Split (1)

train · 2.87M rows

id stringlengths 2 7	title stringlengths 1 182	text stringlengths 200 369k	url stringlengths 31 212	timestamp stringdate 2025-04-05 18:25:13 2025-04-05 23:52:07
6226	Claudio Monteverdi	() ]] <!-- please do not add infobox without consensus, per WP:CMBIO --> Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi, ; . The spelling Monteuerde was also used during his lifetime.\|groupn}} (baptized 15 May 1567 – 29 November 1643) was an Italian composer, choirmaster and string player. A composer of both secular and sacred music, and a pioneer in the development of opera, he is considered a crucial transitional figure between the Renaissance and Baroque periods of music history. Born in Cremona, where he undertook his first musical studies and compositions, Monteverdi developed his career first at the court of Mantua () and then until his death in the Republic of Venice where he was maestro di cappella at the basilica of San Marco. His surviving letters give insight into the life of a professional musician in Italy of the period, including problems of income, patronage and politics. Much of Monteverdi's output, including many stage works, has been lost. His surviving music includes nine books of madrigals, large-scale religious works, such as his Vespro della Beata Vergine (Vespers for the Blessed Virgin) of 1610, and three complete operas. His opera ''L'Orfeo (1607) is the earliest of the genre still widely performed; towards the end of his life he wrote works for Venice, including Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria and L'incoronazione di Poppea. While he worked extensively in the tradition of earlier Renaissance polyphony, as evidenced in his madrigals, he undertook great developments in form and melody, and began to employ the basso continuo technique, distinctive of the Baroque. No stranger to controversy, he defended his sometimes novel techniques as elements of a seconda pratica, contrasting with the more orthodox earlier style which he termed the prima pratica''. Largely forgotten during the eighteenth and much of the nineteenth centuries, his works enjoyed a rediscovery around the beginning of the twentieth century. He is now established both as a significant influence in European musical history and as a composer whose works are regularly performed and recorded. Life Cremona: 1567–1591 Monteverdi was baptised in the church of SS Nazaro e Celso, Cremona, on 15 May 1567. The register records his name as "Claudio Zuan Antonio" the son of "Messer Baldasar Mondeverdo". He was the first child of the apothecary Baldassare Monteverdi and his first wife Maddalena (née Zignani); they had married early the previous year. Claudio's brother Giulio Cesare Monteverdi (b. 1573) was also to become a musician; there were two other brothers and two sisters from Baldassare's marriage to Maddalena and his subsequent marriage in 1576 or 1577. Cremona was close to the border of the Republic of Venice, and not far from the lands controlled by the Duchy of Mantua, in both of which states Monteverdi was later to establish his career. Monteverdi's first publications also give evidence of his connections beyond Cremona, even in his early years. His second published work, Madrigali spirituali (Spiritual Madrigals, 1583), was printed at Brescia. His next works (his first published secular compositions) were sets of five-part madrigals, according to his biographer Paolo Fabbri: "the inevitable proving ground for any composer of the second half of the sixteenth century ... the secular genre par excellence". The first book of madrigals (Venice, 1587) was dedicated to Count Marco Verità of Verona; the second book of madrigals (Venice, 1590) was dedicated to the President of the Senate of Milan, Giacomo Ricardi, for whom he had played the viola da braccio in 1587. Mantua: 1591–1613 Court musician In the dedication of his second book of madrigals, Monteverdi had described himself as a player of the vivuola (which could mean either viola da gamba or viola da braccio). In 1590 or 1591 he entered the service of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga of Mantua; he recalled in his dedication to the Duke of his third book of madrigals (Venice, 1592) that "the most noble exercise of the vivuola opened to me the fortunate way into your service." In the same dedication he compares his instrumental playing to "flowers" and his compositions as "fruit" which as it matures "can more worthily and more perfectly serve you", indicating his intentions to establish himself as a composer. Duke Vincenzo was keen to establish his court as a musical centre, and sought to recruit leading musicians. When Monteverdi arrived in Mantua, the maestro di capella at the court was the Flemish musician Giaches de Wert. Other notable musicians at the court during this period included the composer and violinist Salomone Rossi, Rossi's sister, the singer Madama Europa, and Francesco Rasi. Monteverdi married the court singer Claudia de Cattaneis in 1599; they were to have three children, two sons (Francesco, b. 1601 and Massimiliano, b. 1604), and a daughter who died soon after birth in 1603. When Wert died in 1596, his post was given to Benedetto Pallavicino, but Monteverdi was clearly highly regarded by Vincenzo and accompanied him on his military campaigns in Hungary (1595) and also on a visit to Flanders in 1599. Monteverdi may possibly have been a member of Vincenzo's entourage at Florence in 1600 for the marriage of Maria de' Medici and Henry IV of France, at which celebrations Jacopo Peri's opera Euridice (the earliest surviving opera) was premiered. On the death of Pallavicino in 1601, Monteverdi was confirmed as the new maestro di capella.Artusi controversy and seconda pratica , "Fetti's 'Portrait of an Actor' Reconsidered", The Burlington Magazine, vol. 120, no. 899 (February 1978), pp. 59–65. .</ref>]] At the turn of the 17th century, Monteverdi found himself the target of musical controversy. The influential Bolognese theorist Giovanni Maria Artusi attacked Monteverdi's music (without naming the composer) in his work ''L'Artusi, overo Delle imperfettioni della moderna musica (Artusi, or On the imperfections of modern music)'' of 1600, followed by a sequel in 1603. Artusi cited extracts from Monteverdi's works not yet published (they later formed parts of his fourth and fifth books of madrigals of 1603 and 1605), condemning their use of harmony and their innovations in use of musical modes, compared to orthodox polyphonic practice of the sixteenth century. Eventually Monteverdi replied in the preface to the fifth book of madrigals that his duties at court prevented him from a detailed reply; but in a note to "the studious reader", he claimed that he would shortly publish a response, Seconda Pratica, overo Perfettione della Moderna Musica (The Second Style, or Perfection of Modern Music). This work never appeared, but a later publication by Claudio's brother Giulio Cesare made it clear that the seconda pratica which Monteverdi defended was not seen by him as a radical change or his own invention, but was an evolution from previous styles (prima pratica) which was complementary to them. This debate seems in any case to have raised the composer's profile, leading to reprints of his earlier books of madrigals. The modern music historian Massimo Ossi has placed the Artusi issue in the context of Monteverdi's artistic development: "If the controversy seems to define Monteverdi's historical position, it also seems to have been about stylistic developments that by 1600 Monteverdi had already outgrown". The non-appearance of Monteverdi's promised explanatory treatise may have been a deliberate ploy, since by 1608, by Monteverdi's reckoning, Artusi had become fully reconciled to modern trends in music, and the seconda pratica was by then well established; Monteverdi had no need to revisit the issue. On the other hand, letters to Giovanni Battista Doni of 1632 show that Monteverdi was still preparing a defence of the seconda pratica, in a treatise entitled Melodia; he may still have been working on this at the time of his death ten years later.Opera, conflict and departure ]] In 1606 Vincenzo's heir Francesco commissioned from Monteverdi the opera ''L'Orfeo, to a libretto by Alessandro Striggio, for the Carnival season of 1607. It was given two performances in February and March 1607; the singers included, in the title role, Rasi, who had sung in the first performance of Euridice witnessed by Vincenzo in 1600. This was followed in 1608 by the opera L'Arianna (libretto by Ottavio Rinuccini), intended for the celebration of the marriage of Francesco to Margherita of Savoy. All the music for this opera is lost apart from Ariadne's Lament, which became extremely popular. To this period also belongs the ballet entertainment Il ballo delle ingrate. The strain of the hard work Monteverdi had been putting into these and other compositions was exacerbated by personal tragedies. His wife died in September 1607 and the young singer Caterina Martinelli, intended for the title role of Arianna, died of smallpox in March 1608. Monteverdi also resented his increasingly poor financial treatment by the Gonzagas. He retired to Cremona in 1608 to convalesce, and wrote a bitter letter to Vincenzo's minister Annibale Chieppio in November of that year seeking (unsuccessfully) "an honourable dismissal". Although the Duke increased Monteverdi's salary and pension, and Monteverdi returned to continue his work at the court, he began to seek patronage elsewhere. After publishing his Vespers in 1610, which were dedicated to Pope Paul V, he visited Rome, ostensibly hoping to place his son Francesco at a seminary, but apparently also seeking alternative employment. In the same year he may also have visited Venice, where a large collection of his church music was being printed, with a similar intention. Duke Vincenzo died on 18 February 1612. When Francesco succeeded him, court intrigues and cost-cutting led to the dismissal of Monteverdi and his brother Giulio Cesare, who both returned, almost penniless, to Cremona. Despite Francesco's own death from smallpox in December 1612, Monteverdi was unable to return to favour with his successor, his brother Cardinal Ferdinando Gonzaga. In 1613, following the death of Giulio Cesare Martinengo, Monteverdi auditioned for his post as maestro at the basilica of San Marco in Venice, for which he submitted music for a Mass. He was appointed in August 1613, and given 50 ducats for his expenses (of which he was robbed, together with his other belongings, by highwaymen at Sanguinetto on his return to Cremona). Venice: 1613–1643 Maturity: 1613–1630 , Venice]] Martinengo had been ill for some time before his death and had left the music of San Marco in a fragile state. The choir had been neglected and the administration overlooked. Among the recruits to the choir was Francesco Cavalli, who joined in 1616 at the age of 14; he remained connected with San Marco throughout his life, and developed a close association with Monteverdi. Monteverdi also sought to expand the repertory, including not only the traditional a cappella repertoire of Roman and Flemish composers, but also examples of the modern style which he favoured, including the use of continuo and other instruments. Monteverdi was also free to obtain income by providing music for other Venetian churches and for other patrons, and was frequently commissioned to provide music for state banquets. The Procurators of San Marco, to whom Monteverdi was directly responsible, showed their satisfaction with his work in 1616 by raising his annual salary from 300 ducats to 400. Nonetheless, remaining a Mantuan citizen, he accepted commissions from the new Duke Ferdinando, who had formally renounced his position as Cardinal in 1616 to take on the duties of state. These included the balli Tirsi e Clori (1616) and Apollo (1620), an opera Andromeda (1620) and an intermedio, Le nozze di Tetide, for the marriage of Ferdinando with Caterina de' Medici (1617). Most of these compositions were extensively delayed in creation – partly, as shown by surviving correspondence, through the composer's unwillingness to prioritise them, and partly because of constant changes in the court's requirements. They are now lost, apart from Tirsi e Clori, which was included in the seventh book of madrigals (published 1619) and dedicated to the Duchess Caterina, for which the composer received a pearl necklace from the Duchess. A subsequent major commission, the opera La finta pazza Licori, to a libretto by Giulio Strozzi, was completed for Fernando's successor Vincenzo II, who succeeded to the dukedom in 1626. Because of the latter's illness (he died in 1627), it was never performed, and it is now also lost.]] Monteverdi also received commissions from other Italian states and from their communities in Venice. These included, for the Milanese community in 1620, music for the Feast of St. Charles Borromeo, and for the Florentine community a Requiem Mass for Cosimo II de' Medici (1621). Among Monteverdi's private Venetian patrons was the nobleman Girolamo Mocenigo, at whose home was premiered in 1624 the dramatic entertainment Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda based on an episode from Torquato Tasso's La Gerusalemme liberata. In 1627 Monteverdi received a major commission from Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma, for a series of works, and gained leave from the Procurators to spend time there during 1627 and 1628. Monteverdi wrote a mass, and provided other musical entertainment, for the visit to Venice in 1625 of the Crown Prince Władysław of Poland, who may have sought to revive attempts made a few years previously to lure Monteverdi to Warsaw. Correspondence of Monteverdi in 1625 and 1626 with the Mantuan courtier Ercole Marigliani reveals an interest in alchemy, which apparently Monteverdi had taken up as a hobby. He discusses experiments to transform lead into gold, the problems of obtaining mercury, and mentions commissioning special vessels for his experiments from the glassworks at Murano. Despite his generally satisfactory situation in Venice, Monteverdi experienced personal problems from time to time. He was on one occasion – probably because of his wide network of contacts – the subject of an anonymous denunciation to the Venetian authorities alleging that he supported the Habsburgs. He was also subject to anxieties about his children. His son Francesco, while a student of law at Padua in 1619, was spending in Monteverdi's opinion too much time with music, and he, therefore, moved him to the University of Bologna. This change did not have the desired result, and it seems that Monteverdi resigned himself to Francesco having a musical career – he joined the choir of San Marco in 1623. His other son Massimiliano, who graduated in medicine, was arrested by the Inquisition in Mantua in 1627 for reading forbidden literature. Monteverdi was obliged to sell the necklace he had received from Duchess Caterina to pay for his son's (eventually successful) defence. Monteverdi wrote at the time to Striggio seeking his help, and fearing that Massimiliano might be subject to torture; it seems that Striggio's intervention was helpful. Money worries at this time also led Monteverdi to visit Cremona to secure for himself a church canonry.Pause and priesthood: 1630–1637A series of disturbing events troubled Monteverdi's world in the period around 1630. Mantua was invaded by Habsburg armies in 1630, who besieged the plague-stricken town, and after its fall in July looted its treasures, and dispersed the artistic community. The plague was carried to Mantua's ally Venice by an embassy led by Monteverdi's confidante Striggio, and over a period of 16 months led to over 45,000 deaths, leaving Venice's population in 1633 at just above 100,000, the lowest level for about 150 years. Among the plague victims was Monteverdi's assistant at San Marco, and a notable composer in his own right, Alessandro Grandi. The plague and the after-effects of war had an inevitable deleterious effect on the economy and artistic life of Venice. Monteverdi's younger brother Giulio Cesare also died at this time, probably from the plague. Monteverdi was still not entirely free from his responsibilities for the musicians at San Marco. He wrote to complain about one of his singers to the Procurators, on 9 June 1637: "I, Claudio Monteverdi ... come humbly ... to set forth to you how Domenicato Aldegati ... a bass, yesterday morning ... at the time of the greatest concourse of people ... spoke these exact words ...'The Director of Music comes from a brood of cut-throat bastards, a thieving, fucking, he-goat ... and I shit on him and whoever protects him .... Monteverdi's contribution to opera at this period is notable. He revised his earlier opera ''L'Arianna in 1640 and wrote three new works for the commercial stage, Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (The Return of Ulysses to his Homeland, 1640, first performed in Bologna with Venetian singers), Le nozze d'Enea e Lavinia (The Marriage of Aeneas and Lavinia, 1641, music now lost), and L'incoronazione di Poppea (The Coronation of Poppea, 1643). The introduction to the printed scenario of Le nozze d'Enea, by an unknown author, acknowledges that Monteverdi is to be credited for the rebirth of theatrical music and that "he will be sighed for in later ages, for his compositions will surely outlive the ravages of time." In his last surviving letter (20 August 1643), Monteverdi, already ill, was still hoping for the settlement of the long-disputed pension from Mantua, and asked the Doge of Venice to intervene on his behalf. He died in Venice on 29 November 1643, after paying a brief visit to Cremona, and is buried in the Church of the Frari. He was survived by his sons; Masimilliano died in 1661, Francesco after 1677. Musical literature has also defined the succeeding period (covering music from approximately 1580 to 1750) as the era of "Baroque music". It is in the late-16th to early-17th-century overlap of these periods that much of Monteverdi's creativity flourished; he stands as a transitional figure between the Renaissance and the Baroque. In the Renaissance era, music had developed as a formal discipline, a "pure science of relationships" in the words of Lockwood. Solo singing with instrumental accompaniment, or monody, acquired greater significance towards the end of the 16th century, replacing polyphony as the principal means of dramatic music expression. This was the changing world in which Monteverdi was active. Percy Scholes in his Oxford Companion to Music describes the "new music" thus: "[Composers] discarded the choral polyphony of the madrigal style as barbaric, and set dialogue or soliloquy for single voices, imitating more or less the inflexions of speech and accompanying the voice by playing mere supporting chords. Short choruses were interspersed, but they too were homophonic rather than polyphonic." Novice years: Madrigal books 1 and 2 , an early influence on Monteverdi]] Marc'Antonio Ingegneri, Monteverdi's first tutor, was a master of the musica reservata vocal style, which involved the use of chromatic progressions and word-painting; Monteverdi's early compositions were grounded in this style. but Monteverdi also studied the work of more "modern" composers such as Luca Marenzio, Luzzasco Luzzaschi, and a little later, Giaches de Wert, from whom he would learn the art of expressing passion. He was a precocious and productive student, as indicated by his youthful publications of 1582–83. Mark Ringer writes that "these teenaged efforts reveal palpable ambition matched with a convincing mastery of contemporary style", but at this stage they display their creator's competence rather than any striking originality. Geoffrey Chew classifies them as "not in the most modern vein for the period", acceptable but out-of-date. Chew rates the Canzonette collection of 1584 much more highly than the earlier juvenilia: "These brief three-voice pieces draw on the airy, modern style of the villanellas of Marenzio, [drawing on] a substantial vocabulary of text-related madrigalisms". A thread common throughout these early works is Monteverdi's use of the technique of imitatio, a general practice among composers of the period whereby material from earlier or contemporary composers was used as models for their own work. Monteverdi continued to use this procedure well beyond his apprentice years, a factor that in some critics' eyes has compromised his reputation for originality. Madrigals 1590–1605: books 3, 4, 5 Monteverdi's first fifteen years of service in Mantua are bracketed by his publications of the third book of madrigals in 1592 and the fourth and fifth books in 1603 and 1605. Between 1592 and 1603 he made minor contributions to other anthologies. How much he composed in this period is a matter of conjecture; his many duties in the Mantuan court may have limited his opportunities, but several of the madrigals that he published in the fourth and fifth books were written and performed during the 1590s, some figuring prominently in the Artusi controversy. by that time Monteverdi's direct superior as maestro de capella at Mantua. Two poets dominate the collection: Tasso, whose lyrical poetry had figured prominently in the second book but is here represented through the more epic, heroic verses from Gerusalemme liberata, As the 1590s progressed, Monteverdi moved closer towards the form that he would identify in due course as the seconda pratica. Claude V. Palisca quotes the madrigal Ohimè, se tanto amate, published in the fourth book but written before 1600 – it is among the works attacked by Artusi – as a typical example of the composer's developing powers of invention. In this madrigal Monteverdi again departs from the established practice in the use of dissonance, by means of a vocal ornament Palisca describes as échappé. Monteverdi's daring use of this device is, says Palisca, "like a forbidden pleasure". In this and in other settings the poet's images were supreme, even at the expense of musical consistency. The fourth book includes madrigals to which Artusi objected on the grounds of their "modernism". However, Ossi describes it as "an anthology of disparate works firmly rooted in the 16th century", closer in nature to the third book than to the fifth. Besides Tasso and Guarini, Monteverdi set to music verses by Rinuccini, Maurizio Moro (''Sì ch'io vorrei morire) and Ridolfo Arlotti (Luci serene e chiare''). There is evidence of the composer's familiarity with the works of Carlo Gesualdo, and with composers of the school of Ferrara such as Luzzaschi; the book was dedicated to a Ferrarese musical society, the Accademici Intrepidi. The fifth book looks more to the future; for example, Monteverdi employs the concertato style with basso continuo (a device that was to become a typical feature in the emergent Baroque era), and includes a sinfonia (instrumental interlude) in the final piece. He presents his music through complex counterpoint and daring harmonies, although at times combining the expressive possibilities of the new music with traditional polyphony. Opera and sacred music: 1607–1612 In Monteverdi's final five years' service in Mantua he completed the operas ''L'Orfeo (1607) and L'Arianna (1608), and wrote quantities of sacred music, including the Messa in illo tempore (1610) and also the collection known as Vespro della Beata Vergine'' which is often referred to as "Monteverdi's Vespers" (1610). He also published Scherzi musicale a tre voci (1607), settings of verses composed since 1599 and dedicated to the Gonzaga heir, Francesco. The vocal trio in the Scherzi comprises two sopranos and a bass, accompanied by simple instrumental ritornellos. According to Bowers the music "reflected the modesty of the prince's resources; it was, nevertheless, the earliest publication to associate voices and instruments in this particular way". ''L'Orfeo'' The opera opens with a brief trumpet toccata. The prologue of La musica (a figure representing music) is introduced with a ritornello by the strings, repeated often to represent the "power of music" – one of the earliest examples of an operatic leitmotif. Act 1 presents a pastoral idyll, the buoyant mood of which continues into Act 2. The confusion and grief which follow the news of Euridice's death are musically reflected by harsh dissonances and the juxtaposition of keys. The music remains in this vein until the act ends with the consoling sounds of the ritornello. Act 3 is dominated by Orfeo's aria "Possente spirto e formidabil nume" by which he attempts to persuade Caronte to allow him to enter Hades. Monteverdi's vocal embellishments and virtuoso accompaniment provide what Tim Carter has described as "one of the most compelling visual and aural representations" in early opera. In Act 4 the warmth of Proserpina's singing on behalf of Orfeo is retained until Orfeo fatally "looks back". The brief final act, which sees Orfeo's rescue and metamorphosis, is framed by the final appearance of the ritornello and by a lively moresca that brings the audience back to their everyday world. Throughout the opera Monteverdi makes innovative use of polyphony, extending the rules beyond the conventions which composers normally observed in fidelity to Palestrina. He combines elements of the traditional 16th-century madrigal with the new monodic style where the text dominates the music and sinfonias and instrumental ritornellos illustrate the action. ''L'Arianna The music for this opera is lost except for the Lamento d'Arianna'', which was published in the sixth book in 1614 as a five-voice madrigal; a separate monodic version was published in 1623. In its operatic context the lament depicts Arianna's various emotional reactions to her abandonment: sorrow, anger, fear, self-pity, desolation and a sense of futility. Throughout, indignation and anger are punctuated by tenderness, until a descending line brings the piece to a quiet conclusion. Cusick observes how Monteverdi is able to match in music the "rhetorical and syntactical gestures" in the text of Ottavio Rinuccini. Rinuccini's full libretto, which has survived, was set in modern times by Alexander Goehr (Arianna, 1995), including a version of Monteverdi's Lament. Vespers of the Vespers, a page from the alto partbook (left), and the corresponding page from the continuo partbook (right)]] The Vespro della Beata Vergine, Monteverdi's first published sacred music since the Madrigali spirituali of 1583, consists of 14 components: an introductory versicle and response, five psalms interspersed with five "sacred concertos" (Monteverdi's term), a hymn, and two Magnificat settings. Collectively these pieces fulfil the requirements for a Vespers service on any feast day of the Virgin. Monteverdi employs many musical styles; the more traditional features, such as cantus firmus, falsobordone and Venetian canzone, are mixed with the latest madrigal style, including echo effects and chains of dissonances. Some of the musical features used are reminiscent of ''L'Orfeo'', written slightly earlier for similar instrumental and vocal forces. and is most evident in the "Sonata sopra Sancta Maria", written for eight string and wind instruments plus basso continuo, and a single soprano voice. Monteverdi uses modern rhythms, frequent metre changes and constantly varying textures; The actual musical ingredients of the Vespers were not novel to Mantua – concertato had been used by Lodovico Grossi da Viadana, while the Sonata sopra had been anticipated by Archangelo Crotti in his Sancta Maria published in 1608. It is, writes Denis Arnold, Monteverdi's mixture of the various elements that makes the music unique. Arnold adds that the Vespers achieved fame and popularity only after their 20th-century rediscovery; they were not particularly regarded in Monteverdi's time. Madrigals 1614–1638: books 6, 7 and 8 Sixth book During his years in Venice Monteverdi published his sixth (1614), seventh (1619) and eighth (1638) books of madrigals. The sixth book consists of works written before the composer's departure from Mantua. The central theme of the collection is loss; the best-known work is the five-voice version of the ''Lamento d'Arianna'', which, says Massimo Ossi, gives "an object lesson in the close relationship between monodic recitative and counterpoint". The book contains Monteverdi's first settings of verses by Giambattista Marino, and two settings of Petrarch which Ossi considers the most extraordinary pieces in the volume, providing some "stunning musical moments". The book also contains large-scale ensemble works, and the ballet Tirsi e Clori. This was the height of Monteverdi's "Marino period"; six of the pieces in the book are settings of the poet's verses. As Carter puts it, Monteverdi "embraced Marino's madrigalian kisses and love-bites with ... the enthusiasm typical of the period". Some commentators have opined that the composer should have had better poetic taste. Many of Monteverdi's familiar poets – Strozzi, Rinuccini, Tasso, Marino, Guarini – are represented in the settings. It is difficult to gauge when many of the pieces were composed, although the ballet ''Mascherata dell' ingrate that ends the book dates back to 1608 and the celebration of the Gonzaga-Savoy marriage. on its publication in the eighth book, Monteverdi explicitly linked it to his concept of concitato genera (otherwise stile concitato – "aroused style") that would "fittingly imitate the utterance and the accents of a brave man who is engaged in warfare", and implied that since he had originated this style, others had begun to copy it. The work employed for the first time instructions for the use of pizzicato string chords, and also evocations of fanfares and other sounds of combat. The critic Andrew Clements describes the eighth book as "a statement of artistic principles and compositional authority", in which Monteverdi "shaped and expanded the madrigal form to accommodate what he wanted to do ... the pieces collected in Book Eight make up a treasury of what music in the first half the 17th century could possibly express." Other Venetian music: 1614–1638 During this period of his Venetian residency, Monteverdi composed quantities of sacred music. Numerous motets and other short works were included in anthologies by local publishers such as Giulio Cesare Bianchi (a former student of Monteverdi) and Lorenzo Calvi, and others were published elsewhere in Italy and Austria. The range of styles in the motets is broad, from simple strophic arias with string accompaniment to full-scale declamations with an alleluia finale. The most significant aspect of their loss, according to Carter, is the extent to which they might have provided musical links between Monteverdi's early Mantuan operas and those he wrote in Venice after 1638: "Without these links ... it is hard to a produce a coherent account of his development as a composer for the stage". Likewise, Janet Beat regrets that the 30-year gap hampers the study of how opera orchestration developed during those critical early years. Apart from the madrigal books, Monteverdi's only published collection during this period was the volume of Scherzi musicale in 1632. For unknown reasons, the composer's name does not appear on the inscription, the dedication being signed by the Venetian printer Bartolomeo Magni; Carter surmises that the recently ordained Monteverdi may have wished to keep his distance from this secular collection. His two surviving operatic works of this period, Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria and L'incoronazione are held by Arnold to be the first "modern" operas; Il ritorno is the first Venetian opera to depart from what Ellen Rosand terms "the mythological pastoral". However, David Johnson in the North American Review warns audiences not to expect immediate affinity with Mozart, Verdi or Puccini: "You have to submit yourself to a much slower pace, to a much more chaste conception of melody, to a vocal style that is at first merely like dry declamation and only on repeated hearings begins to assume an extraordinary eloquence." Il ritorno'', says Carter, is clearly influenced by Monteverdi's earlier works. Penelope's lament in Act I is close in character to the lament from ''L'Arianna, while the martial episodes recall Il combattimento. Stile concitato'' is prominent in the fight scenes and in the slaying of Penelope's suitors. In ''L'incoronazione, Monteverdi represents moods and situations by specific musical devices: triple metre stands for the language of love; arpeggios demonstrate conflict; stile concitato represents rage. There is continuing debate about how much of the extant L'incoronazione'' music is Monteverdi's original, and how much is the work of others (there are, for instance, traces of music by Francesco Cavalli). The Selva morale e spirituale of 1641, and the posthumous Messa et salmi published in 1650 (which was edited by Cavalli), are selections of the sacred music that Monteverdi wrote for San Marco during his 30-year tenure – much else was likely written but not published. The Selva morale volume opens with a series of madrigal settings on moral texts, dwelling on themes such as "the transitory nature of love, earthly rank and achievement, even existence itself". They are followed by a Mass in conservative style (stile antico), the high point of which is an extended seven-voice "Gloria". Scholars believe that this might have been written to celebrate the end of the 1631 plague. The rest of the volume is made up of numerous psalm settings, two Magnificats and three Salve Reginas. The Messa et salmi volume includes a stile antico Mass for four voices, a polyphonic setting of the psalm Laetatus Sum, and a version of the Litany of Lareto that Monteverdi had originally published in 1620. The posthumous ninth book of madrigals was published in 1651, a miscellany dating back to the early 1630s, some items being repeats of previously published pieces, such as the popular duet O sia tranquillo il mare from 1638. The book includes a trio for three sopranos, "Come dolce oggi l'auretta", which is the only surviving music from the 1630 lost opera Proserpina rapita. This glorification was transitory; Carter writes that in Monteverdi's day, music rarely survived beyond the circumstances of its initial performance and was quickly forgotten along with its creator. In this regard Monteverdi fared better than most. His operatic works were revived in several cities in the decade following his death; according to Severo Bonini, writing in 1651, every musical household in Italy possessed a copy of the ''Lamento d'Arianna''. The German composer Heinrich Schütz, who had studied in Venice under Giovanni Gabrieli shortly before Monteverdi's arrival there, possessed a copy of Il combattimento and himself took up elements of the stile concitato. On his second visit to Venice in 1628–1629, Arnold believes, Schütz absorbed the concepts of basso continuo and expressiveness of word-setting, but he opines that Schütz was more directly influenced by the style of the younger generation of Venetian composers, including Grandi and Giovanni Rovetta (the eventual successor to Monteverdi at San Marco). Schütz published a first book of Symphoniae sacrae, settings of biblical texts in the style of seconda pratica, in Venice in 1629. Es steh Gott auf, from his Symphoniae sacrae II, published in Dresden in 1647, contains specific quotations from Monteverdi. After the 1650s, Monteverdi's name quickly disappears from contemporary accounts, his music generally forgotten except for the Lamento, the prototype of a genre that would endure well into the 18th century. Around this time Kurt Vogel scored the madrigals from the original manuscripts, but more critical interest was shown in the operas, following the discovery of the ''L'incoronazione manuscript in 1888 and that of Il ritorno'' in 1904. Largely through the efforts of Vincent d'Indy, all three operas were staged in one form or another, during the first quarter of the 20th century: ''L'Orfeo in May 1911, L'incoronazione in February 1913 and Il ritorno'' in May 1925. The Italian nationalist poet Gabriele D'Annunzio lauded Monteverdi and in his novel Il fuoco (1900) wrote of "il divino Claudio ... what a heroic soul, purely Italian in its essence!" His vision of Monteverdi as the true founder of Italian musical lyricism was adopted by musicians who worked with the regime of Benito Mussolini (1922–1945), including Gian Francesco Malipiero, Luigi Dallapiccola, and , who contrasted Monteverdi with the decadence of the music of Richard Strauss, Claude Debussy and Igor Stravinsky. In the years after the Second World War the operas began to be performed in the major opera houses, and eventually were established in the general repertory. The resuscitation of Monteverdi's sacred music took longer; he did not benefit from the Catholic Church's 19th-century revival of Renaissance music in the way that Palestrina did, perhaps, as Carter suggests, because Monteverdi was viewed chiefly as a secular composer. ]] The revival of public interest in Monteverdi's music gathered pace in the second half of the 20th century, reaching full spate in the general early-music revival of the 1970s, during which time the emphasis turned increasingly towards "authentic" performance using historical instruments. The magazine Gramophone notes over 30 recordings of the Vespers between 1976 and 2011, and 27 of Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda between 1971 and 2013. Monteverdi's surviving operas are today regularly performed; the website Operabase notes 555 performances of the operas in 149 productions worldwide in the seasons 2011–2016, ranking Monteverdi at 30th position for all composers, and at 8th ranking for Italian opera composers. In 1985, Manfred H. Stattkus published an index to Monteverdi's works, the Stattkus-Verzeichnis, (revised in 2006) giving each composition an "SV" number, to be used for cataloguing and references. Monteverdi is lauded by modern critics as "the most significant composer in late Renaissance and early Baroque Italy"; "one of the principal composers in the history of Western music"; and, routinely, as the first great opera composer. These assessments reflect a contemporary perspective, since his music was largely unknown to the composers who followed him during an extensive period, spanning more than two centuries after his death. It is, as Redlich and others have pointed out, the composers of the 20th and 21st century who have rediscovered Monteverdi and sought to make his music a basis for their own. Possibly, as Chew suggests, they are attracted by Monteverdi's reputation as "a Modern, a breaker of rules, against the Ancients, those who deferred to ancient authority" However, Chew, in his final summation, sees the composer historically as facing both ways, willing to use modern techniques but while at the same time protective of his status as a competent composer in the stile antico. Thus, says Chew, "his achievement was both retrospective and progressive". Monteverdi represents the late Renaissance era while simultaneously summing up much of the early Baroque. "And in one respect in particular, his achievement was enduring: the effective projection of human emotions in music, in a way adequate for theatre as well as for chamber music."<ref name ChewHist/> References Notes CitationsSources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Norwich, John Julius (1983). A History of Venice. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * [https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/lcahm/departments/music/research/ascima/monteverdi.aspx Critical editions] of Monteverdi's complete madrigals and arias by the University of Birmingham and the University of Heidelberg * }} Category:1567 births Category:1643 deaths Category:16th-century classical composers Category:16th-century Italian musicians Category:16th-century Italian Roman Catholic priests Category:17th-century Italian composers Category:Catholic liturgical composers Category:Italian classical composers of church music Category:Italian ballet composers Category:Italian Baroque composers Category:Italian opera composers Category:Madrigal composers Category:Italian male opera composers Category:Musicians from Cremona Category:Italian Renaissance composers Category:Burials at Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari Category:16th-century Italian composers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi	2025-04-05T18:27:45.399582
6229	Colossus computer	}} The slanted control panel on the left was used to set the "pin" (or "cam") patterns of the Lorenz. The "bedstead" paper tape transport is on the right. \| developer = Tommy Flowers, assisted by Sidney Broadhurst, William Chandler and for the Mark 2 machines, Allen Coombs \| manufacturer = Post Office Research Station \| type = Special-purpose electronic digital programmable computer \| generation = First-generation computer \| releasedate = * Mk 2: }} \| discontinued = 1960 \| unitsshipped = 12 \| input = Paper tape of up to 20,000 × 5-bit characters in a continuous loop \| media = \| power = 8.5 kW \| cpu = Custom circuits using thermionic valves and thyratrons. A total of 1,600 in Mk 1 and 2,400 in Mk 2. Also relays and stepping switches \| memory = None (no RAM) \| display = Indicator lamp panel \| dimensions \| weight }} Colossus was a set of computers developed by British codebreakers in the years 1943–1945 to help in the cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher. Colossus used thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) to perform Boolean and counting operations. Colossus is thus regarded as the world's first programmable, electronic, digital computer, although it was programmed by switches and plugs and not by a stored program. Colossus was designed by General Post Office (GPO) research telephone engineer Tommy Flowers (Turing's machine that helped decode Enigma was the electromechanical Bombe, not Colossus.) The prototype, Colossus Mark 1, was shown to be working in December 1943 and was in use at Bletchley Park by early 1944.Purpose and origins on Bletchley Park]] had 12 wheels, each with a different number of cams (or "pins"). {\|class"wikitable" style"margin: auto auto auto auto" \|- ! Wheel number \|1\|\|2\|\|3\|\|4\|\|5\|\|6\|\|7\|\|8\|\|9\|\|10\|\|11\|\|12 \|- ! BP wheel name \| style="text-align:center;"\| ψ<sub>1</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| ψ<sub>2</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| ψ<sub>3</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| ψ<sub>4</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| ψ<sub>5</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| μ<sub>37</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| μ<sub>61</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| χ<sub>1</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| χ<sub>2</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| χ<sub>3</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| χ<sub>4</sub> \| style="text-align:center;"\| χ<sub>5</sub> \|- ! Number of cams (pins) \|43\|\|47\|\|51\|\|53\|\|59\|\|37\|\|61\|\|41\|\|31\|\|29\|\|26\|\|23 \|} ]] The Colossus computers were used to help decipher intercepted radio teleprinter messages that had been encrypted using an unknown device. Intelligence information revealed that the Germans called the wireless teleprinter transmission systems "Sägefisch" (sawfish). This led the British to call encrypted German teleprinter traffic "Fish", and the unknown machine and its intercepted messages "Tunny" (tunafish). Before the Germans increased the security of their operating procedures, British cryptanalysts diagnosed how the unseen machine functioned and built an imitation of it called "British Tunny". It was deduced that the machine had twelve wheels and used a Vernam ciphering technique on message characters in the standard 5-bit ITA2 telegraph code. It did this by combining the plaintext characters with a stream of key characters using the XOR Boolean function to produce the ciphertext. In August 1941, a blunder by German operators led to the transmission of two versions of the same message with identical machine settings. These were intercepted and worked on at Bletchley Park. First, John Tiltman, a very talented GC&CS cryptanalyst, derived a keystream of almost 4000 characters. Then Bill Tutte, a newly arrived member of the Research Section, used this keystream to work out the logical structure of the Lorenz machine. He deduced that the twelve wheels consisted of two groups of five, which he named the χ (chi) and ψ (psi) wheels, the remaining two he called μ (mu) or "motor" wheels. The chi wheels stepped regularly with each letter that was encrypted, while the psi wheels stepped irregularly, under the control of the motor wheels. With a sufficiently random keystream, a Vernam cipher removes the natural language property of a plaintext message of having an uneven frequency distribution of the different characters, to produce a uniform distribution in the ciphertext. The Tunny machine did this well. However, the cryptanalysts worked out that by examining the frequency distribution of the character-to-character changes in the ciphertext, instead of the plain characters, there was a departure from uniformity which provided a way into the system. This was achieved by "differencing" in which each bit or character was XOR-ed with its successor. After Germany surrendered, allied forces captured a Tunny machine and discovered that it was the electromechanical Lorenz SZ (Schlüsselzusatzgerät, cipher attachment) in-line cipher machine. In order to decrypt the transmitted messages, two tasks had to be performed. The first was "wheel breaking", which was the discovery of the cam patterns for all the wheels. These patterns were set up on the Lorenz machine and then used for a fixed period of time for a succession of different messages. Each transmission, which often contained more than one message, was enciphered with a different start position of the wheels. Alan Turing invented a method of wheel-breaking that became known as Turingery. Turing's technique was further developed into "Rectangling", for which Colossus could produce tables for manual analysis. Colossi 2, 4, 6, 7 and 9 had a "gadget" to aid this process. The second task was "wheel setting", which worked out the start positions of the wheels for a particular message and could only be attempted once the cam patterns were known. It was this task for which Colossus was initially designed. To discover the start position of the chi wheels for a message, Colossus compared two character streams, counting statistics from the evaluation of programmable Boolean functions. The two streams were the ciphertext, which was read at high speed from a paper tape, and the keystream, which was generated internally, in a simulation of the unknown German machine. After a succession of different Colossus runs to discover the likely chi-wheel settings, they were checked by examining the frequency distribution of the characters in the processed ciphertext. Colossus produced these frequency counts. Decryption processes {\| class="wikitable floatright" \|+ Notation \|- \| <math>P</math> \|\| plaintext \|- \| <math>K</math> \|\| key – the sequence of characters used in binary XOR with <br /> the plaintext to give the ciphertext \|- \| <math>\chi</math> \|\|chi component of key \|- \| <math>\psi</math> \|\|psi component of key \|- \| <math>\psi'</math> \|\|extended psi – the actual sequence of characters added by <br /> the psi wheels, including those when they do not advance \|- \| <math>Z</math> \|\| ciphertext \|- \| <math>D</math> \|\| de-chi—the ciphertext with the chi component of the key removed \|- \| <math>\Delta</math> \|\| any of the above XOR'ed with its successor character or bit \|- \| <math>\oplus</math> \|\| the XOR operation \|- \| <math>\bullet</math> \|\| Bletchley Park shorthand for telegraphy code space (zero) \|- \| <math>\mathbf{x}</math> \|\| Bletchley Park shorthand for telegraphy code mark (one) \|- \|} By using differencing and knowing that the psi wheels did not advance with each character, Tutte worked out that trying just two differenced bits (impulses) of the chi-stream against the differenced ciphertext would produce a statistic that was non-random. This became known as Tutte's "1+2 break in". It involved calculating the following Boolean function: :::<math>\Delta Z_1 \oplus \Delta Z_2 \oplus \Delta\chi_1 \oplus \Delta\chi_2 = \bullet</math> and counting the number of times it yielded "false" (zero). If this number exceeded a pre-defined threshold value known as the "set total", it was printed out. The cryptanalyst would examine the printout to determine which of the putative start positions was most likely to be the correct one for the chi-1 and chi-2 wheels. This technique would then be applied to other pairs of, or single, impulses to determine the likely start position of all five chi wheels. From this, the de-chi (D) of a ciphertext could be obtained, from which the psi component could be removed by manual methods. If the frequency distribution of characters in the de-chi version of the ciphertext was within certain bounds, "wheel setting" of the chi wheels was considered to have been achieved, and the message settings and de-chi were passed to the "Testery". This was the section at Bletchley Park led by Major Ralph Tester where the bulk of the decrypting work was done by manual and linguistic methods. Colossus could also derive the start position of the psi and motor wheels. The feasibility of utilizing this additional capability regularly was made possible in the last few months of the war when there were plenty of Colossi available and the number of Tunny messages had declined.Design and constructionColossus was developed for the "Newmanry", the section headed by the mathematician Max Newman that was responsible for machine methods against the twelve-rotor Lorenz SZ40/42 on-line teleprinter cipher machine (code-named Tunny, for tunafish). The Colossus design arose out of a parallel project that produced a less-ambitious counting machine dubbed "Heath Robinson". Although the Heath Robinson machine proved the concept of machine analysis for this part of the process, it had serious limitations. The electro-mechanical parts were relatively slow and it was difficult to synchronise two looped paper tapes, one containing the enciphered message, and the other representing part of the keystream of the Lorenz machine. Also the tapes tended to stretch and break when being read at up to 2000 characters per second. said to be from an original Colossus, presented by the Director of GCHQ to the Director of the NSA to mark the 40th anniversary of the UKUSA Agreement in 1986]] Tommy Flowers MBE was a senior electrical engineer and Head of the Switching Group at the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill. Prior to his work on Colossus, he had been involved with GC&CS at Bletchley Park from February 1941 in an attempt to improve the Bombes that were used in the cryptanalysis of the German Enigma cipher machine. He was recommended to Max Newman by Alan Turing, who had been impressed by his work on the Bombes. The main components of the Heath Robinson machine were as follows. * A tape transport and reading mechanism that ran the looped key and message tapes at between 1000 and 2000 characters per second. * A combining unit that implemented the logic of Tutte's method. * A counting unit that had been designed by C. E. Wynn-Williams of the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) at Malvern, which counted the number of times the logical function returned a specified truth value. Flowers had been brought in to design the Heath Robinson's combining unit. He was not impressed by the system of a key tape that had to be kept synchronised with the message tape and, on his own initiative, he designed an electronic machine which eliminated the need for the key tape by having an electronic analogue of the Lorenz (Tunny) machine. He presented this design to Max Newman in February 1943, but the idea that the one to two thousand thermionic valves (vacuum tubes and thyratrons) proposed, could work together reliably, was greeted with great scepticism, so more Robinsons were ordered from Dollis Hill. Flowers, however, knew from his pre-war work that most thermionic valve failures occurred as a result of the thermal stresses at power-up, so not powering a machine down reduced failure rates to very low levels. Additionally, if the heaters were started at a low voltage then slowly brought up to full voltage, thermal stress was reduced. The valves themselves could be soldered-in to avoid problems with plug-in bases, which could be unreliable. Flowers persisted with the idea and obtained support from the Director of the Research Station, W Gordon Radley. Flowers and his team of some fifty people in the switching group spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building a machine that dispensed with the second tape of the Heath Robinson, by generating the wheel patterns electronically. Flowers used some of his own money for the project. This prototype, Mark 1 Colossus, contained 1,600 thermionic valves (tubes). It performed satisfactorily at Dollis Hill on 8 December 1943 and was dismantled and shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January and re-assembled by Harry Fensom and Don Horwood. It was operational in January and it successfully attacked its first message on 5 February 1944. It was a large structure and was dubbed 'Colossus'. A memo held in the National Archives written by Max Newman on 18 January 1944 records that "Colossus arrives today". During the development of the prototype, an improved design had been developed – the Mark 2 Colossus. Four of these were ordered in March 1944 and by the end of April the number on order had been increased to twelve. Dollis Hill was put under pressure to have the first of these working by 1 June. Allen Coombs took over leadership of the production Mark 2 Colossi, the first of which – containing 2,400 valves – became operational at 08:00 on 1 June 1944, just in time for the Allied Invasion of Normandy on D-Day. Subsequently, Colossi were delivered at the rate of about one a month. By the time of V-E Day there were ten Colossi working at Bletchley Park and a start had been made on assembling an eleventh. Seven of the Colossi were used for 'wheel setting' and three for 'wheel breaking'. in the space now containing the Tunny gallery of The National Museum of Computing ]] The main units of the Mark 2 design were as follows. * A tape transport with an 8-photocell reading mechanism. * A six character FIFO shift register. * Twelve thyratron ring stores that simulated the Lorenz machine generating a bit-stream for each wheel. * Panels of switches for specifying the program and the "set total". * A set of functional units that performed Boolean operations. * A "span counter" that could suspend counting for part of the tape. * A master control that handled clocking, start and stop signals, counter readout and printing. * Five electronic counters. * An electric typewriter. Most of the design of the electronics was the work of Tommy Flowers, assisted by William Chandler, Sidney Broadhurst and Allen Coombs; with Erie Speight and Arnold Lynch developing the photoelectric reading mechanism. Coombs remembered Flowers, having produced a rough draft of his design, tearing it into pieces that he handed out to his colleagues for them to do the detailed design and get their team to manufacture it. The Mark 2 Colossi were both five times faster and were simpler to operate than the prototype. Data input to Colossus was by photoelectric reading of a paper tape transcription of the enciphered intercepted message. This was arranged in a continuous loop so that it could be read and re-read multiple times – there being no internal storage for the data. The design overcame the problem of synchronizing the electronics with the speed of the message tape by generating a clock signal from reading its sprocket holes. The speed of operation was thus limited by the mechanics of reading the tape. During development, the tape reader was tested up to 9700 characters per second (53 mph) before the tape disintegrated. So 5000 characters/second () was settled on as the speed for regular use. Flowers designed a 6-character shift register, which was used both for computing the delta function (ΔZ) and for testing five different possible starting points of Tunny's wheels in the five processors. This five-way parallelism enabled five simultaneous tests and counts to be performed giving an effective processing speed of 25,000 characters per second. The computation used algorithms devised by W. T. Tutte and colleagues to decrypt a Tunny message. Operation The Newmanry was staffed by cryptanalysts, operators from the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS) – known as "Wrens" – and engineers who were permanently on hand for maintenance and repair. By the end of the war the staffing was 272 Wrens and 27 men. The first job in operating Colossus for a new message was to prepare the paper tape loop. This was performed by the Wrens who stuck the two ends together using Bostik glue, ensuring that there was a 150-character length of blank tape between the end and the start of the message. Using a special hand punch they inserted a start hole between the third and fourth channels sprocket holes from the end of the blank section, and a stop hole between the fourth and fifth channels sprocket holes from the end of the characters of the message. These were read by specially positioned photocells and indicated when the message was about to start and when it ended. The operator would then thread the paper tape through the gate and around the pulleys of the bedstead and adjust the tension. The two-tape bedstead design had been carried on from Heath Robinson so that one tape could be loaded whilst the previous one was being run. A switch on the Selection Panel specified the "near" or the "far" tape. After performing various resetting and zeroizing tasks, the Wren operators would, under instruction from the cryptanalyst, operate the "set total" decade switches and the K2 panel switches to set the desired algorithm. They would then start the bedstead tape motor and lamp and, when the tape was up to speed, operate the master start switch.ProgrammingHoward Campaigne, a mathematician and cryptanalyst from the US Navy's OP-20-G, wrote the following in a foreword to Flowers' 1983 paper "The Design of Colossus". }} Colossus was not a stored-program computer. The input data for the five parallel processors was read from the looped message paper tape and the electronic pattern generators for the chi, psi and motor wheels. The programs for the processors were set and held on the switches and jack panel connections. Each processor could evaluate a Boolean function and count and display the number of times it yielded the specified value of "false" (0) or "true" (1) for each pass of the message tape. Input to the processors came from two sources, the shift registers from tape reading and the thyratron rings that emulated the wheels of the Tunny machine. The characters on the paper tape were called Z and the characters from the Tunny emulator were referred to by the Greek letters that Bill Tutte had given them when working out the logical structure of the machine. On the selection panel, switches specified either Z or ΔZ, either <math>\chi</math> or Δ<math>\chi</math> and either <math>\psi</math> or Δ<math>\psi</math> for the data to be passed to the jack field and 'K2 switch panel'. These signals from the wheel simulators could be specified as stepping on with each new pass of the message tape or not. The K2 switch panel had a group of switches on the left-hand side to specify the algorithm. The switches on the right-hand side selected the counter to which the result was fed. The plugboard allowed less specialized conditions to be imposed. Overall the K2 switch panel switches and the plugboard allowed about five billion different combinations of the selected variables. As an example: a set of runs for a message tape might initially involve two chi wheels, as in Tutte's 1+2 algorithm. Such a two-wheel run was called a long run, taking on average eight minutes unless the parallelism was utilised to cut the time by a factor of five. The subsequent runs might only involve setting one chi wheel, giving a short run taking about two minutes. Initially, after the initial long run, the choice of the next algorithm to be tried was specified by the cryptanalyst. Experience showed, however, that decision trees for this iterative process could be produced for use by the Wren operators in a proportion of cases.Influence and fateAlthough the Colossus was the first of the electronic digital machines with programmability, albeit limited by modern standards, it was not a general-purpose machine, being designed for a range of cryptanalytic tasks, most involving counting the results of evaluating Boolean algorithms. A Colossus computer was thus not a fully Turing complete machine. However, University of San Francisco professor Benjamin Wells has shown that if all ten Colossus machines made were rearranged in a specific cluster, then the entire set of computers could have simulated a universal Turing machine, and thus be Turing complete. Colossus and the reasons for its construction were highly secret and remained so for 30 years after the War. Consequently, it was not included in the history of computing hardware for many years, and Flowers and his associates were deprived of the recognition they were due. All but two of the Colossi were dismantled after the war and parts returned to the Post Office. Some parts, sanitised as to their original purpose, were taken to Max Newman's Royal Society Computing Machine Laboratory at Manchester University. Two Colossi, along with two Tunny machines, were retained and moved to GCHQ's new headquarters at Eastcote in April 1946, and then to Cheltenham between 1952 and 1954. One of the Colossi, known as Colossus Blue, was dismantled in 1959; the other in the 1960s. Tommy Flowers was ordered to destroy all documentation. He duly burnt them in a furnace and later said of that order: }}The Colossi were adapted for other purposes, with varying degrees of success; in their later years they were used for training. Jack Good related how he was the first to use Colossus after the war, persuading the US National Security Agency that it could be used to perform a function for which they were planning to build a special-purpose machine. Colossus was also used to perform character counts on one-time pad tape to test for non-randomness. A small number of people who were associated with Colossus—and knew that large-scale, reliable, high-speed electronic digital computing devices were feasible—played significant roles in early computer work in the UK and probably in the US. However, being so secret, it had little direct influence on the development of later computers; it was EDVAC that was the seminal computer architecture of the time. In 1972, Herman Goldstine, who was unaware of Colossus and its legacy to the projects of people such as Alan Turing (ACE), Max Newman (Manchester computers) and Harry Huskey (Bendix G-15), wrote that, }} Professor Brian Randell, who unearthed information about Colossus in the 1970s, commented on this, saying that: }} Randell's efforts started to bear fruit in the mid-1970s. The secrecy about Bletchley Park had been broken when Group Captain Winterbotham published his book The Ultra Secret in 1974. Randell was researching the history of computer science in Britain for a conference on the history of computing held at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, New Mexico on 10–15 June 1976, and got permission to present a paper on wartime development of the COLOSSI at the Post Office Research Station, Dollis Hill (in October 1975 the British Government had released a series of captioned photographs from the Public Record Office). The interest in the "revelations" in his paper resulted in a special evening meeting when Randell and Coombs answered further questions. Coombs later wrote that no member of our team could ever forget the fellowship, the sense of purpose and, above all, the breathless excitement of those days. In 1977 Randell published an article The First Electronic Computer in several journals. In October 2000, a 500-page technical report on the Tunny cipher and its cryptanalysis—entitled General Report on Tunny—was released by GCHQ to the national Public Record Office, and it contains a fascinating paean to Colossus by the cryptographers who worked with it: }}Reconstruction (right) reconstructed a Colossus Mark II at Bletchley Park. Here, in 2006, Sale supervises the breaking of an enciphered message with the completed machine.]] A team led by Tony Sale built a fully functional reconstruction of a Colossus Mark 2 between 1993 and 2008. pitted the rebuilt Colossus against radio amateurs worldwide in being first to receive and decode three messages enciphered using the Lorenz SZ42 and transmitted from radio station DL0HNF in the Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum computer museum. The challenge was easily won by radio amateur Joachim Schüth, who had carefully prepared for the event and developed his own signal processing and code-breaking code using Ada. The Colossus team were hampered by their wish to use World War II radio equipment, delaying them by a day because of poor reception conditions. Nevertheless, the victor's 1.4 GHz laptop, running his own code, took less than a minute to find the settings for all 12 wheels. The German codebreaker said: "My laptop digested ciphertext at a speed of 1.2 million characters per second—240 times faster than Colossus. If you scale the CPU frequency by that factor, you get an equivalent clock of 5.8 MHz for Colossus. That is a remarkable speed for a computer built in 1944." The Cipher Challenge verified the successful completion of the rebuilding project. "On the strength of today's performance Colossus is as good as it was six decades ago", commented Tony Sale. "We are delighted to have produced a fitting tribute to the people who worked at Bletchley Park and whose brainpower devised these fantastic machines which broke these ciphers and shortened the war by many months."Other meanings There was a fictional computer named Colossus in the 1970 film Colossus: The Forbin Project which was based on the 1966 novel Colossus by D. F. Jones. This was a coincidence as it pre-dates the public release of information about Colossus, or even its name. Neal Stephenson's novel Cryptonomicon (1999) also contains a fictional treatment of the historical role played by Turing and Bletchley Park. See also * History of computing hardware * List of vacuum-tube computers * Manchester Baby * Z3 * Z4 Footnotes References * * * in * * * * * * }} in * }} in * }} in * }} in * * in * Updated and extended version of Action This Day: From Breaking of the Enigma Code to the Birth of the Modern Computer Bantam Press 2001 * in * * in * * }} * * * * * * * * * in * * describes the operation of Colossus in breaking Tunny messages * in * * in Further reading * * A short film made by Google to celebrate Colossus and those who built it, in particular Tommy Flowers. * – A detailed description of the cryptanalysis of Tunny, and some details of Colossus (contains some minor errors) * :::A guided tour of the history and geography of the Park, written by one of the founder members of the Bletchley Park Trust * * * – Comparison of the first computers, with a chapter about Colossus and its reconstruction by Tony Sale. * A slender (20-page) booklet, containing the same material as Tony Sale's website (see below) * External links * [http://curation.cs.manchester.ac.uk/computer50/www.computer50.org/mark1/contemporary.html Early computer development] * [http://www.tnmoc.org/ The National Museum of Computing (TNMOC)] ** [http://www.tnmoc.org/news/news-releases/colossus-decrypts-be-revealed-after-75-years/ TNMOC: The 75th anniversary of the first attack] * [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/index.htm Tony Sale's Codes and Ciphers] Contains a great deal of information, including: [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/virtualbp/fish/colossus.htm Colossus, the revolution in code breaking] [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/index.htm Lorenz Cipher and the Colossus] * [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/colossus.htm The machine age comes to Fish codebreaking] * [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/rebuild.htm The Colossus Rebuild Project] * [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/mk2.htm The Colossus Rebuild Project: Evolving to the Colossus Mk 2] * [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/colwalk/colossus.htm Walk around Colossus] A detailed tour of the replica Colossus – make sure to click on the "More Text" links on each image to see the informative detailed text about that part of Colossus ** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lectures/ieee.txt IEEE lecture] – Transcript of a lecture Tony Sale gave describing the reconstruction project * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WCeLTWPCEFI Brian Randell's 1976 lecture on the Colossus] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3754887.stm BBC news article reporting on the replica Colossus] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7094881.stm BBC news article: "Colossus cracks codes once more"] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/8492762.stm BBC news article: BBC news article: "Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus" with video interviews 2010-02-02] * [http://www.colossus-computer.com/contents.htm Website on Copeland's 2006 book] with much information and links to recently declassified information * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081031050216/http://www.bcs.org/upload/pdf/ewic_tur04_paper3.pdf Was the Manchester Baby conceived at Bletchley Park?] * * [http://www.virtualcolossus.co.uk online virtual simulation of Colossus] Category:1940s computers Category:Early British computers Category:Bletchley Park Category:Cryptanalytic devices Category:Military computers Category:Vacuum tube computers Category:World War II British electronics Category:English inventions Category:Computer-related introductions in 1943 Category:Computer-related introductions in 1944 Category:Computer-related introductions in 1945 Category:Serial computers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computer	2025-04-05T18:27:45.490706
6230	Canadian Shield	\| region = North America \| country = Canada<br />United States<br />Greenland \| unitof = North American craton \| subunits Laurentian Upland<br />Kazan As a deep, common, joined bedrock region in eastern and central Canada, the shield stretches north from the Great Lakes to the Arctic Ocean, covering over half of Canada and most of Greenland; it also extends south into the northern reaches of the continental United States. Geographical extent The Canadian Shield is a physiographic division comprising four smaller physiographic provinces: the Laurentian Upland, Kazan Region, Davis and James. The shield extends into the United States as the Adirondack Mountains (connected by the Frontenac Axis) and the Superior Upland. The Canadian Shield is a U-shaped subsection of the Laurentia craton signifying the area of greatest glacial impact (scraping down to bare rock) creating the thin soils. The age of the Canadian Shield is estimated to be 4.28 Ga. The Canadian Shield once had jagged peaks, higher than any of today's mountains, but millions of years of erosion have changed these mountains to rolling hills. The Canadian Shield is a collage of Archean plates and accreted juvenile arc terranes and sedimentary basins of the Proterozoic Eon that were progressively amalgamated during the interval 2.45–1.24 Ga, with the most substantial growth period occurring during the Trans-Hudson orogeny, between c. 1.90–1.80 Ga. The Canadian Shield was the first part of North America to be permanently elevated above sea level and has remained almost wholly untouched by successive encroachments of the sea upon the continent. It is the Earth's greatest area of exposed Archean rock. The metamorphic base rocks are mostly from the Precambrian (between 4.5 Ga and 540 Ma) and have been repeatedly uplifted and eroded. Today it consists largely of an area of low relief above sea level with a few monadnocks and low mountain ranges (including the Laurentian Mountains) probably eroded from the plateau during the Cenozoic Era. During the Pleistocene Epoch, continental ice sheets depressed the land surface (creating Hudson Bay) but also tilted up its northeastern "rim" (the Torngat), scooped out thousands of lake basins, and carried away much of the region's soil. The northeastern portion, however, became tilted up so that, in northern Labrador and Baffin Island, the land rises to more than 1,500 metres (5,000 feet) above sea level. When the Greenland section is included, the Canadian Shield is approximately circular, bounded on the northeast by the northeast edge of Greenland, with Hudson Bay in the middle. It covers much of Greenland, all of Labrador and the Great Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland, most of Quebec north of the St. Lawrence River, much of Ontario including northern sections of the Ontario Peninsula, the Adirondack Mountains of New York, the northernmost part of Lower Michigan and all of Upper Michigan, northern Wisconsin, northeastern Minnesota, the central and northern portions of Manitoba, northern Saskatchewan, a small portion of northeastern Alberta, mainland Northwest Territories to the east of a line extended north from the Saskatchewan-Alberta border, most of Nunavut's mainland and, of its Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Island and significant bands through Somerset, Southampton, Devon and Ellesmere islands. In total, the exposed area of the shield covers approximately . The true extent of the shield is greater still and stretches from the Western Cordillera in the west to the Appalachians in the east and as far south as Texas, but these regions are overlaid with much younger rocks and sediment. Geology The Canadian Shield is among the oldest geologic areas on Earth, with regions dating from 2.5 to 4.2 billion years. The multitude of rivers and lakes in the region is classical example of a deranged drainage system, caused by the watersheds of the area being disturbed by glaciation and the effect of post-glacial rebound. The shield was originally an area of very large, very tall mountains (about ) with much volcanic activity, but the area was eroded to nearly its current topographic appearance of relatively low relief over 500 Ma. Erosion has exposed the roots of the mountains, which take the form of greenstone belts in which belts of volcanic rock that have been altered by metamorphism are surrounded by granitic rock. These belts range in age from 3.6 to 2.7 Ga. Much of the granitic rock belongs to the distinctive tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite family of rocks, which are characteristic of Archean continental crust. Many of Canada's major ore deposits are associated with greenstone belts. The Sturgeon Lake Caldera in Kenora District, Ontario, is one of the world's best preserved mineralized Neoarchean caldera complexes, which is 2.7 Ga. The Canadian Shield also contains the Mackenzie dike swarm, which is the largest dike swarm known on Earth. The North American craton is the bedrock forming the heart of the North American continent, and the Canadian Shield is the largest exposed part of the craton's bedrock. The Canadian Shield is part of an ancient continent called Arctica, which was formed about 2.5 Ga during the Neoarchean era. Mountains have deep roots and float on the denser mantle much like an iceberg at sea. As mountains erode, their roots rise and are eroded in turn. The rocks that now form the surface of the shield were once far below the Earth's surface. The high pressures and temperatures at those depths provided ideal conditions for mineralization. Although these mountains are now heavily eroded, many large mountains still exist in Canada's far north called the Arctic Cordillera. This is a vast, deeply dissected mountain range, stretching from northernmost Ellesmere Island to the northernmost tip of Labrador. The range's highest peak is Nunavut's Barbeau Peak at above sea level. Precambrian rock is the major component of the bedrock. <gallery widths"200px" heights"200px"> Image:Temagami greenstone belt pillow lava.jpg\|Weathered Precambrian pillow lava in the Temagami Greenstone Belt File:Nature's Art created by thousands of years of erosion by ice.jpg\|Folded Precambrian gneiss of the Canadian Shield in Georgian Bay, Ontario Image:Canadian Shield Ontario.jpg\|Typical Canadian Shield landscape: spruce, lakes, bogs, and rock </gallery> Ecology <!-- Not quite ready to delete this yet, but it does not seem germane to geology. Definitely of use to a GEOGRAPHY article about the same area. --> The current surface expression of the shield is one of very thin soil lying on top of the bedrock, with many bare outcrops. This arrangement was caused by severe glaciation during the ice ages that covered the shield and scraped the rock clean. The lowlands of the Canadian Shield have a very dense soil that is not suitable for forestation; it also contains many marshes and bogs (muskegs). The rest of the region has coarse soil that does not retain moisture well and is frozen with permafrost throughout the year. Forests are not as dense in the north. The shield is covered in parts by vast boreal forests in the south that support natural ecosystems as well as a major logging industry. The boreal forest area gives way to the Eastern Canadian Shield taiga that covers northern Quebec and most of Labrador. The Midwestern Canadian Shield forests that run westwards from Northwestern Ontario have boreal forests that give way to taiga in the most northerly parts of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Hydrologic drainage is generally poor, the soil compacting effects of glaciation being one of the many causes. Tundra typically prevails in the northern regions. Many mammals such as beaver, caribou, white-tailed deer, moose, wolves, wolverines, weasels, mink, otters, grizzly bear, polar bears and black bears are present. In the case of polar bears (), the shield area contains many of their denning locations, such as the Wapusk National Park. The many lakes and rivers on the shield contain a plentiful quantity of different sports fish species, including walleye, northern pike, lake trout, yellow perch, whitefish, brook trout, arctic grayling, and many types of baitfish. The water surfaces are also home to many waterfowl, most notably Canada geese, loons and gulls. The vast forests contain a myriad population of other birds, including ravens and crows, predatory birds and many songbirds. Mining and economics The Canadian Shield is one of the world's richest areas in terms of mineral ores. It is filled with substantial deposits of nickel, gold, silver, and copper. There are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and one of the best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the shield since the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. Ejecta from the meteorite impact was found in the Rove Formation in May 2007. The nearby but less-known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. This suggests it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. In northeastern Quebec, the giant Manicouagan Reservoir is the site of an extensive hydroelectric project (Manic-cinq, or Manic-5). This is one of the largest-known meteorite impact craters on Earth, though not as large as the Sudbury crater. The Flin Flon greenstone belt in central Manitoba and east-central Saskatchewan "is one of the largest Paleoproterozoic volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VMS) districts in the world, containing 27 copper-zinc-(gold) deposits from which more than 183 million tonnes of sulfide have been mined." The portion in the Northwest Territories has recently been the site of several major diamond discoveries. The kimberlite pipes in which the diamonds are found are closely associated with cratons, which provide the deep lithospheric mantle required to stabilize diamond as a mineral. The kimberlite eruptions then bring the diamonds from over depth to the surface. The Ekati and Diavik mines are actively mining kimberlite diamonds. See also * Baltic Shield * Athabasca Basin * Geology of Ontario * Platform (geology) * Basement (geology) * Volcanology of Canada * Wisconsin glaciation * Glacial history of Minnesota * Geography of Canada References Further reading * Schwartzenberger, Tina (2005), [https://books.google.com/books?idf2_0dwVpQGkC&dqCanadian%20Shield&pg=PP1 The Canadian Shield], Weigl Educational, Category:Shields (geology) Category:Geology of North America Category:Precambrian North America Category:Regional geology Shield Category:Geology of the United States Category:Precambrian Canada Category:Precambrian United States Shield Category:Stratigraphy of the United States Category:Geology of Ontario Category:Geology of Michigan Category:Geology of Quebec Category:Geology of Minnesota Category:Geology of Newfoundland and Labrador Category:Geology of New York (state) Category:Geology of Manitoba Category:Geology of Saskatchewan Category:Geology of Nunavut Category:Geology of the Northwest Territories Category:Geology of Alberta Category:Geology of Greenland Shield Category:Regions of the Subarctic	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Shield	2025-04-05T18:27:45.508437
6231	Comic book	A comic book, comic-magazine, or simply comic is a publication that consists of comics art in the form of sequential juxtaposed panels that represent individual scenes. Panels are often accompanied by descriptive prose and written narrative, usually dialogue contained in word balloons emblematic of the comics art form. Comic Cuts was a British comic published from 1890 to 1953. It was preceded by ''Ally Sloper's Half Holiday (1884), which is notable for its use of sequential cartoons to unfold narrative. These British comics existed alongside the popular lurid "penny dreadfuls" (such as Spring-heeled Jack''), boys' "story papers" and the humorous Punch magazine, which was the first to use the term "cartoon" in its modern sense of a humorous drawing. The first modern American-style comic book, Famous Funnies: A Carnival of Comics, was released in the US in 1933 and was a reprinting of earlier newspaper humor comic strips, which had established many of the story-telling devices used in comics. The term comic book derives from American comic books once being a compilation of comic strips of a humorous tone; however, this practice was replaced by featuring stories of all genres, usually not humorous in tone. The largest comic book market is Japan. By 1995, the manga market in Japan was valued at (7 billion\|longno\|linkyes}}), with annual sales of 1.9billion manga books ( volumes and manga magazines) in Japan, equivalent to 15issues per person. In 2020, the manga market in Japan reached a new record value of due to a fast growth of digital manga sales as well as an increase in print sales. The comic book market in the United States and Canada was valued at in 2016. , the largest comic book publisher in the United States is manga distributor Viz Media, followed by DC Comics and Marvel Comics featuring superhero comics franchises such as Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Spider-Man, the Incredible Hulk, and the X-Men. The best-selling comic book categories in the US are juvenile children's fiction at 41%, manga at 28% and superhero comics at 10% of the market. Another major comic book market is France, where Franco-Belgian comics and Japanese manga each represent 40% of the market, followed by American comics at 10% market share.Structure adaptation of Tristram Shandy, drawn by the British cartoonist Martin Rowson]] Comic books heavily rely on their organization and visual presentation. Authors dedicate significant attention to aspects like page layout, size, orientation, and the positioning of panels. These characteristics are crucial for effectively conveying the content and messages within the comic book. Key components of comic books encompass panels, speech bubbles (also known as balloons), text lines, and characters. Speech balloons generally take the form of convex containers that hold character dialogue and are connected to the character via a tail element. The tail comprises an origin, path, tip, and directional point. The creation of comic books involves several essential steps: writing, drawing, and coloring. Various technological tools and methods are employed to craft comic books, incorporating concepts such as directions, axes, data, and metrics. Following these formatting guidelines, the process unfolds with writing, drawing, and coloring. In the United States, the term "comic book", is generally used for comics periodicals and trade paperbacks while "graphic novel" is the term used for standalone books.American comic books Comics as a print medium have existed in the United States since the printing of The Adventures of Mr. Obadiah Oldbuck in 1842 in hardcover, making it the first known American prototype comic book. Proto-comics periodicals began appearing early in the 20th century, with the first comic standard-sized comic being Funnies on Parade. Funnies on Parades was the first book that established the size, duration, and format of the modern comic book. Following this was, Dell Publishing's 36-page Famous Funnies: A Carnival of Comics as the first true newsstand American comic book; Goulart, for example, calls it "the cornerstone for one of the most lucrative branches of magazine publishing". In 1905 G.W. Dillingham Company published 24 select strips by the cartoonist Gustave Verbeek in an anthology book called 'The Incredible Upside-Downs of Little Lady Lovekins and Old Man Muffaroo'. The introduction of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's Superman in 1938 turned comic books into a major industry and ushered in the Golden Age of Comic Books. The Golden Age originated the archetype of the superhero. According to historian Michael A. Amundson, appealing comic-book characters helped ease young readers' fear of nuclear war and neutralize anxiety about the questions posed by atomic power. Historians generally divide the timeline of the American comic book into eras. The Golden Age of Comic Books began in 1938, with the debut of Superman in Action Comics #1, published by Detective Comics (predecessor of DC Comics), which is generally considered the beginning of the modern comic book as it is known today. The Silver Age of Comic Books is generally considered to date from the first successful revival of the then-dormant superhero form, with the debut of the Flash in Showcase #4 (Oct. 1956). The Silver Age lasted through the late 1960s or early 1970s, during which time Marvel Comics revolutionized the medium with such naturalistic superheroes as Stan Lee and Jack Kirby's Fantastic Four and Lee and Steve Ditko's Spider-Man. The demarcation between the Silver Age and the following era, the Bronze Age of Comic Books, is less well-defined, with the Bronze Age running from the very early 1970s through the mid-1980s. The Modern Age of Comic Books runs from the mid-1980s to the present day. A significant event in the timeline of American comic books occurred when psychiatrist Fredric Wertham voiced his criticisms of the medium through his book Seduction of the Innocent (1954). This critique led to the involvement of the American Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency, which launched an investigation into comic books. Wertham argued that comic books were accountable for a surge in juvenile delinquency and posed a potential impact on a child's sexuality and moral values. In response to attention from the government and from the media, the US comic book industry set up the Comics Magazine Association of America. The CMAA instilled the Comics Code Authority in 1954 and drafted the self-censorship Comics Code that year, which required all comic books to go through a process of approval. It was not until the 1970s that comic books could be published without passing through the inspection of the CMAA. The Code was made formally defunct in November 2011. Underground comic books In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a surge of creativity emerged in what became known as underground comix. Published and distributed independently of the established comics industry, most of such comics reflected the youth counterculture and drug culture of the time. Underground comix "reflected and commented on the social divisions and tensions of American society". Many had an uninhibited, often irreverent style; their frank depictions of nudity, sex, profanity, and politics had no parallel outside their precursors, the pornographic and even more obscure "Tijuana bibles". Underground comics were almost never sold at newsstands, but rather in such youth-oriented outlets as head shops and record stores, as well as by mail order. The underground comics encouraged creators to publish their work independently so that they would have full ownership rights to their characters. while R. Crumb and the crew of cartoonists who worked on Zap Comix popularized the form. Alternative comics The rise of comic book specialty stores in the late 1970s created and paralleled a dedicated market for "independent" or "alternative comics" in the US. The first such comics included the anthology series Star Reach, published by comic book writer Mike Friedrich from 1974 to 1979, and Harvey Pekar's American Splendor, which continued sporadic publication into the 21st century and which Shari Springer Berman and Robert Pulcini adapted into a 2003 film. Some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics. While their content generally remained less explicit, others resembled the output of mainstream publishers in format and genre but were published by smaller artist-owned companies or by single artists. A few (notably RAW) represented experimental attempts to bring comics closer to the status of fine art. During the 1970s the "small press" culture grew and diversified. By the 1980s, several independent publishers – such as Pacific, Eclipse, First, Comico, and Fantagraphics – had started releasing a wide range of styles and formats—from color-superhero, detective, and science-fiction comic books to black-and-white magazine-format stories of Latin American magical realism. A number of small publishers in the 1990s, changed the format and distribution of their comics to more closely resemble non-comics publishing. The "minicomics" form, an extremely informal version of self-publishing, arose in the 1980s and became increasingly popular among artists in the 1990s, despite reaching an even more limited audience than the small press. Small publishers regularly releasing titles include Avatar Press, Hyperwerks, Raytoons, and Terminal Press, buoyed by such advances in printing technology as digital print-on-demand. Graphic novels published this instructional graphic novel in 2018 to teach youth to stop spreading infectious diseases.]] In 1964, Richard Kyle coined the term "graphic novel". Precursors of the form existed by the 1920s, which saw a revival of the medieval woodcut tradition by Belgian Frans Masereel, American Lynd Ward and others, including Stan Lee. In 1947, Fawcett Publications published "Comics Novel No. 1", as the first in an intended series of these "comics novels". The story in the first issue was "Anarcho, Dictator of Death", a five chapter spy genre tale written by Otto Binder and drawn by Al Carreno. It is readable online in the Digital Comic Museum. The magazine never reached a second issue. In 1950, St. John Publications produced the digest-sized, adult-oriented "picture novel" It Rhymes with Lust, a 128-page digest by pseudonymous writer "Drake Waller" (Arnold Drake and Leslie Waller), penciler Matt Baker and inker Ray Osrin, touted as "an original full-length novel" on its cover. "It Rhymes with Lust" is also available to read online in the Digital Comic Museum. In 1971, writer-artist Gil Kane and collaborators applied a paperback format to their "comics novel" Blackmark. Will Eisner popularized the term "graphic novel" when he used it on the cover of the paperback edition of his work A Contract with God, and Other Tenement Stories in 1978 and, subsequently, the usage of the term began to increase. Digital comics Market size In 2017, the comic book market size for North America was just over $1 billion with digital sales being flat, book stores having a 1% decline, and comic book stores having a 10% decline over 2016. The global comic book market saw a substantial 12% growth in 2020, reaching a total worth of US$8.49 billion. This positive trajectory continued in 2021, with the market's annual valuation surging to US$9.21 billion. The rising popularity of comic books can be attributed to heightened global interest, driven significantly by collaborative efforts among diverse brands. These collaborations are geared towards producing more engaging and appealing comic content, contributing to the industry's continued growth. Comic book collecting The 1970s saw the advent of specialty comic book stores. Initially, comic books were marketed by publishers to children because comic books were perceived as children's entertainment. However, with increasing recognition of comics as an art form and the growing pop culture presence of comic book conventions, they are now embraced by many adults. The most valuable American comics have combined rarity and quality with the first appearances of popular and enduring characters. Four comic books have sold for over US$1 million , including two examples of Action Comics #1, the first appearance of Superman, both sold privately through online dealer ComicConnect.com in 2010, and Detective Comics #27, the first appearance of Batman, via public auction. Updating the above price obtained for Action Comics #1, the first appearance of Superman, the highest sale on record for this book is $3.2 million, for a 9.0 copy. <!-- Sentence fragment: Before Fawcett Comics introduced Captain Marvel --> Misprints, promotional comic-dealer incentive printings, and issues with exceptionally low distribution tend to possess scarcity value in the comic book market. The rarest modern comic books include the original press run of The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen #5, which DC executive Paul Levitz recalled and pulped due to the appearance of a vintage Victorian era advertisement for "Marvel Douche", which the publisher considered offensive; only 100 copies exist, most of which have been CGC graded. (See Recalled comics for more pulped, recalled, and erroneous comics.) In 2000, a company named Comics Guaranty (CGC) initiated the practice of "slabbing" comics, which involves encasing them within thick plastic cases and assigning them a numerical grade. This approach inspired the emergence of Comic Book Certification Service. Given the significance of condition in determining the value of rare comics, the concept of grading by an impartial company, one that does not engage in buying or selling comics, seemed promising. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing debate regarding whether the relatively high cost of this grading service is justified and whether it serves the interests of collectors or mainly caters to speculators seeking rapid profits, akin to trading in stocks or fine art. Comic grading has played a role in establishing standards for valuation, which online price guides such as GoCollect and GPAnalysis utilize to provide real-time market value information. Collectors also seek out the original artwork pages from comic books, which are perhaps the most rarefied items in the realm of comic book collecting. These pages hold unparalleled scarcity due to the fact that there exists only one unique page of artwork for every page that was printed and published. The creation of these original artwork pages involves a collaborative effort: a writer crafts the story, a pencil artist designs the sequential panels on the page, an ink artist goes over the pencil with pen and ink, a letterer provides the dialogue and narration through hand-lettering, and finally, a colorist adds color as the final touch before the pages are sent to the printer. When the printer returns the original artwork pages, they are typically returned to the artists themselves. These artists sometimes opt to sell these pages at comic book conventions, in galleries, and at art shows centered around comic book art. The original pages from DC and Marvel, featuring the debut appearances of iconic characters such as Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, the Flash, Captain Marvel, Spider-Man, the Incredible Hulk, Iron Man, Captain America and the Mighty Thor are regarded as priceless treasures within the comic book world. History of race in American comic books Many early iterations of black characters in comics "became variations on the 'single stereotypical image of Sambo'." Sambo was closely related to the coon stereotype but had some subtle differences. They are both a derogatory way of portraying black characters. "The name itself, an abbreviation of raccoon, is dehumanizing. As with Sambo, the coon was portrayed as a lazy, easily frightened, chronically idle, inarticulate, buffoon." This portrayal "was of course another attempt to solidify the intellectual inferiority of the black race through popular culture." Not only were they using comic books as a means of recruiting all Americans, they were also using it as propaganda to "[construct] a justification for race-based hatred of America's foreign enemies." Korean manhwa Manhwa (만화) are comic books or graphic novels originating from Korea. The term manhwa is used in Korea to refer to both comics and cartooning in general. Outside Korea, the term usually refers to comics originally published in Korea. Manhwa is greatly influenced by Japanese Manga comics though it differs from manga and manhua with its own distinct features. Webtoons Webtoons have become popular in South Korea as a new way to read comics. Thanks in part to different censorship rules, color and unique visual effects, and optimization for easier reading on smartphones and computers. More manhwa have made the switch from traditional print manhwa to online webtoons thanks to better pay and more freedom than traditional print manhwa. The webtoon format has also expanded to other countries outside of Korea like China, Japan, Southeast Asia, and Western countries. Major webtoon distributors include Lezhin, Naver, and Kakao. Chinese manhua Vietnamese truyện tranh European comics Franco-Belgian comics (1926–1977), writer of the Astérix comic book series]] France and Belgium have a long tradition in comics and comic books, often called BDs (an abbreviation of bandes dessinées, meaning literally "drawn strips") in French, and strips in Dutch or Flemish. Belgian comic books originally written in Dutch show the influence of the Francophone "Franco-Belgian" comics but have their own distinct style.British comics . Ally Sloper is regarded as the first recurring character in comics.]] Although ''Ally Sloper's Half Holiday'' (1884) was aimed at an adult market, publishers quickly targeted a younger demographic, which has led to most publications being for children and has created an association in the public's mind of comics as somewhat juvenile. The Guardian refers to Ally Sloper as "one of the world's first iconic cartoon characters", and "as famous in Victorian Britain as Dennis the Menace would be a century later." British comics in the early 20th century typically evolved from illustrated penny dreadfuls of the Victorian era (featuring Sweeney Todd, Dick Turpin and Varney the Vampire). First published in the 1830s, penny dreadfuls were "Britain's first taste of mass-produced popular culture for the young." , a character from The Beano, in Dundee, Scotland. Launched in 1938, The Beano is known for its anarchic humour, with Dennis the Menace appearing on the cover.]] The two most popular British comic books, The Beano and The Dandy, were first published by DC Thomson in the 1930s. By 1950 the weekly circulation of both reached 2 million. Explaining the enormous popularity of comics in the UK during this period, Anita O'Brien, director curator at London's Cartoon Museum, states: "When comics like the Beano and Dandy were invented back in the 1930s – and through really to the 1950s and 60s – these comics were almost the only entertainment available to children." In 1954, Tiger comics introduced Roy of the Rovers, the hugely popular football based strip recounting the life of Roy Race and the team he played for, Melchester Rovers. The stock media phrase "real 'Roy of the Rovers' stuff" is often used by football writers, commentators and fans when describing displays of great skill, or surprising results that go against the odds, in reference to the dramatic storylines that were the strip's trademark. Other comic books such as Eagle, Valiant, Warrior, Viz and 2000 AD also flourished. Some comics, such as Judge Dredd and other 2000 AD titles, have been published in a tabloid form. Underground comics and "small press" titles have also appeared in the UK, notably Oz and Escape Magazine. The content of Action, another title aimed at children and launched in the mid-1970s, became the subject of discussion in the House of Commons. Although on a smaller scale than similar investigations in the US, such concerns led to a moderation of content published within British comics. Such moderation never became formalized to the extent of promulgating a code, nor did it last long. The UK has also established a healthy market in the reprinting and repackaging of material, notably material originating in the US. The lack of reliable supplies of American comic books led to a variety of black-and-white reprints, including Marvel's monster comics of the 1950s, Fawcett's Captain Marvel, and other characters such as Sheena, Mandrake the Magician, and the Phantom. Several reprint companies became involved in repackaging American material for the British market, notably the importer and distributor Thorpe & Porter. Marvel Comics established a UK office in 1972. DC Comics and Dark Horse Comics also opened offices in the 1990s. The repackaging of European material has occurred less frequently, although The Adventures of Tintin and Asterix serials have been successfully translated and repackaged in softcover books. The number of European comics available in the UK has increased in the last two decades. The British company Cinebook, founded in 2005, has released English translated versions of many European series. In the 1980s, a resurgence of British writers and artists gained prominence in mainstream comic books, which was dubbed the "British Invasion" in comic book history. These writers and artists brought with them their own mature themes and philosophy such as anarchy, controversy and politics common in British media. These elements would pave the way for mature and "darker and edgier" comic books and jump start the Modern Age of Comics. Writers included Alan Moore, famous for his V for Vendetta, From Hell, Watchmen, Marvelman, and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen; Neil Gaiman with The Sandman mythos and Books of Magic; Warren Ellis, creator of Transmetropolitan and Planetary; and others such as Mark Millar, creator of Wanted and Kick-Ass. The comic book series John Constantine, Hellblazer, which is largely set in Britain and starring the magician John Constantine, paved the way for British writers such as Jamie Delano. The English musician Peter Gabriel issued in 2000 The Story of OVO which was released in a CD-booklet-shaped comic book as part of the CD edition with the title "OVO The Millennium Show". The 2000 Millennium Dome Show based on it. At Christmas, publishers repackage and commission material for comic annuals, printed and bound as hardcover A4-size books; "Rupert" supplies a famous example of the British comic annual. DC Thomson also repackages The Broons and Oor Wullie strips in softcover A4-size books for the holiday season. On 19 March 2012, the British postal service, the Royal Mail, released a set of stamps depicting British comic book characters and series. The collection featured The Beano, The Dandy, Eagle, The Topper, Roy of the Rovers, Bunty, Buster, Valiant, Twinkle and 2000 AD. Mainstream comics are usually published on a monthly basis, in a black-and-white digest size format, with approximately 100 to 132 pages. Collections of classic material for the most famous characters, usually with more than 200 pages, are also common. Author comics are published in the French BD format, with an example being Pratt's Corto Maltese. Italian cartoonists show the influence of comics from other countries, including France, Belgium, Spain, and Argentina. Italy is also famous for being one of the foremost producers of Walt Disney comic stories outside the US; Donald Duck's superhero alter ego, Paperinik, known in English as Superduck, was created in Italy. Comics in other countries Distribution The comic book industry has struggled with distribution issues throughout its history, as numerous mainstream retailers have been hesitant to stock substantial quantities of the most engaging and sought-after comics. The smartphone and the tablet have turned out to be an ideal medium for online distribution. Digital distribution On 13 November 2007, Marvel Comics launched Marvel Digital Comics Unlimited, a subscription service allowing readers to read many comics from Marvel's history online. The service also includes periodic release new comics not available elsewhere. With the release of Avenging Spider-Man #1, Marvel also became the first publisher to provide free digital copies as part of the print copy of the comic book. With the growing popularity of smartphones and tablets, many major publishers have begun releasing titles in digital form. The most popular platform is comiXology. Some platforms, such as Graphicly, have shut down. Comic collections in libraries Numerous libraries house extensive collections of comics in the form of graphic novels. This serves as a convenient means for the general public to become acquainted with the medium. Guinness World Records In 2015, the Japanese manga artist Eiichiro Oda was awarded the Guinness World Records title for having the "Most copies published for the same comic book series by a single author". His manga series One Piece, which he writes and illustrates, has been serialized in the Japanese magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump since December 1997, and by 2015, 77 collected volumes had been released. Guinness World Records reported in their announcement that the collected volumes of the series had sold a total of 320,866,000 units. One Piece also holds the Guinness World Records title for "Most copies published for the same manga series". On 5 August 2018, the Guinness World Records title for the "Largest comic book ever published" was awarded to the Brazilian comic book Turma da Mônica — O Maior Gibi do Mundo!, published by Panini Comics Brasil and Mauricio de Sousa Produções. The comic book measures . The 18-page comic book had a print run of 120 copies. With the July 2021 publication of the 201st collected volume of his manga series Golgo 13, Japanese manga artist Takao Saito was awarded the Guinness World Records title for "Most volumes published for a single manga series." Golgo 13 has been continuously serialized in the Japanese magazine Big Comic since October 1968, which also makes it the oldest manga still in publication. See also * Cartoon * Comic book archive * Comic book convention * Comic book grading * Comic book therapy * Comics studies * Comics vocabulary * Comparison of image viewers * Direct market * Free Comic Book Day * History of comic books * List of best-selling comic series * List of best-selling manga * List of comic book and superhero podcasts * Pieces Project * Webcomic References Further reading * * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190729135331/https://comicbookinvest.com/ Comic book Speculation Reference] * [http://www.crbd.eu Comic book Reference Bibliographic Datafile] * [http://www.sequart.org Sequart Research & Literacy Organization] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719050622/http://mulibraries.missouri.edu/specialcollections/comic.htm Comic Art Collection] at the University of Missouri * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180212004939/https://collectorism.com/blog/great-moments-comic-history-every-collector-know/ Collectorism – a place for collectors and collectibles] Book Category:Comics publications eo:Bildliteraturo#Specifaj nomoj kaj difinoj	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_book	2025-04-05T18:27:45.559086
