "For example, the problem FIND-SUBSET-SUM is in NP-equivalent. Given a set of integers, FIND-SUBSET-SUM is the problem of finding some nonempty subset of the integers that adds up to zero (or returning the empty set if there is no such subset). This optimization problem is similar to the decision problem SUBSET-SUM. Given a set of integers, SUBSET-SUM is the problem of finding whether there exists a subset summing to zero. SUBSET-SUM is NP-complete.\n\nTo show that FIND-SUBSET-SUM is NP-equivalent, we must show that it is both NP-hard and NP-easy.\n", "For instance, the Boolean satisfiability problem is NP-complete by the Cook–Levin theorem, so \"any\" instance of \"any\" problem in NP can be transformed mechanically into an instance of the Boolean satisfiability problem in polynomial time. The Boolean satisfiability problem is one of many such NP-complete problems. If any NP-complete problem is in P, then it would follow that P = NP. However, many important problems have been shown to be NP-complete, and no fast algorithm for any of them is known.\n", "BULLET::::- NP-intermediate: If P and NP are different, then there exist decision problems in the region of NP that fall between P and the NP-complete problems. (If P and NP are the same class, then NP-intermediate problems do not exist because in this case every NP-complete problem would fall in P, and by definition, every problem in NP can be reduced to an NP-complete problem.)\n\nSection::::Application areas.\n\nNP-hard problems are often tackled with rules-based languages in areas including:\n\nBULLET::::- Approximate computing\n\nBULLET::::- Configuration\n\nBULLET::::- Cryptography\n\nBULLET::::- Data mining\n\nBULLET::::- Decision support\n\nBULLET::::- Phylogenetics\n\nBULLET::::- Planning\n\nBULLET::::- Process monitoring and control\n", "In computational complexity theory, a problem is NP-complete when it can be solved by a restricted class of brute force search algorithms and it can be used to simulate any other problem with a similar algorithm. More precisely, each input to the problem should be associated with a set of solutions of polynomial length, whose validity can be tested quickly (in polynomial time), such that the output for any input is \"yes\" if the solution set is non-empty and \"no\" if it is empty. The complexity class of problems of this form is called NP, an abbreviation for \"nondeterministic polynomial time\". A problem is said to be NP-hard if everything in NP can be transformed in polynomial time into it, and a problem is NP-complete if it is both in NP and NP-hard. The NP-complete problems represent the hardest problems in NP. If any NP-complete problem has a polynomial time algorithm, all problems in NP do. The set of NP-complete problems is often denoted by NP-C or NPC.\n", "there are also generic case complete problems. The arguments in the generic case are similar to\n\nthose in the average case, and the generic case complete problem is also average case complete.\n\nIt is the distributional bounded halting problem.\n\nTheorem 4 There is a notion of generic-polynomial-time reduction with respect to\n\nwhich the distributional bounded halting problem is complete within class of distributional NP problems.\n\nSection::::Comparisons with previous work.\n\nSection::::Comparisons with previous work.:Almost polynomial time.\n\nMeyer and Paterson define an algorithm to be almost polynomial time, or APT, if it halts\n", "NP contains all problems in P, since one can verify any instance of the problem by simply ignoring the proof and solving it. NP is contained in PSPACE—to show this, it suffices to construct a PSPACE machine that loops over all proof strings and feeds each one to a polynomial-time verifier. Since a polynomial-time machine can only read polynomially many bits, it cannot use more than polynomial space, nor can it read a proof string occupying more than polynomial space (so we do not have to consider proofs longer than this). NP is also contained in EXPTIME, since the same algorithm operates in exponential time.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Continuous flow fast atom bombardment.\n", "Section::::Applications.\n", "Section::::Matrices and sample introduction.\n", "BULLET::::4. Pushed from both sides (from the primary and the spark plug), the lithium deuteride fuel is highly compressed and heated to thermonuclear temperatures. Also, by being bombarded with neutrons, each lithium-6 atom splits into one tritium atom and one alpha particle. Then begins a fusion reaction between the tritium and the deuterium, releasing even more neutrons, and a huge amount of energy.\n", "Section::::2013.\n", "Section::::Fuels.:Lithium.\n\nFusion reactions involving lithium are well studied due to the use of lithium for breeding tritium in thermonuclear weapons. They are intermediate in ignition difficulty between the reactions involving lower atomic-number species, H and He, and the B reaction.\n\nThe p–Li reaction, although highly energetic, releases neutrons because of the high cross section for the alternate neutron-producing reaction p + Li\n\n→ Be + n\n\nSection::::Fuels.:Boron.\n", "Christiansen and Kramers also noted that if, in one link of the reaction chain, two or more unstable molecules are produced, the reaction chain would branch and grow. The result is in fact an exponential growth, thus giving rise to explosive increases in reaction rates, and indeed to chemical explosions themselves. This was the first proposal for the mechanism of chemical explosions.\n", "Section::::Ionization mechanism.\n", "Nuclear fission in fissile fuels are the result of the nuclear excitation energy produced when a fissile nucleus captures a neutron. This energy, resulting from the neutron capture, is a result of the attractive nuclear force acting between the neutron and nucleus. It is enough to deform the nucleus into a double-lobed \"drop\", to the point that nuclear fragments exceed the distances at which the nuclear force can hold two groups of charged nucleons together and, when this happens, the two fragments complete their separation and then are driven further apart by their mutually repulsive charges, in a process which becomes irreversible with greater and greater distance. A similar process occurs in fissionable isotopes (such as uranium-238), but in order to fission, these isotopes require additional energy provided by fast neutrons (such as those produced by nuclear fusion in thermonuclear weapons).\n", "The charge of a uranium nucleus, we found, was indeed large enough to overcome the effect of the surface tension almost completely; so the uranium nucleus might indeed resemble a very wobbly unstable drop, ready to divide itself at the slightest provocation, such as the impact of a single neutron. But there was another problem. After separation, the two drops would be driven apart by their mutual electric repulsion and would acquire high speed and hence a very large energy, about 200 MeV in all; where could that energy come from? ...Lise Meitner... worked out that the two nuclei formed by the division of a uranium nucleus together would be lighter than the original uranium nucleus by about one-fifth the mass of a proton. Now whenever mass disappears energy is created, according to Einstein's formula \"E\"= \"mc\", and one-fifth of a proton mass was just equivalent to 200 MeV. So here was the source for that energy; it all fitted!