6233	Connected space	In topology and related branches of mathematics, a connected space is a topological space that cannot be represented as the union of two or more disjoint non-empty open subsets. Connectedness is one of the principal topological properties that distinguish topological spaces. A subset of a topological space <math>X</math> is a <em></em> if it is a connected space when viewed as a subspace of <math>X</math>. Some related but stronger conditions are path connected, simply connected, and <math>n</math>-connected. Another related notion is <em>locally connected</em>, which neither implies nor follows from connectedness. Formal definition A topological space <math>X</math> is said to be <em></em> if it is the union of two disjoint non-empty open sets. Otherwise, <math>X</math> is said to be <em>connected</em>. A subset of a topological space is said to be connected if it is connected under its subspace topology. Some authors exclude the empty set (with its unique topology) as a connected space, but this article does not follow that practice. For a topological space <math>X</math> the following conditions are equivalent: #<math>X</math> is connected, that is, it cannot be divided into two disjoint non-empty open sets. #The only subsets of <math>X</math> which are both open and closed (clopen sets) are <math>X</math> and the empty set. #The only subsets of <math>X</math> with empty boundary are <math>X</math> and the empty set. #<math>X</math> cannot be written as the union of two non-empty separated sets (sets for which each is disjoint from the other's closure). #All continuous functions from <math>X</math> to <math>\{ 0, 1 \}</math> are constant, where <math>\{ 0, 1 \}</math> is the two-point space endowed with the discrete topology. Historically this modern formulation of the notion of connectedness (in terms of no partition of <math>X</math> into two separated sets) first appeared (independently) with N.J. Lennes, Frigyes Riesz, and Felix Hausdorff at the beginning of the 20th century. See for details. Connected components Given some point <math>x</math> in a topological space <math>X,</math> the union of any collection of connected subsets such that each contains <math>x</math> will once again be a connected subset. The <em>connected component of a point</em> <math>x</math> in <math>X</math> is the union of all connected subsets of <math>X</math> that contain <math>x;</math> it is the unique largest (with respect to <math>\subseteq</math>) connected subset of <math>X</math> that contains <math>x.</math> The maximal connected subsets (ordered by inclusion <math>\subseteq</math>) of a non-empty topological space are called the <em>connected components</em> of the space. The components of any topological space <math>X</math> form a partition of <math>X</math>: they are disjoint, non-empty and their union is the whole space. Every component is a closed subset of the original space. It follows that, in the case where their number is finite, each component is also an open subset. However, if their number is infinite, this might not be the case; for instance, the connected components of the set of the rational numbers are the one-point sets (singletons), which are not open. Proof: Any two distinct rational numbers <math>q_1<q_2</math> are in different components. Take an irrational number <math>q_1 < r < q_2,</math> and then set <math>A \{q \in \Q : q < r\}</math> and <math>B \{q \in \Q : q > r\}.</math> Then <math>(A,B)</math> is a separation of <math>\Q,</math> and <math>q_1 \in A, q_2 \in B</math>. Thus each component is a one-point set. Let <math>\Gamma_x</math> be the connected component of <math>x</math> in a topological space <math>X,</math> and <math>\Gamma_x'</math> be the intersection of all clopen sets containing <math>x</math> (called quasi-component of <math>x</math>). Then <math>\Gamma_x \subset \Gamma'_x</math> where the equality holds if <math>X</math> is compact Hausdorff or locally connected. Disconnected spaces A space in which all components are one-point sets is called <em></em>. Related to this property, a space <math>X</math> is called <em></em> if, for any two distinct elements <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> of <math>X</math>, there exist disjoint open sets <math>U</math> containing <math>x</math> and <math>V</math> containing <math>y</math> such that <math>X</math> is the union of <math>U</math> and <math>V</math>. Clearly, any totally separated space is totally disconnected, but the converse does not hold. For example, take two copies of the rational numbers <math>\Q</math>, and identify them at every point except zero. The resulting space, with the quotient topology, is totally disconnected. However, by considering the two copies of zero, one sees that the space is not totally separated. In fact, it is not even Hausdorff, and the condition of being totally separated is strictly stronger than the condition of being Hausdorff. Examples * The closed interval <math>[0, 2)</math> in the standard subspace topology is connected; although it can, for example, be written as the union of <math>[0, 1)</math> and <math>[1, 2),</math> the second set is not open in the chosen topology of <math>[0, 2).</math> * The union of <math>[0, 1)</math> and <math>(1, 2]</math> is disconnected; both of these intervals are open in the standard topological space <math>[0, 1) \cup (1, 2].</math> * <math>(0, 1) \cup \{ 3 \}</math> is disconnected. * A convex subset of <math>\R^n</math> is connected; it is actually simply connected. * A Euclidean plane excluding the origin, <math>(0, 0),</math> is connected, but is not simply connected. The three-dimensional Euclidean space without the origin is connected, and even simply connected. In contrast, the one-dimensional Euclidean space without the origin is not connected. * A Euclidean plane with a straight line removed is not connected since it consists of two half-planes. * <math>\R</math>, the space of real numbers with the usual topology, is connected. * The Sorgenfrey line is disconnected. * If even a single point is removed from <math>\mathbb{R}</math>, the remainder is disconnected. However, if even a countable infinity of points are removed from <math>\R^n</math>, where <math>n \geq 2,</math> the remainder is connected. If <math>n\geq 3</math>, then <math>\R^n</math> remains simply connected after removal of countably many points. * Any topological vector space, e.g. any Hilbert space or Banach space, over a connected field (such as <math>\R</math> or <math>\Complex</math>), is simply connected. * Every discrete topological space with at least two elements is disconnected, in fact such a space is totally disconnected. The simplest example is the discrete two-point space. * On the other hand, a finite set might be connected. For example, the spectrum of a discrete valuation ring consists of two points and is connected. It is an example of a Sierpiński space. * The Cantor set is totally disconnected; since the set contains uncountably many points, it has uncountably many components. * If a space <math>X</math> is homotopy equivalent to a connected space, then <math>X</math> is itself connected. * The topologist's sine curve is an example of a set that is connected but is neither path connected nor locally connected. * The general linear group <math>\operatorname{GL}(n, \R)</math> (that is, the group of <math>n</math>-by-<math>n</math> real, invertible matrices) consists of two connected components: the one with matrices of positive determinant and the other of negative determinant. In particular, it is not connected. In contrast, <math>\operatorname{GL}(n, \Complex)</math> is connected. More generally, the set of invertible bounded operators on a complex Hilbert space is connected. * The spectra of commutative local ring and integral domains are connected. More generally, the following are equivalent # The spectrum of a commutative ring <math>R</math> is connected # Every finitely generated projective module over <math>R</math> has constant rank. # <math>R</math> has no idempotent <math>\ne 0, 1</math> (i.e., <math>R</math> is not a product of two rings in a nontrivial way). An example of a space that is not connected is a plane with an infinite line deleted from it. Other examples of disconnected spaces (that is, spaces which are not connected) include the plane with an annulus removed, as well as the union of two disjoint closed disks, where all examples of this paragraph bear the subspace topology induced by two-dimensional Euclidean space. Path connectedness<!-- This section is linked from Covering space and path-connected --> A <em></em> is a stronger notion of connectedness, requiring the structure of a path. A <em>path</em> from a point <math>x</math> to a point <math>y</math> in a topological space <math>X</math> is a continuous function <math>f</math> from the unit interval <math>[0,1]</math> to <math>X</math> with <math>f(0)x</math> and <math>f(1)y</math>. A <em></em> of <math>X</math> is an equivalence class of <math>X</math> under the equivalence relation which makes <math>x</math> equivalent to <math>y</math> if and only if there is a path from <math>x</math> to <math>y</math>. The space <math>X</math> is said to be <em>path-connected</em> (or <em>pathwise connected</em> or <math>\mathbf{0}</math><em>-connected</em>) if there is exactly one path-component. For non-empty spaces, this is equivalent to the statement that there is a path joining any two points in <math>X</math>. Again, many authors exclude the empty space. Every path-connected space is connected. The converse is not always true: examples of connected spaces that are not path-connected include the extended long line <math>L^</math> and the topologist's sine curve. Subsets of the real line <math>\R</math> are connected if and only if they are path-connected; these subsets are the intervals and rays of <math>\R</math>. Also, open subsets of <math>\R^n</math> or <math>\C^n</math> are connected if and only if they are path-connected. Additionally, connectedness and path-connectedness are the same for finite topological spaces. Arc connectedness <!-- Connected_space#Arc_connectedness redirects to this subsection --> A space <math>X</math> is said to be <em>arc-connected</em> or <em>arcwise connected</em> if any two topologically distinguishable points can be joined by an arc, which is an embedding <math>f : [0, 1] \to X</math>. An <em>arc-component</em> of <math>X</math> is a maximal arc-connected subset of <math>X</math>; or equivalently an equivalence class of the equivalence relation of whether two points can be joined by an arc or by a path whose points are topologically indistinguishable. Every Hausdorff space that is path-connected is also arc-connected; more generally this is true for a <math>\Delta</math>-Hausdorff space, which is a space where each image of a path is closed. An example of a space which is path-connected but not arc-connected is given by the line with two origins; its two copies of <math>0</math> can be connected by a path but not by an arc. Intuition for path-connected spaces does not readily transfer to arc-connected spaces. Let <math>X</math> be the line with two origins. The following are facts whose analogues hold for path-connected spaces, but do not hold for arc-connected spaces: * Continuous image of arc-connected space may not be arc-connected: for example, a quotient map from an arc-connected space to its quotient with countably many (at least 2) topologically distinguishable points cannot be arc-connected due to too small cardinality. * Arc-components may not be disjoint. For example, <math>X</math> has two overlapping arc-components. * Arc-connected product space may not be a product of arc-connected spaces. For example, <math>X \times \mathbb{R}</math> is arc-connected, but <math>X</math> is not. * Arc-components of a product space may not be products of arc-components of the marginal spaces. For example, <math>X \times \mathbb{R}</math> has a single arc-component, but <math>X</math> has two arc-components. If arc-connected subsets have a non-empty intersection, then their union may not be arc-connected. For example, the arc-components of <math>X</math> intersect, but their union is not arc-connected. Local connectedness<!-- This section is linked from Covering space --> A topological space is said to be <em>locally connected</em> at a point <math>x</math> if every neighbourhood of <math>x</math> contains a connected open neighbourhood. It is <em>locally connected</em> if it has a base of connected sets. It can be shown that a space <math>X</math> is locally connected if and only if every component of every open set of <math>X</math> is open. Similarly, a topological space is said to be <em></em> if it has a base of path-connected sets. An open subset of a locally path-connected space is connected if and only if it is path-connected. This generalizes the earlier statement about <math>\R^n</math> and <math>\C^n</math>, each of which is locally path-connected. More generally, any topological manifold is locally path-connected. Locally connected does not imply connected, nor does locally path-connected imply path connected. A simple example of a locally connected (and locally path-connected) space that is not connected (or path-connected) is the union of two separated intervals in <math>\R</math>, such as <math>(0,1) \cup (2,3)</math>. A classic example of a connected space that is not locally connected is the so-called topologist's sine curve, defined as <math>T \{(0,0)\} \cup \left\{ \left(x, \sin\left(\tfrac{1}{x}\right)\right) : x \in (0, 1] \right\}</math>, with the Euclidean topology induced by inclusion in <math>\R^2</math>. Set operations The intersection of connected sets is not necessarily connected. The union of connected sets is not necessarily connected, as can be seen by considering <math>X=(0,1) \cup (1,2)</math>. Each ellipse is a connected set, but the union is not connected, since it can be partitioned into two disjoint open sets <math>U</math> and <math>V</math>. This means that, if the union <math>X</math> is disconnected, then the collection <math>\{X_i\}</math> can be partitioned into two sub-collections, such that the unions of the sub-collections are disjoint and open in <math>X</math> (see picture). This implies that in several cases, a union of connected sets necessarily connected. In particular: # If the common intersection of all sets is not empty (<math display="inline"> \bigcap X_i \neq \emptyset</math>), then obviously they cannot be partitioned to collections with disjoint unions. Hence the union of connected sets with non-empty intersection is connected. # If the intersection of each pair of sets is not empty (<math>\forall i,j: X_i \cap X_j \neq \emptyset</math>) then again they cannot be partitioned to collections with disjoint unions, so their union must be connected. # If the sets can be ordered as a "linked chain", i.e. indexed by integer indices and <math>\forall i: X_i \cap X_{i+1} \neq \emptyset</math>, then again their union must be connected. # If the sets are pairwise-disjoint and the quotient space <math>X / \{X_i\}</math> is connected, then must be connected. Otherwise, if <math>U \cup V</math> is a separation of then <math>q(U) \cup q(V)</math> is a separation of the quotient space (since <math>q(U), q(V)</math> are disjoint and open in the quotient space). The set difference of connected sets is not necessarily connected. However, if <math>X \supseteq Y</math> and their difference <math>X \setminus Y</math> is disconnected (and thus can be written as a union of two open sets <math>X_1</math> and <math>X_2</math>), then the union of <math>Y</math> with each such component is connected (i.e. <math>Y \cup X_{i}</math> is connected for all <math>i</math>). \|proof By contradiction, suppose <math>Y \cup X_{1}</math> is not connected. So it can be written as the union of two disjoint open sets, e.g. <math>Y \cup X_{1}=Z_{1} \cup Z_{2}</math>. Because <math>Y</math> is connected, it must be entirely contained in one of these components, say <math>Z_1</math>, and thus <math>Z_2</math> is contained in <math>X_1</math>. Now we know that: <math display"block">X\left(Y \cup X_{1}\right) \cup X_{2}\left(Z_{1} \cup Z_{2}\right) \cup X_{2}\left(Z_{1} \cup X_{2}\right) \cup\left(Z_{2} \cap X_{1}\right)</math> The two sets in the last union are disjoint and open in <math>X</math>, so there is a separation of <math>X</math>, contradicting the fact that <math>X</math> is connected. }} Theorems <!--'Main theorem of connectedness' redirects here--> Main theorem of connectedness<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->: Let <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> be topological spaces and let <math>f:X\rightarrow Y</math> be a continuous function. If <math>X</math> is (path-)connected then the image <math>f(X)</math> is (path-)connected. This result can be considered a generalization of the intermediate value theorem. Every path-connected space is connected. In a locally path-connected space, every open connected set is path-connected. Every locally path-connected space is locally connected. A locally path-connected space is path-connected if and only if it is connected. The closure of a connected subset is connected. Furthermore, any subset between a connected subset and its closure is connected. The connected components are always closed (but in general not open) The connected components of a locally connected space are also open. The connected components of a space are disjoint unions of the path-connected components (which in general are neither open nor closed). Every quotient of a connected (resp. locally connected, path-connected, locally path-connected) space is connected (resp. locally connected, path-connected, locally path-connected). Every product of a family of connected (resp. path-connected) spaces is connected (resp. path-connected). Every open subset of a locally connected (resp. locally path-connected) space is locally connected (resp. locally path-connected). Every manifold is locally path-connected. Arc-wise connected space is path connected, but path-wise connected space may not be arc-wise connected Continuous image of arc-wise connected set is arc-wise connected. Graphs Graphs have path connected subsets, namely those subsets for which every pair of points has a path of edges joining them. However, it is not always possible to find a topology on the set of points which induces the same connected sets. The 5-cycle graph (and any <math>n</math>-cycle with <math>n>3</math> odd) is one such example. As a consequence, a notion of connectedness can be formulated independently of the topology on a space. To wit, there is a category of connective spaces consisting of sets with collections of connected subsets satisfying connectivity axioms; their morphisms are those functions which map connected sets to connected sets . Topological spaces and graphs are special cases of connective spaces; indeed, the finite connective spaces are precisely the finite graphs. However, every graph can be canonically made into a topological space, by treating vertices as points and edges as copies of the unit interval (see topological graph theory#Graphs as topological spaces). Then one can show that the graph is connected (in the graph theoretical sense) if and only if it is connected as a topological space. Stronger forms of connectedness There are stronger forms of connectedness for topological spaces, for instance: * If there exist no two disjoint non-empty open sets in a topological space <math>X</math>, <math>X</math> must be connected, and thus hyperconnected spaces are also connected. * Since a simply connected space is, by definition, also required to be path connected, any simply connected space is also connected. If the "path connectedness" requirement is dropped from the definition of simple connectivity, a simply connected space does not need to be connected. Yet stronger versions of connectivity include the notion of a contractible space. Every contractible space is path connected and thus also connected. In general, any path connected space must be connected but there exist connected spaces that are not path connected. The deleted comb space furnishes such an example, as does the above-mentioned topologist's sine curve. See also * * * * * * * References * Further reading * * * * . Category:General topology Category:Properties of topological spaces	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_space	2025-04-05T18:27:45.586281
6235	Cell nucleus	stained for nuclear DNA with the blue fluorescent Hoechst dye. The central and rightmost cells are in interphase, thus their entire nuclei are labeled. On the left, a cell is going through mitosis and its DNA has condensed.]] The cell nucleus ( or \|kernel, seed}}; : nuclei) is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, have no nuclei, and a few others including osteoclasts have many. The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm; and the nuclear matrix, a network within the nucleus that adds mechanical support. The cell nucleus contains nearly all of the cell's genome. Nuclear DNA is often organized into multiple chromosomes – long strands of DNA dotted with various proteins, such as histones, that protect and organize the DNA. The genes within these chromosomes are structured in such a way to promote cell function. The nucleus maintains the integrity of genes and controls the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression. Because the nuclear envelope is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores are required to regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel through which larger molecules must be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes. Although the interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane-bound subcompartments, a number of nuclear bodies exist, made up of unique proteins, RNA molecules, and particular parts of the chromosomes. The best-known of these is the nucleolus, involved in the assembly of ribosomes. Chromosomes nucleus in which DNA is stained blue. The distinct chromosome territories of chromosome 2 (red) and chromosome 9 (green) are stained with fluorescent in situ hybridization.]] The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell's genetic material in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes. Each human cell contains roughly two meters of DNA. The other type, heterochromatin, is the more compact form, and contains DNA that is infrequently transcribed. This structure is further categorized into facultative heterochromatin, consisting of genes that are organized as heterochromatin only in certain cell types or at certain stages of development, and constitutive heterochromatin that consists of chromosome structural components such as telomeres and centromeres. During interphase the chromatin organizes itself into discrete individual patches, called chromosome territories. Active genes, which are generally found in the euchromatic region of the chromosome, tend to be located towards the chromosome's territory boundary. Antibodies to certain types of chromatin organization, in particular, nucleosomes, have been associated with a number of autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus. These are known as anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA) and have also been observed in concert with multiple sclerosis as part of general immune system dysfunction. Nuclear structures and landmarks -studded outer nuclear membrane, nuclear pores, DNA (complexed as chromatin), and the nucleolus.]] The nucleus contains nearly all of the cell's DNA, surrounded by a network of fibrous intermediate filaments called the nuclear matrix, and is enveloped in a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope separates the fluid inside the nucleus, called the nucleoplasm, from the rest of the cell. The size of the nucleus is correlated to the size of the cell, and this ratio is reported across a range of cell types and species. In eukaryotes the nucleus in many cells typically occupies 10% of the cell volume. Together, these membranes serve to separate the cell's genetic material from the rest of the cell contents, and allow the nucleus to maintain an environment distinct from the rest of the cell. Despite their close apposition around much of the nucleus, the two membranes differ substantially in shape and contents. The inner membrane surrounds the nuclear content, providing its defining edge. The number of NPCs can vary considerably across cell types; small glial cells only have about a few hundred, with large Purkinje cells having around 20,000. The nuclear pore complex is composed of approximately thirty different proteins known as nucleoporins. The pores are 100 nm in total diameter; however, the gap through which molecules freely diffuse is only about 9 nm wide, due to the presence of regulatory systems within the center of the pore. This size selectively allows the passage of small water-soluble molecules while preventing larger molecules, such as nucleic acids and larger proteins, from inappropriately entering or exiting the nucleus. These large molecules must be actively transported into the nucleus instead. Attached to the ring is a structure called the nuclear basket that extends into the nucleoplasm, and a series of filamentous extensions that reach into the cytoplasm. Both structures serve to mediate binding to nuclear transport proteins. Most proteins, ribosomal subunits, and some RNAs are transported through the pore complexes in a process mediated by a family of transport factors known as karyopherins. Those karyopherins that mediate movement into the nucleus are also called importins, whereas those that mediate movement out of the nucleus are called exportins. Most karyopherins interact directly with their cargo, although some use adaptor proteins. Steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone, as well as other small lipid-soluble molecules involved in intercellular signaling, can diffuse through the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm, where they bind nuclear receptor proteins that are trafficked into the nucleus. There they serve as transcription factors when bound to their ligand; in the absence of a ligand, many such receptors function as histone deacetylases that repress gene expression. The nuclear lamina is composed mostly of lamin proteins. Like all proteins, lamins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and later transported to the nucleus interior, where they are assembled before being incorporated into the existing network of nuclear lamina. Lamins found on the cytosolic face of the membrane, such as emerin and nesprin, bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural support. Lamins are also found inside the nucleoplasm where they form another regular structure, known as the nucleoplasmic veil, that is visible using fluorescence microscopy. The actual function of the veil is not clear, although it is excluded from the nucleolus and is present during interphase. Lamin structures that make up the veil, such as LEM3, bind chromatin and disrupting their structure inhibits transcription of protein-coding genes. Like the components of other intermediate filaments, the lamin monomer contains an alpha-helical domain used by two monomers to coil around each other, forming a dimer structure called a coiled coil. Two of these dimer structures then join side by side, in an antiparallel arrangement, to form a tetramer called a protofilament. Eight of these protofilaments form a lateral arrangement that is twisted to form a ropelike filament. These filaments can be assembled or disassembled in a dynamic manner, meaning that changes in the length of the filament depend on the competing rates of filament addition and removal. Nucleolus of a cell nucleus, showing the darkly stained nucleolus]] The nucleolus is the largest of the discrete densely stained, membraneless structures known as nuclear bodies found in the nucleus. It forms around tandem repeats of rDNA, DNA coding for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These regions are called nucleolar organizer regions (NOR). The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes. The structural cohesion of the nucleolus depends on its activity, as ribosomal assembly in the nucleolus results in the transient association of nucleolar components, facilitating further ribosomal assembly, and hence further association. This model is supported by observations that inactivation of rDNA results in intermingling of nucleolar structures. In the first step of ribosome assembly, a protein called RNA polymerase I transcribes rDNA, which forms a large pre-rRNA precursor. This is cleaved into two large rRNA subunits – 5.8S, and 28S, and a small rRNA subunit 18S. The transcription, post-transcriptional processing, and assembly of rRNA occurs in the nucleolus, aided by small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) molecules, some of which are derived from spliced introns from messenger RNAs encoding genes related to ribosomal function. The assembled ribosomal subunits are the largest structures passed through the nuclear pores. At the fluorescence-microscope level they appear as irregular, punctate structures, which vary in size and shape, and when examined by electron microscopy they are seen as clusters of interchromatin granules. Speckles are dynamic structures, and both their protein and RNA-protein components can cycle continuously between speckles and other nuclear locations, including active transcription sites. Speckles can work with p53 as enhancers of gene activity to directly enhance the activity of certain genes. Moreover, speckle-associating and non-associating p53 gene targets are functionally distinct. Studies on the composition, structure and behaviour of speckles have provided a model for understanding the functional compartmentalization of the nucleus and the organization of the gene-expression machinery splicing snRNPs and other splicing proteins necessary for pre-mRNA processing. The splicing speckles are also known as nuclear speckles (nuclear specks), splicing factor compartments (SF compartments), interchromatin granule clusters (IGCs), and B snurposomes. B snurposomes are found in the amphibian oocyte nuclei and in Drosophila melanogaster embryos. B snurposomes appear alone or attached to the Cajal bodies in the electron micrographs of the amphibian nuclei. While nuclear speckles were originally thought to be storage sites for the splicing factors, a more recent study demonstrated that organizing genes and pre-mRNA substrates near speckles increases the kinetic efficiency of pre-mRNA splicing, ultimately boosting protein levels by modulation of splicing. Cajal bodies and gems A nucleus typically contains between one and ten compact structures called Cajal bodies or coiled bodies (CB), whose diameter measures between 0.2 μm and 2.0 μm depending on the cell type and species. CBs are involved in a number of different roles relating to RNA processing, specifically small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and small nuclear RNA (snRNA) maturation, and histone mRNA modification. though it has also been suggested from microscopy evidence that CBs and gems are different manifestations of the same structure. Other nuclear bodies {\| class"wikitable" style"float:right; font-size:100%; margin-left:15px;" \|- bgcolor="#efefef" \|+ Subnuclear structure sizes \|- bgcolor="#efefef" ! style"width: 120px" abbr"name" \|Structure name ! style"width: 130px" abbr"diameter" \|Structure diameter ! scope="col" \| }} \|- \| Cajal bodies \|\| 0.2–2.0 μm \|\| \|- \|Clastosomes \|0.2–0.5 μm \| \|- \| PML bodies \|\| 0.2–1.0 μm \|\| \|- \| Paraspeckles \|\| 0.5–1.0 μm \|\| \|- \| Speckles \|\| 20–25 nm \|\| PIKA and PTF domains PIKA domains, or polymorphic interphase karyosomal associations, were first described in microscopy studies in 1991. Their function remains unclear, though they were not thought to be associated with active DNA replication, transcription, or RNA processing. They have been found to often associate with discrete domains defined by dense localization of the transcription factor PTF, which promotes transcription of small nuclear RNA (snRNA). PML-nuclear bodies Promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML-nuclear bodies) are spherical bodies found scattered throughout the nucleoplasm, measuring around 0.1–1.0 μm. They are known by a number of other names, including nuclear domain 10 (ND10), Kremer bodies, and PML oncogenic domains. PML-nuclear bodies are named after one of their major components, the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML). They are often seen in the nucleus in association with Cajal bodies and cleavage bodies. Paraspeckles Discovered by Fox et al. in 2002, paraspeckles are irregularly shaped compartments in the interchromatin space of the nucleus. First documented in HeLa cells, where there are generally 10–30 per nucleus, paraspeckles are now known to also exist in all human primary cells, transformed cell lines, and tissue sections. Their name is derived from their distribution in the nucleus; the "para" is short for parallel and the "speckles" refers to the splicing speckles to which they are always in close proximity. that is involved in the regulation of gene expression. Furthermore, paraspeckles are dynamic structures that are altered in response to changes in cellular metabolic activity. They are transcription dependent This name is derived from the Greek klastos (κλαστός), broken and soma (σῶμα), body. The scarcity of clastosomes in cells indicates that they are not required for proteasome function. Osmotic stress has also been shown to cause the formation of clastosomes. These nuclear bodies contain catalytic and regulatory subunits of the proteasome and its substrates, indicating that clastosomes are sites for degrading proteins. where it forms a transcriptional repressor complex with nuclear proteins to reduce the expression of genes involved in glycolysis. In order to control which genes are being transcribed, the cell separates some transcription factor proteins responsible for regulating gene expression from physical access to the DNA until they are activated by other signaling pathways. This prevents even low levels of inappropriate gene expression. For example, in the case of NF-κB-controlled genes, which are involved in most inflammatory responses, transcription is induced in response to a signal pathway such as that initiated by the signaling molecule TNF-α, binds to a cell membrane receptor, resulting in the recruitment of signalling proteins, and eventually activating the transcription factor NF-κB. A nuclear localisation signal on the NF-κB protein allows it to be transported through the nuclear pore and into the nucleus, where it stimulates the transcription of the target genes. Eukaryotic mRNA contains introns that must be removed before being translated to produce functional proteins. The splicing is done inside the nucleus before the mRNA can be accessed by ribosomes for translation. Without the nucleus, ribosomes would translate newly transcribed (unprocessed) mRNA, resulting in malformed and nonfunctional proteins. Gene expression during transcription, highlighting the possibility of transcribing more than one gene at a time. The diagram includes 8 RNA polymerases however the number can vary depending on cell type. The image also includes transcription factors and a porous, protein core.]] Gene expression first involves transcription, in which DNA is used as a template to produce RNA. In the case of genes encoding proteins, that RNA produced from this process is messenger RNA (mRNA), which then needs to be translated by ribosomes to form a protein. As ribosomes are located outside the nucleus, mRNA produced needs to be exported. Since the nucleus is the site of transcription, it also contains a variety of proteins that either directly mediate transcription or are involved in regulating the process. These proteins include helicases, which unwind the double-stranded DNA molecule to facilitate access to it, RNA polymerases, which bind to the DNA promoter to synthesize the growing RNA molecule, topoisomerases, which change the amount of supercoiling in DNA, helping it wind and unwind, as well as a large variety of transcription factors that regulate expression.Processing of pre-mRNA Newly synthesized mRNA molecules are known as primary transcripts or pre-mRNA. They must undergo post-transcriptional modification in the nucleus before being exported to the cytoplasm; mRNA that appears in the cytoplasm without these modifications is degraded rather than used for protein translation. The three main modifications are 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and RNA splicing. While in the nucleus, pre-mRNA is associated with a variety of proteins in complexes known as heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particles (hnRNPs). Addition of the 5' cap occurs co-transcriptionally and is the first step in post-transcriptional modification. The 3' poly-adenine tail is only added after transcription is complete. Dynamics and regulation Nuclear transport s, such as RNA and proteins, are actively transported across the nuclear membrane in a process called the Ran-GTP nuclear transport cycle.]] The entry and exit of large molecules from the nucleus is tightly controlled by the nuclear pore complexes. Although small molecules can enter the nucleus without regulation, macromolecules such as RNA and proteins require association karyopherins called importins to enter the nucleus and exportins to exit. "Cargo" proteins that must be translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus contain short amino acid sequences known as nuclear localization signals, which are bound by importins, while those transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm carry nuclear export signals bound by exportins. The ability of importins and exportins to transport their cargo is regulated by GTPases, enzymes that hydrolyze the molecule guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to release energy. The key GTPase in nuclear transport is Ran, which is bound to either GTP or GDP (guanosine diphosphate), depending on whether it is located in the nucleus or the cytoplasm. Whereas importins depend on RanGTP to dissociate from their cargo, exportins require RanGTP in order to bind to their cargo. Specialized export proteins exist for translocation of mature mRNA and tRNA to the cytoplasm after post-transcriptional modification is complete. This quality-control mechanism is important due to these molecules' central role in protein translation. Mis-expression of a protein due to incomplete excision of exons or mis-incorporation of amino acids could have negative consequences for the cell; thus, incompletely modified RNA that reaches the cytoplasm is degraded rather than used in translation. Therefore, the early stages in the cell cycle, beginning in prophase and until around prometaphase, the nuclear membrane is dismantled. Towards the end of the cell cycle, the nuclear membrane is reformed, and around the same time, the nuclear lamina are reassembled by dephosphorylating the lamins. Apoptosis is a controlled process in which the cell's structural components are destroyed, resulting in death of the cell. Changes associated with apoptosis directly affect the nucleus and its contents, for example, in the condensation of chromatin and the disintegration of the nuclear envelope and lamina. The destruction of the lamin networks is controlled by specialized apoptotic proteases called caspases, which cleave the lamin proteins and, thus, degrade the nucleus' structural integrity. Lamin cleavage is sometimes used as a laboratory indicator of caspase activity in assays for early apoptotic activity. The nuclear envelope acts as a barrier that prevents both DNA and RNA viruses from entering the nucleus. Some viruses require access to proteins inside the nucleus in order to replicate and/or assemble. DNA viruses, such as herpesvirus replicate and assemble in the cell nucleus, and exit by budding through the inner nuclear membrane. This process is accompanied by disassembly of the lamina on the nuclear face of the inner membrane.Nuclei per cellMost eukaryotic cell types usually have a single nucleus, but some have no nuclei, while others have several. This can result from normal development, as in the maturation of mammalian red blood cells, or from faulty cell division. Anucleated cells An anucleated cell contains no nucleus and is, therefore, incapable of dividing to produce daughter cells. The best-known anucleated cell is the mammalian red blood cell, or erythrocyte, which also lacks other organelles such as mitochondria, and serves primarily as a transport vessel to ferry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues. Erythrocytes mature through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow, where they lose their nuclei, organelles, and ribosomes. The nucleus is expelled during the process of differentiation from an erythroblast to a reticulocyte, which is the immediate precursor of the mature erythrocyte. The presence of mutagens may induce the release of some immature "micronucleated" erythrocytes into the bloodstream. Anucleated cells can also arise from flawed cell division in which one daughter lacks a nucleus and the other has two nuclei. In flowering plants, this condition occurs in sieve tube elements. Multinucleated cells Multinucleated cells contain multiple nuclei. Most acantharean species of protozoa and some fungi in mycorrhizae have naturally multinucleated cells. Other examples include the intestinal parasites in the genus Giardia, which have two nuclei per cell. Ciliates have two kinds of nuclei in a single cell, a somatic macronucleus and a germline micronucleus. In humans, skeletal muscle cells, also called myocytes and syncytium, become multinucleated during development; the resulting arrangement of nuclei near the periphery of the cells allows maximal intracellular space for myofibrils. and are also implicated in tumor formation. A number of dinoflagellates are known to have two nuclei. Unlike other multinucleated cells these nuclei contain two distinct lineages of DNA: one from the dinoflagellate and the other from a symbiotic diatom. Evolution As the major defining characteristic of the eukaryotic cell, the nucleus's evolutionary origin has been the subject of much speculation. Four major hypotheses have been proposed to explain the existence of the nucleus, although none have yet earned widespread support. The first model known as the "syntrophic model" proposes that a symbiotic relationship between the archaea and bacteria created the nucleus-containing eukaryotic cell. (Organisms of the Archaeal and Bacterial domains have no cell nucleus.) It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea similar to modern methanogenic archaea, invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria, eventually forming the early nucleus. This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto-eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria. One possibility is that the nuclear membrane arose as a new membrane system following the origin of mitochondria in an archaebacterial host. The nuclear membrane may have served to protect the genome from damaging reactive oxygen species produced by the protomitochondria. The archaeal origin of the nucleus is supported by observations that archaea and eukarya have similar genes for certain proteins, including histones. Observations that myxobacteria are motile, can form multicellular complexes, and possess kinases and G proteins similar to eukarya, support a bacterial origin for the eukaryotic cell. A second model proposes that proto-eukaryotic cells evolved from bacteria without an endosymbiotic stage. This model is based on the existence of modern Planctomycetota bacteria that possess a nuclear structure with primitive pores and other compartmentalized membrane structures. A similar proposal states that a eukaryote-like cell, the chronocyte, evolved first and phagocytosed archaea and bacteria to generate the nucleus and the eukaryotic cell. The most controversial model, known as viral eukaryogenesis, posits that the membrane-bound nucleus, along with other eukaryotic features, originated from the infection of a prokaryote by a virus. The suggestion is based on similarities between eukaryotes and viruses such as linear DNA strands, mRNA capping, and tight binding to proteins (analogizing histones to viral envelopes). One version of the proposal suggests that the nucleus evolved in concert with phagocytosis to form an early cellular "predator". Another variant proposes that eukaryotes originated from early archaea infected by poxviruses, on the basis of observed similarity between the DNA polymerases in modern poxviruses and eukaryotes. It has been suggested that the unresolved question of the evolution of sex could be related to the viral eukaryogenesis hypothesis. A more recent proposal, the exomembrane hypothesis, suggests that the nucleus instead originated from a single ancestral cell that evolved a second exterior cell membrane; the interior membrane enclosing the original cell then became the nuclear membrane and evolved increasingly elaborate pore structures for passage of internally synthesized cellular components such as ribosomal subunits. History<!--'Cytoblast' redirects here--> , 1719]] '' salivary gland cell published by Walther Flemming in 1882. The nucleus contains polytene chromosomes. ]] The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered. What is most likely the oldest preserved drawing dates back to the early microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723). He observed a "lumen", the nucleus, in the red blood cells of salmon. Unlike mammalian red blood cells, those of other vertebrates still contain nuclei. The nucleus was also described by Franz Bauer in 1804 and in more detail in 1831 by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in a talk at the Linnean Society of London. Brown was studying orchids under the microscope when he observed an opaque area, which he called the "areola" or "nucleus", in the cells of the flower's outer layer. He did not suggest a potential function. In 1838, Matthias Schleiden proposed that the nucleus plays a role in generating cells, thus he introduced the name "cytoblast<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->" ("cell builder"). He believed that he had observed new cells assembling around "cytoblasts". Franz Meyen was a strong opponent of this view, having already described cells multiplying by division and believing that many cells would have no nuclei. The idea that cells can be generated de novo, by the "cytoblast" or otherwise, contradicted work by Robert Remak (1852) and Rudolf Virchow (1855) who decisively propagated the new paradigm that cells are generated solely by cells (""). The function of the nucleus remained unclear. Between 1877 and 1878, Oscar Hertwig published several studies on the fertilization of sea urchin eggs, showing that the nucleus of the sperm enters the oocyte and fuses with its nucleus. This was the first time it was suggested that an individual develops from a (single) nucleated cell. This was in contradiction to Ernst Haeckel's theory that the complete phylogeny of a species would be repeated during embryonic development, including generation of the first nucleated cell from a "monerula", a structureless mass of primordial protoplasm ("Urschleim"). Therefore, the necessity of the sperm nucleus for fertilization was discussed for quite some time. However, Hertwig confirmed his observation in other animal groups, including amphibians and molluscs. Eduard Strasburger produced the same results for plants in 1884. This paved the way to assign the nucleus an important role in heredity. In 1873, August Weismann postulated the equivalence of the maternal and paternal germ cells for heredity. The function of the nucleus as carrier of genetic information became clear only later, after mitosis was discovered and the Mendelian rules were rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century; the chromosome theory of heredity was therefore developed.<ref name "Cremer"/> See also * Computed Corpuscle Sectioning * Nucleus (neuroanatomy) * Nucleoid * Nucleomorph References Further reading * :A review article about nuclear lamins, explaining their structure and various roles * :A review article about nuclear transport, explains the principles of the mechanism, and the various transport pathways * :A review article about the nucleus, explaining the structure of chromosomes within the organelle, and describing the nucleolus and other subnuclear bodies * :A review article about the evolution of the nucleus, explaining a number of different theories * :A university level textbook focusing on cell biology. Contains information on nucleus structure and function, including nuclear transport, and subnuclear domains External links * * Website covering structure and function of the nucleus from the Department of Oncology at the University of Alberta. * Information on nuclear components. * contains peer-reviewed still images and video clips that illustrate the nucleus. * contains digitized commentaries and links to seminal research papers on the nucleus. Published online in the [http://cellimages.ascb.org/ Image & Video Library] of [http://www.ascb.org/ The American Society for Cell Biology] * Category:Cell anatomy Category:Organelles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus	2025-04-05T18:27:45.669492
6237	Christmas	\| observances = Church services \| celebrations = Gift-giving, family and other social gatherings, symbolic decoration, feasting \| type = Christian \| longtype = Christian, cultural, international \| significance = Commemoration of the nativity of Jesus \| relatedto = Christmastide, Christmas Eve, Advent, Annunciation, Epiphany, Baptism of the Lord, Nativity Fast, Nativity of Christ, Old Christmas, Yule, Saint Stephen's Day, Boxing Day \| frequency \| duration }} <!--Please review talk archives before altering the opening line and make good use of the talk pages.--> Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A liturgical feast central to Christianity, Christmas preparation begins on the First Sunday of Advent and it is followed by Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night. Christmas Day is a public holiday in many countries, is observed religiously by a majority of Christians, as well as celebrated culturally by many non-Christians, and forms an integral part of the annual holiday season. The traditional Christmas narrative recounted in the New Testament, known as the Nativity of Jesus, says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in accordance with messianic prophecies. When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city, the inn had no room, and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds, who then spread the word. There are different hypotheses regarding the date of Jesus's birth. In the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25, the date of the winter solstice in the Roman Empire. It is nine months after Annunciation on March 25, also the Roman date of the spring equinox. Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of the Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, celebrating that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity is more important than knowing Jesus's exact birth date. The customs associated with Christmas in various countries have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular holiday traditions include gift giving; completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath; Christmas music and caroling; watching Christmas movies; viewing a Nativity play; an exchange of Christmas cards; attending church services; a special meal; and displaying various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, poinsettias, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. Additionally, several related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore. Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growing economic effect in many regions of the world. Etymology The English word Christmas is a shortened form of 'Christ's Mass'. The word is recorded as in 1038 and in 1131. (genitive ) is from the Greek (, 'Christ'), a translation of the Hebrew }} (, 'Messiah'), meaning 'anointed'; and is from the Latin , the celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also used during some periods, but is now considered archaic and dialectal. The term derives from Middle English , meaning 'Christian mass'. Xmas is an abbreviation of Christmas found particularly in print, based on the initial letter chi (Χ) in the Greek , although some style guides discourage its use. This abbreviation has precedent in Middle English (where is another abbreviation of the Greek word). or, more rarely, as (from the Latin below). Nativity, meaning 'birth', is from the Latin . In Old English, ('Yule') referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which was eventually equated with Christian Christmas. 'Noel' (also 'Nowel' or 'Nowell', as in "The First Nowell") entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French or , itself ultimately from the Latin meaning 'birth (day)'. Koleda is the traditional Slavic name for Christmas and the period from Christmas to Epiphany or, more generally, to Slavic Christmas-related rituals, some dating to pre-Christian times. Nativity , 1632]] The gospels of Luke and Matthew describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem to the Virgin Mary. In the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem in order to be counted for a census, and Jesus is born there and placed in a manger. Angels proclaim him a savior for all people, and three shepherds come to adore him. In the Gospel of Matthew, by contrast, three magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born the king of the Jews. King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later returns to Nazareth. History Early and medieval era }} of Herrad of Landsberg, 12th century]] In the 2nd century, the "earliest church records" indicate that "Christians were remembering and celebrating the birth of the Lord", an "observance [that] sprang up organically from the authentic devotion of ordinary believers"; although "they did not agree upon a set date". The earliest document to place Jesus's birthday on December 25 is the Chronograph of 354 (also called the Calendar of Filocalus), which also names it as the birthday of Sol Invictus (the 'Invincible Sun'). Liturgical historians generally agree that this part of the text was written in Rome in AD 336. Though Christmas did not appear on the lists of festivals given by the early Christian writers Irenaeus and Tertullian, where most Christians lived, and the Roman festival (birthday of Sol Invictus) had been held on this date since 274 AD. In the East, the birth of Jesus was celebrated in connection with the Epiphany on January 6. This holiday was not primarily about Christ's birth, but rather his baptism. Christmas was promoted in the East as part of the revival of Orthodox Christianity that followed the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced in Constantinople in 379, in Antioch by John Chrysostom towards the end of the fourth century, The Georgian Iadgari demonstrates that Christmas was celebrated in Jerusalem by the sixth century. , a liturgical book containing texts and music necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the year]] In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in western Christianity focused on the visit of the magi. However, the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent. In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent. This was done in order to solve the "administrative problem for the Roman Empire as it tried to coordinate the solar Julian calendar with the lunar calendars of its provinces in the east". The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066. on Christmas of 800 helped promote the popularity of the holiday.]] By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which 28 oxen and 300 sheep were eaten. The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games. 17th and 18th centuries played a role in the emergence of the Christmas tree and in the tradition of presents on Christmas Eve.]] Following the Protestant Reformation, many of the new denominations, including the Anglican Church and Lutheran Church, continued to celebrate Christmas. In 1629, the Anglican poet John Milton penned ''On the Morning of Christ's Nativity'', a poem that has since been read by many during Christmastide. Donald Heinz, a professor at California State University, Chico, states that Martin Luther "inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much copied in North America". Among the congregations of the Dutch Reformed Church, Christmas was celebrated as one of the principal evangelical feasts. However, in 17th century England, some groups such as the Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery" or the "rags of the Beast". In contrast, the established Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party". The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Oliver Cromwell went so far as to order troops to seize any special, holiday meals prepared on that day. Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans. The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing. During the ban, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret. though in a limited way.. Many Calvinist clergymen disapproved of Christmas celebration. As such, in Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, attendance at church was scant. The Parliament of Scotland officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious observation of days". Whereas in England, Wales and Ireland Christmas Day is a common law holiday, having been a customary holiday since time immemorial, it was not until 1871 that it was designated a bank holiday in Scotland. Following the Restoration of Charles II, Poor Robin's Almanack contained the lines: "Now thanks to God for Charles return, / Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. / For then we scarcely did it know, / Whether it Christmas were or no". The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years. As in England, Puritans in Colonial America staunchly opposed the observation of Christmas. Many non-Puritans in New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England. Christmas observance was outlawed in Boston in 1659. The ban on Christmas observance was revoked in 1681 by English governor Edmund Andros, but it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region. At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania Dutch settlers, predominantly Moravian settlers of Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom. George Washington attacked Hessian (German) mercenaries on the day after Christmas during the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time. With the atheistic Cult of Reason in power during the era of Revolutionary France, Christian Christmas religious services were banned and the three kings cake was renamed the "equality cake" under anticlerical government policies. 19th century and the Ghost of Christmas Present, from Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol, 1843]] In the early 19th century, Christmas festivities and services gradually spread with the rise of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England that emphasized the centrality of Christmas in Christianity and charity to the poor, along with Washington Irving, Charles Dickens, and other authors emphasizing family, children, kind-heartedness, gift-giving, and Santa Claus (for Irving), An indication this increased recognition of Christmas was slow, however, is seen in the fact that "in twenty of the years between 1790 and 1835, The Times did not mention Christmas at all." In the early-19th century, writers imagined Tudor-period Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1835, Thomas Hervey and Robert Seymour published The Christmas Book in which they introduced what has been called a "national Christmas narrative." In his book, Hervey asserted: "the revels of merry England are fast subsiding into silence, and her many customs wearing gradually away." In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol, which helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment. Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion. Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, in what has been termed "Carol Philosophy", Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit. It has been said that Dickens' breakthrough with A Christmas Carol was his "ingenious pairing of seasonal fiction and seasonal [book] sales." A prominent phrase from the tale, "Merry Christmas", was popularized following the appearance of the story. This coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances. (Christmas market) in Nuremberg, Germany]] The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with the phrase "Bah! Humbug!" becoming emblematic of a dismissive attitude of the festive spirit. In 1843, the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole. The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships", "Hark the Herald Angels Sing" and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", popularized in Dickens's A Christmas Carol. , published in the Illustrated London News, 1848]] In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century by the German-born Queen Charlotte. In 1832, the future Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it. After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain. An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation when it was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in Godey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia in 1850. By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America. and he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories. ]] In 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas). The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance. This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associated commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book The First Christmas in New England, Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree. While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so". In Reading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas—threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth." In 1875, Louis Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card". On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States federal holiday. 20th and 21st centuries During the First World War and particularly (but not exclusively) in 1914, a series of informal truces took place for Christmas between opposing armies. The truces, which were organised spontaneously by fighting men, ranged from promises not to shoot (shouted at a distance in order to ease the pressure of war for the day) to friendly socializing, gift giving and even sport between enemies. These incidents became a well known and semi-mythologised part of popular memory. They have been described as a symbol of common humanity even in the darkest of situations and used to demonstrate to children the ideals of Christmas. Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other Christian holidays—were prohibited in public. During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, the League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement. At the height of this persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit on crucifixes as a protest against the holiday. Instead, the importance of the holiday and all its trappings, such as the Christmas tree and gift-giving, was transferred to the New Year. It was not until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that the persecution ended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in Russia after seven decades. in Gubbio, Italy, the tallest Christmas tree in the world, 2014 European History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, in Nazi Germany, "because Nazi ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of the totalitarian state, propagandists sought to deemphasize—or eliminate altogether—the Christian aspects of the holiday" and that "Propagandists tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the regime's racial ideologies". As Christmas celebrations began to spread globally even outside traditional Christian cultures, several Muslim-majority countries began to ban the observance of Christmas, claiming it undermined Islam. In 2023, public Christmas celebrations were cancelled in Bethlehem, the city synonymous with the birth of Jesus. Palestinian leaders of various Christian denominations cited the ongoing Israel–Hamas war in their unanimous decision to cancel celebrations. Observance and traditions in Nazareth, 1965]] s to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ]] Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and public holiday in countries around the world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of the cultural aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees. A similar example is in Turkey, being Muslim-majority and with a small number of Christians, where Christmas trees and decorations tend to line public streets during the festival. Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus's birth, with some claiming that certain elements are Christianized and have origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated by pagan populations who were later converted to Christianity; other scholars reject these claims and affirm that Christmas customs largely developed in a Christian context. The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, carnival-like state in the Middle Ages, Celtic winter herbs such as mistletoe and ivy, and the custom of kissing under a mistletoe, are common in modern Christmas celebrations in the English-speaking countries. The pre-Christian Germanic peoples—including the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse—celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern English yule, today used as a synonym for Christmas. In Germanic language-speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography may have originated from Yule, including the Yule log, Yule boar, and the Yule goat. On the other hand, as there are no reliable existing references to a Christmas log prior to the 16th century, the burning of the Christmas block may have been an early modern invention by Christians unrelated to the pagan practice. Among countries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For example, in eastern Europe Christmas celebrations incorporated pre-Christian traditions such as the Koleda, which shares parallels with the Christmas carol. Church attendance Christmas Day (inclusive of its vigil, Christmas Eve), is a Festival in the Lutheran Churches, a solemnity in the Roman Catholic Church, and a Principal Feast of the Anglican Communion. Other Christian denominations do not rank their feast days but nevertheless place importance on Christmas Eve/Christmas Day, as with other Christian feasts like Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost. As such, for Christians, attending a Christmas Eve or Christmas Day church service plays an important part in the recognition of the Christmas season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest annual church attendance. A 2010 survey by LifeWay Christian Resources found that six in ten Americans attend church services during this time. In the United Kingdom, the Church of England reported an estimated attendance of 2.5million people at Christmas services in 2015. Decorations at the Carnegie Museum of Art in Pittsburgh]] Nativity scenes are known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by Saint Francis of Assisi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe. Different types of decorations developed across the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets – renowned manger scene traditions include the colourful in Poland, which imitate Kraków's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate Italian (, and ), or the Provençal crèches in southern France, using hand-painted terracotta figurines called . In certain parts of the world, notably Sicily, living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches. The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children. In countries where a representation of the Nativity scene is very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family heirloom. The traditional colors of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gold. Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in his crucifixion; green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter; and gold is the first color associated with Christmas, as one of the three gifts of the Magi, symbolizing royalty. and his wife Jackie]] The Christmas tree was first used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strassburg in 1539, under the leadership of the Protestant Reformer, Martin Bucer. In the United States, these "German Lutherans brought the decorated Christmas tree with them; the Moravians put lighted candles on those trees". When decorating the Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing the Star of Bethlehem, a fact recorded by The School Journal in 1897. Professor David Albert Jones of Oxford University writes that in the 19th century, it became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of the Nativity of Jesus. Additionally, in the context of a Christian celebration of Christmas, the Christmas tree, being evergreen in colour, is symbolic of Christ, who offers eternal life; the candles or lights on the tree represent the Light of the World—Jesus—born in Bethlehem. Christian services for family use and public worship have been published for the blessing of a Christmas tree, after it has been erected. The Christmas tree is considered by some as Christianisation of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding the Winter Solstice, which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree worship; The English language phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835 and represents an importation from the German language. . On Christmas, the Christ Candle in the center of the wreath is traditionally lit in many church services.]] Since the 16th century, the poinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas carrying the Christian symbolism of the Star of Bethlehem; in that country it is known in Spanish as the Flower of the Holy Night. Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage. The display of Christmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes with illuminated sleighs, snowmen, and other Christmas figures. Mistletoe features prominently in European myth and folklore (for example, the legend of Baldr); it is an evergreen parasitic plant that grows on trees, especially apple and poplar, and turns golden when it is dried. It is customary to hang a sprig of mistletoe in the house at Christmas, and anyone standing underneath it may be kissed. in Verona, Italy]] Other traditional decorations include bells, candles, candy canes, stockings, wreaths, and angels. The wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from an evergreen, make up Christmas wreaths. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world. Christmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played by speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places. It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured to wrap gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night. Nativity play '' by Giotto, 1295]] The tradition of the Nativity scene comes from Italy. One of the earliest representation in art of the nativity was found in the early Christian Roman catacomb of Saint Valentine. It dates to about AD 380. Another, of similar date, is beneath the pulpit in Sant'Ambrogio, Milan. For the Christian celebration of Christmas, the viewing of the Nativity play is one of the oldest Christmastime traditions, with the first reenactment of the Nativity of Jesus taking place in A.D. 1223 in the Italian town of Greccio. In that year, Francis of Assisi assembled a Nativity scene outside of his church in Italy and children sang Christmas carols celebrating the birth of Jesus. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas "Sequence" or "Prose" was introduced in North European monasteries, developing under Bernard of Clairvaux into a sequence of rhymed stanzas. In the 12th century the Parisian monk Adam of St. Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditional Christmas carol. Christmas carols in English appear in a 1426 work of John Awdlay who lists twenty five "caroles of Cristemas", probably sung by groups of 'wassailers', who went from house to house. , 1841]] The songs now known specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations such as "harvest tide" as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church. Traditionally, carols have often been based on medieval chord patterns, and it is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like "Personent hodie", "Good King Wenceslas", and can be traced directly back to the Middle Ages. They are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung. (O Come all ye faithful) appeared in its current form in the mid-18th century. The singing of carols increased in popularity after the Protestant Reformation in the Lutheran areas of Europe, as the Reformer Martin Luther wrote carols and encouraged their use in worship, in addition to spearheading the practice of caroling outside the Mass. The 18th-century English reformer Charles Wesley, a founder of Methodism, understood the importance of music to Christian worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings", later renamed "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing". Christmas seasonal songs of a secular nature emerged in the late 18th century. The Welsh melody for "Deck the Halls" dates from 1794, with the lyrics added by Scottish musician Thomas Oliphant in 1862, and the American "Jingle Bells" was copyrighted in 1857. Other popular carols include "The First Noel", "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", "The Holly and the Ivy", "I Saw Three Ships", "In the Bleak Midwinter", "Joy to the World", "Once in Royal David's City" and "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks". In the 19th and 20th centuries, African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holiday songs were commercially produced in the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and classical music. One of the most ubiquitous festive songs is "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", which originates from the West Country of England in the 1930s. Radio has covered Christmas music from variety shows from the 1940s and 1950s, as well as modern-day stations that exclusively play Christmas music from late November through December 25. Hollywood movies have featured new Christmas music, such as "White Christmas" in Holiday Inn and Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer. In Poland and Scandinavia, fish is often used for the traditional main course, but richer meat such as lamb is increasingly served. In Sweden, it is common with a special variety of smörgåsbord, where ham, meatballs, and herring play a prominent role. In Germany, France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are popular worldwide. The Maltese traditionally serve Imbuljuta tal-Qastan, a chocolate and chestnuts beverage, after Midnight Mass and throughout the Christmas season. Slovenes prepare the traditional Christmas bread potica, bûche de Noël in France, panettone in Italy, and elaborate tarts and cakes. Panettone, an Italian type of sweet bread and fruitcake, originally from Milan, Italy, usually prepared and enjoyed for Christmas and New Year in Western, Southern, and Southeastern Europe, as well as in South America, Eritrea, Australia and North America. The eating of sweets and chocolates has become popular worldwide, and sweeter Christmas delicacies include the German stollen, marzipan cake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit cake. As one of the few fruits traditionally available to northern countries in winter, oranges have been long associated with special Christmas foods. Eggnog is a sweetened dairy-based beverage traditionally made with milk, cream, sugar, and whipped eggs (which gives it a frothy texture). Spirits such as brandy, rum, or bourbon are often added. The finished serving is often garnished with a sprinkling of ground cinnamon or nutmeg. Cards and some of his reindeer]] Christmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much like that of the first commercial Christmas card, produced by Sir Henry Cole in London in 1843. The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchanging E-cards. Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to the Christmas narrative, with depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or Christian symbols such as the Star of Bethlehem, or a white dove, which can represent both the Holy Spirit and Peace on Earth. Other Christmas cards are more secular and can depict Christmas traditions, figures such as Santa Claus, objects directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly, and baubles, or a variety of images associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes, and the wildlife of the northern winter. Commemorative stamps A number of nations have issued commemorative stamps at Christmastide. Postal customers will often use these stamps to mail Christmas cards, and they are popular with philatelists. These stamps are regular postage stamps, unlike Christmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale sometime between early October and early December and are printed in considerable quantities. Christmas seals Christmas seals were first issued to raise funding to fight and bring awareness to tuberculosis. The first Christmas seal was issued in Denmark in 1904, and since then other countries have issued their own Christmas seals. Gift giving The exchanging of gifts is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the most profitable time of year for retailers and businesses throughout the world. On Christmas, people exchange gifts based on the Christian tradition associated with Saint Nicholas, and the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by the Magi. The practice of gift giving in the Roman celebration of Saturnalia may have influenced Christian customs, but on the other hand the Christian "core dogma of the Incarnation, however, solidly established the giving and receiving of gifts as the structural principle of that recurrent yet unique event", because it was the Biblical Magi, "together with all their fellow men, who received the gift of God through man's renewed participation in the divine life". However, Thomas J. Talley holds that the Roman Emperor Aurelian placed the alternate festival on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date first. Gift-bearing figures A number of figures are associated with Christmas and the seasonal giving of gifts. Among these are Father Christmas, also known as Santa Claus (derived from the Dutch for Saint Nicholas), Père Noël, and the Weihnachtsmann; Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas; the Christkind; Kris Kringle; Joulupukki; tomte/nisse; Babbo Natale; Saint Basil; and Ded Moroz. The Scandinavian tomte (also called nisse) is sometimes depicted as a gnome instead of Santa Claus. , known as Sinterklaas in the Netherlands, is considered by many to be the original Santa Claus.]] The best known of these figures today is red-dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name 'Santa Claus' can be traced back to the Dutch ('Saint Nicholas'). Nicholas was a 4th-century Greek bishop of Myra, a city in the Roman province of Lycia, whose ruins are from modern Demre in southwest Turkey. Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts. Current tradition in several Latin American countries (such as Venezuela and Colombia) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes, a reconciliation between traditional religious beliefs and the iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States. , Munich, Germany]] In Italy's South Tyrol, Austria, the Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, and Switzerland, the Christkind (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. Greek children get their presents from Saint Basil on New Year's Eve, the eve of that saint's liturgical feast. The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive. Multiple gift-giver figures exist in Poland, varying between regions and individual families. St Nicholas () dominates Central and North-East areas, the Starman () is most common in Greater Poland, Baby Jesus () is unique to Upper Silesia, with the Little Star () and the Little Angel () being common in the South and the South-East. Grandfather Frost () is less commonly accepted in some areas of Eastern Poland. It is worth noting that across all of Poland, St Nicholas is the gift giver on Saint Nicholas Day on December 6.SportChristmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival with annual indulgences included the sporting. In the former top tier of English football, home and away Christmas Day and Boxing Day double headers were often played guaranteeing football clubs large crowds by allowing many working people their only chance to watch a game. Champions Preston North End faced Aston Villa on Christmas Day 1889 and the last December 25 fixture was in 1965 in England, Blackpool beating Blackburn Rovers 4–2. More recently, in the United States, both NFL and NBA have held fixtures on Christmas Day. Christmas in China During the late Qing dynasty the Shanghai News referred to Christmas by a variety of terms. In 1872 it initially called Christmas "Jesus' birthday" (), but from 1873 to 1881 it used terms such as "Western countries' Winter Solstice" () and "Western peoples' Winter Solstice" (), before finally settling on "Foreign Winter Solstice" () from 1882 onwards. This term was gradually replaced by the now standard term "Festival of the birth of the Holy One" () during the early years of the twentieth century. Scandinavia and the Nordics In Scandinavia—Denmark, Norway, Sweden—where Lutheranism is dominant, Christmas (jul) is celebrated on 24 December.In Sweden, it is traditional for companies to host a Christmas buffet lunch (julbord or jullunch) for their employees a week before Christmas. To prevent food poisoning during the holiday season, Swedish newspapers annually publish reports and laboratory tests warning the public to avoid leaving cold cuts, mayonnaise, and other perishable foods at room temperature to prevent spoilage. Christmas in Sweden is a time to indulge in festive meals, with roasted ham being the centerpiece of the feast. However, the exact day for enjoying this treat varies across regions, with each area having its own traditions. Another well-established custom in Sweden is tuning in to watch a special Disney television program at precisely 3 p.m. on December 24. In Norway, the Christmas feast is held on December 24, with each region offering its own special dishes for Christmas dinner. After the meal, "Julenissen" (where "jule" means Christmas and "nissen" refers to a mythical elf in Norwegian folklore) brings gifts to well-behaved children. Following a quiet family gathering on December 25, another grand celebration takes place on Boxing Day, December 26, where children go door-to-door visiting neighbors and receiving treats. Choice of date , an apparently Christian tomb in the Vatican Necropolis. Most scholars believe it depicts Jesus as the sun god Sol / Helios.]] Theories There are several theories as to why December 25 was chosen as the date for Christmas. However, theology professor Susan Roll notes that "no liturgical historian [...] goes so far as to deny that it has any sort of relation with the sun, the winter solstice and the popularity of solar worship in the later Roman Empire". The early Church linked Jesus Christ to the Sun and referred to him as the 'Sun of Righteousness' () prophesied by Malachi. In the early fifth century, Augustine of Hippo and Maximus of Turin preached that it was fitting to celebrate Christ's birth at the winter solstice, because it marked the point when the hours of daylight begin to grow. The 'history of religions' or 'substitution' theory suggests that the Church chose December 25 as Christ's birthday () to appropriate the Roman winter solstice festival (birthday of , the 'Invincible Sun'), held on this date since 274 AD; before the earliest evidence of Christmas on that date. Date according to Julian calendar Some jurisdictions of the Eastern Orthodox Church, including those of Russia, Georgia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Jerusalem, mark feasts using the older Julian calendar. , there is a difference of 13 days between the Julian calendar and the modern Gregorian calendar, which is used internationally for most secular purposes. As a result, December 25 on the Julian calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the calendar used by most governments and people in everyday life. Therefore, the aforementioned Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the day that is internationally considered to be January 7. However, following the Council of Constantinople in 1923, other Orthodox Christians, such as those belonging to the jurisdictions of Constantinople, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Antioch, Alexandria, Albania, Cyprus, Finland, and the Orthodox Church in America, among others, began using the Revised Julian calendar, which at present corresponds exactly to the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, these Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the same day that is internationally considered to be December 25. A further complication is added by the fact that the Armenian Apostolic Church continues the original ancient Eastern Christian practice of celebrating the birth of Christ not as a separate holiday, but on the same day as the celebration of his baptism (Theophany), which is on January 6. This is a public holiday in Armenia, and it is held on the same day that is internationally considered to be January 6, because since 1923 the Armenian Church in Armenia has used the Gregorian calendar. However, there is also a small Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which maintains the traditional Armenian custom of celebrating the birth of Christ on the same day as Theophany (January 6), but uses the Julian calendar for the determination of that date. As a result, this church celebrates "Christmas" (more properly called Theophany) on the day that is considered January 19 on the Gregorian calendar in use by the majority of the world. Following the 2022 invasion of its territory by Russia, Ukraine officially moved its Christmas date from January 7 to December 25, to distance itself from the Russian Orthodox Church that had supported Russia's invasion. This followed the Orthodox Church of Ukraine formally adopting the Revised Julian calendar for fixed feasts and solemnities. Table of dates There are four different dates used by different Christian groups to mark the birth of Christ, given in the table below. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Church or section ! Calendar ! Date ! Gregorian date ! Note \|- \| Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem \| Julian calendar \| January 6 \| January 19 \| Correspondence between Julian January 6 and Gregorian January 19 holds until 2100; in the following century the difference will be one day more. \|- \| Armenian Apostolic Church, Armenian Evangelical Church \| Gregorian calendar \| January 6 \| January 6 \| \|- \| Eastern Orthodox Church jurisdictions, including those of Constantinople, Bulgaria, Ukraine (state holiday, Orthodox and Greek Catholic), Greece, Romania, Antioch, Alexandria, Albania, Cyprus, Finland, the Orthodox Church in America. Also, the Ancient Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church, Indian Orthodox Church. \| Revised Julian calendar \| December 25 \| December 25 \| Revised Julian calendar was agreed at the 1923 Council of Constantinople. is celebrated on Tahsas 28 in order to maintain the exact interval of nine 30-day months and 5 days of the child's gestation. Most Protestants (P'ent'ay/Evangelicals) in the diaspora have the option of choosing the Ethiopian calendar (Tahsas 29/January 7) or the Gregorian calendar (December 25) for religious holidays, with this option being used when the corresponding eastern celebration is not a public holiday in the western world (with most diaspora Protestants celebrating both days). \|- \| Most Western Christian churches, most Eastern Catholic churches and civil calendars; also the Assyrian Church of the East. \| Gregorian calendar \| December 25 \| December 25 \| The Assyrian Church of the East adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1964. \|} Economy Christmas is typically a peak selling season for retailers in many nations around the world; sales increase dramatically during this time as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies to celebrate. In the United States, the "Christmas shopping season" starts as early as October. In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns before Halloween (October 31) and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In the UK and Ireland, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high street Christmas lights are turned on. A concept devised by retail entrepreneur David Lewis, the first Christmas grotto opened in Lewis's department store in Liverpool, England in 1879. In the United States, it has been calculated that a quarter of all personal spending takes place during the Christmas/holiday shopping season. Figures from the US Census Bureau reveal that expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8billion in November 2004 to $31.9billion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In other sectors, the pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, there being a November–December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewelry stores. In the same year employment in American retail stores rose from 1.6million to 1.8million in the two months leading up to Christmas. Industries completely dependent on Christmas include Christmas cards, of which 1.9billion are sent in the United States each year, and live Christmas trees, of which 20.8million were cut in the US in 2002. In the UK in 2010, up to £8billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales. One economist's analysis calculates that despite increased overall spending, Christmas is a deadweight loss under orthodox microeconomic theory, because of the effect of gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001, Christmas resulted in a $4billion deadweight loss in the US alone. Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived as white elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter. <gallery widths"200" heights"200"> File:Galerie Lafayette Haussmann Dome.jpg\|Christmas decorations at the Galeries Lafayette department store in Paris, France. The Christmas season is the busiest trading period for retailers. File:ChristmasMarketJena.jpg\|Christmas market in Jena, Germany File:Monthly Changes in Currency.jpg\|Each year (most notably 2000) money supply in US banks is increased for Christmas shopping. </gallery> Controversies }}, published by the League of Militant Atheists, depicting an Orthodox Christian priest being forbidden to take home a tree for the celebration of Christmastide, which was banned under the Marxist–Leninist doctrine of state atheism]] Christmas has been the subject of controversy and attacks from various sources, both Christian and non-Christian. Historically, it was prohibited by Puritans during their ascendency in the Commonwealth of England (1647–1660) and in Colonial New England where the Puritans outlawed the celebration of Christmas in 1659 on the grounds that Christmas was not mentioned in Scripture and therefore violated the Reformed regulative principle of worship. The Parliament of Scotland, which was dominated by Presbyterians, passed a series of acts outlawing the observance of Christmas between 1637 and 1690; Christmas Day did not become a public holiday in Scotland until 1871. Today, some conservative Reformed denominations such as the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America likewise reject the celebration of Christmas based on the regulative principle and what they see as its non-Scriptural origin. Celebrating Christmas is banned in the Jehovah's Witnesses, as the Governing Body believes that Christmas is originally pagan and again that it is without basis in Scripture. Christmas celebrations have also been prohibited by atheist states such as the Soviet Union and more recently majority Muslim states such as Somalia, Tajikistan and Brunei. Some Christians and organizations such as Pat Robertson's American Center for Law and Justice cite alleged attacks on Christmas (dubbing them a "war on Christmas"). Such groups claim that any specific mention of the term "Christmas" or its religious aspects is being increasingly censored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retailers, government (prominently schools), and other public and private organizations. One controversy is the occurrence of Christmas trees being renamed Holiday trees. In the U.S. there has been a tendency to replace the greeting Merry Christmas with Happy Holidays, which is considered inclusive at the time of the Jewish celebration of Hanukkah. In the U.S., and Canada, where the use of the term "Holidays" is most prevalent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using the term "Christmas" as being politically correct. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lynch v. Donnelly that a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city of Pawtucket, Rhode Island, did not violate the First Amendment. American Muslim scholar Abdul Malik Mujahid has said that Muslims must treat Christmas with respect, even if they disagree with it. The government of the People's Republic of China officially espouses state atheism, and has conducted antireligious campaigns to this end. In December 2018, officials raided Christian churches prior to Christmastide and coerced them to close; Christmas trees and Santa Clauses were also forcibly removed. See also * Apollo 8 Genesis reading from lunar orbit, December 24, 1968 * * * * * List of Christmas films * * * Mithraism in comparison with other belief systems#25th of December * Notes References Further reading * Bowler, Gerry, The World Encyclopedia of Christmas (October 2004: McClelland & Stewart). . * Bowler, Gerry, Santa Claus: A Biography (November 2007: McClelland & Stewart). . * Comfort, David, Just Say Noel: A History of Christmas from the Nativity to the Nineties (November 1995: Fireside). . * Count, Earl W., 4000 Years of Christmas: A Gift from the Ages (November 1997: Ulysses Press). . * Federer, William J., [https://books.google.com/books?idNngtujclaxoC&dqThere%20Really%20Is%20a%20Santa%20Claus%3A%20The%20History%20of%20St.%20Nicholas%20%26%20Christmas%20Holiday%20Traditions&pgPP1 There Really Is a Santa Claus: The History of St. Nicholas & Christmas Holiday Traditions]; (December 2002: Amerisearch). . * Kelly, Joseph F., [https://books.google.com/books?idERahko4FXJgC&dqThe%20Origins%20of%20Christmas&pgPP1 The Origins of Christmas]; (August 2004: Liturgical Press). . * * Miles, Clement A., [https://books.google.com/books?id1XRjAyL8LogC&dqChristmas%20Customs%20and%20Traditions&pgPP1 Christmas Customs and Traditions]; (1976: Dover Publications). . * Nissenbaum, Stephen, The Battle for Christmas (1996; New York: Vintage Books, 1997). . * * Rosenthal, Jim, St. Nicholas: A Closer Look at Christmas (July 2006: Nelson Reference). . * * External links * [https://learninglab.si.edu/collections/subject-christmas-nmahphc/Yd8jtKDBHytbjg0B Christmas collection] at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History * Christmas: Its Origin and Associations, by William Francis Dawson, 1902, from Project Gutenberg * Christmas: its origin, celebration and significance as related in prose and verse, by Robert Haven Schauffler, 1907 }} <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Birthdays of religious leaders Category:December observances Category:Feasts of Jesus Christ Category:Quarter days Category:Christian festivals and holy days Category:Alawite traditions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas	2025-04-05T18:27:45.769724
6239	Contraction mapping	In mathematics, a contraction mapping, or contraction or contractor, on a metric space (M, d) is a function f from M to itself, with the property that there is some real number 0 \leq k such that for all x and y in M, d(f(x),f(y)) \leq k\,d(x,y). The smallest such value of k is called the Lipschitz constant of f. Contractive maps are sometimes called Lipschitzian maps. If the above condition is instead satisfied for k ≤ 1, then the mapping is said to be a non-expansive map. More generally, the idea of a contractive mapping can be defined for maps between metric spaces. Thus, if (M, d) and (N, d) are two metric spaces, then f:M \rightarrow N is a contractive mapping if there is a constant 0 \leq k such that d'(f(x),f(y)) \leq k\,d(x,y) for all x and y in M. Every contraction mapping is Lipschitz continuous and hence uniformly continuous (for a Lipschitz continuous function, the constant k is no longer necessarily less than 1). A contraction mapping has at most one fixed point. Moreover, the Banach fixed-point theorem states that every contraction mapping on a non-empty complete metric space has a unique fixed point, and that for any x in M the iterated function sequence x, f (x), f (f (x)), f (f (f (x))), ... converges to the fixed point. This concept is very useful for iterated function systems where contraction mappings are often used. Banach's fixed-point theorem is also applied in proving the existence of solutions of ordinary differential equations, and is used in one proof of the inverse function theorem. Contraction mappings play an important role in dynamic programming problems. Firmly non-expansive mapping A non-expansive mapping with k=1 can be generalized to a firmly non-expansive mapping in a Hilbert space \mathcal{H} if the following holds for all x and y in \mathcal{H}: \\|f(x)-f(y) \\|^2 \leq \, \langle x-y, f(x) - f(y) \rangle. where d(x,y) = \\|x-y\\|. This is a special case of \alpha averaged nonexpansive operators with \alpha = 1/2. A firmly non-expansive mapping is always non-expansive, via the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality. The class of firmly non-expansive maps is closed under convex combinations, but not compositions. This class includes proximal mappings of proper, convex, lower-semicontinuous functions, hence it also includes orthogonal projections onto non-empty closed convex sets. The class of firmly nonexpansive operators is equal to the set of resolvents of maximally monotone operators. Surprisingly, while iterating non-expansive maps has no guarantee to find a fixed point (e.g. multiplication by -1), firm non-expansiveness is sufficient to guarantee global convergence to a fixed point, provided a fixed point exists. More precisely, if \text{Fix}f :\{x \in \mathcal{H} \ \| \ f(x) x\} \neq \varnothing, then for any initial point x_0 \in \mathcal{H}, iterating (\forall n \in \mathbb{N})\quad x_{n+1} = f(x_n) yields convergence to a fixed point x_n \to z \in \text{Fix} f. This convergence might be weak in an infinite-dimensional setting. Locally convex spaces In a locally convex space (E, P) with topology given by a set P of seminorms, one can define for any p ∈ P a p-contraction as a map f such that there is some kp n+1 = f(xn), and if (E, P'') is Hausdorff, then the fixed point is unique. See also Short map Contraction (operator theory) Transformation Comparametric equation Blackwell's contraction mapping theorem CLRg property References Further reading provides an undergraduate level introduction. Category:Fixed points (mathematics) Category:Metric geometry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraction_mapping	2025-04-05T18:27:45.788829
6246	Covalent bond	s share the two electrons]] A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electrons to form electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs. The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding. For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to attain the equivalent of a full valence shell, corresponding to a stable electronic configuration. In organic chemistry, covalent bonding is much more common than ionic bonding. Covalent bonding also includes many kinds of interactions, including σ-bonding, π-bonding, <!-- do not change the following-->metal-to-metal bonding,<!-- "nonmetal/nonmetal" is already covered as sigma/pi --> agostic interactions, bent bonds, three-center two-electron bonds and three-center four-electron bonds. The term covalent bond dates from 1939. The prefix co- means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc.; thus a "co-valent bond", in essence, means that the atoms share "valence", such as is discussed in valence bond theory. In the molecule , the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding. Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require that the two atoms be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Covalent bonding that entails the sharing of electrons over more than two atoms is said to be delocalized. History . Covalent bonding is implied in the Lewis structure by indicating electrons shared between atoms.]] The term covalence in regard to bonding was first used in 1919 by Irving Langmuir in a Journal of the American Chemical Society article entitled "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules". Langmuir wrote that "we shall denote by the term covalence the number of pairs of electrons that a given atom shares with its neighbors." The idea of covalent bonding can be traced several years before 1919 to Gilbert N. Lewis, who in 1916 described the sharing of electron pairs between atoms (and in 1926 he also coined the term "photon" for the smallest unit of radiant energy). He introduced the Lewis notation or electron dot notation or Lewis dot structure, in which valence electrons (those in the outer shell) are represented as dots around the atomic symbols. Pairs of electrons located between atoms represent covalent bonds. Multiple pairs represent multiple bonds, such as double bonds and triple bonds. An alternative form of representation, not shown here, has bond-forming electron pairs represented as solid lines. Lewis proposed that an atom forms enough covalent bonds to form a full (or closed) outer electron shell. In the diagram of methane shown here, the carbon atom has a valence of four and is, therefore, surrounded by eight electrons (the octet rule), four from the carbon itself and four from the hydrogens bonded to it. Each hydrogen has a valence of one and is surrounded by two electrons (a duet rule) – its own one electron plus one from the carbon. The numbers of electrons correspond to full shells in the quantum theory of the atom; the outer shell of a carbon atom is the n 2 shell, which can hold eight electrons, whereas the outer (and only) shell of a hydrogen atom is the n 1 shell, which can hold only two. While the idea of shared electron pairs provides an effective qualitative picture of covalent bonding, quantum mechanics is needed to understand the nature of these bonds and predict the structures and properties of simple molecules. Walter Heitler and Fritz London are credited with the first successful quantum mechanical explanation of a chemical bond (molecular hydrogen) in 1927. Their work was based on the valence bond model, which assumes that a chemical bond is formed when there is good overlap between the atomic orbitals of participating atoms.Types of covalent bondsAtomic orbitals (except for s orbitals) have specific directional properties leading to different types of covalent bonds. Sigma (σ) bonds are the strongest covalent bonds and are due to head-on overlapping of orbitals on two different atoms. A single bond is usually a σ bond. Pi (π) bonds are weaker and are due to lateral overlap between p (or d) orbitals. A double bond between two given atoms consists of one σ and one π bond, and a triple bond is one σ and two π bonds. One- and three-electron bonds and MO diagrams of an individual 2e<sup>−</sup> bond and 3e<sup>−</sup> bond]] Bonds with one or three electrons can be found in radical species, which have an odd number of electrons. The simplest example of a 1-electron bond is found in the dihydrogen cation, . One-electron bonds often have about half the bond energy of a 2-electron bond, and are therefore called "half bonds". However, there are exceptions: in the case of dilithium, the bond is actually stronger for the 1-electron than for the 2-electron Li<sub>2</sub>. This exception can be explained in terms of hybridization and inner-shell effects. The simplest example of three-electron bonding can be found in the helium dimer cation, . It is considered a "half bond" because it consists of only one shared electron (rather than two); in molecular orbital terms, the third electron is in an anti-bonding orbital which cancels out half of the bond formed by the other two electrons. Another example of a molecule containing a 3-electron bond, in addition to two 2-electron bonds, is nitric oxide, NO. The oxygen molecule, O<sub>2</sub> can also be regarded as having two 3-electron bonds and one 2-electron bond, which accounts for its paramagnetism and its formal bond order of 2. Chlorine dioxide and its heavier analogues bromine dioxide and iodine dioxide also contain three-electron bonds. Molecules with odd-electron bonds are usually highly reactive. These types of bond are only stable between atoms with similar electronegativities. Electron deficiency In three-center two-electron bonds ("3c–2e") three atoms share two electrons in bonding. This type of bonding occurs in boron hydrides such as diborane (B<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>), which are often described as electron deficient because there are not enough valence electrons to form localized (2-centre 2-electron) bonds joining all the atoms. However, the more modern description using 3c–2e bonds does provide enough bonding orbitals to connect all the atoms so that the molecules can instead be classified as electron-precise. Each such bond (2 per molecule in diborane) contains a pair of electrons which connect the boron atoms to each other in a banana shape, with a proton (the nucleus of a hydrogen atom) in the middle of the bond, sharing electrons with both boron atoms. In certain cluster compounds, so-called four-center two-electron bonds also have been postulated. Quantum mechanical description After the development of quantum mechanics, two basic theories were proposed to provide a quantum description of chemical bonding: valence bond (VB) theory and molecular orbital (MO) theory. A more recent quantum description is given in terms of atomic contributions to the electronic density of states. Comparison of VB and MO theories The two theories represent two ways to build up the electron configuration of the molecule. For valence bond theory, the atomic hybrid orbitals are filled with electrons first to produce a fully bonded valence configuration, followed by performing a linear combination of contributing structures (resonance) if there are several of them. In contrast, for molecular orbital theory, a linear combination of atomic orbitals is performed first, followed by filling of the resulting molecular orbitals with electrons. At the qualitative level, both theories contain incorrect predictions. Simple (Heitler–London) valence bond theory correctly predicts the dissociation of homonuclear diatomic molecules into separate atoms, while simple (Hartree–Fock) molecular orbital theory incorrectly predicts dissociation into a mixture of atoms and ions. On the other hand, simple molecular orbital theory correctly predicts Hückel's rule of aromaticity, while simple valence bond theory incorrectly predicts that cyclobutadiene has larger resonance energy than benzene. Although the wavefunctions generated by both theories at the qualitative level do not agree and do not match the stabilization energy by experiment, they can be corrected by configuration interaction. COHP (Crystal orbital Hamilton population), and BCOOP (Balanced crystal orbital overlap population). To overcome this issue, an alternative formulation of the bond covalency can be provided in this way. The mass center of an atomic orbital <math>\| n,l,m_l,m_s \rangle ,</math> with quantum numbers for atom A is defined as :<math>cm^\mathrm{A}(n,l,m_l,m_s)=\frac{\int\limits_{E_0}\limits^{E_1} E g_{\|n,l,m_l,m_s\rangle}^\mathrm{A}(E) dE}{\int\limits_{E_0}\limits^{E_1} g_{\|n,l,m_l,m_s\rangle}^\mathrm{A} (E)dE}</math> where <math>g_{\|n,l,m_l,m_s\rangle}^\mathrm{A}(E)</math> is the contribution of the atomic orbital <math>\|n,l,m_l,m_s \rangle</math> of the atom A to the total electronic density of states of the solid :<math>g(E)=\sum_\mathrm{A}\sum_{n, l}\sum_{m_l, m_s}{g_{\|n,l,m_l,m_s\rangle}^\mathrm{A}(E)}</math> where the outer sum runs over all atoms A of the unit cell. The energy window is chosen in such a way that it encompasses all of the relevant bands participating in the bond. If the range to select is unclear, it can be identified in practice by examining the molecular orbitals that describe the electron density along with the considered bond. The relative position {{tmath\|C_{n_\mathrm{A}l_\mathrm{A},n_\mathrm{B}l_\mathrm{B} } }} of the mass center of <math>\| n_\mathrm{A},l_\mathrm{A}\rangle</math> levels of atom A with respect to the mass center of <math>\| n_\mathrm{B},l_\mathrm{B}\rangle</math> levels of atom B is given as :<math>C_{n_\mathrm{A}l_\mathrm{A},n_\mathrm{B}l_\mathrm{B}}=-\left\|cm^\mathrm{A}(n_\mathrm{A},l_\mathrm{A})-cm^\mathrm{B}(n_\mathrm{B},l_\mathrm{B})\right\|</math> where the contributions of the magnetic and spin quantum numbers are summed. According to this definition, the relative position of the A levels with respect to the B levels is :<math>C_\mathrm{A,B}=-\left\|cm^\mathrm{A}-cm^\mathrm{B}\right\|</math> where, for simplicity, we may omit the dependence from the principal quantum number in the notation referring to {{tmath\|C_{n_\mathrm{A}l_\mathrm{A},n_\mathrm{B}l_\mathrm{B} }.}} In this formalism, the greater the value of {{tmath\|C_\mathrm{A,B},}} the higher the overlap of the selected atomic bands, and thus the electron density described by those orbitals gives a more covalent bond. The quantity {{tmath\|C_\mathrm{A,B} }} is denoted as the covalency of the bond, which is specified in the same units of the energy . Analogous effect in nuclear systems An analogous effect to covalent binding is believed to occur in some nuclear systems, with the difference that the shared fermions are quarks rather than electrons. High energy proton-proton scattering cross-section indicates that quark interchange of either u or d quarks is the dominant process of the nuclear force at short distance. In particular, it dominates over the Yukawa interaction where a meson is exchanged. Therefore, covalent binding by quark interchange is expected to be the dominating mechanism of nuclear binding at small distance when the bound hadrons have covalence quarks in common. See also * Bonding in solids * Bond order * Coordinate covalent bond, also known as a dipolar bond or a dative covalent bond * Covalent bond classification (or LXZ notation) * Covalent radius * Disulfide bond * Hybridization * Hydrogen bond * Ionic bond * Linear combination of atomic orbitals * Metallic bonding * Noncovalent bonding * Resonance (chemistry) References Sources * * * External links * [http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516/Chapter_07.html Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090430011156/http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/pt/harvey/gcse/covalent.html Structure and Bonding in Chemistry—Covalent Bonds] Category:Chemical bonding	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bond	2025-04-05T18:27:45.858526
6247	Condensation polymer	(PET) is a common condensation polymer.]] In polymer chemistry, condensation polymers are any kind of polymers whose process of polymerization involves a condensation reaction (i.e. a small molecule, such as water or methanol, is produced as a byproduct). Natural proteins as well as some common plastics such as nylon and PETE are formed in this way. Condensation polymers are formed by polycondensation, when the polymer is formed by condensation reactions between species of all degrees of polymerization, or by condensative chain polymerization, when the polymer is formed by sequential addition of monomers to an active site in a chain reaction. The main alternative forms of polymerization are chain polymerization and polyaddition, both of which give addition polymers. {{Quote box \| title = IUPAC definition \| quote = Polycondensation: a polymerization in which the growth of polymer chains proceeds by condensation reactions between molecules of all degrees of polymerization. Notes: #The growth steps are expressed by: #:{{chem2\|P_{x} + P_{y} -> P_{x+y} + L}} () #:where {{chem2\|P_{x}\|}} and {{chem2\|P_{y}\|}} denote chains of degrees of polymerization x and y, respectively, and L a low-molar-mass by-product. #The earlier term 'polycondensation' was synonymous with 'condensation polymerization'. The current definitions of polycondensation and condensative chain polymerization were both embraced by the earlier term 'polycondensation'. \| align = right \| width = 30% }} Condensation polymerization is a form of step-growth polymerization. Linear polymers are produced from bifunctional monomers, i.e. compounds with two reactive end-groups. Common condensation polymers include polyesters, polyamides such as nylon, polyacetals, and proteins.PolyamidesOne important class of condensation polymers are polyamides. They arise from the reaction of carboxylic acid and an amine. Examples include nylons and proteins. When prepared from amino-carboxylic acids, e.g. amino acids, the stoichiometry of the polymerization includes co-formation of water: :n H<sub>2</sub>N-X-CO<sub>2</sub>H → [HN-X-C(O)]<sub>n</sub> + (n-1) H<sub>2</sub>O When prepared from diamines and dicarboxylic acids, e.g. the production of nylon 66, the polymerization produces two molecules of water per repeat unit: :n H<sub>2</sub>N-X-NH<sub>2</sub> + n HO<sub>2</sub>C-Y-CO<sub>2</sub>H → [HN-X-NHC(O)-Y-C(O)]<sub>n</sub> + (2n-1) H<sub>2</sub>O : Polyesters Another important class of condensation polymers are polyesters. They arise from the reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. An example is polyethyleneterephthalate, the common plastic PET (recycling #1 in the USA): :n HO-X-OH + n HO<sub>2</sub>C-Y-CO<sub>2</sub>H → [O-X-O<sub>2</sub>C-Y-C(O)]<sub>n</sub> + (2n-1) H<sub>2</sub>O , a naturally-occurring polymer.]] Safety and environmental considerations Condensation polymers tend to be more biodegradable than addition polymers. The peptide or ester bonds between monomers can be hydrolysed, especially in the presence of catalysts or bacterial enzymes. See also Biopolymer Epoxy resins Polyamide Polyester References External links *[https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/virttxtjml/polymers.htm Polymers (and condensation polymers) - Virtual Text of Organic Chemistry, William Reusch] Category:Polymer chemistry Category:Polymerization reactions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensation_polymer	2025-04-05T18:27:45.881480
6249	Timeline of computing	Timeline of computing presents events in the history of computing organized by year and grouped into six topic areas: predictions and concepts, first use and inventions, hardware systems and processors, operating systems, programming languages, and new application areas. Detailed computing timelines: before 1950, 1950–1979, 1980–1989, 1990–1999, 2000–2009, 2010–2019, 2020–present __TOC__ Graphical timeline See also History of compiler construction History of computing hardware – up to third generation (1960s) History of computing hardware (1960s–present) – third generation and later History of the graphical user interface History of the Internet History of the World Wide Web List of pioneers in computer science Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering Microprocessor chronology Resources Stephen White, A Brief History of Computing The Computer History in time and space, Graphing Project, an attempt to build a graphical image of computer history, in particular operating systems. External links Visual History of Computing 1944-2013 (archived) * Category:Digital Revolution	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing	2025-04-05T18:27:45.887358
6250	Colorado Springs, Colorado	\| imagesize \| image_caption \| image_flag = Flag of Colorado Springs, Colorado.svg \| image_seal \| seal_size \| image_blank_emblem = Colorado Springs Logo.png \| blank_emblem_type = Logo \| motto = <!-- images and maps ----------> \| image_map = El Paso County Colorado Incorporated and Unincorporated areas Colorado Springs Highlighted 0816000.svg \| mapsize \| map_caption Location of the City of Colorado Springs in \| pushpin_map = Colorado#USA \| pushpin_relief = yes \| pushpin_label = \| pushpin_label_position = right \| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Colorado Springs in Colorado##Location of Colorado Springs in the <!-- Location ----------------->\| coordinates \| coordinates_footnotes = <!-- Location -----------------> \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = \| subdivision_type1 = State \| subdivision_name1 = \| subdivision_type2 = County \| subdivision_name2 El Paso County \| established_title = <!-- Settled --> \| established_date \| established_title2 Incorporated \| established_date2 \| established_title3 = <!-- Incorporated (city) --> \| established_date3 \| government_footnotes \| government_type City \| leader_title = Mayor \| leader_name Yemi Mobolade (I) \| leader_title1 \| leader_name1 \| leader_title2 \| leader_name2 \| leader_title3 \| leader_name3 <!-- Area ---------------------> \| unit_pref = US \| total_type = Total \| area_footnotes \| area_total_km2 = 507.019 \| area_land_km2 = 506.082 \| area_water_km2 = 0.937 <!-- Population --------------->\| population_as_of = 2020 \| population_footnotes \| demographics2_title1 = Metro \| demographics2_info1 = $47.905 billion (2022) <!-- General information ------>\| elevation_footnotes \| postal_code = 80901–80951, 80960, 80962, 80970, 80977, 80995, 80997 \| area_code_type = Area code \| area_code = 719 \| website = <!-- Area/postal codes/others-->\| blank_name = FIPS code \| blank_info = 08-16000 \| blank1_name = GNIS feature ID \| blank1_info 2410198 }} Colorado Springs is the most populous city in El Paso County, Colorado, United States, and its county seat. Colorado Springs is the second-most populous city and most extensive city in the state of Colorado, and the 39th-most-populous city in the United States. It is the principal city of the Colorado Springs metropolitan area, which had 755,105 residents in 2020, and the second-most prominent city of the Front Range Urban Corridor. Colorado Springs is located in east-central Colorado on Fountain Creek, south of Denver. At , Part of the territory included in the United States' 1803 Louisiana Purchase, the current city area was designated part of the 1854 Kansas Territory. In 1859, after the first local settlement was established, it became part of the Jefferson Territory on October 24 and of El Paso County on November 28. Colorado City at the Front Range confluence of Fountain and Camp creeks was "formally organized on August13, 1859" during the Pikes Peak Gold Rush. It served as the capital of the Colorado Territory from November 5, 1861, until August 14, 1862, when the capital was moved to Golden, before it was finally moved to Denver in 1867. So many immigrants from England had settled in Colorado Springs by the early 1870s that Colorado Springs was locally referred to as "Little London". In 1871 the Colorado Springs Company laid out the towns of La Font (later called Manitou Springs) and Fountain Colony,<!-- bolder per WP:MOSBOLD as a redirect --> upstream and downstream respectively, of Colorado City. Within a year, Fountain Colony was renamed Colorado Springs and officially incorporated. The El Paso County seat shifted from Colorado City in 1873 to the Town of Colorado Springs. On December 1, 1880, Colorado Springs expanded northward with two annexations. The second period of annexations was during 188990, and included Seavey's Addition, West Colorado Springs, East End, and another North End addition. In 1891 the Broadmoor Land Company built the Broadmoor suburb, which included the Broadmoor Casino, and by December 12, 1895, the city had "four Mining Exchanges and 275 mining brokers." By 1898, the city was designated into quadrants by the north-south Cascade Avenue and the east-west Washington/Pikes Peak avenues. sitting in the Colorado Springs Experimental Station with his "magnifying transmitter" generating millions of volts]] From 1899 to 1901 Tesla Experimental Station operated on Knob Hill, and aircraft flights to the Broadmoor's neighboring fields began in 1919. Alexander Airport north of the city opened in 1925, and in 1927 the original Colorado Springs Municipal Airport land was purchased east of the city. The city's military presence began during World War II, beginning with Camp Carson (now the 135,000-acre Fort Carson base) that was established in 1941. During the war, the United States Army Air Forces leased land adjacent to the municipal airfield, naming it Peterson Field in December 1942. In November 1950, Ent Air Force Base was selected as the Cold War headquarters for Air Defense Command (ADC). The former WWII Army Air Base, Peterson Field, which had been inactivated at the end of the war, was re-opened in 1951 as a U.S. Air Force base. North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) was established as a hardened command and control center within the Cheyenne Mountain Complex during the Cold War. Between 1965 and 1968, the University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Pikes Peak State College and Colorado Technical University were established in or near the city. In 1977 most of the former Ent AFB became a US Olympic training center. The Libertarian Party was founded within the city in the 1970s. On October 1, 1981, the Broadmoor Addition, Cheyenne Canon, Ivywild, Skyway, and Stratton Meadows were annexed after the Colorado Supreme Court "overturned a district court decision that voided the annexation". Further annexations expanding the city include the Nielson Addition and Vineyard Commerce Park Annexation in September 2008. On June 23, 2012, the Waldo Canyon fire began northwest of the city. The fire ended up destroying 347 homes and killing two people in the city. In total, over 32,000 residents had to be evacuated. At the time the fire was the most destructive in state history until it was surpassed by the Black Forest Fire the following year. Geography from the eastern plains]] The city lies in a semi-arid Steppe region,with the Southern Rocky Mountains to the west, the Palmer Divide to the north, high plains further east, and high desert lands to the south when leaving Fountain and approaching Pueblo. Colorado Springs has the greatest total area of any municipality in Colorado. At the 2020 United States census, the city had a total area of including of water. The city has abundant sunshine year-round, averaging 243 sunny days per year, and receives approximately of annual precipitation. Due to unusually low precipitation for several years after flooding in 1999, Colorado Springs enacted lawn water restrictions in 2002. These were lifted in 2005 but permanently reinstated in December 2019. Colorado Springs is one of the most active lightning strike areas in the United States. Seasonal climate December is typically the coldest month, averaging . Historically, January had been the coldest month, but, in recent years, December has had both lower daily maxima and minima. Typically, there are 5.2 nights with sub- lows and 23.6 days where the high does not rise above freezing. The first autumn freeze and the last freeze in the spring, on average, occur on October 2 and May 6, respectively; the average window for measurable snowfall (≥) is October 21 through April 25. Extreme temperatures range from on June 26, 2012 and most recently on June 21, 2016, down to on February 1, 1951, and December 9, 1919. Climate data extremes 1894–present \|width=auto \|single line = Y \|collapsed = yes \|Jan high F = 45.0 \|Feb high F = 46.5 \|Mar high F = 54.9 \|Apr high F = 61.0 \|May high F = 70.7 \|Jun high F = 81.6 \|Jul high F = 86.5 \|Aug high F = 83.6 \|Sep high F = 77.1 \|Oct high F = 64.7 \|Nov high F = 52.9 \|Dec high F = 44.6 \|year high F= 64.1 \|Jan mean F = 31.8 \|Feb mean F = 33.4 \|Mar mean F = 41.1 \|Apr mean F = 47.5 \|May mean F = 57.5 \|Jun mean F = 67.2 \|Jul mean F = 72.4 \|Aug mean F = 70.1 \|Sep mean F = 63.0 \|Oct mean F = 50.7 \|Nov mean F = 39.5 \|Dec mean F = 31.7 \|year mean F= 50.5 \|Jan low F = 18.5 \|Feb low F = 20.2 \|Mar low F = 27.3 \|Apr low F = 34.0 \|May low F = 43.5 \|Jun low F = 52.8 \|Jul low F = 58.2 \|Aug low F = 56.6 \|Sep low F = 48.9 \|Oct low F = 36.6 \|Nov low F = 26.0 \|Dec low F = 18.7 \|year low F= 36.8 \|Jan avg record high F = 64.5 \|Feb avg record high F = 66.2 \|Mar avg record high F = 72.8 \|Apr avg record high F = 79.0 \|May avg record high F = 85.8 \|Jun avg record high F = 93.8 \|Jul avg record high F = 95.2 \|Aug avg record high F = 92.7 \|Sep avg record high F = 88.9 \|Oct avg record high F = 81.8 \|Nov avg record high F = 71.6 \|Dec avg record high F = 64.1 \|year avg record high F= 96.7 \|Jan avg record low F = −1.4 \|Feb avg record low F = 1.4 \|Mar avg record low F = 9.6 \|Apr avg record low F = 19.3 \|May avg record low F = 30.1 \|Jun avg record low F = 42.5 \|Jul avg record low F = 50.9 \|Aug avg record low F = 48.5 \|Sep avg record low F = 35.6 \|Oct avg record low F = 19.6 \|Nov avg record low F = 7.4 \|Dec avg record low F = −1.6 \|year avg record low F= -7.1 \|Jan record high F = 73 \|Feb record high F = 77 \|Mar record high F = 81 \|Apr record high F = 87 \|May record high F = 94 \|Jun record high F = 101 \|Jul record high F = 100 \|Aug record high F = 99 \|Sep record high F = 98 \|Oct record high F = 87 \|Nov record high F = 78 \|Dec record high F = 77 \|Jan record low F = −26 \|Feb record low F = −27 \|Mar record low F = −16 \|Apr record low F = −3 \|May record low F = 15 \|Jun record low F = 27 \|Jul record low F = 37 \|Aug record low F = 34 \|Sep record low F = 20 \|Oct record low F = −6 \|Nov record low F = −12 \|Dec record low F = −27 \|precipitation colour = green \|Jan precipitation inch = 0.29 \|Feb precipitation inch = 0.32 \|Mar precipitation inch = 0.79 \|Apr precipitation inch = 1.45 \|May precipitation inch = 1.99 \|Jun precipitation inch = 2.27 \|Jul precipitation inch = 3.12 \|Aug precipitation inch = 2.96 \|Sep precipitation inch = 1.35 \|Oct precipitation inch = 0.77 \|Nov precipitation inch = 0.37 \|Dec precipitation inch = 0.23 \|year precipitation inch=15.91 \|Jan snow inch = 4.9 \|Feb snow inch = 4.6 \|Mar snow inch = 5.7 \|Apr snow inch = 5.5 \|May snow inch = 0.6 \|Jun snow inch = 0.0 \|Jul snow inch = 0.0 \|Aug snow inch = 0.0 \|Sep snow inch = 0.2 \|Oct snow inch = 2.5 \|Nov snow inch = 4.4 \|Dec snow inch = 4.1 \|year snow inch=32.5 \| snow depth colour = <!-- Enter "green" for green snowfall colours, "none" for no colours, remove this line for blue colouring. --> \| Jan snow depth inch = 2 \| Feb snow depth inch = 3 \| Mar snow depth inch = 3 \| Apr snow depth inch = 3 \| May snow depth inch = 1 \| Jun snow depth inch = 0 \| Jul snow depth inch = 0 \| Aug snow depth inch = 0 \| Sep snow depth inch = 0 \| Oct snow depth inch = 2 \| Nov snow depth inch = 2 \| Dec snow depth inch = 2 \| year snow depth inch \|unit precipitation days 0.01 in \|unit snow days = 0.1 in \|Jan precipitation days = 3.6 \|Feb precipitation days = 4.6 \|Mar precipitation days = 6.7 \|Apr precipitation days = 8.2 \|May precipitation days =10.3 \|Jun precipitation days = 9.8 \|Jul precipitation days =12.1 \|Aug precipitation days =12.4 \|Sep precipitation days = 6.6 \|Oct precipitation days = 4.8 \|Nov precipitation days = 4.5 \|Dec precipitation days = 3.7 \|year precipitation days=87.3 \|Jan snow days = 3.9 \|Feb snow days = 4.4 \|Mar snow days = 4.9 \|Apr snow days = 3.6 \|May snow days = 0.6 \|Jun snow days = 0.0 \|Jul snow days = 0.0 \|Aug snow days = 0.0 \|Sep snow days = 0.3 \|Oct snow days = 1.7 \|Nov snow days = 3.7 \|Dec snow days = 4.0 \|year snow days=27.1 \|Jan sun = 217 \|Feb sun = 224 \|Mar sun = 279 \|Apr sun = 300 \|May sun = 310 \|Jun sun = 330 \|Jul sun = 341 \|Aug sun = 310 \|Sep sun = 270 \|Oct sun = 248 \|Nov sun = 210 \|Dec sun = 217 \|source 1 NOAA \|source 2 Weather-US }} Demographics {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" \|+Colorado Springs, Colorado – Racial and ethnic composition<br><small></small> !Race / Ethnicity <small>(NH = Non-Hispanic)</small> !Pop 2000 !Pop 2010 ! !% 2000 !% 2010 ! \|- \|White alone (NH) \|271,734 \|294,598 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|312,752 \|75.30% \|70.74% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|65.30% \|- \|Black or African American alone (NH) \|22,760 \|24,391 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|26,368 \|6.31% \|5.86% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|5.51% \|- \|Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) \|2,095 \|2,403 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|2,504 \|0.58% \|0.58% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.52% \|- \|Asian alone (NH) \|9,956 \|12,206 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|15,672 \|2.76% \|2.93% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|3.27% \|- \|Pacific Islander alone (NH) \|681 \|1,092 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|1,392 \|0.19% \|0.26% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.29% \|- \|Other race alone (NH) \|651 \|768 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|2,831 \|0.18% \|0.18% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|0.59% \|- \|Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) \|9,683 \|14,103 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|29,545 \|2.68% \|3.39% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|6.17% \|- \|Hispanic or Latino (any race) \|43,330 \|66,866 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|87,897 \|12.01% \|16.06% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|18.35% \|- \|Total \|360,890 \|416,427 \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|478,961 \|100.00% \|100.00% \|style='background: #ffffe6; \|100.00% \|} 2020 census As of the 2020 United States census, the population of the city of Colorado Springs was 478,961 (40th most populous U.S. city), the population of the Colorado Springs Metropolitan Statistical Area was 755,105 (79th most populous MSA), and the population of the Front Range Urban Corridor was 5,055,344. 78.8% of the population of the city was White (non-Hispanic Whites were 70.7% of the population, compared with 86.6% in 1970), 16.1% Hispanic or Latino of any race (compared with 7.4% in 1970), 6.3% Black or African American, 3.0% Asian, 1.0% descended from indigenous peoples of the Americas, 0.3% descended from indigenous Hawaiians and other Pacific islanders, 5.5% of some other race, and 5.1% of two or more races. Mexican Americans made up 14.6% of the city's population, compared with 9.1% in 1990. The median age in the city was 35 years.. There were 148,690 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 80.7% White, 6.6% African American, 0.9% Native American, 2.8% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 5.0% from other races, and 3.9% from two or more races. 12.0% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 141,516 households, out of which 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.5% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.06. In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.5% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 32.8% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.2 males. (Note: City statistics do not include the demographic influence of five local military bases). The median income for a household in the city was $45,081, and the median income for a family was $53,478. Males had a median income of $36,786 versus $26,427 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,496. About 6.1% of families and 8.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.8% of those under age 18 and 7.2% of those age 65 or over.}} Economy Colorado Springs's economy is driven primarily by the military, the high-tech industry, and tourism, in that order. The city is experiencing growth in the service sectors. In June 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic, the unemployment rate was 3.3%. The state's unemployment rate in June 2022 was 3.4% compared to 3.6% for the nation. Military Peterson Space Force Base Building1]] , there are nearly 45,000 active-duty troops in the Colorado Springs area. There are more than 100,000 veterans and thousands of reservists. Peterson Space Force Base is responsible for the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) and the United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM) headquarters, gives a commencement ceremony speech at the Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, June 4, 1969.]] Army divisions are trained and stationed at Fort Carson. The United States Air Force Academy was established after World War II, on land donated by the City of Colorado Springs. Some defense corporations have left or downsized city campuses, but slight growth has been recorded. Significant defense corporations in the city include Northrop Grumman, Boeing, General Dynamics, L3Harris Technologies, SAIC, ITT, Lockheed Martin, and Bluestaq. The Space Foundation is based in Colorado Springs. High-tech industry A large percentage of Colorado Springs's economy is still based on manufacturing high-tech and complex electronic equipment. The high-tech sector in the Colorado Springs area has decreased its overall presence from 2000 to 2006 (from around 21,000 to around 8,000), with notable reductions in information technology and complex electronic equipment. Current trends project the high-tech employment ratio will continue to decrease. High-tech corporations offering fibre-optics to the premises connections within the city include: Lumen Technologies, Comcast and other providers as of 2023. Hewlett-Packard still has some sales, support, and SAN storage engineering center for the computer industry. Storage Networking Industry Association is the home of the SNIA Technology Center. Keysight Technologies, spun off in 2014 from Agilent, which was itself spun off from HP in 1999 as an independent, publicly traded company, has its oscilloscope research and development division based in Colorado Springs. Intel had 250 employees in 2009. The Intel facility is now used for the centralized unemployment offices, social services, El Paso county offices, and a bitcoin mining facility. Microchip Technology (formerly Atmel), is a chip fabrication organization. The Apple Inc. facility was sold to Sanmina-SCI in 1996. Arts and culture Tourism , the easternmost "fourteener" in the United States]] Almost immediately following the arrival of railroads beginning in 1871, the city's location at the base of Pikes Peak and the Rocky Mountains made it a popular tourism destination. Tourism is the third largest employer in the Pikes Peak region, accounting for more than 16,000 jobs. In 2018, 23 million day and overnight visitors came to the area, contributing $2.4 billion in revenue. ]] Colorado Springs has more than 55 attractions and activities in the area, In 2020, the United States Olympic & Paralympic Museum opened; the Flying W Ranch Chuckwagon Dinner & Western Show reopened in 2020. A new Pikes Peak Summit Complex opened at the summit in 2021. The Manitou and Pikes Peak Railway also reopened in 2021. The downtown Colorado Springs Visitor Information Center offers free area information to leisure and business travelers. The Cultural Office of the Pikes Peak Region (COPPeR), also downtown, supports and advocates for the arts throughout the Pikes Peak Region. It operates the PeakRadar website to communicate city events. Annual cultural events Colorado Springs is home to the annual Colorado Springs Labor Day Lift Off, a hot air balloon festival that takes place over Labor Day weekend at the city's Memorial Park. Other annual events include: a comic book convention and science fiction convention called GalaxyFest in February, a pride parade called PrideFest in July, the Greek Festival, the Pikes Peak Ascent and Marathon, and the Steers & Beers Whiskey and Beer Festival in August, and the Emma Crawford Coffin Races and Festival in nearby Manitou Springs and Arts Month in October. The Colorado Springs Festival of Lights Parade is held the first Saturday in December. The parade is held on Tejon Street in Downtown Colorado Springs.BreweriesIn 2017, Colorado had the third-most craft breweries at 348. Breweries and microbreweries have become popular in Colorado Springs, which hosts over 30 of them.Religious institutions is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Colorado Springs.]] Although houses of worship of almost every major world religion are within the city, Colorado Springs has in particular attracted a large influx of Evangelical Christians and Christian organizations in recent years. At one time Colorado Springs was the national headquarters for 81 different religious organizations, earning the city the tongue-in-cheek nicknames "the Evangelical Vatican" and "The Christian Mecca". Religious groups with regional or international headquarters in Colorado Springs include: Association of Christian Schools International Biblica Children's HopeChest Community Bible Study Compassion International David C. Cook/Integrity Music Development Associates International Engineering Ministries International Family Talk Focus on the Family Global Action HCJB Hope & Home The Navigators One Child Matters Roman Catholic Diocese of Colorado Springs VisionTrust WayFM Network Young Life Marijuana Although Colorado voters approved Colorado Amendment 64, a constitutional amendment in 2012 legalizing retail sales of marijuana for recreational purposes, the Colorado Springs city council voted not to permit retail shops in the city, as was allowed in the amendment. Medical marijuana outlets continue to operate in Colorado Springs. In 2015, there were 91 medical marijuana clinics in the city, which reported sales of $59.6 million in 2014, up 11 percent from the previous year but without recreational marijuana shops. On April 26, 2016, Colorado Springs city council decided to extend the current six-month moratorium to eighteen months with no new licenses to be granted until May 2017. A scholarly paper suggested the city would give up $25.4 million in tax revenue and fees if the city continued to thwart the industry from opening within the city limits. As of March 1, 2018, there were 131 medical marijuana centers and no recreational cannabis stores. As of 2019 Colorado Springs is still one of seven towns that have only allowed for medical marijuana. In popular culture Colorado Springs has been the subject of or setting for many books, films and television shows, and is a frequent backdrop for political thrillers and military-themed stories because of its many military installations and vital importance to the United States' continental defense. Notable television series using the city as a setting include Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, Homicide Hunter and the Stargate series Stargate SG-1, as well as the films WarGames, The Prestige, and BlacKkKlansman. In a North Korean propaganda video released in April 2013, Colorado Springs was singled out as one of four targets for a missile strike. The video failed to pinpoint Colorado Springs on the map, instead showing a spot somewhere in Louisiana. Sports Olympic sports headquarters and training facility]] Colorado Springs, dubbed Olympic City USA, is home to the United States Olympic & Paralympic Training Center and the headquarters of the United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee and the United States Anti-Doping Agency. Further, over 50 national sports organizations (non-Olympic) headquarter in Colorado Springs. These include the National Strength and Conditioning Association, Sports Incubator, a various non-Olympic Sports (such as USA Ultimate), and more. Colorado Springs and Denver hosted the 1962 World Ice Hockey Championships. The city has a long association with the sport of figure skating, having hosted the U.S. Figure Skating Championships six times and the World Figure Skating Championships five times. It is home to the World Figure Skating Museum and Hall of Fame and the Broadmoor Skating Club, a notable training center for the sport. In recent years, the Broadmoor World Arena has hosted skating events such as Skate America and the Four Continents Figure Skating Championships.BaseballColorado Springs is home to a professional baseball team, the Rocky Mountain Vibes, who are a member of the Pioneer League, an MLB Partner League.Pikes Peak International Hill Climb The Pikes Peak International Hill Climb (PPIHC), also known as The Race to the Clouds, is an annual invitational automobile and motorcycle hill climb to the summit of Pikes Peak, every year on the last Sunday of June. The highway wasn't completely paved until 2011.Local professional teams{\|class"wikitable" \|- ! Name ! Sport ! Founded ! League ! Venue ! \|- \| Colorado Springs Switchbacks FC \| Soccer \| 2015 \| USL Championship \| Weidner Field \| \|- \| Rocky Mountain Vibes \| Baseball \| 2019 \| Pioneer League \| UCHealth Park \| \|} Local collegiate teams The local colleges feature many sports teams. Notable among them are several nationally competitive NCAA Division I teams: United States Air Force Academy (Falcons) Football, Basketball and Hockey and Colorado College (Tigers) Hockey, and Women's Soccer.RodeoColorado Springs was the original headquarters of the Professional Bull Riders (PBR) from its founding in 1992 until 2005, when the organization was moved to Pueblo. Parks and recreation The city's Parks, Recreation and Cultural Services manage 136 neighborhood parks, eight community parks, seven regional parks, and five sports complexes, totaling . They also manage of trails, of which are park trails and are urban. There are of open space in 48 open-space areas. Parks off Interstate 25 in Colorado Springs, is named for Jasper D. Ackerman (1896–1988), a banker and rancher.]] Garden of the Gods is on Colorado Springs's western edge. It is a National Natural Landmark, with red/orange sandstone rock formations often viewed against a backdrop of the snow-capped Pikes Peak. This park is free to the public and offers many recreational opportunities, such as hiking, rock climbing, cycling, horseback riding and tours. It offers a variety of annual events, one of the most popular of which is the Starlight Spectacular, a recreational bike ride held every summer to benefit the Trails and Open Space Coalition of Colorado Springs. Colorado Springs has several major city parks, such as Palmer Park, America the Beautiful Park in downtown, Memorial Park, which includes many sports fields, an indoor swimming pool and skating rink, a skateboard bowl and two half-pipes, and Monument Valley Park, which has walking and biking paths, an outdoor swimming pool and pickleball courts. Monument Valley Park also has Tahama Spring, the original spring in Colorado Springs. Austin Bluffs Park affords a place of recreation in eastern Colorado Springs. El Paso County Regional Parks include Bear Creek Regional Park, Bear Creek Dog Park, Fox Run Regional Park and Fountain Creek Regional Park and Nature Center. Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii), narrowleaf yucca (Yucca angustissima, syn. Yucca glauca) and prickly pear cactus (Opuntia macrorhiza). Trails Three trails, the New Santa Fe Regional Trail, Pikes Peak Greenway and Fountain Creek Regional Trail, form a continuous path from Palmer Lake, through Colorado Springs, to Fountain, Colorado. The majority of the trail between Palmer Lake and Fountain is a soft surface breeze gravel trail. A major segment of the trail within the Colorado Springs city limits is paved. The trails, except Monument Valley Park trails, may be used for equestrian traffic. Motorized vehicles are not allowed on the trails. Many of the trails are interconnected, having main spine trails, like the Pikes Peak Greenway, that lead to secondary trails.Government ]] On November 2, 2010, Colorado Springs voters adopted a council-strong mayor form of government. The City of Colorado Springs transitioned to the new system of government in 2011. Under the council-strong mayor system of government, the mayor is the chief executive and the city council is the legislative branch. The mayor is a full-time elected position and not a member of the council. The council has nine members, six of whom represent one of six equally populated districts each. The remaining three members are elected at-large. Colorado Springs City Hall was built from 1902 to 1904 on land donated by W. S. Stratton. City council The Colorado Springs City Council consists of nine elected officials, six of whom represent districts and three of whom represent the city at-large. District 1 – Dave Donelson * District 2 – Randy Helms – Council President * District 3 – Michelle Talarico * District 4 – Yolanda Avila * District 5 – Nancy Henjum * District 6 – '''Mike O'Malley * At-large – Lynette Crow-Iverson' – Council President Pro Tem * At-large – David Leinweber * At-large – Brian Risley Politics In 2017, Caleb Hannan wrote in Politico'' that Colorado Springs was "staunchly Republican", "a right-wing counterweight to liberal Boulder", and that a study ranked it "the fourth most conservative city in America". In 2016, Hannan wrote that downtown Colorado Springs had a different political vibe from the overall area's and that there were "superficial signs of changing demographics". In the 2023 mayoral election, independent candidate Yemi Mobolade handily won the race and became the first elected non-Republican mayor of the city.EducationPrimary and secondary education Public schools The public education in the city is divided into several school districts: * Colorado Springs School District 11 (center of the city) * Academy School District 20 (north end) * Falcon School District 49 (east side) * Widefield School District 3 (south end) * Fountain-Fort Carson School District 8 (far south end) * Harrison School District 2 (south central area) * James Irwin Charter High School (east central area) * Cheyenne Mountain School District 12 (southwest corner) * The Vanguard School, CIVA Charter High School and The Classical Academy are charter schools. Private schools * Roman Catholic Diocese of Colorado Springs schools including within the boundaries of the city Corpus Christi Catholic School – PreK-8 Divine Redeemer Catholic School – PreK-8 St. Gabriel Classical Academy – PreK-3 St. Paul Catholic School – PreK-8 * St. Mary's High School – an independent Catholic high school * Fountain Valley School of Colorado – a residential high school established in 1930 with a current enrollment of about 240. * The Colorado Springs School – a preK-12 school established in 1962 with a current enrollment of about 300. * Colorado Springs Christian Schools – A PreK–12th grade Christian school with two campuses started in 1972 and with an enrollment of about 1,150 in 2021. * Evangelical Christian Academy – a preK-12 school established in 1971 with a current enrollment of about 350. * Pikes Peak Christian School – a preK-12 Christian school with a current enrollment of about 210 In addition the state of Colorado runs the Colorado School for the Deaf and Blind, a residential school for people up to age 21 and established in 1874, in the city.Higher education ]] State institutions offering bachelors and graduate degree programs in Colorado Springs include the University of Colorado Colorado Springs (UCCS) with more than 12,000 students and Pikes Peak State College which offers mostly two-year degree associate degrees. The United States Air Force Academy is a federal institution offering bachelor's degrees for officer candidates. Private non-profit institutions include Colorado College established in 1874 with about 2,000 undergraduates. Colorado Christian University has its Colorado Springs Center in the city. Private for-profit institutions include Colorado Technical University whose main campus is in Colorado Springs and IntelliTec College a technical training school. Transportation Roads I-25 runs north and south through Colorado, and traverses the city for nearly , entering the city south of Circle Drive and exiting north of North Gate Boulevard. In El Paso County it is known as Ronald Reagan Highway. An Interstate 25 bypass was approved in 2010. A number of state and U.S. highways serve the city. State Highway 21 is a major east side semi-expressway from Black Forest to Fountain, known locally and co-signed as Powers Boulevard. State Highway 83 runs north–south from central Denver to northern Colorado Springs. State Highway 94 runs east–west from western Cheyenne County to eastern Colorado Springs where it terminates at US 24. US 24 is a major route through the city and county, providing access to Woodland Park via Ute Pass to the west and downtown, Nob Hill and numerous suburbs to the east. It is co-signed with Platte Ave after SH 21 and originally carried local traffic through town. The Martin Luther King Jr Bypass runs from I-25 near Circle Drive along Fountain Blvd to SH 21, then east again. State Highway 115 begins in Cañon City, traveling north along the western edge of Fort Carson; when it reaches the city limits it merges with Nevada Avenue, a signed Business Route of US 85. US 85 and SH 115 are concurrent between Lake Avenue and I-25. US 85 enters the city at Fountain and was signed at Venetucci Blvd, Lake Avenue, and Nevada Avenue at various points in history; however most of US 85 is concurrent with I-25 and is not signed. In 2004, the voters of Colorado Springs and El Paso County established the Pikes Peak Rural Transportation Authority. Airport Colorado Springs Airport (COS; ICAO: KCOS) has been in operation since 1925. It is the second-largest commercial airport in the state, after Denver International Airport (DEN; ICAO: KDEN). It covers of land at an elevation of approximately . COS is considered to be a joint-use civilian and military airport, as Peterson Space Force Base is a tenant of the airport. It has three paved runways: 17L/35R is , the runway 17R/35L is and the runway 13/31 is . The airport handled 2,134,618 passengers in 2022, and is served by American, Avelo, Delta, Southwest, Sun Country, and United. Railroads Freight service is provided by Union Pacific and BNSF. Once an important hub, the city was once served by four Class 1 railroads, as well as a number of smaller operators, some of which were narrow gauge, and an extensive streetcar system, the Colorado Springs and Interurban Railway. Currently there is no intercity passenger service; the last remaining services connecting the Front Range cities ceased with the formation of Amtrak in 1971. Front Range Passenger Rail is a current proposal (as of 2023) to link the cities from Pueblo in the south, north to Fort Collins and possibly Cheyenne, Wyoming. Bicycling As of 2017, Colorado Springs has of bike lanes and of paved trails. PikeRide is a local electric bike-share program that operates in urban core, Old Colorado City, and Manitou Springs. In April 2018, the Colorado Springs City Council approved a Bike Master Plan. The vision of the city's Bike Master Plan is "a healthy and vibrant Colorado Springs where bicycling is one of many transportation options for a large portion of the population, and where a well-connected and well-maintained network of urban trails, single-track, and on-street infrastructure offers a bicycling experience for present and future generations that is safe, convenient, and fun for getting around, getting in shape, or getting away." Bike lanes in Colorado Springs have not been deployed without controversy. According to The Gazette, their readers "have mixed feelings for new bike lanes." In December 2016, the City removed a bike lane along Research Parkway due to overwhelming opposition; an online survey found that 80.5% of respondents opposed the bike lane. The Gazette has stated that since the Bike Master Plan was adopted by city council, "no issue has elicited more argument in The Gazette pages," and due to this immense public interest, on February 25, 2019, The Gazette hosted a town hall meeting called "Battle of the Bike Lanes". Walkability A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Colorado Springs 34th most walkable of fifty largest U.S. cities. Buses Mountain Metropolitan Transit (commonly referred to as MMT) is the primary public transportation provider for the Colorado Springs metropolitan region. MMT operates thirty-four bus routes, providing service for Colorado Springs, Manitou Springs, and Security-Widefield. The Downtown Terminal is the system's main hub, with the Citadel Mall, PPSC, and Chapel Hills Mall acting as secondary transfer stations. Mountain Metro Mobility is an Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) federally mandated complementary ADA paratransit service, which provides demand-response service for individuals with mobility needs that prevent them from using the fixed-route bus system. Intercity bus service is available through the state-ran Bustang service and Greyhound. Bustang runs frequent trips to Denver, and daily trips to Lamar via Pueblo. Neighborhoods and historic places * Anderosa Neighborhood * Banning Lewis Ranch Neighborhood * Black Forest Neighborhood * Boulder Crescent Place Historic District * Briargate Neighborhood * Broadmoor Neighborhood * Broadmoor Bluffs Neighborhood * Broadmoor Hills Neighborhood * Broadmoor Oaks Neighborhood * Cheyenne Hills Neighborhood * Cimarron Hills Neighborhood * Clearview Estates Neighborhood * Colorado Centre Neighborhood * Columbine Estates Neighborhood * Cragmor Neighborhood * Deerfield Hills Neighborhood * Discovery Neighborhood * Divine Redeemer Neighborhood * Downtown * Eastborough Neighborhood * Falcon Estates Neighborhood * Fountain Valley Ranch Neighborhood * Garden Ranch Neighborhood * Gateway Park Neighborhood * Gleneagle Neighborhood * Historic Uptown Neighborhood * Holland Park Neighborhood * Indian Heights Neighborhood * Interquest Neighborhood * Ivywild Neighborhood * Kettle Creek Neighborhood * Kissing Camels Neighborhood * Knob Hill Neighborhood * Lowell Neighborhood * Manitou Springs * Mesa Neighborhood * Middle Creek Neighborhood * Middle Shooks Run Neighborhood * Mountain Shadows Neighborhood * Northgate Neighborhood * Norwood Neighborhood * Oak Hills Neighborhood * Oak Valley Ranch Neighborhood * Old Colorado City * Old Farm Neighborhood * Old North End Historic District * Park Hill Neighborhood * Patty Jewett Neighborhood * Papeton/Venetian Village Neighborhood * Peregrine Neighborhood * Pheasant Run Ranch Neighborhood * Pikes Peak Park Neighborhood * Pikeview/Pinecliff Neighborhood * Pine Creek Neighborhood * Pinon Valley Neighborhood * Pulpit Rock Neighborhood * Ridgeview Neighborhood * Rockrimmon Neighborhood * Roswell Neighborhood * Rustic Hills Neighborhood * Security * Shooks Run Neighborhood * Southborough Neighborhood * Stetson Hills Neighborhood * Spring Creek Neighborhood * Springs Ranch Neighborhood * Stratmoor Hills Neighborhood * Stratmoor Valley Neighborhood * Stratton Meadows Neighborhood * Sundown Neighborhood * Trailridge Neighborhood * Wagon Trails Neighborhood * Weber-Wahsatch Historic District * Widefield * Wolf Ranch Neighborhood * Venetian Village Neighborhood * Villa Loma Neighborhood * Village Seven Neighborhood See also National Register of Historic Places in Colorado Springs, Colorado Notable people Sister cities mayor Arstanbek Nogoev presents a gift for Colorado Springs mayor Lionel Rivera to a US airman at Manas Air Base, in a ceremony aimed at reviving ties between the two sister cities.]] Colorado Springs' sister cities are: * Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi, Japan (1962) * Kaohsiung, Taiwan (1983) * Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (1994) * Nuevo Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico (1996) * Canterbury-Bankstown, Sydney, Australia (1999) * Olympia, Peloponnese, Greece (2014) * Kranj, Slovenia (2022) ;Suspended sistership * Smolensk, Smolensk Oblast, Russia (1993–2022) Colorado Springs's sister city organization began when it became partners with Fujiyoshida. The torii gate erected to commemorate the relationship stands at the corner of Bijou Street and Nevada Avenue, and is one of the city's most recognizable landmarks. The torii gate, crisscrossed bridge and shrine, in the median between Platte and Bijou Streets downtown, were a gift to Colorado Springs, erected in 1966 by the Rotary Club of Colorado Springs to celebrate the friendship between the two communities. A plaque near the torii gate states that "the purpose of the sister city relationship is to promote understanding between the people of our two countries and cities". The Fujiyoshida Student exchange program has become an annual event. In 2006 and 2010, the Bankstown TAP (Talent Advancement Program) performed with the Youth Symphony and the Colorado Springs Children's Chorale as part of the annual "In Harmony" program.See also Colorado Springs, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area Media in Colorado Springs, Colorado Tuberculosis treatment in Colorado Springs Notes References External links [http://dtdapps.coloradodot.info/staticdata/Downloads/CityMaps/Colorado%20Springs.pdf CDOT map of the City of Colorado Springs] [https://www.visitcos.com/ Visit Colorado Springs official website] *[https://www.zipdatamaps.com/en/us/zip-maps/co/city/borders/colorado-springs-zip-code-map Colorado Springs CO ZIP Code Map] Category:Cities in Colorado Category:County seats in Colorado Category:Pikes Peak Category:Populated places established in 1871 Category:Cities in El Paso County, Colorado Category:Former colonial and territorial capitals in the United States Category:1871 establishments in Colorado Territory	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Springs,_Colorado	2025-04-05T18:27:46.000733
6251	Professional certification	}} Professional certification, trade certification, or professional designation, often called simply certification or qualification, is a designation earned by a person to assure qualification to perform a job or task. Not all certifications that use post-nominal letters are an acknowledgement of educational achievement, or an agency appointed to safeguard the public interest. Overview A certification is a third-party attestation of an individual's level of knowledge or proficiency in a certain industry or profession. They are granted by authorities in the field, such as professional societies and universities, or by private certificate-granting agencies. Most certifications are time-limited; some expire after a period of time (e.g., the lifetime of a product that requires certification for use), while others can be renewed indefinitely as long as certain requirements are met. Renewal usually requires ongoing education to remain up-to-date on advancements in the field, evidenced by earning the specified number of continuing education credits (CECs), or continuing education units (CEUs), from approved professional development courses. Many certification programs are affiliated with professional associations, trade organizations, or private vendors interested in raising industry standards. Certification programs are often created or endorsed by professional associations, but are typically completely independent from membership organizations. Certifications are very common in fields such as aviation, construction, technology, environment, and other industrial sectors, as well as healthcare, business, real estate, and finance. According to The Guide to National Professional Certification Programs (1997) by Phillip Barnhart, "certifications are portable, since they do not depend on one company's definition of a certain job" and they provide potential employers with "an impartial, third-party endorsement of an individual's professional knowledge and experience". Certification is different from professional licensure. In the United States, licenses are typically issued by state agencies, whereas certifications are usually awarded by professional societies or educational institutes. Obtaining a certificate is voluntary in some fields, but in others, certification from a government-accredited agency may be legally required to perform certain jobs or tasks. In other countries, licenses are typically granted by professional societies or universities and require a certificate after about three to five years and so on thereafter. The assessment process for certification may be more comprehensive than that of licensure, though sometimes the assessment process is very similar or even the same, despite differing in terms of legal status. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) defines the standard for being a certifying agency as meeting the following two requirements: # Delivering an assessment based on industry knowledge that is independent from training courses or course providers # Granting a time-limited credential to anyone who meets the assessment standards The Institute for Credentialing Excellence (ICE) is a U.S.-based organization that sets standards for the accreditation of personnel certification and certificate programs based on the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, a joint publication of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), the American Psychological Association (APA), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). Many members of the Association of Test Publishers (ATP) are also certification organizations. Categorization There are three general types of certification. Listed in order of development level and portability, they are: corporate (internal), product-specific, and profession-wide. Corporate, or "internal" certifications, are made by a corporation or low-stakes organization for internal purposes. For example, a corporation might require a one-day training course for all sales personnel, after which they receive a certificate. While this certificate has limited portability – to other corporations, for example – it is the most simple to develop. Product-specific certifications are more involved, and are intended to be referenced to a product across all applications. This approach is very prevalent in the information technology (IT) industry, where personnel are certified on a version of software or hardware. This type of certification is portable across locations (for example, different corporations that use that software), but not across other products. Another example could be the certifications issued for shipping personnel, which are under international standards even for the recognition of the certification body, under the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The most general type of certification is profession-wide. Certification in the medical profession is often offered by particular specialties. In order to apply professional standards, increase the level of practice, and protect the public, a professional organization might establish a certification. This is intended to be portable to all places a certified professional might work. Of course, this generalization increases the cost of such a program; the process to establish a legally defensible assessment of an entire profession is very extensive. An example of this is a certified public accountant (CPA), which would not be certified for just one corporation or one piece of accountancy software but for general work in the profession. Professional certificates awarded by tertiary education providers Many tertiary education providers grant professional certificates as an award for the completion of an educational program. The curriculum of a professional certificate is most often in a focused subject matter. Many professional certificates have the same curriculum as master's degrees in the same subject. Many other professional certificates offer the same courses as master's degrees in the same subject, but require the student to take fewer total courses to complete the program. Some professional certificates have a curriculum that more closely resembles a baccalaureate major in the same field. The typical professional certificate program is between 200 and 300 class-hours in size. It is uncommon for a program to be larger or smaller than that. Most professional certificate programs are open enrollment, but some have admissions processes. A few universities put some of their professional certificates into a subclass they refer to as advanced professional certificates. Advanced professional certificate Advanced professional certificates are professional credentials designed to help professionals enhance their job performance and marketability in their respective fields. In many other countries, certificates are qualifications in higher education. In the United States, a certificate may be offered by an institute of higher education. These certificates usually signify that a student has reached a standard of knowledge of a certain vocational subject. Certificate programs can be completed more quickly than associate degrees and often do not have general education requirements. An advanced professional certificate is a result of an educational process designed for individuals. Certificates are designed for both newcomers to the industry as well as seasoned professionals. Certificates are awarded by an educational program or academic institution. Completion of a certificate program indicates completion of a course or series of courses with a specific concentration that is different from an educational degree program. Course content for an advanced certificate is set forth through a variety of sources i.e. faculty, committee, instructors, and other subject matter experts in a related field. The end goal of an advanced professional certificate is so that professionals may demonstrate knowledge of course content at the end of a set period in time. Areas of certification Accountancy, auditing and finance There are many professional bodies for accountants and auditors throughout the world; some of them are legally recognized in their jurisdictions. Public accountants are the accountancy and control experts that are legally certified in different jurisdictions to work in public practices, certifying accounts as statutory auditors, eventually selling advice and services to other individuals and businesses. Today, however, many work within private corporations, financial industry, and government bodies. Accounting and external auditing Cf. Accountancy qualifications and regulation * CPA (Chartered Professional Accountant), the unified accounting designation in Canada conferred by CPA Canada. * CA or Chartered Accountant conferred by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India. * Institute of Chartered Accountants within the Commonwealth e.g. Australia and New Zealand, South Africa, Canada (before merger into CPA). With mutual recognition with each other and with the UK * ACA, FCA or CA (Chartered Accountant) conferred by Institutes of Chartered Accountants in various territories, namely the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. * ACMA or FCMA (Associate or Fellow Chartered Management Accountant) conferred by the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (UK) * Associate or Fellow Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA or FCCA) conferred by Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (UK) * AFA or FFA (Associate or Fellow Incorporated Financial Accountant) conferred by the Institute of Financial Accountants (UK) * AAIA or FAIA (Associate or Fellow International Accountant) conferred by Association of International Accountants * MIPA or FIPA (Member or Fellow of the Institute of Public Accountants who use the designation "Public Accountant") conferred by the Institute of Public Accountants (Australia) * CPA (Certified Public Accountant) conferred by State Accountancy Boards in the US, Hong-Kong, Canada ... * CMA (Certified Management Accountant) conferred by Institute of Certified Management Accountants (ICMA in Australia), Institute of Management Accountants (IMA in US) * CCC (Chartered Cost Controllers) issued and conferred by the American Academy of Financial Management USA Certifying Board (AAFM) * CFS (Certified Finance Specialist) conferred by IQN Internal auditing and fraud combat * CIA (Certified Internal Auditor): CCSA, Certification in Control Self Assessment; CGAP, Certified Government Auditing Professional; CRMA, Certification in Risk Management Assurance; QIAL, Qualification in Internal Audit Leadership, conferred by the internationally recognized Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) headquartered in Lake Mary, Florida, with chapters in many countries * CFE (Certified Fraud Examiner) conferred by the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE) headquartered in Texas with chapters in many countries * CFF (Certified in Financial Forensics) awarded by the American Institute of CPAs * CISA (Certified Information Systems Auditor) awarded by the Information Systems Audit and Control Association headquartered in the US with chapters in many countries * CAMS (Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialist) offered by Association of Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists (ACAMS) and advanced CAMS * CGSS (Certified Global Sanctions Specialist) conferred by Association of Certified Anti-Money Laundering Specialists (ACAMS) Finance * CFA (Chartered Financial Analyst) conferred by CFA Institute (CFA) * CIIA (Certified International Investment Analyst) conferred by the Association of Certified International Investment Analysts (ACIIA) Investments * CFA (Chartered Financial Analyst) conferred by CFA Institute (CFA) * CIPM (Certificate in Investment Performance Measurement) conferred by CFA Institute (CFA) * CIIA (Certified International Investment Analyst) conferred by the Association of Certified International Investment Analysts (ACIIA) * ASA (Accredited Senior Appraiser), AM (Accredited Member), and CEIV (Certified in Entity and Intangible Valuations) conferred by the American Society of Appraisers * CBV (Chartered Business Valuator) conferred by the CBV Institute. * CAIA (Chartered Alternative Investment Analyst) conferred by the CAIA Association FRM (Financial Risk Manager) conferred by Global Association of Risk Professionals (GARP) PRM (Professional Risk Manager) conferred by Professional Risk Managers' International Association (PRMIA) * FMVA (Financial Modeling and Valuation Analyst) conferred by Corporate Finance Institute (CFI). * CQF (Certificate in Quantitative Finance), conferred by the CQF Institute Payroll * CPP (Certified Payroll Professional) and FPC (Fundamental Payroll Specialist) conferred by the American Payroll Association. * Payroll Compliance Practitioner (PCP) and Certified Payroll Manager (CPM) conferred by the National Payroll Institute Personal finance * CFA (Chartered Financial Analyst) conferred by CFA Institute (CFA) * CFP (Certified Financial Planner) conferred by Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards and Financial Planning Standards Board * EA (Enrolled Agent) by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Public finance * CCMT (Certified California Municipal Treasurer) conferred by California Municipal Treasurers Association (CMTA) * CGAP (Certified Government Auditing Professional) conferred by the Institute of Internal Auditors, based on the US Government Auditing Standards (Yellow Book) and additionally on COSO, IIA standards and INTOSAI ISSAI standards recognized worldwide in public finance * CDFM (Certified Defense Financial Manager) conferred by American Society of Military Comptrollers (ASMC) * CFO (Certified Financial Officer) conferred by the Carl Vinson Institute of Government of the University of Georgia * CGFM (Certified Government Financial Manager) conferred by Association of Government Accountants (AGA) * CGAT (Certified Governmental Accounting Technician), conferred by Government Finance Officers Association of Alabama * CGFO (Certified Government Finance Officer) conferred by Government Finance Officers Association of Texas (GFOAT) * CMFO (Certified Municipal Finance Officer) conferred by Government Finance Officers of New Jersey, Rutgers University, and the State of New Jersey * CMFO (Certified Municipal Finance Officer) conferred by Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury and the Municipal Technical Advisory Service * CPFO (Certified Public Finance Officer) conferred by Government Finance Officers Association * CPFA (Certified Public Finance Administrator) conferred by Association of Public Treasurers of the United States and Canada (APTUSC) Architecture * AIA (Member, American Institute of Architects) conferred by American Institute of Architects * FAIA (Fellow, American Institute of Architects) conferred by American Institute of Architects * RA (Registered Architect) conferred by National Council of Architecture Registration Boards * NCARB (Certified) issued by National Council of Architecture Registration Boards – this allows for state-state reciprocity. Archival science, information privacy, and records management * CA (Certified Archivist), conferred by Academy of Certified Archivists * CIPM (Certified Information Privacy Manager) conferred by International Association of Privacy Professionals * CIPP (Certified Information Privacy Professional) conferred by International Association of Privacy Professionals * CIPT (Certified Information Privacy Technologist) conferred by International Association of Privacy Professionals * CRA (Certified Records Analyst) conferred by Institute of Certified Records Managers * CRM (Certified Records Manager) conferred by Institute of Certified Records Managers * IGP (Information Governance Professional) conferred by ARMA International Aviation Aviators are certified through theoretical and in-flight examinations. Requirements for certifications are quite equal in most countries and are regulated by each National Aviation Authority. The existing certificates or pilot licenses are: * SPL (Sport Pilot License) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) * PPL (Private Pilot License) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) or JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities) * CPL (Commercial Pilot Licence) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) or JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities) * ATP (Airline Transport Pilot) conferred by the FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) or JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities) Licensing in these categories require not only examinations but also a minimum number of flight hours. All categories are available for Fixed-Wing Aircraft (airplanes) and Rotatory-Wing Aircraft (helicopters). Within each category, aviators may also obtain certifications in: * Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) * Multi-engine aircraft * Turbojet Engines * Jet Engines * Experimental aircraft * Amphibious aircraft * Seaplanes Usually, aviators must be certified also in their log books for the type and model of aircraft they are allowed to fly. Currency checks as well as regular medical check-ups with a frequency of 6 months, 12 months, or 36 months, depending on the type of flying permitted, are obligatory. An aviator can fly only if holding: * A valid pilot license * A valid medical certificate * Valid certifications for the type of aircraft and type of flight. In Europe, the ANSP, ATCO & ANSP technicians are certified according to EUROCONTROL Safety Regulatory Requirement (ESARRs) (according to EU regulation 2096/2005 "Common Requirements"). Biomedical * BMD (Biomedical Electronics Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association * BIET (Biomedical Imaging Electronics Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association Chiropractic Communications In the United States, several communications certifications are conferred by the Electronics Technicians Association. Computer technology Certification is often used in the professions of software engineering and information technology. * CITP (Chartered IT Professional) conferred by British Computer Society, The Institution of Engineering and Technology and by other professional engineering institutions in the UK and commonwealth Dance Conferred by the International Dance Council CID at UNESCO, the International Certification of Dance Studies is awarded to students who have completed 150 hours of classes in a specific form of dance for Level 1. Another 150 hours are required for Level 2 and so on till Level 10. This is the only international certification for dance since the International Dance Council CID Dentistry Electronics In the United States, several electronics certifications are provided by the Electronics Technicians Association. Emergency management The Federal Emergency Management Agency's EMI offers credentials and training opportunities for United States citizens. Students do not have to be employed by FEMA or be federal employees for some of the programs. Engineering Professional engineering is any act of planning, designing, composing, measuring, evaluating, inspecting, advising, reporting, directing or supervising, or managing any of the foregoing, that requires the application of engineering principles and that concerns the safeguarding of life, health, property, economic interests, the public interest or the environment. * P.Eng. (Professional Engineer), conferred by provincial licensing bodies in Canada. * Ir. or P.Eng. (Professional Engineer), conferred by Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM) in Malaysia. * PE (Professional Engineer), conferred by Pakistan Engineering Council (PEC) and state licensing bodies in the United States. * PE (Power Engineer), conferred by provincial safety authorities in Canada. * EUR ING (European Engineer), conferred by the European Federation of National Engineering Associations (FEANI). * C.Eng. (Chartered Engineer), conferred by professional engineering institutions in the UK and commonwealth. * SMIEEE (Senior member of the IEEE), a professional designation throughout all of the United States. * CET (certified engineering technologist) or AScT (applied science technologist), conferred by provincial licensing bodies in Canada. * SPE Society of Petroleum Engineers Certificate Is a program whereby it certifies the technical knowledge of petroleum engineers. The certification is granted based on an examination in conjunction with experience of the applicant. Event planning Event planning includes budgeting, scheduling, site selection, acquiring necessary permits, coordinating transportation and parking, arranging for speakers or entertainers, arranging decor, event security, catering, coordinating with third-party vendors, and emergency plans. Warehousing management A warehouse management system (WMS) is a part of the supply chain and primarily aims to control the movement and storage of materials within a warehouse and process the associated transactions, including shipping, receiving, putaway and picking. The systems also direct and optimize stock putaway based on real-time information about the status of bin utilization. A WMS monitors the progress of products through the warehouse. It involves the physical warehouse infrastructure, tracking systems, and communication between product stations. More precisely, warehouse management involves the receipt, storage and movement of goods, (normally finished goods), to intermediate storage locations or to a final customer. In the multi-echelon model for distribution, there may be multiple levels of warehouses. This includes a central warehouse, a regional warehouses (serviced by the central warehouse) and potentially retail warehouses (serviced by the regional warehouses). Environment * CEnvP – Certified Environmental Practitioner of Australia and New Zealand (CEnvP) Environmental health * CPHI(C) – Certified Public Health Inspector (Canada) Explosive atmospheres IECEx covers the specialized field of explosion protection associated with the use of equipment in areas where flammable gases, liquids and combustible dusts may be present. This system provides the assurance that equipment is manufactured to meet safety standards, and that services such as installation, repair and overhaul also comply with IEC International Standards on 60079 series. The UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe), cited IECEx as one example of a practice model for the verification of conformity to IEC Standards, for European smaller countries with no certification schemes for such equipment. It published a "Common Regulatory Framework" as a suggestion for those countries implementing a certification program for the explosive atmospheres' segment. Fiber optics and data cabling * DCI (Data Cabling Installer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association * FOI (Fiber Optics Installer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association * FOT (Fiber Optics Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association * FOT-OSP (Fiber Optics Technician-Outside Plant) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association * FOD (Fiber Optics Designer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association * TTT (Termination and Testing Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association Genealogy * CG (Certified Genealogist) conferred by the Board for Certification of Genealogists (BCG). * CGL (Certified Genealogical Lecturer) conferred by the Board for Certification of Genealogists (BCG). Health leadership * CHE (Certified Health Executive) conferred by the Canadian College of Health Leaders (CCHL) Hospitality and tourism * CHA (Certified Hotel Administrator) conferred by American Hotel & Lodging Association * CMP (Certified Meeting Professional) conferred by Convention Industry Council * CEM (Certified in Exhibition Management) conferred by International Association of Exhibitions and Events Insurance and risk management In the United States, insurance professionals are licensed separately by each state. Many individuals seek one or more certifications to distinguish themselves from their peers. * American College of Financial Services: Chartered Life Underwriter (CLU) Chartered Financial Consultant (ChFC) * American Institute For Chartered Property Casualty Underwriters (The Institutes): Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU®) Associate in Risk Management (ARM) * National Alliance for Insurance Education & Research administers the Certified Insurance Counselor (CIC) * Professional Liability Underwriting Society (PLUS) administers Registered Professional Liability Underwriter (RPLU). Language education TESOL is a large field of employment with widely varying degrees of regulation. Most provision worldwide is through the state school system of each individual country, and as such, the instructors tend to be trained primary- or secondary school teachers who are native speakers of the language of their pupils, and not of English. Though native speakers of English have been working in non-English speaking countries in this capacity for years, it was not until the last twenty-five years or so that there was any widespread focus on training particularly for this field. Previously, workers in this sort of job were people engaging in backpacker tourism hoping to earn some extra travel money or well-educated professionals in other fields volunteering, or retired people. These sort of people are certainly still to be found, but there are many who consider TESOL their main profession. One of the problems facing these full-time teachers is the absence of an international governing body for the certification or licensure of English language teachers. However, Cambridge University and its subsidiary body UCLES are pioneers in trying to get some degree of accountability and quality control to consumers of English courses, through their CELTA and DELTA programs. Trinity College London has equivalent programs, the CertTESOL and the LTCL DipTESOL. They offer initial certificates in teaching, in which candidates are trained in language awareness and classroom techniques, and given a chance to practice teaching, after which feedback is reported. Both institutions have as a follow-up a professional diploma, usually taken after a year or two in the field. Although the initial certificate is available to anyone with a high school education, the diploma is meant to be a post-graduate qualification and can in fact be incorporated into a master's degree program. Legal affairs An increasing number of attorneys are choosing to be recognized as having special expertise in certain fields of law. According to the American Bar Association, a lawyer who is a certified specialist has been recognized by an independent professional certifying organization as having an enhanced level of skill and expertise, as well as substantial involvement in an established legal specialty. These organizations require a lawyer to demonstrate special training, experience and knowledge to ensure that the lawyer's recognition is meaningful and reliable. Lawyer conduct with regard to specialty certification is regulated by the states. Legal administrators vary in their day-to-day responsibilities and job requirements. The Association of Legal Administrators (ALA) is the credentialing body of the Certified Legal Manager (CLM) certification program. CLMs are recognized as administrators who have passed a comprehensive examination and have met other eligibility requirements.: Logistics and transport Logistician is the profession in the logistics and transport sectors, including sea, air, land and rail modes. Professional qualification for logisticians usually carries post-nominal letters. Certification granting bodies include, but are not limited to, Institute for Supply Management (ISM), Association for Operations Management (APICS), Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT), International Society of Logistics (SOLE), Canadian Institute of Traffic and Transportation (CITT), and Allied Council for Commerce and Logistics (ACCL). Management Consulting Management consulting is the practice of providing consulting services to organizations to improve their performance or in any way to assist in achieving any sort of organizational objectives. The profession's primary certification is the "Certified Management Consultant" (CMC) designation. Certification granting bodies are the approximately 50 Institutes of Management Consulting belonging to the International Council of Management Consulting Institutes (ICMCI). Marketing * CME (Certified Marketing Executive), conferred by Sales & Marketing Executives International, Inc.. Ministers Churches have their own process of who may use various religious titles. Protestant churches typically require a Masters of Divinity, accreditation by the denomination and ordination by the local church in order for a minister to become a "Reverend". Those qualifications may or may not also give government authorization to solemnize marriages. Medicine Board certification is the process by which a physician in the United States documents by written, practical or computer based testing, illustrating a mastery of knowledge and skills that define a particular area of medical specialization. The American Board of Medical Specialties, a not-for-profit organization, assists 24 approved medical specialty boards in the development and use of standards in the ongoing evaluation and certification of physicians. Medical specialty certification in the United States is a voluntary process. While medical licensure sets the minimum competency requirements to diagnose and treat patients, it is not specialty specific. Board certification demonstrates a physician's exceptional expertise in a particular specialty or sub-specialty of medical practice. Patients, physicians, health care providers, insurers and quality organizations regard certification as an important measure of a physician's knowledge, experience and skills to provide quality health care within a given specialty. Other professional certifications include certifications such as medical licenses, Membership of the Royal College of Physicians, Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, nursing board certification, diplomas in social work. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists that are knowledgeable about principles of geriatric pharmacotherapy and the provision of pharmaceutical care to the elderly. Additional certifying bodies relating to the medical field include: * Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists * American College of Emergency Physicians * Royal Australasian College of Physicians * Fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons * Membership of the College of Emergency Medicine * Joint Commission on Allied Health Personnel in Ophthalmology * American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography Peer support NCPRP stands for "National Certified Peer Recovery Professional", and the NCPRP credential and exam were developed in collaboration with the International Certification Board of Recovery Professionals (ICBRP) and is currently being administered by PARfessionals. PARfessionals is a professional organization and all of the available courses are professional development and pre-certification courses. The NCPRP credential and exam focus primarily on the concept of peer recovery through mental health and addiction recovery. It has the main purpose of training student-candidates on how to become peer recovery professionals who can provide guidance, knowledge or assistance for individuals who have had similar experiences. Each student-candidate must complete several key steps which include initial registration; the pre-certification review course; and all applicable sections of the official application in order to become eligible to complete the final step, which is the NCPRP certification exam. The NCPRP credential is obtained once a participant successfully passes the NCPRP certification exam by the second attempt and is valid for five years. Physical asset management * MMP – Maintenance Management Professional Project management Organizations that offer various certifications include: * American Academy of Project Management * Project Management Institute * Stanford University through the Stanford Advanced Project Management Certificate Program * Association for Project Management Public relations In the US, the Universal Accreditation Board, an organization composed of the Public Relations Society of America, the Agricultural Relations Council, the National School Public Relations Association, the Religious Communicators Council and other public relations professional societies, administers the Accreditation in Public Relations (APR), a voluntary certification program for public relations practitioners. Real estate management The Building Owners and Managers Association and the International Facility Management Association offer professional certifications for the operation and management of commercial properties. Renewable energy * PVIP (PV Installation Professional) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners * PVDS (PV Design Specialist) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners * PVIS (PV Installation Specialist) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners * PVCMS (PV Commissioning & Maintenance Specialist) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners * PVSI (PV System Inspector) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners * PVTS (PV Technical Sales) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners * SHI (Solar Heating Installer) conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners * SHSI (Solar Heating System Inspector conferred by North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners * EVT (Electronic Vehicle Technician) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association * PVI (Photovoltaic Installer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association * SWI (Small Wind Installer) conferred by Electronics Technicians Association Safety and Occupational Hygiene * Certified Safety Professional offered by the Board of Certified Safety Professionals * Certified Industrial Hygienist Sales Organizations offering certification include: * Sales & Marketing Executives International * Canadian Professional Sales Association Security * ASIS International administers the Certified Protection Professional – Board-Certified in Security Management (CPP) * ASIS International administers the Physical Security Professional, Board-Certified (PSP) * ASIS International administers the Professional Certified Investigator, Board-Certified (PCI) * Association of Certified Fraud Examiners administers the Certified Fraud Examiner (CFE) * International Foundation of Protection Officers administers the Certified Protection Officer (CPO) * Society of Payment Security Professionals (SPSP) administers the Certified Payment-Card Industry Security Manager * Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) from ISC2.org * National Sheriffs' Association administers the Certified Homeland Protection Professional (CHPP) Certification * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Registered Locksmith (RL) Certification * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Registered Locksmith (CRL) Certification * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Professional Locksmith (CPL) Certification * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Master Locksmith (CML) Certification * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Professional Safe Technician (CPS) Certification * Associated Locksmiths of America administers the Certified Master Safe Technician (CMST) Certification * Security Industry Association administers the Certified Security Project Manager (CSPM) Certification Other applications * The American Academy of Environmental Engineers board certifies licensed environmental engineers (Board Certified Environmental Engineer—BCEE) and unlicensed environmental engineering practitioners (Board Certified Environmental Engineering Member—BCEEM) for those with a degree in engineering and at least 8 years of practice and responsible charge in environmental engineering. * The American Institute of Floral Designers offers two levels of certification for individuals in the field of professional floral design. Certified Floral Designer (CFD) and accredited membership (AIFD) are both designed to establish a gold standard in professional floral design while ensuring the certified individual maintains that standard through continued education credits. While many state-level floral associations also offer state-level floral design certification known as Master Florist certification, AIFD certification is the highest level of professional floral design awarded in the United States. * The Canadian National Association of Infrared Imaging Technologists (AIIT) awards the IIT designation to infrared thermographers who meet the training standards regulated by the association. AIIT aims to ensure service delivery standards and public trust through regulating training standards, codes of conduct and continuing education. * The Society for Technical Communication (STC) is planning to create a certification program for technical writers in 2011. * The International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) is the International body who administers ANSI-accredited certification programs for arborists and tree care specialists. Certifications vary from Tree Worker to Certified Arborist to Master Arborist. Criticisms Political commentators have criticized professional or occupational licensing, especially medical and legal licensing, for restricting the supply of services and therefore making them more expensive, often putting them out of reach of the poor. See also * Academic inflation * European professional qualification directives * Homologation * Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals * Occupational licensing * Product certification * Professional certification (business) Professional degree Tech certificate * Vocational Competence Certificate References Category:Professional ethics all Category:Standards	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_certification	2025-04-05T18:27:46.025625
6255	Carl Menger	\| birth_place = Neu Sandez, Galicia, Austrian Empire<br>(now Nowy Sącz, Poland) \| death_date \| death_place = Vienna, Austria \| resting_place = Vienna Central Cemetery \| field = Political economy \| alma_mater = Charles University<br>University of Vienna<br>Jagiellonian University \| influences = \| contributions = Marginal utility, subjective theory of value \|notable_students=Prince Rudolf}} Carl Menger von Wolfensgrün (; ; 28 February 1840 – 26 February 1921) was an Austrian economist who contributed to the marginal theory of value. Menger is considered the founder of the Austrian school of economics. In building his marginalist approach, Menger rejected many established views of classical economics. He directly disputed the view of the "German school" that economic theory could be derived from history. Departing from the cost-of-production theory of value—the prevailing theory of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and Karl Marx—Menger's subjective theory of value emphasized role of mutual agreement in deriving prices. Although he had few readers outside Vienna until late in his career, disciples including Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser brought his theories into wider readership. Friedrich Hayek wrote that the Austrian school's "fundamental ideas belong fully and wholly to Carl Menger." Menger began his career as a lawyer and business journalist, during which he saw inconsistencies between existing economic theory and how buyers reasoned. After formal training in economics, he taught at the University of Vienna from 1872 to 1903. He became a private tutor and confidant to Rudolf von Habsburg, the crown prince of Austria. Biography Family and education Carl Menger von Wolfensgrün He was the son of a wealthy family of minor nobility; his father, Anton Menger, was a lawyer. His mother, Caroline Gerżabek, was the daughter of a wealthy Bohemian merchant. He had two brothers, Anton and Max, both prominent as lawyers. His son, Karl Menger, was a mathematician who taught for many years at Illinois Institute of Technology. After attending Gymnasium, he studied law at the universities of Prague and Vienna and later received a doctorate in jurisprudence from the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. In the 1860s Menger left school and enjoyed a stint as a journalist reporting and analyzing market news, first at the Lemberger Zeitung in Lemberg, Austrian Galicia (now Lviv, Ukraine) and later at the in Vienna. Career During the course of his newspaper work, he noticed a discrepancy between what the classical economics he was taught in school said about price determination and what real world market participants believed. In 1867, Menger began a study of political economy which culminated in 1871 with the publication of his Principles of Economics (), thus becoming the father of the Austrian school of economics. It was in this work that he challenged classical cost-based theories of value with his theory of marginality – that price is determined at the margin. In 1872 Menger was enrolled into the law faculty at the University of Vienna and spent the next several years teaching finance and political economy both in seminars and lectures to a growing number of students. In 1873, he received the university's chair of economic theory at the very young age of 33. In 1876 Menger began tutoring Archduke Rudolf von Habsburg, the crown prince of Austria, in political economy and statistics. For two years, Menger accompanied the prince during his travels, first through continental Europe and then later through the British Isles. He is also thought to have assisted the crown prince in the composition of a pamphlet, published anonymously in 1878, which was highly critical of the higher Austrian aristocracy. His association with the prince would last until Rudolf's suicide in 1889. In 1878 Rudolf's father, Emperor Franz Joseph, appointed Menger to the chair of political economy at Vienna. The title of Hofrat was conferred on him, and he was appointed to the Austrian in 1900. Dispute with the historical school Ensconced in his professorship, he set about refining and defending the positions he took and methods he utilized in Principles, the result of which was the 1883 publication of Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics (). The book caused a firestorm of debate, during which members of the historical school of economics began to derisively call Menger and his students the "Austrian school" to emphasize their departure from mainstream German economic thought – the term was specifically used in an unfavourable review by Gustav von Schmoller. In 1884 Menger responded with the pamphlet The Errors of Historicism in German Economics and launched the infamous , or methodological debate, between the historical school and the Austrian school. During this time Menger began to attract like-minded disciples who would go on to make their own mark on the field of economics, most notably Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, and Friedrich von Wieser. In the late 1880s, Menger was appointed to head a commission to reform the Austrian monetary system. Over the course of the next decade, he authored a plethora of articles which would revolutionize monetary theory, including "The Theory of Capital" (1888) and "Money" (1892). Largely due to his pessimism about the state of German scholarship, Menger resigned his professorship in 1903 to concentrate on study. Economics Menger used his subjective theory of value to arrive at what he considered one of the most powerful insights in economics: "both sides gain from exchange." Unlike William Jevons, Menger did not believe that goods provide "utils," or units of utility. Rather, he wrote, goods are valuable because they serve various uses whose importance differs. Menger also came up with an explanation of how money develops that is still accepted by some schools of thought today. Money Menger believed that gold and silver were the precious metals that were adopted as money for their unique attributes like costliness, durability, and easy preservation, making them the "most popular vehicle for hoarding as well as the goods most highly favoured in commerce." Menger showed that "their special saleableness" tended to make their bid-ask spread tighter than any other market good, which led to their adoption as a general medium of exchange and evolution in many societies as money.Works* 1871 – ; Translated as * 1883 – ; Translated as * 1884 – The Errors of Historicism in German Economics * 1888 – The Theory of Capital * 1892 – See also * History of macroeconomic thought * Historical school of economics References Further reading * * Ebeling, Richard M., [https://www.aier.org/article/carl-menger-and-the-sesquicentennial-founding-of-the-austrian-school/ "Carl Menger and the Sesquicentennial Founding of the Austrian School,"] American Institute for Economic Research, January 5, 2021 * Ebeling, Richard M., [https://www.aier.org/article/carl-mengers-theory-of-institutions-and-market-processes/ "Carl Menger's Theory of Institutions and Market Processes,"] American Institute for Economic Research, April 13, 2021 * * * * * * * * * * von Wieser, Friedrich, [https://www.aier.org/article/carl-menger-a-biographical-appreciation-by-friedrich-von-wieser/ "Carl Menger: A Biographical Appreciation"] [1923], American Institute for Economic Research, February 25, 2019 External links * * * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051220040945/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/menger.htm Profile on Carl Menger] at the History of Economic Thought Website * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120630172959/http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/findingaids/menger/ Carl Menger Papers, 1857–1985], Rubenstein Library, Duke University Category:1840 births Category:1921 deaths Category:Economists from Austria-Hungary Category:20th-century Austrian economists Category:19th-century Austrian economists Category:19th-century Austrian writers Category:Austrian School economists Category:Charles University alumni Category:University of Vienna alumni Category:Jagiellonian University alumni Category:Edlers of Austria Category:German Bohemian people Category:Austrian people of German Bohemian descent Category:People from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria Category:People from Nowy Sącz Category:Neoclassical economists Category:Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Menger	2025-04-05T18:27:46.054717
6256	List of cartoonists	This is a list of cartoonists, visual artists who specialize in drawing cartoons. This list includes only notable cartoonists and is not meant to be exhaustive. Note that the word 'cartoon' only took on its modern sense after its use in Punch magazine in the 1840s - artists working earlier than that are more correctly termed 'caricaturists', Notable cartoonists Scott Adams, Dilbert Charles Addams (1938–1988), macabre cartoons featured in The New Yorker and elsewhere Attila Adorjany Sarah Andersen, known for Sarah's Scribbles Barry Appleby Dan Piraro Sergio Aragonés, known for his contributions to Mad Graciela Aranis (1908–1996), Chilean painter, cartoonist Peter Arno (1904–1968), cartoons featured in The New Yorker and elsewhere Arotxa (Rodolfo Arotxarena) Jim Bamber, cartoonist of Autosport, magazine specialising in motor sports Edgar Henry Banger Carl Barks, inventor of Duckburg and many of its characters like Scrooge McDuck and Gladstone Gander; Fantagraphics Books called him "the Hans Christian Andersen of comic books." Sumanta Baruah Aminollah Rezaei Niko Barun Nancy Beiman, "FurBabies" Darrin Bell, Candorville and Rudy Park Steve Bell, The Guardian (UK) Stephen Bentley, "Herb and Jamaal" Jim Benton, known for his cartoons on reddit, GoComics, and Instagram as well as It's Happy Bunny,Dear Dumb Diary,Franny K Stein,Catwad,Batman Squad,Attack of the Stuff Oscar Berger, Aesop's Foibles (1947); active 1920s–1960s Mark Beyer, Amy and Jordan, Agony Brumsic Brandon Jr., "Luther"; with his daughter Barbara Brandon-Croft, first family of cartoonists (father/daughter) to each be nationally syndicated in the U.S. mainstream press Barbara Brandon-Croft, "Where I'm Coming From"; first Black woman cartoonist to be nationally syndicated in the U.S. mainstream press Berkeley Breathed, Bloom County and Outland Frédéric-Antonin Breysse Ed Brubaker Henry Bunbury 18th Century British caricaturist Tom Bunk, cartoonist for Mad Stanley Burnside, Sideburns Mark Burrier John Byrne Al Capp, Li'l Abner Tom Cheney, staff cartoonist for The New Yorker Edgar Church Chester Commodore, political cartoonist George Cruikshank 19th Century British caricaturist Isaac Cruikshank 18th Century British caricaturist Isaac Robert Cruikshank 19th Century British caricaturist Robert Crumb, Mr. Natural, Fritz the Cat, Keep on Truckin' Natalie d'Arbeloff Jack Davis Jim Davis, Garfield Abner Dean Arifur Rahman Narayan Debnath, Indian cartoonist known for Handa Bhonda, Bantul the Great, and Nonte Phonte Richard Decker, The New Yorker Walt Disney, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck Ralph Waddell Douglass Stan Drake George du Maurier, also the author of Trilby Robert W. Edgren, American political cartoonist known for his "Sketches from Death" from the Spanish–American War Will Eisner, The Spirit Otto Eppers Charles Evenden Lyonel Feininger, rare fine artist who did strips, The Kin-der-Kids and Wee Willie Winkie's World Rod Filbrandt David Fletcher Ellen Forney André François André Franquin, Spirou et Fantasio, Gaston Lagaffe, Marsupilami Yuliy Abramovich Ganf, Soviet Russian Eddie Germano Denis Gifford, strips in Whizzer and Chips, Knockout, Marvelman Carl Giles James Gillray, 18th century British, called "the father of the political cartoon". John Glashan, Genius Rube Goldberg, cartoons of complex and convoluted machines doing very simple tasks. Larry Gonick, The Cartoon History of the Universe series, Kokopelli & Company Cleven "Goodie" Goudeau, known for his pioneering Afrocentric images on greeting cards Jimmy Gownley, Amelia Rules! series, Simon & Schuster Bud Grace, "Ernie/Piranha Club" Mel Graff, “The Adventures of Patsy”, “Secret Agent X-9” Matt Groening, Life in Hell, The Simpsons, Futurama Sam Gross, for his The New Yorker work, plus many other magazines Shekhar Gurera, well known for his quirky cartoons about India's political and social trends William Haefeli Martin Handford, Where's Wally? Steven Harris Butch Hartman, The Fairly OddParents, T.U.F.F. Puppy, Danny Phantom, Bunsen Is a Beast Andrew Kennaway Henderson Henfil, Brazilian cartoonist Hergé, The Adventures of Tintin George Herriman, Krazy Kat Herblock American cartoonist Watson Heston Stephen Hillenburg (1961–2018), SpongeBob SquarePants Bill Hinds, "Tank McNamara" Dick Hodgins, Jr. William Hogarth, English pictorial satirist and editorial cartoonist; credited with pioneering western sequential art; work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic strip Bill Holbrook, On the Fastrack, Safe Havens, and Kevin and Kell Nicole Hollander, Sylvia John Holmstrom Geoff "Jeff" Hook, Australian George William Houghton, British golf cartoonist Jim Hummel Edgar Pierre Jacobs, Blake and Mortimer Al Jaffee, Mad Kirk Jarvinen S. Jithesh, World's Fastest Performing Cartoonist Herbert Johnson Mike Judge, Beavis and Butt-head, King of the Hill, The Goode Family Arja Kajermo Avi Katz Bil Keane, "Family Circus" Jeff Keane. "Family Circus" Walt Kelly, Pogo Rik Kemp Molly Kiely Wyncie King Jeff Kinney, Diary of a Wimpy Kid Rick Kirkman, "Baby Blues" Heinrich Kley B. Kliban John Kricfalusi, The Ren & Stimpy Show Abril Lamarque Gary Larson, The Far Side Rick Law, Beyond the Veil R K Laxman, cartoonist for The Times of India, India Mell Lazarus. "Momma, Miss Peach" John Leech, 19th-century Punch cartoonist Jonathan Lemon, Alley Oop Michael Leunig, Australian Arnold Levin David Liljemark Neil Lonsdale (1907–1989), New Zealand editorial cartoonist David Low, New Zealand political cartoonist and caricaturist Jay Lynch Trey Parker and Matt Stone, South Park Seth MacFarlane, Family Guy, American Dad!, The Cleveland Show Manjul, India Today, The Economic Times and Daily News and Analysis Bob Mankoff, The New Yorker Jack Markow Don Martin, "Mad" Enrico Mazzanti Scott McCloud, Zot!, Understanding Comics Aaron McGruder, The Boondocks Ronald Michaud Yevgeniy Migunov Mario Miranda, The Economic Times, India Shigeru Mizuki, Ge Ge Ge no Kitaro, master of horror of Japanese manga Guillermo Mordillo Arthur Moreland Lorin Morgan-Richards Morris, Lucky Luke Joe Murray, Rocko's Modern Life and Camp Lazlo! Rachel Nabors Ogden Nash Nigar Nazar, first female cartoonist of the Muslim world, creator of cartoon character "Gogi" Roy Nelson Richard Newton, 18th century British caricaturist Mana Neyestani, Iranian cartoonist Ajit Ninan, India Today and The Times of India Floyd Norman Murray Olderman, sports columnist, author of 14 books, National Cartoonist Society Sports Cartoon Award for 1974 and 1978 Jack Edward Oliver Jackie Ormes, "Torchy Brown in 'Dixie to Harlem", "Candy", "Patty-Jo 'n' Ginger", "Torchy in 'Hearbeats'"; first Black woman cartoonist to be published nationally in the U.S. (not via syndication) Bruce Ozella Paul Palnik, American Jewish cartoonist Gary Panter Virgil Franklin Partch, known as "VIP;" leading American gag cartoonist from the 1940s to the 1980s Alan Stuart Paterson, New Zealand cartoonist Andrea Pazienza René Pellos, French cartoonist Bob Penuelas, Wilbur Kookmeyer Camillus Perera Bruce Petty Peyo, The Smurfs, Steven Strong, Johan and Peewit S. D. Phadnis, Indian cartoonist Ziraldo Alves Pinto, Brazilian cartoonist Hugo Pratt, Corto Maltese Ken Pyne Quino (Joaquín Salvador Lavado), Argentine cartoonist and social satirist, known for Mafalda Jacki Randall Roy Raymonde, 20th Century English cartoonist whose work appeared principally in Punch (magazine) and Playboy Bob Rich, American award-winning cartoonist W. Heath Robinson, British satirist known for drawings of convoluted machines, similar to Rube Goldberg Christine Roche Artie Romero Ed "Big Daddy" Roth Thomas Rowlandson 18th Century British caricaturist Martin Rowson British political cartoonist Øystein Runde Malik Sajad Indian cartoonist, author of graphic novel Munnu - A Boy from Kashmir''' Armando Salas Gerald Scarfe ( political) Jerry Scott, "Baby Blues, Zits" Ronald Searle, St Trinians, Molesworth, The Rake's Progress, editorial work Elzie Crisler Segar, Popeye Sempé Claude Serre James Affleck Shepherd Lee Sheppard Gilbert Shelton Mahmoud Shokraye Shel Silverstein Posy Simmonds, The Silent Three of St Botolph's, Gemma Bovery Siné Vishavjit Singh Jeff Smith, Bone, RASL, Shazam!: The Monster Society of Evil, Little Mouse Gets Ready Mauricio de Sousa, Monica's Gang, Chuck Billy 'n' Folks, The Cavern Clan Art Spiegelman, author of Maus; co-editor of RAW magazine Dan Spiegle George Sprod, Punch and other publications Ralph Steadman, editorial cartoonist and book illustrator Ralph Stein Saul Steinberg Jay Stephens Matt Stone, with Trey Parker, co-creator of South Park Jakob Martin Strid Ed Subitzky, known for his National Lampoon work, also The New York Times Joost Swarte, Dutch comic artist known for his ligne claire or clear line style of drawing Betty Swords Les Tanner, political cartoonist Howard Tayler, pioneered web-cartooning as a profession Raina Telgemeier Osamu Tezuka, Astro Boy, Phoenix; known as the "God" of Japanese manga who defined modern Japanese cartooning Bal Thackeray, formed a political party in India Lefred Thouron Morrie Turner, credited with the first multicultural syndicated cartoon strip Albert Uderzo, Asterix Jim Unger, Canadian cartoonist: Herman Willy Vandersteen, Spike and Suzy, De Rode Ridder Joan Vizcarra Vicco von Bülow, Loriot Keith Waite, New Zealand-born English editorial cartoonist Mort Walker, Beetle Bailey, Hi and Lois Arthur Watts Ben Wicks, Canadian cartoonist and illustrator: The Outsider, Wicks S. Clay Wilson, Zap Comix, Underground Comix Shannon Wright Rhie Won-bok Bianca Xunise, "Six Chix"; first nonbinary cartoonist to be nationally syndicated in the U.S. mainstream press Art Young José Zabala-Santos Zapiro Cartoonists of comic strips Scott Adams, Dilbert Alex Akerbladh Bill Amend, FoxTrot George Baker, Sad Sack Tom Batiuk, Funky Winkerbean Murray Ball, Footrot Flats Darrin Bell, Candorville, Rudy Park Stephen Bentley, "Herb and Jamaal" Jerry Bittle Boulet, pseudonym of French cartoonist Gilles Roussel Brumsic Brandon Jr., "Luther" Barbara Brandon-Croft, "Where I'm Coming From" Berkeley Breathed, Bloom County (1980s American social-political), Outland, Opus Dave Breger, Mister Breger Dik Browne, Hi and Lois, Hägar the Horrible Ernie Bushmiller, Nancy Milton Caniff, Terry and the Pirates, Steve Canyon Al Capp, Li'l Abner Ad Carter, Just Kids Jok Church, You Can With Beakman and Jax Francis Cleetus, It's Geek 2 Me Mitch Clem, Nothing Nice to Say, San Antonio Rock City Darby Conley, Get Fuzzy Joan Cornellà Dave Coverly, Speed Bump Max Crivello Alex Raymond, Flash Gordon, Jungle Jim, Rip Kirby Stan Cross, The Potts Stacy Curtis, Cul de Sac Lyman Dally, Max Rep Harry Grant Dart Lou Darvas Jim Davis, Gnorm Gnat, Garfield, U.S. Acres, a Mr. Potato Head comic strip Reginald Ben Davis Derf Backderf (John Backderf) Brad Diller J. C. Duffy, The Fusco Brothers Edwina Dumm Frank Dunne Benita Epstein, Six Chix Larry Feign, The World of Lily Wong Norm Feuti, Retail George Fett, Sniffy and Norbert Charles Fincher, creator of Thadeus & Weez and The Daily Scribble Bud Fisher, Mutt and Jeff Ham Fisher, Joe Palooka Evelyn Flinders, The Silent Three Harold Rudolf Foster, Prince Valiant and Tarzan J.D. Frazer, User Friendly David Füleki, 78 Tage auf der Straße des Hasses Paul Gilligan, Pooch Cafe Erich von Götha de la Rosière Chester Gould, Dick Tracy Bud Grace, "Ernie/Piranha Club", "Babs and Aldo" Mel Graff, “The Adventures of Patsy”, “Secret Agent X-9” Bill Griffith, Zippy the Pinhead Milt Gross Cathy Guisewite, Cathy Nicholas Gurewitch, Perry Bible Fellowship Alex Hallatt Johnny Hart, B.C., The Wizard of Id Bill Hinds, Tank McNamara, Cleats, Buzz Beamer Bill Holman, Smokey Stover Daniel Hulet Billy Ireland Tatsuya Ishida, Sinfest Tove and Lars Jansson, The Moomins Ferd Johnson, Moon Mullins Kerry G. Johnson, Harambee Hills, caricaturist and children's book illustrator Russell Johnson, Mister Oswald Lynn Johnston, For Better or For Worse Eric Jolliffe, Andy Bil Keane, Family Circus Jeff Keane, Family Circus Walt Kelly, Pogo James Kemsley, Ginger Meggs Hank Ketcham, Dennis the Menace Kazu Kibuishi, Copper Frank King, Gasoline Alley Rick Kirkman, "Baby Blues" Keith Knight, The K Kronicles Charles Kuhn, Grandma Fred Lasswell, Barney Google Mell Lazarus, "Momma, Miss Peach" Virginio Livraghi Les Lumsdon, "Basil", "Nipper", "Caspar" Edgar Martin Clifford McBride, Napoleon Winsor McCay, Little Nemo Patrick McDonnell, Mutts Brian McFadden, Big Fat Whale Aaron McGruder, creator of the controversial strip The Boondocks George McManus, Bringing Up Father Caesar Meadows Dale Messick, Brenda Starr Tim Molloy Bill Murray, Sonny Boy Fred Negro, Pub Strip Chris Onstad, Achewood Jackie Ormes, "Torchy Brown in 'Dixie to Harlem'", "Torchy in 'Heartbeats'" Phil Ortiz Frode Øverli, Pondus Nina Paley, Nina's Adventures, Fluff, The Hots Brant Parker, The Wizard of Id Stephan Pastis, Pearls Before Swine Charles Peattie and Russell Taylor, Alex Mike Peters, Mother Goose & Grimm Keats Petree Stan Pitt, Larry Flynn, Detective Vic Pratt Dariush Ramezani John Rivas, Bonzzo Valentina Romeo, Jonathan Steele, Dylan Dog, Morgan Lost, Nathan Never Leigh Rubin, Rubes Warren Sattler, Grubby, Billy the Kid and Yang, as well as contributing artist for Barnaby daily, The Jackson Twins, Bringing Up Father and Hi and Lois Charles M. Schulz, Peanuts, Young Pillars Jerry Scott, "Baby Blues, Zits, Nancy" Caroll Spinney, Harvey Lee W. Stanley, The Old Home Town Cliff Sterrett, Polly and Her Pals Kris Straub, Starslip Crisis, Checkerboard Nightmare Henry Matthew Talintyre Harold Tamblyn-Watts Russell Taylor and Charles Peattie, Alex Richard Thompson, Cul de Sac Jim Toomey, Sherman's Lagoon Harry J. Tuthill, The Bungle Family Gustave Verbeek, The Upside Downs, The Terrors of the Tiny Tads Mort Walker, Beetle Bailey, Hi and Lois Bill Watterson, Calvin and Hobbes Bob Weber, Moose & Molly Monty Wedd, Ned Kelly Alex Williams, Queen's Counsel Tom Wilson, Ziggy Cartoonists of single-panel cartoons Charles Addams Gene Ahern Glen Baxter Belsky Jim Benton Rupert Besley Charles Boyce, Compu-Toon Barry Bradfield Sheree Bradford-Lea Bo Brown Ivan Brunetti John Callahan Irwin Caplan Patrick Chappatte (Chappatte) Roz Chast Chumy Chúmez Mariza Dias Costa Wilbur Dawbarn Chon Day Donelan Denise Dorrance Nick Downes Mort Drucker Vladimir Flórez Stanley Arthur Franklin Carl Giles (Giles), Daily Express Ted Goff Bud Grace Sam Gross Dick Guindon William Haefeli Jessica Hagy Baron Halpenny Sidney Harris William Haselden Bill Hoest Judy Horacek Stan Hunt Hank Ketcham Ted Key John F. Knott, creator of Old Man Texas, Dallas Morning News, 1905-1957 Clyde Lamb Gary Larson Mel Lazarus Robert Leighton George Lichty Mike Lynch Lorin Morgan-Richards Fred Neher John Norment Don Orehek Jackie Ormes, "Candy", "Patty-Jo 'n' Ginger" W. B. Park Virgil Partch Dave Pascal Mad Peck Matt Percival Martin Perscheid Josefina Tanganelli Plana Gardner Rea John Reiner Dan Reynolds Mischa Richter Victoria Roberts Burr Shafer Vahan Shirvanian Chris Slane Grant Snider Dan Steffan James Thurber Jerry Van Amerongen H. T. Webster Gluyas Williams J. R. Williams, Out Our Way Gahan Wilson George Wolfe Kevin Woodcock Bianca Xunise Bill Yates ZAK, pseudonym of Belgian cartoonist Jacques Moeraert Zero Cartoonists of comic books Carlo Ambrosini Jack Herbert Sergio Aragonés, Mad; creator of Groo the Wanderer Daniel A. Baker Ken Battefield Jim Benton, Catwad,Batman Squad,Attack of the Stuff Bill Benulis, War is Hell Steve Bialik François Bourgeon, Le Cycle de Cyann Anna Brandoli Reg Bunn Ben Caldwell, creator of the Dare Detectives Aldo Capitanio Onofrio Catacchio Domitille Collardey Carlo Cossio, Dick Fulmine Jason Craig Hugleikur Dagsson Dame Darcy, creator of Meat Cake Patryck de Froidmont Gianni De Luca, Commissario Spada Dan DeCarlo, Archie, Josie and the Pussycats, Sabrina, the Teenage Witch Kim Deitch creator of Waldo the Cat and comic novels Vince Deporter, DC Comics; Nickelodeon, Spirou (Belgium) Julie Doucet, creator of Dirty Plotte, My New York Diary Will Elder, Mad, Little Annie Fanny in Playboy Steve Fiorilla, mini-comics Andy Fish Brad W. Foster, creator of Mechthings mini-comics, The Mechthings, Adventures of Olivia mini-comics Chandra Free Vernon Grant, creator of The Love Rangers Dick Hafer Marc Hansen, creator of Ralph Snart Los Bros Hernandez, creators of Love and Rockets Don Hillsman II Yvonne Hutton Al Jaffee, Mad, Snappy Answers to Stupid Questions Robyn E. Kenealy Helena Klakocar Andrea Kruis Harvey Kurtzman, founding editor of Mad Antonio Lara de Gavilán Selena Lin Craig McKay Mark Marderosian David Messer, adaptations of Macbeth and the Tempest Erika Moen Colonel Moutarde Art Nugent Gaman Palem Fung Chin Pang Power Paola Eduardo Vañó Pastor Craig Phillips Darren Sanchez Seth, creator of Palookaville Ravi Shankar Pran Kumar Sharma, Chacha Chaudhary Jeff Smith, Bone Book Cal Sobrepeña Fermín Solís Hans Steinbach Kazimir Strzepek Ramon Torrents Przemysław Truściński Jhonen Vasquez, Johnny the Homicidal Maniac, Squee!, I Feel Sick, Everything Can be Beaten, Fillerbunny, Bad Art Collection, Happy Noodle Boy Wally Wood, Mad Chao Yat Carlos Zéfiro Laura Zuccheri, Ken Parker, Julia-le avventure di una criminologa Cartoonists of action/superhero comic books Kyle Baker, creator of Why I Hate Saturn Barry Bradfield, Batman: The Animated Homepage Jack Cole, creator of Plastic Man, later set the style for cartoons in Playboy Alan Davis, creator of ClanDestine Steve Ditko, creator of many Marvel Comics, including Spider-Man and Doctor Strange, with editor Stan Lee Will Eisner, creator of The Spirit, teacher, publisher, one of the first to popularize the term graphic novel, in his book A Contract with God Bob Kane, creator of The Batman with writer Bill Finger Jack Kirby, creator of Captain America with his partner Joe Simon, and many other comics Erik Larsen, creator of Savage Dragon Rob Liefeld, creator of Deadpool and Youngblood Jim McDermott Todd McFarlane, creator of Spawn Shawn McManus Mike Mignola, creator of Hellboy Frank Miller, creator of Sin City James O'Barr, creator of The Crow Paul Palnik, creator of The God of Cartoons Whilce Portacio Humberto Ramos Roberto Raviola, creator of La Compagnia della Forca Shelby Robertson Alberto Saichann Tim Sale Horacio Sandoval Marc Silvestri, creator of Cyberforce and The Darkness Dave Sim, creator of Cerebus Jeff Smith, creator of Bone'' Ed Tourriol Alain Voss See also Editorial cartoons Indian Institute of Cartoonists List of American comics creators List of animators List of caricaturists List of comic strips List of editorial cartoonists List of illustrators List of manga artists List of newspaper comic strips References List Category:Cartooning-related lists Category:Lists of artists by medium Category:Lists of comics creators	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cartoonists	2025-04-05T18:27:46.146386