\n", "Since the Big Bang, which produced no carbon or heavier elements, atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium, and (via the triple alpha process) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron; see stellar nucleosynthesis for details.\n\nIsotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation. This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected.\n", "A mere seven years after the discovery of nuclear fission, on 6 August 1945, half a gram of uranium was converted into energy when the world's first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. As Lisa Meitner's calculations suggested, this conversion released energy equivalent to 13,000 tons of TNT. A plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki three days later.\n\nSection::::Episode 3: The Power of the Elements.:GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research.\n", "BULLET::::- Our Friend the Atom: This \"Disneyland\" episode talks about the history of the atom, hosted by Dr. Heinz Haber, who compares the discovery of the atom to an Arabian Nights fable of \"The Fisherman and the Genie\". He uses well-known theories, formulas and experiments to discuss the atom, such as \"E\" = \"mc\"² and a light beam passing through a gold sheet. He illustrates chain reactions in nuclear fission using a table filled with mousetraps represents the atoms and pingpong balls stand in for the new neutrons created from the split.\n", "In 1919, Ernest Rutherford was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen at the University of Manchester, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen N + α → O + p.  This was the first observation of an induced nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932 at Cambridge University, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was achieved by Rutherford's colleagues John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split the nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat was popularly known as \"splitting the atom\", although it was not the modern nuclear fission reaction later discovered in heavy elements, in 1938 by the German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.\n", "Because the triple-alpha process is unlikely, it normally needs a long time to produce much carbon. One consequence of this is that no significant amount of carbon was produced in the Big Bang because, within minutes after the Big Bang, the temperature fell below the critical point for nuclear fusion.\n\nSection::::Resonances.\n", "The fusion reactions release high-energy particles, some of which (primarily alpha particles) collide with the high-density fuel around it and slow down. This heats the fuel, and can potentially cause that fuel to undergo fusion as well. Given the right overall conditions of the compressed fuel—high enough density and temperature—this heating process can result in a chain reaction, burning outward from the center where the shock wave started the reaction. This is a condition known as \"ignition\", which can lead to a significant portion of the fuel in the target undergoing fusion, and the release of significant amounts of energy.\n", "The fusion reactions release high-energy particles, some of which (primarily alpha particles) collide with the high density fuel around it and slow down. This heats the surrounding fuel, and can potentially cause that fuel to undergo fusion as well. Given the right overall conditions of the compressed fuel — high enough density and temperature — this heating process can result in a chain reaction, burning outward from the center. This is a condition known as \"ignition\", which can lead to a significant portion of the fuel in the target undergoing fusion, and the release of significant amounts of energy.\n", "The rapid blowoff also creates a shock wave that travels towards the center of the compressed fuel. When it reaches the center of the fuel and meets the shock from the other side of the target, the energy in the shock wave further heats and compresses the tiny volume around it. If the temperature and density of that small spot can be raised high enough, fusion reactions will occur.\n", "Some atoms, notably uranium-238, do not usually undergo fission when struck by slow neutrons, but do split when struck with neutrons of high enough energy. The fast neutrons produced in a hydrogen bomb by fusion of deuterium and tritium have even higher energy than the fast neutrons produced in a nuclear reactor. This makes it possible to increase the yield of any given fusion weapon by the simple expedient of adding layers of cheap natural (or even depleted) uranium. Fast fission of uranium-238 provides a large part of the explosive yield, and fallout, in many designs of hydrogen bomb.\n", "In this article, explosion means \"the sudden conversion of potential energy (chemical or mechanical) into kinetic energy\", as defined by the US National Fire Protection Association, or the common dictionary meaning, \"a violent and destructive shattering or blowing apart of something\". No distinction is made as to whether it is a deflagration with subsonic propagation or a detonation with supersonic propagation.\n\nSection::::Before World War I.\n", "BULLET::::- In the \"Justice League\" episode \"Hereafter Pt. 2\" Vandal Savage mentions his attempted theft of one of Ray Palmer's inventions resulted in the death of everyone except Savage.\n", "BULLET::::2. Energy released in the primary stage is transferred to the secondary (or fusion) stage. The exact mechanism whereby this happens is highly classified. This energy compresses the fusion fuel and sparkplug; the compressed sparkplug becomes critical and undergoes a fission chain reaction, further heating the compressed fusion fuel to a high enough temperature to induce fusion, and also supplying neutrons that react with lithium to create tritium for fusion.\n", "where formula_6 is the altitude of the burst in feet. So the same burst at will be at a pressure of about 0.1 atmospheres, resulting in a fireball on the order of in diameter, about twice the size of one near the ground. For a high altitude burst, say , the fireball will expand to about in diameter.\n\nSection::::Bomb effects.:Outside the atmosphere.\n", "The fission of a heavy nucleus requires a total input energy of about 7 to 8 million electron volts (MeV) to initially overcome the nuclear force which holds the nucleus into a spherical or nearly spherical shape, and from there, deform it into a two-lobed (\"peanut\") shape in which the lobes are able to continue to separate from each other, pushed by their mutual positive charge, in the most common process of binary fission (two positively charged fission products + neutrons). Once the nuclear lobes have been pushed to a critical distance, beyond which the short range strong force can no longer hold them together, the process of their separation proceeds from the energy of the (longer range) electromagnetic repulsion between the fragments. The result is two fission fragments moving away from each other, at high energy.\n", "Neutron star mergers are also very responsible for the synthesis of many heavy elements, via the r-process (\"r\" stands for \"rapid\"). When two neutron stars collide, a large amount of neutron-rich matter may be ejected at extremely high temperatures, and very heavy elements form as the ejecta begins to cool.\n" ]

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[ "Tattoo ink is generally permanent. Tattoo removal is difficult, painful, and the degree of success depends on the materials used. Recently developed inks claim to be comparatively easy to remove. Unsubstantiated claims have been made that some inks fade over time, yielding a \"semi-permanent tattoo.\"\n\nSection::::Regulations.\n", "The amount of ink that remains in the skin throughout the healing process determines how the final tattoo will look. If a tattoo becomes infected or the flakes fall off too soon (e.g., if it absorbs too much water and sloughs off early or is picked or scraped off) then the ink will not be properly fixed in the skin and the final image will be negatively affected.\n", "A variety of medical problems, though uncommon, can result from tattooing.\n\nMedical workers have observed rare but severe medical complications from tattoo pigments in the body, and have noted that people acquiring tattoos rarely assess health risks \"prior\" to receiving their tattoos.\n\nA recent case report also showed that tattoo pigments migrate into lymph nodes. These can show up on some types of medical scans as tumors. One woman was given a complete hysterectomy only to find out later that the lymph nodes contained tattoo pigment.\n\nSection::::Other tattoo inks.\n\nSection::::Other tattoo inks.:Glow in the dark ink and blacklight ink.\n", "Current medical devices are limited by their isolation from the body and their placement on rigid silicon. Current devices also contain gold and titanium which are required for electrical connections. Both gold and titanium are bio-compatible which means that they will not be rejected by the body as a foreign substance. However, biocompatibility is not as preferable as biodegradable is due to the fact that the latter does not leave behind any unnecessary materials; so researchers are working on biodegradable contacts to eliminate all remnants but the silicon. The current form of the LED tattoo has been implanted on mice without harm. LED tattoos of today are limited to monochromatic display. Current research on silicon-silk technology is being conducted at the University of Pennsylvania's Engineering Department. Additionally, the Royal Philips Electronics of the Netherlands has shown commercial interest in the research of silicon silk technology, speficifically LED tattoos as a means to extend the digital experience, or interactivity with the digital product.\n", "While tattoos are considered permanent, it is sometimes possible to remove them, fully or partially, with laser treatments. Typically, black and some colored inks can be removed more completely than inks of other colors. The expense and pain associated with removing tattoos are typically greater than the expense and pain associated with applying them. Pre-laser tattoo removal methods include dermabrasion, salabrasion (scrubbing the skin with salt), cryosurgery and excision—which is sometimes still used along with skin grafts for larger tattoos. These older methods, however, have been nearly completely replaced by laser removal treatment options.\n\nSection::::Temporary tattoos.\n", "BULLET::::- Do eggs renew in adult females?\n\nBULLET::::- Which cells renew in healthy and in unhealthy adult brain?\n", "Aged muscle cells in mammalian hearts constantly regenerate, albeit at a very low rate. Within 18 months around five percent of the heart muscle cells regenerated themselves originating from Sca-1 stem cells\n\nSection::::Effects of exercise.\n", "There are a number of factors that determine how many treatments will be needed and the level of success one might experience. Age of tattoo, ink density, color and even where the tattoo is located on the body, all play an important role in how many treatments will be needed for complete removal. However, a rarely recognized factor of tattoo removal is the role of the client’s immune response. The normal process of tattoo removal is fragmentation followed by phagocytosis which is then drained away via the lymphatics. Consequently, it’s the inflammation resulting from the actual laser treatment and the natural stimulation of the hosts’s immune response that ultimately results in removal of tattoo ink; thus variations in results are enormous.\n", "Permanent cells are cells that are incapable of regeneration. These cells are considered to be terminally differentiated and non proliferative in postnatal life. This includes brain cells, neurons, heart cells, skeletal muscle cells, and red blood cells. Although these cells are considered permanent in that they neither reproduce nor transform into other cells, this does not mean that the body can not create new versions of these cells. For instance, structures in the bone marrow produce new red blood cells constantly, while skeletal muscle damage can be repaired by underlying satellite cells which fuse to become a new skeletal muscle cell. Disease and virology studies can use permanent cells to maintain cell count and accurately quantify the effects of vaccines. Some embryology studies also use permanent cells to avoid harvesting embryonic cells from pregnant animals; since the cells are permanent, they may be harvested at a later age when an animal is fully developed.\n", "Tattoo removal is most commonly performed using lasers that break down the ink particles in the tattoo into smaller particles. Dermal macrophages are part of the immune system, tasked with collecting and digesting cellular debris. In the case of tattoo pigments, macrophages collect ink pigments, but have difficulty breaking them down. Instead, they store the ink pigments. If a macrophage is damaged, it releases its captive ink, which is taken up by other macrophages. This can make it particularly difficult to remove tattoos. When treatments break down ink particles into smaller pieces, macrophages can more easily remove them.\n", "MRL mice are not protected against myocardial infarction; heart regeneration in adult mammals (neocardiogenesis) is limited, because heart muscle cells are nearly all terminally differentiated. MRL mice show the same amount of cardiac injury and scar formation as normal mice after a heart attack. However, recent studies provide evidence that this may not always be the case, and that MRL mice can regenerate after heart damage. \n\nSection::::In animals.:Mammals.:Humans.\n", "Tattooing involves the placement of pigment into the skin's dermis, the layer of dermal tissue underlying the epidermis. After initial injection, pigment is dispersed throughout a homogenized damaged layer down through the epidermis and upper dermis, in both of which the presence of foreign material activates the immune system's phagocytes to engulf the pigment particles. As healing proceeds, the damaged epidermis flakes away (eliminating surface pigment) while deeper in the skin granulation tissue forms, which is later converted to connective tissue by collagen growth. This mends the upper dermis, where pigment remains trapped within successive generations of macrophages, ultimately concentrating in a layer just below the dermis/epidermis boundary. Its presence there is stable, but in the long term (decades) the pigment tends to migrate deeper into the dermis, accounting for the degraded detail of old tattoos.\n", "The concept of the ischaemic penumbra, where brain tissue shows capacity to recover if perfusion is quickly restored, was defined in 1981 by Astrup et al. Persistent blood flow through leptomeningeal vessels is a key part of this recovery.\n\nSection::::Other animals.\n\nHaemodynamic studies of leptomeningeal collaterals have been conducted in primates. Leptomeningeal circulation has been observed in mice and rats during experiments to assess changes associated with disease and ageing in these vessels.\n", "The ingredients in some \"glow\" inks are listed as: (PMMA) Polymethylmethacrylate 97.5% and microspheres of fluorescent dye 2.5% suspended in UV sterilized, distilled water.\n\nSection::::Other tattoo inks.:Removable tattoo ink.\n\nWhile tattoo ink is generally very painful and laborious to remove, tattoo removal being quite involved, a recently introduced ink has been developed to be easier to remove by laser treatments than traditional inks.\n\nSection::::Other tattoo inks.:Black henna.\n", "Tattooing involves the placement of pigment into the skin's dermis, the layer of dermal tissue underlying the epidermis. After initial injection, pigment is dispersed throughout a homogenized damaged layer down through the epidermis and upper dermis, in both of which the presence of foreign material activates the immune system's phagocytes to engulf the pigment particles. As healing proceeds, the damaged epidermis flakes away (eliminating surface pigment) while deeper in the skin granulation tissue forms, which is later converted to connective tissue by collagen growth. This mends the upper dermis, where pigment remains trapped within fibroblasts, ultimately concentrating in a layer just below the dermis/epidermis boundary. Its presence there is stable, but in the long term (decades) the pigment tends to migrate deeper into the dermis, accounting for the degraded detail of old tattoos.\n", "One of the most promising sources of heart regeneration is the use of stem cells. It was demonstrated in mice that there is a resident population of stem cells or cardiac progenitors in the adult heart – this population of stem cells was shown to be reprogrammed to differentiate into cardiomyocytes that replaced those lost during a heart tissue death. In humans specifically, a “cardiac mesenchymal feeder layer” was found in the myocardium that renewed the cells with progenitors that differentiated into mature cardiac cells. What these studies show is that the human heart contains stem cells that could potentially be induced into regenerating the heart when needed, rather than just being used to replace expended cells.\n", "In 2017, researchers from the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in France say the chemicals in tattoo ink can travel in the bloodstream and accumulate in the lymph nodes, obstructing their ability to fight infections. However, the authors noted in their paper that most tattooed individuals including the donors analyzed do not suffer from chronic inflammation.\n\nTattoo artists frequently recommend sun protection of skin to prevent tattoos from fading and to preserve skin integrity to make future tattooing easier.\n\nSection::::Removal.\n", "Certain colors have proved more difficult to remove than others. In particular, this occurs when treated with the wrong wavelength of laser light is used. Some have postulated that the reason for slow resolution of green ink in particular is due to its significantly smaller molecular size relative to the other colours. Consequently, green ink tattoos may require treatment with 755 nm light but may also respond to 694 nm, 650 nm and 1064 nm. Multiple wavelengths of light may be needed to remove colored inks.\n", "Tattoo removal\n\nTattoo removal has been performed with various tools since the start of tattooing. While tattoos were once considered permanent, it is now possible to remove them with treatments, fully or partially.\n\nThe \"standard modality for tattoo removal\" is the non-invasive removal of tattoo pigments using Q-switched lasers. Different types of Q-switched lasers are used to target different colors of tattoo ink depending on the specific light absorption spectra of the tattoo pigments. \n", "Future LED tattoos may use silicon chips that are around the length of a small grain of rice which has the dimensions of about 1 millimeters and just 250 nanometers thick. The chips are placed on thin films of silk, which cause the electronics to conform to biological tissue. This process is aided when saline solution is added, helping the silicon mold to the shape of the skin. Silk dissolves away over time, which can occur immediately after the operation or over the course of several years, leaving the thin silicon circuits in place. While silicon has not been proven to be biocompatible all studies show it to be safe and it has been used in many other medical implant operations including implantation of silicon chips in mice. The circuits do not cause irritation because they are nanometers thick. LED tattoos would not interfere with normal physiological processes.\n", "Coronary artery disease remains a leading cause of death for persons over the age of 65 in the United States. It is estimated that in the United States 100,000-200,000 symptomatic patients are diagnosed each year with refractory angina but are not candidates for further intervention or bypass surgery. A contemporary study indicates that as many of 3 out of 10 patients with CAD may have incomplete revascularization. \n\nIn addition to the TMR procedure, Cardiogenesis is developing proprietary catheter-based systems for the delivery of biologics, such as stem cells, as an adjunctive therapy for this patient population.\n\nSection::::External links.\n", "Cardiac fibroblasts make up more than half of all heart cells and are usually not able to conduct contractions (are not cardiogenic), but those reprogrammed were able to contract spontaneously. The significance is that fibroblasts from the damaged heart or from elsewhere, may be a source of functional cardiomyocytes for regeneration.\n", "Mice genetically altered to produce LIN28 during their lifespan showed improved hair growth. and healthy tissue regeneration on added puncture wounds in later life stages. While the mice could regenerate limbs, they could not repair damaged heart tissue. Appropriate drugs replicated the regeneration in unaltered mice, using the same metabolic paths. The drugs increased the subjects' metabolic rates, evidently causing the body to heal at higher rates. The effects of Lin28a activation faded with age.\n\nSection::::Structure.\n", "2005: In the best-documented effort to date, Felix Engel, Ph.D., and Dr. Mark Keating successfully get adult heart-muscle cells to divide and multiply in mammals, the first step in regenerating heart tissue. They are now investigating whether their technique can improve heart function in animal models of cardiac injury.\n", "Damage to the compounds in tattoo ink cause the color of the resulting tattoo to change over time. For UV tattoos this may mean the tattoo becomes more visible under visible light or may not glow in black lighting. Blue UV inks are known to yellow or turn slightly brown with sun exposure.\n\nSection::::Safety concerns.\n" ]