6258	Civilization	<!-- hatnotes--> <!-- style prompts--> of Mesopotamia were the oldest civilization in the world, beginning about 4000 BCE, here depicted around 2500 BCE, showing the different social roles in the Sumerian society of Ur.]] is an example of one of the first civilizations, building pyramids starting in the 3rd millennium BCE.]] A civilization (also spelled civilisation in British English) is any complex society characterized by the development of the state, social stratification, urbanization, and symbolic systems of communication beyond signed or spoken languages (namely, writing systems). Civilizations are organized around densely-populated settlements, divided into more or less rigid hierarchical social classes of division of labour, often with a ruling elite and a subordinate urban and rural populations, which engage in intensive agriculture, mining, small-scale manufacture and trade. Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of the nature, including over other human beings. Civilizations are characterized with elaborate agriculture, architecture, infrastructure, technological advancement, currency, taxation, regulation, and specialization of labour. Historically, a civilization has often been understood as a larger and "more advanced" culture, in implied contrast to smaller, supposedly less advanced cultures, even societies within civilizations themselves and within their histories. Generally civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists, Neolithic societies, or hunter-gatherers. The word civilization relates to the Latin or 'city'. As the National Geographic Society has explained it: "This is why the most basic definition of the word civilization is 'a society made up of cities.'" The earliest emergence of civilizations is generally connected with the final stages of the Neolithic Revolution in West Asia, culminating in the relatively rapid process of urban revolution and state formation, a political development associated with the appearance of a governing elite. History of the concept thumb\|The End of Dinner by Jules-Alexandre Grün (1913). The emergence of table manners and other forms of etiquette and self-restraint are presented as a characteristic of civilized society by Norbert Elias in his book The Civilizing Process (1939). The English word civilization comes from the French ('civilized'), from ('civil'), related to ('citizen') and ('city'). The fundamental treatise is Norbert Elias's The Civilizing Process (1939), which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the early modern period. (2002), saying that his criticism amounted to hateful defamation of Elias, through excessive standards of political correctness.}} In The Philosophy of Civilization (1923), Albert Schweitzer outlines two opinions: one purely material and the other material and ethical. He said that the world crisis was from humanity losing the ethical idea of civilization, "the sum total of all progress made by man in every sphere of action and from every point of view in so far as the progress helps towards the spiritual perfecting of individuals as the progress of all progress". Related words like "civility" developed in the mid-16th century. The abstract noun "civilization", meaning "civilized condition", came in the 1760s, again from French. The first known use in French is in 1757, by Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau, and the first use in English is attributed to Adam Ferguson, who in his 1767 Essay on the History of Civil Society wrote, <!-- Keep original spelling please. -->"Not only the individual advances from infancy to manhood but the species itself from rudeness to civilisation". The word was therefore opposed to barbarism or rudeness, in the active pursuit of progress characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French Revolution, "civilization" was used in the singular, never in the plural, and meant the progress of humanity as a whole. This is still the case in French. Only in this generalized sense does it become possible to speak of a "medieval civilization", which in Elias's sense would have been an oxymoron. Using the terms "civilization" and "culture" as equivalents are controversial and generally rejected so that for example some types of culture are not normally described as civilizations. Already in the 18th century, civilization was not always seen as an improvement. One historically important distinction between culture and civilization is from the writings of Rousseau, particularly his work about education, Emile. Here, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accord with human nature, and "human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original discursive or pre-rational natural unity" (see noble savage). From this, a new approach was developed, especially in Germany, first by Johann Gottfried Herder and later by philosophers such as Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. This sees cultures as natural organisms, not defined by "conscious, rational, deliberative acts", but a kind of pre-rational "folk spirit". Civilization, in contrast, though more rational and more successful in material progress, is unnatural and leads to "vices of social life" such as guile, hypocrisy, envy and avarice. In World War II, Leo Strauss, having fled Germany, argued in New York that this opinion of civilization was behind Nazism and German militarism and nihilism. Characteristics : Greece is traditionally seen as the cradle of a distinct European or "Western" civilization.]] Social scientists such as V. Gordon Childe have named a number of traits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society. Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, literacy and other cultural traits. Andrew Nikiforuk argues that "civilizations relied on shackled human muscle. It took the energy of slaves to plant crops, clothe emperors, and build cities" and considers slavery to be a common feature of pre-modern civilizations. All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, with the possible exception of some early civilizations in Peru which may have depended upon maritime resources. The traditional "surplus model" postulates that cereal farming results in accumulated storage and a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as artificial fertilization, irrigation and crop rotation. It is possible but more difficult to accumulate horticultural production, and so civilizations based on horticultural gardening have been very rare. Grain surpluses have been especially important because grain can be stored for a long time. Research from the Journal of Political Economy contradicts the surplus model. It postulates that horticultural gardening was more productive than cereal farming. However, only cereal farming produced civilization because of the appropriability of yearly harvest. Rural populations that could only grow cereals could be taxed allowing for a taxing elite and urban development. This also had a negative effect on rural population, increasing relative agricultural output per farmer. Farming efficiency created food surplus and sustained the food surplus through decreasing rural population growth in favour of urban growth. Suitability of highly productive roots and tubers was in fact a curse of plenty, which prevented the emergence of states and impeded economic development. A surplus of food permits some people to do things besides producing food for a living: early civilizations included soldiers, artisans, priests and priestesses, and other people with specialized careers. A surplus of food results in a division of labour and a more diverse range of human activity, a defining trait of civilizations. However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture. It is possible that food surpluses and relatively large scale social organization and division of labour predates plant and animal domestication. Civilizations have distinctly different settlement patterns from other societies. The word civilization is sometimes defined as "living in cities". Non-farmers tend to gather in cities to work and to trade. Compared with other societies, civilizations have a more complex political structure, namely the state. State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes. The ruling class, normally concentrated in the cities, has control over much of the surplus and exercises its will through the actions of a government or bureaucracy. Morton Fried, a conflict theorist and Elman Service, an integration theorist, have classified human cultures based on political systems and social inequality. This system of classification contains four categories. * Hunter-gatherer bands, which are generally egalitarian. * Horticultural–pastoralist societies in which there are generally two inherited social classes: chief and commoner. * Highly stratified structures, or chiefdoms, with several inherited social classes: king, noble, freemen, serf and slave. * Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional forms of government. Economically, civilizations display more complex patterns of ownership and exchange than less organized societies. Living in one place allows people to accumulate more personal possessions than nomadic people. Some people also acquire landed property, or private ownership of the land. Because a percentage of people in civilizations do not grow their own food, they must trade their goods and services for food in a market system, or receive food through the levy of tribute, redistributive taxation, tariffs or tithes from the food producing segment of the population. Early human cultures functioned through a gift economy supplemented by limited barter systems. By the early Iron Age, contemporary civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for increasingly complex transactions. In a village, the potter makes a pot for the brewer and the brewer compensates the potter by giving him a certain amount of beer. In a city, the potter may need a new roof, the roofer may need new shoes, the cobbler may need new horseshoes, the blacksmith may need a new coat and the tanner may need a new pot. These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time. A monetary system is a way of organizing these obligations to ensure that they are fulfilled. From the days of the earliest monetarized civilizations, monopolistic controls of monetary systems have benefited the social and political elites. The transition from simpler to more complex economies does not necessarily mean an improvement in the living standards of the populace. For example, although the Middle Ages is often portrayed as an era of decline from the Roman Empire, studies have shown that the average stature of males in the Middle Ages (c. 500 to 1500 CE) was greater than it was for males during the preceding Roman Empire and the succeeding Early Modern Period (c. 1500 to 1800 CE). Also, the Plains Indians of North America in the 19th century were taller than their "civilized" American and European counterparts. The average stature of a population is a good measurement of the adequacy of its access to necessities, especially food, and its freedom from disease. Writing, developed first by people in Sumer, is considered a hallmark of civilization and "appears to accompany the rise of complex administrative bureaucracies or the conquest state". Traders and bureaucrats relied on writing to keep accurate records. Like money, the writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other. However, writing is not always necessary for civilization, as shown by the Inca civilization of the Andes, which did not use writing at all but except for a complex recording system consisting of knotted strings of different lengths and colours: the "Quipus", and still functioned as a civilized society. , the Ancient Greek philosopher and scientist]] Aided by their division of labour and central government planning, civilizations have developed many other diverse cultural traits. These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science and technology. Assessments of what level of civilization a polity has reached are based on comparisons of the relative importance of agricultural as opposed to trading or manufacturing capacities, the territorial extensions of its power, the complexity of its division of labour, and the carrying capacity of its urban centres. Secondary elements include a developed transportation system, writing, standardized measurement, currency, contractual and tort-based legal systems, art, architecture, mathematics, scientific understanding, metallurgy, political structures, and organized religion. As a contrast with other societies The idea of civilization implies a progression or development from a previous "uncivilized" state. Traditionally, cultures that defined themselves as "civilized" often did so in contrast to other societies or human groupings viewed as less civilized, calling the latter barbarians, savages, and primitives. Indeed, the modern Western idea of civilization developed as a contrast to the indigenous cultures European settlers encountered during the European colonization of the Americas and Australia. The term "primitive," though once used in anthropology, has now been largely condemned by anthropologists because of its derogatory connotations and because it implies that the cultures it refers to are relics of a past time that do not change or progress. Because of this, societies regarding themselves as "civilized" have sometimes sought to dominate and assimilate "uncivilized" cultures into a "civilized" way of living. In the 19th century, the idea of European culture as "civilized" and superior to "uncivilized" non-European cultures was fully developed, and civilization became a core part of European identity. The idea of civilization can also be used as a justification for dominating another culture and dispossessing a people of their land. For example, in Australia, British settlers justified the displacement of Indigenous Australians by observing that the land appeared uncultivated and wild, which to them reflected that the inhabitants were not civilized enough to "improve" it. Many civilizations are actually large cultural spheres containing many nations and regions. The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity. mission in Libya during the war in 2011 to protect the cultural assets there.]] It is precisely the protection of this cultural identity that is becoming increasingly important nationally and internationally. According to international law, the United Nations and UNESCO try to set up and enforce relevant rules. The aim is to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity and also the cultural identity, especially in the case of war and armed conflict. According to Karl von Habsburg, President of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target of the attack is often the opponent's cultural identity, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to destroy the particularly sensitive cultural memory (museums, archives, monuments, etc.), the grown cultural diversity, and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, region or community. Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as discrete units. Early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler, uses the German word Kultur, "culture", for what many call a "civilization". Spengler believed a civilization's coherence is based on a single primary cultural symbol. Cultures experience cycles of birth, life, decline, and death, often supplanted by a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol. Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as "the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable". Complex systems and Persians at the Apadana, Persepolis.]] Another group of theorists, making use of systems theory, looks at a civilization as a complex system, i.e., a framework by which a group of objects can be analysed that work in concert to produce some result. Civilizations can be seen as networks of cities that emerge from pre-urban cultures and are defined by the economic, political, military, diplomatic, social and cultural interactions among them. Any organization is a complex social system and a civilization is a large organization. Systems theory helps guard against superficial and misleading analogies in the study and description of civilizations. Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges and political/diplomatic/military relations. These spheres often occur on different scales. For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensive trade routes, including the Silk Road through Central Asia and Indian Ocean sea routes linking the Roman Empire, Persian Empire, India and China, were well established 2000 years ago when these civilizations scarcely shared any political, diplomatic, military, or cultural relations. The first evidence of such long-distance trade is in the ancient world. During the Uruk period, Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan. Resin found later in the Royal Cemetery at Ur is suggested was traded northwards from Mozambique. Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single "world system", a process known as globalization. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began, and what sort of integration – cultural, technological, economic, political, or military-diplomatic – is the key indicator in determining the extent of a civilization. David Wilkinson has proposed that economic and military-diplomatic integration of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations resulted in the creation of what he calls the "Central Civilization" around 1500 BCE. Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century. According to Wilkinson, civilizations can be culturally heterogeneous, like the Central Civilization, or homogeneous, like the Japanese civilization. What Huntington calls the "clash of civilizations" might be characterized by Wilkinson as a clash of cultural spheres within a single global civilization. Others point to the Crusading movement as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies have expanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recent European colonialism. History The notion of human history as a succession of "civilizations" is an entirely modern one. In the European Age of Discovery, emerging Modernity was put into stark contrast with the Neolithic and Mesolithic stage of the cultures of many of the peoples they encountered. Nonetheless, developments in the Neolithic stage, such as agriculture and sedentary settlement, were critical to the development of modern conceptions of civilization. Urban Revolution The Natufian culture in the Levantine corridor provides the earliest case of a Neolithic Revolution, with the planting of cereal crops attested from 11,000 BCE. The earliest neolithic technology and lifestyle were established first in Western Asia (for example at Göbekli Tepe, from about 9,130 BCE), later in the Yellow River and Yangtze basins in China (for example the Peiligang and Pengtoushan cultures), and from these cores spread across Eurasia. Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest civilizations developing from 7,400 years ago. This area has been evaluated by Beverley Milton-Edwards as having "inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the building of the earliest cities and the development of written cursive script". Similar pre-civilized "neolithic revolutions" also began independently from 7,000 BCE in northwestern South America (the Caral-Supe civilization) and in Mesoamerica. The Black Sea area served as a cradle of European civilization. The site of Solnitsata – a prehistoric fortified (walled) stone settlement (prehistoric proto-city) (5500–4200 BCE) – is believed by some archaeologists to be the oldest known town in present-day Europe.<!-- The first gold artifacts in the world appear from the 4th millennium BC, such as those found in a burial site from 4569 to 4340 BCE and one of the most important archaeological sites in world prehistory – the Varna Necropolis near Lake Varna in Bulgaria, thought to be the earliest "well-dated" find of gold artifacts. --> The 8.2 Kiloyear Arid Event and the 5.9 Kiloyear Inter-pluvial saw the drying out of semiarid regions and a major spread of deserts. This climate change shifted the cost-benefit ratio of endemic violence between communities, which saw the abandonment of unwalled village communities and the appearance of walled cities, seen by some as a characteristic of early civilizations. n city Teotihuacan]] This "urban revolution"—a term introduced by Childe in the 1930s—from the 4th millennium BCE, marked the beginning of the accumulation of transferable economic surpluses, which helped economies and cities develop. Urban revolutions were associated with the state monopoly of violence, the appearance of a warrior, or soldier, class and endemic warfare (a state of continual or frequent warfare), the rapid development of hierarchies, and the use of human sacrifice. The civilized urban revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of sedentism, the domestication of grains, plants and animals, the permanence of settlements and development of lifestyles that facilitated economies of scale and accumulation of surplus production by particular social sectors. The transition from complex cultures to civilizations, while still disputed, seems to be associated with the development of state structures, in which power was further monopolized by an elite ruling class who practiced human sacrifice. Towards the end of the Neolithic period, various elitist Chalcolithic civilizations began to rise in various "cradles" from around 3600 BCE beginning with Mesopotamia, expanding into large-scale kingdoms and empires in the course of the Bronze Age (Akkadian Empire, Indus Valley Civilization, Old Kingdom of Egypt, Neo-Sumerian Empire, Middle Assyrian Empire, Babylonian Empire, Hittite Empire, and to some degree the territorial expansions of the Elamites, Hurrians, Amorites and Ebla). Outside the Old World, development took place independently in the Pre-Columbian Americas. Urbanization in the Caral-Supe civilization in what is now coastal Peru began about 3500 BCE. In North America, the Olmec civilization emerged about 1200 BCE; the oldest known Mayan city, located in what is now Guatemala, dates to about 750 BCE. and Teotihuacan (near the modern Mexico City) was one of the largest cities in the world in 350 CE, with a population of about 125,000. Axial Age The Bronze Age collapse was followed by the Iron Age around 1200 BCE, during which a number of new civilizations emerged, culminating in a period from the 8th to the 3rd century BCE which Karl Jaspers termed the Axial Age, presented as a critical transitional phase leading to classical civilization. Modernity A major technological and cultural transition to modernity began approximately 1500 CE in Western Europe, and from this beginning new approaches to science and law spread rapidly around the world, incorporating earlier cultures into the technological and industrial society of the present. Fall of civilizations Civilizations are traditionally understood as ending in one of two ways; either through incorporation into another expanding civilization (e.g. as Ancient Egypt was incorporated into Hellenistic Greek, and subsequently Roman civilizations), or by collapsing and reverting to a simpler form of living, as happens in so-called Dark Ages. There have been many explanations put forward for the collapse of civilization. Some focus on historical examples, and others on general theory. * Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddimah influenced theories of the analysis, growth, and decline of the Islamic civilization. He suggested repeated invasions from nomadic peoples limited development and led to social collapse. played an important role in the fall of the Roman Empire.]] * Edward Gibbon's work The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a well-known and detailed analysis of the fall of Roman civilization. Gibbon suggested the final act of the collapse of Rome was the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. For Gibbon, "The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the cause of the destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest; and, as soon as time or accident had removed the artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure of its own weight. The story of the ruin is simple and obvious; and instead of inquiring why the Roman Empire was destroyed, we should rather be surprised that it has subsisted for so long". * Theodor Mommsen in his History of Rome suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and he also tended towards a biological analogy of "genesis", "growth", "senescence", "collapse" and "decay". * Oswald Spengler, in his Decline of the West rejected Petrarch's chronological division, and suggested that there had been only eight "mature civilizations". Growing cultures, he argued, tend to develop into imperialistic civilizations, which expand and ultimately collapse, with democratic forms of government ushering in plutocracy and ultimately imperialism. * Arnold J. Toynbee in his A Study of History suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen. The cause of the fall of a civilization occurred when a cultural elite became a parasitic elite, leading to the rise of internal and external proletariats. * Joseph Tainter in The Collapse of Complex Societies suggested that there were diminishing returns to complexity, due to which, as states achieved a maximum permissible complexity, they would decline when further increases actually produced a negative return. Tainter suggested that Rome achieved this figure in the 2nd century CE. * Jared Diamond in his 2005 book Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed suggests five major reasons for the collapse of 41 studied cultures: environmental damage, such as deforestation and soil erosion; climate change; dependence upon long-distance trade for needed resources; increasing levels of internal and external violence, such as war or invasion; and societal responses to internal and environmental problems. * Peter Turchin in his [https://web.archive.org/web/20060830212141/http://www.eeb.uconn.edu/faculty/turchin/HistDyn.htm Historical Dynamics] and Andrey Korotayev et al. in their [https://www.academia.edu/22215616/Introduction_to_Social_Macrodynamics_Secular_Cycles_and_Millennial_Trends Introduction to Social Macrodynamics, Secular Cycles, and Millennial Trends] suggest a number of mathematical models describing collapse of agrarian civilizations. For example, the basic logic of Turchin's "fiscal-demographic" model can be outlined as follows: during the initial phase of a sociodemographic cycle we observe relatively high levels of per capita production and consumption, which leads not only to relatively high population growth rates, but also to relatively high rates of surplus production. As a result, during this phase the population can afford to pay taxes without great problems, the taxes are quite easily collectible, and the population growth is accompanied by the growth of state revenues. During the intermediate phase, the increasing population growth leads to the decrease of per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state. As a result, during this phase the state starts experiencing considerable fiscal problems. During the final pre-collapse phases the overpopulation leads to further decrease of per capita production, the surplus production further decreases, state revenues shrink, but the state needs more and more resources to control the growing (though with lower and lower rates) population. Eventually this leads to famines, epidemics, state breakdown, and demographic and civilization collapse. * Peter Heather argues in his book The Fall of the Roman Empire: a New History of Rome and the Barbarians that this civilization did not end for moral or economic reasons, but because centuries of contact with barbarians across the frontier generated its own nemesis by making them a more sophisticated and dangerous adversary. The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire. Although this argument is specific to Rome, it can also be applied to the Asiatic Empire of the Egyptians, to the Han and Tang dynasties of China, to the Muslim Abbasid Caliphate and others. * Bryan Ward-Perkins, in his book The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization, argues from mostly archaeological evidence that the collapse of Roman civilization in western Europe had deleterious impacts on the living standards of the population, unlike some historians who downplay this. The collapse of complex society meant that even basic plumbing for the elite disappeared from the continent for 1,000 years. Similar impacts have been postulated for the Dark Age after the Late Bronze Age collapse in the Eastern Mediterranean, the collapse of the Maya, on Easter Island and elsewhere. * Arthur Demarest argues in Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization, using a holistic perspective to the most recent evidence from archaeology, paleoecology, and epigraphy, that no one explanation is sufficient but that a series of erratic, complex events, including loss of soil fertility, drought and rising levels of internal and external violence led to the disintegration of the courts of Mayan kingdoms, which began a spiral of decline and decay. He argues that the collapse of the Maya has lessons for civilization today. * Jeffrey A. McNeely has recently suggested that "a review of historical evidence shows that past civilizations have tended to over-exploit their forests, and that such abuse of important resources has been a significant factor in the decline of the over-exploiting society". * Thomas Homer-Dixon considers the fall in the energy return on investments. The energy expended to energy yield ratio is central to limiting the survival of civilizations. The degree of social complexity is associated strongly, he suggests, with the amount of disposable energy environmental, economic and technological systems allow. When this amount decreases civilizations either have to access new energy sources or collapse. * Feliks Koneczny in his work "On the Plurality of Civilizations" calls his study the science on civilizations. He asserts that civilizations fall not because they must or there exist some cyclical or a "biological" life span and that there stil exist two ancient civilizations – Brahmin-Hindu and Chinese – which are not ready to fall any time soon. Koneczny claimed that civilizations cannot be mixed into hybrids, an inferior civilization when given equal rights within a highly developed civilization will overcome it. One of Koneczny's claims in his study on civilizations is that "a person cannot be civilized in two or more ways" without falling into what he calls an "abcivilized state" (as in abnormal). He also stated that when two or more civilizations exist next to one another and as long as they are vital, they will be in an existential combat imposing its own "method of organizing social life" upon the other. Absorbing alien "method of organizing social life" that is civilization and giving it equal rights yields a process of decay and decomposition. Future '' by Samuel P. Huntington.]] According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, the 21st century will be characterized by a clash of civilizations, Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris have argued that the "true clash of civilizations" between the Muslim world and the West is caused by the Muslim rejection of the West's more liberal sexual values, rather than a difference in political ideology, although they note that this lack of tolerance is likely to lead to an eventual rejection of (true) democracy. In Identity and Violence Sen questions if people should be divided along the lines of a supposed "civilization", defined by religion and culture only. He argues that this ignores the many others identities that make up people and leads to a focus on differences. Cultural Historian Morris Berman argues in Dark Ages America: the End of Empire that in the corporate consumerist United States, the very factors that once propelled it to greatness―extreme individualism, territorial and economic expansion, and the pursuit of material wealth―have pushed the United States across a critical threshold where collapse is inevitable. Politically associated with over-reach, and as a result of the environmental exhaustion and polarization of wealth between rich and poor, he concludes the current system is fast arriving at a situation where continuation of the existing system saddled with huge deficits and a hollowed-out economy is physically, socially, economically and politically impossible. Although developed in much more depth, Berman's thesis is similar in some ways to that of Urban Planner, Jane Jacobs who argues that the five pillars of United States culture are in serious decay: community and family; higher education; the effective practice of science; taxation and government; and the self-regulation of the learned professions. The corrosion of these pillars, Jacobs argues, is linked to societal ills such as environmental crisis, racism and the growing gulf between rich and poor. Cultural critic and author Derrick Jensen argues that modern civilization is directed towards the domination of the environment and humanity itself in an intrinsically harmful, unsustainable, and self-destructive fashion. Defending his definition both linguistically and historically, he defines civilization as "a culture... that both leads to and emerges from the growth of cities", with "cities" defined as "people living more or less permanently in one place in densities high enough to require the routine importation of food and other necessities of life". This need for civilizations to import ever more resources, he argues, stems from their over-exploitation and diminution of their own local resources. Therefore, civilizations inherently adopt imperialist and expansionist policies and, to maintain these, highly militarized, hierarchically structured, and coercion-based cultures and lifestyles. The Kardashev scale classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The scale is only hypothetical, but it puts energy consumption in a cosmic perspective. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently known to exist. Non-human civilizations The current scientific consensus is that human beings are the only animal species with the cognitive ability to create civilizations that has emerged on Earth. A recent thought experiment, the silurian hypothesis, however, considers whether it would "be possible to detect an industrial civilization in the geological record" given the paucity of geological information about eras before the quaternary. Astronomers speculate about the existence of communicating with intelligent civilizations within and beyond the Milky Way galaxy, usually using variants of the Drake equation. They conduct searches for such intelligences – such as for technological traces, called "technosignatures". The proposed proto-scientific field "xenoarchaeology" is concerned with the study of artifact remains of non-human civilizations to reconstruct and interpret past lives of alien societies if such get discovered and confirmed scientifically. See also Notes References Bibliography * * * * * * * * <!-- The influence of commerce on civilization --> * * * * * # From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto. (1987 reprint). # From the Defeat of the Spanish Armada to the Battle of Waterloo. (1987 reprint). # From the American Civil War to the End of World War II. (1987 reprint). * * * * * * * * Korotayev, Andrey, World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2004. * Kradin, Nikolay. Archaeological Criteria of Civilization. Social Evolution & History, Vol. 5, No 1 (2006): 89–108. . * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * Gribbin, John, [https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/are-humans-alone-in-the-milky-way/ "Alone in the Milky Way: Why We Are Probably the Only Intelligent Life in the Galaxy"], Scientific American, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 94–99. "Is life likely to exist elsewhere in the [Milky Way] galaxy? Almost certainly yes, given the speed with which it appeared on Earth. Is another technological civilization likely to exist today? Almost certainly no, given the chain of circumstances that led to our existence. These considerations suggest that we are unique not just on our planet but in the whole Milky Way. And if our planet is so special, it becomes all the more important to preserve this unique world for ourselves, our descendants and the many creatures that call Earth home." (p. 99.) External links * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/interactive/civilisations/ BBC on civilization] * [https://historyten.com/ancient-civilization/oldest-civilizations-of-all-time/ Top 10 oldest civilizations] Category:Anthropological categories of peoples Category:Cultural anthropology Category:Cultural geography Category:Cultural history Category:Linear theories	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization	2025-04-05T18:27:46.211592
6259	Civilization (video game)	Civilization (series)}} Civilisation I}} \|Super NESPS1, Saturn}} \| series = Civilization \| producer = Sid Meier \| designer = Sid Meier <br /> Bruce Shelley \| programmer = Sid Meier \| writer = B. C. Milligan <br /> Jeffery L. Briggs <br /> Bruce Shelley \| composer = Jeffery L. Briggs \| platforms MS-DOS <br /> Amiga <br /> PC-98 <br /> Atari ST <br /> Windows <br /> Macintosh <br /> Super NES <br /> Sony PlayStation <br /> Sega Saturn \| released September 1991 Along with the larger tasks of exploration, warfare and diplomacy, the player has to make decisions about where to build new cities, which improvements or units to build in each city, which advances in knowledge should be sought (and at what rate), and how to transform the land surrounding the cities for maximum benefit. From time to time the player's towns may be harassed by barbarians, units with no specific nationality and no named leader. These threats only come from huts, unclaimed land or sea, so that over time and turns of exploration, there are fewer and fewer places from which barbarians will emanate. Before the game begins, the player chooses which historical or current civilization to play. In contrast to later games in the Civilization series, this is largely a cosmetic choice, affecting titles, city names, musical heralds, and color. The choice does affect their starting position on the "Play on Earth" map, and thus different resources in one's initial cities, but has no effect on starting position when starting a random world game or a customized world game. The player's choice of civilization also prevents the computer from being able to play as that civilization or the other civilization of the same color, and since computer-controlled opponents display certain traits of their civilizations this affects gameplay as well. The Aztecs are both fiercely expansionist and generally extremely wealthy, for example. Other civilizations include the Americans, the Mongols, and Romans. Each civilization is led by a famous historical figure, such as Mahatma Gandhi for India. The scope of Civilization is larger than most other games. The game begins in 4000 BC, before the Bronze Age, and can last through to AD 2100 (on the easiest setting) with Space Age and "future technologies". At the start of the game there are no cities anywhere in the world: the player controls one or two settler units, which can be used to found new cities in appropriate sites (and those cities may build other settler units, which can go out and found new cities, thus expanding the empire). Settlers can also alter terrain, build improvements such as mines and irrigation, build roads to connect cities, and later in the game they can construct railroads which offer unlimited movement. As time advances, new technologies are developed; these technologies are the primary way in which the game changes and grows. At the start, players choose from advances such as pottery, the wheel, and the alphabet to, near the end of the game, nuclear fission and spaceflight. Players can gain a large advantage if their civilization is the first to learn a particular technology (the secrets of flight, for example) and put it to use in a military or other context. Most advances give access to new units, city improvements or derivative technologies: for example, the chariot unit becomes available after the wheel is developed, and the granary building becomes available to build after pottery is developed. The whole system of advancements from beginning to end is called the technology tree, or simply the Tech tree; this concept has been adopted in many other strategy games. Since only one tech may be "researched" at any given time, the order in which technologies are chosen makes a considerable difference in the outcome of the game and generally reflects the player's preferred style of gameplay. Players can also build Wonders of the World in each of the epochs of the game, subject only to obtaining the prerequisite knowledge. These wonders are important achievements of society, science, culture and defense, ranging from the Pyramids and the Great Wall in the Ancient age, to Copernicus' Observatory and Magellan's Expedition in the middle period, up to the Apollo program, the United Nations, and the Manhattan Project in the modern era. Each wonder can only be built once in the world, and requires a lot of resources to build, far more than most other city buildings or units. Wonders provide unique benefits to the controlling civilization. For example, Magellan's Expedition increases the movement rate of naval units. Wonders typically affect either the city in which they are built (for example, the Colossus), every city on the continent (for example, J.S. Bach's Cathedral), or the civilization as a whole (for example, Darwin's Voyage). Some wonders are made obsolete by new technologies. The game can be won by conquering all other civilizations or by winning the space race by reaching the star system of Alpha Centauri. Development Prior Civilization-named games British designer Francis Tresham released his Civilization board game in 1980 under his company Hartland Trefoil. Avalon Hill had obtained the rights to publish it in the United States in 1981. Don Daglow, designer of Utopia, the first simulation game, began work programming a version of Civilization in 1987. He dropped the project, however, when he was offered an executive position at Broderbund, and never returned to the game. Development at MicroProse ]] Sid Meier and Bill Stealey co-founded MicroProse in 1982 to develop flight simulators and other military strategy video games based on Stealey's past experiences as a United States Air Force pilot. He took to heart the success of the new god game genre, in particular SimCity (1989) and Populous (1989). Specifically with SimCity, Meier recognized that video games could still be entertaining based on building something up. By then, Meier was not an official employee of MicroProse but worked under contract where the company paid him upfront for game development, a large payment on delivery of the game, and additional royalties on each game of his sold. Meier described his development process as sculpting with clay. His prototype took elements from Empire, Railroad Tycoon, SimCity and the Civilization board game. Meier described the process as "Add another bit [of clay]—no, that went too far. Scrape it off". He eliminated the potential for any civilization to fall on its own, believing this would be punishing to the player. "Though historically accurate", Meier said, "The moment the Krakatoa volcano blew up, or the bubonic plague came marching through, all anybody wanted to do was reload from a saved game". Meier omitted multiplayer alliances because the computer used them too effectively, causing players to think that it was cheating. He said that by contrast, minefields and minesweepers caused the computer to do "stupid things ... If you've got a feature that makes the AI look stupid, take it out. It's more important not to have stupid AI than to have good AI". Meier also omitted jets and helicopters because he thought players would not find obtaining new technologies in the endgame useful, and online multiplayer support because of the small number of online players ("if you had friends, you wouldn't need to play computer games"); he also did not believe that online play worked well with turn-based play. The game was developed for the IBM PC platform, which at the time had support for both 16-color EGA to 256-color VGA; Meier opted to support both 16-color and 256-color graphics to allow the game to run on both EGA/Tandy and VGA/MCGA systems. "I’ve never been able to decide if it was a mistake to keep Civ isolated as long as I did", Meier wrote; while "as many eyes as possible" are beneficial during development, Meier and Shelley worked very quickly together, combining the roles of playtester, game designer, and programmer. Meier and Shelley neared the end of their development and started presenting the game to the rest of MicroProse for feedback towards publication. This process was slowed by the current vice president of development, who had taken over Meier's former position at the company. This vice president did not receive any financial bonuses for successful publication of Meier's games due to Meier's contract terms, forgoing any incentive to provide the needed resources to finish the game. "One of my big rules has always been, 'double it, or cut it in half, Meier wrote. He cut the map's size in half less than a month before Civilization release after playtesting revealed that the previous size was too large and made for boring and repetitive gameplay. Other automated features, like city management, were modified to require more player involvement. By the time the game was completed and ready for release, Meier estimated that it had cost $170,000 in development. As a net result, CivNet was generally overshadowed by Civilization II which was released in the following year.Post-releaseCivilization'' critical success created a "golden period of MicroProse" where there was more potential for similar strategy games to succeed, according to Meier. This put stress on the company's direction and culture. Stealey wanted to continue to pursue the military-themed titles, while Meier wanted to continue his success with simulation games. \|GR \|GI 8.5/10 (SNES) \|NGen (SNES) and has a loyal following of fans. This high level of interest has led to the creation of a number of free and open source versions and inspired similar games by other commercial developers. Computer Gaming World stated that "a new Olympian in the genre of god games has truly emerged", comparing Civilization importance to computer games to that of the wheel. Jim Trunzo reviewed Civilization in White Wolf #31 (May/June, 1992) and stated that "Civilization should have great appeal to the plotters and thinkers, those who like challenges on a global scale. 'Might makes right' addicts should stick to games less cerebral." Jeff Koke reviewed Civilization in Pyramid #2 (July/Aug., 1993), and stated that "Ultimately, there are games that are a lot flashier than Civilization, with cool graphics and animation, but there aren't many - or any - in my book that have the ability to absorb the player so totally and to provide an interesting, unique outcome each and every time it's played." Civilization won the Origins Award in the category Best Military or Strategy Computer Game of 1991. A 1992 Computer Gaming World survey of wargames with modern settings gave the game five stars out of five, describing it as "more addictive than crack ... so rich and textured that the documentation is incomplete". In 1992 the magazine named it the Overall Game of the Year, in 1993 added the game to its Hall of Fame, and in 1996 chose Civilization as the best game of all time: A critic for Next Generation judged the Super NES version to be a disappointing port, with a cumbersome menu system (particularly that the "City" and "Production" windows are on separate screens), an unintuitive button configuration, and ugly scaled down graphics. However, he gave it a positive recommendation due to the strong gameplay and strategy of the original game: "if you've never taken a crack at this game before, be prepared to lose hours, even days, trying to conquer those pesky Babylonians." Sir Garnabus of GamePro, in contrast, was pleased with the Super NES version's interface, and said the graphics and audio are above that of a typical strategy game. He also said the game stood out among the Super NES's generally action-oriented library. In 1996, Computer Gaming World listed it as the best game of all time. In 2000, GameSpot rated Civilization as the tenth most influential video game of all time. It was also ranked at fourth place on IGN 2000 list of the top PC games of all time. In 2004, readers of Retro Gamer voted it as the 29th top retro game. In 2007, it was named one of the 16 most influential games in history at a German technology and games trade show Telespiele. In Poland, it was included in the retrospective lists of the best Amiga games by Wirtualna Polska (ranked ninth) and CHIP (ranked fifth). In 2012, Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time. In 1994, PC Gamer US named Civilization the second best computer game ever. The editors wrote, "The depth of strategies possible is impressive, and the look and feel of the game will keep you playing and exploring for months. Truly a remarkable title." That same year, PC Gamer UK named its Windows release the sixth best computer game of all time, calling it Sid Meier's "crowning glory". On March 12, 2007, The New York Times reported on a list of the ten most important video games of all time, the so-called game canon, including Civilization. By the release of Civilization II in 1996, Civilization had sold over 850,000 copies. By 2001, sales had reached 1 million copies. Shelley stated in a 2016 interview that Civilization had sold 1.5 million copies.Reviews* Casus Belli #70 (July 1992)Legacy There have been several sequels to Civilization, including Civilization II (1996), Civilization III (2001), Civilization IV (2005), Civilization Revolution (2008), Civilization V (2010), Civilization VI (2016), and Civilization VII in 2025. In 1994, Meier produced a similar game titled Colonization. Civilization is generally considered the first major game in the genre of "4X", with the four "X"s equating to "explore, expand, exploit, and exterminate", a term developed by Alan Emrich in promoting 1993's Master of Orion. While other video games with the principles of 4X had been released prior to Civilization, future 4X games would attribute some of their basic design principles to Civilization. A famous supposed bug in the original game - later debunked - is that a computer-controlled Gandhi, normally a highly peaceful leader, could become a nuclear warmonger if provoked. It was theorized that the game started Gandhi's "aggression value" at 1 out of a maximum 255 possible for an 8-bit unsigned integer, making a computer-controlled Gandhi tend to avoid armed conflict. However, once a civilization achieves democracy as its form of government, its leader's aggression value falls by 2. Under normal arithmetic principles, Gandhi's "1" would be reduced to "-1", but because the value is an 8-bit unsigned integer, it supposedly wraps around to "255", causing Gandhi to suddenly become the most aggressive opponent in the game. Interviewed in 2019, developer Brian Reynolds said with "99.99% certainty" that this story was apocryphal, recalling Gandhi's coded aggression level as being no lower than other peaceful leaders in the game, and doubting that a wraparound would have had the effect described. He noted that all leaders in the game become "pretty ornery" after their acquisition of nuclear weapons, and suggested that this behaviour simply seemed more surprising and memorable when it happened to Gandhi. Meier, in his autobiography, stated "That kind of bug comes from something called unsigned characters, which are not the default in the C programming language, and not something I used for the leader traits. Brian Reynolds wrote Civ II in C++, and he didn't use them, either. We received no complaints about a Gandhi bug when either game came out, nor did we send out any revisions for one. Gandhi's military aggressiveness score remained at 1 throughout the game." He then explains the overflow error story was made up in 2012. It spread from there to a Wikia entry, then eventually to Reddit, and was picked up by news sites like Kotaku and Geek.com. The story may have originated from the fact that 2010's Civilization V was deliberately written with Gandhi having an affinity for nuclear weapons, added as a joke by developer Jon Shafer. The misinformation around this bug led to the meme known as "Nuclear Gandhi". That year MicroProse published Master of Magic, a similar game but embedded in a medieval-fantasy setting where instead of technologies the player (a powerful wizard) develops spells, among other things. In 1999, Activision released Civilization: Call to Power, a sequel of sorts to Civilization II but created by a completely different design team. Call to Power spawned a sequel in 2000, but by then Activision had sold the rights to the Civilization name and could only call it Call to Power II. An open source clone of Civilization has been developed under the name of Freeciv, with the slogan "'Cause civilization should be free." This game can be configured to match the rules of either Civilization or Civilization II. Another game that partially clones Civilization is a public domain game called C-evo. References * ''The Official Guide to Sid Meier's Civilization'', Keith Ferrell, Edmund Ferrell, Compute Books, 1992, . Citations External links * [https://civilization.com/civilization-1/ Official website] Category:1991 video games Category:4X video games Category:Amiga games Category:Amiga 1200 games Category:Asmik Ace Entertainment games Category:Atari ST games 1 Category:Alternate history video games Category:Classic Mac OS games Category:Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln Category:Cultural depictions of Mahatma Gandhi Category:DOS games Category:Historical simulation games Category:Koei games Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games Category:NEC PC-9801 games Category:Origins Award winners Category:PlayStation (console) games Category:Video games designed by Sid Meier Category:Super Nintendo Entertainment System games Category:Top-down video games Category:Turn-based strategy video games Category:Video games based on board games Category:Video games developed in the United States Category:Video games scored by Jeff Briggs Category:Video games scored by John Broomhall Category:Video games using procedural generation Category:Windows games Category:World Video Game Hall of Fame Category:Works about diplomacy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilization_(video_game)	2025-04-05T18:27:46.243343
6260	Claude Debussy	<!-- Before adding an infobox, please consult Wikipedia:WikiProject Composers#Biographical infoboxes and seek consensus on this article's talk page. --> }}\|alt=head and shoulders photograph of middle-aged, white, dark-haired, bearded man]] Achille Claude Debussy--> 22 August 1862 – 25 March 1918) was a French composer. He is sometimes seen as the first Impressionist composer, although he vigorously rejected the term. He was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Born to a family of modest means and little cultural involvement, Debussy showed enough musical talent to be admitted at the age of ten to France's leading music college, the Conservatoire de Paris. He originally studied the piano, but found his vocation in innovative composition, despite the disapproval of the Conservatoire's conservative professors. He took many years to develop his mature style, and was nearly 40 when he achieved international fame in 1902 with the only opera he completed, Pelléas et Mélisande. Debussy's orchestral works include ''Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune (1894), Nocturnes (1897–1899) and Images (1905–1912). His music was to a considerable extent a reaction against Wagner and the German musical tradition. He regarded the classical symphony as obsolete and sought an alternative in his "symphonic sketches", La mer (1903–1905). His piano works include sets of 24 Préludes and 12 Études. Throughout his career he wrote mélodies based on a wide variety of poetry, including his own. He was greatly influenced by the Symbolist poetic movement of the later 19th century. A small number of works, including the early La Damoiselle élue and the late Le Martyre de saint Sébastien'' have important parts for chorus. In his final years, he focused on chamber music, completing three of six planned sonatas for different combinations of instruments. With early influences including Russian and Far Eastern music and works by Chopin, Debussy developed his own style of harmony and orchestral colouring, derided – and unsuccessfully resisted – by much of the musical establishment of the day. His works have strongly influenced a wide range of composers including Béla Bartók, Olivier Messiaen, George Benjamin, and the jazz pianist and composer Bill Evans. Debussy died from cancer at his home in Paris at the age of 55 after a composing career of a little more than 30 years. Life and career , street of Debussy's birthplace]] Early life Debussy was born on 22 August 1862 in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Seine-et-Oise, on the north-west fringes of Paris. He was the eldest of the five children of Manuel-Achille Debussy and his wife, Victorine, née Manoury. Debussy senior ran a china shop and his wife was a seamstress. The shop was unsuccessful, and closed in 1864; the family moved to Paris, first living with Victorine's mother, in Clichy, and, from 1868, in their own apartment in the Rue Saint-Honoré. Manuel worked in a printing factory. In 1870, to escape the siege of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War, Debussy's pregnant mother took him and his sister Adèle to their paternal aunt's home in Cannes, where they remained until the following year. During his stay in Cannes, the seven-year-old Debussy had his first piano lessons; his aunt paid for him to study with an Italian musician, Jean Cerutti. Sivry's mother, Antoinette Mauté de Fleurville, gave piano lessons, and at his instigation the young Debussy became one of her pupils. Debussy's talents soon became evident, and in 1872, aged ten, he was admitted to the Conservatoire de Paris, where he remained a student for the next eleven years. He first joined the piano class of Antoine François Marmontel, and studied solfège with Albert Lavignac and, later, composition with Ernest Guiraud, harmony with Émile Durand, and organ with César Franck. The course included music history and theory studies with Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray, but it is not certain that Debussy, who was apt to skip classes, actually attended these. At the Conservatoire, Debussy initially made good progress. Marmontel said of him, "A charming child, a truly artistic temperament; much can be expected of him". Another teacher was less impressed: Émile Durand wrote in a report, "Debussy would be an excellent pupil if he were less sketchy and less cavalier." A year later he described Debussy as "desperately careless". In July 1874 Debussy received the award of deuxième accessit for his performance as soloist in the first movement of Chopin's Second Piano Concerto at the Conservatoire's annual competition. He was a fine pianist and an outstanding sight reader, who could have had a professional career had he wished, but he was only intermittently diligent in his studies. He advanced to premier accessit in 1875 and second prize in 1877, but failed at the competitions in 1878 and 1879. These failures made him ineligible to continue in the Conservatoire's piano classes, but he remained a student for harmony, solfège and, later, composition. His first compositions date from this period, two settings of poems by Alfred de Musset: "Ballade à la lune" and "Madrid, princesse des Espagnes". He travelled with her family for the summers of 1880 to 1882, staying at various places in France, Switzerland and Italy, as well as at her home in Moscow. He composed his Piano Trio in G major for von Meck's ensemble, and made a transcription for piano duet of three dances from Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake.\|groupn}} Prix de Rome , 1884]] At the end of 1880 Debussy, while continuing his studies at the Conservatoire, was engaged as accompanist for Marie Moreau-Sainti's singing class; he took this role for four years. Among the members of the class was Marie Vasnier; Debussy was greatly taken with her, and she inspired him to compose: he wrote 27 songs dedicated to her during their seven-year relationship. She was the wife of Henri Vasnier, a prominent civil servant, and much younger than her husband. She soon became Debussy's lover as well as his muse. Whether Vasnier was content to tolerate his wife's affair with the young student or was simply unaware of it is not clear, but he and Debussy remained on excellent terms, and he continued to encourage the composer in his career. At the Conservatoire, Debussy incurred the disapproval of the faculty, particularly his composition teacher, Guiraud, for his failure to follow the orthodox rules of composition then prevailing. Nevertheless, in 1884 Debussy won France's most prestigious musical award, the Prix de Rome, with his cantata ''L'enfant prodigue''. The Prix carried with it a residence at the Villa Medici, the French Academy in Rome, to further the winner's studies. Debussy was there from January 1885 to March 1887, with three or possibly four absences of several weeks when he returned to France, chiefly to see Marie Vasnier. Initially Debussy found the artistic atmosphere of the Villa Medici stifling, the company boorish, the food bad, and the accommodation "abominable". Neither did he delight in Italian opera, as he found the operas of Donizetti and Verdi not to his taste. He was much more impressed by the music of the 16th-century composers Palestrina and Lassus, which he heard at Santa Maria dell'Anima: "The only church music I will accept". Debussy finally composed four pieces that were submitted to the Academy: the symphonic ode Zuleima (based on a text by Heinrich Heine); the orchestral piece Printemps; the cantata La Damoiselle élue (1887–1888), the first piece in which the stylistic features of his later music began to emerge; and the Fantaisie for piano and orchestra, which was heavily based on Franck's music and was eventually withdrawn by Debussy. The Academy chided him for writing music that was "bizarre, incomprehensible and unperformable". Although Debussy's works showed the influence of Jules Massenet, the latter concluded, "He is an enigma". During his years in Rome Debussy composed – not for the Academy – most of his Verlaine cycle, Ariettes oubliées, which made little impact at the time but was successfully republished in 1903 after the composer had become well known. Return to Paris, 1887 A week after his return to Paris in 1887, Debussy heard the first act of Wagner's Tristan und Isolde at the Concerts Lamoureux, and judged it "decidedly the finest thing I know". but, unlike some other French composers of his generation, he concluded that there was no future in attempting to adopt and develop Wagner's style. He commented in 1903 that Wagner was "a beautiful sunset that was mistaken for a dawn". In 1889, at the Paris Exposition Universelle, Debussy first heard Javanese gamelan music. The gamelan scales, melodies, rhythms, and ensemble textures appealed to him, and echoes of them are heard in "Pagodes" in his piano suite Estampes. He also attended two concerts of Rimsky-Korsakov's music, conducted by the composer. Marie Vasnier ended her liaison with Debussy soon after his final return from Rome, although they remained on good enough terms for him to dedicate to her one more song, "Mandoline", in 1890. Later in 1890 Debussy met Erik Satie, who proved a kindred spirit in his experimental approach to composition. Both were bohemians, enjoying the same café society and struggling to survive financially. In the same year Debussy began a relationship with Gabrielle (Gaby) Dupont, a tailor's daughter from Lisieux; in July 1893 they began living together. Debussy continued to compose songs, piano pieces and other works, some of which were publicly performed, but his music made only a modest impact, although his fellow composers recognised his potential by electing him to the committee of the Société Nationale de Musique in 1893. The engagement was broken off, and several of Debussy's friends and supporters disowned him, including Ernest Chausson, hitherto one of his strongest supporters. In terms of musical recognition, Debussy made a step forward in December 1894, when the symphonic poem ''Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune'', based on Stéphane Mallarmé's poem, was premiered at a concert of the Société Nationale. She was affectionate, practical, straightforward, and well liked by Debussy's friends and associates, but he became increasingly irritated by her intellectual limitations and lack of musical sensitivity. The marriage lasted barely five years. From around 1900 Debussy's music became a focus and inspiration for an informal group of innovative young artists, poets, critics, and musicians who began meeting in Paris. They called themselves Les Apaches – roughly "The Hooligans" – to represent their status as "artistic outcasts". The membership was fluid, but at various times included Maurice Ravel, Ricardo Viñes, Igor Stravinsky and Manuel de Falla. In the same year the first two of Debussy's three orchestral Nocturnes were first performed. Although they did not make any great impact with the public they were well reviewed by musicians including Paul Dukas, Alfred Bruneau and Pierre de Bréville. The complete set was given the following year. and Fauré, Messager and Dukas were regular music critics for Parisian journals.\|group n}} For most of 1901 he had a sideline as music critic of La Revue Blanche, adopting the pen name "Monsieur Croche". He expressed trenchant views on composers ("I hate sentimentality – his name is Camille Saint-Saëns"), institutions (on the Paris Opéra: "A stranger would take it for a railway station, and, once inside, would mistake it for a Turkish bath"), conductors ("Nikisch is a unique virtuoso, so much so that his virtuosity seems to make him forget the claims of good taste"), musical politics ("The English actually think that a musician can manage an opera house successfully!"), and audiences ("their almost drugged expression of boredom, indifference and even stupidity"). He later collected his criticisms with a view to their publication as a book; it was published after his death as Monsieur Croche, Antidilettante. In January 1902 rehearsals began at the Opéra-Comique for the opening of Pelléas et Mélisande. For three months, Debussy attended rehearsals practically every day. In February there was conflict between Maeterlinck on the one hand and Debussy, Messager and Carré on the other about the casting of Mélisande. Maeterlinck wanted his mistress, Georgette Leblanc, to sing the role, and was incensed when she was passed over in favour of the Scottish soprano Mary Garden. The opera opened on 30 April 1902, and although the first-night audience was divided between admirers and sceptics, the work quickly became a success. The Apaches, led by Ravel (who attended every one of the 14 performances in the first run), were loud in their support; the conservative faculty of the Conservatoire tried in vain to stop its students from seeing the opera. The vocal score was published in early May, and the full orchestral score in 1904. After despatching Lilly to her parental home at Bichain in Villeneuve-la-Guyard on 15 July 1904, Debussy took Emma away, staying incognito in Jersey and then at Pourville in Normandy. A myth grew up that Lilly Debussy shot herself in the Place de la Concorde, rather than at home. That version of events is not corroborated by Debussy scholars such as Marcel Dietschy, Roger Nichols, Robert Orledge and Nigel Simeone; and no mention of the Place de la Concorde appeared in even the most sensational press coverage at the time. Another inaccurate report of the case, in Le Figaro in early January 1905, stated that Lilly had made a second attempt at suicide.\|group= n}} she survived, although the bullet remained lodged in her vertebrae for the rest of her life. The ensuing scandal caused Bardac's family to disown her, and Debussy lost many good friends including Dukas and Messager. His relations with Ravel, never close, were exacerbated when the latter joined other former friends of Debussy in contributing to a fund to support the deserted Lilly. The Bardacs divorced in May 1905. In the same month the composer's only child was born at their home. but biographers are agreed that whatever his relations with lovers and friends, Debussy was devoted to his daughter. Debussy and Emma Bardac eventually married in 1908, their troubled union enduring for the rest of his life. The following year began well, when at Fauré's invitation, Debussy became a member of the governing council of the Conservatoire. in May he was present at the first London production of Pelléas et Mélisande, at Covent Garden. In the same year, Debussy was diagnosed with colorectal cancer, from which he was to die nine years later. In the same year, visiting Budapest, Debussy commented that his works were better known there than in Paris. In 1915 Debussy underwent one of the earliest colostomy operations. It achieved only a temporary respite, and occasioned him considerable frustration ("There are mornings when the effort of dressing seems like one of the twelve labours of Hercules"). He also had a fierce enemy at this period in the form of Camille Saint-Saëns, who in a letter to Fauré condemned Debussy's En blanc et noir: "It's incredible, and the door of the Institut [de France] must at all costs be barred against a man capable of such atrocities". Saint-Saëns had been a member of the Institut since 1881: Debussy never became one. His health continued to decline; he gave his final concert on 14 September 1917 and became bedridden in early 1918. Debussy died of colon cancer on 25 March 1918 at his home. The First World War was still raging and Paris was under German aerial and artillery bombardment. The military situation did not permit the honour of a public funeral with ceremonious graveside orations. The funeral procession made its way through deserted streets to a temporary grave at Père Lachaise Cemetery as the German guns bombarded the city. Debussy's body was reinterred the following year in the small Passy Cemetery sequestered behind the Trocadéro, fulfilling his wish to rest "among the trees and the birds"; his wife and daughter are buried with him. Works In a survey of Debussy's oeuvre shortly after the composer's death, the critic Ernest Newman wrote, "It would be hardly too much to say that Debussy spent a third of his life in the discovery of himself, a third in the free and happy realisation of himself, and the final third in the partial, painful loss of himself". Later commentators have rated some of the late works more highly than Newman and other contemporaries did, but much of the music for which Debussy is best known is from the middle years of his career. In 1988 the composer and scholar Wilfrid Mellers wrote of Debussy: Debussy did not give his works opus numbers, apart from his String Quartet, Op. 10 in G minor (also the only work where the composer's title included a key). His works were catalogued and indexed by the musicologist François Lesure in 1977 (revised in 2003) and their Lesure number ("L" followed by a number) is sometimes used as a suffix to their title in concert programmes and recordings. Early works, 1879–1892 Debussy's musical development was slow, and as a student he was adept enough to produce for his teachers at the Conservatoire works that would conform to their conservative precepts. His friend Georges Jean-Aubry commented that Debussy "admirably imitated Massenet's melodic turns of phrase" in the cantata ''L'enfant prodigue (1884) which won him the Prix de Rome. His early mélodies, inspired by Marie Vasnier, are more virtuosic in character than his later works in the genre, with extensive wordless vocalise; from the Ariettes oubliées (1885–1887) onwards he developed a more restrained style. He wrote his own poems for the Proses lyriques (1892–1893) but, in the view of the musical scholar Robert Orledge, "his literary talents were not on a par with his musical imagination". The musicologist Jacques-Gabriel Prod'homme wrote that, together with La Demoiselle élue, the Ariettes oubliées and the Cinq poèmes de Charles Baudelaire (1889) show "the new, strange way which the young musician will hereafter follow". in a 2007 book about the piano works, Margery Halford observes that Two Arabesques (1888–1891) and "Rêverie" (1890) have "the fluidity and warmth of Debussy's later style" but are not harmonically innovative. Halford cites the popular "Clair de Lune" (1890), the third of the four movements of Suite Bergamasque, as a transitional work pointing towards the composer's mature style. Middle works, 1893–1905 '', 1910]] Musicians from Debussy's time onwards have regarded ''Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune (1894) as his first orchestral masterpiece. Newman considered it "completely original in idea, absolutely personal in style, and logical and coherent from first to last, without a superfluous bar or even a superfluous note"; Most of the major works for which Debussy is best known were written between the mid-1890s and the mid-1900s. The work influenced Ravel, whose own String Quartet, written ten years later, has noticeably Debussian features. The academic and journalist Stephen Walsh calls Pelléas et Mélisande (begun 1893, staged 1902) "a key work for the 20th century". The composer Olivier Messiaen was fascinated by its "extraordinary harmonic qualities and ... transparent instrumental texture". It influenced composers as different as Stravinsky and Puccini.\|group n}} The three-part, cyclic symphony by César Franck (1888) was more to his liking, and its influence can be found in La mer (1905); this uses a quasi-symphonic form, its three sections making up a giant sonata-form movement with, as Orledge observes, a cyclic theme, in the manner of Franck. Late works, 1906–1917 Of the later orchestral works, Images (1905–1912) is better known than Jeux (1913). The latter failed as a ballet because of what Jann Pasler describes as a banal scenario, and the score was neglected for some years. Recent analysts have found it a link between traditional continuity and thematic growth within a score and the desire to create discontinuity in a way mirrored in later 20th century music. In this piece, Debussy abandoned the whole-tone scale he had often favoured previously in favour of the octatonic scale with what the Debussy scholar François Lesure describes as its tonal ambiguities. The Études (1915) for piano have divided opinion. Writing soon after Debussy's death, Newman found them laboured – "a strange last chapter in a great artist's life"; Two late stage works, the ballets Khamma (1912) and La boîte à joujoux (1913), were left with the orchestration incomplete, and were completed by Charles Koechlin and Caplet, respectively. Langham Smith writes that the term became transferred to the compositions of Debussy and others which were "concerned with the representation of landscape or natural phenomena, particularly the water and light imagery dear to Impressionists, through subtle textures suffused with instrumental colour". Debussy strongly objected to the use of the word "Impressionism" for his (or anybody else's) music, but it has continually been attached to him since the assessors at the Conservatoire first applied it, opprobriously, to his early work Printemps. Langham Smith comments that Debussy wrote many piano pieces with titles evocative of nature – "Reflets dans l'eau" (1905), "Les Sons et les parfums tournent dans l'air du soir" (1910) and "Brouillards" (1913) In contrast to the "impressionistic" characterisation of Debussy's music, several writers have suggested that he structured at least some of his music on rigorous mathematical lines. In 1983 the pianist and scholar Roy Howat published a book contending that certain of Debussy's works are proportioned using mathematical models, even while using an apparent classical structure such as sonata form. Howat suggests that some of Debussy's pieces can be divided into sections that reflect the golden ratio, which is approximated by ratios of consecutive numbers in the Fibonacci sequence. Simon Trezise, in his 1994 book Debussy: La Mer, finds the intrinsic evidence "remarkable", with the caveat that no written or reported evidence suggests that Debussy deliberately sought such proportions. Lesure takes a similar view, endorsing Howat's conclusions while not taking a view on Debussy's conscious intentions. Nevertheless, there are many indicators of the sources and elements of Debussy's idiom. Writing in 1958, the critic Rudolph Reti summarised six features of Debussy's music, which he asserted "established a new concept of tonality in European music": the frequent use of lengthy pedal points – "not merely bass pedals in the actual sense of the term, but sustained 'pedals' in any voice"; glittering passages and webs of figurations which distract from occasional absence of tonality; frequent use of parallel chords which are "in essence not harmonies at all, but rather 'chordal melodies', enriched unisons", described by some writers as non-functional harmonies; bitonality, or at least bitonal chords; use of the whole-tone and pentatonic scales; and unprepared modulations, "without any harmonic bridge". Reti concludes that Debussy's achievement was the synthesis of monophonic based "melodic tonality" with harmonies, albeit different from those of "harmonic tonality". In 1889, Debussy held conversations with his former teacher Guiraud, which included exploration of harmonic possibilities at the piano. The discussion, and Debussy's chordal keyboard improvisations, were noted by a younger pupil of Guiraud, Maurice Emmanuel. A further improvisation by Debussy during this conversation included a sequence of whole tone harmonies which may have been inspired by the music of Glinka or Rimsky-Korsakov which was becoming known in Paris at this time. During the conversation, Debussy told Guiraud, "There is no theory. You have only to listen. Pleasure is the law!" – although he also conceded, "I feel free because I have been through the mill, and I don't write in the fugal style because I know it." Influences Musical Among French predecessors, Chabrier was an important influence on Debussy (as he was on Ravel and Poulenc); Howat has written that Chabrier's piano music such as "Sous-bois" and "Mauresque" in the Pièces pittoresques explored new sound-worlds of which Debussy made effective use 30 years later. Lesure finds traces of Gounod and Massenet in some of Debussy's early songs, and remarks that it may have been from the Russians – Tchaikovsky, Balakirev, Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin and Mussorgsky – that Debussy acquired his taste for "ancient and oriental modes and for vivid colorations, and a certain disdain for academic rules". He drew inspiration from what he called Palestrina's "harmony created by melody", finding an arabesque-like quality in the melodic lines. Debussy opined that Chopin was "the greatest of them all, for through the piano he discovered everything"; he professed his "respectful gratitude" for Chopin's piano music. He was torn between dedicating his own Études to Chopin or to François Couperin, whom he also admired as a model of form, seeing himself as heir to their mastery of the genre. – but Chopin's influence is found in other early works such as the Two arabesques (1889–1891). In 1914 the publisher A. Durand & fils began publishing scholarly new editions of the works of major composers, and Debussy undertook the supervision of the editing of Chopin's music.\|groupn}} Although Debussy was in no doubt of Wagner's stature, he was only briefly influenced by him in his compositions, after La damoiselle élue and the Cinq poèmes de Baudelaire (both begun in 1887). According to Pierre Louÿs, Debussy "did not see 'what anyone can do beyond Tristan'," although he admitted that it was sometimes difficult to avoid "the ghost of old Klingsor, alias Richard Wagner, appearing at the turning of a bar". A contemporary influence was Erik Satie, according to Nichols Debussy's "most faithful friend" amongst French musicians. Debussy's orchestration in 1896 of Satie's Gymnopédies (which had been written in 1887) "put their composer on the map" according to the musicologist Richard Taruskin, and the Sarabande from Debussy's Pour le piano (1901) "shows that [Debussy] knew Satie's Trois Sarabandes at a time when only a personal friend of the composer could have known them." (They were not published until 1911). Debussy's interest in the popular music of his time is evidenced not only by the ''Golliwogg's Cakewalk and other piano pieces featuring rag-time, such as The Little Nigar'' (Debussy's spelling) (1909), but by the slow waltz La plus que lente (The more than slow), based on the style of the gipsy violinist at a Paris hotel (to whom he gave the manuscript of the piece). and Stravinsky, respectful of Mozart and was in awe of Bach, whom he called the "good God of music" (). Recordings In 1904, Debussy played the piano accompaniment for Mary Garden in recordings for the Compagnie française du Gramophone of four of his songs: three mélodies from the Verlaine cycle Ariettes oubliées – "Il pleure dans mon coeur", "L'ombre des arbres" and "Green" – and "Mes longs cheveux", from Act III of Pelléas et Mélisande. He made a set of piano rolls for the Welte-Mignon company in 1913. They contain fourteen of his pieces: "D'un cahier d'esquisses", "La plus que lente", "La soirée dans Grenade", all six movements of ''Children's Corner, and five of the Preludes'': "Danseuses de Delphes", "Le vent dans la plaine", "La cathédrale engloutie", "La danse de Puck" and "Minstrels". The 1904 and 1913 sets have been transferred to compact disc. Contemporaries of Debussy who made recordings of his music included the pianists Ricardo Viñes (in "Poissons d'or" from Images and "La soirée dans Grenade" from Estampes); Alfred Cortot (numerous solo pieces as well as the Violin Sonata with Jacques Thibaud and the Chansons de Bilitis with Maggie Teyte); and Marguerite Long ("Jardins sous la pluie" and "Arabesques"). Singers in Debussy's mélodies or excerpts from Pelléas et Mélisande included Jane Bathori, Claire Croiza, Charles Panzéra and Ninon Vallin; and among the conductors in the major orchestral works were Ernest Ansermet, Désiré-Émile Inghelbrecht, Pierre Monteux and Arturo Toscanini, and in the Petite Suite, Henri Büsser, who had prepared the orchestration for Debussy. Many of these early recordings have been reissued on CD. In more recent times Debussy's output has been extensively recorded. In 2018, to mark the centenary of the composer's death, Warner Classics, with contributions from other companies, issued a 33-CD set that is claimed to include all the music Debussy wrote. Notes, references and sources Notes References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * <!--SEE TALK PAGE* --> * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * <!--SEE TALK PAGE* --> * * * * External links * * * * [https://www.seine-saintgermain.fr/fr/fiche/797419/un-musee-a-la-gloire-du-celebre-compositeur-claude-debussy/ Website of Debussy museum, St. Germain-en-Laye] Category:1862 births Category:1918 deaths Category:19th-century French classical composers Category:19th-century French male classical pianists Category:19th-century French classical pianists Category:20th-century French classical composers Category:20th-century French male classical pianists Category:20th-century French classical pianists Category:Ballets Russes composers Category:Burials at Passy Cemetery Category:Knights of the Legion of Honour Category:Composers for piano Category:Conservatoire de Paris alumni Category:Deaths from colorectal cancer in France Category:French ballet composers Category:French opera composers Category:Impressionist composers Category:French male opera composers Category:People from Saint-Germain-en-Laye Category:Prix de Rome for composition Category:Pupils of Antoine François Marmontel Category:Pupils of Ernest Guiraud	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Debussy	2025-04-05T18:27:46.331876
6261	Charles Baxter (author)	\| birth_place = Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S. \| occupation = \| language \| education Macalester College<br>University at Buffalo (PhD) \| period \| genre <!-- or: \| genres = --> \| subject \| movement \| notable_works \| spouse <!-- or: \| spouses = --> \| partner <!-- or: \| partners --> \| children \| relatives \| awards = Guggenheim Fellowship, 1985 \| years_active \| website \| portaldisp = <!-- "on", "yes", "true", etc.; or omit --> }} Charles Morley Baxter (born May 13, 1947) is an American novelist, essayist, and poet. Biography Baxter was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, to John and Mary Barber (Eaton) Baxter. He graduated from Macalester College in Saint Paul in 1969. In 1974 he received his PhD in English from the University at Buffalo with a thesis on Djuna Barnes, Malcolm Lowry, and Nathanael West. Baxter taught high school in Pinconning, Michigan for a year before beginning his university teaching career at Wayne State University in Detroit, Michigan. He then moved to the University of Michigan, where for many years he directed the Creative Writing MFA program. He was a visiting professor of creative writing at the University of Iowa and at Stanford. He taught at the University of Minnesota and in the Warren Wilson College MFA Program for Writers. He retired in 2020. He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1985. He received the PEN/Malamud Award in 2021 for Excellence in the Short Story. He married teacher Martha Ann Hauser in 1976, and has a son. Works Novels * First Light (1987). An eminent astrophysicist and her brother, a small-town Buick salesman, discover how they grew so far apart and the bonds of love that still keep them together. * Shadow Play (1993). As his wife does gymnastics and magic tricks, his crazy mother invents her own vocabulary, and his aunt writes her own version of the Bible, Five Oaks Assistant City Manager Wyatt Palmer tries to live a normal life and nearly succeeds, but... * The Feast of Love (2000) (Pantheon Books), a reimagined ''Midsummer Night's Dream, a story told through the eyes of several different people. Nominated for the National Book Award. A film version of the book, starring Morgan Freeman, Fred Ward and Greg Kinnear and directed by Robert Benton, was released in 2007. * Saul and Patsy'' (2003). A teacher's marriage and identity are threatened by a dangerously obsessed teenage boy at his school. * The Soul Thief (2008). A graduate student's complicated relationships lead to a disturbing case of identity theft, which ultimately leads the man to wonder if he really is who he thinks he is. * The Sun Collective (2020, Pantheon Books). The lives of two very different couples—one retired, one in their twenties—intersect in Minneapolis around an anti-capitalist collective arguing for revolution, as an underground group of extremists wage war on the homeless. * Blood Test (2024) (Pantheon), Brock Hobson, an insurance salesman and Sunday-school teacher, finds his equilibrium disturbed by the results of a predictive blood test. Short story collections * Harmony of the World (1984). Winner of the Associated Writing Programs Award. * Through the Safety Net (1985) * A Relative Stranger (1990) * Believers (1997) * Gryphon: New and Selected Stories (2011) * ''There's Something I Want You to Do: Stories'' (February 2015) Non-fiction * Burning Down the House: Essays on Fiction (1997) * The Art of Subtext: Beyond Plot (2007). Winner of the 2008 Minnesota Book Award for General Non-fiction. * Wonderlands: Essays on the Life of Literature (2022) Poetry collections * Chameleon (1970) * The South Dakota Guidebook (1974) * Imaginary Paintings (1989) Edited works * The Business of Memory (1999) * Best New American Voices 2001 (2001) * Bringing the Devil to His Knees: The Craft of Fiction and the Writing Life (2001) * A William Maxwell Portrait: Memories and Appreciations (2004) References * Greasley, Philip A. (2001). Dictionary of Midwestern Literature Volume One: The Authors. Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 54. . External links * [http://www.charlesbaxter.com/ Charles Baxter's official website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051215054056/http://www.powells.com/authors/baxter.html Interview with the author] at Powells.com * [http://english.cla.umn.edu/faculty/videoInterviews.html Interview with Charles Baxter at website of Department of English at the University of Minnesota] * [http://www.pifmagazine.com/2013/04/charles-baxter/ Interview with the author] at Pif Magazine. * [https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2021/02/05/inte-f05.html Interview with Charles Baxter, author of The Sun Collective] at the World Socialist Web Site Category:1947 births Category:American book editors Category:20th-century American novelists Category:20th-century American male writers Category:Novelists from Minnesota Category:Living people Category:University at Buffalo alumni Category:Writers from Minneapolis Category:Wayne State University faculty Category:Macalester College alumni Category:Warren Wilson College faculty Category:21st-century American novelists Category:American male novelists Category:University of Michigan faculty Category:American male essayists Category:American male short story writers Category:20th-century American short story writers Category:21st-century American short story writers Category:20th-century American essayists Category:21st-century American essayists Category:21st-century American male writers Category:Novelists from Michigan	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Baxter_(author)	2025-04-05T18:27:46.343831
6262	Ceres	Ceres most commonly refers to: Ceres (dwarf planet), the largest asteroid and first to be discovered Ceres (mythology), the Roman goddess of agriculture Ceres may also refer to: Places Brazil Ceres, Goiás, Brazil Ceres Microregion, in north-central Goiás state, Brazil United States Ceres, California Ceres, Georgia Ceres, Iowa Ceres, New York, a community that also extends into Pennsylvania Ceres, Oklahoma, a community in Noble County Ceres, Virginia Ceres, West Virginia Ceres Township, McKean County, Pennsylvania Other countries Ceres, Santa Fe, Argentina Ceres, Victoria, Australia Ceres, Piedmont, Italy Ceres, Fife, Scotland Ceres, South Africa, in Western Cape Ga-Ngwetsana, also known as Ceres, Limpopo, South Africa Ceres Nunataks, Antarctica Ceres Koekedouw Dam, dam on the Koekedouw River, near Ceres, Western Cape, South Africa Acronyms California Environmental Resources Evaluation System Centre for Research on Energy Security (CeRES), an Indian research center on geopolitics and energy CERES (satellite), a French spy satellite program CERES Community Environment Park (Centre for Education and Research in Environmental Strategies), a community environmental park in Melbourne, Australia Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System, an ongoing NASA meteorological experiment. Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies (French: Center of Socialist Studies, Research and Education), a left-wing political organization founded by Jean-Pierre Chevènement CERES Ile du Levant, short for Centre d'Essais et de Recherches d'Engins Spéciaux, a rocket launch and missile test site at Ile du Levant island, France Aircraft, rocket, transport, and vessels Aircraft, locomotive, car CAC Ceres, a crop-duster aircraft manufactured in Australia Ceres, a West Cornwall Railway steam locomotive Toyota Corolla Ceres a compact, 4-door hardtop sold in Japan Kia Ceres, a version of the Kia Bongo, a 2-door pick up truck Ceres Liner, A transportation brand based in Bacolod. Ships and submarines Ceres (East Indiaman), three vessels of the British East India Company , several ships HMS Ceres, three ships and three shore establishments of the British Royal Navy , several ships of the French Navy USS Ceres (1856), a Union Navy steamship during the American Civil War Rocket Ceres-1, a Chinese four stage carrier rocket by Galactic Energy Arts, entertainment, and media Ceres (band), a band from Melbourne, Australia Ceres (sculpture), a c.1770 statuette by Augustin Pajou Ceres (2005), an orchestral work by Mark-Anthony Turnage Sailor Ceres, a character in Sailor Moon media The titular character of Ceres, Celestial Legend, a manga and mini anime series Ceres Space Colony, from the video game Super Metroid Brands and enterprises Ceres (organization), a coalition of investors and environmentalists (formerly the Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies) Ceres Brewery, a brewery in Aarhus, Denmark Ceres Fruit Juices, a South African juice company Ceres Hellenic Shipping Enterprises, a Greek shipping company Ceres, Inc., a US energy crop seeds developer Ceres Liner, a bus company in the Philippines Education Ceres Connection, a cooperative program between MIT's Lincoln Laboratory and the Society for Science and the Public dedicated for promoting science education Ceres School, an historic school building located at Ceres in Allegany County, New York Ceres (women's fraternity), a women's fraternity focused on agriculture Sport Ceres Futebol Clube, a Brazilian football team from the city of Rio de Janeiro SK Ceres, a Norwegian sports team from Skedsmo, Akershus United City F.C., a Philippine football team formerly known as Ceres–Negros F.C. People Dragoș Cereș (born 2004), a Moldovan chess master Other uses Ceres (workstation), a computer workstation built at ETH Zürich Ceres series (disambiguation), several series of postage stamps representing the goddess Ceres Ceres Chess Engine, an experimental chess engine that uses Leela Chess Zero networks Plural of cere, a part of the bill of certain birds See also Colonization of Ceres Keres (mythology), death spirits unconnected with Ceres Seres (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres	2025-04-05T18:27:46.364749