[ "Tattoos should go away as skin cells regenerate." ]

[ "Tattoo ink is to large to get destroyed by white blood cells so it just stays on the skin." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Tattoos should go away as skin cells regenerate." ]

[ "false presupposition" ]

[ "Tattoo ink is to large to get destroyed by white blood cells so it just stays on the skin." ]

[ "Section::::Syndromes.\n\nBULLET::::- Upper limb\n\nBULLET::::- Lower limb, abdomen and pelvis\n\nSection::::Signs/symptoms.\n\nTingling, numbness, and/ or a burning sensation in the area of the body affected by the corresponding nerve. These experiences may occur directly following insult or may occur several hours or even days afterwards. Pain is less common than tingling or numbness as a symptom of nerve entrapment, although a burning sensation, if it occurs, may (subjectively) be classified as pain.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "The specific type of symptoms may be either motor, sensory, or mixed motor/sensory type symptoms. Motor symptoms consistent of muscle weakness; sensory symptoms or paresthesias consist of numbness or tingling in the areas innervated by the ulnar nerve.\n\nThe type of symptoms depend on the location of ulnar nerve impingement, because the ulnar nerve consists of different sub-types of nerves along its course. \n\nBULLET::::- proximal impingement (closer to the shoulder) is associated with mixed symptoms, as the proximal nerve consists of mixed sensory and motor innervation.\n", "Pain is present in about 78% of cases. Slight pain is present in the earliest stage of ainhum, caused by pressure on the underlying nerves. Fracture of the phalanx or chronic sepsis is accompanied with severe pain.\n\nSection::::Cause.\n", "BULLET::::- Nerve compression hypothesis: suggests that when the vertebrae are out of alignment, the nerve roots and/or spinal cord can become pinched or irritated. While the most commonly referenced hypothesis, and easiest for a patient to understand, it may be the least likely to occur.\n\nBULLET::::- Proprioceptive insult hypothesis: focuses on articular alterations causing hyperactivity of the sensory nerve fibers.\n\nBULLET::::- Somatosympathetic reflex hypothesis: all the visceral organ functions can be reflexly affected by cutaneous or muscular stimulation.\n", "BULLET::::- distal impingement (closer to the hand) is associated with variable symptoms, as the ulnar nerve separates near the hand into distinct motor and sensory branches.\n", "BULLET::::- Tinel's sign is a classic test to detect median nerve irritation. Tinel's sign is performed by lightly tapping the skin over the flexor retinaculum to elicit a sensation of tingling or \"pins and needles\" in the median nerve distribution. Tinel's sign (pain or paresthesias of the median-innervated fingers with percussion over the median nerve), depending on the study, has 38–100% sensitivity and 55–100% specificity for the diagnosis of CTS.\n\nBULLET::::- Durkan test, \"carpal compression test\", or applying firm pressure to the palm over the nerve for up to 30 seconds to elicit symptoms has also been proposed.\n", "BULLET::::- Pain while operating automobiles\n\nBULLET::::- Pain along the Posterior Tibial nerve path\n\nBULLET::::- Burning sensation on the bottom of foot that radiates upward reaching the knee\n\nBULLET::::- \"Pins and needles\"-type feeling and increased sensation on the feet\n\nBULLET::::- A positive Tinel's sign\n\nTinel's sign is a tingling electric shock sensation that occurs when you tap over an affected nerve. The sensation usually travels into the foot but can also travel up the inner leg as well.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Piriformis syndrome is a controversial condition that, depending on the analysis, varies from a \"very rare\" cause to contributing up to 8% of low back or buttock pain. In a small population of people, the sciatic nerve runs through the piriformis muscle rather than beneath it. When the piriformis shortens or spasms due to trauma or overuse, it is posited that this causes compression of the sciatic nerve. Piriformis syndrome has colloquially been referred to as \"wallet sciatica\" since a wallet carried in a rear hip pocket compresses the buttock muscles and sciatic nerve when the bearer sits down. Piriformis syndrome may be suspected as a cause of sciatica when the spinal nerve roots contributing to the sciatic nerve are normal and no herniation of a spinal disc is apparent.\n", "The symptoms and signs depend on which nerve is affected, where along its length the nerve is affected, and how severely the nerve is affected. Positive sensory symptoms are usually the earliest to occur, particularly tingling and neuropathic pain, followed or accompanied by reduced sensation or complete numbness. Muscle weakness is usually noticed later, and is often associated with muscle atrophy.\n", "Paresthesias of the hands, feet, legs and arms are common, transient symptoms. The briefest, electric shock type of paresthesia can be caused by tweaking the ulnar nerve near the elbow. Similar brief shocks can be experienced when any other nerve is tweaked (a tweaked neck nerve may cause a brief shock-like paresthesia toward the scalp). In the older age group, spinal column irregularities may tweak the spinal cord briefly when the head or back is turned, flexed, or extended into brief uncommon positions (Lhermitte's sign).\n", "Section::::Treatment.\n", "Fibrous bands or arcuate (curved) ligaments may entrap the median as well as the anterior interosseous nerves, in which case a patient may experience numbness as well as pain.⁠⁠\n\nRheumatoid disease and gouty arthritis may be a predisposing factor in anterior interosseous nerve entrapment.\n\nVery similar syndromes can be caused by more proximal lesions, such as brachial plexus neuritis.⁠\n\nAnterior interosseous nerve entrapment or compression injury remains a difficult clinical diagnosis because it is mainly a motor nerve and the syndrome is often mistaken for finger ligamentous injury.⁠\n\nSection::::Anatomy.\n", "There are a number of colloquial terms used to describe radial nerve injuries, which are usually dependent on the causation factor:\n\nBULLET::::- Saturday night palsy from falling asleep with one's arm hanging over the arm rest of a chair, compressing the radial nerve at the spiral groove.\n", "Section::::Tests and Imaging.\n\nSimilar to a tinel sign digital palpitation of the ischial spine may produce pain. In contrast, patients may report temporary relief with a diagnostic pudendal nerve block (see Injections), typically infiltrated near the ischial spine.\n\nElectromyography can be used to measure motor latency along the pudendal nerve. A greater than normal conduction delay can indicate entrapment of the nerve.\n\nImaging studies using MR neurography may be useful. In patients with unilateral pudendal entrapment in the Alcock's canal, it is typical to see asymmetric swelling and hyperintensity affecting the pudendal neurovascular bundle.\n\nSection::::Causes.\n", "Section::::Function.\n", "Injury to the musculocutaneous nerve can be caused by three mechanisms: repeated microtrauma, indirect trauma or direct trauma on the nerve. Overuse of coracobrachialis, biceps, and brachialis muscles can cause the stretching or compression of musculocutaneous nerve. Those who have it can complain of pain, tingling or reduced sensation over the lateral side of the forearm. This symptom can be reproduced by pressing over the region below the coracoid process (positive Tinel's sign). Pain can also be reproduced by flexing the arm against resistance. Other differential diagnoses that can mimick the symptoms of musculocutaneous palsy are: C6 radiculopathy (pain can be produced by movement of the neck), long head of biceps tendinopathy (no motor or sensory deficits), pain of the bicipital groove (relieved by shoulder joint injection). Electromyography test shows slight neural damage at the biceps and the brachialis muscles with slower motor and sensory conduction over the Erb's point.\n", "BULLET::::- In the ending of \"ModNation Racers\", Gary Reasons knocks Biff Tradwell out with the Vulcan nerve pinch (twice) for insulting him during the entire course of the game.\n\nBULLET::::- In \"Adventures in Odyssey\", Eugene Meltsner is initially attacked with the move unsuccessfully at first but then faints after a successful second attempt in . He is attacked with the move again in this time successfully.\n\nBULLET::::- In the \"Bravest Warriors\" minisode, \"Impossibomb\", Wallow uses the nerve pinch on Impossibear to get his hands on a present (with a bomb inside).\n", "Nerve compression syndrome or compression neuropathy, is a medical condition caused by direct pressure on a nerve. It is known colloquially as a \"trapped nerve\", though this may also refer to nerve root compression (by a herniated disc, for example). Its symptoms include pain, tingling, numbness and muscle weakness. The symptoms affect just one particular part of the body, depending on which nerve is affected. Nerve conduction studies help to confirm the diagnosis. In some cases, surgery may help to relieve the pressure on the nerve but this does not always relieve all the symptoms. Nerve injury by a single episode of physical trauma is in one sense a compression neuropathy but is not usually included under this heading.\n", "BULLET::::- In the Beastie Boys song \"Intergalactic\", the lyrics state, \"If you try to knock me you'll get mocked/I'll stir fry you in my wok/Your knees'll start shakin' and your fingers pop/Like a pinch on the neck of Mr. Spock\".\n\nSection::::Death grip.\n", "Once ACNES is considered based on the patient's history, the diagnosis can be made via a thorough physical examination: looking for a painful spot, which worsens by tensing the abdominal muscles with lifting the head and straightened legs (Carnett's sign). Almost always, a small area of maximal pain is covered by a larger area of altered skin sensibility with somatosensory disturbances such as hypoesthesia as well as hyperesthesia or hyperalgesia and change of cool perception. Pinching the skin between thumb and index finger is extremely painful compared to the opposite non-involved side.\n", "In the case of trigeminal neuralgia, the affected nerves are responsible for sensing touch, temperature sensation and pressure sensation in the facial area from the jaw to the forehead. The disorder generally causes short episodes of excruciating pain, usually for less than two minutes and usually only one side of the face. The pain can be described in a variety of ways such as \"stabbing\", \"sharp\", \"like lightning\", \"burning\", and even \"itchy\". In the atypical form of TN, the pain presents as severe constant aching along the nerve. The pain associated with TN is recognized as one of the most excruciating pains that can be experienced.\n", "Section::::Treatment.:Surgical treatment.\n", "Ulnar nerve entrapment\n\nUlnar nerve entrapment is a condition where the ulnar nerve becomes physically trapped or pinched, resulting in pain, numbness, or weakness.\n\nSection::::Signs and symptoms.\n\nUlnar neuropathy causes symptoms in a specific anatomic distribution, corresponding parts of the arm innervated by the ulnar nerve:\n\nBULLET::::- the little finger\n\nBULLET::::- ulnar half of the ring finger\n\nBULLET::::- intrinsic muscles of the hand\n", "Diffuse tightness and tenderness over the entire belly of the tibialis anterior muscle that does not respond to elevation or pain medication can be early warning signs and suggestive of Anterior Compartment Syndrome. Other common symptoms include excessive swelling that causes the skin to become hot, stretched and glossy. Pain, paresthesias, and tenderness in both the ischemic muscles and the region supplied by the deep common fibular nerve are exhibited by patients suffering from this condition. Sensitivity to passive stretch and active contraction are common, and tend to increase the symptoms.\n\nSection::::Pathology.\n", "Compression of the median nerve in the region of the elbow or proximal part of the forearm can cause pain and/or numbness in the distribution of the distal median nerve, and weakness of the muscles innervated by the anterior interosseous nerve: the flexor pollicis longus (\"FPL\"), the flexor digitorum profundus of the index finger (\"FDP IF\"), and the pronator quadratus (\"PQ\").\n\nSection::::Causes.\n" ]

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[ "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "Section::::History.:Institutional membership and sponsored delegates.\n\nIZE offers institutional membership to zoos, aquariums, nature/wildlife centres and wildlife reserves. At least 50% of this annual membership fee is used in a scheme to enable sponsored delegates to attend conferences when they might not otherwise be able to afford to, and supports outreach to zoo and wildlife educators in the developing world.\n", "They are often not for profit, but there are also many commercially run membership organizations, and some larger not for profit membership organizations (like the National Trust in the United Kingdom) which have commercial subsidiaries. \n", "BULLET::::- Fort Wayne Zoological Society (founded 1966), operating the Fort Wayne Children's Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Greater Minot Zoological Society (founded 1970), operating the Roosevelt Park Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Henry Vilas Park Zoological Society (founded 1914 as the Madison Zoological and Aquarium Society), associated with the Henry Vilas Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Indianapolis Zoological Society (founded 1944), operating the Indianapolis Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- John Ball Zoological Society (founded 1949), affiliated with the John Ball Zoological Garden\n\nBULLET::::- Lake Area Zoological Society (founded 1972), affiliated with the Bramble Park Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Lincoln Park Zoological Society (founded 1961), operating the Lincoln Park Zoo\n", "BULLET::::- Potawatomi Zoological Society, operating the Potawatomi Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Potter Park Zoological Society (founded 1969 as the Friends of the Zoo Society), affiliated with the Potter Park Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Red River Zoological Society (founded 1993), operating the Red River Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Sedgwick County Zoological Society, associated with the Sedgwick County Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Toledo Zoological Society, operating the Toledo Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Zoological Society of Cincinnati (founded 1873), operating the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden\n\nBULLET::::- Zoological Society of Milwaukee (founded 1910), affiliated with the Milwaukee County Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Zoological Society of St. Louis (founded 1910), affiliated with the Saint Louis Zoo\n", "BULLET::::- Delmarva Zoological Society, affiliated with the Salisbury Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Fort Worth Zoological Association (founded 1939 as the Fort Worth Zoological Society), operating the Fort Worth Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Jacksonville Zoological Society (founded 1971), operating the Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens\n\nBULLET::::- Lowry Park Zoological Society of Tampa (founded 1982 as the Lowry Park Zoo Association), operating the Lowry Park Zoo\n\nBULLET::::- Maryland Zoological Society (founded 1974), affiliated with The Maryland Zoo in Baltimore\n\nBULLET::::- Montgomery Area Zoological Society/Zoo Friends (founded 1976 as the Dixieland Zoological Society), affiliated with the Montgomery Zoo\n", "Section::::Gambling impresario.:Clermont Club.\n\nIn 1962, Aspinall founded the Clermont Club in London's Mayfair. The club was named after Lord Clermont, a well known gambler who had previously owned the building in Berkeley Square. The club's original members included five dukes, five marquesses, twenty earls and two cabinet ministers.\n\nBut overheads were higher, and under the new laws Aspinall had to pay tax, only making a table charge which produced much smaller revenue for the house.\n", "Hippo members can choose to participate in homestay programs, in which they visit a Hippo Family Club, or other non-profit or community group in another country. Participating countries include the United States, Mexico, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Tunisia, Russia, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and India. \n", "The park and ZSL receive no government funding, and rely mainly on entrance fees, memberships, its 'Fellows' and 'Patrons' scheme and various corporate sponsorships. The park takes advantage of the Gift Aid charity donation scheme.\n\nSection::::Filming at the zoo.\n", "In response, people throughout the Chicago area, particularly schoolchildren, began collecting money for the \"Ziggy Fund\". Many elementary schools and high schools organized fundraisers, and the Bellwood Boys' Club made a five-foot-tall papier-mâché statue of Ziggy, which they paraded through the streets while collecting quarters. A number of donations also arrived from overseas, including several from American soldiers who had been stationed in Vietnam. In August 1970, the zoo received a major boost when William Sitwell, president of the Chicagoland Buick-Opel Dealers Association, pledged to match the money raised from individual sources.\n", "Through the government subsidy, all five subdistricts are able to operate without charging admission. Some people have questioned whether tourists and residents of areas outside St. Louis City and St. Louis County should continue to be allowed free admission, and that it might be just to charge them, as they contribute nothing to the regional attractions. The exception to this is the Missouri Botanical Garden, which charges admission to non-residents of St. Louis City and County at double the rate of residents. Institutional and political efforts to persuade neighboring Jefferson, St. Charles and other counties to pass tax levies to join the district (and contribute to operations of the regional attractions) have not been successful. The issue of equity has come up intermittently throughout the district's history.\n", "From an initial annual revenue of $3.9 million in 1972, the district grew to $72 million in 2008. In the past few years, around 85% of these funds have come from the county with the city providing only about 15%. Though the tax is the same in both places, the disparity in income and population accounts for the difference in money generated.\n\nSection::::Governing Board.\n", "The company's marketing program of a regional Florida Fun Cards season pass was launched in 2000. These pass were good for seven-months at the cost of a single admission. Being successful, the program was extended to all its parks. This was followed up in 2001 with a tiered reward card called Passport with four level name after medals metals. This program gain additional contact information for its marketing database. The additional marketing the database allowed plus the two program, local pass and reward card, allowed them to stay afloat during the economic down turn that started in 2001.\n", "Anyone wishing to join the Otter Co-op must fill in an application and pay the $10 lifetime membership fee. Upon acceptance, members will be assigned a membership number as well as a membership card. Memberships can be passed on to anyone of the age of majority. \n\nEach dollar spent by a member is totaled and at the end of the year, members are issued a patronage refund of equity, in proportion to this total. The rate of the patronage refund is determined by the finance committee and changes yearly.\n", "For the case of service, like a haircut, the same logic applies. Sharing a haircut means, one-half haircut per month is consumed, or half a physical unit of service. Therefore the utility for the person deriving from the service declines.\n\nUsing the example of a swimming pool facility, James M. Buchanan states that:\n\nBut each new member (or co-owner) helps reduce the cost of the club good, so there will be some optimal size of the good that maximizes the benefit for its members.\n", "Costs can vary through the purchase of a higher-level membership, such as a Founders or a Life membership. Such memberships often have a high up-front cost but a lower monthly rate, making them potentially beneficial to those who use the club frequently and hold their memberships for years.\n\nSection::::Facilities and services.:Types of services in health clubs.\n", "The Association of Zoos and Aquariums reported 195 million visitors to its 236 accredited member facilities in 2017.\n\nSection::::Activities.\n\nThe organization is active in institution accreditation, animal care initiatives, education and conservation programs, collaborative research and advocacy.\n", "As of 2011, there is a 14-year waiting list for new memberships. The membership waiting list was re-opened in May 2012 after being closed for five years. Corporate members pay an initiation fee of $40,000, and individual members pay $25,000 in addition to annual dues, which are about $10,000.\n", "List of animals in Zoo Tycoon 2\n\nThere are a number of gameplay modes in the game, and each (with the exception of Freeform) has differing limitations.\n", "Friends of Indianapolis Animal Care & Control was founded by a dedicated group of volunteers and leaders from Indianapolis Animal Care & Control, which is the city agency that deals with animal overpopulation in the Indianapolis area. Their services include collecting stray and injured animals, holding lost animals for owner retrieval, inspecting crimes related to animal ownership or breeding, and education on pet overpopulation issues.\n\nSection::::Events.\n", "The change in structure from a \"band of volunteers\" to a limited company allowed the organisation to employ staff, enter into contracts for accommodation and publish accounts.\n\nA number of options were considered for the status of ACPO, including charitable status, but all were discounted.\n", "A Freeform game in \"Zoo Tycoon 2\" allows you to create the zoo of your choice, the only restrictions being space, animals and objects. The player's money supply is unlimited, and all items are available from the beginning of the game (except those that can only be unlocked in Scenario and Challenge games). Freeform games begin with an empty zoo, to which the player adds animal exhibits and guest facilities (such as restaurants and bathrooms), hiring employees to staff and maintain them.\n", "In October 1924, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA) was formed as an affiliate of the American Institute of Park Executives (AIPE). In 1966, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums became a professional branch affiliate of the newly formed National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA, which absorbed the American Institute of Park Executives).\n", "San Diego Zoo Global is a not-for-profit organization headquartered in San Diego that operates the San Diego Zoo, the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research, and the San Diego Zoo Global Wildlife Conservancy. Founded in 1916 as the Zoological Society of San Diego under the leadership of Harry M. Wegeforth, the organization claims the largest zoological society membership in the world, with more than 250,000 member households and 130,000 child memberships, representing more than half a million people. The organization's mission is to save vulnerable species through animal care based in conservation science.\n", "Section::::Retail.\n\nSome retail stores add fees, mainly for \"guest passes\" at membership warehouses like Costco and Sam's Club, where membership dues have not been paid.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[]