6267	Cultural imperialism	. The father continues to wear the traditional clothing of his region while the son has already adopted Western clothing.]] Cultural imperialism (also cultural colonialism) comprises the cultural dimensions of imperialism. The word "imperialism" describes practices in which a country engages culture (language, tradition, ritual, politics, economics) to create and maintain unequal social and economic relationships among social groups. Cultural imperialism often uses wealth, media power and violence to implement the system of cultural hegemony that legitimizes imperialism. Cultural imperialism may take various forms, such as an attitude, a formal policy, or military action—insofar as each of these reinforces the empire's cultural hegemony. Research on the topic occurs in scholarly disciplines, and is especially prevalent in communication and media studies, education, foreign policy, history, international relations, linguistics, literature, post-colonialism, science, sociology, social theory, environmentalism, and sports. Cultural imperialism may be distinguished from the natural process of cultural diffusion. The spread of culture around the world is referred to as cultural globalization. Background and definitions , which aimed to eliminate Indigenous language and culture and replace it with English language and Christian beliefs]] Although the Oxford English Dictionary has a 1921 reference to the "cultural imperialism of the Russians", John Tomlinson, in his book on the subject, writes that the term emerged in the 1960s and has been a focus of research since at least the 1970s. Terms such as "media imperialism", "structural imperialism", "cultural dependency and domination", "cultural synchronization", "electronic colonialism", "ideological imperialism", and "economic imperialism" have all been used to describe the same basic notion of cultural imperialism. The term refers largely to the exercise of power in a cultural relationship in which the principles, ideas, practices, and values of a powerful, invading society are imposed upon indigenous cultures in the occupied areas. The process is often used to describe examples of when the compulsory practices of the cultural traditions of the imperial social group are implemented upon a conquered social group. The process is also present when powerful nations are able to flood the information and media space with their ideas, limiting countries and communities ability to compete and expose people to locally created content. Cultural imperialism has been called a process that intends to transition the "cultural symbols of the invading communities from <nowiki>'foreign' to 'natural,''</nowiki>domestic, comments Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera. He described the process as being carried out in three phases by merchants, then the military, then politicians. While the third phase continues "in perpetuity", cultural imperialism tends to be "gradual, contested (and continues to be contested), and is by nature incomplete. The partial and imperfect configuration of this ontology takes an implicit conceptualization of reality and attempts—and often fails—to elide other forms of collective existence." In order to achieve that end, cultural engineering projects strive to "isolate residents within constructed spheres of symbols" such that they (eventually, in some cases after several generations) abandon other cultures and identify with the new symbols. "The broader intended outcome of these interventions might be described as a common recognition of possession of the land itself (on behalf of the organizations publishing and financing the images)." According to Schiller, cultural imperialism "pressured, forced and bribed" societies to integrate with the U.S.'s expansive capitalist model but also incorporated them with attraction and persuasion by winning "the mutual consent, even solicitation of the indigenous rulers." He continues remarks that it is:<blockquote>the sum processes by which a society is brought into the modern [U.S.-centered] world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centres of the system. The public media are the foremost example of operating enterprises that are used in the penetrative process. For penetration on a significant scale the media themselves must be captured by the dominating/penetrating power. This occurs largely through the commercialization of broadcasting.</blockquote>The historical contexts, iterations, complexities, and politics of Schiller's foundational and substantive theorization of cultural imperialism in international communication and media studies are discussed in detail by political economy of communication researchers Richard Maxwell, Vincent Mosco, Graham Murdock, and Tanner Mirrlees. Downing and Sreberny-Mohammadi state: "Cultural imperialism signifies the dimensions of the process that go beyond economic exploitation or military force. In the history of colonialism, (i.e., the form of imperialism in which the government of the colony is run directly by foreigners), the educational and media systems of many Third World countries have been set up as replicas of those in Britain, France, or the United States and carry their values. Western advertising has made further inroads, as have architectural and fashion styles. Subtly but powerfully, the message has often been insinuated that Western cultures are superior to the cultures of the Third World." Poststructuralism In poststructuralist and postcolonial theory, cultural imperialism is often understood as the cultural legacy of Western colonialism, or forms of social action contributing to the continuation of Western hegemony. To some outside of the realm of this discourse, the term is critiqued as being unclear, unfocused, and/or contradictory in nature. According to Foucault, power is intimately tied with his conception of truth. "Truth", as he defines it, is a "system of ordered procedures for the production, regulation, distribution, circulation, and operation of statements" which has a "circular relation" with systems of power. Therefore, inherent in systems of power, is always "truth", which is culturally specific, inseparable from ideology which often coincides with various forms of hegemony. Cultural imperialism may be an example of this. Foucault's interpretation of governance is also very important in constructing theories of transnational power structure. In his lectures at the , Foucault often defines governmentality as the broad art of "governing", which goes beyond the traditional conception of governance in terms of state mandates, and into other realms such as governing "a household, souls, children, a province, a convent, a religious order, a family". This relates directly back to Machiavelli's treatise on how to retain political power at any cost, The Prince, and Foucault's aforementioned conceptions of truth and power. (i.e. various subjectivities are created through power relations that are culturally specific, which lead to various forms of culturally specific governmentality such as neoliberal governmentality.) Post-colonialism Edward Saïd is a founding figure of postcolonialism, established with the book Orientalism (1978), a humanist critique of The Enlightenment, which criticises Western knowledge of "The East"—specifically the English and the French constructions of what is and what is not "Oriental". Whereby said "knowledge" then led to cultural tendencies towards a binary opposition of the Orient vs. the Occident, wherein one concept is defined in opposition to the other concept, and from which they emerge as of unequal value. In "Can the Subaltern Speak?" Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak critiques common representations in the West of the Sati, as being controlled by authors other than the participants (specifically English colonizers and Hindu leaders). Because of this, Spivak argues that the subaltern, referring to the communities that participate in the Sati, are not able to represent themselves through their own voice. Spivak says that cultural imperialism has the power to disqualify or erase the knowledge and mode of education of certain populations that are low on the social and economic hierarchy. In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason, Spivak argues that Western philosophy has a history of not only exclusion of the subaltern from discourse, but also does not allow them to occupy the space of a fully human subject. Contemporary ideas and debate Cultural imperialism can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will. Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question. Cultural influence can be seen by the "receiving" culture as either a threat to or an enrichment of its cultural identity. It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority, and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly deficient, with imported products. The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such as consumerism). According to one argument, the "receiving" culture does not necessarily perceive this link, but instead absorbs the foreign culture passively through the use of the foreign goods and services. Due to its somewhat concealed, but very potent nature, this hypothetical idea is described by some experts as "banal imperialism". For example, it is argued that while "American companies are accused of wanting to control 95 percent of the world's consumers", "cultural imperialism involves much more than simple consumer goods; it involved the dissemination of American principles such as freedom and democracy", a process which "may sound appealing" but which "masks a frightening truth: many cultures around the world are disappearing due to the overwhelming influence of corporate and cultural America". Some believe that the newly globalised economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this process through the use of new information technology. This kind of cultural imperialism is derived from what is called "soft power". The theory of electronic colonialism extends the issue to global cultural issues and the impact of major multi-media conglomerates, ranging from Paramount, WarnerMedia, AT&T, Disney, News Corp, to Google and Microsoft with the focus on the hegemonic power of these mainly United States–based communication giants. Cultural diversity One of the reasons often given for opposing any form of cultural imperialism, voluntary or otherwise, is the preservation of cultural diversity, a goal seen by some as analogous to the preservation of ecological diversity. Proponents of this idea argue either that such diversity is valuable in itself, to preserve human historical heritage and knowledge, or instrumentally valuable because it makes available more ways of solving problems and responding to catastrophes, natural or otherwise. African colonisation Of all the areas of the world that scholars have claimed to be adversely affected by imperialism, Africa is probably the most notable. In the expansive "age of imperialism" of the nineteenth century, scholars have argued that European colonisation in Africa has led to the elimination of many various cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies, particularly through neocolonisation of public education. This, arguably has led to uneven development, and further informal forms of social control having to do with culture and imperialism. A variety of factors, scholars argue, lead to the elimination of cultures, worldviews, and epistemologies, such as "de-linguicization" (replacing native African languages with European ones), devaluing ontologies that are not explicitly individualistic, In Dunn's work, Privatizing Poland, she argues that the expansion of the multinational corporation, Gerber, into Poland in the 1990s imposed Western, neoliberal governmentality, ideologies, and epistemologies upon the post-soviet persons hired. Thus, this leads to the often critiqued narrative of the "white man" saving the "brown woman" from the "brown man". Other, more radical critiques of development studies, have to do with the field of study itself. Some scholars even question the intentions of those developing the field of study, claiming that efforts to "develop" the Global South were never about the South itself. Instead, these efforts, it is argued, were made in order to advance Western development and reinforce Western hegemony.Media effects studiesThe core of cultural imperialism thesis is integrated with the political-economy traditional approach in media effects research. Critics of cultural imperialism commonly claim that non-Western cultures, particularly from the Third World, will forsake their traditional values and lose their cultural identities when they are solely exposed to Western media. Nonetheless, Michael B. Salwen, in his book Critical Studies in Mass Communication (1991), claims that cross-consideration and integration of empirical findings on cultural imperialist influences is very critical in terms of understanding mass media in the international sphere. He recognises both of contradictory contexts on cultural imperialist impacts. The first context is where cultural imperialism imposes socio-political disruptions on developing nations. Western media can distort images of foreign cultures and provoke personal and social conflicts to developing nations in some cases. Another context is that peoples in developing nations resist to foreign media and preserve their cultural attitudes. Although he admits that outward manifestations of Western culture may be adopted, but the fundamental values and behaviours remain still. Furthermore, positive effects might occur when male-dominated cultures adopt the "liberation" of women with exposure to Western media and it stimulates ample exchange of cultural exchange.Criticisms of "cultural imperialism theory"Critics of scholars who discuss cultural imperialism have a number of critiques. Cultural imperialism is a term that is only used in discussions where cultural relativism and constructivism are generally taken as true. (One cannot critique promoting Western values if one believes that said values are good. Similarly, one cannot argue that Western epistemology is unjustly promoted in non-Western societies if one believes that those epistemologies are good. He explains that one of the fundamental conceptual mistakes of cultural imperialism is to take for granted that the distribution of cultural goods can be considered as cultural dominance. He thus supports his argument highly criticising the concept that Americanization is occurring through global overflow of American television products. He points to a myriad of examples of television networks who have managed to dominate their domestic markets and that domestic programs generally top the ratings. He also doubts the concept that cultural agents are passive receivers of information. He states that movement between cultural/geographical areas always involves translation, mutation, adaptation, and the creation of hybridity. Other key critiques are that the term is not defined well, and employs further terms that are not defined well, and therefore lacks explanatory power, that cultural imperialism is hard to measure, and that the theory of a legacy of colonialism is not always true. Culture is sometimes used by the organisers of society—politicians, theologians, academics, and families—to impose and ensure order, the rudiments of which change over time as need dictates. One need only look at the 20th century's genocides. In each one, leaders used culture as a political front to fuel the passions of their armies and other minions and to justify their actions among their people. Rothkopf then cites genocide and massacres in Armenia, Russia, the Holocaust, Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rwanda and East Timor as examples of culture (in some cases expressed in the ideology of "political culture" or religion) being misused to justify violence. He also acknowledges that cultural imperialism in the past has been guilty of forcefully eliminating the cultures of natives in the Americas and in Africa, or through use of the Inquisition, "and during the expansion of virtually every empire." The most important way to deal with cultural influence in any nation, according to Rothkopf, is to promote tolerance and allow, or even promote, cultural diversities that are compatible with tolerance and to eliminate those cultural differences that cause violent conflict: :Successful multicultural societies, be they nations, federations, or other conglomerations of closely interrelated states, discern those aspects of culture that do not threaten union, stability, or prosperity (such as food, holidays, rituals, and music) and allow them to flourish. But they counteract or eradicate the more subversive elements of culture (exclusionary aspects of religion, language, and political/ideological beliefs). History shows that bridging cultural gaps successfully and serving as a home to diverse peoples requires certain social structures, laws, and institutions that transcend culture. Furthermore, the history of a number of ongoing experiments in multiculturalism, such as in the European Union, India, South Africa, Canada and the United States, suggests that workable, if not perfected, integrative models exist. Each is built on the idea that tolerance is crucial to social well-being, and each at times has been threatened by both intolerance and a heightened emphasis on cultural distinctions. The greater public good warrants eliminating those cultural characteristics that promote conflict or prevent harmony, even as less-divisive, more personally observed cultural distinctions are celebrated and preserved. Cultural dominance can also be seen in the 1930s in Australia where the Aboriginal Assimilation Policy acted as an attempt to wipe out the Native Australian people. The British settlers tried to biologically alter the skin colour of the Australian Aboriginal people through mixed breeding with white people. The policy also made attempts to forcefully conform the Aborigines to western ideas of dress and education. In history Although the term was popularised in the 1960s, and was used by its original proponents to refer to cultural hegemonies in a post-colonial world, cultural imperialism has also been used to refer to times further in the past. Antiquity The Ancient Greeks are known for spreading their culture around the Mediterranean and Near East through trade and conquest. During the Archaic Period, the burgeoning Greek city-states established settlements and colonies across the Mediterranean Sea, especially in Sicily and southern Italy, influencing the Etruscan and Roman peoples of the region. In the late fourth century BC, Alexander the Great conquered Persian and Indian territories all the way to the Indus River Valley and Punjab, spreading Greek religion, art, and science along the way. This resulted in the rise of Hellenistic kingdoms and cities across Egypt, the Near East, Central Asia, and Northwest India where Greek culture fused with the cultures of the indigenous peoples. The Greek influence prevailed even longer in science and literature, where medieval Muslim scholars in the Middle East studied the writings of Aristotle for scientific learning. The Roman Empire was also an early example of cultural imperialism. Early Rome, in its conquest of Italy, assimilated the people of Etruria by replacing the Etruscan language with Latin, which led to the demise of that language and many aspects of Etruscan civilisation. Cultural Romanization was imposed on many parts of Rome's empire by "many regions receiving Roman culture unwillingly, as a form of cultural imperialism." For example, when Greece was conquered by the Roman armies, Rome set about altering the culture of Greece to conform with Roman ideals. For instance, the Greek habit of stripping naked, in public, for exercise, was looked on askance by Roman writers, who considered the practice to be a cause of the Greeks' effeminacy and enslavement. The Roman example has been linked to modern instances of European imperialism in African countries, bridging the two instances with Slavoj Zizek's discussions of 'empty signifiers'. Another way, was by the imposition of educational material on the colonies for an "imperial curriculum". Robin A. Butlin writes, "The promotion of empire through books, illustrative materials, and educational syllabuses was widespread, part of an education policy geared to cultural imperialism". This was also true of science and technology in the empire. Douglas M. Peers and Nandini Gooptu note that "Most scholars of colonial science in India now prefer to stress the ways in which science and technology worked in the service of colonialism, as both a 'tool of empire' in the practical sense and as a vehicle for cultural imperialism. In other words, science developed in India in ways that reflected colonial priorities, tending to benefit Europeans at the expense of Indians, while remaining dependent on and subservient to scientific authorities in the colonial metropolis." British sports were spread across the Empire partially as a way of encouraging British values and cultural uniformity, though this was tempered by the fact that colonised peoples gained a sense of nationalistic pride by defeating the British in their own sports. The analysis of cultural imperialism carried out by Edward Said drew principally from a study of the British Empire. According to Danilo Raponi, the cultural imperialism of the British in the 19th century had a much wider effect than only in the British Empire. He writes, "To paraphrase Said, I see cultural imperialism as a complex cultural hegemony of a country, Great Britain, that in the 19th century had no rivals in terms of its ability to project its power across the world and to influence the cultural, political and commercial affairs of most countries. It is the 'cultural hegemony' of a country whose power to export the most fundamental ideas and concepts at the basis of its understanding of 'civilisation' knew practically no bounds." In this, for example, Raponi includes Italy. Other pre-Second World War examples The New Cambridge Modern History writes about the cultural imperialism of Napoleonic France. Napoleon used the Institut de France "as an instrument for transmuting French universalism into cultural imperialism." Members of the institute (who included Napoleon), descended upon Egypt in 1798. "Upon arrival they organised themselves into an Institute of Cairo. The Rosetta Stone is their most famous find. The science of Egyptology is their legacy." After the First World War, Germans were worried about the extent of French influence in the occupied Rhineland, which under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles was under Allied control from 1918 to 1930. An early use of the term appeared in an essay by Paul Ruhlmann (as "Peter Hartmann") at that date, entitled French Cultural Imperialism on the Rhine. North American colonisation Keeping in line with the trends of international imperialistic endeavours, the expansion of Canadian and American territory in the 19th century saw cultural imperialism employed as a means of control over indigenous populations. This, when used in conjunction of more traditional forms of ethnic cleansing and genocide in the United States, saw devastating, lasting effects on indigenous communities. In 2017 Canada celebrated its 150-year anniversary of the confederating of three British colonies. As Catherine Murton Stoehr points out in Origins, a publication organised by the history departments of Ohio State University and Miami University, the occasion came with remembrance of Canada's treatment of First Nations people. Numerous policies focused on indigenous persons came into effect shortly thereafter. Most notable is the use of residential schools across Canada as a means to remove indigenous persons from their culture and instill in them the beliefs and values of the majorised colonial hegemony. The policies of these schools, as described by Ward Churchill in his book Kill the Indian, Save the Man, were to forcefully assimilate students who were often removed with force from their families. These schools forbid students from using their native languages and participating in their own cultural practices. Residential schools were largely run by Christian churches, operating in conjunction with Christian missions with minimal government oversight. The book, Stolen Lives: The Indigenous peoples of Canada and the Indian Residentials Schools, describes this form of operation: "The government provided little leadership, and the clergy in charge were left to decide what to teach and how to teach it. Their priority was to impart the teachings of their church or order—not to provide a good education that could help students in their post-graduation lives." In a New York Times op-ed, Gabrielle Scrimshaw describes her grandparents being forced to send her mother to one of these schools or risk imprisonment. After hiding her mother on "school pick up day" so as to avoid sending their daughter to institutions whose abuse was well known at the time (mid-20th century). Scrimshaw's mother was left with limited options for further education she says and is today illiterate as a result. Scrimshaw explains, "Seven generations of my ancestors went through these schools. Each new family member enrolled meant a compounding of abuse and a steady loss of identity, culture and hope. My mother was the last generation. the experience left her broken, and like so many, she turned to substances to numb these pains." A report, republished by CBC News, estimates nearly 6,000 children died in the care of these schools. The colonisation of native peoples in North America remains active today despite the closing of the majority of residential schools. This form of cultural imperialism continues in the use of Native Americans as mascots for schools and athletic teams. Jason Edward Black, a professor and chair in the Department of Communication Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, describes how the use of Native Americans as mascots furthers the colonial attitudes of the 18th and 19th centuries. In Deciphering Pocahontas, Kent Ono and Derek Buescher wrote: "Euro-American culture has made a habit of appropriating, and redefining what is 'distinctive' and constitutive of Native Americans."Nazi colonialismCultural imperialism has also been used in connection with the expansion of German influence under the Nazis in the middle of the twentieth century. Alan Steinweis and Daniel Rogers note that even before the Nazis came to power, "Already in the Weimar Republic, German academic specialists on eastern Europe had contributed through their publications and teaching to the legitimization of German territorial revanchism and cultural imperialism. These scholars operated primarily in the disciplines of history, economics, geography, and literature." In the area of music, Michael Kater writes that during the WWII German occupation of France, Hans Rosbaud, a German conductor based by the Nazi regime in Strasbourg, became "at least nominally, a servant of Nazi cultural imperialism directed against the French." In Italy during the war, Germany pursued "a European cultural front that gravitates around German culture". The Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels set up the European Union of Writers, "one of Goebbels's most ambitious projects for Nazi cultural hegemony. Presumably a means of gathering authors from Germany, Italy, and the occupied countries to plan the literary life of the new Europe, the union soon emerged as a vehicle of German cultural imperialism." For other parts of Europe, Robert Gerwarth, writing about cultural imperialism and Reinhard Heydrich, states that the "Nazis' Germanization project was based on a historically unprecedented programme of racial stock-taking, theft, expulsion and murder." Also, "The full integration of the [Czech] Protectorate into this New Order required the complete Germanization of the Protectorate's cultural life and the eradication of indigenous Czech and Jewish culture." The actions by Nazi Germany reflect on the notion of race and culture playing a significant role in imperialism. The idea that there is a distinction between the Germans and the Jews has created the illusion of Germans believing they were superior to the Jewish inferiors, the notion of us/them and self/others.Western imperialismCultural imperialism manifests in the Western world in the form legal system to include commodification and marketing of indigenous resources (example medicinal, spiritual or artistic) and genetic resources (example human DNA).Americanization The terms "McDonaldization", "Disneyization" and "Cocacolonization" have been coined to describe the spread of Western cultural influence, especially after the end of the Cold War. These Western influences often have personal, social, economical, and historical impact on people globally depending on the country and region. “Virtually all countries are moving discernibly toward the U.S. model, and the process is self reinforcing”, Herman, E. and McChesney, R. (n.d.). "Media Globalization: The US Experience and Influence". There are many countries affected by the US and their pop-culture. For example, the film industry in Nigeria referred to as "Nollywood" being the second largest as it produces more films annually than the United States, their films are shown across Africa. Another term that describes the spread of Western cultural influence is "Hollywoodization" it is when American culture is promoted through Hollywood films which can culturally affect the viewers of Hollywood films.<ref name":1" />See also * * Related negative concepts ** * Impact ** * Cultural examples * Theocultural Processes * * Examples * * Notes References * * * * * * External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20120119145355/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/protected/rothkopf.html "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?"], by David Rothkopf, Foreign Policy no. 107, Summer 1997, pp. 38–53, which argues that cultural imperialism is a positive thing. [https://web.archive.org/web/20151004012955/http://tbsjournal.arabmediasociety.com/Archives/Spring01/white.html "Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory" by Livingston A. White, Transnational Broadcasting Studies no. 6, Spring/Summer 2001, which argues that the idea of media imperialism is outdated.] [https://web.archive.org/web/20100517074812/http://www.uky.edu/~drlane/capstone/mass/imperialism.htm Academic Web page] from 24 February 2000, discussing the idea of cultural imperialism [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548h4 "Cultural Imperialism"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Linda Colley, Phillip Dodd and Mary Beard (In Our Time'', 27 June 2002) Category:Cultural geography Category:Cultural hegemony Category:Cultural studies Category:Cultural concepts Category:Imperialism Category:Political science	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_imperialism	2025-04-05T18:27:46.435580
6271	Chemical reaction	thumb\|A thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide. The sparks flying outwards are globules of molten iron trailing smoke in their wake. A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by an energy change as new products are generated. Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur. The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have properties different from the reactants. Reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called elementary reactions, and the information on the precise course of action is part of the reaction mechanism. Chemical reactions are described with chemical equations, which symbolically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions. Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature and chemical concentration. Some reactions produce heat and are called exothermic reactions, while others may require heat to enable the reaction to occur, which are called endothermic reactions. Typically, reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms. A reaction may be classified as redox in which oxidation and reduction occur or non-redox in which there is no oxidation and reduction occurring. Most simple redox reactions may be classified as a combination, decomposition, or single displacement reaction. Different chemical reactions are used during chemical synthesis in order to obtain the desired product. In biochemistry, a consecutive series of chemical reactions (where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next reaction) form metabolic pathways. These reactions are often catalyzed by protein enzymes. Enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that metabolic syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions can occur at the temperature and concentrations present within a cell. The general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to reactions between entities smaller than atoms, including nuclear reactions, radioactive decays and reactions between elementary particles, as described by quantum field theory. History thumb\|Antoine Lavoisier developed the theory of combustion as a chemical reaction with oxygen. Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity. Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek philosophers, such as the Four-Element Theory of Empedocles stating that any substance is composed of the four basic elements – fire, water, air and earth. In the Middle Ages, chemical transformations were studied by alchemists. They attempted, in particular, to convert lead into gold, for which purpose they used reactions of lead and lead-copper alloys with sulfur. The artificial production of chemical substances already was a central goal for medieval alchemists. Examples include the synthesis of ammonium chloride from organic substances as described in the works (c. 850–950) attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān, or the production of mineral acids such as sulfuric and nitric acids by later alchemists, starting from c. 1300. The production of mineral acids involved the heating of sulfate and nitrate minerals such as copper sulfate, alum and saltpeter. In the 17th century, Johann Rudolph Glauber produced hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate by reacting sulfuric acid and sodium chloride. With the development of the lead chamber process in 1746 and the Leblanc process, allowing large-scale production of sulfuric acid and sodium carbonate, respectively, chemical reactions became implemented into the industry. Further optimization of sulfuric acid technology resulted in the contact process in the 1880s, and the Haber process was developed in 1909–1910 for ammonia synthesis. From the 16th century, researchers including Jan Baptist van Helmont, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton tried to establish theories of experimentally observed chemical transformations. The phlogiston theory was proposed in 1667 by Johann Joachim Becher. It postulated the existence of a fire-like element called "phlogiston", which was contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion. This proved to be false in 1785 by Antoine Lavoisier who found the correct explanation of the combustion as a reaction with oxygen from the air. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac recognized in 1808 that gases always react in a certain relationship with each other. Based on this idea and the atomic theory of John Dalton, Joseph Proust had developed the law of definite proportions, which later resulted in the concepts of stoichiometry and chemical equations. Regarding the organic chemistry, it was long believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were too complex to be obtained synthetically. According to the concept of vitalism, organic matter was endowed with a "vital force" and distinguished from inorganic materials. This separation was ended however by the synthesis of urea from inorganic precursors by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828. Other chemists who brought major contributions to organic chemistry include Alexander William Williamson with his synthesis of ethers and Christopher Kelk Ingold, who, among many discoveries, established the mechanisms of substitution reactions. Characteristics The general characteristics of chemical reactions are: Evolution of a gas Formation of a precipitate Change in temperature Change in state Equations thumb\|450px\|As seen from the equation , a coefficient of 2 must be placed before the oxygen gas on the reactants side and before the water on the products side in order for, as per the law of conservation of mass, the quantity of each element does not change during the reaction. Chemical equations are used to graphically illustrate chemical reactions. They consist of chemical or structural formulas of the reactants on the left and those of the products on the right. They are separated by an arrow (→) which indicates the direction and type of the reaction; the arrow is read as the word "yields". The tip of the arrow points in the direction in which the reaction proceeds. A double arrow () pointing in opposite directions is used for equilibrium reactions. Equations should be balanced according to the stoichiometry, the number of atoms of each species should be the same on both sides of the equation. This is achieved by scaling the number of involved molecules (A, B, C and D in a schematic example below) by the appropriate integers a, b, c and d. More elaborate reactions are represented by reaction schemes, which in addition to starting materials and products show important intermediates or transition states. Also, some relatively minor additions to the reaction can be indicated above the reaction arrow; examples of such additions are water, heat, illumination, a catalyst, etc. Similarly, some minor products can be placed below the arrow, often with a minus sign. thumb\|center\|750px\|An example of organic reaction: oxidation of ketones to esters with a peroxycarboxylic acid Retrosynthetic analysis can be applied to design a complex synthesis reaction. Here the analysis starts from the products, for example by splitting selected chemical bonds, to arrive at plausible initial reagents. A special arrow (⇒) is used in retro reactions. Elementary reactions The elementary reaction is the smallest division into which a chemical reaction can be decomposed, it has no intermediate products. Most experimentally observed reactions are built up from many elementary reactions that occur in parallel or sequentially. The actual sequence of the individual elementary reactions is known as reaction mechanism. An elementary reaction involves a few molecules, usually one or two, because of the low probability for several molecules to meet at a certain time. thumb\|300px\|Isomerization of azobenzene, induced by light (hν) or heat (Δ) The most important elementary reactions are unimolecular and bimolecular reactions. Only one molecule is involved in a unimolecular reaction; it is transformed by isomerization or a dissociation into one or more other molecules. Such reactions require the addition of energy in the form of heat or light. A typical example of a unimolecular reaction is the cis–trans isomerization, in which the cis-form of a compound converts to the trans-form or vice versa. The reaction yield stabilizes at equilibrium but can be increased by removing the product from the reaction mixture or changed by increasing the temperature or pressure. A change in the concentrations of the reactants does not affect the equilibrium constant but does affect the equilibrium position. Thermodynamics Chemical reactions are determined by the laws of thermodynamics. Reactions can proceed by themselves if they are exergonic, that is if they release free energy. The associated free energy change of the reaction is composed of the changes of two different thermodynamic quantities, enthalpy and entropy: \Delta G = \Delta H - T \cdot \Delta S. : free energy, : enthalpy, : temperature, : entropy, : difference (change between original and product) Reactions can be exothermic, where ΔH is negative and energy is released. Typical examples of exothermic reactions are combustion, precipitation and crystallization, in which ordered solids are formed from disordered gaseous or liquid phases. In contrast, in endothermic reactions, heat is consumed from the environment. This can occur by increasing the entropy of the system, often through the formation of gaseous or dissolved reaction products, which have higher entropy. Since the entropy term in the free-energy change increases with temperature, many endothermic reactions preferably take place at high temperatures. On the contrary, many exothermic reactions such as crystallization occur preferably at lower temperatures. A change in temperature can sometimes reverse the sign of the enthalpy of a reaction, as for the carbon monoxide reduction of molybdenum dioxide: 2CO(g) + MoO2(s) -> 2CO2(g) + Mo(s); \Delta H^o = +21.86 \ \text{kJ at 298 K} This reaction to form carbon dioxide and molybdenum is endothermic at low temperatures, becoming less so with increasing temperature. ΔH° is zero at , and the reaction becomes exothermic above that temperature. Changes in temperature can also reverse the direction tendency of a reaction. For example, the water gas shift reaction CO(g) + H2O({v}) CO2(g) + H2(g) is favored by low temperatures, but its reverse is favored by high temperatures. The shift in reaction direction tendency occurs at . {d}U = T\cdot {d}S - p\cdot {d}V + \mu\cdot {d}n : internal energy, : entropy, : pressure, : chemical potential, : number of molecules, : small change sign Kinetics The speed at which reactions take place is studied by reaction kinetics. The rate depends on various parameters, such as: Reactant concentrations, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit of time. Some reactions, however, have rates that are independent of reactant concentrations, due to a limited number of catalytic sites. These are called zero order reactions. Surface area available for contact between the reactants, in particular solid ones in heterogeneous systems. Larger surface areas lead to higher reaction rates. Pressure – increasing the pressure decreases the volume between molecules and therefore increases the frequency of collisions between the molecules. Activation energy, which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies that the reactants need more energy to start than a reaction with lower activation energy. Temperature, which hastens reactions if raised, since higher temperature increases the energy of the molecules, creating more collisions per unit of time, The presence or absence of a catalyst. Catalysts are substances that make weak bonds with reactants or intermediates and change the pathway (mechanism) of a reaction which in turn increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again. For some reactions, the presence of electromagnetic radiation, most notably ultraviolet light, is needed to promote the breaking of bonds to start the reaction. This is particularly true for reactions involving radicals. Several theories allow calculating the reaction rates at the molecular level. This field is referred to as reaction dynamics. The rate v of a first-order reaction, which could be the disintegration of a substance A, is given by: v-\frac {d[\ce{A}]}{dt} k \cdot [\ce{A}]. Its integration yields: \ce{[A]}(t) = \ce{[A]}_{0} \cdot e^{-k\cdot t}. Here k is the first-order rate constant, having dimension 1/time, [A](t) is the concentration at a time t and [A]0 is the initial concentration. The rate of a first-order reaction depends only on the concentration and the properties of the involved substance, and the reaction itself can be described with a characteristic half-life. More than one time constant is needed when describing reactions of higher order. The temperature dependence of the rate constant usually follows the Arrhenius equation: k = k_0 e^{{-E_a}/{k_{B}T}} where Ea is the activation energy and kB is the Boltzmann constant. One of the simplest models of reaction rate is the collision theory. More realistic models are tailored to a specific problem and include the transition state theory, the calculation of the potential energy surface, the Marcus theory and the Rice–Ramsperger–Kassel–Marcus (RRKM) theory. Reaction types Four basic types thumb\|500px\|Representation of four basic chemical reactions types: synthesis, decomposition, single replacement and double replacement. Synthesis In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance. These reactions are in the general form: A + B->AB Two or more reactants yielding one product is another way to identify a synthesis reaction. One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron(II) sulfide: 8Fe + S8->8FeS Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance, such as water. Decomposition A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction and can be written as Forward reactions Reactions that proceed in the forward direction (from left to right) to approach equilibrium are often called spontaneous reactions, that is, \Delta G is negative, which means that if they occur at constant temperature and pressure, they decrease the Gibbs free energy of the reaction. They require less energy to proceed in the forward direction. Reactions are usually written as forward reactions in the direction in which they are spontaneous. Examples: Reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water. + Dissociation of acetic acid in water into acetate ions and hydronium ions. + + Backward reactions Reactions that proceed in the backward direction to approach equilibrium are often called non-spontaneous reactions, that is, \Delta G is positive, which means that if they occur at constant temperature and pressure, they increase the Gibbs free energy of the reaction. They require input of energy to proceed in the forward direction. Examples include: Charging a normal DC battery (consisting of electrolytic cells) from an external electrical power source Photosynthesis driven by absorption of electromagnetic radiation usually in the form of sunlight + + → + Combustion In a combustion reaction, an element or compound reacts with an oxidant, usually oxygen, often producing energy in the form of heat or light. Combustion reactions frequently involve a hydrocarbon. For instance, the combustion of 1 mole (114 g) of octane in oxygen C8H18(l) + 25/2 O2(g)->8CO2 + 9H2O(l) releases 5500 kJ. A combustion reaction can also result from carbon, magnesium or sulfur reacting with oxygen. 2Mg(s) + O2->2MgO(s) S(s) + O2(g)->SO2(g) Oxidation and reduction thumb\|right\|250px\|Illustration of a redox reaction thumb\|right\|250px\|Sodium chloride is formed through the redox reaction of sodium metal and chlorine gas Redox reactions can be understood in terms of the transfer of electrons from one involved species (reducing agent) to another (oxidizing agent). In this process, the former species is oxidized and the latter is reduced. Though sufficient for many purposes, these descriptions are not precisely correct. Oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation state of atoms and reduction as a decrease in oxidation state. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always change the oxidation state, but there are many reactions that are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs (such as those involving covalent bonds). In the following redox reaction, hazardous sodium metal reacts with toxic chlorine gas to form the ionic compound sodium chloride, or common table salt: 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)->2NaCl(s) In the reaction, sodium metal goes from an oxidation state of 0 (a pure element) to +1: in other words, the sodium lost one electron and is said to have been oxidized. On the other hand, the chlorine gas goes from an oxidation of 0 (also a pure element) to −1: the chlorine gains one electron and is said to have been reduced. Because the chlorine is the one reduced, it is considered the electron acceptor, or in other words, induces oxidation in the sodium – thus the chlorine gas is considered the oxidizing agent. Conversely, the sodium is oxidized or is the electron donor, and thus induces a reduction in the other species and is considered the reducing agent. Which of the involved reactants would be a reducing or oxidizing agent can be predicted from the electronegativity of their elements. Elements with low electronegativities, such as most metals, easily donate electrons and oxidize – they are reducing agents. On the contrary, many oxides or ions with high oxidation numbers of their non-oxygen atoms, such as , , , , or , can gain one or two extra electrons and are strong oxidizing agents. For some main-group elements the number of electrons donated or accepted in a redox reaction can be predicted from the electron configuration of the reactant element. Elements try to reach the low-energy noble gas configuration, and therefore alkali metals and halogens will donate and accept one electron, respectively. Noble gases themselves are chemically inactive. The overall redox reaction can be balanced by combining the oxidation and reduction half-reactions multiplied by coefficients such that the number of electrons lost in the oxidation equals the number of electrons gained in the reduction. An important class of redox reactions are the electrolytic electrochemical reactions, where electrons from the power supply at the negative electrode are used as the reducing agent and electron withdrawal at the positive electrode as the oxidizing agent. These reactions are particularly important for the production of chemical elements, such as chlorine or aluminium. The reverse process, in which electrons are released in redox reactions and chemical energy is converted to electrical energy, is possible and used in batteries. Complexation 160px\|thumb\|Ferrocene – an iron atom sandwiched between two C5H5 ligands In complexation reactions, several ligands react with a metal atom to form a coordination complex. This is achieved by providing lone pairs of the ligand into empty orbitals of the metal atom and forming dipolar bonds. The ligands are Lewis bases, they can be both ions and neutral molecules, such as carbon monoxide, ammonia or water. The number of ligands that react with a central metal atom can be found using the 18-electron rule, saying that the valence shells of a transition metal will collectively accommodate 18 electrons, whereas the symmetry of the resulting complex can be predicted with the crystal field theory and ligand field theory. Complexation reactions also include ligand exchange, in which one or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central metal atom. Acid–base reactions In the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, an acid–base reaction involves a transfer of protons (H+) from one species (the acid) to another (the base). When a proton is removed from an acid, the resulting species is termed that acid's conjugate base. When the proton is accepted by a base, the resulting species is termed that base's conjugate acid. In other words, acids act as proton donors and bases act as proton acceptors according to the following equation: \underset{acid}{HA} + \underset{base}{B} \underset{conjugated\ base}{A^-} + \underset{conjugated\ acid}{HB+} The reverse reaction is possible, and thus the acid/base and conjugated base/acid are always in equilibrium. The equilibrium is determined by the acid and base dissociation constants (Ka and Kb) of the involved substances. A special case of the acid-base reaction is the neutralization where an acid and a base, taken at the exact same amounts, form a neutral salt. Acid-base reactions can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are: Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3O+ ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH− ions. Brønsted–Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H+) donors, bases are proton acceptors; this includes the Arrhenius definition. Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors, and bases are electron-pair donors; this includes the Brønsted-Lowry definition. Precipitation thumb\|Precipitation Precipitation is the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction. It usually takes place when the concentration of dissolved ions exceeds the solubility limit and forms an insoluble salt. This process can be assisted by adding a precipitating agent or by the removal of the solvent. Rapid precipitation results in an amorphous or microcrystalline residue and a slow process can yield single crystals. The latter can also be obtained by recrystallization from microcrystalline salts. Solid-state reactions Reactions can take place between two solids. However, because of the relatively small diffusion rates in solids, the corresponding chemical reactions are very slow in comparison to liquid and gas phase reactions. They are accelerated by increasing the reaction temperature and finely dividing the reactant to increase the contacting surface area. Reactions at the solid/gas interface The reaction can take place at the solid\|gas interface, surfaces at very low pressure such as ultra-high vacuum. Via scanning tunneling microscopy, it is possible to observe reactions at the solid\|gas interface in real space, if the time scale of the reaction is in the correct range. Reactions at the solid\|gas interface are in some cases related to catalysis. Photochemical reactions thumb\|In this Paterno–Büchi reaction, a photoexcited carbonyl group is added to an unexcited olefin, yielding an oxetane. In photochemical reactions, atoms and molecules absorb energy (photons) of the illumination light and convert it into an excited state. They can then release this energy by breaking chemical bonds, thereby producing radicals. Photochemical reactions include hydrogen–oxygen reactions, radical polymerization, chain reactions and rearrangement reactions. Many important processes involve photochemistry. The premier example is photosynthesis, in which most plants use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, disposing of oxygen as a side-product. Humans rely on photochemistry for the formation of vitamin D, and vision is initiated by a photochemical reaction of rhodopsin. In fireflies, an enzyme in the abdomen catalyzes a reaction that results in bioluminescence. Many significant photochemical reactions, such as ozone formation, occur in the Earth atmosphere and constitute atmospheric chemistry. Catalysis thumb\|right\|Schematic potential energy diagram showing the effect of a catalyst in an endothermic chemical reaction. The presence of a catalyst opens a different reaction pathway (in red) with lower activation energy. The final result and the overall thermodynamics are the same. thumb\|Solid heterogeneous catalysts are plated on meshes in ceramic catalytic converters in order to maximize their surface area. This exhaust converter is from a Peugeot 106 S2 1100 In catalysis, the reaction does not proceed directly, but through a reaction with a third substance known as catalyst. Although the catalyst takes part in the reaction, forming weak bonds with reactants or intermediates, it is returned to its original state by the end of the reaction and so is not consumed. However, it can be inhibited, deactivated or destroyed by secondary processes. Catalysts can be used in a different phase (heterogeneous) or in the same phase (homogeneous) as the reactants. In heterogeneous catalysis, typical secondary processes include coking where the catalyst becomes covered by polymeric side products. Additionally, heterogeneous catalysts can dissolve into the solution in a solid-liquid system or evaporate in a solid–gas system. Catalysts can only speed up the reaction – chemicals that slow down the reaction are called inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons. With a catalyst, a reaction that is kinetically inhibited by high activation energy can take place in the circumvention of this activation energy. Heterogeneous catalysts are usually solids, powdered in order to maximize their surface area. Of particular importance in heterogeneous catalysis are the platinum group metals and other transition metals, which are used in hydrogenations, catalytic reforming and in the synthesis of commodity chemicals such as nitric acid and ammonia. Acids are an example of a homogeneous catalyst, they increase the nucleophilicity of carbonyls, allowing a reaction that would not otherwise proceed with electrophiles. The advantage of homogeneous catalysts is the ease of mixing them with the reactants, but they may also be difficult to separate from the products. Therefore, heterogeneous catalysts are preferred in many industrial processes. Reactions in organic chemistry In organic chemistry, in addition to oxidation, reduction or acid-base reactions, a number of other reactions can take place which involves covalent bonds between carbon atoms or carbon and heteroatoms (such as oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, etc.). Many specific reactions in organic chemistry are name reactions designated after their discoverers. One of the most industrially important reactions is the cracking of heavy hydrocarbons at oil refineries to create smaller, simpler molecules. This process is used to manufacture gasoline. Specific types of organic reactions may be grouped by their reaction mechanisms (particularly substitution, addition and elimination) or by the types of products they produce (for example, methylation, polymerisation and halogenation). Substitution In a substitution reaction, a functional group in a particular chemical compound is replaced by another group. These reactions can be distinguished by the type of substituting species into a nucleophilic, electrophilic or radical substitution. In the first type, a nucleophile, an atom or molecule with an excess of electrons and thus a negative charge or partial charge, replaces another atom or part of the "substrate" molecule. The electron pair from the nucleophile attacks the substrate forming a new bond, while the leaving group departs with an electron pair. The nucleophile may be electrically neutral or negatively charged, whereas the substrate is typically neutral or positively charged. Examples of nucleophiles are hydroxide ion, alkoxides, amines and halides. This type of reaction is found mainly in aliphatic hydrocarbons, and rarely in aromatic hydrocarbon. The latter have high electron density and enter nucleophilic aromatic substitution only with very strong electron withdrawing groups. Nucleophilic substitution can take place by two different mechanisms, SN1 and SN2. In their names, S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the number represents the kinetic order of the reaction, unimolecular or bimolecular. The SN1 reaction proceeds in two steps. First, the leaving group is eliminated creating a carbocation. This is followed by a rapid reaction with the nucleophile. In the SN2 mechanisms, the nucleophile forms a transition state with the attacked molecule, and only then the leaving group is cleaved. These two mechanisms differ in the stereochemistry of the products. SN1 leads to the non-stereospecific addition and does not result in a chiral center, but rather in a set of geometric isomers (cis/trans). In contrast, a reversal (Walden inversion) of the previously existing stereochemistry is observed in the SN2 mechanism. Electrophilic substitution is the counterpart of the nucleophilic substitution in that the attacking atom or molecule, an electrophile, has low electron density and thus a positive charge. Typical electrophiles are the carbon atom of carbonyl groups, carbocations or sulfur or nitronium cations. This reaction takes place almost exclusively in aromatic hydrocarbons, where it is called electrophilic aromatic substitution. The electrophile attack results in the so-called σ-complex, a transition state in which the aromatic system is abolished. Then, the leaving group, usually a proton, is split off and the aromaticity is restored. An alternative to aromatic substitution is electrophilic aliphatic substitution. It is similar to the nucleophilic aliphatic substitution and also has two major types, SE1 and SE2 center\|thumb\|648px\|Mechanism of electrophilic aromatic substitution In the third type of substitution reaction, radical substitution, the attacking particle is a radical. X. + R-H -> X-H + R. R. + X2 -> R-X + X. Reactions during the chain reaction of radical substitution Addition and elimination The addition and its counterpart, the elimination, are reactions that change the number of substituents on the carbon atom, and form or cleave multiple bonds. Double and triple bonds can be produced by eliminating a suitable leaving group. Similar to the nucleophilic substitution, there are several possible reaction mechanisms that are named after the respective reaction order. In the E1 mechanism, the leaving group is ejected first, forming a carbocation. The next step, the formation of the double bond, takes place with the elimination of a proton (deprotonation). The leaving order is reversed in the E1cb mechanism, that is the proton is split off first. This mechanism requires the participation of a base. Because of the similar conditions, both reactions in the E1 or E1cb elimination always compete with the SN1 substitution. thumb\|300px\|E2 elimination The E2 mechanism also requires a base, but there the attack of the base and the elimination of the leaving group proceed simultaneously and produce no ionic intermediate. In contrast to the E1 eliminations, different stereochemical configurations are possible for the reaction product in the E2 mechanism, because the attack of the base preferentially occurs in the anti-position with respect to the leaving group. Because of the similar conditions and reagents, the E2 elimination is always in competition with the SN2-substitution. thumb\|300px\|Electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide The counterpart of elimination is an addition where double or triple bonds are converted into single bonds. Similar to substitution reactions, there are several types of additions distinguished by the type of the attacking particle. For example, in the electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide, an electrophile (proton) attacks the double bond forming a carbocation, which then reacts with the nucleophile (bromine). The carbocation can be formed on either side of the double bond depending on the groups attached to its ends, and the preferred configuration can be predicted with the Markovnikov's rule. This rule states that "In the heterolytic addition of a polar molecule to an alkene or alkyne, the more electronegative (nucleophilic) atom (or part) of the polar molecule becomes attached to the carbon atom bearing the smaller number of hydrogen atoms." If the addition of a functional group takes place at the less substituted carbon atom of the double bond, then the electrophilic substitution with acids is not possible. In this case, one has to use the hydroboration–oxidation reaction, wherein the first step, the boron atom acts as electrophile and adds to the less substituted carbon atom. In the second step, the nucleophilic hydroperoxide or halogen anion attacks the boron atom. While the addition to the electron-rich alkenes and alkynes is mainly electrophilic, the nucleophilic addition plays an important role in the carbon-heteroatom multiple bonds, and especially its most important representative, the carbonyl group. This process is often associated with elimination so that after the reaction the carbonyl group is present again. It is, therefore, called an addition-elimination reaction and may occur in carboxylic acid derivatives such as chlorides, esters or anhydrides. This reaction is often catalyzed by acids or bases, where the acids increase the electrophilicity of the carbonyl group by binding to the oxygen atom, whereas the bases enhance the nucleophilicity of the attacking nucleophile. thumb\|center\|500px\|Acid-catalyzed addition-elimination mechanism Nucleophilic addition of a carbanion or another nucleophile to the double bond of an alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compound can proceed via the Michael reaction, which belongs to the larger class of conjugate additions. This is one of the most useful methods for the mild formation of C–C bonds. Some additions which can not be executed with nucleophiles and electrophiles can be succeeded with free radicals. As with the free-radical substitution, the radical addition proceeds as a chain reaction, and such reactions are the basis of the free-radical polymerization. Other organic reaction mechanisms left\|thumb\|The Cope rearrangement of 3-methyl-1,5-hexadiene In a rearrangement reaction, the carbon skeleton of a molecule is rearranged to give a structural isomer of the original molecule. These include hydride shift reactions such as the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement, where a hydrogen, alkyl or aryl group migrates from one carbon to a neighboring carbon. Most rearrangements are associated with the breaking and formation of new carbon-carbon bonds. Other examples are sigmatropic reaction such as the Cope rearrangement. Cyclic rearrangements include cycloadditions and, more generally, pericyclic reactions, wherein two or more double bond-containing molecules form a cyclic molecule. An important example of cycloaddition reaction is the Diels–Alder reaction (the so-called [4+2] cycloaddition) between a conjugated diene and a substituted alkene to form a substituted cyclohexene system. Whether a certain cycloaddition would proceed depends on the electronic orbitals of the participating species, as only orbitals with the same sign of wave function will overlap and interact constructively to form new bonds. Cycloaddition is usually assisted by light or heat. These perturbations result in a different arrangement of electrons in the excited state of the involved molecules and therefore in different effects. For example, the [4+2] Diels-Alder reactions can be assisted by heat whereas the [2+2] cycloaddition is selectively induced by light. Because of the orbital character, the potential for developing stereoisomeric products upon cycloaddition is limited, as described by the Woodward–Hoffmann rules. Biochemical reactions thumb\|left\|380px\|Illustration of the induced fit model of enzyme activity Biochemical reactions are mainly controlled by complex proteins called enzymes, which are usually specialized to catalyze only a single, specific reaction. The reaction takes place in the active site, a small part of the enzyme which is usually found in a cleft or pocket lined by amino acid residues, and the rest of the enzyme is used mainly for stabilization. The catalytic action of enzymes relies on several mechanisms including the molecular shape ("induced fit"), bond strain, proximity and orientation of molecules relative to the enzyme, proton donation or withdrawal (acid/base catalysis), electrostatic interactions and many others. The biochemical reactions that occur in living organisms are collectively known as metabolism. Among the most important of its mechanisms is the anabolism, in which different DNA and enzyme-controlled processes result in the production of large molecules such as proteins and carbohydrates from smaller units. Bioenergetics studies the sources of energy for such reactions. Important energy sources are glucose and oxygen, which can be produced by plants via photosynthesis or assimilated from food and air, respectively. All organisms use this energy to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which can then be used to energize other reactions. Decomposition of organic material by fungi, bacteria and other micro-organisms is also within the scope of biochemistry. Applications thumb\|Thermite reaction proceeding in railway welding. Shortly after this, the liquid iron flows into the mould around the rail gap. Chemical reactions are central to chemical engineering, where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as petroleum, mineral ores, and oxygen in air. It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible, maximizing the yield and minimizing the number of reagents, energy inputs and waste. Catalysts are especially helpful for reducing the energy required for the reaction and increasing its reaction rate. Some specific reactions have their niche applications. For example, the thermite reaction is used to generate light and heat in pyrotechnics and welding. Although it is less controllable than the more conventional oxy-fuel welding, arc welding and flash welding, it requires much less equipment and is still used to mend rails, especially in remote areas. Monitoring Mechanisms of monitoring chemical reactions depend strongly on the reaction rate. Relatively slow processes can be analyzed in situ for the concentrations and identities of the individual ingredients. Important tools of real-time analysis are the measurement of pH and analysis of optical absorption (color) and emission spectra. A less accessible but rather efficient method is the introduction of a radioactive isotope into the reaction and monitoring how it changes over time and where it moves to; this method is often used to analyze the redistribution of substances in the human body. Faster reactions are usually studied with ultrafast laser spectroscopy where utilization of femtosecond lasers allows short-lived transition states to be monitored at a time scaled down to a few femtoseconds. See also Chemical equation Chemical reaction Substrate Reagent Catalyst Product Chemical reaction model Chemist Chemistry Combustion Limiting reagent List of organic reactions Mass balance Microscopic reversibility Organic reaction Reaction progress kinetic analysis Reversible reaction References Bibliography Category:Chemistry Category:Change	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reaction	2025-04-05T18:27:46.563342
6272	Charleston	Charleston most commonly refers to: Charleston, South Carolina, the most populous city in the state. Charleston, West Virginia, the state capital and most populous city. Charleston (dance) Charleston may also refer to: Places Australia Charleston, South Australia Canada Charleston, Newfoundland and Labrador Charleston, Nova Scotia New Zealand Charleston, New Zealand United Kingdom Charleston Farmhouse, Sussex, artists' house open to the public Charleston, Angus, near Dundee, Scotland Charleston, Dundee, Scotland Charleston, Paisley, Scotland United States Charleston, Arizona Charleston, Arkansas Charleston, Illinois Charleston, Iowa Charleston, Kansas Charleston, Kentucky Charleston, Maine Charleston, Mississippi Charleston, Missouri Charleston, Nevada Charleston, New Jersey Charleston, New York Charleston, Staten Island, in New York City, New York Charleston, North Carolina Charleston, Oklahoma Charleston, Oregon Charleston, Tennessee Charleston, Utah Charleston, Vermont Charleston County, South Carolina Charleston Township, Coles County, Illinois Charleston Township, Kalamazoo County, Michigan Charleston Township, Tioga County, Pennsylvania Mount Charleston, Nevada, Clark County, a town Mount Charleston, Nevada, a mountain North Charleston, South Carolina South Charleston, Ohio South Charleston, West Virginia West Charleston, Ohio Naval history USS Charleston, several US Navy ships Charleston, later Texan schooner Zavala Railway stations Charleston station (West Virginia), US North Charleston station, South Carolina, US Education Charleston Collegiate School, South Carolina Charleston High School (disambiguation) College of Charleston, in South Carolina Charleston Cougars, the school's athletic program University of Charleston, West Virginia Charleston Golden Eagles, the school's athletic program Charleston Academy, Inverness, Scotland Music "Charleston" (1923 song) "Charleston", a song by Brendan James Charleston (Den Harrow song) "Charleston", a song by Sons of Bill "Charleston", a track on the 1979 Mike Oldfield album Platinum Other uses Charleston (name) Charleston (novel), a 2002 by John Jakes Charleston, a 1981 novel by Alexandra Ripley Charleston (1974 film), Italy Charleston (1977 film), Italy Charleston Open, a tennis tournament that takes place in Charleston, South Carolina Charleston, a procedure in mahjong Charleston, a model of the Citroën 2CV car Charleston, restaurant in Baltimore, Maryland See also Charleston metropolitan area (disambiguation) Charlestown (disambiguation) Charlton (disambiguation) Charlottetown (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleston	2025-04-05T18:27:46.584819
6276	Casiquiare canal	<!-- --> \| width_min \| width_avg \| width_max \| depth_min \| depth_avg \| depth_max \| discharge1_location= Amazonas, Venezuela (near mouth) \| discharge1_min \| discharge1_avg \| discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> \| source1 = Orinoco River \| source1_location \| source1_coordinates \| source1_elevation \| mouth = Rio Negro \| mouth_location \| mouth_coordinates \| mouth_elevation \| progression \| river_system \| basin_size \| tributaries_left \| tributaries_right Siapa, Yatua \| custom_label \| custom_data \| extra = }} The Casiquiare river or canal () is a natural distributary of the upper Orinoco flowing southward into the Rio Negro, in Venezuela, South America. As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and Amazon river systems. It is the world's largest river of the kind that links two major river systems, a so-called bifurcation. The area forms a water divide, more dramatically at regional flood stage. Etymology The name Casiquiare, first used in that form by Manuel Román, likely derives from the Ye'kuana language name of the river, Kashishiwadi. Discovery The first European to describe it was Spanish Jesuit missionary and explorer Cristóbal Diatristán de Acuña in 1639. In 1744 a Jesuit priest named Manuel Román, while ascending the Orinoco River in the region of La Esmeralda, met some Portuguese slave-traders from the settlements on the Rio Negro. The Portuguese insisted they were not in Spanish territory but on a tributary of the Amazon; they invited Román back with them to prove their claim. He accompanied them on their return, by way of the Casiquiare canal, and afterwards retraced his route to the Orinoco. Along the way, he made first contact with the Ye'kuana people, whom he enlisted to help in his journey. Charles Marie de La Condamine, seven months later, was able to give to the Académie française an account of Father Román's voyage, and thus confirm the existence of this waterway, first reported by Father Acuña in 1639. Little credence was given to Román's statement until it was verified, in 1756, by the Spanish Boundary-line Commission of José Yturriaga and Solano. In 1800 German scientist Alexander von Humboldt and French botanist Aimé Bonpland explored the river. In 1968 the Casiquiare was navigated by an SRN6 hovercraft during a The Geographical Journal expedition.GeographyThe origin of the Casiquiare, at the River Orinoco, is below the mission of La Esmeralda at , and about above sea level. Its mouth at the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon River, is near the town of San Carlos and is above sea level. The general course is south-west, and its length, including windings, is about . Its width, at its bifurcation with the Orinoco, is approximately , with a current towards the Rio Negro of . However, as it gains in volume from the very numerous tributary streams, large and small, that it receives en route, its velocity increases, and in the wet season reaches , even in certain stretches. It broadens considerably as it approaches its mouth, where it is about wide. The volume of water the Casiquiare captures from the Orinoco is small in comparison to what it accumulates in its course. Nevertheless, the geological processes are ongoing, and evidence points to a slow and gradual increase in the size of Casiquiare. It is likely that stream capture is in progress, i.e. what currently is the uppermost Orinoco basin, including Cunucunuma River, eventually will be entirely diverted by the Casiquiare into the Amazon basin. In flood time, it is said to have a second connection with the Rio Negro by a branch, which it throws off to the westward, called the Itinivini, which leaves it at a point about above its mouth. In the dry season, it has shallows, and is obstructed by sandbanks, a few rapids and granite rocks. Its shores are densely wooded, and the soil more fertile than that along the Rio Negro. The general slope of the plains through which the canal runs is south-west, but those of the Rio Negro slope south-east. The Casiquiare is not a sluggish canal on a flat tableland, but a great, rapid river which, if its upper waters had not found contact with the Orinoco, perhaps by cutting back, would belong entirely to the Negro branch of the Amazon. To the west of the Casiquiare, there is a much shorter and easier portage between the Orinoco and Amazon basins, called the isthmus of Pimichin, which is reached by ascending the Temi branch of the Atabapo River, an affluent of the Orinoco. Although the Temi is somewhat obstructed, it is believed that it could easily be made navigable for small craft. The isthmus is across, with undulating ground, nowhere over high, with swamps and marshes. In the early 20th century, it was much used for the transit of large canoes, which were hauled across it from the Temi River and reached the Rio Negro by a little stream called the Pimichin. Hydrographic divide The Casiquiare canal – Orinoco River hydrographic divide is a representation of the hydrographic water divide that delineates the separation between the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. (The Orinoco Basin flows west–north–northeast into the Caribbean; the Amazon Basin flows east into the western Atlantic in the extreme northeast of Brazil.) Essentially the river divide is a west-flowing, upriver section of Venezuela's Orinoco River with an outflow to the south into the Amazon Basin. This named outflow is the Casiquiare canal, which, as it heads downstream (southerly), picks up speed and also accumulates water volume. The greatest manifestation of the divide is during floods. During flood stage, the Casiquiare's main outflow point into the Rio Negro is supplemented by an overflow that is a second, and more minor, entry river bifurcation into the Rio Negro and upstream from its major, common low-water entry confluence with the Rio Negro. At flood, the river becomes an area flow source, far more than a narrow confined river. The Casiquiare canal connects the upper Orinoco, below the mission of Esmeraldas, with the Rio Negro affluent of the Amazon River near the town of San Carlos. The simplest description (besides the entire area-floodplain) of the water divide is a "south-bank Orinoco River strip" at the exit point of the Orinoco, also the origin of the Casiquiare canal. However, during the Orinoco's flood stage, that single, simply defined "origin of the canal" is turned into a region, and an entire strip along the southern bank of the Orinoco River. See also Crypturellus casiquiare, the barred tinamou. References Sources VARESCHI, Volkmar. Orinoco arriba. A través de Venezuela siguiendo a Humboldt. Caracas: Ediciones Lectura, 1959 Notes External links [https://maps.google.com/maps?fq&hlen&q03%C2%B008%2718.45%22+N+65%C2%B052%2742.51%22+W&ieUTF8&tk&om1&ll3.138459,-65.878476&spn0.018255,0.042572 The point where the Casiquiare bifurcates from the Orinoco, on Google Maps] * [http://www.wikimapia.org/#y2482133&x-66423340&z9&l0&ma&v2 Wikimapia satellite image displaying locations of both the beginning (principio) and the end (desague) of the Casiquiare Canal.] Category:Orinoco basin Category:Tributaries of the Rio Negro (Amazon) Category:Rivers of Venezuela Category:Biosphere reserves of Venezuela Category:River bifurcations Category:Rivers of Amazonas (Venezuelan state)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casiquiare_canal	2025-04-05T18:27:46.597478
6279	Capetian dynasty	\| titles = \| parent house = Robertians, Karlings (female lines only) \| founder = Hugh Capet \| founding year = 987 \| founded = \| current head = Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou \| cadet branches = See below }} The Capetian dynasty ( ; ), also known as the House of France (), is a dynasty of Frankish origin, and a branch of the Robertians agnatically, and the Karlings through female lines. It is among the largest and oldest royal houses in Europe and the world, and consists of Hugh Capet, the founder of the dynasty, and his male-line descendants, who ruled in France without interruption from 987 to 1792, and again from 1814 to 1848. The senior line from the House of Capet ruled in France from the election of Hugh Capet in 987 until the death of Charles IV in 1328. That line was succeeded by cadet branches, first the House of Valois, and succeeding them the House of Bourbon, which ruled until the French Revolution abolished the monarchy in 1792. The Bourbons were restored in 1814 in the aftermath of Napoleon's defeat, but had to vacate the throne again in 1830 in favor of the last Capetian monarch of France, Louis Philippe I, who belonged to the House of Orléans, a cadet branch of the Bourbons. Cadet branches of the Capetian House of Bourbon are still reigning over Spain and Luxembourg. The dynasty had a crucial role in the formation of the French state. From a power base initially confined to their own demesne, the Île-de-France, the Capetian kings slowly but steadily increased their power and influence until it grew to cover the entirety of their realm. For a detailed narration on the growth of French royal power, see Crown lands of France. Members of the dynasty were traditionally Catholic, and the early Capetians had an alliance with the Church. The French were also the most active participants in the Crusades, culminating in a series of five Crusader kings – Louis VII, Philip Augustus, Louis VIII, Louis IX, and Philip III. The Capetian alliance with the papacy suffered a severe blow after the disaster of the Aragonese Crusade. Philip III's son and successor, Philip IV, arrested Pope Boniface VIII and brought the papacy under French control. The later Valois, starting with Francis I, ignored religious differences and allied with the Ottoman sultan to counter the growing power of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry IV was a Protestant at the time of his accession, but realized the necessity of conversion after four years of religious warfare. The Capetians generally enjoyed a harmonious family relationship. By tradition, younger sons and brothers of the king of France were given appanages for them to maintain their rank and to dissuade them from claiming the French crown itself. When Capetian cadets did aspire for kingship, their ambitions were directed not at the French throne, but at foreign thrones. As a result, the Capetians have reigned at different times in the kingdoms of Portugal, Sicily and Naples, Navarre, Hungary and Croatia, Poland, Spain and Sardinia, grand dukedoms of Lithuania and Luxembourg, and in Latin and Brazilian empires. In modern times, King Felipe VI of Spain is a member of this family, while Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg is related to the family by agnatic kinship; both through the Bourbon branch of the dynasty. Along with the House of Habsburg, arguably its greatest historic rival, it was one of the two oldest European royal dynasties. It was also one of the most powerful royal families in European history, having played a major role in its politics for much of its existence. According to Oxford University, 75% of all royal families in European history are related to the Capetian dynasty. Name origins and usage The name of the dynasty derives from its founder, Hugh, who was known as "Hugh Capet". The meaning of "Capet" (a nickname rather than a surname of the modern sort) is unknown. While folk etymology identifies it with "cape", other suggestions indicate it might be connected to the Latin word caput ("head"), and explain it as meaning "chief" or "head". Historians in the 19th century (see House of France) came to apply the name "Capetian" to both the ruling house of France and to the wider-spread male-line descendants of Hugh Capet. It was not a contemporary practice. The name "Capet" has also been used as a surname for French royalty, particularly but not exclusively those of the House of Capet. One notable use was during the French Revolution, when the dethroned King Louis XVI (a member of the House of Bourbon and a direct male-line descendant of Hugh Capet) and Queen Marie Antoinette (a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine) were referred to as "Louis and Antoinette Capet" (the queen being addressed as "the Widow Capet" after the execution of her husband). Capetian miracle The Capetian miracle () refers to the dynasty's ability to attain and hold onto the French crown. In 987, Hugh Capet was elected to succeed Louis V of the Carolingian dynasty that had ruled France for over three centuries. By a process of associating elder sons with them in the kingship, the early Capetians established the hereditary succession in their family and transformed a theoretically electoral kingship into a sacral one. By the time of Philip II Augustus, who became king in 1180, the Capetian hold on power was so strong that the practice of associate kingship was dropped. While the Capetian monarchy began as one of the weakest in Europe, drastically eclipsed by the new Anglo-Norman realm in England (who, as dukes of Normandy, were technically their vassals) and even other great lords of France, the political value of orderly succession in the Middle Ages cannot be overstated. The orderly succession of power from father to son over such a long period of time meant that the French monarchs, who originally were essentially just the direct rulers of the Île-de-France, were able to preserve and extend their power, while over the course of centuries the great peers of the realm would eventually lose their power in one succession crisis or another. By comparison, the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem was constantly beset with internal succession disputes because each generation only produced female heirs who tended to die young. Even the English monarchy encountered severe succession crises, such as The Anarchy of the 1120s between Stephen and Matilda, and the murder of Arthur I, Duke of Brittany, the primogeniture heir of Richard I of England. The latter case would deal a severe blow to the prestige of King John, leading to the eventual destruction of Angevin hegemony in France. In contrast, the French kings were able to maintain uncontested father-to-son succession from the time of Hugh Capet until the succession crisis which began the Hundred Years' War of the 14th century. Capetians through history '']] Over the succeeding centuries, Capetians spread throughout Europe, ruling every form of provincial unit from kingdoms to manors. Salic law Salic law, re-established during the Hundred Years' War from an ancient Frankish tradition, caused the French monarchy to permit only male (agnatic) descendants of Hugh to succeed to the throne of France. Without Salic law, upon the death of John I, the crown would have passed to his half-sister, Joan (later Joan II of Navarre). However, Joan's paternity was suspect due to her mother's adultery in the Tour de Nesle Affair; the French magnates adopted Salic law to avoid the succession of a possible bastard. In 1328, King Charles IV of France died without male heirs, as his brothers did before him. Philip of Valois, the late king's first cousin, acted as regent, pending the birth of the king's posthumous child, which proved to be a girl. Isabella of France, sister of Charles IV, claimed the throne for her son, Edward III of England. The English king did not find support among the French lords, who made Philip of Valois their king. From then on the French succession not only excluded females but also rejected claims based on the female line of descent. Thus the French crown passed from the House of Capet after the death of Charles IV to Philip VI of France of the House of Valois, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty, then to Louis II, Duke of Orléans, of the Orléans branch of the Valois, who became Louis XII of France, then to Francis, Duke of Valois, Count of Angoulème, who became Francis I of France, and his descendants, of the Orléans-Angoulème, then to Henry III of Navarre, who became Henry IV of France, of the House of Bourbon, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. This did not affect monarchies not under that law such as Portugal, Spain, Navarre, and various smaller duchies and counties. Therefore, many royal families appear and disappear in the French succession or become cadet branches upon marriage. A complete list of the senior-most line of Capetians is available below. Capetian cadet branches The Capetian dynasty has been broken many times into (sometimes rival) cadet branches. A cadet branch is a line of descent from another line than the senior-most. This list of cadet branches shows most of the Capetian cadet lines and designating their royal French progenitor, although some sub-branches are not shown. Hugh Capet Robert II of France * Henry I of France ** Philip I of France * Louis VI of France ** Louis VII of France *** Philip II of France **** Louis VIII of France ***** Louis IX of France ****** Philip III of France ******* Philip IV of France ******* House of Valois ******* House of Évreux ****** House of Bourbon ***** House of Artois ***** House of Anjou ** House of Dreux ** House of Courtenay House of Vermandois * House of Burgundy Descendants of Philip III of France * House of Valois (1293–1498) House of Valois-Orléans (1392–1515) * House of Orléans-Angoulême (1407–1589) House of Valois-Anjou (1356–1481) House of Valois-Burgundy (1364–1477) * House of Burgundy-Brabant (1404–1430) * House of Burgundy-Nevers (1404–1491) ** House of Valois-Alençon (1325–1525) * House of Évreux (1303–1400) ** House of Évreux-Navarre (1328–1425) Descendants of Louis IX of France * House of Bourbon (1268–1503) House of Bourbon-Montpensier, counts (1443–1527) House of Bourbon-La Marche (1356–1438) * House of Bourbon-Vendôme (became Royal House of France in 1589) House of Artois (1775–1883) House of Bourbon, Spanish branch (1700–present) * Carlists (1819–1936) * Alfonsines (1819–present) ** House of Bourbon-Anjou (1933–present) ** House of Bourbon, Spanish royal family (1933–present) * House of Bourbon-Seville (1823–present) ** House of Bourbon-Seville, dukes of Santa Elena (1878-present) * House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1751–present) * House of Bourbon-Braganza (1752–1979) * House of Bourbon-Parma (1748–present) ** Parma-Luxembourg, called House of Nassau-Weilburg (1919–present) House of Orléans (1661–) * Orléans-Nemours, then (1891) House of Orléans-Braganza (1864–present) ** Orléans-Alençon (1844–1970) * Orléans-Aumale (1822–1872) * Orléans-Montpensier, then House of Orléans-Galliera (1824–present) House of Bourbon-Condé (1557–1830) * House of Bourbon-Conti (1629–1814) * House of Bourbon-Soissons (1569–1641) House of Bourbon-Montpensier, dukes (1477–1608) * House of Bourbon-Carency (1393–1520) ** House of Bourbon-Duisant (1457–1530) * House of Bourbon-Preaux (1385–1429) Descendants of Louis VIII of France * House of Artois (1237–1472) * House of Anjou (initially ruling house of Sicily, then of Naples, became ruling house of Hungary) (1247–1382) House of Anjou-Naples (1309–1343) House of Anjou–Taranto (1294–1374) ** House of Anjou–Durazzo (1309–1414) Descendants of Louis VI of France * House of Dreux (1137–1345) Breton House of Dreux (1213–1341) * House of Montfort (1322–1488) * Capetian House of Courtenay (1150–1727) ** Capetian House of Courtenay – Latin emperors of Constantinople (1217–1283) Descendants of Henry I of France * Capetian House of Vermandois (1085–1212) Descendants of Robert II of France * House of Burgundy (1032–1361) Portuguese House of Burgundy (1109–1383) * House of Aviz (1385–1580) – illegitimate male-line descent from Burgundy ** House of Braganza (1442–present) – illegitimate male-line descent from Aviz *** House of Cadaval (1645–present), the male line went extinct in 2001 Sovereigns from the Capetian dynasty Latin Empire * Peter (1216–1217) * Robert (1219–1228) * Baldwin II (1228–1273, exiled in 1261) * Philip I (1273–1283) * Catherine I (1283–1307) * Catherine II (1307–1346) * Robert II (1346–1364) * Philip II (1364–1374) Kingdom of Albania * Charles I (1272–1285) * Charles II (1285–1294) * Philip (1294–1331) * Robert (1331–1332) * John (1332–1336) * Charles III (1336–1348) * Joan I (1348–1368) * Louis (1376–1383) Kingdom of Etruria * Louis (1801–1803) * Charles Louis (1803–1807) Kingdom of France * Hugh (987–996) * Robert II (996–1031) * Henry I (1031–1060) * Philip I (1060–1108) * Louis VI (1108–1137) * Louis VII (1137–1180) * Philip II (1180–1223) * Louis VIII (1223–1226) * Louis IX (1226–1270) * Philip III (1270–1285) * Philip IV (1285–1314) * Louis X (1314–1316) * John I (1316) * Philip V (1316–1322) * Charles IV (1322–1328) * Philip VI (1328–1350) * John II (1350–1364) * Charles V (1364–1380) * Charles VI (1380–1422) * Charles VII (1422–1461) * Louis XI (1461–1483) * Charles VIII (1483–1498) * Louis XII (1498–1515) * Francis I (1515–1547) * Henry II (1547–1559) * Francis II (1559–1560) * Charles IX (1560–1574) * Henry III (1574–1589) * Henry IV (1589–1610) * Louis XIII (1610–1643) * Louis XIV (1643–1715) * Louis XV (1715–1774) * Louis XVI (1774–1792) * Louis XVIII (1814–1815, 1815–1824) * Charles X (1824–1830) * Louis Philip (1830–1848) Kingdom of Hungary * Charles I (1310–1342) * Louis I (1342–1382) * Mary (1382–1385, 1386–1395) * Charles II (1385–1386) Kingdom of Naples * Charles I (1266–1285) * Charles II (1285–1309) * Robert (1309–1343) * Joan I (1343–1382) * Charles III (1382–1386) * Ladislas (1386–1414) * Joan II (1414–1435) * René I (1435–1442) * Philip (1700–1707) * Charles VII (1735–1759) * Ferdinand IV (1759–1816) Kingdom of Navarre * Philip I (1284–1305) * Louis I (1305–1316) * John I (1316–1316) * Philip II (1316–1322) * Charles I (1322–1328) * Joan II (1328–1349) * Philip III (1328–1343) * Charles II (1349–1387) * Charles III (1387–1425) * Blanche I (1425–1441) * Anthony (1555–1562) * Henry III (1572–1610) * Louis II (1610–1643) * Louis III (1643–1715) * Louis IV (1715–1774) * Louis V (1774–1792) * Louis VII (1814–1815, 1815–1824) * Charles V (1824–1830) * Louis Philip (1830–1848) Kingdom of Poland * Louis (1370–1382) * Hedwig (1384–1399) * Henry (1573–1574) Kingdom and County of Portugal * Henry (1093–1112) * Alphonse I (1112–1185, crowned in 1139) * Sancho I (1185–1211) * Alphonse II (1211–1223) * Sancho II (1223–1247) * Alphonse III (1247–1279) * Denis (1279–1325) * Alphonse IV (1325–1357) * Peter I (1357–1367) * Ferdinand I (1367–1383) Kingdom of Sicily * Charles I (1266–1282) * Philip (1700–1713) * Charles VII (1735–1759) * Ferdinand III (1759–1816) Kingdom of Spain * Philip V (1700–1724, 1724–1746) * Louis I (1724) * Ferdinand VI (1746–1759) * Charles III (1759–1788) * Charles IV (1788–1808, 1808) * Ferdinand VII (1808, 1813–1833) * Isabella II (1833–1868) * Alphonse XII (1874–1885) * Alphonse XIII (1886–1931) * John Charles I (1975–2014) * Philip VI (2014–) Kingdom of the Two Sicilies * Ferdinand I (1816–1825) * Francis I (1825–1830) * Ferdinand II (1830–1859) * Francis II (1859–1860) Grand Duchy of Lithuania * Henry (1573–1574) Grand Duchy of Luxembourg * Jean (1964–2000) * Henri (2000–) Duchy of Brabant * Anthony (1406–1415) * John IV (1415–1427) * Philip I (1427–1430) * Philip II (1430–1467) * Charles (1467–1477) * Mary (1477–1482) Duchy of Brittany * Peter I (1213–1237) * John I (1237–1286) * John II (1286–1305) * Arthur II (1305–1316) * John III (1312–1341) * John IV (1341–1345) * John V (1364–1399) * John VI (1399–1442) * Francis I (1442–1450) * Peter II (1450–1457) * Arthur III (1457–1458) * Francis II (1458–1488) * Anne (1488–1514) * Claude (1514–1524) * Francis III (1514–1524) * Francis IV (1524–1536) * Henry (1536–1547) Duchy of Burgundy * Otto of Paris (956–965) * Odo-Henry (965–1002) * Henry I (1026–1032) * Robert I (1032–1076) * Hugh I (1076–1079) * Odo I (1079–1103) * Hugh II (1103–1143) * Odo II (1143–1162) * Hugh III (1162–1192) * Odo III (1192–1218) * Hugh IV (1218–1272) * Robert II (1272–1306) * Hugh V (1306–1315) as a boy stands next to his father, Philip the Good, c. 1447–8]] * Odo IV (1315–1349) * Philip I (1349–1361) * John I (1361–1363) * Philip II (1363–1404) * John II (1404–1419) * Philip III (1419–1467) * Charles (1467–1477) * Mary (1477–1482) Duchy of Lorraine * René I (1431–1453) * John II (1453–1470) * Nicholas I (1470–1473) * Yolande (1473–1473) Duchy of Lucca * Maria Louisa (1815–1824) * Charles (1824–1847) Duchy of Luxemburg * Anthony (1411–1415) * Philip I (1443–1467) * Charles (1467–1477) * Mary (1477–1482) * Philip V (1700–1712) Duchy of Milan * Louis I (1499–1512) * Francis II (1515–1521) * Philip IV (1700–1714) Duchy of Parma * Charles I (1731–1735) * Philip (1748–1765) * Ferdinand (1765–1802) * Charles II (1847–1849) * Charles III (1849–1854) * Robert I (1854–1859) Principality of Achaea * Charles I (1278–1285) * Charles II (1285–1289) * Philip I (1307–1313) * Louis (1313–1316) * Robert I (1318–1322) * Robert II (1333–1364) * Catherine II (1333–1346) * Philip II (1364–1373) * Joan I (1373–1381) * Charles III (1383–1386) Principality of Taranto * Charles I (1266–1285) * Charles II (1285–1294) * Philip I (1294–1331) * Robert II (1331–1346, 1362–1364) * Louis (1346–1362) * Philip II (1362–1374) * Ladislaus (1406–1414) * James (1414–1420) Marquisate of Namur * Philip II (1212–1226) * Henry II (1226–1229) * Margaret (1229–1237) * Baldwin II (1237–1256) * Philip IV (1421–1467) * Charles I (1467–1477) * Mary I (1477–1482) Illegitimate descent Empire of Brazil * Peter I (1822–1831) * Peter II (1831–1889) Kingdom of Portugal * John I (1385–1433) * Edward (1433–1438) * Alphonse V (1438–1481) * John II (1481–1495) * Manuel I (1495–1521) * John III, (1521–1557) * Sebastian, (1557–1578) * Henry (1578–1580) * Anthony (1580–1580, disputed) * John IV (1640–1656) * Alphonse VI (1656–1683) * Peter II (1683–1706) * John V (1706–1750) * Joseph I (1750–1777) * Peter III (1777–1786) * Mary I (1777–1816) * John VI (1816–1826) * Peter IV (1826–1826) * Mary II (1826–1828, 1834–1853) * Michael I (1828–1834) Senior Capets Throughout most of history, the Senior Capet and the King of France were synonymous terms. Only in the time before Hugh Capet took the crown for himself and after the reign of Charles X is there a distinction such that the senior Capet must be identified independently from succession to the French Crown. However, since primogeniture and the Salic law provided for the succession of the French throne for most of French history, here is a list of all the French kings from Hugh until Charles, and all the Legitimist pretenders thereafter. All dates are for seniority, not reign. King of France: * Hugh, King of France (987–996) * Robert II, King of France (996–1031) * Henry I, King of France (1031–1060) * Philip I, King of France (1060–1108) * Louis VI, King of France (1108–1137) * Louis VII, King of France (1137–1180) * Philip II, King of France (1180–1223) * Louis VIII, King of France (1223–1226) * Louis IX, King of France (1226–1270) * Philip III, King of France (1271–1285) * Philip IV, King of France (1285–1314) * Louis X, King of France (1314–1316) * John I, King of France (1316–1316) * Philip V, King of France (1316–1322) * Charles IV, King of France (1322–1328) * Philip VI, King of France (1328–1350) * John II, King of France (1350–1364) * Charles V, King of France (1364–1380) * Charles VI, King of France (1380–1422) * Charles VII, King of France (1422–1461) * Louis XI, King of France (1461–1483) * Charles VIII, King of France (1483–1498) * Louis XII, King of France (1498–1515) * Francis I, King of France (1515–1547) * Henry II, King of France (1547–1559) * Francis II, King of France (1559–1560) * Charles IX, King of France (1560–1574) * Henry III, King of France (1574–1589) * Henry IV, King of France (1589–1610) * Louis XIII, King of France (1610–1643) * Louis XIV, King of France (1643–1715) * Louis XV, King of France (1715–1774) * Louis XVI, King of France (1774–1793) * Louis XVII, King of France (1793–1795) * Louis XVIII, King of France (1795–1824) * Charles X, King of France (1824–1836) Legitimist Pretenders: * Louis Anthony, Duke of Angoulême (1836–1844) * Henry, Count of Chambord (1844–1883) * John, Count of Montizón (1883–1887) * Charles, Duke of Madrid (1887–1909) * James, Duke of Anjou and Madrid (1909–1931) * Alphonse Charles, Duke of San Jaime (1931–1936) * Alphonse XIII, King of Spain (1936–1941) * James Henry, Duke of Anjou and Segovia (1941–1975) * Alphonse, Duke of Anjou and Cádiz (1975–1989) * Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou (1989–) The Capetian dynasty today Many years have passed since the Capetian monarchs ruled a large part of Europe; however, they still remain as kings, as well as other titles. Currently two Capetian monarchs still rule in Spain and Luxembourg. In addition, seven pretenders represent exiled dynastic monarchies in Brazil, France, Spain, Portugal, Parma and Two Sicilies. The current legitimate, senior family member is Louis-Alphonse de Bourbon, known by his supporters as Duke of Anjou, who also holds the Legitimist (''Blancs d'Espagne'') claim to the French throne. Overall, dozens of branches of the Capetian dynasty still exist throughout Europe. Except for the House of Braganza (founded by an illegitimate son of King John I of Portugal, who was himself illegitimate), all current major Capetian branches are of the Bourbon cadet branch. Within the House of Bourbon, many of these lines are themselves well-defined cadet lines of the House. Current Capetian rulers * Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (since 2000) Felipe VI, King of Spain (since 2014) Current Capetian pretenders Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou, Legitimist pretender to the Kingdom of France since 1989. * Prince Pedro, Duke of Calabria, Calabrian pretender to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies since 2015. * Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro, Castroist pretender to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies since 2008. * Carlos, Duke of Parma, pretender to the Duchy of Parma since 2010 and one of the Carlist pretenders to the Kingdom of Spain since 2010. * Prince Sixtus Henry of Bourbon-Parma, the other Carlist pretender to the Kingdom of Spain since 1979. * Jean, Count of Paris, Orléanist pretender to the Kingdom of France since 2019. * Prince Pedro Carlos of Orléans-Braganza, Petrópolis pretender to the Empire of Brazil since 2007. * Prince Bertrand of Orléans-Braganza, Vassouras pretender to the Empire of Brazil since 2022. * Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza, pretender to the Kingdom of Portugal since 1976. * Balthazar Napoleon IV de Bourbon, Raja of Bhopal of the Bourbon-Bhopal dynasty * Philippe, Count of Châlus of Bourbon-Busset Arms of cadet branches Family tree Male, male-line, legitimate, non-morganatic members of the house who either lived to adulthood, or who held a title as a child, are included. Heads of the house are in bold. Hugh Capet, 940-996 (House of Capet) Robert II of France, 972–1031 Hugh of France, 1007–1025 Henry I of France, 1008–1060 *Philip I of France, 1052–1108 *Louis VI of France, 1081–1137 **Philip of France, 1116–1131 **Louis VII of France, 1120–1180 ***Philip II of France, 1165–1223 ****Louis VIII of France, 1187–1226 *****Louis IX of France, 1214–1270 ******Louis of France, 1244–1260 ******Philip III of France, 1245–1285 *******Philip IV of France, 1268–1314 ********Louis X of France, 1289–1316 *********John I of France, 1316 ********Philip V of France, 1291–1322 ********Charles IV of France, 1294–1328 *******Charles, Count of Valois, 1270-1325 (House of Valois) ********Philip VI of France, 1293–1350 *********John II of France, 1319–1364 **********Charles V of France, 1338–1380 ***********Charles VI of France, 1368–1422 ************Louis, Duke of Guyenne, 1397–1415 ************John, Duke of Touraine, 1398–1417 ************Charles VII of France, 1403–1461 *************Louis XI, 1423–1483 **************Charles VIII of France, 1470–1498 ***************Charles Orlando, Dauphin of France, 1492–1495 *************Charles of Valois, Duke of Berry, 1446–1472 ***********Louis I, Duke of Orléans, 1372–1407 ************Charles, Duke of Orléans, 1394–1465 *************Louis XII, 1462–1515 ************Philip, Count of Vertus, 1396–1420 ************John, Count of Angoulême, 1399–1467 *************Charles, Count of Angoulême, 1459–1496 **************Francis I of France, 1494–1547 ***************Francis III, Duke of Brittany, 1518–1536 ***************Henry II of France, 1519–1559 ****************Francis II of France, 1544–1560 ****************Charles IX of France, 1550–1574 ****************Henry III of France, 1551–1589 ****************Francis, Duke of Anjou, 1555–1584 ***************Charles II of Valois, Duke of Orléans, 1522–1545 **********Louis I of Anjou, 1339-1384 (House of Valois-Anjou) ***********Louis II of Anjou, 1377–1417 ************Louis III of Anjou, 1403–1434 ************René of Anjou, 1409–1480 *************John II, Duke of Lorraine, 1426–1470 **************Nicholas I, Duke of Lorraine, 1448–1473 *************Louis of Anjou, Marquis of Pont-à-Mousson, 1427–1444 ************Charles IV, Count of Maine, 1414–1472 *************Charles IV of Anjou, 1446–1481 ***********Charles, Prince of Taranto, 1380–1404 **********John, Duke of Berry, 1340–1416 ***********John of Valois, Count of Montpensier, 1376–1397 **********Philip the Bold, 1342-1404 (House of Valois-Burgundy) ***********John the Fearless, 1371–1419 ************Philip the Good, 1396–1467 *************Charles the Bold, 1433–1477 ***********Anthony, Duke of Brabant, 1384–1415 ************John IV, Duke of Brabant, 1403–1427 ************Philip I, Duke of Brabant, 1404–1430 ***********Philip II, Count of Nevers, 1389–1415 ************Charles I, Count of Nevers, 1414–1464 ************John II, Count of Nevers, 1415–1491 *********Philip, Duke of Orléans, 1336–1375 ********Charles II, Count of Alençon, 1297–1346 *********Charles III, Count of Alençon, 1337–1375 *********Philip of Alençon, 1339–1397 *********Peter II, Count of Alençon, 1340–1404 **********John I, Duke of Alençon, 1385–1415 ***********John II, Duke of Alençon, 1409–1476 ************René, Duke of Alençon, 1454–1492 *************Charles IV, Duke of Alençon, 1489–1525 *********Robert of Alençon, 1344–1377 *******Louis, Count of Évreux, 1276-1319 (House of Évreux) ********Charles d'Évreux, 1305–1336 *********Louis I, Count of Étampes, 1336–1400 *********John of Évreux, 1336–1373 ********Philip III of Navarre, 1306–1343 *********Charles II of Navarre, 1332–1387 **********Charles III of Navarre, 1361–1425 **********Peter, Count of Mortain, 1366–1412 *********Philip, Count of Longueville, 1336–1363 *********Louis, Duke of Durazzo, 1341–1376 ******John Tristan, Count of Valois, 1250–1270 ******Peter I, Count of Alençon, 1251–1284 ******Robert, Count of Clermont, 1256-1317 (House of Bourbon) *******Louis I, Duke of Bourbon, 1279–1341 ********Peter I, Duke of Bourbon, 1311–1356 *********Louis II, Duke of Bourbon, 1337–1410 **********John I, Duke of Bourbon, 1381-1434 (House of Bourbon-Montpensier) ***********Charles I, Duke of Bourbon, 1401–1456 ************John II, Duke of Bourbon, 1426–1488 ************Charles II, Duke of Bourbon, 1433–1488 ************Peter II, Duke of Bourbon, 1438–1503 ************Louis de Bourbon, Bishop of Liège, 1438–1482 ************James of Bourbon, 1445–1468 ***********Louis I, Count of Montpensier, 1405–1486 ************Gilbert, Count of Montpensier, 1443–1496 *************Louis II, Count of Montpensier, 1483–1501 *************Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, 1490–1527 *************François, Duke of Châtellerault, 1492–1515 ************John of Montpensier, 1445–1485 **********Louis of Bourbon, 1388–1404 ********James I, Count of La Marche, 1319–1362 *********Peter II, Count of La Marche, 1342–1362 *********John I, Count of La Marche, 1344–1393 **********James II, Count of La Marche, 1370–1438 **********Louis, Count of Vendôme, 1376-1446 (House of Bourbon-Vendôme) ***********John VIII, Count of Vendôme, 1425–1478 ************Francis, Count of Vendôme, 1470–1495 *************Charles, Duke of Vendôme, 1489–1537 **************Anthony of Navarre, 1518–1562 ***************Henry IV of France, 1553–1610 ****************Louis XIII, 1601–1643 *****************Louis XIV, 1638–1715 ******************Louis, Grand Dauphin, 1661–1711 *******************Louis, Duke of Burgundy, 1682–1712 ********************Louis, Duke of Brittany, 1704–1705 ********************Louis, Duke of Brittany, 1707–1712 ********************Louis XV, 1710–1774 *********************Louis, Dauphin of France, 1729–1765 **********************Louis, Duke of Burgundy, 1751–1761 **********************Xavier, Duke of Aquitaine, 1753–1754 **********************Louis XVI, 1754–1793 ***********************Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France, 1781–1789 ***********************Louis XVII, 1785–1795 **********************Louis XVIII, 1755–1824 **********************Charles X of France, 1757–1836 ***********************Louis Anthony, Duke of Angoulême, 1775–1844 ***********************Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry, 1778–1820 ************************Henry, Count of Chambord, 1820–1883 *********************Philip, Duke of Anjou, 1730–1733 *******************Philip V of Spain, 1683–1746 ********************Louis I of Spain, 1707–1724 ********************Ferdinand VI, 1713–1759 ********************Charles III of Spain, 1716–1788 *********************Infante Philip, Duke of Calabria, 1747–1777 *********************Charles IV of Spain, 1748–1819 **********************Ferdinand VII, 1784–1833 **********************Prince Charles Mary Isidore of Spain, 1788–1855 ***********************Charles Louis of Bourbon, 1818–1861 ***********************Prince John, Count of Montizón, 1822–1887 ************************Prince Charles, Duke of Madrid, 1848–1909 *************************Prince James, Duke of Madrid, 1870–1931 ************************Prince Alphonse Charles, Duke of San Jaime, 1849–1936 ***********************Prince Ferdinand of Spain, 1824–1861 **********************Prince Francis de Paul of Spain, 1794–1865 ***********************Francis of Assisi, Duke of Cádiz, 1822–1902 ************************Alphonse XII, 1857–1885 *************************Alphonse XIII, 1886–1941 **************************Alphonse, Prince of Asturias, 1907–1938 **************************Prince James, Duke of Segovia, 1908–1975 ***************************Alphonse, Duke of Anjou and Cádiz, 1936–1989 ****************************Louis Alphonse of Bourbon, b. 1974 *****************************Louis of Bourbon, b. 2010 *****************************Alphonse of Bourbon, b. 2010 *****************************Henry of Bourbon, b. 2019 ***************************Gonzalo, Duke of Aquitaine, 1937–2000 **************************Prince John, Count of Barcelona, 1913–1993 ***************************John Charles I, b. 1938 ****************************Philip VI of Spain, b. 1968 **************************Prince Gonzalo of Spain, 1914–1934 ***********************Prince Henry, Duke of Seville, 1823–1870 (House of Bourbon-Seville) ************************Henry, Duke of Seville, 1848-1894 ************************Francis de Paul of Seville, 1853-1942 *************************Francis of Seville, 1882-1952 **************************Francis of Seville, 1912-1995 ***************************Francis, Duke of Seville, b. 1943 ****************************Francis of Seville, b. 1979 *****************************Francis Maximus of Seville, b. 2017 ***************************Alphonse Charles of Seville, b. 1945 ****************************Alphonse Nicholas of Seville, b. 1973 *****************************Alphonse of Seville, b. 2014 *****************************Jerome of Seville, b. 2017 ***************************Henry of Seville, b. 1970 *************************Joseph Mary of Seville, 1883-1962, descendants unknown *************************Henry Mary of Seville, 1891-1936, descendants unknown *************************Alphonse Mary of Seville, 1893-1936, descendants unknown ************************Albert, Duke of Santa Elena, 1854-1939 *************************Albert, Duke of Santa Elena, 1883-1959 **************************Alphonse Mary of Santa Elena, 1909-1938 ***************************Albert Henry, Duke of Santa Elena, 1933-1995 ****************************Alphonse, Duke of Santa Elena, b. 1961 *****************************Alphonse of Santa Elena, b. 1995 ***************************Alphonse of Santa Elena, 1937-2007 ****************************Alphonse of Santa Elena, 1963-2005 *****************************Alphonse of Santa Elena, b. 1999 ****************************Ferdinand of Santa Elena, 1966-2025 *****************************Ferdinand of Santa Elena, b. 2001 *****************************Ignatius of Santa Elena, b. 2005 ****************************James of Santa Elena, b. 1971 ***********************Ferdinand of Bourbon, Prince of Spain, 1832–1854 *********************Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, 1751-1825 (House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies) **********************Francis I of the Two Sicilies, 1777–1830 ***********************Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, 1810–1859 ************************Francis II of the Two Sicilies, 1836–1894 ************************Prince Louis, Count of Trani, 1838–1886 ************************Prince Alphonse, Count of Caserta, 1841–1934 *************************Prince Ferdinand Pius, Duke of Castro, 1869–1960 *************************Prince Charles of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1870–1949 **************************Prince Alphonse, Duke of Calabria, 1901–1964 ***************************Prince Charles, Duke of Calabria, 1938–2015 ****************************Prince Peter, Duke of Calabria, b. 1968 *****************************Prince James, Duke of Noto, b. 1992 *****************************Prince John of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 2003 *****************************Prince Paul of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 2004 *****************************Prince Peter of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 2007 **************************Charles of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1908–1936 *************************Prince Gennaro of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1882–1944 *************************Prince Rainier, Duke of Castro, 1883–1973 **************************Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Castro, 1926–2008 ***************************Prince Charles, Duke of Castro, b. 1963 *************************Prince Philip of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1885–1949 **************************Prince Gaetan of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1917–1984 *************************Prince Francis of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1888–1914 *************************Prince Gabriel of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1897–1975 **************************Prince Anthony of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1929–2019 ***************************Prince Francis of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 1960 ****************************Prince Anthony of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 2003 ***************************Prince Gennaro of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 1966 **************************Prince John of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1933–2000 **************************Prince Casimir of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 1938 ***************************Prince Louis Alphonse of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 1970 ****************************Prince Paul Alphonse of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 2014 ***************************Prince Alexander Henry of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, b. 1974 ************************Prince Gaetan, Count of Girgenti, 1846–1871 ************************Prince Pascal, Count of Bari, 1852–1904 ***********************Charles Ferdinand, Prince of Capua, 1811–1862 ***********************Prince Leopold, Count of Syracuse, 1813–1860 ***********************Prince Anthony, Count of Lecce, 1816–1843 ***********************Prince Louis, Count of Aquila, 1824–1897 ************************Prince Louis, Count of Roccaguglielma, 1845–1909 ************************Prince Philip of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, 1847–1922 ***********************Prince Francis, Count of Trapani, 1827–1892 ************************Prince Leopold of the Two Sicilies, 1853–1870 **********************Leopold, Prince of Salerno, 1790–1851 *********************Prince Gabriel of Spain, 1752-1788 (House of Bourbon-Braganza) **********************Prince Peter Charles of Spain and Portugal, 1786–1812 ***********************Prince Sebastian of Spain and Portugal, 1811–1875 ************************Francis Mary of Bourbon-Bourbon, 1st Duke of Marchena, 1861–1923 ************************Peter of Bourbon-Bourbon, 1st Duke of Dúrcal, 1862–1892 *************************Ferdinand Sebastian of Bourbon-Madán, 2nd Duke of Dúrcal, 1891–1944 ************************Louis Jesus of Bourbon-Bourbon, 1st Duke of Ansola, 1864–1889 *************************Louis Alphonse of Bourbon-Bernaldo de Quirós, 2nd Duke of Ansola, 1887–1942 *************************Manfred Louis of Bourbon-Bernaldo de Quirós, 3rd Duke of Ansola and 1st Duke of Hernani, 1889–1979 ************************Alphonse Mary of Bourbon-Bourbon, 1866–1934 ************************Gabriel Jesus of Bourbon-Bourbon, 1869–1889 *********************Prince Anthony Pascal of Spain, 1755–1817 ********************Philip, Duke of Parma, 1720-1765 (House of Bourbon-Parma) *********************Ferdinand I, Duke of Parma, 1751–1802 **********************Louis I of Etruria, 1773–1803 ***********************Charles II, Duke of Parma, 1799–1883 ************************Charles III, Duke of Parma, 1823–1854 *************************Robert I, Duke of Parma, 1848–1907 **************************Henry, Duke of Parma, 1873–1939 **************************Joseph, Duke of Parma, 1875–1950 **************************Elijah, Duke of Parma, 1880–1959 ***************************Robert Hugo, Duke of Parma, 1909–1974 ***************************Prince Francis Alphonse of Bourbon-Parma, 1913–1939 **************************Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, 1886–1934 **************************Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma, 1889–1977 ***************************Charles Hugo, Duke of Parma, 1930–2010 ****************************Prince Charles, Duke of Parma, b. 1970 *****************************Prince Charles Henry of Bourbon-Parma, b. 2016 ****************************James of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1972 ***************************Prince Sixtus Henry of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1940 **************************Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma, 1893–1970 ***************************John, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, 1921–2019 ****************************Henry, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, b. 1955 *****************************William, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, b. 1981 ******************************Prince Charles of Luxembourg, b. 2020 ******************************Prince Francis of Luxembourg, b. 2023 *****************************Prince Felix of Luxembourg, b. 1984 ******************************Prince Liam of Luxembourg, b. 2016 ******************************Prince Balthazar of Luxembourg, b. 2024 *****************************Prince Louis of Luxembourg, b. 1986 ******************************Prince Gabriel of Luxembourg, b. 2006 ******************************Prince Noah of Luxembourg, b. 2007 *****************************Prince Sebastian of Luxembourg, b. 1992 ****************************Prince John of Luxembourg, b. 1957 ****************************Prince William of Luxembourg, b. 1963 *****************************Prince Paul-Louis of Luxembourg, b. 1998 *****************************Prince Leopold of Luxembourg, b. 2000 *****************************Prince John of Luxembourg, b. 2004 ***************************Prince Charles of Luxembourg, 1927–1977 ****************************Prince Robert of Luxembourg, b. 1968 *****************************Prince Alexander of Luxembourg, b. 1997 *****************************Prince Frederick of Luxembourg, b. 2002 **************************Prince René of Bourbon-Parma, 1894–1962 ***************************Prince James of Bourbon-Parma, 1922–1964 ****************************Prince Philip of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1949 *****************************James of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1986 *****************************Joseph of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1989 ****************************Prince Alan of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1955 ***************************Michael of Bourbon-Parma, 1926–2018 ****************************Eric of Bourbon-Parma, 1953–2021 *****************************Prince Michael of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1989 *****************************Prince Henry of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1991 ****************************Prince Charles Emmanuel of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1961 *****************************Prince Amaury of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1991 ***************************Andrew of Bourbon-Parma, 1928–2011 ****************************Axel of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1967 *****************************Côme of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1997 **************************Louis of Bourbon-Parma, 1899–1967 ***************************Guy of Bourbon-Parma, 1940–1991 ****************************Louis of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1966 *****************************Guy of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1995 ***************************Prince Rémy of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1942 ****************************Tristan of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1974 ***************************Prince John Bernard of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1961 ****************************Arnaud of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1989 ****************************Christopher of Bourbon-Parma, b. 1991 *************************Prince Henry, Count of Bardi, 1851–1905 ********************Prince Louis of Spain, 1727–1785 *******************Charles, Duke of Berry, 1686–1714 ******************Philip Charles, Duke of Anjou, 1667–1671 *****************Philip I, Duke of Orléans, 1640-1701 (House of Orléans) ******************Philip II, Duke of Orléans, 1674–1723 *******************Louis, Duke of Orléans, 1703–1752 ********************Louis Philip I, Duke of Orléans, 1725–1785 *********************Louis Philip II, Duke of Orléans, 1747–1793 **********************Louis Philip I, 1773–1850 ***********************Ferdinand Philip, Duke of Orléans, 1810–1842 ************************Prince Philip, Count of Paris, 1838–1894 *************************Prince Philip, Duke of Orléans, 1869–1926 *************************Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Montpensier, 1884–1924 ************************Prince Robert, Duke of Chartres, 1840–1910 *************************Prince Robert of Orléans, 1866–1885 *************************Prince Henry of Orléans, 1867–1901 *************************Prince John, Duke of Guise, 1874–1940 **************************Henry, Count of Paris, 1908–1999 ***************************Henry, Count of Paris, 1933–2019 ****************************Prince Francis, Count of Clermont, 1961–2017 ****************************John, Count of Paris, b. 1965 *****************************Prince Gaston of Orléans, b. 2009 *****************************Prince Joseph of Orléans, b. 2016 *****************************Prince Alphonse of Orléans, b. 2023 ****************************Prince Odo, Duke of Angoulême, b. 1968 *****************************Prince Peter of Orléans, b. 2003 ***************************Prince Francis, Duke of Orléans, 1935–1960 ***************************Prince Michael, Count of Évreux, b. 1941 ****************************Charles-Philip of Orléans, b. 1973 ****************************Francis of Orléans, b. 1982 *****************************Philip of Orléans, b. 2017 *****************************Raphael of Orléans, b. 2021 ***************************Prince James, Duke of Orléans, b. 1941 ****************************Charles-Louis of Orléans, b. 1972 *****************************Philip of Orléans, b. 1998 *****************************Constantine of Orléans, b. 2003 ****************************Fulk of Orléans, b. 1974 ***************************Prince Theobald, Count of La Marche, 1948–1983 ****************************Robert of Orléans, b. 1976 ***********************Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours, 1814–1896 ************************Gaston, Count of Eu, 1842-1922 (House of Orléans-Braganza) *************************Peter of Alcântara, Prince of Grão-Pará, 1875–1940 **************************Peter Gaston of Orléans-Braganza, 1913–2007 ***************************Peter Charles of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1945 ****************************Peter Thiago of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1979 ****************************Philip Roderick of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1982 ***************************Prince Alphonse Edward of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1948 ***************************Prince Manuel of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1949 ****************************Prince Manuel of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1971 ***************************Prince Francis of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1956 ****************************Prince Francis of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1979 ****************************Prince Gabriel of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1989 **************************Prince John Mary of Orléans-Braganza, 1916–2005 ***************************Prince John Henry of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1954 ****************************Prince John Philip of Brazil, b. 1986 *****************************Prince John Anthony of Brazil, b. 2017 *************************Louis of Orléans-Braganza, 1878–1920 **************************Peter Henry of Orléans-Braganza, 1909–1981 ***************************Louis of Orléans-Braganza, 1938–2022 ***************************Prince Odo of Orléans-Braganza, 1939–2020, renounced succession ****************************Louis Philip of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1969 *****************************Prince Maximilian of Brazil, b. 2012 ****************************Prince Odo ****************************Prince Guy ***************************Bertrand of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1941 ***************************Peter of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1945, renounced succession ****************************Prince Gabriel Joseph of Brazil, b. 1980 *****************************Prince Gabriel Peter of Brazil, b. 2013 ***************************Ferdinand of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1948, renounced succession ***************************Anthony of Orléans-Braganza, 1950-2024 ****************************Peter Louis of Orléans-Braganza, 1983–2009 ****************************Raphael of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1986 ***************************Francis of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1955, renounced succession ***************************Albert of Orléans-Braganza, b. 1957, renounced succession ****************************Prince Peter Albert of Brazil, b. 1988 ****************************Prince Anthony Albert of Brazil, b. 1997 **************************Prince Louis Gaston of Orléans-Braganza, 1911–1931 *************************Prince Anthony Gaston of Orléans-Braganza, 1881–1918 ************************Prince Ferdinand, Duke of Alençon, 1844–1910 *************************Prince Emmanuel, Duke of Vendôme, 1872–1931 **************************Prince Charles Philip, Duke of Nemours, 1905–1970 ***********************Francis of Orléans, Prince of Joinville, 1818–1900 ************************Peter, Duke of Penthièvre, 1845–1919 ***********************Henry of Orléans, Duke of Aumale, 1822–1897 ************************Louis of Orléans, Prince of Condé, 1845–1866 ************************Francis of Orléans, 1854–1872 ***********************Anthony, Duke of Montpensier, 1824–1890 ************************Prince Anthony, Duke of Galliera, 1866–1930 *************************Prince Alphonse, Duke of Galliera, 1886–1975 **************************Prince Alvar, Duke of Galliera, 1910–1997 ***************************Alphonse of Orléans-Bourbon, 1941–1975 ****************************Alphonse of Orléans-Bourbon, Duke of Galliera, b. 1968 *****************************Alphonse John of Orléans-Bourbon, b. 1994 ****************************Alvar of Orléans-Bourbon, b. 1969 *****************************Aiden of Orléans-Bourbon, b. 2009 ***************************Alvar James of Orléans-Bourbon, b. 1947 ****************************Andrew of Orléans-Bourbon, b. 1976 *****************************Alvar of Orléans-Bourbon, b. c. 2013 ****************************Alois of Orléans-Bourbon, b. 1979 *****************************Alphonse of Orléans-Bourbon, b. 2010 **************************Alphonse of Orléans, 1912–1936 **************************Prince Ataúlfo of Orléans, 1913–1974 *************************Prince Louis Ferdinand of Spain, 1888–1945 **********************Anthony Philip, Duke of Montpensier, 1775–1807 **********************Louis Charles, Count of Beaujolais, 1779–1808 ****************Gaston, Duke of Orléans, 1608–1660 **************Francis, Count of Enghien, 1519–1546 **************Charles I, Cardinal de Bourbon, 1523-1590 (disputed Charles X) **************John, Count of Soissons and Enghien, 1528–1557 **************Louis I, Prince of Condé, 1530-1569 (House of Bourbon-Condé) ***************Henry I, Prince of Condé, 1552–1588 ****************Henry II, Prince of Condé, 1588–1646 *****************Louis, Grand Condé, 1621–1686 ******************Henry Jules, Prince of Condé, 1643–1709 *******************Louis III, Prince of Condé, 1668–1710 ********************Louis Henry, Duke of Bourbon, 1692–1740 *********************Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé, 1736–1818 **********************Louis Henry, Prince of Condé, 1756–1830 ***********************Louis Anthony, Duke of Enghien, 1772–1804 ********************Charles de Bourbon, Count of Charolais, 1700–1760 ********************Louis, Count of Clermont, 1709–1771 *****************Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti, 1629–1666 ******************Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti, 1661–1685 ******************Francis Louis, Prince of Conti, 1664–1709 *******************Louis Armand II, Prince of Conti, 1695–1727 ********************Louis Francis, Prince of Conti, 1717–1776 *********************Louis Francis Joseph, Prince of Conti, 1734–1814 ***************Francis of Bourbon, Prince of Conti, 1558–1614 ***************Charles II of Bourbon-Vendôme, 1562–1594 ***************Charles, Count of Soissons, 1566–1612 ****************Louis, Count of Soissons, 1604–1641 *************Francis de Bourbon, Count of St. Pol, 1491–1545 *************Louis de Bourbon-Vendôme, 1493–1557 ************Louis, Prince of La Roche-sur-Yon, 1473–1520 *************Louis de Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier, 1513–1582 **************Francis of Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier, 1542–1592 ***************Henry of Bourbon, Duke of Montpensier, 1573–1608 *************Charles, Prince of La Roche-sur-Yon, 1515–1565 **********John, Lord of Carency, 1378–1457, children by second wife declared legitimate in 1438 but not considered part of the royal house *********, 1346–1417 **********, 1368–1415 **********, 1390–1422 **********, 1391–1429 *******John of Charolais, 1283–1322 *******Peter of Clermont, Archdeacon of Paris, 1287–1330 *****Robert I, Count of Artois, 1216-1250 (House of Artois) ******Robert II, Count of Artois, 1250–1302 *******Philip of Artois, 1269–1298 ********Robert III of Artois, 1287–1342 *********John of Artois, Count of Eu, 1321–1387 **********Robert IV of Artois, Count of Eu, 1356–1387 **********Philip of Artois, Count of Eu, 1358–1397 ***********Charles of Artois, Count of Eu, 1394–1472 *********James of Artois, 1325–1347 *********Robert of Artois, 1326–1347 *********Charles of Artois, Count of Pézenas, 1328–1385 *****Alphonse, Count of Poitiers, 1220–1271 *****Charles I of Anjou, 1226-1285 (Capetian House of Anjou) ******Charles II of Naples, 1254–1309 *******Charles Martel of Anjou, 1271–1295 ********Charles I of Hungary, 1288–1342 *********Louis I of Hungary, 1326–1382 *********Andrew, Duke of Calabria, 1327–1345 *********Stephen of Anjou, 1332–1354 *******Louis of Toulouse, 1274–1297 *******Robert, King of Naples, 1276–1343 ********Charles, Duke of Calabria, 1298–1328 *******Philip I, Prince of Taranto, 1278–1331 ********Charles of Taranto, 1296–1315 ********Philip, Despot of Romania, 1300–1331 ********Robert, Prince of Taranto, 1319–1364 ********Louis I of Naples, 1320–1362 ********Philip II, Prince of Taranto, 1329–1373 *******Raymond Berengar of Andria, 1281–1307 *******John, a priest, 1283–1308 *******Peter Tempesta, 1291–1315 *******John, Duke of Durazzo, 1294–1336 ********Charles, Duke of Durazzo, 1323–1348 ********Louis, Count of Gravina, 1324–1362 *********Charles III of Naples, 1345–1386 **********Ladislaus of Naples, 1377–1414 ********Robert of Durazzo, 1326–1356 ******Philip of Sicily, 1255–1277 ****Philip I, Count of Boulogne, 1200–1235, legitimated, but status as a member of the royal house unclear *****Alberic, Count of Clermont, 1222–1284, descendants unknown **Henry of France, Archbishop of Reims, 1121–1175 **Robert I, Count of Dreux, 1123-1188 (House of Dreux) ***Simon, Lord of La Noue, 1141–1182 ***Robert II, Count of Dreux, 1154–1218 ****Robert III, Count of Dreux, 1185–1234 *****John I, Count of Dreux, 1215–1249 ******Robert IV, Count of Dreux, 1241–1282 *******John II, Count of Dreux, 1265–1309 ********Robert V, Count of Dreux, 1293–1329 ********John III, Count of Dreux, 1295–1331 ********Peter, Count of Dreux, 1298–1345 *******Robert of Dreux, Lord of Cateau-du-Loire ******John, a Knight Templar *****Robert, Viscount of Châteaudun, 1217–1264 *****Peter, a cleric, 1220–1250 ****Peter I, Duke of Brittany, 1187–1250 *****John I, Duke of Brittany, 1218–1286 ******John II, Duke of Brittany, 1239–1305 *******Arthur II, Duke of Brittany, 1261–1312 ********John III, Duke of Brittany, 1286–1341 ********Guy of Penthièvre, Count of Penthièvre, 1287–1331 ********Peter of Brittany, Lord of Dol-Combourg and St-Maloù, 1289–1312 ********John of Montfort, 1295-1345 (House of Montfort-Brittany) *********John IV, Duke of Brittany, 1339–1399 **********John V, Duke of Brittany, 1389–1442 ***********Francis I, Duke of Brittany, 1414–1450 ***********Peter II, Duke of Brittany, 1418–1457 ***********Giles of Brittany, 1420–1450 **********Arthur III, Duke of Brittany, 1393–1458 **********Giles of Brittany, Lord of Chantocé and Ingrande, 1394–1412 **********Richard, Count of Étampes, 1396–1438 ***********Francis II, Duke of Brittany, 1433–1488 *******John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond, 1266–1334 *******Peter, Viscount of Leon, 1269–1312 ******Peter, Lord of Dinan, 1241–1268 ****Henry of Dreux, Archbishop of Reims, 1193–1240 ****John of Braine, 1200–1240 ***Henry, Bishop of Orléans, 1155–1199 ***Philip of Dreux, 1158–1217 ***Peter, Lord of Bouconville-Vauclair, 1161–1186 ***William, Lord of Braye, 1163–1189 ***John, 1164–1189 **Peter I of Courtenay, 1126-1183 (Capetian House of Courtenay) ***Philip of Courtenay, 1153–1183 ***Peter II of Courtenay, 1155–1219 ****Philip II, Marquis of Namur, 1195–1226 ****Robert I, Latin Emperor, 1201–1228 ****Henry II, Marquis of Namur, 1206–1229 ****Baldwin II, Latin Emperor, 1217–1273 *****Philip I, Latin Emperor, 1243–1283 ***Robert, Lord of Champignelles, 1168–1239 ****Peter, Lord of Conches and Mehun, 1218–1250 ****Philip of Courtenay-Champignelles, 1221–1246 ****Ralph, Lord of Illiers, 1223–1271 ****, bishop, 1224–1279 ****, bishop, 1226–1270 ****William of Courtenay-Champignelles, Lord of Venisy, 1228-1280 Genealogy in French *****, Archbishop of Reims, 1251–1324 *****Peter of Courtenay-Champignelles, 1259–1290 *****John I, Lord of Champignelles, 1265–1318 ******John II, Lord of Champignelles, 1291–1334 ******John III, Lord of Champignelles, 1330–1392 ******Peter II, Lord of Champignelles, 1334–1394 *******Peter III, Lord of Champignelles and St-Brisson, 1377–1411 ********John IV, 1410–1472 *******John I, Lord of Bléneau, 1379–1460 ********John II, Lord of Bléneau, 1425–1480 *********John III, Lord of Bléneau, 1465–1511 **********Francis I, Lord of Bléneau, 1495–1561 ***********Gaspard I, Lord of Bléneau, 1550–1609 ************Francis II of Bléneau, 1575–1602 ************Edmé, Lord of Bléneau, 1577–1640 *************Gaspard II, Lord of Bléneau, 1602–1655 ************Claude, 1582–1612 **********John, Lord of Salles and Coudray, 1559–1624 **********Philip, abbot of Lauroy, 1497–1547 **********Edmé, Lord of Villars, 1501–1553 **********John, knight of Malta, b. 1505 ********William of Courtenay, Lord of Coquetaine-en-Brie, 1427–1485 ********Peter, Lord of La Ferté-Loupière, 1429–1504 *********Hector, Lord of La Ferté-Loupière, 1475–1549 **********René, Lord of La Ferté-Loupière, 1510–1562 **********Philip, Lord of Villeneuve-la-Cornue, 1512–1552 *********John, Lord of Chevillon, 1477–1534 **********James, Lord of Chevillon, 1515–1557 **********William, Lord of Chevillon, 1520–1592 ***********James II, Lord of Chevillon, 1556–1617 ***********René, an abbot, 1561-c. 1638 ***********John II, Lord of Chevillon, 1566–1639 ************Louis I, Lord of Chevillon, 1610–1672 *************Louis-Charles, Lord of Chevillon, 1640–1723 **************Louis Gaston, 1669–1691 **************Charles Roger, Lord of Chevillon, 1671–1730 *************Roger of Courtenay, abbot in Auxerre, 1647–1733 *************Jean-Armand, 1652–1677 ************Robert, 1619-after 1647 *********Charles, Lord of Bontin, 1480–1511 *********Louis I, Lord of Ville-au-Tartre, 1485–1540 **********Francis, Lord of Bontin, 1526–1578 **********Louis II, Lord of Bontin, 1527–1565 *********Peter, Lord of Martroy, 1487–1525 *********Edmé, Lord of Frauville, 1489–1516 ********Peter, Lord of Arrablay, 1433–1461 ********Charles, Lord of Arrablay, 1434–1488 *********Francis, Lord of Arrablay, 1485–1540 ******Philip, Lord of La Ferté-Loupière, 1292–1346 *******John I, Lord of La Ferté-Loupière, 1346–1412 ********John II, Lord of La Ferté-Loupière, 1388–1438 ******Robert, a monk, 1296–1331 ******William, vidame of Reims, 1299–1331 ******Stephen, a priest, 1305–1348 ******Peter, Lord of Autry, 1305–1348 ***William, Lord of Tanlay, c. 1172–1248 ****Robert I, Lord of Tanlay, 1205–1260 *****John I, Lord of Tanlay, 1230–1285 ******Robert II, Lord of Tanlay, 1260–1310 *******William II, Lord of Tanlay, b. 1285 ********Robert III, Lord of Tanlay, 1307–1346 ********John II, Lord of Tanlay, 1308–1342 ********Philip II, Lord of Tanlay, 1320–1384 *********Peter of Tanlay, 1352–1383 *********Stephen, Lord of Ravières, 1356–1383 *******Philip, a prior, 1292-after 1315 ******Stephen, Lord of Tanerre, 1262–1332 ******Philip, Lord of Ravières, 1264–1300 ******John, abbot of Quincey, 1266–1300 ****John of Tanlay, d. after 1248 **Philip of France, Archdeacon of Paris, 1132–1160 *, 1093–1133 *, 1095–1119 Hugh, Count of Vermandois, 1057–1101 *Ralph I, Count of Vermandois, d. 1152 **Ralph II, Count of Vermandois, 1145–1167 *Henry, Lord of Chaumont-en-Vexin, 1091–1130 *, 1093–1148 Robert I, Duke of Burgundy, 1011–1076, (House of Burgundy) *Hugh of Burgundy, 1034–1059 Henry of Burgundy, 1035–1070 *Hugh I, Duke of Burgundy, 1057–1093 *Odo I, Duke of Burgundy, 1060–1103 **Hugh II, Duke of Burgundy, 1084–1143 ***Odo II, Duke of Burgundy, 1118–1162 ****Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy, 1142–1192 *****Odo III, Duke of Burgundy, 1166–1218 ******Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy, 1213–1272 *******Odo, Count of Nevers, 1230–1266 *******John of Burgundy, 1231–1268 *******Robert II, Duke of Burgundy, 1248–1306 ********Hugh V, Duke of Burgundy, 1284–1315 ********Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy, 1295–1348 *********Philip I, Count of Auvergne, 1323–1346 ********Louis of Burgundy, 1297–1316 ********Robert, Count of Tonnerre, 1302–1334 *******Hugh, viscount of Avallon *****Alexander, Lord of Montaigu, 1170–1206 *****Guigues VI of Viennois, 1184–1237 ******Guigues VII of Viennois, 1225–1269 *******John I of Viennois, 1264–1282 ***Gauthier, Archbishop of Besançon, 1120–1180 ***Hugh le Roux, 1121–1171 ****William of Châtelet-Chalon ***Robert, Bishop of Autun, 1122–1140 ***Henry, Bishop of Autun, 1124–1170 ***Raymond, Count of Grignon, 1125–1156 **Henry, a priest, 1087–1125 *Robert of Burgundy (bishop of Langres), 1059–1111 *Raynald I, abbot of Flavigny, 1059–1090 *Henry, Count of Portugal, 1066-1112 (Portuguese House of Burgundy) **Alphonse I of Portugal, 1109–1185 ***Sancho I of Portugal, 1154–1211 ****Alphonse II of Portugal, 1185–1223 *****Sancho II of Portugal, 1209–1248 *****Alphonse III of Portugal, 1210–1279 ******Denis of Portugal, 1261–1325 *******Alphonse IV of Portugal, 1291–1357 ********Peter I of Portugal, 1320–1367 *********Ferdinand I of Portugal, 1345–1383 ******Alphonse of Portugal, Lord of Portalegre, 1263–1312 *****Ferdinand, Lord of Serpa, 1217–1246 ****Peter I, Count of Urgell, 1187–1258 ****Ferdinand, Count of Flanders, 1188–1233 Robert of Burgundy, 1040–1113 Simon of Burgundy, 1045–1087 Odo of France, mentally incapacitated, 1013–1059 See also French monarchs family tree Genealogiae scriptoris Fusniacensis Capetian Armorial Notes Works citedReferences Further reading Brown, A. r.Elizabeth, (1991). Politics and Institutions in Capetian France. * Ingmar Krause: Konflikt und Ritual im Herrschaftsbereich der frühen Capetinger – Untersuchungen zur Darstellung und Funktion symbolischen Verhaltens. . Rhema-Verlag, Münster 2006, Fawtier, Robert. The Capetian Kings of France: Monarchy & Nation (987–1328). Macmillan, 1960. (translated from French edition of 1941) Hallam, Elizabeth M. Capetian France 987–1328. Longman, 1980. Le Hête, Thierry. Les Capetiens: Le Livre du Millenaire. Editions Christian, 1987. External links * [http://genealogy.euweb.cz/capet/index.html Genealogies of the Capetian dynasty from Genealogy.eu] * [https://www.queen-of-france.com/2018/04/96-kings-from-era-of-henry-iv-of-england.html Capetian Kings: Chart of 148 Kings, France, Spain, England, etc, 500 yr timeline and wiki links] Category:French royal families Category:European royal families Category:Spanish royalty Category:Roman Catholic families	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capetian_dynasty	2025-04-05T18:27:46.969130
6280	Cuboctahedron	\| schläfli = r{4,3} \| conway [https://levskaya.github.io/polyhedronisme/?recipeaC aC] \| symmetry = Octahedral <math>\mathrm{O}_\mathrm{h}</math> \| dual = Rhombic dodecahedron \| angle = approximately 125° \| properties = convex, <br> vector equilibrium, <br> Rupert property \| vertex_figure = Polyhedron 6-8 vertfig.svg \| net = Polyhedron 6-8 net.svg }} A cuboctahedron is a polyhedron with 8 triangular faces and 6 square faces. A cuboctahedron has 12 identical vertices, with 2 triangles and 2 squares meeting at each, and 24 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a square. As such, it is a quasiregular polyhedron, i.e., an Archimedean solid that is not only vertex-transitive but also edge-transitive. It is radially equilateral. Its dual polyhedron is the rhombic dodecahedron. Construction The cuboctahedron can be constructed in many ways: * Its construction can be started by attaching two regular triangular cupolas base-to-base. This is similar to one of the Johnson solids, triangular orthobicupola. The difference is that the triangular orthobicupola is constructed with one of the cupolas twisted so that similar polygonal faces are adjacent, whereas the cuboctahedron is not. As a result, the cuboctahedron may also called the triangular gyrobicupola. * Its construction can be started from a cube or a regular octahedron, marking the midpoints of their edges, and cutting off all the vertices at those points. This process is known as rectification, making the cuboctahedron being named the rectified cube and rectified octahedron. * An alternative construction is by cutting off all vertices (truncation) of a regular tetrahedron and beveling the edges. This process is termed cantellation, lending the cuboctahedron an alternate name of cantellated tetrahedron. From all of these constructions, the cuboctahedron has 14 faces: 8 equilateral triangles and 6 squares. It also has 24 edges and 12 vertices. The Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a cuboctahedron with edge length <math>\sqrt{2}</math> centered at the origin are: <math display"block"> (\pm 1, \pm 1, 0), \qquad (\pm 1, 0, \pm 1), \qquad (0, \pm 1, \pm 1). </math> Properties Measurement and other metric properties The surface area of a cuboctahedron <math> A </math> can be determined by summing all the area of its polygonal faces. The volume of a cuboctahedron <math> V </math> can be determined by slicing it off into two regular triangular cupolas, summing up their volume. Given that the edge length <math> a </math>, its surface area and volume are: <math display="block"> \begin{align} A &= \left(6+2\sqrt{3}\right)a^2 &&\approx 9.464a^2 \\ V &= \frac{5 \sqrt{2}}{3} a^3 &&\approx 2.357a^3. \end{align}</math> The dihedral angle of a cuboctahedron can be calculated with the angle of triangular cupolas. The dihedral angle of a triangular cupola between square-to-triangle is approximately 125°, that between square-to-hexagon is 54.7°, and that between triangle-to-hexagon is 70.5°. Therefore, the dihedral angle of a cuboctahedron between square-to-triangle, on the edge where the base of two triangular cupolas are attached is 54.7° + 70.5° approximately 125°. Therefore, the dihedral angle of a cuboctahedron between square-to-triangle is approximately 125°. ]] Buckminster Fuller found that the cuboctahedron is the only polyhedron in which the distance between its center to the vertex is the same as the distance between its edges. In other words, it has the same length vectors in three-dimensional space, known as vector equilibrium. The rigid struts and the flexible vertices of a cuboctahedron may also be transformed progressively into a regular icosahedron, regular octahedron, regular tetrahedron. Fuller named this the jitterbug transformation. A cuboctahedron has the Rupert property, meaning there is a polyhedron of the same or larger size that can pass through its hole. Symmetry and classification The cuboctahedron is an Archimedean solid, meaning it is a highly symmetric and semi-regular polyhedron, and two or more different regular polygonal faces meet in a vertex. The cuboctahedron has two symmetries, resulting from the constructions as has mentioned above: the same symmetry as the regular octahedron or cube, the octahedral symmetry <math> \mathrm{O}_\mathrm{h} </math>, and the same symmetry as the regular tetrahedron, tetrahedral symmetry <math> \mathrm{T}_\mathrm{d} </math>. The polygonal faces that meet for every vertex are two equilateral triangles and two squares, and the vertex figure of a cuboctahedron is 3.4.3.4. The dual of a cuboctahedron is rhombic dodecahedron. Radial equilateral symmetry In a cuboctahedron, the long radius (center to vertex) is the same as the edge length; thus its long diameter (vertex to opposite vertex) is 2 edge lengths. Its center is like the apical vertex of a canonical pyramid: one edge length away from all the other vertices. (In the case of the cuboctahedron, the center is in fact the apex of 6 square and 8 triangular pyramids). This radial equilateral symmetry is a property of only a few uniform polytopes, including the two-dimensional hexagon, the three-dimensional cuboctahedron, and the four-dimensional 24-cell and 8-cell (tesseract). Radially equilateral'' polytopes are those that can be constructed, with their long radii, from equilateral triangles which meet at the center of the polytope, each contributing two radii and an edge. Therefore, all the interior elements which meet at the center of these polytopes have equilateral triangle inward faces, as in the dissection of the cuboctahedron into 6 square pyramids and 8 tetrahedra. Each of these radially equilateral polytopes also occurs as cells of a characteristic space-filling tessellation: the tiling of regular hexagons, the rectified cubic honeycomb (of alternating cuboctahedra and octahedra), the 24-cell honeycomb and the tesseractic honeycomb, respectively. Each tessellation has a dual tessellation; the cell centers in a tessellation are cell vertices in its dual tessellation. The densest known regular sphere-packing in two, three and four dimensions uses the cell centers of one of these tessellations as sphere centers. Because it is radially equilateral, the cuboctahedron's center is one edge length distant from the 12 vertices. Configuration matrix The cuboctahedron can be represented as a configuration matrix with elements grouped by symmetry transitivity classes. A configuration matrix is a matrix in which the rows and columns correspond to the elements of a polyhedron as in the vertices, edges, and faces. The diagonal of a matrix denotes the number of each element that appears in a polyhedron, whereas the non-diagonal of a matrix denotes the number of the column's elements that occur in or at the row's element. The cuboctahedron has 1 transitivity class of 12 vertices, 1 class of 24 edges, and 2 classes of faces: 8 triangular and 6 square; each element in a matrix's diagonal. The 24 edges can be seen in 4 central hexagons. With octahedral symmetry (orbifold 432), the squares have the 4-fold symmetry, triangles the 3-fold symmetry, and vertices the 2-fold symmetry. With tetrahedral symmetry (orbifold 332) the 24 vertices split into 2 edge classes, and the 8 triangles split into 2 face classes. The square symmetry is reduced to 2-fold. {\| class=wikitable !colspan2\|Octahedral symmetry (432)\|\|colspan2\|Tetrahedral symmetry (332) \|- \| \| valign=top\| {\| class=wikitable \|+ Configuration \|- \|(432)\|\|style"background-color:#3CB44B; color: #000000"\|v<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#FF00FF;"\|e<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#0000FF; color: #E0E0E0"\|f<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#FF0000;"\|f<sub>2</sub> \|- align=right \|style"background-color:#3CB44B; color:#000000"\|v<sub>1 (Z<sub>2</sub>)</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#E0F0FF"\|12\|\|\|4\|\|\|2\|\|\|2 \|- align=right \|alignleft style"background-color:#FF00FF;"\|e<sub>1</sub>\|\|\|2\|\|style="background-color:#f0FFE0"\|24\|\|\|1\|\|\|1 \|- align=right \|alignleft style"background-color:#0000FF; color:#E0E0E0"\|f<sub>1 (Z<sub>3</sub>)</sub>\|\|\|3\|\|\|3\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|8\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|* \|- align=right \|alignleft style"background-color:#FF0000;"\|f<sub>2 (Z<sub>4</sub>)</sub>\|\|\|4\|\|\|4\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|6 \|} \| \| {\| class=wikitable \|+ Configuration \|- \|(332)\|\|style"background-color:#D51D5D;"\|v<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#3CB44B;"\|e<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#E6194B;"\|e<sub>2</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#4363D8;"\|f<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#FFE119;"\|f<sub>2</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#F58231;"\|f<sub>3</sub> \|- align=right \|alignleft style"background-color:#D51D5D;"\|v<sub>1</sub>\|\|style="background-color:#E0F0FF"\|12\|\|\|2\|\|\|2\|\|\|1\|\|\|1\|\|\|2 \|- align=right \|alignleft style"background-color:#3CB44B;"\|e<sub>1</sub>\|\|\|2\|\|style"background-color:#f0FFE0"\|12\|\|style"background-color:#f0FFE0"\|\|\|\|1\|\|\|0\|\|\|1 \|- align=right \|alignleft style"background-color:#E6194B;"\|e<sub>2</sub>\|\|\|2\|\|style"background-color:#f0FFE0"\|\|\|style"background-color:#f0FFE0"\|12\|\|\|0\|\|\|1\|\|\|1 \|- align=right \|alignleft style"background-color:#4363D8;"\|f<sub>1 (Z<sub>3</sub>)</sub>\|\|\|3\|\|\|3\|\|\|0\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|4\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|\|\|style="background-color:#FFFFE0"\|* \|- align=right \|alignleft style"background-color:#FFE119;"\|f<sub>2 (Z<sub>3</sub>)</sub>\|\|\|3\|\|\|0\|\|\|3\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|4\|\|style="background-color:#FFFFE0"\| \|- align=right \|alignleft style"background-color:#F58231;"\|f<sub>3 (Z<sub>2</sub>)</sub>\|\|\|4\|\|\|2\|\|\|2\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|\|\|style"background-color:#FFFFE0"\|\|\|style="background-color:#FFFFE0"\|6 \|} \|} Graph The skeleton of a cuboctahedron may be represented as the graph, one of the Archimedean graph. It has 12 vertices and 24 edges. It is quartic graph, which is four vertices connecting each vertex. The graph of a cuboctahedron may be constructed as the line graph of the cubical graph, making it becomes the locally linear graph. The 24 edges can be partitioned into 2 sets isomorphic to tetrahedral symmetry. The edges can also be partitioned into 4 hexagonal cycles, representing centrosymmetry, with only opposite vertices and edges in the same transitivity class. {\| class=wikitable !colspan2\|Octahedral (48 automorphism)\|\|colspan2\|Tetrahedral (24 aut)\|\|Centrosymmetric (2 aut) \|- \| \| {\| class=wikitable \|+ Configuration \|- \|\\|\|style"background-color:#000000; color: #E0E0E0"\|v<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#FF0000;"\|e<sub>1</sub> \|- alignright valigntop \|style"background-color:#000000; color:#E0E0E0"\|v<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#E0F0FF"\|12\|\|\|4 \|- align=right \|style"background-color:#FF0000;"\|e<sub>1</sub>\|\|\|2\|\|style"background-color:#f0FFE0"\|24 \|} \| \| {\| class=wikitable \|+ Configuration \|- \|\\|\|style"background-color:#000000; color: #E0E0E0"\|v<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#3CB44B;"\|e<sub>1</sub>\|\|style="background-color:#E6194B;"\|e<sub>2</sub> \|- align=right \|style"background-color:#000000; color:#E0E0E0"\|v<sub>1</sub>\|\|style"background-color:#E0F0FF"\|12\|\|\|2\|\|\|2 \|- align=right \|style"background-color:#3CB44B;"\|e<sub>1</sub>\|\|\|2\|\|style"background-color:#f0FFE0"\|12\|\|style="background-color:#f0FFE0"\|* \|- align=right \|style"background-color:#E6194B;"\|e<sub>2</sub>\|\|\|2\|\|style"background-color:#f0FFE0"\|\|\|style="background-color:#f0FFE0"\|12 \|} \| \|} Related polyhedra and honeycomb The cuboctahedron shares its skeleton with the two nonconvex uniform polyhedra, the cubohemioctahedron and octahemioctahedron. These polyhedrons are constructed from the skeleton of a cuboctahedron in which the four hexagonal planes bisect its diagonal, intersecting its interior. Adding six squares or eight equilateral triangles results in the cubohemicotahedron or octahemioctahedron, respectively. The cuboctahedron 2-covers the tetrahemihexahedron, which accordingly has the same abstract vertex figure (two triangles and two squares: <math> 3 \cdot 4 \cdot 3 \cdot 4 </math>) and half the vertices, edges, and faces. (The actual vertex figure of the tetrahemihexahedron is <math display"inline"> 3 \cdot 4 \cdot \frac{3}{2} \cdot 4 </math>, with the <math display"inline"> \frac{a}{2} </math> factor due to the cross.) The cuboctahedron can be dissected into 6 square pyramids and 8 tetrahedra meeting at a central point. This dissection is expressed in the tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb where pairs of square pyramids are combined into octahedra. Appearance The cuboctahedron was probably known to Plato: Heron's Definitiones quotes Archimedes as saying that Plato knew of a solid made of 8 triangles and 6 squares. References Footnotes Works cited * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links [http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra * [https://hexnet.org/content/cuboctahedron The Cuboctahedron] on [https://hexnet.org Hexnet] a website devoted to hexagon mathematics. [http://www.dr-mikes-math-games-for-kids.com/polyhedral-nets.html?netdYI7PStK037OedkFHPiwHK2fbnxjxylGZCjWfNh0UwMgy82zEaWFzVL3PBfYB9SDz8RMvhNkpb8sS9R&nameCuboctahedron#applet Editable printable net of a Cuboctahedron with interactive 3D view] Category:Archimedean solids Category:Quasiregular polyhedra	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuboctahedron	2025-04-05T18:27:47.007697
6281	Canton	Canton may refer to: Administrative divisions Canton (administrative division), territorial/administrative division in some countries Township (Canada), known as canton in Canadian French Arts and entertainment Canton (band), an Italian synth pop group "Canton" (song) by Japan Canton, a fictional town in "Jaynestown", an episode of Firefly Design Canton (building), a corner pilaster Canton (flag), an emblem placed in the top left quarter of a flag Canton (heraldry), a square or other charge (symbol) occupying the upper left corner of a coat of arms Canton porcelain, Chinese ceramic ware People Canton (surname), and list of people with the surname Canton Jones, American Christian music/hip-hop artist Places Canada Canton, New Brunswick, a community in Drummond Parish, New Brunswick Canton, Ontario China Guangdong (Canton Province), province in southern China Guangzhou (Canton City), capital of Guangdong Province Canton River (Pearl River), a river in southern China near Guangzhou Canton Road, Hong Kong United States Canton, Connecticut Canton, Georgia Canton, Illinois Canton, Indiana Canton, Iowa Canton, Kansas Canton, Maine Canton, Baltimore, Maryland, a neighborhood and park Canton, Massachusetts Canton, Michigan Canton, Minnesota Canton, Mississippi Canton, Missouri Canton, Montana, a former town now situated under Canyon Ferry Lake Canton, New Jersey Canton, New York, a town Canton (village), New York Canton, North Carolina Canton City, North Dakota Canton, Ohio Canton, Oklahoma Canton, Pennsylvania Canton, South Dakota Canton, Texas Canton, West Virginia Canton, Wisconsin, a town Canton, Barron County, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community Canton River (United States), a river in Canton, Massachusetts, United States Canton Township (disambiguation) Kiribati Canton Island Wales Canton, Cardiff, Wales, UK Canton (Cardiff electoral ward) Other uses Canton (1790 EIC ship), an East Indiaman Canton (basketball), a 1906–1907 basketball team in Canton, Ohio, US Canton (liqueur), a ginger-flavored liqueur Canton Fair, a biannual trade fair in Canton (Guangzhou), China Canton System, a Chinese trade policy from 1757 to 1842 Canton System (Prussia), unrelated to the above - a system of recruitment to the Prussian Army A metonym for the Pro Football Hall of Fame, located in Canton, Ohio, US Canton Electronics, German loudspeaker manufacturer See also New Canton, Illinois West Canton, North Carolina East Canton, Ohio North Canton, Ohio Cantoning, the division of soldiers into groups for the purpose of billeting on campaign or to garrison a territory Kanton (disambiguation) Cantone (disambiguation) Cantonist, sons of Russian conscripts who were educated in special canton schools East Cantons, a region of eastern Belgium Afrin Canton, one of the cantons of the autonomous Democratic Federation of Northern Syria Shahba Canton, one of the cantons of the autonomous Democratic Federation of Northern Syria Pancit canton, a Philippine noodle dish	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton	2025-04-05T18:27:47.018639
6282	Class	Class, Classes, or The Class may refer to: Common uses not otherwise categorized Class (biology), a taxonomic rank Class (knowledge representation), a collection of individuals or objects Class (philosophy), an analytical concept used differently from such group phenomena as "types" or "kinds" Class (set theory), a collection of sets that can be unambiguously defined by a property that all its members share Hazard class, a dangerous goods classification Social class, the hierarchical arrangement of individuals in society, usually defined by wealth and occupation Working class, can be defined by rank, income or collar Arts, entertainment, and media "The Class" (song), 1959 Chubby Checker song Character class in role-playing games and other genres Class 95 (radio station), a Singaporean radio channel Films Class (film), 1983 American film The Class (2007 film), 2007 Estonian film The Class (2008 film), 2008 film (Entre les murs) Television Class (2016 TV series), a 2016 British spinoff from Doctor Who The Class (TV series), a CBS sitcom Class (2023 TV series), a 2023 Indian Netflix teen drama Literature Class: A Guide Through the American Status System by Paul Fussell Class (Pacifico novel), a 2014 novel by Francesco Pacifico Class (Rosenfeld novel), a 2017 novel by Lucinda Rosenfeld The Class (Segal novel), a 1985 novel by Erich Segal Computing Class (computer programming), programming construct for defining an object template Class (warez), a defunct group in the warez scene C++ classes, C++ language construct for defining an object template Class attribute (HTML), a feature of many HTML and XHTML elements Class attributes (computer programming), defining the structure of a class Complexity class, a set of problems of related complexity in computational complexity theory Java class file, computer file containing Java bytecode Pseudo-class, cascading style sheet (CSS) construct for defining formatting Type class, a type system construct that supports polymorphism Education Class (education), a group of students attending a specific course or lesson Class, a course (education) Class, a lesson or course session, in education Classroom, a room where classes are held Law and government Class, a group of people involved in a class action lawsuit Classes of United States senators, for describing the schedules of elections for Senate seats Transportation Class (locomotive), a single design of a locomotive as assigned by the railroad Class rating, an allowance to fly aircraft of similar design Classification of United States railroads: Class I railroad Class II railroad Class III railroad Ship class, a group of ships of similar design Travel class, a quality of accommodation on public transport Vehicle size class, a way of classifying cars See also CLASS (disambiguation) Klass (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class	2025-04-05T18:27:47.037262
6283	Critical point	Critical point may refer to: Critical phenomena in physics Critical point (mathematics), in calculus, a point where a function's derivative is either zero or nonexistent Critical point (set theory), an elementary embedding of a transitive class into another transitive class which is the smallest ordinal which is not mapped to itself Critical point (thermodynamics), a temperature and pressure of a material beyond which there is no longer any difference between the liquid and gas phases Quantum critical point Critical point (network science) Construction point, in skiing, a line that represents the steepest point on a hill See also Critical value (disambiguation) Critical path (disambiguation) Brillouin zone Percolation thresholds Category:Mathematics disambiguation pages	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point	2025-04-05T18:27:47.041632
6285	Cube	{{infobox polyhedron \| name = Cube \| image = File:Cube-h.svg \| type = Hanner polytope,<br>orthogonal polyhedron,<br>parallelohedron,<br>Platonic solid,<br>plesiohedron,<br>regular polyhedron,<br>zonohedron \| faces = 6 \| edges = 12 \| vertices = 8 \| vertex_config = <math> 8 \times (4^3) </math> \| schläfli = <math> \{4,3\} </math> \| symmetry = octahedral symmetry <math> \mathrm{O}_\mathrm{h} </math> \| dual = regular octahedron \| angle = 90° \| properties = convex,<br>edge-transitive,<br>face-transitive,<br>non-composite,<br>orthogonal faces,<br>vertex-transitive \| surface area = 6 × side<sup>2</sup> \| volume = side<sup>3</sup> }} In geometry, a cube or regular hexahedron is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six congruent square faces, a type of polyhedron. It has twelve congruent edges and eight vertices. It is a type of parallelepiped, with pairs of parallel opposite faces, and more specifically a rhombohedron, with congruent edges, and a rectangular cuboid, with right angles between pairs of intersecting faces and pairs of intersecting edges. It is an example of many classes of polyhedra: Platonic solid, regular polyhedron, parallelohedron, zonohedron, and plesiohedron. The dual polyhedron of a cube is the regular octahedron. The cube can be represented in many ways, one of which is the graph known as the cubical graph. It can be constructed by using the Cartesian product of graphs. The cube is the three-dimensional hypercube, a family of polytopes also including the two-dimensional square and four-dimensional tesseract. A cube with unit side length is the canonical unit of volume in three-dimensional space, relative to which other solid objects are measured. Other related figures involve the construction of polyhedra, space-filling and honeycombs, polycubes, as well as cube in compounds, spherical, and topological space. The cube was discovered in antiquity, associated with the nature of earth by Plato, the founder of Platonic solid. It was used as a part of the Solar System, proposed by Johannes Kepler. It can be derived differently to create more polyhedrons, and it has applications to construct a new polyhedron by attaching others. Other applications include popular culture of toys and games, arts, optical illusions, architectural buildings, as well as the natural science and technology. Properties A cube is a special case of rectangular cuboid in which the edges are equal in length. Like other cuboids, every face of a cube has four vertices, each of which connects with three congruent lines. These edges form square faces, making the dihedral angle of a cube between every two adjacent squares being the interior angle of a square, 90°. Hence, the cube has six faces, twelve edges, and eight vertices. Because of such properties, it is categorized as one of the five Platonic solids, a polyhedron in which all the regular polygons are congruent and the same number of faces meet at each vertex. Every three square faces surrounding a vertex is orthogonal each other, so the cube is classified as orthogonal polyhedron. The cube may also be considered as the parallelepiped in which all of its edges are equal edges. Measurement and other metric properties Given a cube with edge length <math> a </math>. The face diagonal of a cube is the diagonal of a square <math> a\sqrt{2} </math>, and the space diagonal of a cube is a line connecting two vertices that is not in the same face, formulated as <math> a \sqrt{3} </math>. Both formulas can be determined by using Pythagorean theorem. The surface area of a cube <math> A </math> is six times the area of a square: <math display"block"> A 6a^2. </math> The volume of a cuboid is the product of its length, width, and height. Because all the edges of a cube are equal in length, the formula for the volume of a cube as the third power of its side length, leading to the use of the term cubic to mean raising any number to the third power: <math display"block"> V a^3. </math> ]] One special case is the unit cube, so named for measuring a single unit of length along each edge. It follows that each face is a unit square and that the entire figure has a volume of 1 cubic unit. Prince Rupert's cube, named after Prince Rupert of the Rhine, is the largest cube that can pass through a hole cut into the unit cube, despite having sides approximately 6% longer. A polyhedron that can pass through a copy of itself of the same size or smaller is said to have the Rupert property. A geometric problem of doubling the cube—alternatively known as the Delian problem—requires the construction of a cube with a volume twice the original by using a compass and straightedge solely. Ancient mathematicians could not solve this old problem until French mathematician Pierre Wantzel in 1837 proved it was impossible. Relation to the spheres With edge length <math> a </math>, the inscribed sphere of a cube is the sphere tangent to the faces of a cube at their centroids, with radius <math display"inline"> \frac{1}{2}a </math>. The midsphere of a cube is the sphere tangent to the edges of a cube, with radius <math display"inline"> \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}a </math>. The circumscribed sphere of a cube is the sphere tangent to the vertices of a cube, with radius <math display="inline"> \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}a </math>. For a cube whose circumscribed sphere has radius <math> R </math>, and for a given point in its three-dimensional space with distances <math> d_i </math> from the cube's eight vertices, it is: <math display"block"> \frac{1}{8}\sum_{i1}^8 d_i^4 + \frac{16R^4}{9} \left(\frac{1}{8}\sum_{i1}^8 d_i^2 + \frac{2R^2}{3}\right)^2. </math> Symmetry The cube has octahedral symmetry <math> \mathrm{O}_\mathrm{h} </math>. It is composed of reflection symmetry, a symmetry by cutting into two halves by a plane. There are nine reflection symmetries: the five are cut the cube from the midpoints of its edges, and the four are cut diagonally. It is also composed of rotational symmetry, a symmetry by rotating it around the axis, from which the appearance is interchangeable. It has octahedral rotation symmetry <math> \mathrm{O} </math>: three axes pass through the cube's opposite faces centroid, six through the cube's opposite edges midpoints, and four through the cube's opposite vertices; each of these axes is respectively four-fold rotational symmetry (0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°), two-fold rotational symmetry (0° and 180°), and three-fold rotational symmetry (0°, 120°, and 240°). The dual polyhedron can be obtained from each of the polyhedron's vertices tangent to a plane by the process known as polar reciprocation. One property of dual polyhedrons generally is that the polyhedron and its dual share their three-dimensional symmetry point group. In this case, the dual polyhedron of a cube is the regular octahedron, and both of these polyhedron has the same symmetry, the octahedral symmetry. The cube is face-transitive, meaning its two squares are alike and can be mapped by rotation and reflection. It is vertex-transitive, meaning all of its vertices are equivalent and can be mapped isometrically under its symmetry. It is also edge-transitive, meaning the same kind of faces surround each of its vertices in the same or reverse order, all two adjacent faces have the same dihedral angle. Therefore, the cube is regular polyhedron because it requires those properties. Each vertex is surrounded by three squares, so the cube is <math> 4.4.4 </math> by vertex configuration or <math> \{4,3\} </math> in Schläfli symbol. Applications Cubes have appeared in many popular cultures. In toys and games, dice are commonly found in a six-sided shape, puzzle toys such as pieces of a Soma cube, Rubik's Cube, and Skewb are cube-shaped, and sandbox video games of cubic blocks with one example is Minecraft. In art, a 1967 outdoor sculpture Alamo is a cube rotated on its corner in which a pole is hidden inside, optical illusions such as the impossible cube and Necker cube, and stacked cubes forming a three-dimensional cross is examples of both Salvador Dalí's 1954 painting Corpus Hypercubus and Robert A. Heinlein's 1940 short story "And He Built a Crooked House". In architecture, the cube was applied in Alberti's 1450 De re aedificatoria treatise on first Renaissance architecture, and Kubuswoningen is known for a set of cubical shaped houses in which its hexagonal space diagonal becomes the main floor. Cubes are also found in natural science and technology. It is applied to the unit cell of a crystal known as a cubic crystal system. Pyrite is an example of a mineral with a commonly cubic shape, although there are many varied shapes. Cubane is a synthetic hydrocarbon consisting of eight carbon atoms arranged at the corners of a cube, with one hydrogen atom attached to each carbon atom. Several Radiolarians were discovered by Ernst Haeckel, one of which was Lithocubus geometricus with a cubic shape. Cubical grids are most commonly found in three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems. In computer graphics, an algorithm divides the input volume into a discrete set of cubes known as the unit on isosurface, and the faces of a cube can be used for mapping a shape. A historical attempt to unify three physics ideas of relativity, gravitation, and quantum mechanics used the framework of a cube known as a cGh cube. Others are the spacecraft device CubeSat, and thermal radiation demonstration device Leslie cube. The Platonic solid is a set of polyhedrons known since antiquity. It was named after Plato in his Timaeus dialogue, who attributed these solids to nature. One of them, the cube, represented the classical element of earth because of its stability. Euclid's Elements defined the Platonic solids, including the cube, and using these solids with the problem involving to find the ratio of the circumscribed sphere's diameter to the edge length. Following its attribution with nature by Plato, Johannes Kepler in his Harmonices Mundi sketched each of the Platonic solids, one of them being a cube in which Kepler decorated a tree on it. In his Mysterium Cosmographicum, Kepler also proposed the Solar System by using the Platonic solids setting into another one and separating them with six spheres resembling the six planets. The ordered solids started from the innermost to the outermost: regular octahedron, regular icosahedron, regular dodecahedron, regular tetrahedron, and cube. Construction An elementary way to construct is using its net, an arrangement of edge-joining polygons, constructing a polyhedron by connecting along the edges of those polygons. Eleven nets for the cube are shown here. In analytic geometry, a cube may be constructed using the Cartesian coordinate systems. For a cube centered at the origin, with edges parallel to the axes and with an edge length of 2, the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are <math> (\pm 1, \pm 1, \pm 1) </math>. Its interior consists of all points <math> (x_0, x_1, x_2) </math> with <math> -1 < x_i < 1 </math> for all <math> i </math>. A cube's surface with center <math> (x_0, y_0, z_0) </math> and edge length of <math> 2a </math> is the locus of all points <math> (x,y,z) </math> such that <math display"block"> \max\{ \|x-x_0\|,\|y-y_0\|,\|z-z_0\| \} a.</math> The cube is Hanner polytope, because it can be constructed by using Cartesian product of three line segments. Its dual polyhedron, the regular octahedron, is constructed by direct sum of three line segments. The cube may be regarded as two tetrahedra attached onto the bases of a triangular antiprism. Representation As a graph According to Steinitz's theorem, the graph can be represented as the skeleton of a polyhedron; roughly speaking, a framework of a polyhedron. Such a graph has two properties: planar (the edges of a graph are connected to every vertex without crossing other edges), and 3-connected (whenever a graph with more than three vertices, and two of the vertices are removed, the edges remain connected). The skeleton of a cube can be represented as the graph, and it is called the cubical graph, a Platonic graph. It has the same number of vertices and edges as the cube, twelve vertices and eight edges. The cubical graph is also classified as a prism graph, resembling the skeleton of a cuboid. The cubical graph is a special case of hypercube graph or cube—denoted as <math> Q_n </math>—because it can be constructed by using the operation known as the Cartesian product of graphs: it involves two graphs connecting the pair of vertices with an edge to form a new graph. In the case of the cubical graph, it is the product of two <math> Q_2 </math>; roughly speaking, it is a graph resembling a square. In other words, the cubical graph is constructed by connecting each vertex of two squares with an edge. Notationally, the cubical graph is <math> Q_3 </math>. As a part of the hypercube graph, it is also an example of a unit distance graph. The cubical graph is bipartite, meaning every independent set of four vertices can be disjoint and the edges connected in those sets. However, every vertex in one set cannot connect all vertices in the second, so this bipartite graph is not complete. It is an example of both crown graph and bipartite Kneser graph. In orthogonal projection An object illuminated by parallel rays of light casts a shadow on a plane perpendicular to those rays, called an orthogonal projection. A polyhedron is considered equiprojective if, for some position of the light, its orthogonal projection is a regular polygon. The cube is equiprojective because, if the light is parallel to one of the four lines joining a vertex to the opposite vertex, its projection is a regular hexagon. As a configuration matrix The cube can be represented as configuration matrix. A configuration matrix is a matrix in which the rows and columns correspond to the elements of a polyhedron as in the vertices, edges, and faces. The diagonal of a matrix denotes the number of each element that appears in a polyhedron, whereas the non-diagonal of a matrix denotes the number of the column's elements that occur in or at the row's element. As mentioned above, the cube has eight vertices, twelve edges, and six faces; each element in a matrix's diagonal is denoted as 8, 12, and 6. The first column of the middle row indicates that there are two vertices in (i.e., at the extremes of) each edge, denoted as 2; the middle column of the first row indicates that three edges meet at each vertex, denoted as 3. The following matrix is: <math display"block"> \begin{bmatrix}\begin{matrix}8 & 3 & 3 \\ 2 & 12 & 2 \\ 4 & 4 & 6 \end{matrix}\end{bmatrix}</math> Related figures Construction of polyhedra The cube can appear in the construction of a polyhedron, and some of its types can be derived differently in the following: * When faceting a cube, meaning removing part of the polygonal faces without creating new vertices of a cube, the resulting polyhedron is the stellated octahedron. * The cube is non-composite polyhedron, meaning it is a convex polyhedron that cannot be separated into two or more regular polyhedrons. The cube can be applied to construct a new convex polyhedron by attaching another. Attaching a square pyramid to each square face of a cube produces its Kleetope, a polyhedron known as the tetrakis hexahedron. Suppose one and two equilateral square pyramids are attached to their square faces. In that case, they are the construction of an elongated square pyramid and elongated square bipyramid respectively, the Johnson solid's examples. * Each of the cube's vertices can be truncated, and the resulting polyhedron is the Archimedean solid, the truncated cube. When its edges are truncated, it is a rhombicuboctahedron. Relatedly, the rhombicuboctahedron can also be constructed by separating the cube's faces and then spreading away, after which adding other triangular and square faces between them; this is known as the "expanded cube". Similarly, it is constructed by the cube's dual, the regular octahedron. * The corner region of a cube can also be truncated by a plane (e.g., spanned by the three neighboring vertices), resulting in a trirectangular tetrahedron. * The snub cube is an Archimedean solid that can be constructed by separating away the cube square's face, and filling their gaps with twisted angle equilateral triangles, a process known as snub. The cube can be constructed with six square pyramids, tiling space by attaching their apices. In some cases, this produces the rhombic dodecahedron circumscribing a cube. Polycubes , the net of a tesseract]] Polycube is a polyhedron in which the faces of many cubes are attached. Analogously, it can be interpreted as the polyominoes in three-dimensional space. When four cubes are stacked vertically, and the other four are attached to the second-from-top cube of the stack, the resulting polycube is Dali cross, after Salvador Dali. In addition to popular cultures, the Dali cross is a tile space polyhedron, which can be represented as the net of a tesseract. A tesseract is a cube analogous' four-dimensional space bounded by twenty-four squares and eight cubes. Space-filling and honeycombs Hilbert's third problem asked whether every two equal volume polyhedra could always be dissected into polyhedral pieces and reassembled into each other. If it was, then the volume of any polyhedron could be defined axiomatically as the volume of an equivalent cube into which it could be reassembled. Max Dehn solved this problem in an invention Dehn invariant, answering that not all polyhedra can be reassembled into a cube. It showed that two equal volume polyhedra should have the same Dehn invariant, except for the two tetrahedra whose Dehn invariants were different. ]] The cube has a Dehn invariant of zero. This indicates the cube is applied for honeycomb. More strongly, the cube is a space-filling tile in three-dimensional space in which the construction begins by attaching a polyhedron onto its faces without leaving a gap. The cube is a plesiohedron, a special kind of space-filling polyhedron that can be defined as the Voronoi cell of a symmetric Delone set. The plesiohedra include the parallelohedrons, which can be translated without rotating to fill a space in which each face of any of its copies is attached to a like face of another copy. There are five kinds of parallelohedra, one of which is the cuboid. Every three-dimensional parallelohedron is zonohedron, a centrally symmetric polyhedron whose faces are centrally symmetric polygons. In the case of cube, it can be represented as the cell. Some honeycombs have cubes as the only cells; one example is cubic honeycomb, the only regular honeycomb in Euclidean three-dimensional space, having four cubes around each edge. Miscellaneous : compound of six cubes with rotational freedom <math> \mathrm{UC}_7 </math>, three cubes <math> \mathrm{UC}_8 </math>, and five cubes <math> \mathrm{UC}_9 </math> \| total_width = 360 }} Compound of cubes is the polyhedral compounds in which the cubes are sharing the same centre. They belong to the uniform polyhedron compound, meaning they are polyhedral compounds whose constituents are identical (although possibly enantiomorphous) uniform polyhedra, in an arrangement that is also uniform. The list of compounds enumerated by in seventh to ninth uniform compound for the compound of six cubes with rotational freedom, three cubes, and five cubes respectively. Two compounds, consisting of two and three cubes were found in Escher's wood engraving print Stars and Max Brückner's book Vielecke und Vielflache. The spherical cube represents the spherical polyhedron, consisting of six spherical squares with 120° interior angle on each vertex. It has vector equilibrium, meaning that the distance from the centroid and each vertex is the same as the distance from that and each edge. Its dual is the spherical octahedron. The spherical cube can be modeled by the arc of great circles, creating bounds as the edges of a spherical square. The topological object three-dimensional torus is a topological space defined to be homeomorphic to the Cartesian product of three circles. It can be represented as a three-dimensional model of the cube shape. See also * Bhargava cube, a configuration to study the law of binary quadratic form and other such forms, of which the cube's vertices represent the integer. * Chazelle polyhedron, a notched opposite faces of a cube. * Cubism, an art movement of revolutionized painting and the visual arts. * Hemicube, a polyhedron produced by cutting a cube in half with a plane. * Squaring the square's three-dimensional analogue, cubing the cube. References External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071009235233/http://polyhedra.org/poly/show/1/cube Cube: Interactive Polyhedron Model] [http://www.mathopenref.com/cubevolume.html Volume of a cube], with interactive animation [http://www.software3d.com/Cube.php Cube] (Robert Webb's site) Category:Cuboids Category:Elementary shapes Category:Platonic solids Category:Prismatoid polyhedra Category:Space-filling polyhedra Category:Zonohedra	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube	2025-04-05T18:27:47.115786
6286	Commuter rail	Commuter rail or suburban rail is a passenger rail service that primarily operates within a metropolitan area, connecting commuters to a central city from adjacent suburbs or commuter towns. Commuter rail systems can use locomotive-hauled trains or multiple units, using electric or diesel propulsion.Characteristics carries more than 7.24 million commuters on a daily basis]] ]] serves the Greater Golden Horseshoe region surrounding Toronto. Its train services are transitioning from a peak direction commuter railway to a Regional Express Network.]] Most commuter (or suburban) trains are built to main line rail standards, differing from light rail or rapid transit (metro rail) systems by: being larger providing more seating and less standing room, owing to the longer distances involved having (in most cases) a lower frequency of service having scheduled services (i.e. trains run at specific times rather than at specific intervals) serving lower-density suburban areas, typically connecting suburbs to the city center sharing track or right-of-way with intercity and/or freight trains not fully grade separated (containing at-grade crossings with crossing gates) being able to skip certain stations as an express service due to normally being driver controlled Train schedule Compared to rapid transit (or metro rail), commuter/suburban rail often has lower frequency, following a schedule rather than fixed intervals, and fewer stations spaced further apart. They primarily serve lower density suburban areas (non inner-city), generally only having one or two stops in a city's central business district, and often share right-of-way with intercity or freight trains. Some services operate only during peak hours and others use fewer departures during off peak hours and weekends. Average speeds are high, often 50 km/h (30 mph) or higher. These higher speeds better serve the longer distances involved. Some services include express services which skip some stations in order to run faster and separate longer distance riders from short-distance ones. The general range of commuter trains' travel distance varies between 15 and 200 km (10 and 125 miles), but longer distances can be covered when the trains run between two or several cities (e.g. S-Bahn in the Ruhr area of Germany). Distances between stations may vary, but are usually much longer than those of urban rail systems. In city centres the train either has a terminal station or passes through the city centre with notably fewer station stops than those of urban rail systems. Toilets are often available on-board trains and in stations. Track Their ability to coexist with freight or intercity services in the same right-of-way can drastically reduce system construction costs. However, frequently they are built with dedicated tracks within that right-of-way to prevent delays, especially where service densities have converged in the inner parts of the network. Most such trains run on the local standard gauge track. Some systems may run on a narrower or broader gauge. Examples of narrow-gauge systems are found in Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Taiwan, Switzerland, in the Brisbane (Queensland Rail's City network) and Perth (Transperth) systems in Australia, in some systems in Sweden, and on the Genoa-Casella line in Italy. Some countries and regions, including Finland, India, Pakistan, Russia, Brazil and Sri Lanka, as well as San Francisco (BART) in the US and Melbourne and Adelaide in Australia, use broad gauge track. Distinction between other modes of rail Metro Metro rail and rapid transit usually cover smaller inner-urban areas within of city centers, with shorter stop spacing, use rolling stocks with larger standing spaces, lower top speed and higher acceleration, designed for short-distance travel. They also run more frequently, to a headway rather than a published timetable and use dedicated tracks (underground or elevated), whereas commuter rail often shares tracks, technology and the legal framework within mainline railway systems, and uses rolling stocks with more seating and higher speed for comfort on longer city-suburban journeys. However, the classification as a metro or rapid rail can be difficult as both may typically cover a metropolitan area exclusively, run on separate tracks in the centre, and often feature purpose-built rolling stock. The fact that the terminology is not standardised across countries (even across English-speaking countries) further complicates matters. This distinction is most easily made when there are two (or more) systems such as New York's subway and the LIRR and Metro-North Railroad, Paris' Métro and RER along with Transilien, Washington D.C.'s Metro along with its MARC and VRE, London's tube lines of the Underground and the Overground, Elizabeth line, Thameslink along with other commuter rail operators, Madrid's Metro and Cercanías, Barcelona's Metro and Rodalies, and Tokyo's subway and the JR lines along with various privately owned and operated commuter rail systems. Regional rail Regional rail usually provides rail services between towns and cities, rather than purely linking major population hubs in the way inter-city rail does. Regional rail operates outside major cities. Unlike Inter-city, it stops at most or all stations between cities. It provides a service between smaller communities along the line that are often byproducts of ribbon developments, and also connects with long-distance services at interchange stations located at junctions, terminals, or larger towns along the line. Alternative names are "local train" or "stopping train". Examples include the former BR's Regional Railways, France's TER (Transport express régional), Germany's Regionalexpress and Regionalbahn, and South Korea's Tonggeun and Mugunghwa-ho services.Inter-city rail with an upper and lower deck]] In some European countries, the distinction between commuter trains and long-distance/intercity trains is subtle, due to the relatively short distances involved. For example, so-called "intercity" trains in Belgium and the Netherlands carry many commuters, while their equipment, range, and speeds are similar to those of commuter trains in some larger countries. The United Kingdom has a privatised rail system, with different routes and services covered by different private operators. The distinction between commuter and intercity rail is not as clear as it was before privatisation (when InterCity existed as a brand of its own), but usually it is still possible to tell them apart. Some operators, for example Thameslink, focus solely on commuter services. Others, such as Avanti West Coast and LNER, run solely intercity services. Others still, such as GWR and EMR, run a mixture of commuter, regional and intercity services. Some of these operators use different branding for different types of service (for example EMR brands its trains as either "InterCity", "Connect" for London commuter services, and "Regional") but even for those operators that do not, the type of train, amenities offered, and stopping pattern, usually tell the services apart. Russian commuter trains, on the other hand, frequently cover areas larger than Belgium itself, although these are still short distances by Russian standards. They have a different ticketing system from long-distance trains, and in major cities they often operate from a separate section of the train station. Some consider "inter-city" service to be that which operates as an express service between two main city stations, bypassing intermediate stations. However, this term is used in Australia (Sydney for example) to describe the regional trains operating beyond the boundaries of the suburban services, even though some of these "inter-city" services stop all stations similar to German regional services. In this regard, the German service delineations and naming conventions are clearer and better used for academic purposes. High-speed rail train. As of October 2021 these have since been retired.]] Sometimes high-speed rail can serve daily use of commuters. The Japanese Shinkansen high speed rail system is heavily used by commuters in the Greater Tokyo Area, who commute between by Shinkansen. To meet the demand of commuters, JR sells commuter discount passes. Before 2021, they operated 16-car bilevel E4 Series Shinkansen trains at rush hour, providing a capacity of 1,600 seats. Several lines in China, such as the Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway and the Shanghai–Nanjing High-Speed Railway, serve a similar role with many more under construction or planned. In South Korea, some sections of the high-speed rail network are also heavily used by commuters, such as the section between Gwangmyeong Station and Seoul Station on the KTX network (Gyeongbu HSR Line), or the section between Dongtan Station and Suseo station on the SRT Line. The high-speed services linking Zurich, Bern and Basel in Switzerland () have brought the Central Business Districts (CBDs) of these three cities within 1 hour of each other. This has resulted in unexpectedly high demand for new commuter trips between the three cities and a corresponding increase in suburban rail passengers accessing the high-speed services at the main city-centre stations (). The Regional-Express commuter service between Munich and Nuremberg in Germany runs at on the Nuremberg–Ingolstadt high-speed railway. The regional trains Stockholm–Uppsala, Stockholm–Västerås, Stockholm–Eskilstuna and Gothenburg–Trollhättan in Sweden reach and have many daily commuters. In Great Britain, the HS1 domestic services between London and Ashford runs at a top speed of 225 km/h, and in peak hours the trains can be full with commuters standing. The Athens Suburban Railway in Greece consists of five lines, 4 of which are electrified. The Kiato–Piraeus line and the Aigio–Airport lines reach speeds of up to . The Athens–Chalcis line is also expected to attain speeds of up to upon upgrading of the SKA–Oinoi railway sector. These lines also have many daily commuters, with the number expected to rise even higher upon full completion of the Acharnes Railway Center. Eskişehir-Ankara and Konya-Ankara high speed train routes serve as high speed commuter trains in Turkey. Train types Commuter/suburban trains are usually optimized for maximum passenger volume, in most cases without sacrificing too much comfort and luggage space, though they seldom have all the amenities of long-distance trains. Cars may be single- or double-level, and aim to provide seating for all. Compared to intercity trains, they have less space, fewer amenities and limited baggage areas. Multiple unit type S5]] Commuter rail trains are usually composed of multiple units, which are self-propelled, bidirectional, articulated passenger rail cars with driving motors on each (or every other) bogie. Depending on local circumstances and tradition they may be powered either by diesel engines located below the passenger compartment (diesel multiple units) or by electricity picked up from third rails or overhead lines (electric multiple units). Multiple units are almost invariably equipped with control cabs at both ends, which is why such units are so frequently used to provide commuter services, due to the associated short turn-around time. Locomotive hauled services train operating along the San Francisco Bay; a MPI F40PH-2C locomotive hauls a consist of Bombardier BiLevel Coaches.]] Locomotive hauled services are used in some countries or locations. This is often a case of asset sweating, by using a single large combined fleet for intercity and regional services. Loco hauled services are usually run in push-pull formation, that is, the train can run with the locomotive at the "front" or "rear" of the train (pushing or pulling). Trains are often equipped with a control cab at the other end of the train from the locomotive, allowing the train operator to operate the train from either end. The motive power for locomotive-hauled commuter trains may be either electric or diesel–electric, although some countries, such as Germany and some of the former Soviet-bloc countries, also use diesel–hydraulic locomotives. Seat plans In the US and some other countries, a three-and-two seat plan is used. Middle seats on these trains are often less popular because passengers feel crowded and uncomfortable. In Japan, South Korea and Indonesia, longitudinal (sideways window-lining) seating is widely used in many commuter rail trains to increase capacity in rush hours. Carriages are usually not organized to increase seating capacity (although in some trains at least one carriage would feature more doors to facilitate easier boarding and alighting and bench seats so that they can be folded up during rush hour to provide more standing room) even in the case of commuting longer than 50 km and commuters in the Greater Tokyo Area, Seoul metropolitan area, and Jabodetabek area have to stand in the train for more than an hour. Commuter rail systems around the world Africa train pulling out of Kalk Bay station in Cape Town]] Currently there are not many examples of commuter rail in Africa. Metrorail operates in the major cities of South Africa, and there are some commuter rail services in Algeria, Botswana, Kenya, Morocco, Egypt and Tunisia. In Algeria, SNTF operates commuter rail lines between the capital Algiers and its southern and eastern suburbs. They also serve to connect Algiers' main universities to each other. The Dar es Salaam commuter rail offers intracity services in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. In Botswana, the (Botswana Railways) "BR Express" has a commuter train between Lobatse and Gaborone. Asia East Asia train operating a through service on the JR East Yamanote Line, an example of high-density commuter rail in Japan.]] In Japan, commuter rail systems have extensive network and frequent service and are heavily used. In many cases, Japanese commuter rail is operationally more like a typical metro system (frequent trains, an emphasis on standing passengers, short station spacings) than it is like commuter rail in other countries. Japanese commuter rail commonly interline with city center subway lines, with commuter rail trains continuing into the subway network, and then out onto different commuter rail systems on the other side of the city. Many Japanese commuter systems operate various stopping patterns to reduce the travel time to distant locations, often using station passing loops instead of dedicated express tracks. It is notable that the larger Japanese commuter rail systems are owned and operated by for-profit private railway companies, without public subsidy. East Japan Railway Company operates a large suburban train network in Tokyo with various lines connecting the suburban areas to the city center. While the Yamanote Line, Keihin Tohoku Line, Chūō–Sōbu Line services arguably are more akin to rapid transit with frequent stops, simple stopping patterns (relative to other JR East lines) no branching services and largely serving the inner suburbs; other services along the Chūō Rapid Line, Sōbu Rapid Line/Yokosuka Line, Ueno–Tokyo Line, Shōnan–Shinjuku Line etc. are mid-distance services from suburban lines in the outer reaches of Greater Tokyo through operating into these lines to form a high frequency corridor though central Tokyo. Other commuter rail routes in Japan include: * Hanshin Namba Line and Kintetsu Namba Line have a busy east west underground section that allow trains from both Hanshin Electric Railway and Kintetsu Railway to access Namba, a major commercial center of Osaka, and service destinations east and west of Osaka. * Osaka Metro Sakaisuji Line is a north south line that allows Hankyu services from the Senri Line, Kyoto Main Line and Arashiyama Line to enter Osaka city center. * JR West Tozai Line is an underground east west corridor allowing trains from the Kobe Line, Takarazuka Line and Gakkentoshi Line to access Umeda in central Osaka. JR West Osaka Loop Line is a mostly elevated loop line that allows for services from the Yamatoji Line, Hanwa Line and Sakurajima Line to loop around central Osaka. JR West Kobe Line/Kyoto Line is a four track corridor allowing Biwako Line, Kosei Line, Takarazuka Line, San'yō Main Line and Akō Line services to service Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe. A special private railway Kōbe Rapid Transit Railway owns two underground corridors (a north south and east west line) that allow for Sanyo Electric Railway, Hankyu railway, Hanshin Electric Railway and Kobe Electric Railway services to enter and cross Kobe city center. Most of the trains on the Meitetsu network through operate into a high frequency trunk line on the Meitetsu Nagoya Main Line branching out to other lines on the other side of Nagoya. Commuter rail systems have been inaugurated in several cities in China such as Beijing, Shanghai, Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Changsha and the Pearl River Delta. With plans for large systems in northeastern Zhejiang, Jingjinji, and Yangtze River Delta areas. The level of service varies considerably from line to line ranging high to near high speeds. More developed and established lines such as the Guangshen Railway have more frequent metro-like service. The two MTR lines which are owned and formerly operated by the Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (East Rail line and Tuen Ma line which is integrated from the former West Rail line and Ma On Shan line in 2021), then the "KCR"), and MTR's own Tung Chung line connect the new towns in New Territories and the city centre Kowloon together with frequent intervals, and some New Territories-bound trains terminate at intermediate stations, providing more frequent services in Kowloon and the towns closer to Kowloon. They use rolling stocks with a faster maximum speed and have longer stop spacing compared to other lines which only run in the inner urban area, but in order to maximise capacity and throughput, these rolling stocks have longitudinal seatings, 5 pairs of doors in each carriage with large standing spaces like the urban lines, and run as frequent as well. Most of the sections of these four lines are overground and some sections of the East Rail Line share tracks with intercity trains to mainland China. The three KCR lines are integrated into the MTR network since 2008 and most passengers do not need to exit and re-enter the system through separate fare gates and purchase separate tickets to transfer between such lines and the rest of the network (the exceptions are between the Tuen Ma line's East Tsim Sha Tsui station and the Tsuen Wan line's Tsim Sha Tsui station. In Taiwan, the Western line in the Taipei-Taoyuan Metropolitan Area, Taichung Metropolitan Area and Tainan-Kaohsiung Metropolitan Area as well as the Neiwan-Liujia line in the Hsinchu Area are considered commuter rail. In South Korea, the Seoul Metropolitan Subway includes a total of 22 lines, and some of its lines are suburban lines. This is especially the case for lines operated by Korail, such as the Gyeongui-Jungang Line, the Gyeongchun Line, the Suin-Bundang Line, or the Gyeonggang Line. Even some lines not operated by Korail, such as the AREX Line, the Seohae Line or the Shinbundang Line mostly function as commuter rail. Lastly, even for the "numbered lines" (1–9) of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway which mostly travel in the dense parts of Seoul, some track sections extend far outside of the city, and operate large sections at ground level, such as on the Line 1, Line 3 and Line 4. In Busan, the Donghae Line, while part of the Busan Metro system, mostly functions as a commuter rail line. Southeast Asia set 6000 series serves the Rangkasbitung Line in Indonesia]] In Indonesia, the KRL Commuterline is the largest commuter rail system in the country, serving the Greater Jakarta. It connects the Jakarta city center with surrounding cities and sub-urbans in Banten and West Java provinces, including Depok, Bogor, Tangerang, Serpong, Rangkasbitung, Bekasi and Cikarang. In July 2015, KRL Commuterline served more than 850,000 passengers per day, which is almost triple of the 2011 figures, but still less than 3.5% of all Jabodetabek commutes. Other commuter rail systems in Indonesia include the Metro Surabaya Commuter Line, Commuter Line Bandung, KAI Commuter Yogyakarta–Solo Line, Kedung Sepur, and the Sri Lelawangsa. In the Philippines, the Philippine National Railways has two commuter rail systems currently operational; the PNR Metro Commuter Line in the Greater Manila Area and the PNR Bicol Commuter in the Bicol Region. A new commuter rail line in Metro Manila, the North–South Commuter Railway, is currently under construction. Its North section is set to be partially opened by 2021. In Malaysia, there are two commuter services operated by Keretapi Tanah Melayu. They are the KTM Komuter that serves Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding Klang Valley area, and the KTM Komuter Northern Sector that serves the George Town Conurbation, Perak, Kedah and Perlis in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia. In Thailand, the Greater Bangkok Commuter rail and the Airport Rail Link serve the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. The SRT Red Lines, a new commuter line in Bangkok, started construction in 2009. It opened in 2021. Another commuter rail system in Southeast Asia is the Yangon Circular Railway in Myanmar. South Asia is the largest suburban railway network in India. ]] In India, commuter rail systems are present in major cities and form an important part of people's daily lives. Mumbai Suburban Railway, the oldest suburban rail system in Asia, carries more than 7.24 million commuters on a daily basis which constitutes more than half of the total daily passenger capacity of the Indian Railways itself. Kolkata Suburban Railway, one of the largest suburban railway networks in the world, consists of more than 450 stations and carries more than 3.5 million commuters per day. The Chennai Suburban Railway along with the Chennai MRTS, also covers over 300 stations and carries more than 2.5 million people daily to different areas in Chennai and its surroundings. Other commuter railways in India include the Hyderabad MMTS, Delhi Suburban Railway, Pune Suburban Railway and Lucknow-Kanpur Suburban Railway. In 2020, Government of India approved Bengaluru Suburban Railway to connect Bengaluru and its suburbs. It will be unique and first of its kind in India as it will have metro like facilities and rolling stock. In Bangladesh, there is one suburban rail called the Chittagong Circular Railway. Another suburban railway called the Dhaka Circular Railway is currently proposed. Karachi in Pakistan has a circular railway since 1969. West Asia Tehran Metro currently operates the Line 5 commuter line between Tehran and Karaj. Turkey has lines connecting Başkentray, İZBAN, Marmaray and Gaziray.Europe at Stockholm Central in Sweden]] Major metropolitan areas in most European countries are usually served by extensive commuter/suburban rail systems. Well-known examples include BG Voz in Belgrade (Serbia), S-Bahn in Germany, Austria and German-speaking areas of Switzerland, Proastiakos in Greece, RER in France and Belgium, Servizio ferroviario suburbano in Italy, Cercanías and Rodalies (Catalonia) in Spain, CP Urban Services in Portugal, Esko in Prague and Ostrava (Czech Republic), HÉV in Budapest (Hungary) and DART in Dublin (Ireland). Western Europe London has multiple commuter rail routes: * The Elizabeth line runs on a east–west twin tunnel under central London (Crossrail project) as its central core section. * Thameslink brings together several branches from northern and southern suburbs and satellite towns in to a high frequency central tunnel underneath London. * The London Overground, by contrast, skirts through the inner suburbs with lines mostly independent of each other, although there are several branches. The Watford DC line, partly shared with underground trains, uses third rail, but parallels a main line using overhead wires. The East London line and North London line run at metro-like frequencies in inner London, which make them nearly indistinguishable from metro systems apart from the fact that the tracks are shared with freight trains. * The Metropolitan line, despite being part of the London Underground, is a commuter rail route as it links the City of London to commuter towns outside Greater London such as Rickmansworth, Amersham and Chesham, where it runs to a timetable, being the only London Underground line with a public timetable published. It also shares tracks with Chiltern Railways main line services between London and Aylesbury. The Merseyrail network in Liverpool consists of two commuter rail routes powered by third rail, both of which branch out at one end. At the other, the Northern line continues out of the city centre to a mainline rail interchange, while the Wirral line has a city-centre loop. Birmingham has four suburban routes which operate out of Birmingham New Street & Birmingham Moor Street stations, one of which is operated using diesel trains. The Tyneside Electrics system in Newcastle upon Tyne existed from 1904 to 1967 using DC third rail. British Rail did not have the budget to maintain the ageing electrification system. The Riverside Branch was closed, while the remaining lines were de-electrified. 13 years later, they were re-electrified using DC overhead wires, and now form the Tyne & Wear Metro Yellow Line. Many of the rail services around Glasgow are branded as Strathclyde Partnership for Transport. The network includes most electrified Scottish rail routes. The West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive run eleven services which feed into Leeds, connecting the city with commuter areas and neighbouring urban centres in the West Yorkshire Built-up Area. MetroWest is a proposed network in Bristol, northern Somerset & southern Gloucestershire. The four-tracking of the line between Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway stations will enable local rail services to be separated from long-distance trains. The Réseau express régional d'Île-de-France (RER) is a commuter rail network in the agglomeration of Paris. In the centre the RER has high frequency underground corridors where several suburban branches feed similar to a rapid transit system. Commuter rail systems in German-speaking regions are called S-Bahn. While in some major cities S-Bahn services run on separate lines exclusively other systems use the existing regional rail tracks. and Re 450 hauled double-decker cars of Zurich S-Bahn]] on the Milan Passerby railway, Italy]] In Italy fifteen cities have commuter rail systems: * Bari (Bari metropolitan railway service, 3 lines) * Bologna (Bologna metropolitan railway service, 8 lines) * Cagliari, 1 line * Catanzaro, 2 lines * Genoa (Genoa urban railway service, 3 lines) * Messina, 1 line * Milan (Milan suburban railway service, 12 lines) * Naples, 8 lines * Palermo (Palermo metropolitan railway service, 2 lines) * Perugia, 1 line * Potenza, 1 line * Reggio Calabria, 1 line * Rome (FL lines, 8 lines) * Salerno (Salerno metropolitan railway service, 1 line) * Turin (Turin metropolitan railway service, 8 lines) Randstadspoor is a network of Sprinter train services in and around the city of Utrecht in the Netherlands. For the realisation of this network, new stations were opened. Separate tracks have been built for these trains, so they can call frequently without disturbing high-frequent Intercity services parallel to these routes. Similar systems are planned for The Hague and Rotterdam. Northern Europe In Sweden, electrified commuter rail systems known as Pendeltåg are present in the cities of Stockholm and Gothenburg. The Stockholm commuter rail system, which began in 1968, shares railway tracks with inter-city trains and freight trains, but for the most part runs on its own dedicated tracks. It is primarily used to transport passengers from nearby towns and other suburban areas into the city centre, not for transportation inside the city centre. The Gothenburg commuter rail system, which began in 1960, is similar to the Stockholm system, but does fully share tracks with long-distance trains. In Norway, the Oslo commuter rail system is from 2022 more limited but the remaining commuter lines go on tracks mostly not much used by other trains. From 2022 several lines with hourly frequency and travel times to endpoints of over one hour are redefined as regional trains. Before 2022 Oslo had the largest commuter rail system in the Nordic countries in terms of line lengths and number of stations. Also Bergen, Stavanger and Trondheim have commuter rail systems. These have only one or two lines each and they share tracks with other trains. In Finland, the Helsinki commuter rail network runs on dedicated tracks from Helsinki Central railway station to Leppävaara and Kerava. The Ring Rail Line serves Helsinki Airport and northern suburbs of Vantaa and is exclusively used by the commuter rail network. On 15 December 2019, the Tampere region got its own commuter rail service, with trains running from Tampere to Nokia, Lempäälä and Orivesi. Southern Europe In Spain, Cercanías networks exist in Madrid, Sevilla, Murcia/Alicante, San Sebastián, Cádiz, Valencia, Asturias, Santander, Zaragoza, Bilbao and Málaga. All these systems include underground sections in the city centre. There is also a network of narrow-gauge commuter systems in North Spain and Murcia. Cercanías Madrid is one of the most important train services in the country, more than 900,000 passengers move in the system. It has underground stations in Madrid like Recoletos, Sol or Nuevos Ministerios and in the metropolitan area in cities like Parla or Getafe. Renfe trains in Estació de França, Barcelona\|221x221px]] Llobregat-Anoia line in 2009]] In the autonomous community of Catalonia, and unlike the rest of Spain, the commuter service is not managed by Renfe Operadora. Since 2010, the Government of Catalonia has managed all the regular commuter services with the "transfer of Rodalies". There are two companies that manage the Catalan commuter network: * Rodalies de Catalunya, which after the transfer at the beginning of 2010 when, due to the "Catalan rail chaos" of 2007, the Spanish government promised to transfer the Renfe commuter service to the Generalitat, although it does not deal with the entire service; After the transfer, responsibilities for the commuter trains were divided into three parts: the Generalitat (management, regulation, planning, coordination and inspection of services and activities and power to charge), Renfe (train operator and its maintenance), and Adif (owner of the railway infrastructure). Lines R1, R2, R2 Nord, R2 Sud, R3 (to Sant Quirze de Besora, from there to Puigcerdà or La Tor de Querol it is considered a regional route), R4, R7 and R8 run through Rodalies de Catalunya, all on Iberian gauge (1668 mm). * Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya (or FGC) is the railway company responsible for the Vallès, Llobregat-Anoia and Lleida-La Pobla de Segur lines. This company is mainly in charge of metro and suburban lines, although it also has five commuter lines spread over two lines, four on the Llobregat-Anoia line (R5, R50, R6, R60) on metre-gauge (1000 mm) and a single line on the Lleida-La Pobla de Segur line (RL1) on Iberian gauge (1668 mm). FGC is in charge of the entire service, unlike Rodalies de Catalunya, which is not in charge of either the trains or the infrastructure. The Government of Catalonia will assume full control of the current R12 regional line in 2024 and it will be owned by the FGC. It will eliminate the current line and replace it with the new commuter lines RL3 and RL4, towards Cervera and Manresa from Lleida respectively. In Italy there are several commuter rail networks: Roman FL lines cover most of the Latium regional railways. Milan suburban railway service, operated by Trenord, has numerous services funneling into the underground Milan Passante railway. Turin metropolitan railway service, operated by Trenitalia and GTT, with an underground railway line running through the city used by most services. Naples Metro Line 2 is an underground corridor where commuter rail services operated by Trenitalia traverse and service the urban center. Genoa urban railway service consists in three lines passing through the Giovi railway line and the Tyrrhenian railway lines Genoa–Ventimiglia and Genoa–Pisa. Bologna metropolitan railway service. The system comprises 8 lines. Bari metropolitan railway service Canton Tessin suburban railway reaches Italian cities like Como and Varese and the Malpensa Airport. train in Warsaw, Poland]] Eastern Europe In Poland, commuter rail systems exist in Tricity, Warsaw, Kraków (SKA) and Katowice (SKR). There is also a similar system planned in Wrocław and Szczecin. The terms used are "Szybka Kolej Miejska" (fast urban rail) and "kolej aglomeracyjna" (agglomeration rail). These systems are: * Szybka Kolej Miejska w Warszawie in the Warsaw urban area, with 4 lines and 46 stations. * Łódzka Kolej Aglomeracyjna is located in the center of Poland connecting satellite towns in and around Łódź. It also operates some trains between Łódź and Warsaw. Szybka Kolej Miejska w Trójmieście is located in the Tricity/Trójmiasto urban area, the three cities of Gdańsk, Gdynia and Sopot. The Proastiakos (; "suburban") is Greece's suburban railway (commuter rail) services, which are run by TrainOSE, on infrastructure owned by the Hellenic Railways Organisation (OSE). There are three Proastiakos networks, servicing the country's three largest cities: Athens, Thessaloniki and Patras. In particular, the Athenian network is undergoing modifications to completely separate it from mainline traffic, by re-routing the tracks via a tunnel underneath the city center. A similar project is planned for the Patras network, whereas a new line is due to be constructed for the Thessalonian network. In Romania, the first commuter trains were introduced in December 2019. They operate between Bucharest and Funduea or Buftea. BG Voz is an urban rail system that serves Belgrade. It currently has only two routes, with plans for further expansion. Between the early 1990s and mid-2010s, there was another system, known as Beovoz, that was used to provide mass-transit service within the Belgrade metropolitan area, as well as to nearby towns, similarly to RER in Paris. Beovoz had more lines and far more stops than the current system. However, it was abandoned in favor of more accurate BG Voz, mostly due to inefficiency. While current services rely mostly on the existing infrastructure, any further development means furthering capacities (railways expansion and new trains). Plans for further extension of system include another two lines, one of which should reach Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport. In Russia, Ukraine and some other countries of the former Soviet Union, electrical multiple unit passenger suburban trains called Elektrichka are widespread. The first such system in Russia is the Oranienbaum Electric Line in St. Petersburg. In Moscow the Beskudnikovskaya railway branch existed between the 1940s and 1980s. The trains that shuttled along it did not go to the main lines, so it was a city transport. Today there are the Moscow Central Circle and the Moscow Central Diameters. In Turkey, Marmaray line stations from Sirkeci to Halkalı are located at the European side. Americas serves Philadelphia and its suburbs.]] North America In the United States, Canada, Costa Rica, El Salvador and Mexico regional passenger rail services are provided by governmental or quasi-governmental agencies, with the busiest and most expansive rail networks located in the Northeastern US, California, and Eastern Canada. Most North American commuter railways utilize diesel locomotive propulsion, with the exception of services in New York City, Philadelphia, Chicago, Denver, San Francisco, and Mexico City; New York's commuter rail lines use a combination of third rail and overhead wire power generation, while Chicago only has two out of twelve services that are electrified. Many newer and proposed systems in Canada and the United States are often are geared to serving peak-hour commutes as opposed to the all-day systems of Europe, East Asia, and Australia. is the busiest commuter railroad in North America.]] commuter rail system serves Utah's Wasatch Front.]] is a DMU operated commuter rail line in Oregon.]] United States Eight commuter rail systems in the United States carried over ten million trips each in 2018, those being in descending order: Metropolitan Transportation Authority's Long Island Rail Road, serving New York City and Long Island * NJ Transit Rail Operations, serving New York City, New Jersey (Newark, Trenton) and Philadelphia * Metropolitan Transportation Authority's Metro-North Railroad, serving New York (Yonkers and New York City) and Southwest Connecticut (New Haven) * Metra, serving northeast Illinois (Chicago) and Kenosha, Wisconsin. The network consists of 11 services, of which only the Electric District service runs on tracks exclusively used for passenger traffic. *The South Shore Line is a commuter line that serves the South Side and northern Indiana. Although the line is operated by NICTD, an agency separate from Metra, the line runs along the Metra Electric Line north of Kensington/115th Street station. SEPTA Regional Rail, serving southeast Pennsylvania (Philadelphia), as well as Wilmington, Delaware, and Trenton, New Jersey. The network features a tunneled corridor through the city center and through-routed services from several commuter lines. The arrangement of services through the corridor was originally proposed by Vukan Vuchic and Shinya Kikuchi in 1984 and 1985. * MBTA Commuter Rail, serving Massachusetts (Boston, Worcester, Lowell) and Providence, Rhode Island * Caltrain, serving Bay Area California (San Francisco, San Jose, and the San Francisco Peninsula) * Metrolink, serving Southern California (Los Angeles, Burbank, Anaheim, San Bernardino, and Southern California) Other commuter rail systems in the United States (not in ridership order) are: CTRail, serving Connecticut (Hartford, New Haven and New London) Utah Transit Authority FrontRunner, serving Utah (Wasatch Front) North County Transit District Coaster, serving Southern California (San Diego County) Maryland Area Regional Commuter, serving western Maryland (Baltimore, Frederick), Washington, D.C., and West Virginia (Harpers Ferry) Virginia Railway Express, serving suburbs of Northern Virginia and Washington, D.C. Sounder commuter rail, serving Washington (Seattle / Tacoma) Tri-Rail, serving southeastern Florida (Miami / Fort Lauderdale / West Palm Beach) Trinity Railway Express, serving Texas (Dallas / Fort Worth) * Westside Express Service, serving northwestern Oregon (Beaverton / Wilsonville) Altamont Corridor Express, serving northern California (San Jose / Stockton) SunRail, serving central Florida (Orlando/Poinciana) New Mexico Rail Runner Express, serving New Mexico (Albuquerque) Northstar Line, serving central Minnesota (Big Lake and downtown Minneapolis) Capital MetroRail, serving Texas (Austin) A-train, serving Texas (Denton County) SMART, serving northern California (Sonoma and Marin counties) WeGo Star, serving Nashville and Lebanon, Tennessee. * Denver's RTD four electrified commuter rail lines – the A, B, G and N Lines, run on segregated tracks. In its entirety the system combines elements of tram-train and commuter rail. Canada and GO Transit both serve the Toronto area.]] * Exo commuter rail in Montreal * GO Transit in Toronto * West Coast Express in Vancouver * UP Express in Toronto Mexico * Suburban Railway of the Valley of Mexico Metropolitan Area serving Mexico City * Toluca–Mexico City commuter rail serving Toluca and Mexico City Central America Rail Transport in Costa Rica serving San Jose South America is part of the extensive Buenos Aires metropolitan rail system.]] Examples include an commuter system in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area, the long Supervia in Rio de Janeiro, the Metrotrén in Santiago, Chile, and the Valparaíso Metro in Valparaíso, Chile. Another example is Companhia Paulista de Trens Metropolitanos (CPTM) in Greater São Paulo, Brazil. CPTM has 94 stations with seven lines, numbered starting on 7 (the lines 1 to 6 and the line 15 belong to the São Paulo Metro), with a total length of . Trains operates at high frequencies on tracks used exclusively for commuter traffic. In Rio de Janeiro SuperVia provides electrified commuter rail services. Oceania used on the Metro Trains Melbourne network]] The five major cities in Australia have suburban railway systems in their metropolitan areas. These networks have frequent services, with frequencies varying from every 10 to every 30 minutes on most suburban lines, and up to 3–5 minutes in peak on bundled underground lines in the city centres of Sydney, Brisbane, Perth and Melbourne. The networks in each state developed from mainline railways and have never been completely operationally separate from long distance and freight traffic, unlike metro systems. The suburban networks are almost completely electrified. The main suburban rail networks in Australia are: The Sydney Trains suburban rail network consists of nine lines converging in the underground City Circle with frequencies as high as three minutes in this section, 5–10 minutes at most major stations all day and 15 minutes at most minor stations all day. The Sydney rail network operated by Sydney Trains in Sydney (with connected suburban services in Newcastle and Wollongong run by its counterpart intercity operator, NSW TrainLink). Melbourne's rail network features sixteen electrified commuter rail lines traversing the city centre in the underground City Loop providing a metro-like service in the central core. A second underground core is under construction, as the Metro Tunnel project. V/Line operates some commuter services between Melbourne and surrounding towns, as well as between Melbourne and some locations within the Melbourne metropolitan area. * Commuter rail services in Brisbane are provided under the Queensland Rail City network brand, featuring twelve electrified lines converging in the city centre. Cross River Rail is an under construction underground cross-city tunnel to relieve pressure on this network. * Railways in Perth fall under the Transperth network, which are operated by the Public Transport Authority The Adelaide rail network operated by Adelaide Metro in Adelaide. New Zealand has two frequent suburban rail services comparable to those in Australia: the Auckland rail network is operated by Auckland One Rail and the Wellington rail network is operated by Transdev Wellington. Hybrid systems Hybrid urban-suburban rail systems exhibiting characteristics of both rapid transit and commuter rail serving a metropolitan region are common in German-speaking countries, where they are known as S-Bahn. Other examples include: Lazio regional railways in Rome, the RER in France and the Elizabeth line, London Underground Metropolitan line, London Overground and Merseyrail in the UK. Comparable systems can be found in Australia such as Sydney Trains and Metro Trains Melbourne, and in Japan with many urban and suburban lines operated by JR East/West and third-party companies running at metro-style frequencies. In contrast, comparable systems of this type are generally rare in the United States and Canada, where peak hour frequencies are more common. In Asia, the construction of higher speed urban-suburban rail links has gained traction in various countries, such as in India, with the Delhi RRTS, in China, with the Pearl River Delta Metropolitan Region intercity railway, and in South Korea, with the Great Train eXpress system. These systems usually run on dedicated elevated or underground tracks for most of their route and have features comparable to Higher-speed rail. See also Charabanc List of suburban and commuter rail systems Public transport Commuting Cercanías, the commuter rail systems of Spain's major metropolitan areas Commuter rail in the United Kingdom Commuter rail in North America Commuter rail in Australia Regional rail S-Bahn, the combined city center and suburban railway system metro in Austria, Germany, Switzerland and Denmark References External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20070515131747/http://www.railserve.com/railnews/commuter_rail_transit.html Commuter Rail & Transit News] Current news concerning commuter rail development and issues * Category:Commuting	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commuter_rail	2025-04-05T18:27:47.167956