[ "normal", "normal" ]

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[ "Section::::Brain involvement.:Involuntary expiration.:Receptors.\n", "It has been found that two converging bimodal stimuli can produce a perception that is not only different in magnitude than the sum of its parts, but also quite different in quality. In a classic study labeled the McGurk effect, a person's phoneme production was dubbed with a video of that person speaking a different phoneme. The end result was the perception of a third, different phoneme. McGurk and MacDonald (1976) explained that phonemes such as ba, da, ka, ta, ga and pa can be divided into four groups, those that can be visually confused, i.e. (da, ga, ka, ta) and (ba and pa), and those that can be audibly confused. Hence, when ba – voice and ga lips are processed together, the visual modality sees ga or da, and the auditory modality hears ba or da, combining to form the percept da.\n", "It also became clear that CP was not quite the all-or-none effect Liberman had originally thought it was: It is not that all /pa/s are indistinguishable and all /ba/s are indistinguishable: We can hear the differences, just as we can see the differences between different shades of red. It is just that the within-category differences (pa1/pa2 or red1/red2) sound/look much smaller than the between-category differences (pa2/ba1 or red2/yellow1), even when the size of the underlying physical differences (voicing, wavelength) are actually the same.\n\nSection::::Identification and discrimination tasks.\n", "Nevertheless, an alternative model has been proposed reinforced by certain experimental data. According to this model, respiratory rhythm is generated by two coupled anatomically distinct rhythm generators, one in the pre-Boetzinger complex and the other in the retrotrapezoid nucleus / parafacial respiratory group. Further survey provided evidence to the hypothesis that one of the networks is responsible for inspiration rhythm and the other for expiration rhythm. Therefore, inspiration and expiration are distinct functions and one does not induce the other, as is the common belief, but one of two dominates the behavior by generating a faster rhythm.\n\nSection::::Functions.:Swallowing.\n", "Normal atmospheric air contains approximately 21% oxygen when inhaled in. After gaseous exchange has taken place in the lungs, with waste products (notably carbon dioxide) moved from the bloodstream to the lungs, the air being exhaled by humans normally contains around 17% oxygen. This means that the human body utilises only around 19% of the oxygen inhaled, leaving over 80% of the oxygen available in the exhalatory breath.\n\nThis means that there is more than enough residual oxygen to be used in the lungs of the patient, which then enters the blood.\n\nSection::::Oxygen.\n", "Section::::Chart performance.\n", "However, breath sampling is far from being a standardized procedure due to the numerous confounding factors biasing the concentrations of volatiles in breath. These factors are related to both the breath sampling protocols as well as the complex physiological mechanisms underlying pulmonary gas exchange. Even under resting conditions exhaled breath concentrations of VOCs can strongly be influenced by specific physiological parameters such as cardiac output and breathing patterns, depending on the physico-chemical properties of the compound under study.\n", "Burping\n\nSection::::Causes.\n\nBULLET::::- Burping is usually caused by swallowing air when eating or drinking and subsequently expelling it, in which case the expelled gas is mainly a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen.\n\nBULLET::::- Burps can be caused by drinking beverages containing carbon dioxide, such as beer and soft drinks, in which case the expelled gas is mainly carbon dioxide.\n\nBULLET::::- Diabetes drugs such as metformin and exenatide can cause burping, especially at higher doses. This often resolves in a few weeks.\n", "\"VPAP\" or \"BPAP\" (variable/bilevel positive airway pressure) provides two levels of pressure: inspiratory positive airway pressure (IPAP) and a lower expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP) for easier exhalation. (Some people use the term BPAP to parallel the terms APAP and CPAP.) Often BPAP is incorrectly referred to as \"BiPAP\". However, BiPAP is the name of a portable ventilator manufactured by Respironics Corporation; it is just one of many ventilators that can deliver BPAP.\n\nBULLET::::- Modes\n\nBULLET::::- S (Spontaneous) – In spontaneous mode the device triggers IPAP when flow sensors detect spontaneous inspiratory effort and then cycles back to EPAP.\n", "BULLET::::- The trap–bath split has resulted in RP having the back unrounded open vowel in many words where GA has a front open unrounded vowel ; this RP vowel occurs typically (but not always) when followed by:\n\nBULLET::::- , , , , , or (e.g. \"aunt, pass, laugh, path\").\n\nBULLET::::- Several foreign names and loanwords spelled with use in RP but in GA, such as \"kebab\", \"pasta\", \"macho\", and \"taco\". In a small number of words, these phonemes are exactly reversed in the two dialects, such as \"banana\", \"khaki\", and \"Pakistan\".\n", "The pre-Bötzinger complex produces two types of breathing rhythms under normal levels of oxygen. In eupnea, or normal breathing, the pre-BötC generates a rhythm that is fast and low in amplitude. Sighs, on the other hand, consist of a slow and large amplitude rhythm. Each type of rhythm is generated by the same neurons in the pre-Bötzinger complex, but through different mechanisms, receptors, and ion currents that are controlled by changes in the behavior or environment of the organism. Under low levels of oxygen, the pre-Bötzinger complex needs to rearrange the activity of its neurons and requires the assistance of other brain structures, like the pons, to generate gasping. Gasping is characterized by a rhythm that has faster rise, shorter bursts, and lower frequency.\n", "Many people learn a basic form of esophageal speech as children, when they speak words while burping, e.g. in competitions with friends to see who can say more of the alphabet during a burp.\n\nEsophageal speech is quieter and more strenuous than laryngeal speech, and fewer words can be produced successively. Good esophageal speakers can produce an average of 5 words per breath and 120 words per minute. Very good esophageal speakers speak very similarly to TEP speakers.\n", "While developing the prequel to \"Mouth Sounds\", Cicierega created a setting for both albums, concerning the existence of parallel universes. In the universe with which \"Mouth Sounds\" lies, the band Smash Mouth exists, but not in the parallel universe created for \"Mouth Silence\" (which lacks any Smash Mouth-related mixes). In both universes, Cicierega delineated that a \"war of music\" continues on, explaining the reasoning behind the mashups.