6288	Cambridgeshire	<!--This article covers four defined areas: the smaller historic, ceremonial, "Peterborough and Cambridge" city region and non-metropolitan definitions.--> \| image_caption = \| locator_map = \| coordinates \| region = East of England \| established_date = 1 April 1974 \| established_by = Local Government Act 1972 \| preceded_by = Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely<br />Huntingdon and Peterborough \| origin = Ancient \| lord_lieutenant_office = Lord Lieutenant of Cambridgeshire \| lord_lieutenant_name Julie Spence \| high_sheriff_office = High Sheriff of Cambridgeshire \| high_sheriff_name = Dr Bharatkumar N Khetani (2023-24) \| area_total_km2 = 3389 \| area_total_rank = 15th \| ethnicity = 94.6% White<br />2.6% S.Asian \| county_council = Cambridgeshire County Council \| unitary_council1 = Peterborough City Council \| admin_hq = New Shire Hall, Alconbury Weald \| area_council_km2 = 3046 \| area_council_rank = 15th \| iso_code = GB-CAM \| ons_code = 12 \| gss_code = E10000003 \| nuts_code = UKH12 \| districts_map \| districts_key Unitary County council area \| districts_list = # City of Peterborough # Fenland # Huntingdonshire # East Cambridgeshire # South Cambridgeshire # City of Cambridge \| MPs = List of MPs \| police = Cambridgeshire Constabulary \| website = }}Cambridgeshire (abbreviated Cambs.) is a ceremonial county in the East of England and East Anglia. It is bordered by Lincolnshire to the north, Norfolk to the north-east, Suffolk to the east, Essex and Hertfordshire to the south, Northamptonshire to the west, and Bedfordshire to the south-west. The largest settlement is the city of Peterborough, and the city of Cambridge is the county town. The county has an area of and had an estimated population of 906,814 in 2022. Peterborough, in the north-west, and Cambridge, in the south, are by far the largest settlements. The remainder of the county is rural, and contains the city of Ely in the east, Wisbech in the north-east, and St Neots and Huntingdon in the west. For local government purposes Cambridgeshire comprises a non-metropolitan county, with five districts, and the unitary authority area of Peterborough; their local authorities collaborate through Cambridgeshire and Peterborough Combined Authority. The county did not historically include Huntingdonshire or the Soke of Peterborough, which was part of Northamptonshire. The north and east of the county are dominated by the Fens, an extremely flat, drained marsh maintained by drainage ditches and dykes; Holme Fen is the UK's lowest physical point, at 2.75 m (9 ft) below sea level. The flatness of the landscape makes the few areas of higher ground, such as that Ely is built on, very conspicuous. The landscape in the south and west is gently undulating. Cambridgeshire's principal rivers are the Nene, which flows through the north of the county and is canalised east of Peterborough; the Great Ouse, which flows from west to east past Huntingdon and Ely; and the Cam, a tributary of the Great Ouse which flows through Cambridge. History Cambridgeshire is noted as the site of Flag Fen in Fengate, one of the earliest-known Neolithic permanent settlements in the United Kingdom, compared in importance to Balbridie in Aberdeen, Scotland. Must Farm quarry, at Whittlesey, has been described as "Britain's Pompeii due to its relatively good condition, including the 'best-preserved Bronze Age dwellings ever found in the UK'". A great quantity of archaeological finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age were made in East Cambridgeshire. Most items were found in Isleham. The area was settled by the Anglo-Saxons starting in the fifth century. Genetic testing on seven skeletons found in Anglo-Saxon era graves in Hinxton and Oakington found that five were either migrants or descended from migrants from the continent, one was a native Briton, and one had both continental and native ancestry, suggesting intermarriage. Cambridgeshire was recorded in the Domesday Book as "Grantbridgeshire" (or rather Grentebrigescire) (related to the river Granta). Covering a large part of East Anglia, Cambridgeshire today is the result of several local government unifications. In 1888 when county councils were introduced, separate councils were set up, following the traditional division of Cambridgeshire, for * the area in the south around Cambridge, and * the liberty of the Isle of Ely. In 1965, these two administrative counties were merged to form Cambridgeshire and the Isle of Ely. Under the Local Government Act 1972 this merged with the county to the west, Huntingdon and Peterborough, which had been formed in 1965, by the merger of Huntingdonshire with the Soke of Peterborough (the latter previously a part of Northamptonshire with its own county council). The resulting county was called simply Cambridgeshire. Since 1998, the City of Peterborough has been separately administered as a unitary authority area. It is associated with Cambridgeshire for ceremonial purposes such as Lieutenancy and joint functions such as policing and the fire service. In 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife unofficially designated Cambridgeshire's county flower as the Pasqueflower. The Cambridgeshire Regiment (nicknamed the Fen Tigers), the county-based army unit, fought in the Boer War in South Africa, the First World War and Second World War. Due to the county's flat terrain and proximity to the continent, during the Second World War the military built many airfields here for RAF Bomber Command, RAF Fighter Command, and the allies USAAF. In recognition of this collaboration, the Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial is located in Madingley. It is the only WWII burial ground in England for American servicemen who died during that event. Most English counties have nicknames for their people, such as a "Tyke" from Yorkshire and a "Yellowbelly" from Lincolnshire. The historical nicknames for people from Cambridgeshire are "Cambridgeshire Camel" or "Cambridgeshire Crane", the latter referring to the wildfowl that were once abundant in the Fens. The term "Fen Tigers" is sometimes used to describe the people who live and work in the Fens. Original historical documents relating to Cambridgeshire are held by [https://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/residents/libraries-leisure-culture/archives Cambridgeshire Archives]. [https://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/residents/libraries-leisure-culture/libraries Cambridgeshire County Council Libraries] maintains several [https://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/residents/libraries-leisure-culture/local-studies Local Studies] collections of printed and published materials, significantly at the Cambridgeshire Collection held in the [https://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/directory/listings/Cambridge-Central-Library Cambridge Central Library]. Flag Cambridgeshire's county flag was made official on 1 February 2015, after the design was selected as an entry from a design competition that ran during 2014. The design features three golden crowns, two on the top, one on the bottom that are separated by two wavy lines in the middle. The crowns are meant to represent East Anglia, and the two lines represent the River Cam and are in the Cambridge University's colours.Geography : See also Geology of Cambridgeshire Large areas of the county are extremely low-lying and Holme Fen is notable for being the UK's lowest physical point at 2.75 m (9 ft) below sea level. The highest point of the modern administrative county is in the village of Great Chishill at 146 m (480 ft) above sea level. However, this parish was historically a part of Essex, having been moved to Cambridgeshire in boundary changes in 1895. The historic county top is close to the village of Castle Camps where a point on the disused RAF airfield reaches a height of above sea level (grid reference TL 63282 41881). Other prominent hills are Little Trees Hill and Wandlebury Hill (both at ) in the Gog Magog Hills, Rivey Hill above Linton, Rowley's Hill and the Madingley Hills. Wicken Fen is a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest west of Wicken. A large part of it is owned and managed by the National Trust. The Cambridge Green Belt around the city of Cambridge extends to places such as Waterbeach, Lode, Duxford, Little & Great Abington and other communities a few miles away in nearby districts, to afford a protection from the conurbation. It was first drawn up in the 1950s. Politics Cambridgeshire County Council is controlled by an alliance of the Liberal Democrats, the Labour Party and independent groups, while Peterborough City Council is currently controlled by a Conservative Party minority administration. The county contains eight Parliamentary constituencies: {\| class="wikitable" \|+Parliamentary constituencies in Cambridgeshire \|- ! Constituency !! Member of Parliament (MP) !!colspan="2"\| Party \|- \| Cambridge \|\| Daniel Zeichner \| \|- \| Huntingdon \|\| Ben Obese-Jecty \| \|- \| North East Cambridgeshire \|\| Steve Barclay \| \|- \| North West Cambridgeshire \|\| Sam Carling \| \|- \| Peterborough \|\| Andrew Pakes \| \|- \| South Cambridgeshire \|\| [(politician)\|Pippa Heylings \| style="color:inherit;background-color: " \| \|Liberal Democrats \|- \| St Neots and Mid Cambridgeshire \|\| Ian Sollom \| style="color:inherit;background-color: " \| \|Liberal Democrats \|- \| East Cambridgeshire \|\| Charlotte Cane \| style="color:inherit;background-color: " \| \|Liberal Democrats \|} Economy This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Cambridgeshire at current basic prices [https://web.archive.org/web/20060525140007/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_economy/RegionalGVA.pdf published] (pp. 240–253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. {\| class="wikitable" ! Year \|\| Regional Gross<br>Value Added \|\| Agriculture \|\| Industry \|\| Services \|- \| 1995 \|\| £5,896M \|\| £228M \|\| £1,646M \|\| £4,022M \|- \| 2000 \|\| £7,996M \|\| £166M \|\| £2,029M \|\| £5,801M \|- \| 2003 \|\| £10,154M \|\| £207M \|\| £2,195M \|\| £7,752M \|} AWG plc is based in Huntingdon. The RAF has several stations in the Huntingdon and St Ives area. RAF Alconbury, three miles north of Huntingdon, is being reorganised after a period of obsolescence following the departure of the USAF, to be the focus of RAF/USAFE intelligence operations, with activities at Upwood and Molesworth being transferred there. Most of Cambridgeshire is agricultural. Close to Cambridge is the so-called Silicon Fen area of high-technology (electronics, computing and biotechnology) companies. ARM Limited is based in Cherry Hinton. The inland Port of Wisbech on the River Nene is the county's only remaining port. Education Primary and secondary Cambridgeshire has a comprehensive education system with over 240 state schools, not including sixth form colleges. The independent sector includes King's Ely and Wisbech Grammar School, founded in 970 and 1379 respectively, they are two of the oldest schools in the country. Some of the secondary schools act as Village Colleges, institutions unique to Cambridgeshire. For example, Comberton Village College. Tertiary Cambridgeshire is home to a number of institutes of higher education: * The University of Cambridge – second-oldest university in the English-speaking world, and regarded as one of the most prestigious academic institutions in the world * Anglia Ruskin University – has campuses located in Cambridge and Peterborough and a base at Fulbourn * The Open University – has a regional centre located in Cambridge * The University Centre Peterborough – operated by Anglia Ruskin University and Peterborough Regional College, located in Peterborough * The College of West Anglia has a campus at Milton, on the northern outskirts of Cambridge and a campus at Wisbech. In addition, Cambridge Regional College and Huntingdonshire Regional College both offer a limited range of higher education courses in conjunction with partner universities. Settlements These are the settlements in Cambridgeshire with a town charter, city status or a population over 5,000; for a complete list of settlements see list of places in Cambridgeshire. See the List of Cambridgeshire settlements by population page for more detail. The town of Newmarket is surrounded on three sides by Cambridgeshire, being connected by a narrow strip of land to the rest of Suffolk. Cambridgeshire has seen 32,869 dwellings created from 2002 to 2013 and there are a further 35,360 planned new dwellings between 2016 and 2023. Climate Cambridgeshire has a maritime temperate climate which is broadly similar to the rest of the United Kingdom, though it is drier than the UK average due to its low altitude and easterly location, the prevailing southwesterly winds having already deposited moisture on higher ground further west. Average winter temperatures are cooler than the English average, due to Cambridgeshire's inland location and relative nearness to continental Europe, which results in the moderating maritime influence being less strong. Snowfall is slightly more common than in western areas, due to the relative winter coolness and easterly winds bringing occasional snow from the North Sea. In summer temperatures are average or slightly above, due to less cloud cover. It reaches on around ten days each year, and is comparable to parts of Kent and East Anglia. Culture Sports Various forms of football have been popular in Cambridgeshire since medieval times at least. In 1579 one match played at Chesterton between townspeople and University of Cambridge students ended in a violent brawl that led the Vice-Chancellor to issue a decree forbidding them to play "footeball" outside of college grounds. During the nineteenth century, several formulations of the laws of football, known as the Cambridge rules, were created by students at the university. One of these codes, dating from 1863, had a significant influence on the creation of the original laws of the Football Association. Cambridgeshire is also the birthplace of bandy, now an IOC accepted sport. According to documents from 1813, Bury Fen Bandy Club was undefeated for 100 years. A member of the club, Charles Goodman Tebbutt, wrote down the first official rules in 1882. Great Britain Bandy Association is based in Cambridgeshire. Fen skating is a traditional form of skating in the Fenland. The National Ice Skating Association was set up in Cambridge in 1879, they took the top Fen skaters to the world speedskating championships where James Smart (skater) became world champion. On 6–7 June 2015, the inaugural Tour of Cambridgeshire cycle race took place on closed roads across the county. The event was an official UCI qualification event, and consisted of a Time Trial on the 6th, and a Gran Fondo event on the 7th. The Gran Fondo event was open to the public, and over 6000 riders took part in the race. The River Cam is the main river flowing through Cambridge, parts of the River Nene and River Great Ouse lie within the county. In 2021 the latter was used as the course for The Boat Race. The River Cam serves as the course for the university Lent Bumps and May Bumps and the non-college rowing organised by Cambridgeshire Rowing Association. There is only one racecourse in Cambridgeshire, located at Huntingdon. Contemporary art Cambridge is home to the Kettle's Yard gallery and the artist-run Aid and Abet project space. Nine miles west of Cambridge next to the village of Bourn is Wysing Arts Centre. Wisbech has been home to the Wisbech Gallery, South Brink since 2023. Cambridge Open Studios is the region's large arts organisation with over 500 members. Every year, more than 370 artists open their doors to visitors during four weekends in July. Literature The annual Fenland Poet Laureate awards were instigated for poets in the North of the county in 2012 at Wisbech & Fenland Museum.Theatre The county was visited by travelling companies of comedians in the Georgian period. These came from different companies. The Lincoln Circuit included, at various times, Wisbech and Whittlesey. The Wisbech Georgian theatre still survives as an operating theatre now known as The Angles Theatre. In Cambridge the ADC Theatre is the venue for the Footlights. Media The county is covered by BBC East and ITV Anglia. Local radio includes BBC Radio Cambridgeshire, Greatest Hits Radio East, Heart East, Smooth East Midlands (only covering Peterborough), and Star Radio. The community radio stations are Black Cat Radio in St Neots; Cam FM and Cambridge 105 in Cambridge; Huntingdon Community Radio; and Peterborough Community Radio and Salaam Radio in Peterborough. Places of interest Notable people from Cambridgeshire Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), Roundhead commander in the English Civil War from 1642 to 1651, and Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1653 to 1658 See also Cambridgeshire (UK Parliament constituency) – Historical list of MPs for Cambridgeshire constituency * Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies * Cambridgeshire Constabulary * Cambridgeshire local elections * Cambridgeshire Police and Crime Commissioner * Custos Rotulorum of Cambridgeshire – Keepers of the Rolls for Cambridgeshire * Healthcare in Cambridgeshire * List of High sheriffs of Cambridgeshire * List of Lord Lieutenants of Cambridgeshire * The Hundred Parishes Explanatory notes References Bibliography * \|pages = 726–728 }} External links * \|pages97–99 \|shortx}} * [http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/ Cambridgeshire County Council] * [http://www.ccan.co.uk/ Cambridgeshire Community Archive Network]. * [https://archive.today/20121224001155/http://viewfinder.english-heritage.org.uk/search/results.aspx?index0&mainQuery&searchTypeall&formbasic&theme&countyCAMBRIDGESHIRE&district&placeName Images of Cambridgeshire] at the English Heritage Archive Category:Counties of England established in antiquity Category:Counties of England disestablished in 1965 Category:Counties of England established in 1974 Category:Non-metropolitan counties	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridgeshire	2025-04-05T18:27:47.216808
6290	Christian Goldbach	\| death_place = Moscow, Russian Empire \| residence \| citizenship Russia \| nationality = Prussian \| ethnicity \| field Mathematics and Law \| work_institutions \| alma_mater \| doctoral_advisor \| doctoral_students \| known_for = Goldbach's conjecture<br>Goldbach's theorem<br>Goldbach's weak conjecture \| influences \| influenced \| signature = }} Christian Goldbach ( , ; 18 March 1690 – 20 November 1764) was a Prussian mathematician connected with some important research mainly in number theory; he also studied law and took an interest in and a role in the Russian court. He studied at the Royal Albertus University. After finishing his studies he went on long educational trips from 1710 to 1724 through Europe, visiting other German states, England, the Netherlands, Italy, and France, meeting with many famous mathematicians, such as Gottfried Leibniz, Leonhard Euler, and Nicholas I Bernoulli. These acquaintances started Goldbach's interest in mathematics. He briefly attended Oxford University in 1713 and, while he was there, Goldbach studied mathematics with John Wallis and Isaac Newton. Also, Goldbach's travels fostered his interest in philology, archaeology, metaphysics, ballistics, and medicine. Christian Wolff had invited and had written recommendations for all the Germans who traveled to Saint Petersburg for the academy except Goldbach. Contributions , 1742]] Goldbach is most noted for his correspondence with Leibniz, Euler, and Bernoulli, especially in his 1742 letter to Euler stating his Goldbach's conjecture. He also studied and proved some theorems on perfect powers, such as the Goldbach–Euler theorem, and made several notable contributions to analysis. He also proved a result concerning Fermat numbers that is called Goldbach's theorem. Impact on Euler It is Goldbach and Euler's correspondence that contains some of Goldbach's most important contributions to mathematics, specifically number theory. Works * (1729) De transformatione serierum * (1732) De terminis generalibus serierum See also Goldbach's comet References External links * * [http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/correspondence/correspondents/Goldbach.html Electronic copies of Euler's correspondence with Goldbach] * [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/astro_atlas/id/379 Neuester Himmels-Atlas, 1799] - Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library. Category:1690 births Category:1764 deaths Category:University of Königsberg alumni Category:Full members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences Category:18th-century German mathematicians Category:German number theorists Category:Scientists from Königsberg Category:People from the Duchy of Prussia Category:Mathematicians from the Kingdom of Prussia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Goldbach	2025-04-05T18:27:47.238776
6291	Roman censor	The censor was a magistrate in ancient Rome who was responsible for maintaining the census, supervising public morality, and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances. Established under the Roman Republic, power of the censor was limited in subject matter but absolute within his sphere: in matters reserved for the censors, no magistrate could oppose his decisions, and only another censor who succeeded him could cancel those decisions. Censors were also given unusually long terms of office; unlike other elected offices of the Republic, which (excluding certain priests elected for life) had terms of 12 months or less, censors' terms were generally 18 months to 5 years (depending on the era). The censorate was thus highly prestigious, preceding all other regular magistracies in dignity if not in power and reserved with rare exceptions for former consuls. Attaining the censorship would thus be considered the crowning achievement of a Roman politician on the cursus honorum. However, the magistracy as a regular office did not survive the transition from the Republic to the Empire. The censor's regulation of public morality is the origin of the modern meaning of the words censor and censorship.Early history of the magistracyAccording to Livy's History of Rome, the census was first instituted by Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome, BC. After the abolition of the monarchy and the founding of the Republic in 509 BC, the consuls had responsibility for the census until 443 BC. In 442 BC, no consuls were elected, but tribunes with consular power were appointed instead. This was a move by the plebeians to try to attain higher magistracies: only patricians could be elected consuls, while some military tribunes were plebeians. To prevent the possibility of plebeians obtaining control of the census, the patricians removed the right to take the census from the consuls and tribunes, and appointed for this duty two magistrates, called censores (censors), elected exclusively from the patricians in Rome. Twelve years later, in 339 BC, one of the Publilian laws required that one censor had to be a plebeian. Despite this, no plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people (the lustrum; Livy Periochae 13) until 280 BC. In 131 BC, for the first time, both censors were plebeians. The reason for having two censors was that the two consuls had previously taken the census together. If one of the censors died during his term of office, another was chosen to replace him, just as with consuls. This happened only once, in 393 BC. However, the Gauls captured Rome in that lustrum (five-year period), and the Romans thereafter regarded such replacement as "an offense against religion". From then on, if one of the censors died, his colleague resigned, and two new censors were chosen to replace them. The office of censor was limited to eighteen months by a law proposed by the dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus. During the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus (312–308 BC) the prestige of the censorship massively increased. Caecus built the first-ever Roman road (the Via Appia) and the first Roman aqueduct (the Aqua Appia), both named after him. He changed the organisation of the Roman tribes and was the first censor to draw the list of senators. He also advocated the founding of Roman coloniae throughout Latium and Campania to support the Roman war effort in the Second Samnite War. With these efforts and reforms, Appius Claudius Caecus was able to hold the censorship for a whole lustrum (five-year period), and the office of censor, subsequently entrusted with various important duties, eventually attained one of the highest political statuses in the Roman Republic, second only to that of the consuls. Election The censors were elected in the Centuriate Assembly, which met under the presidency of a consul. Barthold Niebuhr suggests that the censors were at first elected by the Curiate Assembly, and that the Assembly's selections were confirmed by the Centuriate, but William Smith believes that "there is no authority for this supposition, and the truth of it depends entirely upon the correctness of <nowiki>[Niebuhr's]</nowiki> views respecting the election of the consuls". Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished in the same day, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held. The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different auspices from those at the election of the consuls and praetors, so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the maxima auspicia. The assembly was held by the new consuls shortly after they began their term of office; and the censors, as soon as they were elected and the censorial power had been granted to them by a decree of the Centuriate Assembly (lex centuriata), were fully installed in their office. As a general principle, the only ones eligible for the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but there were a few exceptions. At first, there was no law to prevent a person being censor twice, but the only person who was elected to the office twice was Gaius Marcius Rutilus in 265 BC. In that year, he originated a law stating that no one could be elected censor twice. In consequence of this, he received the cognomen of Censorinus. Attributes The censorship differed from all other Roman magistracies in the length of office. The censors were originally chosen for a whole lustrum (a period of five years), but as early as ten years after its institution (433 BC) their office was limited to eighteen months by a law of Dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus. Their rank was granted to them by the Centuriate Assembly, and not by the curiae, and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors. Notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was a "sacred magistracy" (sanctus magistratus), to which the deepest reverence was due. The high rank and dignity which the censorship obtained was due to the various important duties gradually entrusted to it, and especially to its possessing the regimen morum, or general control over the conduct and the morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this power, they were regulated solely by their own views of duty, and were not responsible to any other power in the state. The censors possessed the official stool called a "curule chair" (sella curulis), but some doubt exists with respect to their official dress. A well-known passage of Polybius describes the use of the imagines at funerals; we may conclude that a consul or praetor wore the purple-bordered toga praetexta, one who triumphed the embroidered toga picta, and the censor a purple toga peculiar to him, but other writers speak of their official dress as being the same as that of the other higher magistrates. The funeral of a censor was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a "censorial funeral" (funus censorium) was voted even to the emperors. Abolition The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, from 443 BC to 22 BC, but during this period, many lustra passed by without any censor being chosen at all. According to one statement, the office was abolished by Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Although the authority on which this statement rests is not of much weight, the fact itself is probable, since there was no census during the two lustra which elapsed from Sulla's dictatorship to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey)'s first consulship (82–70 BC), and any strict "imposition of morals" would have been found inconvenient to the aristocracy that supported Sulla. If the censorship had been done away with by Sulla, it was at any rate restored in the consulship of Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher (58 BC), which prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding before the censors in expelling a person from the Roman Senate, and required that the censors be in agreement to exact this punishment. This law, however, was repealed in the third consulship of Pompey in 52 BC, on the urging of his colleague Q. Caecilius Metellus Scipio, but the office of the censorship never recovered its former power and influence. During the civil wars which followed soon afterwards, no censors were elected; it was only after a long interval that they were again appointed, namely in 23 BC, when Augustus caused Lucius Munatius Plancus and Aemilius Lepidus Paullus to fill the office. This was the last time that such magistrates were appointed; the emperors in future discharged the duties of their office under the name of Praefectura Morum ("prefect of the morals"). and with Vespasian, who likewise had a colleague in his son Titus. Domitian assumed the title of "perpetual censor" (censor perpetuus), but this example was not imitated by succeeding emperors. In the reign of Decius, the elder Valerian was nominated to the censorship, but declined the position. Duties The duties of the censors may be divided into three classes, all of which were closely connected with one another: #The Census, register of all citizens and their property, confirmation or appointment of senators (lectio senatus, ), and recognition of those who qualified for the equestrian rank (recognitio equitum); #The Regimen Morum, keeping of public morals; and #The administration of the finances of the state, superintendence of public buildings, and erection of all new public works. The original business of the censorship was at first of a much more limited kind, and was restricted almost entirely to taking the census, but the possession of this power gradually brought with it fresh power and new duties, as is shown below. A general view of these duties is briefly expressed in the following passage of Cicero: "Censores populi aevitates, soboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus distribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines patiunto: equitum, peditumque prolem describunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto." This can be translated as: "The Censors are to determine the generations, origins, families, and properties of the people; they are to (watch over/protect) the city's temples, roads, waters, treasury, and taxes; they are to divide the people into three parts; next, they are to (allow/approve) the properties, generations, and ranks [of the people]; they are to describe the offspring of knights and footsoldiers; they are to forbid being unmarried; they are to guide the behavior of the people; they are not to overlook abuse in the Senate." <!-- This translation is imperfect, if anyone can do it better please do --> Census , late 2nd century BC]] The Census, the first and principal duty of the censors, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year 435 BC onwards, in a special building called Villa publica, which was erected for that purpose by the second pair of censors, Gaius Furius Pacilus Fusus and Marcus Geganius Macerinus. An account of the formalities with which the census was opened is given in a fragment of the Tabulae Censoriae, preserved by Varro. After the auspices had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up separately, and the names in each tribe were probably taken according to the lists previously made out by the tribunes of the tribes. Every pater familias had to appear in person before the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs, and those names were taken first which were considered to be of good omen, such as Valerius, Salvius, Statorius, etc. The Census was conducted according to the judgement of the censor (ad arbitrium censoris), but the censors laid down certain rules, sometimes called leges censui censendo, in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these laws, each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, "declared from the heart". First he had to give his full name (praenomen, nomen, and cognomen) and that of his father, or if he were a libertus ("freedman") that of his patron, and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked, "You, declaring from your heart, do you have a wife?" and if married he had to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any. Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians; their names were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the sum total of heads. After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, etc., he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it was subject to the census. Only such things were liable to the census (censui censendo) as were property according to the Quiritary law. At first, each citizen appears to have merely given the value of his whole property in general without entering into details; but it soon became the practice to give a minute specification of each article, as well as the general value of the whole. Land formed the most important article of the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen<!-- ??? -->, was excluded as not being Quiritarian property. Judging from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and location of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and of the land thus described, he had to give his assessment of its value. Slaves and cattle formed the next most important item. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages. It has been doubted by some modern writers whether the censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves gave, but given the discretionary nature of the censors' powers, and the necessity almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, it is likely that the censors had this power. It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury; A person who voluntarily absented himself from the census was considered incensus and subject to the severest punishment. Servius Tullius is said to have threatened such individuals with imprisonment and death, and in the Republican period he might be sold by the state as a slave. In the later period of the Republic, a person who was absent from the census might be represented by another, and be thus registered by the censors. Whether the soldiers who were absent on service had to appoint a representative is uncertain. In ancient times, the sudden outbreaks of war prevented the census from being taken, because a large number of the citizens would necessarily be absent. It is supposed from a passage in Livy that in later times the censors sent commissioners into the provinces with full powers to take the census of the Roman soldiers there, but this seems to have been a special case. It is, on the contrary, probable from the way in which Cicero pleads the absence of Archias from Rome with the army under Lucullus, as a sufficient reason for his not having been enrolled in the census, that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence. , which housed the aerarium Saturni and the aerarium sanctum]] After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property (Comitia Centuriata). These lists formed a most important part of the Tabulae Censoriae'', under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties. These lists, insofar as they were connected with the finances of the state, were deposited in the aerarium, located in the Temple of Saturn; but the regular depository for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica, and in later times the temple of the Nymphs. In addition to the division of the citizens into tribes, centuries, and classes, the censors had the power to confirm or revise the list of senators, striking out the names of such as they considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified. In the same manner, they held a review of the equites who received a horse from public funds (equites equo publico), and added and removed names as they judged proper. They also confirmed the princeps senatus, or appointed a new one. The princeps himself had to be a former censor. After the lists had been completed, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced. Accordingly, we find that in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as capita ("heads"), sometimes with the addition of the word civium ("of the citizens"), and sometimes not. Hence, to be registered in the census was the same thing as "having a head" (caput habere). Census beyond Rome A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the Republic. The emperor sent into the provinces special officers called censitores to take the census; but the duty was sometimes discharged by the Imperial legati. The censitores were assisted by subordinate officers, called censuales, who made out the lists, etc. In Rome, the census was still taken under the Empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer performed, and the ceremony of the lustratio was not performed after the time of Vespasian. The jurists Paulus and Ulpian each wrote works on the census in the imperial period; and several extracts from these works are given in a chapter in the Digest (50 15). <!-- Could we link this digest? --> <!--The first few lines of this section are confusing; first it talks about the Republic, and then immediately following talks about the Emperor; later it talks about the Empire again. But if the sentence beginning "The Emperor" really refers to the Republic, should we change the title of that office to Censor or Consul? The Empire didn't really begin until 27 BC under Augustus--> Other uses of census The word census, besides the conventional meaning of "valuation" of a person's estate, has other meaning in Rome; it could refer to: the amount of a person's property (hence we read of census senatorius, the estate of a senator; census equestris, the estate of an eques). the lists of the censors. the tax which depended upon the valuation in the census. The Lexicons will supply examples of these meanings. <!-- Huh? What does this second sentence mean? --> Regimen morum Keeping the public morals (regimen morum, or in the Empire cura morum or praefectura morum) was the second most <!-- I say second most, since conducting the census was the first most important duty, as I read up above. --> important branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be one of the most revered and the most dreaded; hence they were also known as castigatores ("chastisers"). It naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding persons from the lists of citizens; for, as has been well remarked, "they would, in the first place, be the sole judges of many questions of fact, such as whether a citizen had the qualifications required by law or custom for the rank which he claimed, or whether he had ever incurred any judicial sentence, which rendered him infamous: but from thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decisions of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank, whether he had not committed some act as justly degrading as those which incurred the sentence of the law." <!-- A source for this quote would be nice. --> In this manner, the censors gradually assumed at least nominal complete superintendence over the whole public and private life of every citizen. They were constituted as the conservators of public morality; they were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, but rather to maintain the traditional Roman character, ethics, and habits (mos majorum)—regimen morum also encompassed this protection of traditional ways, which was called in the times of the Empire cura ("supervision") or praefectura ("command"). The punishment inflicted by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was called nota ("mark, letter") or notatio, or animadversio censoria ("censorial reproach"). In inflicting it, they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of duty; they had to take an oath that they would act biased by neither partiality nor favour; and, in addition to this, they were bound in every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him, subscriptio censoria. This part of the censors' office invested them with a peculiar kind of jurisdiction, which in many respects resembled the exercise of public opinion in modern times; for there are innumerable actions which, though acknowledged by everyone to be prejudicial and immoral, still do not come within the reach of the positive laws of a country; as often said, "immorality does not equal illegality". Even in cases of real crimes, the positive laws frequently punish only the particular offence, while in public opinion the offender, even after he has undergone punishment, is still incapacitated for certain honours and distinctions which are granted only to persons of unblemished character. Hence, the Roman censors might brand a man with their "censorial mark" (nota censoria) in case he had been convicted of a crime in an ordinary court of justice, and had already suffered punishment for it. The consequence of such a nota was only ignominia and not infamia. Infamia and the censorial verdict was not a judicium or res judicata, for its effects were not lasting, but might be removed by the following censors, or by a lex (roughly "law"). A censorial mark was moreover not valid unless both censors agreed. The ignominia was thus only a transitory reduction of status, which does not even appear to have deprived a magistrate of his office, and certainly did not disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed as judices by the praetor, or for serving in the Roman army. Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus was thus, notwithstanding the reproach of the censors (animadversio censoria), made dictator. A person might be branded with a censorial mark in a variety of cases, which it would be impossible to specify, as in a great many instances it depended upon the discretion of the censors and the view they took of a case; and sometimes even one set of censors would overlook an offence which was severely chastised by their successors. But the offences which are recorded to have been punished by the censors are of a threefold nature. \| Offences committed in public life, either in the capacity of a public officer or against magistrates, <br /> \| A variety of actions or pursuits which were thought to be injurious to public morality, might be forbidden by an edict, and those who acted contrary to such edicts were branded with the nota and degraded. For an enumeration of the offences that might be punished by the censors with ignominia, see Niebuhr. }} A person who had been branded with a nota censoria, might, if he considered himself wronged, endeavour to prove his innocence to the censors, and if he did not succeed, he might try to gain the protection of one of the censors, that he might intercede on his behalf. Punishments The punishments inflicted by the censors generally differed according to the station which a man occupied, though sometimes a person of the highest rank might suffer all the punishments at once, by being degraded to the lowest class of citizens. The punishments are generally divided into four classes: #Motio ("removal") or ejectio e senatu ("ejection from the Senate"), or the exclusion of a man from the ranks of senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian. The latter course seems to have been seldom adopted; the ordinary mode of inflicting the punishment was simply this: the censors in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, quietly omitted the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the expression praeteriti senatores ("senators passed over") is equivalent to e senatu ejecti (those removed from the Senate). In some cases, however, the censors did not acquiesce to this simple mode of proceeding, but addressed the senator whom they had noted, and publicly reprimanded him for his conduct. As in ordinary cases an ex-senator was not disqualified by his ignominia for holding any of the magistracies which opened the way to the Senate, he might at the next census again become a senator. #The ademptio equi, or the taking away the publicly funded horse from an equestrian. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian. #The motio e tribu, or the exclusion of a person from his tribe. This punishment and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian were originally the same, but when in the course of time a distinction was made between the rural or rustic tribes and the urban tribes, the motio e tribu transferred a person from the rustic tribes to the less respectable city tribes, and if the further degradation to the rank of an aerarian was combined with the motio e tribu, it was always expressly stated. #The fourth punishment was called referre in aerarios or facere aliquem aerarium, and might be inflicted on any person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. This degradation, properly speaking, included all the other punishments, for an equestrian could not be made an aerarius unless he was previously deprived of his horse, nor could a member of a rustic tribe be made an aerarius unless he was previously excluded from it. It was this authority of the Roman censors which eventually developed into the modern meaning of "censor" and "censorship"—i.e., officials who review published material and forbid the publication of material judged to be contrary to "public morality" as the term is interpreted in a given political and social environment. Administration of the finances of the state The administration of the state's finances was another part of the censors' office. In the first place the tributum, or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the censors. They also had the superintendence of all the other revenues of the state, the vectigalia, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the salt works, the mines, the customs, etc. The censors typically auctioned off to the highest bidder for the space of a lustrum the collection of the tithes and taxes (tax farming). This auctioning was called venditio or locatio, and seems to have taken place in the month of March, in a public place in Rome The terms on which they were let, together with the rights and duties of the purchasers, were all specified in the leges censoriae, which the censors published in every case before the bidding commenced. For further particulars see Publicani. The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the assent of the Senate, of imposing new vectigalia, and even of selling the land belonging to the state. It would thus appear that it was the duty of the censors to bring forward a budget for a five-year period, and to take care that the income of the state was sufficient for its expenditure during that time. In part, their duties resembled those of a modern minister of finance. The censors, however, did not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid into the aerarium, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the Senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the quaestors as its officers. Overseeing public works In one important department, the public works, the censors were entrusted with the expenditure of the public money (though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors). The censors had the general superintendence of all the public buildings and works (opera publica), and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the Senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion. They had to see that the temples and all other public buildings were in a good state of repair, that no public places were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons, and that the aqueducts, roads, drains, etc. were properly attended to. The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to the lowest bidder, just as the vectigalia were let out to the highest bidder. These expenses were called ultrotributa, and hence we frequently find vectigalia and ultrotributa contrasted with one another. The persons who undertook the contract were called conductores, mancipes, redemptores, susceptores, etc., and the duties they had to discharge were specified in the Leges Censoriae. The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods, even for instance the feeding of the sacred geese in the Capitol; these various tasks were also let out on contract. It was ordinary for censors to expend large amounts of money (“by far the largest and most extensive” of the state) in their public works. , one of the most influential censors]] Besides keeping existing public buildings and facilities in a proper state of repair, the censors were also in charge of constructing new ones, either for ornament or utility, both in Rome and in other parts of Italy, such as temples, basilicae, theatres, porticoes, fora, aqueducts, town walls, harbours, bridges, cloacae, roads, etc. These works were either performed by them jointly, or they divided between them the money, which had been granted to them by the Senate. They were let out to contractors, like the other works mentioned above, and when they were completed, the censors had to see that the work was performed in accordance with the contract: this was called opus probare or in acceptum referre. The first ever Roman road, the Via Appia, and the first Roman aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, were all constructed under the censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus, one of the most influential censors. The aediles had likewise a superintendence over the public buildings, and it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles, but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors were more financial in subject matter. Lustrum After the censors had performed their various duties and taken the five-yearly census, the lustrum, a solemn purification of the people, followed. When the censors entered upon their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this purification; but both censors were of course obliged to be present at the ceremony. Long after the Roman census was no longer taken, the Latin word lustrum has survived, and been adopted in some modern languages, in the derived sense of a period of five years, i.e., half a decennium. Census statistics {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" \|- !width="70"\|Census !width="90"\|Number of Roman citizens ! style="width:130px;"\|Economic crises !width="80"\|Wars !width="90"\|Epidemics \|- \| 508 BC \| 130,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 505–504 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| 503 BC \| 120,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 499 or 496 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \|498 BC \|150,700 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|493 BC \|110,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 492–491 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 486 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \|474 BC \|103,000 \|474 BC \|\|474 BC \|\| \|- \|465 BC \|104,714 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|459 BC \|117,319 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 456 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\|454 BC \|\| \|\| 454 BC \|- \| \|\| \|\| 440–439 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\|433 BC \|\| \|\|433 BC \|- \| \|\| \|\|428 BC \|\| \|\|428 BC \|- \| \|\| \|\|412 BC \|\| \|\|412 BC \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|400 BC \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|396 BC \|\| \|- \|392 BC \|152,573 \|\| 392 BC \|\| \|\|392 BC \|- \|\|390 BC \|\| \|\|390 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|386 BC \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\|383 BC \|\| \|\|383 BC \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|343–341 BC \|\| \|- \|340 BC \|165,000 \|\| \|\|340–338 BC \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|326–304 BC \|\| \|- \|323 BC \|150,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 299 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|298–290 BC \|\| \|- \|294 BC \|262,321 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|293/292 BC \|- \|289 BC \|272,200 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|281 BC \|\| \|- \|280 BC \|287,222 \|\| \|\|280–275 BC \|\| \|- \|276 BC \|271,224 \|\| \|\| \|\|276 BC? \|- \|265 BC \|292,234 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|264–241 BC \|\| \|- \|252 BC \|297,797 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\|250 BC \|\|250 BC \|\| \|- \|247 BC \|241,712 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|241 BC \|260,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|234 BC \|270,713 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\|216 BC\|\|216 BC\|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\|211–210 BC\|\|211–210 BC\|\| \|- \|209 BC \|137,108 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|204 BC \|214,000 \|\|204 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 203 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 201 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 200 BC \|\|200–195 BC \|\| \|- \|194 BC \|143,704 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|192–188 BC \|\| \|- \|189 BC \|258,318 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|187 BC \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|182–180 BC \|- \|179 BC \|258,318 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|176–175 BC \|- \|174 BC \|269,015 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|171–167 BC \|\| \|- \|169 BC \|312,805 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|165 BC \|- \|164 BC \|337,022 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|159 BC \|328,316 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|154 BC \|324,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 153 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \|147 BC \|322,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|142 BC \|322,442 \|\| \|\| \|\|142 BC \|- \| \|\| \|\| 138 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \|136 BC \|317,933 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|131 BC \|318,823 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \|125 BC \|394,736 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 123 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \|115 BC \|394,336 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 104 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|87 BC \|- \|86 BC \|463,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|75 BC \|\| \|- \|70 BC \|910,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 67 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 65 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|54 BC \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|49–46 BC \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| 43 BC \|\| \|\| \|- \|28 BC \|4,063,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\|23–22 \|\|23–22 \|\| \|- \|8 BC \|4,233,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|5–6 \|\| \|- \| \|\| \|\| \|\|10 \|\| \|- \|14 AD \|4,937,000 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|} See also Authoritarianism Birth registration in Ancient Rome Cursus honorum Lex Caecilia de censoria Outline of ancient Rome Political institutions of Rome Pauly–Wissowa Notes References Citations Sources * Brunt, P. A. Italian Manpower 225 BC – AD 14. Oxford, 1971; * * Virlouvet, C. Famines et émeutes à Rome, des origines de la République à la mort de Néron. Roma, 1985; * Suder, W., Góralczyk, E. Sezonowość epidemii w Republice Rzymskiej. Vitae historicae, Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana profesorowi Lechowi A. Tyszkiewiczowi w siedemdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin. Wrocław, 2001. * Suolahti, J. The Roman Censors: A Study on Social Structure. Helsinki, 1963. * [http://elar.uniyar.ac.ru/jspui/handle/123456789/1718 Melnichuk Y. Birth of the Roman censorship: Exploring the ancient tradition of the civil control of ancient Rome. - Moscow, 2010] * Category:Ancient Roman titles Censor Category:Cursus honorum Category:Governmental auctions censor	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_censor	2025-04-05T18:27:47.277976
6292	Convex set	In geometry, a set of points is convex if it contains every line segment between two points in the set. Equivalently, a convex set or a convex region is a set that intersects every line in a line segment, single point, or the empty set. For example, a solid cube is a convex set, but anything that is hollow or has an indent, for example, a crescent shape, is not convex. The boundary of a convex set in the plane is always a convex curve. The intersection of all the convex sets that contain a given subset of Euclidean space is called the convex hull of . It is the smallest convex set containing . A convex function is a real-valued function defined on an interval with the property that its epigraph (the set of points on or above the graph of the function) is a convex set. Convex minimization is a subfield of optimization that studies the problem of minimizing convex functions over convex sets. The branch of mathematics devoted to the study of properties of convex sets and convex functions is called convex analysis. Spaces in which convex sets are defined include the Euclidean spaces, the affine spaces over the real numbers, and certain non-Euclidean geometries. Definitions is convex if and only if its epigraph, the region (in green) above its graph (in blue), is a convex set.]] Let be a vector space or an affine space over the real numbers, or, more generally, over some ordered field (this includes Euclidean spaces, which are affine spaces). A subset of is convex if, for all and in , the line segment connecting and is included in . This means that the affine combination belongs to for all in and in the interval . This implies that convexity is invariant under affine transformations. Further, it implies that a convex set in a real or complex topological vector space is path-connected (and therefore also connected). A set is if every point on the line segment connecting and other than the endpoints is inside the topological interior of . A closed convex subset is strictly convex if and only if every one of its boundary points is an extreme point. A set is absolutely convex if it is convex and balanced. Examples The convex subsets of (the set of real numbers) are the intervals and the points of . Some examples of convex subsets of the Euclidean plane are solid regular polygons, solid triangles, and intersections of solid triangles. Some examples of convex subsets of a Euclidean 3-dimensional space are the Archimedean solids and the Platonic solids. The Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra are examples of non-convex sets. Non-convex set A set that is not convex is called a non-convex set. A polygon that is not a convex polygon is sometimes called a concave polygon, and some sources more generally use the term concave set to mean a non-convex set, but most authorities prohibit this usage. The complement of a convex set, such as the epigraph of a concave function, is sometimes called a reverse convex set, especially in the context of mathematical optimization. Properties Given points in a convex set , and nonnegative numbers such that 1}}, the affine combination <math displayblock>\sum_{k1}^r\lambda_k u_k</math> belongs to . As the definition of a convex set is the case , this property characterizes convex sets. Such an affine combination is called a convex combination of . The convex hull of a subset of a real vector space is defined as the intersection of all convex sets that contain . More concretely, the convex hull is the set of all convex combinations of points in . In particular, this is a convex set. A (bounded) convex polytope is the convex hull of a finite subset of some Euclidean space . Intersections and unions The collection of convex subsets of a vector space, an affine space, or a Euclidean space has the following properties: #The empty set and the whole space are convex. #The intersection of any collection of convex sets is convex. #The union of a collection of convex sets is convex if those sets form a chain (a totally ordered set) under inclusion. For this property, the restriction to chains is important, as the union of two convex sets need not be convex. Closed convex sets Closed convex sets are convex sets that contain all their limit points. They can be characterised as the intersections of closed half-spaces (sets of points in space that lie on and to one side of a hyperplane). From what has just been said, it is clear that such intersections are convex, and they will also be closed sets. To prove the converse, i.e., every closed convex set may be represented as such intersection, one needs the supporting hyperplane theorem in the form that for a given closed convex set and point outside it, there is a closed half-space that contains and not . The supporting hyperplane theorem is a special case of the Hahn–Banach theorem of functional analysis. Face of a convex set A face of a convex set <math>C</math> is a convex subset <math>F</math> of <math>C</math> such that whenever a point <math>p</math> in <math>F</math> lies strictly between two points <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> in <math>C</math>, both <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> must be in <math>F</math>. Equivalently, for any <math>x,y\in C</math> and any real number <math>0<t<1</math> such that <math>(1-t)x+ty</math> is in <math>F</math>, <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> must be in <math>F</math>. According to this definition, <math>C</math> itself and the empty set are faces of <math>C</math>; these are sometimes called the trivial faces of <math>C</math>. An extreme point of <math>C</math> is a point that is a face of <math>C</math>. Let <math>C</math> be a convex set in <math>\R^n</math> that is compact (or equivalently, closed and bounded). Then <math>C</math> is the convex hull of its extreme points. More generally, each compact convex set in a locally convex topological vector space is the closed convex hull of its extreme points (the Krein–Milman theorem). For example: * A triangle in the plane (including the region inside) is a compact convex set. Its nontrivial faces are the three vertices and the three edges. (So the only extreme points are the three vertices.) * The only nontrivial faces of the closed unit disk <math>\{ (x,y) \in \R^2: x^2+y^2 \leq 1 \}</math> are its extreme points, namely the points on the unit circle <math>S^1 \{ (x,y) \in \R^2: x^2+y^21 \}</math>. Convex sets and rectangles Let be a convex body in the plane (a convex set whose interior is non-empty). We can inscribe a rectangle r in such that a homothetic copy R of r is circumscribed about . The positive homothety ratio is at most 2 and: <math display=block>\tfrac{1}{2} \cdot\operatorname{Area}(R) \leq \operatorname{Area}(C) \leq 2\cdot \operatorname{Area}(r)</math> <br /> Blaschke-Santaló diagrams The set <math>\mathcal{K}^2</math> of all planar convex bodies can be parameterized in terms of the convex body diameter D, its inradius r (the biggest circle contained in the convex body) and its circumradius R (the smallest circle containing the convex body). In fact, this set can be described by the set of inequalities given by <math display=block>2r \le D \le 2R</math> <math display=block>R \le \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} D</math> <math display=block>r + R \le D</math> <math display=block>D^2 \sqrt{4R^2-D^2} \le 2R (2R + \sqrt{4R^2 -D^2})</math> and can be visualized as the image of the function g that maps a convex body to the point given by (r/R, D/2R). The image of this function is known a (r, D, R) Blachke-Santaló diagram. Convex hulls of Minkowski sums Minkowski addition behaves well with respect to the operation of taking convex hulls, as shown by the following proposition: Let be subsets of a real vector-space, the convex hull of their Minkowski sum is the Minkowski sum of their convex hulls <math displayblock>\operatorname{Conv}(S_1+S_2)\operatorname{Conv}(S_1)+\operatorname{Conv}(S_2).</math> This result holds more generally for each finite collection of non-empty sets: <math displayblock>\text{Conv}\left ( \sum_n S_n \right ) \sum_n \text{Conv} \left (S_n \right).</math> In mathematical terminology, the operations of Minkowski summation and of forming convex hulls are commuting operations. Minkowski sums of convex sets The Minkowski sum of two compact convex sets is compact. The sum of a compact convex set and a closed convex set is closed. The following famous theorem, proved by Dieudonné in 1966, gives a sufficient condition for the difference of two closed convex subsets to be closed. It uses the concept of a recession cone of a non-empty convex subset S, defined as: <math displayblock>\operatorname{rec} S \left\{ x \in X \, : \, x + S \subseteq S \right\},</math> where this set is a convex cone containing <math>0 \in X </math> and satisfying <math>S + \operatorname{rec} S = S</math>. Note that if S is closed and convex then <math>\operatorname{rec} S</math> is closed and for all <math>s_0 \in S</math>, <math displayblock>\operatorname{rec} S \bigcap_{t > 0} t (S - s_0).</math> Theorem (Dieudonné). Let A and B be non-empty, closed, and convex subsets of a locally convex topological vector space such that <math>\operatorname{rec} A \cap \operatorname{rec} B</math> is a linear subspace. If A or B is locally compact then A − B is closed. Generalizations and extensions for convexity The notion of convexity in the Euclidean space may be generalized by modifying the definition in some or other aspects. The common name "generalized convexity" is used, because the resulting objects retain certain properties of convex sets. Star-convex (star-shaped) sets Let be a set in a real or complex vector space. is star convex (star-shaped) if there exists an in such that the line segment from to any point in is contained in . Hence a non-empty convex set is always star-convex but a star-convex set is not always convex. Orthogonal convexity An example of generalized convexity is orthogonal convexity. A set in the Euclidean space is called orthogonally convex or ortho-convex, if any segment parallel to any of the coordinate axes connecting two points of lies totally within . It is easy to prove that an intersection of any collection of orthoconvex sets is orthoconvex. Some other properties of convex sets are valid as well. Non-Euclidean geometry The definition of a convex set and a convex hull extends naturally to geometries which are not Euclidean by defining a geodesically convex set to be one that contains the geodesics joining any two points in the set. Order topology Convexity can be extended for a totally ordered set endowed with the order topology. Let . The subspace is a convex set if for each pair of points in such that , the interval {x ∈ X a ≤ x ≤ b} }} is contained in . That is, is convex if and only if for all in , implies . A convex set is connected in general: a counter-example is given by the subspace {1,2,3} in , which is both convex and not connected. Convexity spaces The notion of convexity may be generalised to other objects, if certain properties of convexity are selected as axioms. Given a set , a convexity over is a collection of subsets of satisfying the following axioms: #The empty set and are in . #The intersection of any collection from is in . #The union of a chain (with respect to the inclusion relation) of elements of is in . The elements of are called convex sets and the pair is called a convexity space. For the ordinary convexity, the first two axioms hold, and the third one is trivial. For an alternative definition of abstract convexity, more suited to discrete geometry, see the convex geometries associated with antimatroids. Convex spaces Convexity can be generalised as an abstract algebraic structure: a space is convex if it is possible to take convex combinations of points. See also * Absorbing set * Algorithmic problems on convex sets * Bounded set (topological vector space) * Brouwer fixed-point theorem * Complex convexity * Convex cone * Convex series * Convex metric space * Carathéodory's theorem (convex hull) * Choquet theory * Helly's theorem * Holomorphically convex hull * Integrally-convex set * John ellipsoid * Pseudoconvexity * Radon's theorem * Shapley–Folkman lemma * Symmetric set References Bibliography * External links * * [http://www.fmf.uni-lj.si/~lavric/lauritzen.pdf Lectures on Convex Sets], notes by Niels Lauritzen, at Aarhus University, March 2010. Category:Convex analysis Category:Convex geometry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_set	2025-04-05T18:27:47.320826
6293	Cairo	\| settlement_type = Capital city \| image_skyline = \| nickname = City of a Thousand Minarets \| image_flag = Flag Cairo Governorate.png \| flag_size = 125px \| image_blank_emblem = Emblem Cairo Governorate.svg \| blank_emblem_type = Emblem \| blank_emblem_size = 100px \| pushpin_map = Egypt#Africa \| pushpin_label_position = left \| pushpin_relief = 1 \| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Cairo within Egypt \| coordinates \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = Egypt \| subdivision_type1 = Governorate \| subdivision_name1 = Cairo \| established_title1 = First major foundation \| established_date1 = 641–642 AD (Fustat) \| established_title2 = Last major foundation \| established_date2 = 969 AD (Cairo) \| leader_title = Governor \| leader_name Ibrahim Saber Khalil \| area_footnotes \| area_metro_km2 = 2,734 \| elevation_m = 23 \| population_total 10,100,166 \| population_as_of = 2018 \| pop_est_as_of = 2023 \| population_density_km2 = 3700 \| population_metro = 22,623,900 \| population_metro_footnotes \| population_blank1_title = Demonym \| population_blank1 = Cairene \|demographics1_title1 = Capital city \|demographics1_info1 = EGP 1,877 billion<br />(US$ 120 billion) \|demographics1_title2 = Metro \|demographics1_info2 = EGP 2,986 billion<br />(US$ 190 billion) \| postal_code_type = 5 digit postal code system \| postal_code \| area_code (+20) 2 \| website = \| timezone = EET \| utc_offset = +02:00 \| timezone_DST = EEST \| utc_offset_DST = +03:00 \| footnotes }} Cairo ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world, and the Middle East. The Greater Cairo metropolitan area is the 12th-largest in the world by population with over 22.1 million people. the predecessor settlement was Fustat following the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 next to an existing ancient Roman fortress, Babylon. Subsequently, Cairo was founded by the Fatimid dynasty in 969. It later superseded Fustat as the main urban centre during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods (12th–16th centuries). Cairo has since become a longstanding centre of political and cultural life, and is titled "the city of a thousand minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture. Cairo's historic center was awarded World Heritage Site status in 1979. Cairo is considered a World City with a "Beta +" classification according to GaWC. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industry in the Arab world, as well as Egypt's oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city; the Arab League has had its headquarters in Cairo for most of its existence. Cairo, like many other megacities, suffers from high levels of pollution and traffic. The Cairo Metro, opened in 1987, is the oldest metro system in Africa, and ranks amongst the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, and 43rd globally on Foreign Policy 2010 Global Cities Index. Etymology The name of Cairo is derived from the Arabic (), meaning 'the Vanquisher' or 'the Conqueror', given by the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu'izz following the establishment of the city as the capital of the Fatimid dynasty. Its full, formal name was '''' (القاهرة المعزيّة), meaning 'the Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz'. It is also supposedly due to the fact that the planet Mars, known in Arabic by names such as (, 'the Conquering Star'), was rising at the time of the city's founding. Egyptians often refer to Cairo as (; ), the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the city's importance for the country. There are a number of Coptic names for the city. Tikešrōmi ( <small>Late Coptic:</small> ) is attested in the 1211 text The Martyrdom of John of Phanijoit and is either a calque meaning 'man breaker' (, 'the', , 'to break', and , 'man'), akin to Arabic , or a derivation from Arabic (qaṣr ar-rūm, "the Roman castle"), another name of Babylon Fortress in Old Cairo. The form Khairon () is attested in the modern Coptic text Ⲡⲓⲫⲓⲣⲓ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ ϯⲁⲅⲓⲁ ⲙ̀ⲙⲏⲓ Ⲃⲉⲣⲏⲛⲁ (The Tale of Saint Verina). ( <small>Late Coptic:</small> ) or ( <small>Late Coptic:</small> ) is another name which is descended from the Greek name of Heliopolis (). Some argue that ( <small>Late Coptic:</small> ) or ( <small>Late Coptic:</small> ) is another Coptic name for Cairo, although others think that it is rather a name for the Abbasid province capital al-Askar. () is a popular modern rendering of an Arabic name (others being [Kairon] and [Kahira]) which is modern folk etymology meaning 'land of sun'. Some argue that it was the name of an Egyptian settlement upon which Cairo was built, but it is rather doubtful as this name is not attested in any Hieroglyphic or Demotic source, although some researchers, like Paul Casanova, view it as a legitimate theory. History Ancient settlements (late 3rd century) in Old Cairo\|left]] The area around present-day Cairo had long been a focal point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location at the junction of the Nile Valley and the Nile Delta regions (roughly Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt), which also placed it at the crossing of major routes between North Africa and the Levant. Memphis, the capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom and a major city up until the Ptolemaic period, was located a short distance south west of present-day Cairo. Heliopolis, another important city and major religious center, was located in what are now the modern districts of Matariya and Ain Shams in northeastern Cairo. It was largely destroyed by the Persian invasions in 525 BC and 343 BC and partly abandoned by the late first century BC. However, the origins of modern Cairo are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium AD. Around the turn of the fourth century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance, the Romans established a large fortress along the east bank of the Nile. The fortress, called Babylon, was built by the Roman emperor Diocletian (r. 285–305) at the entrance of a canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea that was created earlier by emperor Trajan (r. 98–117). Further north of the fortress, near the present-day district of al-Azbakiya, was a port and fortified outpost known as Tendunyas () or Umm Dunayn. While no structures older than the 7th century have been preserved in the area aside from the Roman fortifications, historical evidence suggests that a sizeable city existed. The city was important enough that its bishop, Cyrus, participated in the Second Council of Ephesus in 449. The Byzantine-Sassanian War between 602 and 628 caused great hardship and likely caused much of the urban population to leave for the countryside, leaving the settlement partly deserted. The site today remains at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, which separated from the Roman and Byzantine churches in the late 4th century. Cairo's oldest extant churches, such as the Church of Saint Barbara and the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (from the late 7th or early 8th century), are located inside the fortress walls in what is now known as Old Cairo or Coptic Cairo. Fustat and other early Islamic settlements (2004 photo)]] The Muslim conquest of Byzantine Egypt was led by Amr ibn al-As from 639 to 642. Babylon Fortress was besieged in September 640 and fell in April 641. In 641 or early 642, after the surrender of Alexandria (the Egyptian capital at the time), he founded a new settlement next to Babylon Fortress. The city, known as Fustat (), served as a garrison town and as the new administrative capital of Egypt. Historians such as Janet Abu-Lughod and André Raymond trace the genesis of present-day Cairo to the foundation of Fustat. The choice of founding a new settlement at this inland location, instead of using the existing capital of Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast, may have been due to the new conquerors' strategic priorities. One of the first projects of the new Muslim administration was to clear and re-open Trajan's ancient canal in order to ship grain more directly from Egypt to Medina, the capital of the caliphate in Arabia. Ibn al-As also founded a mosque for the city at the same time, now known as the Mosque of Amr Ibn al-As, the oldest mosque in Egypt and Africa (although the current structure dates from later expansions). In 750, following the overthrow of the Umayyad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became the new provincial capital. This was known as al-Askar () as it was laid out like a military camp. A governor's residence and a new mosque were also added, with the latter completed in 786. The Red Sea canal re-excavated in the 7th century was closed by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur in al-Mansur (), but a part of the canal, known as the Khalij, continued to be a major feature of Cairo's geography and of its water supply until the 19th century. In 870, he used his growing wealth to found a new administrative capital, al-Qata'i (), to the northeast of Fustat and of al-Askar. During that time, the construction of the al-Azhar Mosque was commissioned by order of the caliph, which developed into the third-oldest university in the world. Cairo would eventually become a centre of learning, with the library of Cairo containing hundreds of thousands of books. When Caliph al-Mu'izz li Din Allah arrived from the old Fatimid capital of Mahdia in Tunisia in 973, he gave the city its present name, ''Qāhirat al-Mu'izz'' ("The Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz"), from which the name "Cairo" (al-Qāhira) originates. The caliphs lived in a vast and lavish palace complex that occupied the heart of the city. Cairo remained a relatively exclusive royal city for most of this era, but during the tenure of Badr al-Gamali as vizier (1073–1094) the restrictions were loosened for the first time and richer families from Fustat were allowed to move into the city. Between 1087 and 1092 Badr al-Gamali also rebuilt the city walls in stone and constructed the city gates of Bab al-Futuh, Bab al-Nasr, and Bab Zuweila that still stand today. During the Fatimid period Fustat reached its apogee in size and prosperity, acting as a center of craftsmanship and international trade and as the area's main port on the Nile. Historical sources report that multi-story communal residences existed in the city, particularly in its center, which were typically inhabited by middle and lower-class residents. Some of these were as high as seven stories and could house some 200 to 350 people. They may have been similar to Roman insulae and may have been the prototypes for the rental apartment complexes which became common in the later Mamluk and Ottoman periods. However, in 1168 the Fatimid vizier Shawar set fire to unfortified Fustat to prevent its potential capture by Amalric, the Crusader king of Jerusalem. While the fire did not destroy the city and it continued to exist afterward, it did mark the beginning of its decline. Over the following centuries it was Cairo, the former palace-city, that became the new economic center and attracted migration from Fustat. , seen above in the 19th century, was begun by Saladin in 1176.\|alt=A multi-domed mosque dominates the walled Citadel, with ruined tombs and a lone minaret in front.]] While the Crusaders did not capture the city in 1168, a continuing power struggle between Shawar, King Amalric, and the Zengid general Shirkuh led to the downfall of the Fatimid establishment. In 1169, Shirkuh's nephew Saladin was appointed as the new vizier of Egypt by the Fatimids and two years later he seized power from the family of the last Fatimid caliph, al-'Āḍid. As the first Sultan of Egypt, Saladin established the Ayyubid dynasty, based in Cairo, and aligned Egypt with the Sunni Abbasids, who were based in Baghdad. In 1176, Saladin began construction on the Cairo Citadel, which was to serve as the seat of the Egyptian government until the mid-19th century. The construction of the Citadel definitively ended Fatimid-built Cairo's status as an exclusive palace-city and opened it up to common Egyptians and to foreign merchants, spurring its commercial development. Along with the Citadel, Saladin also began the construction of a new 20-kilometre-long wall that would protect both Cairo and Fustat on their eastern side and connect them with the new Citadel. These construction projects continued beyond Saladin's lifetime and were completed under his Ayyubid successors. Apogee and decline under the Mamluks of Sultan Qalawun, built in 1284–1285 in the center of Cairo, over the remains of a Fatimid palace]] In 1250, during the Seventh Crusade, the Ayyubid dynasty had a crisis with the death of al-Salih and power transitioned instead to the Mamluks, partly with the help of al-Salih's wife, Shajar ad-Durr, who ruled for a brief period around this time. Mamluks were soldiers who were purchased as young slaves and raised to serve in the sultan's army. Between 1250 and 1517 the throne of the Mamluk Sultanate passed from one mamluk to another in a system of succession that was generally non-hereditary, but also frequently violent and chaotic. The Mamluk Empire nonetheless became a major power in the region and was responsible for repelling the advance of the Mongols (most famously at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260) and for eliminating the last Crusader states in the Levant. Despite their military character, the Mamluks were also prolific builders and left a rich architectural legacy throughout Cairo. These apartments were often laid out as multi-story duplexes or triplexes. They were sometimes attached to caravanserais, where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants. The oldest partially-preserved example of this type of structure is the Wikala of Amir Qawsun, built before 1341. Although Cairo avoided Europe's stagnation during the Late Middle Ages, it could not escape the Black Death, which struck the city more than fifty times between 1348 and 1517. During its initial, and most deadly waves, approximately 200,000 people were killed by the plague, and, by the 15th century, Cairo's population had been reduced to between 150,000 and 300,000. The population decline was accompanied by a period of political instability between 1348 and 1412. It was nonetheless in this period that the largest Mamluk-era religious monument, the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan, was built. In the late 14th century, the Burji Mamluks replaced the Bahri Mamluks as rulers of the Mamluk state, but the Mamluk system continued to decline. Though the plagues returned frequently throughout the 15th century, Cairo remained a major metropolis and its population recovered in part through rural migration. More conscious efforts were conducted by rulers and city officials to redress the city's infrastructure and cleanliness. Its economy and politics also became more deeply connected with the wider Mediterranean. Some Mamluk sultans in this period, such as Barbsay (r. 1422–1438) and Qaytbay (r. 1468–1496), had relatively long and successful reigns. After al-Nasir Muhammad, Qaytbay was one of the most prolific patrons of art and architecture of the Mamluk era. He built or restored numerous monuments in Cairo, in addition to commissioning projects beyond Egypt. The crisis of Mamluk power and of Cairo's economic role deepened after Qaytbay. The city's status was diminished after Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route around the Cape of Good Hope between 1497 and 1499, thereby allowing spice traders to avoid Cairo. Ottoman rule '']] Cairo's political influence diminished significantly after the Ottomans defeated Sultan al-Ghuri in the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Egypt in 1517. Ruling from Constantinople, Sultan Selim I relegated Egypt to a province, with Cairo as its capital. For this reason, the history of Cairo during Ottoman times is often described as inconsequential, especially in comparison to other time periods. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Cairo still remained an important economic and cultural centre. Although no longer on the spice route, the city facilitated the transportation of Yemeni coffee and Indian textiles, primarily to Anatolia, North Africa, and the Balkans. Cairene merchants were instrumental in bringing goods to the barren Hejaz, especially during the annual hajj to Mecca. It was during this same period that al-Azhar University reached the predominance among Islamic schools that it continues to hold today; pilgrims on their way to hajj often attested to the superiority of the institution, which had become associated with Egypt's body of Islamic scholars. The first printing press of the Middle East, printing in Hebrew, was established in Cairo by a scion of the Soncino family of printers, Italian Jews of Ashkenazi origin who operated a press in Constantinople. The existence of the press is known solely from two fragments discovered in the Cairo Geniza. (1848–1933). On the Way Between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes, 1872. Oil on canvas. Brooklyn Museum.]] Under the Ottomans, Cairo expanded south and west from its nucleus around the Citadel. The city was the second-largest in the empire, behind Constantinople, and, although migration was not the primary source of Cairo's growth, twenty percent of its population at the end of the 18th century consisted of religious minorities and foreigners from around the Mediterranean. Still, when Napoleon arrived in Cairo in 1798, the city's population was less than 300,000, forty percent lower than it was at the height of Mamluk—and Cairene—influence in the mid-14th century. The French occupation was short-lived as British and Ottoman forces, including a sizeable Albanian contingent, recaptured the country in 1801. Cairo itself was besieged by a British and Ottoman force culminating with the French surrender on 22 June 1801. The British vacated Egypt two years later, leaving the Ottomans, the Albanians, and the long-weakened Mamluks jostling for control of the country. Continued civil war allowed an Albanian named Muhammad Ali Pasha to ascend to the role of commander and eventually, with the approval of the religious establishment, viceroy of Egypt in 1805. Modern era (1863–1933), oil on canvas.]] Until his death in 1848, Muhammad Ali Pasha instituted a number of social and economic reforms that earned him the title of founder of modern Egypt. However, while Muhammad Ali initiated the construction of public buildings in the city, those reforms had minimal effect on Cairo's landscape. Bigger changes came to Cairo under Isma'il Pasha (r. 1863–1879), who continued the modernisation processes started by his grandfather. Drawing inspiration from Paris, Isma'il envisioned a city of maidans and wide avenues; due to financial constraints, only some of them, in the area now composing Downtown Cairo, came to fruition. Isma'il also sought to modernize the city, which was merging with neighbouring settlements, by establishing a public works ministry, bringing gas and lighting to the city, and opening a theatre and opera house. The immense debt resulting from Isma'il's projects provided a pretext for increasing European control, which culminated with the British invasion in 1882. The city's economic centre quickly moved west toward the Nile, away from the historic Islamic Cairo section and toward the contemporary, European-style areas built by Isma'il. Europeans accounted for five percent of Cairo's population at the end of the 19th century, by which point they held most top governmental positions. In 1906 the Heliopolis Oasis Company headed by the Belgian industrialist Édouard Empain and his Egyptian counterpart Boghos Nubar, built a suburb called Heliopolis (city of the sun in Greek) ten kilometers from the center of Cairo. In 1905–1907 the northern part of the Gezira island was developed by the Baehler Company into Zamalek, which would later become Cairo's upscale "chic" neighbourhood. In 1906 construction began on Garden City, a neighbourhood of urban villas with gardens and curved streets. ]] (center left), and Downtown (lower right), as well as Bulaq (upper right).]] The British occupation was intended to be temporary, but it lasted well into the 20th century. Nationalists staged large-scale demonstrations in Cairo in 1919, five years after Egypt had been declared a British protectorate. Nevertheless, this led to Egypt's independence in 1922. The King Fuad I Edition of the Qur'an was first published on 10 July 1924 in Cairo under the patronage of King Fuad. The goal of the government of the newly formed Kingdom of Egypt was not to delegitimize the other variant Quranic texts ("qira'at"), but to eliminate errors found in Qur'anic texts used in state schools. A committee of teachers chose to preserve a single one of the canonical qira'at "readings", namely that of the "Ḥafṣ" version, an 8th-century Kufic recitation. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran for much of the Islamic world. The publication has been called a "terrific success", and the edition has been described as one "now widely seen as the official text of the Qur'an", so popular among both Sunni and Shi'a that the common belief among less well-informed Muslims is "that the Qur'an has a single, unambiguous reading". Minor amendments were made later in 1924 and in 1936 - the "Faruq edition" in honour of then ruler, King Faruq. British occupation until 1956 British troops remained in the country until 1956. During this time, urban Cairo, spurred by new bridges and transport links, continued to expand to include the upscale neighbourhoods of Garden City, Zamalek, and Heliopolis. Between 1882 and 1937, the population of Cairo more than tripled—from 347,000 to 1.3 million—and its area increased from . The city was devastated during the 1952 riots known as the Cairo Fire or Black Saturday, which saw the destruction of nearly 700 shops, movie theatres, casinos and hotels in downtown Cairo. The British departed Cairo following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, but the city's rapid growth showed no signs of abating. Seeking to accommodate the increasing population, President Gamal Abdel Nasser redeveloped Tahrir Square and the Nile Corniche, and improved the city's network of bridges and highways. Meanwhile, additional controls of the Nile fostered development within Gezira Island and along the city's waterfront. The metropolis began to encroach on the fertile Nile Delta, prompting the government to build desert satellite towns and devise incentives for city-dwellers to move to them. After 1956 In the second half of the 20th century Cairo continue to grow enormously in both population and area. Between 1947 and 2006 the population of Greater Cairo went from 2,986,280 to 16,292,269. The population explosion also drove the rise of "informal" housing (''<nowiki/>'ashwa'iyyat''), meaning housing that was built without any official planning or control. The exact form of this type of housing varies considerably but usually has a much higher population density than formal housing. By 2009, over 63% of the population of Greater Cairo lived in informal neighbourhoods, even though these occupied only 17% of the total area of Greater Cairo. According to economist David Sims, informal housing has the benefits of providing affordable accommodation and vibrant communities to huge numbers of Cairo's working classes, but it also suffers from government neglect, a relative lack of services, and overcrowding. The "formal" city was also expanded. The most notable example was the creation of Madinat Nasr, a huge government-sponsored expansion of the city to the east which officially began in 1959 but was primarily developed in the mid-1970s. Starting in 1977 the Egyptian government established the New Urban Communities Authority to initiate and direct the development of new planned cities on the outskirts of Cairo, generally established on desert land. These new satellite cities were intended to provide housing, investment, and employment opportunities for the region's growing population as well as to pre-empt the further growth of informal neighbourhoods.2011 Egyptian revolution that started on 25 January 2011]] Cairo's Tahrir Square was the focal point of the 2011 Egyptian revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak. More than 50,000 protesters first occupied the square on 25 January, during which the area's wireless services were reported to be impaired. In the following days Tahrir Square continued to be the primary destination for protests in Cairo. The uprising was mainly a campaign of non-violent civil resistance, which featured a series of demonstrations, marches, acts of civil disobedience, and labour strikes. Millions of protesters from a variety of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of the regime of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Despite being predominantly peaceful in nature, the revolution was not without violent clashes between security forces and protesters, with at least 846 people killed and 6,000 injured. The uprising took place in Cairo, Alexandria, and in other cities in Egypt, following the Tunisian revolution that resulted in the overthrow of the long-time Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. On 11 February, following weeks of determined popular protest and pressure, Hosni Mubarak resigned from office.Post-revolutionary CairoUnder the rule of President el-Sisi, in March 2015 plans were announced for another yet-unnamed planned city to be built further east of the existing satellite city of New Cairo, intended to serve as the new capital of Egypt. Geography seen from Sentinel-2A]] flows through Cairo, here contrasting ancient customs of daily life with the modern city of today.]] and Gezira districts on Gezira Island, surrounded by the Nile]] Cairo is located in northern Egypt, known as Lower Egypt, south of the Mediterranean Sea and west of the Gulf of Suez and Suez Canal. The city lies along the Nile River, immediately south of the point where the river leaves its desert-bound valley and branches into the low-lying Nile Delta region. Although the Cairo metropolis extends away from the Nile in all directions, the city of Cairo resides only on the east bank of the river and two islands within it on a total area of . Geologically, Cairo lies on alluvium and sand dunes which date from the quaternary period. Until the mid-19th century, when the river was tamed by dams, levees, and other controls, the Nile in the vicinity of Cairo was highly susceptible to changes in course and surface level. Over the years, the Nile gradually shifted westward, providing the site between the eastern edge of the river and the Mokattam highlands on which the city now stands. The land on which Cairo was established in 969 (present-day Islamic Cairo) was located underwater just over three hundred years earlier, when Fustat was first built. Low periods of the Nile during the 11th century continued to add to the landscape of Cairo; a new island, known as Geziret al-Fil, first appeared in 1174, but eventually became connected to the mainland. Today, the site of Geziret al-Fil is occupied by the Shubra district. The low periods created another island at the turn of the 14th century that now composes Zamalek and Gezira. Land reclamation efforts by the Mamluks and Ottomans further contributed to expansion on the east bank of the river. Because of the Nile's movement, the newer parts of the city—Garden City, Downtown Cairo, and Zamalek—are located closest to the riverbank. The areas, which are home to most of Cairo's embassies, are surrounded on the north, east, and south by the older parts of the city. Old Cairo, located south of the centre, holds the remnants of Fustat and the heart of Egypt's Coptic Christian community, Coptic Cairo. The Boulaq district, which lies in the northern part of the city, was born out of a major 16th-century port and is now a major industrial centre. The Citadel is located east of the city centre around Islamic Cairo, which dates back to the Fatimid era and the foundation of Cairo. While western Cairo is dominated by wide boulevards, open spaces, and modern architecture of European influence, the eastern half, having grown haphazardly over the centuries, is dominated by small lanes, crowded tenements, and Islamic architecture. Northern and extreme eastern parts of Cairo, which include satellite towns, are among the most recent additions to the city, as they developed in the late-20th and early-21st centuries to accommodate the city's rapid growth. The western bank of the Nile is commonly included within the urban area of Cairo, but it composes the city of Giza and the Giza Governorate. Giza city has also undergone significant expansion over recent years, and today has a population of 2.7 million. to 2011 when the Helwan Governorate was reincorporated into the Cairo Governorate. According to the World Health Organization, the level of air pollution in Cairo is nearly 12 times higher than the recommended safety level. Climate In Cairo, and along the Nile River Valley, the climate is a hot desert climate (BWh according to the Köppen climate classification system). Wind storms can be frequent, bringing Saharan dust into the city, from March to May and the air often becomes uncomfortably dry. Winters are mild to warm, while summers are long and hot. High temperatures in winter range from , while night-time lows drop to below , often to . In summer, the highs often exceed but rarely surpass , and lows drop to about . Rainfall is sparse and only happens in the colder months, but sudden showers can cause severe flooding. The summer months have high humidity due to its proximity to the Mediterranean coast. Snowfall is extremely rare; a small amount of graupel, widely believed to be snow, fell on Cairo's easternmost suburbs on 13 December 2013, the first time Cairo's area received this kind of precipitation in many decades. Dew points in the hottest months range from in June to in August. Metropolitan area and districts The city of Cairo forms part of Greater Cairo, the largest metropolitan area in Africa. While it has no administrative body, the Ministry of Planning considers it as an economic region consisting of Cairo Governorate, Giza Governorate, and Qalyubia Governorate. As a contiguous metropolitan area, various studies have considered Greater Cairo be composed of the administrative cities that are Cairo, Giza and Shubra al-Kheima, in addition to the satellite cities/new towns surrounding them. Cairo is a city-state where the governor is also the head of the city. Cairo City itself differs from other Egyptian cities in that it has an extra administrative division between the city and district levels, and that is areas, which are headed by deputy governors. Cairo consists of 4 areas (manatiq, singl. mantiqa) divided into 38 districts ''(ahya', singl. hayy)'' and 46 qisms (police wards, 1-2 per district): The Northern Area is divided into 8 Districts: * Shubra * Al-Zawiya al-Hamra * Hadayek al-Qubba * Rod al-Farg * Al-Sharabia * Al-Sahel * Al-Zeitoun * Al-Amiriyya The Eastern Area divided into 9 Districts and three new cities: * Misr al-Gadidah and Al-Nozha (Heliopolis) * Nasr City East and Nasr City West * Al-Salam 1 (Awwal) and al-Salam 2 (Than) * Ain Shams * Al-Matariya * Al-Marg * Shorouk (Under jurisdiction of NUCA) * Badr (Under jurisdiction of NUCA) * Al-Qahira al-Gadida (New Cairo, three qisms, under jurisdiction of NUCA) The Western Area divided into 9 Districts: * Manshiyat Nasser * Al-Wayli (Incl. qism al-Daher) * Wasat al-Qahira (Central Cairo, incl. Al-Darb al-Ahmar, al-Gamaliyya qisms) * Bulaq * Gharb al-Qahira (West Cairo, incl. Zamalek qism, Qasr al-Nil qism incl. Garden City and part of Down Town) * Abdeen * Al-Azbakiya * Al-Muski * Bab al-Sha'aria The Southern Area divided into 12 Districts: * Masr El-Qadima (Old Cairo, including Al-Manial) * Al-Khalifa * Al-Moqattam * Al-Basatin * Dar al-Salam * Sayyidah Zainab District * Al-Tebin * Helwan * Al-Ma'sara * Al-Maadi * Tora * 15th of May (Under jurisdiction of NUCA) Satellite cities Since 1977 a number of new towns have been planned and built by the New Urban Communities Authority (NUCA) in the Eastern Desert around Cairo, ostensibly to accommodate additional population growth and development of the city and stem the development of self-built informal areas, especially over agricultural land. As of 2022 four new towns have been built and have residential populations: 15th of May City, Badr City, Shorouk City, and New Cairo. In addition, two more are under construction: the New Administrative Capital. And Capital Gardens, where land was allocated in 2021, and which will house most of the civil servants employed in the new capital. Planned new capital In March 2015, plans were announced for a new city to be built east of Cairo, in an undeveloped area of the Cairo Governorate, which would serve as the New Administrative Capital of Egypt.Demographics According to the 2017 census, Cairo had a population of 9,539,673 people, distributed across 46 qisms (police wards): {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! colspan"1" rowspan"1" \|Qism ! colspan"1" rowspan"1" \|Code 2017 ! colspan"1" rowspan"1" \|Total Population ! colspan"1" rowspan"1" \|Male ! colspan"1" rowspan"1" \|Female \|- \|El Tibbin \|010100 \|72,040 \|36,349 \|35,691 \|- \|Helwan \|010200 \|521,239 \|265,347 \|255,892 \|- \|Al Maasara \|010300 \|270,032 \|137,501 \|132,531 \|- \|15 May City \|010400 \|93,574 \|49,437 \|44,137 \|- \|Tura \|010500 \|230,438 \|168,152 \|62,286 \|- \|Maadi \|010600 \|88,575 \|43,972 \|44,603 \|- \|El Basatin \|010700 \|495,443 \|260,756 \|234,687 \|- \|Dar El Salam \|010800 \|525,638 \|273,603 \|252,035 \|- \|Masr El Qedima \|010900 \|250,313 \|129,582 \|120,731 \|- \|El Sayeda Zeinab \|011000 \|136,278 \|68,571 \|67,707 \|- \|El Khalifa \|011100 \|105,235 \|54,150 \|51,085 \|- \|Mokattam \|011200 \|224,138 \|116,011 \|108,127 \|- \|Manshiyat Naser \|011300 \|258,372 \|133,864 \|124,508 \|- \|Al Darb Al Ahmar \|011400 \|58,489 \|30,307 \|28,182 \|- \|El Muski \|011500 \|16,662 \|8,216 \|8,446 \|- \|Abdeen \|011600 \|40,321 \|19,352 \|20,969 \|- \|Garden City \|011700 \|10,563 \|4,951 \|5,612 \|- \|Zamalek \|011800 \|14,946 \|7,396 \|7,550 \|- \|Bulaq \|011900 \|48,147 \|24,105 \|24,042 \|- \|Azbakeya \|012000 \|19,763 \|9,766 \|9,997 \|- \|Bab El Shariya \|012100 \|46,673 \|24,261 \|22,412 \|- \|El Gamaliya \|012200 \|36,368 \|18,487 \|17,881 \|- \|Al Daher \|012300 \|71,870 \|35,956 \|35,914 \|- \|Al Wayli \|012400 \|79,292 \|39,407 \|39,885 \|- \|Hadayek El Qobbah \|012500 \|316,072 \|161,269 \|154,803 \|- \|El Sharabiya \|012600 \|187,201 \|94,942 \|92,259 \|- \|Shubra \|012700 \|76,695 \|38,347 \|38,348 \|- \|Rod El Farag \|012800 \|145,632 \|72,859 \|72,773 \|- \|El Sahel \|012900 \|316,421 \|162,063 \|154,358 \|- \|El Zawya El Hamra \|013000 \|318,170 \|162,304 \|155,866 \|- \|Amairiya \|013100 \|152,554 \|77,355 \|75,199 \|- \|Zeitoun \|013200 \|174,176 \|87,235 \|86,941 \|- \|El Matareya \|013300 \|602,485 \|312,407 \|290,078 \|- \|Ain Shams \|013400 \|614,391 \|315,394 \|298,997 \|- \|El Marg \|013500 \|798,646 \|412,476 \|386,170 \|- \|El Salam 1 \|013600 \|480,721 \|249,639 \|231,082 \|- \|El Salam 2 \|013700 \|153,772 \|80,492 \|73,280 \|- \|El Nozha \|013800 \|231,241 \|117,910 \|113,331 \|- \|Heliopolis \|013900 \|134,116 \|68,327 \|65,789 \|- \|Nasr City 1 \|014000 \|634,818 \|332,117 \|302,701 \|- \|Nasr City 2 \|014100 \|72,182 \|38,374 \|33,808 \|- \|New Cairo 1 \|014200 \|135,834 \|70,765 \|65,069 \|- \|New Cairo 2 \|014300 \|90,668 \|46,102 \|44,566 \|- \|New Cairo 3 \|014400 \|70,885 \|37,340 \|33,545 \|- \|El Shorouk \|014500 \|87,285 \|45,960 \|41,325 \|- \|Badr City \|014600 \|31,299 \|17,449 \|13,850 \|} Religion The majority of Egypt and Cairo's population is Sunni Muslim. A significant Christian minority exists, among whom Coptic Orthodox are the majority. Other churches that have, or had, a presence in modern Cairo include the Catholic Church (including Armenian Catholic, Coptic Catholic, Chaldean Catholic, Syrian Catholic, and Maronite), the Greek Orthodox Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile), and some Protestant churches. Cairo has been the seat of the Coptic Orthodox Church since the 12th century, and the seat of the Coptic Orthodox Pope is located in Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral. Until the 20th century, Cairo had a sizeable Jewish community, but as of 2022 only three Jews were reported to be living in the city. A total of 12 synagogues in Cairo still exist.Economy , the father of the modern Egyptian economy, in Downtown Cairo]] towers as viewed from the Nile]] Cairo's economy has traditionally been based on governmental institutions and services, with the modern productive sector expanding in the 20th century to include developments in textiles and food processing – specifically the production of sugar cane. As of 2005, Egypt has the largest non-oil based GDP in the Arab world. Cairo accounts for 11% of Egypt's population and 22% of its economy (PPP). The majority of the nation's commerce is generated there, or passes through the city. The great majority of publishing houses and media outlets and nearly all film studios are there, as are half of the nation's hospital beds and universities. This has fuelled rapid construction in the city, with one building in five being less than 15 years old. This growth until recently surged well ahead of city services. Homes, roads, electricity, telephone and sewer services were all in short supply. Analysts trying to grasp the magnitude of the change coined terms like "hyper-urbanization".Automobile manufacturers from Cairo* Arab American Vehicles Company * Egyptian Light Transport Manufacturing Company (Egyptian NSU pedant) * Ghabbour Group (Fuso, Hyundai and Volvo) * MCV Corporate Group (a part of the Daimler AG) * Mod Car * Seoudi Group (Modern Motors: Nissan, BMW (formerly); El-Mashreq: Alfa Romeo and Fiat) * Speranza (former Daewoo Motors Egypt; Chery, Daewoo) * General Motors Egypt Infrastructure Health Cairo, as well as neighbouring Giza, has been established as Egypt's main centre for medical treatment, and despite some exceptions, has the most advanced level of medical care in the country. Cairo's hospitals include the JCI-accredited As-Salaam International Hospital, Ain Shams University Hospital, Dar Al Fouad, Nile Badrawi Hospital, 57357 Hospital, as well as Qasr El Eyni Hospital.Education Greater Cairo has long been the hub of education and educational services for Egypt and the region. Today, Greater Cairo is the centre for many government offices governing the Egyptian educational system, has the largest number of educational schools, and higher education institutes among other cities and governorates of Egypt. Some of the International Schools found in Cairo: is the largest university in Egypt, and is located in Giza.]] in New Cairo]] Universities in Greater Cairo: {\|class="wikitable sortable" \|+ <!