\n", "If speech is identified in terms of how it is physically made, then nonauditory information should be incorporated into speech percepts even if it is still subjectively heard as \"sounds\". This is, in fact, the case.\n\nBULLET::::- The McGurk effect shows that seeing the production of a spoken syllable that differs from an auditory cue synchronized with it affects the perception of the auditory one. In other words, if someone hears \"ba\" but sees a video of someone pronouncing \"ga\", what they hear is different—some people believe they hear \"da\".\n", "BULLET::::- While the \"lot–cloth split\" is not usually found in RP, it is found in those GA speakers who do not have the cot–caught merger (which otherwise neutralizes this split). This results in in some words which now have in RP, particularly before voiceless fricatives and sometimes before (where it is always in RP, both older and contemporary). This is reflected in the \"eye dialect\" spelling \"dawg\" for \"dog\".\n", "BULLET::::- RP has three open back vowels, where GA has only two or even one. GA speakers use for both the RP (\"spot\") and (\"spa\"): the father–bother merger.\n\nBULLET::::- Nearly half of American speakers additionally use the same vowel for the RP (the cot–caught merger).\n", "In interjections, the other two mechanisms may be employed. For example, in countries as diverse as Sweden, Turkey, and Togo, a pulmonic ingressive (\"gasped\" or \"inhaled\") vowel is used for back-channeling or to express agreement, and in France a lingual egressive (a \"spurt\") is used to express dismissal. The only language where such sounds are known to be contrastive in normal vocabulary is the extinct ritual language Damin (also the only language outside Africa with clicks); however, Damin appears to have been intentionally designed to differ from normal speech.\n\nSection::::Pulmonic initiation.\n", "Speech sounds can be imitatively mapped into vocal articulations in spite of vocal tract anatomy differences in size and shape due to gender, age and individual anatomical variability. Such variability is extensive making input output mapping of speech more complex than a simple mapping of vocal track movements. The shape of the mouth varies widely: dentists recognize three basic shapes of palate: trapezoid, ovoid, and triagonal; six types of malocclusion between the two jaws; nine ways teeth relate to the dental arch and a wide range of maxillary and mandible deformities. Vocal sound can also vary due to dental injury and dental caries. Other factors that do not impede the sensory motor mapping needed for vocal imitation are gross oral deformations such as hare-lips, cleft palates or amputations of the tongue tip, pipe smoking, pencil biting and teeth clinching (such as in ventriloquism). Paranasal sinuses vary between individuals 20-fold in volume, and differ in the presence and the degree of their asymmetry.\n", "PAP manufacturers frequently offer different models at different price ranges, and PAP masks have many different sizes and shapes, so that some users need to try several masks before finding a good fit. These different machines may not be comfortable for all users, so proper selection of PAP models may be very important in furthering adherence to therapy.\n", "First, back to vowels. The signature of CP is within-category compression and/or between-category separation. The size of the CP effect is merely a scaling factor; it is this compression/separation \"accordion effect\", that is CP's distinctive feature. In this respect, the \"weaker\" CP effect for vowels, whose motor production is continuous rather than categorical, but whose perception is by this criterion categorical, is every bit as much of a CP effect as the ba/pa and ba/da effects. But, as with colors, it looks as if the effect is an innate one: Our sensory category detectors for both color and speech sounds are born already \"biased\" by evolution: Our perceived color and speech-sound spectrum is already \"warped\" with these compression/separations.\n", "It is during exhalation that the olfaction contribution to flavor occurs in contrast to that of ordinary smell which occurs during the inhalation phase.\n\nSection::::Spirometry.\n", "Signs that consolidation may have occurred include:\n\nBULLET::::- Expansion of the thorax on inspiration is reduced on the affected side\n\nBULLET::::- Vocal fremitus is increased on the affected side\n\nBULLET::::- Percussion is dull in the affected area\n\nBULLET::::- Breath sounds are bronchial\n\nBULLET::::- Possible medium, late, or pan-inspiratory crackles\n\nBULLET::::- Vocal resonance is increased. Here, the patient's voice (or whisper, as in whispered pectoriloquy) can be heard more clearly when there is consolidation, as opposed to the healthy lung where speech sounds muffled.\n\nBULLET::::- A pleural rub may be present.\n", "According to the (now abandoned) motor theory of speech perception, the reason people perceive an abrupt change between /ba/ and /pa/ is that the way we hear speech sounds is influenced by how people produce them when they speak. What is varying along this continuum is voice-onset-time: the \"b\" in /ba/ is voiced and the \"p\" in /pa/ is not. But unlike the synthetic \"morphing\" apparatus, people's natural vocal apparatus is not capable of producing anything in between ba and pa. So when one hears a sound from the voicing continuum, their brain perceives it by trying to match it with what it would have had to do to produce it. Since the only thing they can produce is /ba/ or /pa/, they will perceive any of the synthetic stimuli along the continuum as either /ba/ or /pa/, whichever it is closer to. A similar CP effect is found with ba/da; these too lie along a continuum acoustically, but vocally, /ba/ is formed with the two lips, /da/ with the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, and our anatomy does not allow any intermediates.\n", "BULLET::::2. One linguistic unit can be cued by several acoustic properties. For example, in a classic experiment, Alvin Liberman (1957) showed that the onset formant transitions of differ depending on the following vowel (see Figure 1) but they are all interpreted as the phoneme by listeners.\n\nSection::::Basics.:Linearity and the segmentation problem.\n", "One of the reasons we can breathe is because of the elasticity of the lungs. The internal surface of the lungs on average in a non-emphysemic person is normally 63m2 and can hold about 5lts of air volume. Both lungs together have the same amount of surface area as half of a tennis court. Disease such as, emphysema, tuberculosis, can reduce the amount of surface area and elasticity of the lungs. Another big factor in the elasticity of the lungs is smoking because of the residue left behind in the lungs from the smoking. The elasticity of the lungs can be trained to expand further.\n" ]

[]

[]

[ "normal" ]

[ "Burping and exhaling through the mouth are similar." ]

[ "normal", "false presupposition" ]

[ "A burp comes from the stomach, but breathing is from the lungs." ]

[ "Nintendo is opposed to any third-party emulation of its video games and consoles, stating that it is the single largest threat to the intellectual property rights of video game developers. However, emulators have been used by Nintendo and licensed third party companies as a means to re-release older games, with Virtual Console, which re-released classic games as downloadable titles, and with dedicated consoles like the NES Mini and SNES Mini. On 19 July 2018, Nintendo sued Jacob Mathias, the owner of ROM image distribution websites LoveROMs and LoveRetro, for \"brazen and mass-scale infringement of Nintendo’s intellectual property rights.” Nintendo settled with Mathias in November 2018 for more than along with relinquishing all ROM images in their ownership. While Nintendo is likely to have agreed to a smaller fine in private, the large amount was seen as a deterrent to prevent similar sites from sharing ROM images.\n", "Here, however, there was no allegation that Google ever promised Plaintiff or anyone else that it would enforce its Content Policy. Also, even if Google had promised to enforce its Content Policy, Plaintiff would not be a third-party beneficiary of that promise: Google would be the promisor and the allegedly fraudulent MSSP would be a promisee. Thus, the court also rejected Plaintiff's contract claim.\n\nSection::::Decision.:Holding.\n", "In January 2014, Google filed a UDRP case against the owner of domain names androidtv.com and xbmcandroidtv.com. The domain names were owned Exo Level, Inc. and were registered with GoDaddy in November 2006. In March 2014, Google’s case was denied.\n\nSection::::Development.\n\nBULLET::::- 2010 March – Media outlets reported that the Google TV project was underway, although the partnering companies did not confirm their involvement in the venture until later.\n", "iCraveTV representatives did not deny that they had copied copyrighted works, represented themselves as the authors, or publicly performed said works; rather they argued that their actions were legal in Canada, and that they did not intend for US residents to view the works on their site. Despite this argument, based on the precedent set in Williams Elecs., Inc. v. Attic Int'l, Inc., 685 F.2d 870, 878 [215 USPQ 405] (3d Cir.1982) injunctions may be issued without proving willful or deliberate infringement.\n", "For Veoh to be charged with the duty to exercise the requisite control, they would need to prescreen every file before publishing it. And even assuming for the sake of argument that Veoh had the capacity to review the hundreds of thousands of videos, there is no guarantee that they would be able to distinguish infringing material from non-infringing. Even IO had difficulties identifying the videos it owned rights to as it dropped one title and added three more to its list of infringing works during the course of discovery.\n\nSection::::The District Court's Ruling.:DMCA Safe Harbors.:Other.\n", "Much of YouTube's revenue goes to the copyright holders of the videos. In 2010, it was reported that nearly a third of the videos with advertisements were uploaded without permission of the copyright holders. YouTube gives an option for copyright holders to locate and remove their videos or to have them continue running for revenue. In May 2013, Nintendo began enforcing its copyright ownership and claiming the advertising revenue from video creators who posted screenshots of its games. In February 2015, Nintendo agreed to share the revenue with the video creators.\n\nSection::::Community policy.\n", "Section::::Lawsuit.\n", "In February 2016, Internet Archive users had begun archiving digital copies of \"Nintendo Power\", Nintendo's official magazine for their games and products, which ran from 1988 to 2012. The first 140 issues had been collected, before Nintendo had the archive removed on August 8, 2016. In response to the take-down, Nintendo told gaming website \"Polygon\", \"[Nintendo] must protect our own characters, trademarks and other content. The unapproved use of Nintendo's intellectual property can weaken our ability to protect and preserve it, or to possibly use it for new projects\".\n\nSection::::Controversies and legal disputes.:Government of India.\n", "BULLET::::- Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes is one of the first cases that tested the DMCA in dealing with the legality of unlicensed CSS decryption software. In this case, the movie studios sought for an injunction against the distribution of DeCSS, a program made to allow the copying of DVD content onto the hard drive.\n", "BULLET::::- File sharing websites were blocked in India on 21 July 2011 on some ISPs including Bharti Airtel, BSNL, and Reliance Communications, because Reliance BIG Pictures got a \"John Doe\" order from Delhi High Court allowing them to serve cease and desist notices on people illegally redistributing the film Singham. This allegedly brought down copyright infringement of the film by 30%.\n", "In January 2008 California-based Buzztime Entertainment filed a legal suit, in the Southern District of California, against Sony Computer Entertainment Europe alleging that Sony had violated several of its trademarks. The suit accused Sony of a \"malicious, fraudulent, knowing, wilful, and deliberate\" violation of its trademarks. In the suit Buzztime is seeking the recall and destruction of all infringing products and is asking the court for actual damages, punitive damages, legal fees and an order to the US Patent and Trademark Office not to register Sony's pending Buzz trademarks. The case was eventually settled out of court in favour of Sony.\n", "In February 2007, Viacom sent upwards of 100,000 Digital Millennium Copyright Act takedown notices to the video-sharing site YouTube. Of the 100,000 notices, approximately 60–70 non-infringing videos were removed under the auspices of copyright infringement.\n", "Google had argued in an amicus brief that Hotfile should benefit from the same protections that YouTube enjoys, arguing that \"Hotfile did exactly what the DMCA demands, and plaintiffs’ takedown notices cannot be used to charge the service with knowledge of allegedly infringing material that those notices did not specifically identify.\"\n\nThe direct copyright infringement claims were thrown out by judge Adalberto Jordan in July 2011, leaving only the secondary liability allegations to be decided.\n", "Section::::Issue.\n\nWhether or not there was copyright infringement by the publishers of \"Gateway\".\n\nSection::::Rule.\n\nCopyright protect does not extend to ideas, concepts, procedures, methods or other things of a similar nature.\n\nSection::::Application.\n", "In one case, Nintendo claimed that they retain the copyright and have registered the content through YouTube's Content ID system such that they can generate ad revenue from user videos, though Nintendo would later back off of such claims, and later created its own affiliate program, the Nintendo Creators program, between themselves, Google, and proactive uploaders to split profits. Smaller developers have been more open to allowing Let's Play videos. Ubisoft has stated that it allows its games to be used in Let's Play videos and allows for those making them to monetize from any ad revenue as long they stay within certain content-appropriateness guidelines. Microsoft Studios similarly created a set of Game Content Usage Rules that sets certain requirements and limitations on those using its software for Let's Play videos.\n", "On July 17, 2015, Nintendo won a patent suit filed against eight of its handheld consoles, including the 3DS. The suit was originally filed by the Quintal Research Group after it secured a patent for a \"computerized information retrieval system\" in 2008. On March 17, 2018, the United States Appeals Court determined Nintendo had not violated Tomita's patent.\n\nSection::::See also.\n\nBULLET::::- List of Nintendo DS and 3DS flash cartridges\n\nBULLET::::- Citra, a Nintendo 3DS emulator\n\nSection::::External links.\n\nBULLET::::- Official Nintendo 3DS website\n\nBULLET::::- Official North American Nintendo 3DS website\n\nBULLET::::- Official European Nintendo 3DS website\n", "Section::::Settlement of the case.\n\nIn February 2006 in an out of court settlement several defendants who had been represented by lawyers funded by Legal Aid agreed that they would sign undertakings not to not do certain things that they had never done or had any intention of doing, on condition of discontinuance, and that defendants costs of the case were paid by EDO and EDO also pay their own substantial costs, but most importantly of all, that the injunction against all other protesters other than those in court be lifted.\n", "Two NTDEC employees were arrested in 1991 for the company's activities distributing cartridges in the US, and legal action was brought against the company by Nintendo shortly after for copyright infringement, as well as its use of the \"Nintendo\" trademark in its company name.\n\nNintendo's legal action of 1991 concluded in 1993 with Nintendo being awarded $24,059,062 plus attorneys fees of $108,829.00 and costs of $709.80, and a worldwide permanent injunction preventing NTDEC from infringing Nintendo's intellectual property rights. At this point the company ceased operations under the NTDEC name.\n\nSection::::History.:Original games.\n", "The legal action continued against three remaining defendants who were not dependent of Legal Aid so were able to refuse the written undertakings, and the large lump sums they were offered by EDO to sign them. EDO had hoped that these litigants in person would follow the lead of the lawyers, so that the company would not suffer the exposure of an abuse of process hearing against them that had been a major factor in the out of court settlement for the other defendants.\n", "IsoHunt has a history of complying with DMCA takedown notices, and has worked with various copyright owners in the past, such as the RIAA and Microsoft. The site uses an ex-gratia takedown process modelled on the DMCA, even though the servers were relocated to Canada in January 2007 where the DMCA does not apply.\n\nSection::::Legal.:Lawsuit against the CRIA.\n", "Three months later, the anime studios filed a writ of summons with the Subordinate Courts against four \"heavy downloaders\". The hearing was speculated to begin in 2009 or 2010, with legal fees ranging from S$50,000 to S$80,000. Because of its bearing on downloaders of other media, such as movies and games, the suits were closely watched by the public. In 2010 it was reported that ODEX's effort was unsuccessful as it was not the primary copyright holder.\n\nSection::::Further developments.:Similar actions in Singapore by other media owners.\n", "In April 2013, it was reported that Universal Music Group and YouTube have a contractual agreement that prevents content blocked on YouTube by a request from UMG from being restored, even if the uploader of the video files a DMCA counter-notice. When a dispute occurs, the uploader of the video has to contact UMG. YouTube's owner Google announced in November 2015 that they would help cover the legal cost in select cases where they believe fair use defenses apply.\n\nSection::::Community policy.:Copyrighted material.:Content ID.\n", "Judges Cabranes and Livingston reversed Judge Stanton's grant of summary judgment, holding that \"a reasonable jury could find that YouTube had actual knowledge or awareness of specific infringing activity on its website\" and, contrary to the Ninth Circuit's dismissal of the Veoh case (\"UMG v. Shelter Partners\"), that the right and ability to control infringing activity need not require knowledge of specific infringements. Thus, the case was again eligible for a jury trial.\n", "Finally, the court held that Google qualified for the \"DMCA safe harbor\" provisions of the 1998 Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), which states that \"[a] service provider shall not be liable for monetary relief . . . for infringement of copyright by reason of the intermediate and temporary storage of material on a system or network controlled or operated by or for the service provider.\"\n\nSection::::References.\n\nBULLET::::- \"Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law\": court order hosted at Stanford\n\nBULLET::::- \"Limitations on Liability Relating to Material Online\", 17 U.S.C. §512(b)\n", "The licensed dubbed version for some French-speaking countries was officially announced in 2006. In 2005, a major crisis led Toei to take legal actions against DVD customers, all French megastores, and two major French anime publishers in France, Belgium, Italy, Switzerland and Luxembourg. The crisis started with the official release of unlicensed Goldorak DVD by Manga Distribution and Déclic Image websites and on eBay. By November 28, 2005 the Manga Distribution and Déclic Images publishers were sentenced to pay €7,200,000 to Toei and Dynamic Planning for selling unlicensed DVD boxes. \n" ]

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