-- initially sorted by date established --> \|- ! University ! Date of Foundation \|- \|Al Azhar University \|970–972 \|- \|Cairo University \|1908 \|- \|American University in Cairo \|1919 \|- \|Ain Shams University \|1950 \|- \|Arab Academy for Science & Technology and Maritime Transport \|1972 \|- \|Helwan University \|1975 \|- \|Sadat Academy for Management Sciences \|1981 \|- \|Higher Technological Institute \|1989 \|- \|Modern Academy In Maadi \|1993 \|- \|Misr International University \|1996 \|- \|Misr University for Science and Technology \|1996 \|- \|Modern Sciences and Arts University \|1996 \|- \|Université Française d'Égypte \|2002 \|- \|German University in Cairo \|2003 \|- \|Arab Open University \|2003 \|- \|Canadian International College \|2004 \|- \|British University in Egypt \|2005 \|- \|Ahram Canadian University \|2005 \|- \|Nile University \|2006 \|- \|Future University in Egypt \|2006 \|- \|Egyptian Russian University \|2006 \|- \|Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development \|2009 \|- \|New Giza University \|2016 \|- \|} Transport Cairo has an extensive road network, rail system, subway system and maritime services. Road transport is facilitated by personal vehicles, taxi cabs, privately owned public buses and microbuses. Cairo International Airport is the country's largest airport and one of the busiest airports in Africa. Public transportation ]]Cairo, specifically Ramses Station, is the centre of almost the entire Egyptian transportation network. The Cairo Transportation Authority (CTA) manages Cairo's public transit. The subway system, the Cairo Metro, is a fast and efficient way of getting around Cairo. The metro network covers Helwan and other suburbs. It can get very crowded during rush hour. Two train cars (the fourth and fifth ones) are reserved for women only, although women may ride in any car they want. Trams in Greater Cairo and Cairo trolleybus were used as modes of transportation, but were closed in the 1970s everywhere except Heliopolis and Helwan. These were shut down in 2014, after the Egyptian Revolution. In 2017, plans to construct two monorail systems were announced, one linking 6th of October to suburban Giza, a distance of , and the other linking Nasr City to New Cairo, a distance of . Roads in Cairo]] Two trans-African automobile routes originate in Cairo: the Cairo-Cape Town Highway and the Cairo-Dakar Highway. An extensive road network connects Cairo with other Egyptian cities and villages. There is a new Ring Road that surrounds the outskirts of the city, with exits that reach outer Cairo districts. There are flyovers and bridges, such as the 6th October Bridge that, when the traffic is not heavy, allow fast means of transportation from one side of the city to the other. Traffic moves at a relatively fluid pace. Drivers tend to be aggressive, but are more courteous at junctions, taking turns going, with police aiding in traffic control of some congested areas. * Cairo Nile Ferry * Cairo Taxi/Yellow Cab * Careem * DiDi * Uber Culture district]] Cultural tourism in Egypt Cairo Opera House President Mubarak inaugurated the new Cairo Opera House of the Egyptian National Cultural Centres on 10 October 1988, 17 years after the Royal Opera House had been destroyed by fire. The National Cultural Centre was built with the help of JICA, the Japan International Co-operation Agency and stands as a prominent feature for the Japanese-Egyptian co-operation and the friendship between the two nations. Khedivial Opera House The Khedivial Opera House, or Royal Opera House, was the original opera house in Cairo. It was dedicated on 1 November 1869 and burned down on 28 October 1971. After the original opera house was destroyed, Cairo was without an opera house for nearly two decades until the opening of the new Cairo Opera House in 1988. Cairo International Film Festival Cairo held its first international film festival 16 August 1976, when the first Cairo International Film Festival was launched by the Egyptian Association of Film Writers and Critics, headed by Kamal El-Mallakh. The Association ran the festival for seven years until 1983. This achievement lead to the President of the Festival again contacting the FIAPF with the request that a competition should be included at the 1991 Festival. The request was granted. In 1998, the Festival took place under the presidency of one of Egypt's leading actors, Hussein Fahmy, who was appointed by the Minister of Culture, Farouk Hosni, after the death of Saad El-Din Wahba. Four years later, the journalist and writer Cherif El-Shoubashy became president. Cairo Geniza at work in Cambridge University Library, studying the fragments of the Cairo Geniza, ]] The Cairo Geniza is an accumulation of almost 200,000 Jewish manuscripts that were found in the genizah of the Ben Ezra Synagogue (built 882) of Fustat, Egypt (now Old Cairo), the Basatin cemetery east of Old Cairo, and a number of old documents that were bought in Cairo in the later 19th century. These documents were written from about 870 to 1880 AD and have been archived in various American and European libraries. The Taylor-Schechter collection in the University of Cambridge runs to 140,000 manuscripts; a further 40,000 manuscripts are housed at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Sports with 75,100 seats]] Football is the most popular sport in Egypt, and Cairo has sporting teams that compete in national and regional leagues, most notably Al Ahly and Zamalek SC, who were the CAF first and second African clubs of the 20th century. The annual match between Al Ahly and El Zamalek is one of the most watched sports events in Egypt. The teams form the major rivalry of Egyptian football. They play their home games at Cairo International Stadium, which is the second largest stadium in Egypt, as well as the largest in Cairo. The Cairo International Stadium was built in 1960. Its multi-purpose sports complex houses the main football stadium, an indoor stadium, satellite fields that hold regional and continental games, including the African Games, U17 Football World Championship and the 2006 Africa Cup of Nations. Egypt later won the competition and the next edition in Ghana (2008) making the Egyptian and Ghanaian national teams the only to win the African Nations Cup back to back. Egypt won the title for a record six times in the history of African Continental Competition. This was followed by a third consecutive win in Angola in 2010, making Egypt the only country with a record 3-consecutive and 7-total Continental Football Competition winner. As of 2021, Egypt's national team is ranked #46 in the world by FIFA. Cairo failed at the applicant stage when bidding for the 2008 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Beijing. However, Cairo did host the 2007 Pan Arab Games. There are other sports teams in the city that participate in several sports including Gezira Sporting Club, el Shams Club, Shooting Club, Heliopolis Sporting Club, and several smaller clubs. There are new sports clubs in the area of New Cairo (one hour far from Cairo's downtown), these are Al Zohour sporting club, Wadi Degla sporting club and Platinum Club. Most of the sports federations of the country are located in the city suburbs, including the Egyptian Football Association. The headquarters of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) was previously located in Cairo, before relocating to its new headquarters in 6 October City, a small city away from Cairo's crowded districts. In 2008, the Egyptian Rugby Federation was officially formed and granted membership into the International Rugby Board. Egypt is internationally known for the excellence of its squash players who excel in professional and junior divisions. Egypt has seven players in the top ten of the PSA men's world rankings, and three in the women's top ten. Mohamed El Shorbagy held the world number one position for more than a year. Nour El Sherbini has won the Women's World Championship twice and been women's world number one. On 30 April 2016, she became the youngest woman to win the Women's World Championship. In 2017 she retained her title. Cairo is the official end point of Cross Egypt Challenge where its route ends yearly in the most sacred place in Egypt, under the Great Pyramids of Giza with a huge trophy-giving ceremony.Cityscape and landmarksTahrir Square (in 2020)\|alt=]] Tahrir Square was founded during the mid 19th century with the establishment of modern downtown Cairo. It was first named Ismailia Square, after the 19th-century ruler Khedive Ismail, who commissioned the new downtown district's 'Paris on the Nile' design. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 the square became widely known as Tahrir (Liberation) Square, though it was not officially renamed as such until after the 1952 Revolution which eliminated the monarchy. Several notable buildings surround the square including, the American University in Cairo's downtown campus, the Mogamma governmental administrative Building, the headquarters of the Arab League, the Nile Ritz Carlton Hotel, and the Egyptian Museum. Being at the heart of Cairo, the square witnessed several major protests over the years. However, the most notable event in the square was being the focal point of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak. In 2020 the government completed the erection of a new monument in the center of the square featuring an ancient obelisk from the reign of Ramses II, originally unearthed at Tanis (San al-Hagar) in 2019, and four ram-headed sphinx statues moved from Karnak. Egyptian Museum , located at Tahrir Square]] The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, is home to the most extensive collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities in the world. It has 136,000 items on display, with many more hundreds of thousands in its basement storerooms. Among the collections on display are the finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Grand Egyptian Museum Much of the collection of the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, including the Tutankhamun collection, are slated to be moved to the new Grand Egyptian Museum, under construction in Giza and was due to open by the end of 2020.Cairo Tower at night]] The Cairo Tower is a free-standing tower with a revolving restaurant at the top. It is one of Cairo's landmarks and provides a bird's eye view of the city to the restaurant patrons. It stands in the Zamalek district on Gezira Island in the Nile River, in the city centre. At , it is higher than the Great Pyramid of Giza, which stands some to the southwest. Old Cairo in Old Cairo\|left]] This area of Cairo is so-named as it contains the remains of the ancient Roman fortress of Babylon and also overlaps the original site of Fustat, the first Arab settlement in Egypt (7th century AD) and the predecessor of later Cairo. The area includes Coptic Cairo, which holds a high concentration of old Christian churches such as the Hanging Church, the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George, and other Christian or Coptic buildings, most of which are located in an enclave on the site of the ancient Roman fortress. It is also the location of the Coptic Museum, which showcases the history of Coptic art from Greco-Roman to Islamic times, and of the Ben Ezra Synagogue, the oldest and best-known synagogue in Cairo, where the important collection of Geniza documents were discovered in the 19th century. To the north of this Coptic enclave is the Amr ibn al-'As Mosque, the first mosque in Egypt and the most important religious centre of what was formerly Fustat, founded in 642 AD right after the Arab conquest but rebuilt many times since. A part of the former city of Fustat has also been excavated to the east of the mosque and of the Coptic enclave, although the archeological site is threatened by encroaching construction and modern development. To the northwest of Babylon Fortress and the mosque is the Monastery of Saint Mercurius (or Dayr Abu Sayfayn), an important and historic Coptic religious complex consisting of the Church of Saint Mercurius, the Church of Saint Shenute, and the Church of the Virgin (also known as al-Damshiriya). Several other historic churches are also situated to the south of Babylon Fortress. Islamic Cairo in Islamic Cairo]] and the al-Rifa'i Mosque, seen from the Citadel]] Cairo holds one of the greatest concentrations of historical monuments of Islamic architecture in the world.}} The areas around the old walled city and around the Citadel are characterized by hundreds of mosques, tombs, madrasas, mansions, caravanserais, and fortifications dating from the Islamic era and are often referred to as "Islamic Cairo", especially in English travel literature. It is also the location of several important religious shrines such as the al-Hussein Mosque (whose shrine is believed to hold the head of Husayn ibn Ali), the Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i (founder of the Shafi'i madhhab, one of the primary schools of thought in Sunni Islamic jurisprudence), the Tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya, the Mosque of Sayyida Nafisa, and others. The first mosque in Egypt was the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in what was formerly Fustat, the first Arab-Muslim settlement in the area. However, the Mosque of Ibn Tulun is the oldest mosque that still retains its original form and is a rare example of Abbasid architecture from the classical period of Islamic civilization. It was built in 876–879 AD in a style inspired by the Abbasid capital of Samarra in Iraq. It is one of the largest mosques in Cairo and is often cited as one of the most beautiful. Another Abbasid construction, the Nilometer on Roda Island, is the oldest original structure in Cairo, built in 862 AD. It was designed to measure the level of the Nile, which was important for agricultural and administrative purposes. The settlement that was formally named Cairo (Arabic: al-Qahira) was founded to the northeast of Fustat in 959 AD by the victorious Fatimid army. The Fatimids built it as a separate palatial city which contained their palaces and institutions of government. It was enclosed by a circuit of walls, which were rebuilt in stone in the late 11th century AD by the vizier Badr al-Gamali, parts of which survive today at Bab Zuwayla in the south and Bab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr in the north. Among the extant monuments from the Fatimid era are the large Mosque of al-Hakim, the Aqmar Mosque, Juyushi Mosque, Lulua Mosque, and the Mosque of Al-Salih Tala'i. One of the most important and lasting institutions founded in the Fatimid period was the Mosque of al-Azhar, founded in 970 AD, which competes with the Qarawiyyin in Fes for the title of oldest university in the world. Today, al-Azhar University is the foremost Center of Islamic learning in the world and one of Egypt's largest universities with campuses across the country. The mosque itself retains significant Fatimid elements but has been added to and expanded in subsequent centuries, notably by the Mamluk sultans Qaytbay and al-Ghuri and by Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in the 18th century. The most prominent architectural heritage of medieval Cairo, however, dates from the Mamluk period, from 1250 to 1517 AD. The Mamluk sultans and elites were eager patrons of religious and scholarly life, commonly building religious or funerary complexes whose functions could include a mosque, madrasa, khanqah (for Sufis), a sabil (water dispensary), and a mausoleum for themselves and their families. Among the best-known examples of Mamluk monuments in Cairo are the huge Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan, the Mosque of Amir al-Maridani, the Mosque of Sultan al-Mu'ayyad (whose twin minarets were built above the gate of Bab Zuwayla), the Sultan Al-Ghuri complex, the funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay in the Northern Cemetery, and the trio of monuments in the Bayn al-Qasrayn area comprising the complex of Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun, the Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad, and the Madrasa of Sultan Barquq. Some mosques include spolia (often columns or capitals) from earlier buildings built by the Romans, Byzantines, or Copts.}} The Mamluks, and the later Ottomans, also built wikalas or caravanserais to house merchants and goods due to the important role of trade and commerce in Cairo's economy. Still intact today is the Wikala al-Ghuri, which today hosts regular performances by the Al-Tannoura Egyptian Heritage Dance Troupe. The Khan al-Khalili is a commercial hub which also integrated caravanserais (also known as khans).Citadel of Cairo \|alt=]] The Citadel is a fortified enclosure begun by Salah al-Din in 1176 AD on an outcrop of the Muqattam Hills as part of a large defensive system to protect both Cairo to the north and Fustat to the southwest. It was the centre of Egyptian government and residence of its rulers until 1874, when Khedive Isma'il moved to 'Abdin Palace. It is still occupied by the military today, but is now open as a tourist attraction comprising, notably, the National Military Museum, the 14th century Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad, and the 19th century Mosque of Muhammad Ali which commands a dominant position on Cairo's skyline. Khan el-Khalili ]] Khan el-Khalili is an ancient bazaar, or marketplace adjacent to the Al-Hussein Mosque. It dates back to 1385, when Amir Jarkas el-Khalili built a large caravanserai, or khan. (A caravanserai is a hotel for traders, and usually the focal point for any surrounding area.) This original caravanserai building was demolished by Sultan al-Ghuri, who rebuilt it as a new commercial complex in the early 16th century, forming the basis for the network of souqs existing today. Many medieval elements remain today, including the ornate Mamluk-style gateways. Today, the Khan el-Khalili is a major tourist attraction and popular stop for tour groups.SocietyIn the present day, Cairo is a heavily urbanized city. Because of the influx of people into the city, lone standing houses are rare, and apartment buildings accommodate for the limited space and abundance of people. Single detached houses are usually owned by the wealthy. Formal education is also seen as important, with twelve years of standard formal education. Cairenes can take a standardized test similar to the SAT to be accepted to an institution of higher learning, but most children do not finish school and opt to pick up a trade to enter the work force. Women's rights The civil rights movement for women in Cairo – and by extent, Egypt – has been a struggle for years. Women are reported to face constant discrimination, sexual harassment, and abuse throughout Cairo. A 2013 UN study found that over 99% of Egyptian women reported experiencing sexual harassment at some point in their lives. The problem has persisted in spite of new national laws since 2014 defining and criminalizing sexual harassment. The situation is so severe that in 2017, Cairo was named by one poll as the most dangerous megacity for women in the world. In 2020, the social media account "Assault Police" began to name and shame perpetrators of violence against women, in an effort to dissuade potential offenders. The account was founded by student Nadeen Ashraf, who is credited for instigating an iteration of the #MeToo movement in Egypt. Pollution The air pollution in Cairo is a matter of serious concern. Greater Cairo's volatile aromatic hydrocarbon levels are higher than many other similar cities. Air quality measurements in Cairo have also been recording dangerous levels of lead, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and suspended particulate matter concentrations due to decades of unregulated vehicle emissions, urban industrial operations, and chaff and trash burning. There are over 4,500,000 cars on the streets of Cairo, 60% of which are over 10 years old, and therefore lack modern emission cutting features. Cairo has a very poor dispersion factor because of its lack of rain and its layout of tall buildings and narrow streets, which create a bowl effect. In recent years, a black cloud (as Egyptians refer to it) of smog has appeared over Cairo every autumn due to temperature inversion. Smog causes serious respiratory diseases and eye irritations for the city's citizens. Tourists who are not familiar with such high levels of pollution must take extra care. Cairo also has many unregistered lead and copper smelters which heavily pollute the city. The results of this has been a permanent haze over the city with particulate matter in the air reaching over three times normal levels. It is estimated that 10,000 to 25,000 people a year in Cairo die due to air pollution-related diseases. Lead has been shown to cause harm to the central nervous system and neurotoxicity particularly in children. In 1995, the first environmental acts were introduced and the situation has seen some improvement with 36 air monitoring stations and emissions tests on cars. Twenty thousand buses have also been commissioned to the city to improve congestion levels, which are very high. The city also suffers from a high level of land pollution. Cairo produces 10,000 tons of waste material each day, 4,000 tons of which is not collected or managed. This is a huge health hazard, and the Egyptian Government is looking for ways to combat this. The Cairo Cleaning and Beautification Agency was founded to collect and recycle the waste; they work with the Zabbaleen community that has been collecting and recycling Cairo's waste since the turn of the 20th century and live in an area known locally as Manshiyat naser. Both are working together to pick up as much waste as possible within the city limits, though it remains a pressing problem. Water pollution is also a serious problem in the city as the sewer system tends to fail and overflow. On occasion, sewage has escaped onto the streets to create a health hazard. This problem is hoped to be solved by a new sewer system funded by the European Union, which could cope with the demand of the city. The dangerously high levels of mercury in the city's water system has global health officials concerned over related health risks. International relations The Headquarters of the Arab League is located at Tahrir Square in downtown Cairo. Twin towns – sister cities Cairo is twinned with: * Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates * Amman, Jordan * Baghdad, Iraq * Beijing, China * Damascus, Syria * East Jerusalem, Palestine * Istanbul, Turkey * Kairouan, Tunisia * Khartoum, Sudan <!--Los Angeles - not twinning--> * Muscat, Oman * Palermo Province, Italy * Rabat, Morocco * Sanaa, Yemen * Seoul, South Korea * Stuttgart, Germany <!--confirmed--> * Tashkent, Uzbekistan * Tbilisi, Georgia * Tokyo, Japan * Tripoli, Libya Notable people <!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order by LAST NAME ♦♦♦---> * Zulfikar family, Egyptian noble family * Rabab Al-Kadhimi (1918–1998), dentist and poet * Wael Alaa (born 1987), musician known as Neobyrd * Amr Aly (born 1962), American soccer player and Olympian * Gamal Aziz, also known as Gamal Mohammed Abdelaziz, former president and chief operating officer of Wynn Resorts, and former CEO of MGM Resorts International, indicted as part of the 2019 college admissions bribery scandal * Yasser Arafat (1929–2004), born Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, was the 3rd Chairman of The PLO and first president of the Palestinian Authority * Abu Sa'id al-Afif, 15th-century Samaritan * Ezz El-Dine Zulficar (1919–1963), Egyptian film director, screenwriter, actor and producer, known for his distinctive style, which blends romance and action. Zulficar was one of the most influential filmmakers in the Egyptian Cinema's golden age. * Boutros Ghali (1922–2016), former Secretary-General of the United Nations * Dalida (1933–1987), Italian-Egyptian singer who lived most of her life in France, received 55 golden records and was the first singer to receive a diamond disc * Farouk El-Baz (born 1938), Egyptian American space scientist who worked with NASA to assist in the planning of scientific exploration of the Moon, including the selection of landing sites for the Apollo missions and the training of astronauts in lunar observations and photography * Ahmed Mourad Bey Zulfikar (1888–1945), Egyptian chief of police * Freddy Elbaiady (born 1971), Egyptian politician * Mohamed ElBaradei (born 1942), former Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, 2005 Nobel Peace Prize laureate * C. S. Forester (1899–1966), English novelist known for writing tales of naval warfare, born in Cairo. * Nourane Foster (born 1987), Cameroonian entrepreneur, politician and member of the National Assembly * William Donald Hamilton (1936–2000), British evolutionary biologist, was born in Cairo * Mauro Hamza (born 1965/1966), fencing coach * Taco Hemingway (born 1990), Polish hip-hop artist * Dorothy Hodgkin (1910–1994), British chemist, credited with the development of protein crystallography, Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964 * Naguib Mahfouz (1911–2006), novelist, Nobel Prize in Literature laureate in 1988 * Roland Moreno (1945–2012), French inventor, engineer, humorist and author who invented the smart card * Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970), Egyptian politician who served as the second President of Egypt from 1954 until his death in 1970. * Ahmed Sabri (1889–1955), painter * Dina Zulfikar (born 1962), film distributor and animal welfare activist * Mohamed Sobhi (born 1948), film, television and stage actor, and director * Blessed Maria Caterina Troiani (1813–1887), charitable activist * Magdi Yacoub (born 1935), Egyptian-British cardiothoracic surgeon * Hesham Youssef, Egyptian diplomat * Ahmed Zulfikar (1952–2010), mechanical engineer and entrepreneur * Naguib Sawiris (born 1954), businessman, 62nd richest person on Earth in 2007 list of billionaires, reaching US$10.0 billion with his company Orascom Telecom Holding * Yakub Kadri Karaosmanoğlu (1889–1974), Turkish novelist * Mona Zulficar (born 1950), lawyer and human rights activist. She was included in the Forbes 2021 list of the "100 most powerful businesswomen in the Arab region". * Ismail Pacha (1830–1895), Egyptian politician who served as Khedive of Egypt from 1863 to 1879 * Avi Cohen (1956–2010), Israeli international footballer * Maghlatay ibn Qalij (1291–1361), Islamic scholar and author of the Mamluk era. See also * Charles Ayrout * Cultural tourism in Egypt * List of buildings in Cairo * List of cities and towns in Egypt * Outline of Cairo * Outline of Egypt * Architecture of Egypt Explanatory notes References Citations Works cited * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * English translation: * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * * Artemis Cooper, Cairo in the War, 1939–1945, Hamish Hamilton, 1989 / Penguin Book, 1995. (Pbk) * Max Rodenbeck, Cairo– the City Victorious, Picador, 1998. (Hbk) (Pbk) * Wahba, Magdi (1990). Cairo Memories" in Studies in Arab History: The Antonius Lectures, 1978–87. Edited by Derek Hopwood. London: Macmillan Press. * * Peter Theroux, Cairo: Clamorous heart of Egypt National Geographic Magazine April 1993 * Cynthia Myntti, Paris Along the Nile: Architecture in Cairo from the Belle Epoque, American University in Cairo Press, 2003. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101004190448/http://www.egy.com/people/98-10-01.shtml Cairo's belle époque architects 1900–1950], by Samir Raafat. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160109161128/http://antoinenahas.com/ Antonine Selim Nahas], one of city's major belle époque (1900–1950) architects. * Nagib Mahfooz novels, all tell great stories about Cairo's deep conflicts. * * * Jörg Armbruster, Suleman Taufiq (Eds.) مدينتي القاهرة (MYCAI – My Cairo Mein Kairo), text by different authors, photos by Barbara Armbruster and Hala Elkoussy, edition esefeld & traub, Stuttgart 2014, . External links * [http://www.cairo.gov.eg/ Cairo City Government] * [http://st-takla.org/Links/Coptic-Links-02-Churches-a-Egypt.html#Cairo%20&%20Giza: Coptic Churches of Cairo] * * [http://beta.nli.org.il/en/maps/NNL_ALEPH002370085/NLI Map of Cairo, 1914.] Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel. * [http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/egypt/cairo/cairo.html Maps of Cairo.] [http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/historic_cities.html Historic Cities Research Project.] Photos and videos * [http://www.cairo360.com/ Cairo 360-degree full-screen images] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141009050058/http://egypt.travel-photo.org/cairo/ Cairo Travel Photos] Pictures of Cairo published under Creative Commons License * [http://www.vimeo.com/1524704 Call to Cairo] Time-lapse film of Cairo cityscapes * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305073047/http://www.globalpost.com/video/global/100824/cairo-travel-egypt Cairo, Egypt] – video by Global Post * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100113191757/http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/countries/egypt-photos/ Photos of Cairo / Travel] Geographic locale \|listLat. <small>and</small> Long. }} <!-- Leave the empty space as standard per WP:EPONYMOUS. --> Category:10th-century establishments in Egypt Category:10th-century establishments in the Fatimid Caliphate Category:969 establishments Category:Burial sites of the Burji dynasty Category:Capitals in Africa Category:Capitals of caliphates Category:Cities in Egypt Category:Fatimid cities Category:Governorate capitals in Egypt Category:Medieval cities of Egypt Category:Greater Cairo Category:Nile Delta Category:Populated places established in the 10th century Category:Populated places in Cairo Governorate Category:Populated places on the Nile Category:Districts of Greater Cairo	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo	2025-04-05T18:27:47.440673
6295	Chaos theory	for values 28}}, 10}}, }}]] at an intermediate energy showing chaotic behavior. Starting the pendulum from a slightly different initial condition would result in a vastly different trajectory. The double-rod pendulum is one of the simplest dynamical systems with chaotic solutions.]] Chaos theory (or chaology) is an interdisciplinary area of scientific study and branch of mathematics. It focuses on underlying patterns and deterministic laws of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions. These were once thought to have completely random states of disorder and irregularities. Chaos theory states that within the apparent randomness of chaotic complex systems, there are underlying patterns, interconnection, constant feedback loops, repetition, self-similarity, fractals and self-organization. The butterfly effect, an underlying principle of chaos, describes how a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can result in large differences in a later state (meaning there is sensitive dependence on initial conditions). A metaphor for this behavior is that a butterfly flapping its wings in Brazil can cause or prevent a tornado in Texas. Small differences in initial conditions, such as those due to errors in measurements or due to rounding errors in numerical computation, can yield widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems, rendering long-term prediction of their behavior impossible in general. This can happen even though these systems are deterministic, meaning that their future behavior follows a unique evolution and is fully determined by their initial conditions, with no random elements involved. In other words, the deterministic nature of these systems does not make them predictable. This behavior is known as deterministic chaos, or simply chaos. The theory was summarized by Edward Lorenz as: Chaotic behavior exists in many natural systems, including fluid flow, heartbeat irregularities, weather and climate. sociology, environmental science, computer science, engineering, economics, ecology, and pandemic crisis management. The theory formed the basis for such fields of study as complex dynamical systems, edge of chaos theory and self-assembly processes.IntroductionChaos theory concerns deterministic systems whose behavior can, in principle, be predicted. Chaotic systems are predictable for a while and then 'appear' to become random. The amount of time for which the behavior of a chaotic system can be effectively predicted depends on three things: how much uncertainty can be tolerated in the forecast, how accurately its current state can be measured, and a time scale depending on the dynamics of the system, called the Lyapunov time. Some examples of Lyapunov times are: chaotic electrical circuits, about 1 millisecond; weather systems, a few days (unproven); the inner solar system, 4 to 5 million years. In chaotic systems, the uncertainty in a forecast increases exponentially with elapsed time. Hence, mathematically, doubling the forecast time more than squares the proportional uncertainty in the forecast. This means, in practice, a meaningful prediction cannot be made over an interval of more than two or three times the Lyapunov time. When meaningful predictions cannot be made, the system appears random.Chaotic dynamicsdefined by <span style"white-space: nowrap;">x → 4 x (1 – x)</span> and <span style="white-space: nowrap;">y → (x + y) mod 1</span> displays sensitivity to initial x positions. Here, two series of x and y values diverge markedly over time from a tiny initial difference.]] In common usage, "chaos" means "a state of disorder". However, in chaos theory, the term is defined more precisely. Although no universally accepted mathematical definition of chaos exists, a commonly used definition, originally formulated by Robert L. Devaney, says that to classify a dynamical system as chaotic, it must have these properties: # it must be sensitive to initial conditions, # it must be topologically transitive, # it must have dense periodic orbits. In some cases, the last two properties above have been shown to actually imply sensitivity to initial conditions. In the discrete-time case, this is true for all continuous maps on metric spaces. In these cases, while it is often the most practically significant property, "sensitivity to initial conditions" need not be stated in the definition. If attention is restricted to intervals, the second property implies the other two. An alternative and a generally weaker definition of chaos uses only the first two properties in the above list. Sensitivity to initial conditions Sensitivity to initial conditions means that each point in a chaotic system is arbitrarily closely approximated by other points that have significantly different future paths or trajectories. Thus, an arbitrarily small change or perturbation of the current trajectory may lead to significantly different future behavior. The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events that prevents the predictability of large-scale phenomena. Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the overall system could have been vastly different. As suggested in Lorenz's book entitled The Essence of Chaos, published in 1993, A consequence of sensitivity to initial conditions is that if we start with a limited amount of information about the system (as is usually the case in practice), then beyond a certain time, the system would no longer be predictable. This is most prevalent in the case of weather, which is generally predictable only about a week ahead. This does not mean that one cannot assert anything about events far in the future—only that some restrictions on the system are present. For example, we know that the temperature of the surface of the earth will not naturally reach or fall below on earth (during the current geologic era), but we cannot predict exactly which day will have the hottest temperature of the year. In more mathematical terms, the Lyapunov exponent measures the sensitivity to initial conditions, in the form of rate of exponential divergence from the perturbed initial conditions. More specifically, given two starting trajectories in the phase space that are infinitesimally close, with initial separation <math>\delta \mathbf{Z}_0</math>, the two trajectories end up diverging at a rate given by :<math> \| \delta\mathbf{Z}(t) \| \approx e^{\lambda t} \| \delta \mathbf{Z}_0 \|,</math> where <math>t</math> is the time and <math>\lambda</math> is the Lyapunov exponent. The rate of separation depends on the orientation of the initial separation vector, so a whole spectrum of Lyapunov exponents can exist. The number of Lyapunov exponents is equal to the number of dimensions of the phase space, though it is common to just refer to the largest one. For example, the maximal Lyapunov exponent (MLE) is most often used, because it determines the overall predictability of the system. A positive MLE, coupled with the solution’s boundedness, is usually taken as an indication that the system is chaotic. An important related theorem is the Birkhoff Transitivity Theorem. It is easy to see that the existence of a dense orbit implies topological transitivity. The Birkhoff Transitivity Theorem states that if X is a second countable, complete metric space, then topological transitivity implies the existence of a dense set of points in X that have dense orbits. Density of periodic orbits For a chaotic system to have dense periodic orbits means that every point in the space is approached arbitrarily closely by periodic orbits. Sharkovskii's theorem is the basis of the Li and Yorke (1975) proof that any continuous one-dimensional system that exhibits a regular cycle of period three will also display regular cycles of every other length, as well as completely chaotic orbits. Strange attractors displays chaotic behavior. These two plots demonstrate sensitive dependence on initial conditions within the region of phase space occupied by the attractor.]] Some dynamical systems, like the one-dimensional logistic map defined by <span style"white-space: nowrap;">x → 4 x (1 – x),</span> are chaotic everywhere, but in many cases chaotic behavior is found only in a subset of phase space. The cases of most interest arise when the chaotic behavior takes place on an attractor, since then a large set of initial conditions leads to orbits that converge to this chaotic region. An easy way to visualize a chaotic attractor is to start with a point in the basin of attraction of the attractor, and then simply plot its subsequent orbit. Because of the topological transitivity condition, this is likely to produce a picture of the entire final attractor, and indeed both orbits shown in the figure on the right give a picture of the general shape of the Lorenz attractor. This attractor results from a simple three-dimensional model of the Lorenz weather system. The Lorenz attractor is perhaps one of the best-known chaotic system diagrams, probably because it is not only one of the first, but it is also one of the most complex, and as such gives rise to a very interesting pattern that, with a little imagination, looks like the wings of a butterfly. Unlike fixed-point attractors and limit cycles, the attractors that arise from chaotic systems, known as strange attractors, have great detail and complexity. Strange attractors occur in both continuous dynamical systems (such as the Lorenz system) and in some discrete systems (such as the Hénon map). Other discrete dynamical systems have a repelling structure called a Julia set, which forms at the boundary between basins of attraction of fixed points. Julia sets can be thought of as strange repellers. Both strange attractors and Julia sets typically have a fractal structure, and the fractal dimension can be calculated for them. Coexisting attractors In contrast to single type chaotic solutions, studies using Lorenz models have emphasized the importance of considering various types of solutions. For example, coexisting chaotic and non-chaotic may appear within the same model (e.g., the double pendulum system) using the same modeling configurations but different initial conditions. The findings of attractor coexistence, obtained from classical and generalized Lorenz models, suggested a revised view that "the entirety of weather possesses a dual nature of chaos and order with distinct predictability", in contrast to the conventional view of "weather is chaotic". Minimum complexity of a chaotic system of the logistic map <span style="white-space: nowrap;">x → r x (1 – x).</span> Each vertical slice shows the attractor for a specific value of r. The diagram displays period-doubling as r increases, eventually producing chaos. Darker points are visited more frequently.]] Discrete chaotic systems, such as the logistic map, can exhibit strange attractors whatever their dimensionality. In contrast, for continuous dynamical systems, the Poincaré–Bendixson theorem shows that a strange attractor can only arise in three or more dimensions. Finite-dimensional linear systems are never chaotic; for a dynamical system to display chaotic behavior, it must be either nonlinear or infinite-dimensional. The Poincaré–Bendixson theorem states that a two-dimensional differential equation has very regular behavior. The Lorenz attractor discussed below is generated by a system of three differential equations such as: : <math> \begin{align} \frac{\mathrm{d}x}{\mathrm{d}t} &= \sigma y - \sigma x, \\ \frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}t} &= \rho x - x z - y, \\ \frac{\mathrm{d}z}{\mathrm{d}t} &= x y - \beta z. \end{align} </math> where <math>x</math>, <math>y</math>, and <math>z</math> make up the system state, <math>t</math> is time, and <math>\sigma</math>, <math>\rho</math>, <math>\beta</math> are the system parameters. Five of the terms on the right hand side are linear, while two are quadratic; a total of seven terms. Another well-known chaotic attractor is generated by the Rössler equations, which have only one nonlinear term out of seven. Sprott found a three-dimensional system with just five terms, that had only one nonlinear term, which exhibits chaos for certain parameter values. Zhang and Heidel showed that, at least for dissipative and conservative quadratic systems, three-dimensional quadratic systems with only three or four terms on the right-hand side cannot exhibit chaotic behavior. The reason is, simply put, that solutions to such systems are asymptotic to a two-dimensional surface and therefore solutions are well behaved. While the Poincaré–Bendixson theorem shows that a continuous dynamical system on the Euclidean plane cannot be chaotic, two-dimensional continuous systems with non-Euclidean geometry can still exhibit some chaotic properties. Perhaps surprisingly, chaos may occur also in linear systems, provided they are infinite dimensional. A theory of linear chaos is being developed in a branch of mathematical analysis known as functional analysis. The above set of three ordinary differential equations has been referred to as the three-dimensional Lorenz model. Since 1963, higher-dimensional Lorenz models have been developed in numerous studies for examining the impact of an increased degree of nonlinearity, as well as its collective effect with heating and dissipations, on solution stability.Infinite dimensional mapsThe straightforward generalization of coupled discrete maps is based upon convolution integral which mediates interaction between spatially distributed maps: <math>\psi_{n+1}(\vec r,t) = \int K(\vec r - \vec r^{,},t) f [\psi_{n}(\vec r^{,},t) ]d {\vec r}^{,}</math>, where kernel <math>K(\vec r - \vec r^{,},t)</math> is propagator derived as Green function of a relevant physical system, <math> f [\psi_{n}(\vec r,t) ] </math> might be logistic map alike <math> \psi \rightarrow G \psi [1 - \tanh (\psi)]</math> or complex map. For examples of complex maps the Julia set <math> f[\psi] = \psi^2</math> or Ikeda map <math> \psi_{n+1} A + B \psi_n e^{i (\|\psi_n\|^2 + C)} </math> may serve. When wave propagation problems at distance <math>Lct</math> with wavelength <math>\lambda2\pi/k</math> are considered the kernel <math>K</math> may have a form of Green function for Schrödinger equation:. <math> K(\vec r - \vec r^{,},L) \frac {ik\exp[ikL]}{2\pi L}\exp[\frac {ik\|\vec r-\vec r^{,}\|^2}{2 L} ]</math>.Spontaneous order Under the right conditions, chaos spontaneously evolves into a lockstep pattern. In the Kuramoto model, four conditions suffice to produce synchronization in a chaotic system. Examples include the coupled oscillation of Christiaan Huygens' pendulums, fireflies, neurons, the London Millennium Bridge resonance, and large arrays of Josephson junctions. Moreover, from the theoretical physics standpoint, dynamical chaos itself, in its most general manifestation, is a spontaneous order. The essence here is that most orders in nature arise from the spontaneous breakdown of various symmetries. This large family of phenomena includes elasticity, superconductivity, ferromagnetism, and many others. According to the supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics, chaos, or more precisely, its stochastic generalization, is also part of this family. The corresponding symmetry being broken is the topological supersymmetry which is hidden in all stochastic (partial) differential equations, and the corresponding order parameter is a field-theoretic embodiment of the butterfly effect. History created using the chaos game. Natural forms (ferns, clouds, mountains, etc.) may be recreated through an iterated function system (IFS).]] James Clerk Maxwell first emphasized the "butterfly effect", and is seen as being one of the earliest to discuss chaos theory, with work in the 1860s and 1870s. An early proponent of chaos theory was Henri Poincaré. In the 1880s, while studying the three-body problem, he found that there can be orbits that are nonperiodic, and yet not forever increasing nor approaching a fixed point. In 1898, Jacques Hadamard published an influential study of the chaotic motion of a free particle gliding frictionlessly on a surface of constant negative curvature, called "Hadamard's billiards". Hadamard was able to show that all trajectories are unstable, in that all particle trajectories diverge exponentially from one another, with a positive Lyapunov exponent. Chaos theory began in the field of ergodic theory. Later studies, also on the topic of nonlinear differential equations, were carried out by George David Birkhoff, Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov, Mary Lucy Cartwright and John Edensor Littlewood, and Stephen Smale. Although chaotic planetary motion had not been observed, experimentalists had encountered turbulence in fluid motion and nonperiodic oscillation in radio circuits without the benefit of a theory to explain what they were seeing. Despite initial insights in the first half of the twentieth century, chaos theory became formalized as such only after mid-century, when it first became evident to some scientists that linear theory, the prevailing system theory at that time, simply could not explain the observed behavior of certain experiments like that of the logistic map. What had been attributed to measure imprecision and simple "noise" was considered by chaos theorists as a full component of the studied systems. In 1959 Boris Valerianovich Chirikov proposed a criterion for the emergence of classical chaos in Hamiltonian systems (Chirikov criterion). He applied this criterion to explain some experimental results on plasma confinement in open mirror traps. This is regarded as the very first physical theory of chaos, which succeeded in explaining a concrete experiment. And Boris Chirikov himself is considered as a pioneer in classical and quantum chaos. The main catalyst for the development of chaos theory was the electronic computer. Much of the mathematics of chaos theory involves the repeated iteration of simple mathematical formulas, which would be impractical to do by hand. Electronic computers made these repeated calculations practical, while figures and images made it possible to visualize these systems. As a graduate student in Chihiro Hayashi's laboratory at Kyoto University, Yoshisuke Ueda was experimenting with analog computers and noticed, on November 27, 1961, what he called "randomly transitional phenomena". Yet his advisor did not agree with his conclusions at the time, and did not allow him to report his findings until 1970. in the tip vortex from an airplane wing. Studies of the critical point beyond which a system creates turbulence were important for chaos theory, analyzed for example by the Soviet physicist Lev Landau, who developed the Landau-Hopf theory of turbulence. David Ruelle and Floris Takens later predicted, against Landau, that fluid turbulence could develop through a strange attractor, a main concept of chaos theory.]] Edward Lorenz was an early pioneer of the theory. His interest in chaos came about accidentally through his work on weather prediction in 1961. Lorenz and his collaborator Ellen Fetter and Margaret Hamilton were using a simple digital computer, a Royal McBee LGP-30, to run weather simulations. They wanted to see a sequence of data again, and to save time they started the simulation in the middle of its course. They did this by entering a printout of the data that corresponded to conditions in the middle of the original simulation. To their surprise, the weather the machine began to predict was completely different from the previous calculation. They tracked this down to the computer printout. The computer worked with 6-digit precision, but the printout rounded variables off to a 3-digit number, so a value like 0.506127 printed as 0.506. This difference is tiny, and the consensus at the time would have been that it should have no practical effect. However, Lorenz discovered that small changes in initial conditions produced large changes in long-term outcome. Lorenz's discovery, which gave its name to Lorenz attractors, showed that even detailed atmospheric modeling cannot, in general, make precise long-term weather predictions. In 1963, Benoit Mandelbrot, studying information theory, discovered that noise in many phenomena (including stock prices and telephone circuits) was patterned like a Cantor set, a set of points with infinite roughness and detail. Mandelbrot described both the "Noah effect" (in which sudden discontinuous changes can occur) and the "Joseph effect" (in which persistence of a value can occur for a while, yet suddenly change afterwards). In 1967, he published "How long is the coast of Britain? Statistical self-similarity and fractional dimension", showing that a coastline's length varies with the scale of the measuring instrument, resembles itself at all scales, and is infinite in length for an infinitesimally small measuring device. Arguing that a ball of twine appears as a point when viewed from far away (0-dimensional), a ball when viewed from fairly near (3-dimensional), or a curved strand (1-dimensional), he argued that the dimensions of an object are relative to the observer and may be fractional. An object whose irregularity is constant over different scales ("self-similarity") is a fractal (examples include the Menger sponge, the Sierpiński gasket, and the Koch curve or snowflake, which is infinitely long yet encloses a finite space and has a fractal dimension of circa 1.2619). In 1982, Mandelbrot published The Fractal Geometry of Nature, which became a classic of chaos theory. In December 1977, the New York Academy of Sciences organized the first symposium on chaos, attended by David Ruelle, Robert May, James A. Yorke (coiner of the term "chaos" as used in mathematics), Robert Shaw, and the meteorologist Edward Lorenz. The following year Pierre Coullet and Charles Tresser published "Itérations d'endomorphismes et groupe de renormalisation", and Mitchell Feigenbaum's article "Quantitative Universality for a Class of Nonlinear Transformations" finally appeared in a journal, after 3 years of referee rejections. Thus Feigenbaum (1975) and Coullet & Tresser (1978) discovered the universality in chaos, permitting the application of chaos theory to many different phenomena. In 1979, Albert J. Libchaber, during a symposium organized in Aspen by Pierre Hohenberg, presented his experimental observation of the bifurcation cascade that leads to chaos and turbulence in Rayleigh–Bénard convection systems. He was awarded the Wolf Prize in Physics in 1986 along with Mitchell J. Feigenbaum for their inspiring achievements. In 1986, the New York Academy of Sciences co-organized with the National Institute of Mental Health and the Office of Naval Research the first important conference on chaos in biology and medicine. There, Bernardo Huberman presented a mathematical model of the eye tracking dysfunction among people with schizophrenia. This led to a renewal of physiology in the 1980s through the application of chaos theory, for example, in the study of pathological cardiac cycles. In 1987, Per Bak, Chao Tang and Kurt Wiesenfeld published a paper in Physical Review Letters describing for the first time self-organized criticality (SOC), considered one of the mechanisms by which complexity arises in nature. Alongside largely lab-based approaches such as the Bak–Tang–Wiesenfeld sandpile, many other investigations have focused on large-scale natural or social systems that are known (or suspected) to display scale-invariant behavior. Although these approaches were not always welcomed (at least initially) by specialists in the subjects examined, SOC has nevertheless become established as a strong candidate for explaining a number of natural phenomena, including earthquakes, (which, long before SOC was discovered, were known as a source of scale-invariant behavior such as the Gutenberg–Richter law describing the statistical distribution of earthquake sizes, and the Omori law describing the frequency of aftershocks), solar flares, fluctuations in economic systems such as financial markets (references to SOC are common in econophysics), landscape formation, forest fires, landslides, epidemics, and biological evolution (where SOC has been invoked, for example, as the dynamical mechanism behind the theory of "punctuated equilibria" put forward by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould). Given the implications of a scale-free distribution of event sizes, some researchers have suggested that another phenomenon that should be considered an example of SOC is the occurrence of wars. These investigations of SOC have included both attempts at modelling (either developing new models or adapting existing ones to the specifics of a given natural system), and extensive data analysis to determine the existence and/or characteristics of natural scaling laws. Also in 1987 James Gleick published Chaos: Making a New Science, which became a best-seller and introduced the general principles of chaos theory as well as its history to the broad public. Initially the domain of a few, isolated individuals, chaos theory progressively emerged as a transdisciplinary and institutional discipline, mainly under the name of nonlinear systems analysis. Alluding to Thomas Kuhn's concept of a paradigm shift exposed in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), many "chaologists" (as some described themselves) claimed that this new theory was an example of such a shift, a thesis upheld by Gleick. The availability of cheaper, more powerful computers broadens the applicability of chaos theory. Currently, chaos theory remains an active area of research, involving many different disciplines such as mathematics, topology, physics, social systems, population modeling, biology, meteorology, astrophysics, information theory, computational neuroscience, pandemic crisis management, Based on the analysis, the verse only indicates divergence, not boundedness. Applications shell, similar in appearance to Rule 30, a cellular automaton with chaotic behaviour]] Although chaos theory was born from observing weather patterns, it has become applicable to a variety of other situations. Some areas benefiting from chaos theory today are geology, mathematics, biology, computer science, economics, engineering, finance, meteorology, philosophy, anthropology, politics, population dynamics, and robotics. A few categories are listed below with examples, but this is by no means a comprehensive list as new applications are appearing. Cryptography Chaos theory has been used for many years in cryptography. In the past few decades, chaos and nonlinear dynamics have been used in the design of hundreds of cryptographic primitives. These algorithms include image encryption algorithms, hash functions, secure pseudo-random number generators, stream ciphers, watermarking, and steganography. The majority of these algorithms are based on uni-modal chaotic maps and a big portion of these algorithms use the control parameters and the initial condition of the chaotic maps as their keys. From a wider perspective, without loss of generality, the similarities between the chaotic maps and the cryptographic systems is the main motivation for the design of chaos based cryptographic algorithms. Another type of computing, DNA computing, when paired with chaos theory, offers a way to encrypt images and other information. Many of the DNA-Chaos cryptographic algorithms are proven to be either not secure, or the technique applied is suggested to be not efficient. Robotics Robotics is another area that has recently benefited from chaos theory. Instead of robots acting in a trial-and-error type of refinement to interact with their environment, chaos theory has been used to build a predictive model. Chaotic dynamics have been exhibited by passive walking biped robots.BiologyFor over a hundred years, biologists have been keeping track of populations of different species with population models. Most models are continuous, but recently scientists have been able to implement chaotic models in certain populations. For example, a study on models of Canadian lynx showed there was chaotic behavior in the population growth. Chaos can also be found in ecological systems, such as hydrology. While a chaotic model for hydrology has its shortcomings, there is still much to learn from looking at the data through the lens of chaos theory. Another biological application is found in cardiotocography. Fetal surveillance is a delicate balance of obtaining accurate information while being as noninvasive as possible. Better models of warning signs of fetal hypoxia can be obtained through chaotic modeling. As Perry points out, modeling of chaotic time series in ecology is helped by constraint. Gene-for-gene co-evolution sometimes shows chaotic dynamics in allele frequencies. Even for a steady environment, merely combining one crop and one pathogen may result in quasi-periodic- or chaotic- oscillations in pathogen population.EconomicsIt is possible that economic models can also be improved through an application of chaos theory, but predicting the health of an economic system and what factors influence it most is an extremely complex task. Economic and financial systems are fundamentally different from those in the classical natural sciences since the former are inherently stochastic in nature, as they result from the interactions of people, and thus pure deterministic models are unlikely to provide accurate representations of the data. The empirical literature that tests for chaos in economics and finance presents very mixed results, in part due to confusion between specific tests for chaos and more general tests for non-linear relationships. Chaos could be found in economics by the means of recurrence quantification analysis. In fact, Orlando et al. by the means of the so-called recurrence quantification correlation index were able to detect hidden changes in time series. Then, the same technique was employed to detect transitions from laminar (regular) to turbulent (chaotic) phases as well as differences between macroeconomic variables and highlight hidden features of economic dynamics. Finally, chaos theory could help in modeling how an economy operates as well as in embedding shocks due to external events such as COVID-19. Finite predictability in weather and climate Due to the sensitive dependence of solutions on initial conditions (SDIC), also known as the butterfly effect, chaotic systems like the Lorenz 1963 model imply a finite predictability horizon. This means that while accurate predictions are possible over a finite time period, they are not feasible over an infinite time span. Considering the nature of Lorenz's chaotic solutions, the committee led by Charney et al. in 1966 extrapolated a doubling time of five days from a general circulation model, suggesting a predictability limit of two weeks. This connection between the five-day doubling time and the two-week predictability limit was also recorded in a 1969 report by the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP). To acknowledge the combined direct and indirect influences from the Mintz and Arakawa model and Lorenz's models, as well as the leadership of Charney et al., Shen et al. refer to the two-week predictability limit as the "Predictability Limit Hypothesis," drawing an analogy to Moore's Law. AI-extended modeling framework In AI-driven large language models, responses can exhibit sensitivities to factors like alterations in formatting and variations in prompts. These sensitivities are akin to butterfly effects. Although classifying AI-powered large language models as classical deterministic chaotic systems poses challenges, chaos-inspired approaches and techniques (such as ensemble modeling) may be employed to extract reliable information from these expansive language models (see also "Butterfly Effect in Popular Culture").Other areasIn chemistry, predicting gas solubility is essential to manufacturing polymers, but models using particle swarm optimization (PSO) tend to converge to the wrong points. An improved version of PSO has been created by introducing chaos, which keeps the simulations from getting stuck. In celestial mechanics, especially when observing asteroids, applying chaos theory leads to better predictions about when these objects will approach Earth and other planets. Four of the five moons of Pluto rotate chaotically. In quantum physics and electrical engineering, the study of large arrays of Josephson junctions benefitted greatly from chaos theory. Closer to home, coal mines have always been dangerous places where frequent natural gas leaks cause many deaths. Until recently, there was no reliable way to predict when they would occur. But these gas leaks have chaotic tendencies that, when properly modeled, can be predicted fairly accurately. Chaos theory can be applied outside of the natural sciences, but historically nearly all such studies have suffered from lack of reproducibility; poor external validity; and/or inattention to cross-validation, resulting in poor predictive accuracy (if out-of-sample prediction has even been attempted). Glass and Mandell and Selz have found that no EEG study has as yet indicated the presence of strange attractors or other signs of chaotic behavior. Redington and Reidbord (1992) attempted to demonstrate that the human heart could display chaotic traits. They monitored the changes in between-heartbeat intervals for a single psychotherapy patient as she moved through periods of varying emotional intensity during a therapy session. Results were admittedly inconclusive. Not only were there ambiguities in the various plots the authors produced to purportedly show evidence of chaotic dynamics (spectral analysis, phase trajectory, and autocorrelation plots), but also when they attempted to compute a Lyapunov exponent as more definitive confirmation of chaotic behavior, the authors found they could not reliably do so. In their 1995 paper, Metcalf and Allen maintained that they uncovered in animal behavior a pattern of period doubling leading to chaos. The authors examined a well-known response called schedule-induced polydipsia, by which an animal deprived of food for certain lengths of time will drink unusual amounts of water when the food is at last presented. The control parameter (r) operating here was the length of the interval between feedings, once resumed. The authors were careful to test a large number of animals and to include many replications, and they designed their experiment so as to rule out the likelihood that changes in response patterns were caused by different starting places for r. Time series and first delay plots provide the best support for the claims made, showing a fairly clear march from periodicity to irregularity as the feeding times were increased. The various phase trajectory plots and spectral analyses, on the other hand, do not match up well enough with the other graphs or with the overall theory to lead inexorably to a chaotic diagnosis. For example, the phase trajectories do not show a definite progression towards greater and greater complexity (and away from periodicity); the process seems quite muddied. Also, where Metcalf and Allen saw periods of two and six in their spectral plots, there is room for alternative interpretations. All of this ambiguity necessitate some serpentine, post-hoc explanation to show that results fit a chaotic model. By adapting a model of career counseling to include a chaotic interpretation of the relationship between employees and the job market, Amundson and Bright found that better suggestions can be made to people struggling with career decisions. Modern organizations are increasingly seen as open complex adaptive systems with fundamental natural nonlinear structures, subject to internal and external forces that may contribute chaos. For instance, team building and group development is increasingly being researched as an inherently unpredictable system, as the uncertainty of different individuals meeting for the first time makes the trajectory of the team unknowable. Traffic forecasting may benefit from applications of chaos theory. Better predictions of when a congestion will occur would allow measures to be taken to disperse it before it would have occurred. Combining chaos theory principles with a few other methods has led to a more accurate short-term prediction model (see the plot of the BML traffic model at right). Chaos theory has been applied to environmental water cycle data (also hydrological data), such as rainfall and streamflow. These studies have yielded controversial results, because the methods for detecting a chaotic signature are often relatively subjective. Early studies tended to "succeed" in finding chaos, whereas subsequent studies and meta-analyses called those studies into question and provided explanations for why these datasets are not likely to have low-dimension chaotic dynamics.See also Examples of chaotic systems * Advected contours * Arnold's cat map * Bifurcation theory * Bouncing ball dynamics * Chua's circuit * Cliodynamics * Coupled map lattice * Double pendulum * Duffing equation * Dynamical billiards * Economic bubble * Gaspard-Rice system * Hénon map * Horseshoe map * List of chaotic maps * Rössler attractor * Standard map * Swinging Atwood's machine * Tilt A Whirl Other related topics * Amplitude death * Anosov diffeomorphism * Catastrophe theory * Causality * Chaos as topological supersymmetry breaking * Chaos machine * Chaotic mixing * Chaotic scattering * Control of chaos * Determinism * Edge of chaos * Emergence * Mandelbrot set * Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem * Ill-conditioning * Ill-posedness * Nonlinear system * Patterns in nature * Predictability * Quantum chaos * Santa Fe Institute * Shadowing lemma * Synchronization of chaos * Unintended consequence People * Ralph Abraham * Michael Berry * Leon O. Chua * Ivar Ekeland * Doyne Farmer * Martin Gutzwiller * Brosl Hasslacher * Michel Hénon * Aleksandr Lyapunov * Norman Packard * Otto Rössler * David Ruelle * Oleksandr Mikolaiovich Sharkovsky * Greg Sams * Robert Shaw * Floris Takens * James A. Yorke * George M. Zaslavsky References ; Attribution * Further reading Articles * * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100612040821/http://cse.ucdavis.edu/~chaos/courses/ncaso/Readings/Chaos_SciAm1986/Chaos_SciAm1986.html Online version] (Note: the volume and page citation cited for the online text differ from that cited here. The citation here is from a photocopy, which is consistent with other citations found online that don't provide article views. The online content is identical to the hardcopy text. Citation variations are related to country of publication). * * * * * Textbooks * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Semitechnical and popular works * Christophe Letellier, Chaos in Nature, World Scientific Publishing Company, 2012, . * * * * John Briggs and David Peat, Turbulent Mirror: : An Illustrated Guide to Chaos Theory and the Science of Wholeness, Harper Perennial 1990, 224 pp. * John Briggs and David Peat, Seven Life Lessons of Chaos: Spiritual Wisdom from the Science of Change, Harper Perennial 2000, 224 pp. * * Predrag Cvitanović, Universality in Chaos, Adam Hilger 1989, 648 pp. * Leon Glass and Michael C. Mackey, From Clocks to Chaos: The Rhythms of Life, Princeton University Press 1988, 272 pp. * James Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science, New York: Penguin, 1988. 368 pp. * * L Douglas Kiel, Euel W Elliott (ed.), Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences: Foundations and Applications, University of Michigan Press, 1997, 360 pp. * Arvind Kumar, Chaos, Fractals and Self-Organisation; New Perspectives on Complexity in Nature , National Book Trust, 2003. * Hans Lauwerier, Fractals, Princeton University Press, 1991. * Edward Lorenz, The Essence of Chaos, University of Washington Press, 1996. * * David Peak and Michael Frame, Chaos Under Control: The Art and Science of Complexity, Freeman, 1994. * Heinz-Otto Peitgen and Dietmar Saupe (Eds.), The Science of Fractal Images, Springer 1988, 312 pp. * Nuria Perpinya, Caos, virus, calma. La Teoría del Caos aplicada al desórden artístico, social y político, Páginas de Espuma, 2021. * Clifford A. Pickover, Computers, Pattern, Chaos, and Beauty: Graphics from an Unseen World , St Martins Pr 1991. * Clifford A. Pickover, Chaos in Wonderland: Visual Adventures in a Fractal World, St Martins Pr 1994. * Ilya Prigogine and Isabelle Stengers, Order Out of Chaos, Bantam 1984. * * David Ruelle, Chance and Chaos, Princeton University Press 1993. * Ivars Peterson, ''Newton's Clock: Chaos in the Solar System, Freeman, 1993. * * * Manfred Schroeder, Fractals, Chaos, and Power Laws, Freeman, 1991. * * Ian Stewart, Does God Play Dice?: The Mathematics of Chaos , Blackwell Publishers, 1990. * Steven Strogatz, Sync: The emerging science of spontaneous order, Hyperion, 2003. * Yoshisuke Ueda, The Road To Chaos, Aerial Pr, 1993. * M. Mitchell Waldrop, Complexity : The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos, Simon & Schuster, 1992. * Antonio Sawaya, Financial Time Series Analysis : Chaos and Neurodynamics Approach'', Lambert, 2012. External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160310065017/http://lagrange.physics.drexel.edu/ Nonlinear Dynamics Research Group] with Animations in Flash * [http://www.chaos.umd.edu/ The Chaos group at the University of Maryland] * [https://hypertextbook.com/chaos/ The Chaos Hypertextbook]. An introductory primer on chaos and fractals * [https://chaosbook.org/ ChaosBook.org] An advanced graduate textbook on chaos (no fractals) * [https://www.societyforchaostheory.org/ Society for Chaos Theory in Psychology & Life Sciences] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130425220329/http://www.csdc.unifi.it/mdswitch.html?newlang=eng Nonlinear Dynamics Research Group at CSDC], Florence, Italy * [http://www.creatingtechnology.org/papers/chaos.htm Nonlinear dynamics: how science comprehends chaos], talk presented by Sunny Auyang, 1998. * [https://www.egwald.ca/nonlineardynamics/ Nonlinear Dynamics]. Models of bifurcation and chaos by Elmer G. Wiens * [https://around.com/books/chaos/ Gleick's Chaos (excerpt)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070428110552/http://www.eng.ox.ac.uk/samp/ Systems Analysis, Modelling and Prediction Group] at the University of Oxford * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090307094012/http://www.mgix.com/snippets/?MackeyGlass A page about the Mackey-Glass equation] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5pKrKdNclYs High Anxieties — The Mathematics of Chaos] (2008) BBC documentary directed by David Malone * [https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827821.000-the-chaos-theory-of-evolution.html The chaos theory of evolution] – article published in Newscientist featuring similarities of evolution and non-linear systems including fractal nature of life and chaos. * Jos Leys, Étienne Ghys et Aurélien Alvarez, [https://www.chaos-math.org/en.html Chaos, A Mathematical Adventure]. Nine films about dynamical systems, the butterfly effect and chaos theory, intended for a wide audience. * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548f6 "Chaos Theory"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Susan Greenfield, David Papineau & Neil Johnson (In Our Time, May 16, 2002) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDek6cYijxI Chaos: The Science of the Butterfly Effect] (2019) an explanation presented by Derek Muller Category:Complex systems theory Category:Computational fields of study	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory	2025-04-05T18:27:47.529312
6298	Cupola	Copula}} }} , Italy]] In architecture, a cupola () is a relatively small, usually dome-like structure on top of a building often crowning a larger roof or dome. Cupolas often serve as a roof lantern to admit light and air or as a lookout. The word derives, via Italian, from lower Latin cupula (classical Latin cupella), ()\|small cup}} (Latin cupa), indicating a vault resembling an upside-down cup.).}} The cylindrical drum underneath a larger cupola is called a tholobate. Background The cupola evolved during the Renaissance from the older oculus. Being weatherproof, the cupola was better suited to the wetter climates of northern Europe. The chhatri, seen in Indian architecture, fits the definition of a cupola when it is used atop a larger structure. Cupolas often serve as a belfry, belvedere, or roof lantern above a main roof. In other cases they may crown a spire, tower, or turret. Cupolas can also appear as small buildings in their own right. The square, dome-like segment of a North American railroad train caboose that contains the second-level or "angel" seats is also called a cupola. <gallery mode"packed" heights"210px"> File:White marble cupolas cap minarets at the Tomb of Jahangir.jpg\|White marble cupolas cap minarets at the Tomb of Jahangir in Lahore, Pakistan File:Santa Maria del Fiore, Duomo.JPG\|The dome of Florence Cathedral with a roof lanternat the top File:Cupola ceiling Synagogue Gyor Hungary.jpg\|Interior of cupola ceiling in the old Synagogue of Győr, Hungary. File:Great Mosque Minaret - Kairouan, Tunisia.jpg\|Ribbed cupola crowns the minaret of the Mosque of Uqba, in Kairouan, Tunisia. File:Cupola - Armenian Orthodox church in Lvov.jpg\|Inside of Armenian Orthodox church cupola in Lviv, Ukraine. File:ISS STS130 Cupola view of Algeria coast.jpg\|View from the interior of the Cupola module on the International Space Station. File:Brivio.church.cupola.jpg\|Trompe-l'œil painting of a cupola in a church in Northern Italy (Brivio) </gallery> On armoured vehicles The term cupola can also refer to the protrusions atop an armoured fighting vehicle due to their distinctive dome-like appearance. They allow crew or personnel to observe, offering very good all round vision, or even field weaponry, without being exposed to incoming fire. Later designs, however, became progressively flatter and less prominent as technology evolved to allow designers to reduce the profile of their vehicles.See also * Astrodome (aeronautics) * Cupola (ISS module) * Daylighting * Windcatcher Notes References External links Cupola	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupola	2025-04-05T18:27:47.535453
6299	Chupacabra	, \| Country = \| Region = \| First_Attested = March 1995 }} The chupacabra or chupacabras (, literally 'goat-sucker', from , 'sucks', and , 'goats') is a legendary creature, or cryptid, in the folklore of parts of the Americas. The name comes from the animal's purported vampirism the chupacabra is said to attack and drink the blood of livestock, including goats. Physical descriptions of the creature vary. In Puerto Rico and in Hispanic America it is generally described as a heavy creature, reptilian and alien-like, roughly the size of a small bear, and with a row of spines reaching from the neck to the base of the tail, while in the Southwestern United States it is depicted as more dog-like. Initial sightings and accompanying descriptions first occurred in Puerto Rico in 1995. The creature has since been reported as far north as Maine, as far south as Chile, and even outside the Americas in countries like Russia and the Philippines. All of the reports are anecdotal and have been disregarded as uncorroborated or lacking evidence. Sightings in northern Mexico and the Southern United States have been verified as canids afflicted by mange. Name can be literally translated as 'goat-sucker', from ('to suck') and ('goats'). It is known as both and throughout the Americas, with the former being the original name, and the latter a regularization. The name is attributed to Puerto Rican comedian Silverio Pérez, who coined the label in 1995 while commenting on the attacks as a San Juan radio deejay. History In 1975, a series of livestock killings in the small town of Moca, Puerto Rico were attributed to ('the vampire of Moca'). Initially, it was suspected that the killings were committed by a Satanic cult; later more killings were reported around the island, and many farms reported loss of animal life. Each of the animals was reported to have had its body bled dry through a series of small circular incisions. The first reported attack eventually attributed to the actual chupacabras occurred in March 1995. Eight sheep were discovered dead in Puerto Rico, each with three puncture wounds in the chest area and reportedly completely drained of blood. A few months later, in August, an eyewitness named Madelyne Tolentino reported seeing the creature in the Puerto Rican town of Canóvanas, where as many as 150 farm animals and pets were reportedly killed. Reputed origin A five-year investigation by Benjamin Radford, documented in his 2011 book Tracking the Chupacabra, concluded that the description given by the original eyewitness in Puerto Rico, Madelyne Tolentino, was based on the creature Sil in the 1995 science-fiction horror film Species. Radford revealed that Tolentino "believed that the creatures and events she saw in Species were happening in reality in Puerto Rico at the time", and therefore concludes that "the most important chupacabra description cannot be trusted". The reports of blood-sucking by the chupacabra were never confirmed by a necropsy, In 2010, University of Michigan biologist Barry O'Connor concluded that all the chupacabra reports in the United States were simply coyotes infected with the parasite Sarcoptes scabiei, whose symptoms would explain most of the features of the chupacabra: they would be left with little fur, thickened skin, and a rank odor. O'Connor theorized that the attacks on goats occurred "because these animals are greatly weakened, [so] they're going to have a hard time hunting. So they may be forced into attacking livestock because it's easier than running down a rabbit or a deer." The prey can survive the attack and die afterwards from internal bleeding or circulatory shock. Appearance can often greatly alter the expected appearance of an animal. Wild and domestic canines with severe cases of mange have been proposed as explanations for the Chupacabra.]] The most common description of the chupacabra is that of a reptile-like creature, said to have leathery or scaly greenish-gray skin and sharp spines or quills running down its back. It is said to be approximately high, and stands and hops in a fashion similar to that of a kangaroo. This description was the chief one given to the few Puerto Rican reports in 1995 that claimed to have sighted the creature, with similar reports in parts of Chile and Argentina following. Plausibility of existence The chupacabra panic first started in late 1995, Puerto Rico: farmers were mass reporting the mysterious killings of various livestock. In these reports, the farmers recalled two puncture wounds on the animal carcasses. These environmental conditions could provide a simple explanation for the livestock killings: wild predators losing their usual prey to the drought, therefore being forced to hunt the livestock of farmers for sustenance. Thus, the same theory can be applied to many of the other 'chupacabra' attacks: that the dry weather had created a more competitive environment for native predators, leading them to prey on livestock to survive. Such an idea can also explain the increased violence in the killings; hungry and desperate predators are driven to hunt livestock to avoid starvation, causing an increase in both the number of livestock killings, and the viciousness of each one. Evidence of such is provided in page 179 of Benjamin Radford's book, Tracking the Chupacabra: The Vampire Beast in Fact, Fiction, and Folklore. Radford's chart highlights ten significant reports of chupacabra attacks, seven of which had a carcass recovered and examined; these autopsies concluded the causes of death as various animal attacks, as displayed though the animal DNA found on the carcasses. Related legends The "Ozark Howler", a large bear-like animal, is the subject of a similar legend. The Peuchens of Chile also share similarities in their supposed habits, but instead of being dog-like they are described as winged snakes. This legend may have originated from the vampire bat, an animal endemic to the region. In the Philippines the Sigbin shares many of the chupacabra's descriptions. In 2018 there were reports of suspected chupacabras in Manipur, India. Many domestic animals and poultry were killed in a manner similar to other chupacabra attacks, and several people reported that they had seen creatures. Forensic experts opined that street dogs were responsible for mass killing of domestic animals and poultry after studying the remnants of a corpse.Media * A chupacabra is referred to in the 2009 novel Drive Your Plow Over the Bones of the Dead. * The debut album by Imani Coppola is titled Chupacabra. * In Indigenous (2014), the chupacabra is the main antagonist. * The myth of the chupacabra is mocked in a 2012 episode of the cartoon series South Park, titled "Jewpacabra", in which antisemitic main character Eric Cartman claims to have seen a Jewish Chupacabra that kills children on Easter. * The chupacabra was included as one of several vinyl figurines in Cryptozoic Entertainment's Cryptkins blind box toy line in 2018. A redesigned series of figurines, including an updated chupacabra, was released in August 2020. * The search for a chupacabra was featured in the 1997 The X-Files episode "El Mundo Gira". * "Chupacabra" was the title of the midseason finale of season 4 of the supernatural drama television series Grimm, in December 2014. * Teen Titans Academy, a DC Comics book, has a bat-like metahuman called Chupacabra, whose alter ego is Diego Pérez, named in honour of George Pérez (the artist that initially illustrated the Teen Titans). * A 1999 episode of Futurama features a monster called "El Chupanibre". * In the Jackie Chan Adventures episode "The Curse of El Chupacabra", Jackie Chan's friend El Toro gets scratched and infected by a Chupacabra, causing him to transform into another Chupacabra every night, much like a werewolf. * In season 3 of Workaholics called "To Kill a Chupacabraj", Blake finds what he believes to be the deceased corpse of the Rancho Chupacabra in the pool, though it turns out to be the neighbor's dog. * In the Netflix original series The Imperfects, the character of Juan Ruiz transforms into a chupacabra whenever anyone he cares about is in danger. * The 2016 film La leyenda del Chupacabras features the titular Chupacabra initially as an antagonist before revealing the creature is merely trying to rescue its family. * The Brazilian Chupa-Cu legend created in 2017 takes its cues from the chupacabra. * A "Chupakabura" plays the role of a tourism mascot for the fictional town of Manoyama in P.A. Works' 2017 anime Sakura Quest. The spelling and pronunciation relates to a retired mascot called "Kabura Kid", whose name was a pun alluding to the Japanese word for turnips. * The 2023 film Chupa is about a chupacabra that is saved from scientists who want to capture it to prove it is real and exploit it for medicine. * The 2010-2011 Super Sentai series Tensou Sentai Goseiger's main antagonist Brajira of the Messiah assumes the guise Buredoran of the Chupacabra when working with the Yuumajuu, the villain faction of the second arc that is based on cryptids. * The Ukrainian news program TSN used to broadcast fake news about the Chupacabra when no interesting news were there to broadcast. * In a short titled "Mission: Chupacabras" from Helluva Boss, a Mexican goat-farmer mistakes Blitzo for a chupacabra and tries to sell him. * Chupacabra vs. The Alamo, a 2013 made-for-TV movie. * Guns of El Chupacabra, a 1997 martial arts based monster film. References External links * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090713065825/http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0904-chupacabra.html Alleged chupacabra likely a "Xolo dog"; story a hoax] * * [https://www.seeker.com/chupacabra-mystery-solved-1765132218.html Chupacabra mystery solved from Seeker.com] * [https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/161119/ooty-kangaroo-cousin-lived-in-western-ghats.html Ooty: Kangaroo cousin lived in western ghats?] * Category:1995 in Puerto Rico Category:Alleged extraterrestrial beings Category:American legendary creatures Category:American urban legends Category:Cattle mutilation Category:Cryptids Category:Latin American legendary creatures Category:Mythological hematophages Category:Mythological monsters Category:Puerto Rican folklore Category:Supernatural urban legends Category:Vampires	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chupacabra	2025-04-05T18:27:47.550139
6309	Cayuga Lake	\| lake_type = Ground moraine \| inflow = Fall Creek, Cayuga Inlet, Salmon Creek, Taughannock Creek, Six Mile Creek \| outflow = Seneca River \| catchment \| basin_countries = United States \| length \| width \| area \| depth \| max-depth \| volume \| residence_time = 18.2 years \| shore \| elevation \| islands = 2 (Frontenac Island and Canoga Island) \| cities = see article \| reference }} Cayuga Lake (, or ) is the longest of central New York's glacial Finger Lakes, and is the second largest in surface area (marginally smaller than Seneca Lake) and second largest in volume. It is just under long. Its average width is , and it is at its widest point, near Aurora. It is approximately at its deepest point, and has over of shoreline. Location The city of Ithaca, site of Ithaca College and Cornell University, is located at the southern end of Cayuga Lake. On the Northern shore rests Seneca Falls, the historical Birthplace of Women’s Rights and the Seneca Falls Convention, and what is widely accepted as the real Bedford Falls from the Frank Capra movie It's A Wonderful Life. The Town Seneca Falls, comprises 25.3 square miles and is nestled in the Finger Lakes region located at the northern tip of Cayuga Lake, and is home to approximately 8,650 residents. It is one of ten townships in Seneca County and its largest community. Villages and settlements along the east shore of Cayuga Lake include Myers, King Ferry, Aurora, Levanna, Union Springs, and Cayuga. Settlements along the west shore of the lake include Sheldrake, Poplar Beach, and Canoga. The lake has two small islands. One is near Union Springs, called Frontenac Island (northeast); this island is not inhabited. The other island, Canoga Island (northwest), is located near the town of Canoga. This island has several camps and is inhabited during the summer months. The only other island in any of the Finger Lakes is Skenoh Island in Canandaigua Lake. Geographical characteristics The lake depth, with steep east and west sides and shallow north and south ends, is typical of the Finger Lakes, as they were carved by glaciers during the last ice age. The water level is regulated by the Mud Lock at the north end of the lake. It is connected to Lake Ontario by the Erie Canal and Seneca Lake by the Seneca River. The lake is drawn down as winter approaches, to minimize ice damage and to maximize its capacity to store heavy spring runoff. The north end is dominated by shallow mudflats. An important stopover for migratory birds, the mudflats and marsh are the location of the Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge. The southern end is also shallow and often freezes during the winter. Human impact Cayuga Lake is very popular among recreational boaters. The Allan H. Treman State Marine Park, with a large state marina and boat launch, is located at the southern end of the lake in Ithaca. There are two yacht clubs on the western shore: Ithaca Yacht Club, a few miles north of Ithaca, and Red Jacket Yacht Club, just south of Canoga. There are several other marinas and boat launches, scattered along the lake shore. Cayuga Lake is the source of drinking water for several communities, including Lansing, near the southern end of the lake along the east side, which draws water through the Bolton Point Water System. There are also several lake source cooling systems that are in operation on the lake, whereby cooler water is pumped from the depths of the lake, warmed, and circulated in a closed system back to the surface. One of these systems, which is operated by Cornell University and began operation in 2000, was controversial during the planning and building stages, due to its potential for having a negative environmental impact. However, all of the environmental impact reports and scientific studies have shown that the Cornell lake source cooling system has not yet had, and will not likely have any measurably significant environmental impact. Furthermore, Cornell's system pumps significantly less warm water back into the lake than others further north, which have been operating for decades, including the coal-fired power plant on the eastern shore. The AES Coal Power plant was shut down in August 2019, and there are plans to convert it into a data center in the near future. The plant used to use Cayuga Lake as a cooling source. In the late 1960s, citizens successfully opposed the construction of an 830-MW nuclear power plant on the shore of Cayuga Lake. Rod Serling named his production company Cayuga Productions, during the years of his TV series, The Twilight Zone. Serling and his family had a summer home at Cayuga Lake. Fishing The fish population is managed and substantial sport fishing is practiced, with anglers targeting smelt, lake trout and smallmouth bass. Fish species present in the lake include lake trout, landlocked salmon, brown trout, rainbow trout, smallmouth bass, smelt, alewife, atlantic salmon, black crappie, bluegill, pickerel, largemouth bass, northern pike, pumpkinseed sunfish, rock bass, and yellow perch. The round goby has been an invasive species in the lake since the 1990s. There are state owned hard surface ramps in Cayuga–Seneca Canal, Lock #1 (Mud Lock), Long Point State Park, Cayuga Lake State Park, Deans Cove Boat Launch, Taughannock Falls State Park, and Allan H. Treman State Marine Park. Tributaries The major inflows to the lake are: Fall Creek, Cayuga Inlet, Salmon Creek, Taughannock Creek, and Six Mile Creek; A sighting in that month described the animal, from shore, as "large and its body long", although a "tramp" suggested it was a muskrat. According to Wells College records, this happened eight times, in "1875, 1912, 1918, 1934, 1948, 1962, 1979 and 2015." Cayuga Lake, like nearby Seneca Lake, is also the site of a phenomenon known as the Guns of the Seneca, mysterious cannon-like booms heard in the surrounding area. Many of these booms may be attributable to bird-scarers, automated cannon-like devices used by farmers to scare birds away from the many vineyards, orchards and crops. There is, however, no proof of this.Wine Cayuga Lake is included in the American Viticultural Area with which it shares its name. Established in 1988, the AVA now boasts over a dozen wineries, four distilleries, a cidery, and a meadery. See also Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge Taughannock Falls References External links [https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Lake/NAM-17 World Lakes Database - Cayuga Lake] [https://www.cayugalake.org/ Cayuga Lake Watershed Network] [http://www.cldf.org/ The Cayuga Lake Defense Fund] [https://web.archive.org/web/20050421233829/http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/LSC/FAQs/default.htm Cornell's Lake Source Cooling FAQ] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20040805122301/http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/EIS/EISTOC.htm Cornell's environmental impact statement for Lake Source Cooling] Category:Finger Lakes Category:Anti-nuclear movement in the United States Category:Lakes of Cayuga County, New York Category:Lakes of New York (state) Category:Lakes of Seneca County, New York Category:Lakes of Tompkins County, New York Category:Tourist attractions in Cayuga County, New York Category:Tourist attractions in Seneca County, New York Category:Tourist attractions in Tompkins County, New York	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayuga_Lake	2025-04-05T18:27:47.565407
6310	Columbia University	}} \| mottoeng = "In Thy light shall we see light" \| type = Private, research university \| established = \| founder \| accreditation MSCHE \| academic_affiliations = \| endowment $14.8 billion (2024) \| budget $6.6 billion (2024) \| president = Claire Shipman (acting) \| provost = Angela Olinto \| faculty 4,628 \| students 36,649 \| undergrad 9,761 is a private Ivy League research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as '''King's College''' on the grounds of Trinity Church in Manhattan, it is the oldest institution of higher education in New York and the fifth-oldest in the United States. Columbia was established as a colonial college by royal charter under George II of Great Britain. It was renamed Columbia College in 1784 following the American Revolution, and in 1787 was placed under a private board of trustees headed by former students Alexander Hamilton and John Jay. In 1896, the campus was moved to its current location in Morningside Heights and renamed Columbia University. Columbia is organized into twenty schools, including four undergraduate schools and 16 graduate schools. The university's research efforts include the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory, the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, and accelerator laboratories with Big Tech firms such as Amazon and IBM. Columbia is a founding member of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the MD degree. The university also administers and annually awards the Pulitzer Prize. Columbia scientists and scholars have played a pivotal role in scientific breakthroughs including brain–computer interface; the laser and maser; nuclear magnetic resonance; the first nuclear pile; the first nuclear fission reaction in the Americas; the first evidence for plate tectonics and continental drift; and much of the initial research and planning for the Manhattan Project during World War II. , its alumni, faculty, and staff have included 7 of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America; 2 secretaries-general of the United Nations;18th century , the first president of Columbia]] Discussions regarding the founding of a college in the Province of New York began as early as 1704. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the college's first president, Samuel Johnson who was an Anglican Priest. The college was officially founded on October 31, 1754, as King's College by royal charter of George II, making it the oldest institution of higher learning in the State of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States. The American Revolutionary War broke out in 1776, and was catastrophic for the operation of King's College, which suspended instruction for eight years beginning in 1776 with the arrival of the Continental Army. The suspension continued through the military occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The college's library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a military hospital first by American and then British forces. of New York City, showing "The Colledge [sic]" at its Park Place (then Robinson Street) location and its earlier location, Trinity Church, on the lower left]] The legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1, 1784, it passed "an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called King's College". For a period in the 1790s, with New York City as the federal and state capital and the country under successive Federalist governments, a revived Columbia thrived under the auspices of Federalists such as Hamilton and Jay. President George Washington and Vice President John Adams, in addition to both houses of Congress attended the college's commencement on May 6, 1789, as a tribute of honor to the many alumni of the school who had been involved in the American Revolution. In 1896, university president Seth Low moved the campus from 49th Street to its present location, a more spacious campus in the developing neighborhood of Morningside Heights. Under the leadership of Low's successor, Nicholas Murray Butler, who served for over four decades, Columbia rapidly became the nation's major institution for research, setting the multiversity model that later universities would adopt.20th century In the 1940s, faculty members, including John R. Dunning, I. I. Rabi, Enrico Fermi, and Polykarp Kusch, began what became the Manhattan Project, creating the first nuclear fission reactor in the Americas and researching gaseous diffusion. In 1928, Seth Low Junior College was established by Columbia University in order to mitigate the number of Jewish applicants to Columbia College. The college was closed in 1936 due to the adverse effects of the Great Depression and its students were subsequently taught at Morningside Heights, although they did not belong to any college but to the university at large. There was an evening school called University Extension, which taught night classes, for a fee, to anyone willing to attend. In 1947, the program was reorganized as an undergraduate college and designated the School of General Studies in response to the return of GIs after World War II. In 1995, the School of General Studies was again reorganized as a full-fledged liberal arts college for non-traditional students (those who have had an academic break of one year or more, or are pursuing dual-degrees) and was fully integrated into Columbia's traditional undergraduate curriculum. The same year, the Division of Special Programs, later called the School of Continuing Education and now the School of Professional Studies, was established to reprise the former role of University Extension. While the School of Professional Studies only offered non-degree programs for lifelong learners and high school students in its earliest stages, it now offers degree programs in a diverse range of professional and inter-disciplinary fields. In the aftermath of World War II, the discipline of international relations became a major scholarly focus of the university, and in response, the School of International and Public Affairs was founded in 1946, drawing upon the resources of the faculties of political science, economics, and history. The Columbia University Bicentennial was celebrated in 1954. During the 1960s, student activism reached a climax with protests in the spring of 1968, when hundreds of students occupied buildings on campus. The incident forced the resignation of Columbia's president, Grayson Kirk, and the establishment of the University Senate. Though several schools in the university had admitted women for years, Columbia College first admitted women in the fall of 1983, after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard College, the all-female institution affiliated with the university, to merge the two schools. Barnard College still remains affiliated with Columbia, and all Barnard graduates are issued diplomas signed by the presidents of Columbia University and Barnard College. During the late 20th century, the university underwent significant academic, structural, and administrative changes as it developed into a major research university. For much of the 19th century, the university consisted of decentralized and separate faculties specializing in Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science. In 1979, these faculties were merged into the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. In 1991, the faculties of Columbia College, the School of General Studies, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the School of the Arts, and the School of Professional Studies were merged into the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, leading to the academic integration and centralized governance of these schools. 21st century Bollinger Presidency (2002 - 2023) Lee C. Bollinger became Columbia's 19th president in June 2002, succeeding George Rupp. Appointed in October 2001 after arriving from the University of Michigan, his presidency emphasized campus expansion, globalization, and science, while navigating national debates. Key initiatives included the ambitious Manhattanville campus expansion into West Harlem, addressing critical space needs and aiming to build new academic facilities, especially for sciences. Bollinger prioritized globalization, launching the World Leaders Forum and aiming to increase international student numbers. He appointed key leaders like Jeffrey Sachs (Earth Institute), Alan Brinkley (Provost), Nicholas Lemann (Journalism), David Hirsch (Research), and Nicholas Dirks (Arts & Sciences), and planned a Neuroscience Institute. Bollinger was the defendant in the Supreme Court's 2003 affirmative action cases (Gratz and Grutter), resulting in a split decision. He consistently defended free speech principles during campus controversies involving faculty and students. Expansion, Campaign, and Globalization The Manhattanville expansion plan progressed, entering environmental review and the city's land-use review process. Concerns about eminent domain grew [with Bollinger calling its potential use necessary to secure land for projects like the Greene Science Center, funded by a landmark $200 million gift. The university publicly launched a record $4 billion capital campaign in September 2006. Financial aid was improved, eliminating loans for undergraduates from families earning under $50,000, supported by a major gift from trustee Gerry Lenfest. Globalization efforts continued with the World Leaders Forum and the creation of the Committee on Global Thought, chaired by Joseph Stiglitz. Columbia faculty received multiple Nobel Prizes: Richard Axel and Linda Buck (Medicine, 2004), Edmund Phelps (Economics, 2006), and Orhan Pamuk (Literature, 2006). Václav Havel joined the faculty. Controversy erupted over a planned 2006 invitation to Iranian President Ahmadinejad, which was ultimately canceled due to logistical and security issues. Later that year, a campus event featuring Minuteman Project speakers was disrupted by protesters. Bollinger strongly condemned the disruption, reaffirming free speech principles while stating protesters do not have the right to silence speakers. Several students faced disciplinary action, and non-affiliated individuals involved were banned from campus. The 2008 financial crisis impacted Columbia's endowment, but less than peers as only 13% of the operating budget reliant on the endowment (compared to higher percentages at peers like Harvard). The endowment recovered, hitting $8.2B in Oct 2013. Despite the downturn, Columbia pressed on with Manhattanville construction, receiving final state approval in June 2009. Major gifts fueled progress, including $400M from John Kluge upon his death, $50M from the Vagelos family for the Medical Center, $100M from Henry Kravis for the Business School, $30M from Gerry Lenfest for an Arts center, and $200M from Mortimer Zuckerman for the Mind, Brain, Behavior Institute. Following the repeal of "Don't Ask, Don't Tell," the University Senate voted 51-17 to invite ROTC back after a 40-year absence, and Bollinger announced an agreement with the Navy. Columbia expanded its Global Centers network (Amman, Beijing, Mumbai, Paris, Nairobi, Istanbul, Santiago), aiming to increase global engagement and international student enrollment (11% in CC in 2011, targeted higher). From 2014 to 2021, Columbia University pursued significant physical expansion, notably opening major facilities on the Manhattanville campus (ZMBBI, Lenfest Center, The Forum). Key strategic initiatives launched included the Knight First Amendment Institute, Columbia World Projects, and the new Columbia Climate School (2020). A $5 billion university capital campaign was launched (with a $1.5B A&S target), major gifts like $50M for A&S's Uris Hall renovation were secured, and the endowment grew significantly ($14.35B by mid-2021). Columbia gynecologist Robert Hadden, indicted in 2014 for sexually assaulting patients and initially avoiding prison through a controversial plea deal amidst criticism of the university's handling, was ultimately federally convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison in 2023. The COVID-19 pandemic starting March 2020 prompted remote operations, hiring/salary freezes, budget cuts, substantial borrowing (~$700M cited), and unpopular retirement contribution cuts, intensifying financial pressures. In 2022, Columbia's reporting of metrics used for university ranking was criticized by Professor of Mathematics Michael Thaddeus, who argued key data supporting the ranking was "inaccurate, dubious or highly misleading." Subsequently, U.S. News & World Report "unranked" Columbia from its 2022 list of Best Colleges saying that it could not verify the data submitted by the university. In June 2023, Columbia University announced their undergraduate schools would no longer participate in ''U.S. News & World Report's'' rankings, following the lead of its law, medical and nursing schools. A press release cited concerns that such rankings unduly influence applicants and "distill a university's profile into a composite of data categories." Beginning in fall 2023, escalating Columbia protests over the Gaza war, marked by debates on antisemitism, culminated in a major encampment, the police clearing of Hamilton Hall in April 2024, and President Minouche Shafik's subsequent resignation. Following critical reports on antisemitism, campus conflict continued into 2025 as the Trump administration threatened to revoke federal funding and demanded policy changes, prompting student expulsions, arrests of Palestinian students/alumni, and new university disciplinary measures. Campus Morningside Heights The majority of Columbia's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in the Upper Manhattan neighborhood of Morningside Heights on Seth Low's late-19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught at one location. The campus was designed along Beaux-Arts planning principles by the architects McKim, Mead & White. Columbia's main campus occupies more than six city blocks, or , in Morningside Heights, New York City, a neighborhood that contains a number of academic institutions. The university owns over 7,800 apartments in Morningside Heights, housing faculty, graduate students, and staff. Almost two dozen undergraduate dormitories (purpose-built or converted) are located on campus or in Morningside Heights. Columbia University has an extensive tunnel system, more than a century old, with the oldest portions predating the present campus. Some of these remain accessible to the public, while others have been cordoned off. ]] Butler Library is the largest in the Columbia University Libraries system and one of the largest buildings on the campus. It was completed in 1934 and renamed to Butler Library in 1946. , Columbia's library system includes over 15.0 million volumes, making it the eighth largest library system and fifth largest collegiate library system in the United States. Several buildings on the Morningside Heights campus are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Low Memorial Library, a National Historic Landmark and the centerpiece of the campus, is listed for its architectural significance. Philosophy Hall is listed as the site of the invention of FM radio. Also listed is Pupin Hall, another National Historic Landmark, which houses the physics and astronomy departments. Here the first experiments on the fission of uranium were conducted by Enrico Fermi. The uranium atom was split there ten days after the world's first atom-splitting in Copenhagen, Denmark. Other buildings listed include Casa Italiana, the Delta Psi, Alpha Chapter building of St. Anthony Hall, Earl Hall, and the buildings of the affiliated Union Theological Seminary. ]] A statue by sculptor Daniel Chester French called Alma Mater is centered on the front steps of Low Memorial Library. The statue represents a personification of the traditional image of the university as an alma mater, or "nourishing mother", draped in an academic gown and seated on a throne. She wears a laurel wreath on her head and holds in her right hand a scepter capped by a King's Crown, a traditional symbol of the university. A book, representing learning, rests on her lap. The arms of her throne end in lamps, representing "Sapientia et Doctrina", or "Wisdom and Learning"; on the back of the throne is embossed an image of the seal of the university. The small hidden owl on the sculpture is also the subject of many Columbia legends, the main legend being that the first student in the freshmen class to find the hidden owl on the statue will be valedictorian, and that any subsequent Columbia male who finds it will marry a Barnard student, given that Barnard is a women's college. "The Steps", alternatively known as "Low Steps" or the "Urban Beach", are a popular meeting area for Columbia students. The term refers to the long series of granite steps leading from the lower part of campus (South Field) to its upper terrace. Other campuses , New York]] in Washington Heights]] In April 2007, the university purchased more than two-thirds of a site for a new campus in Manhattanville, an industrial neighborhood to the north of the Morningside Heights campus. Stretching from 125th Street to 133rd Street, Columbia Manhattanville houses buildings for Columbia's Business School, School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia School of the Arts, and the Jerome L. Greene Center for Mind, Brain, and Behavior, where research will occur on neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's. The $7 billion expansion plan included demolishing all buildings, except three that are historically significant (the Studebaker Building, Prentis Hall, and the Nash Building), eliminating the existing light industry and storage warehouses, and relocating tenants in 132 apartments. Replacing these buildings created of space for the university. Community activist groups in West Harlem fought the expansion for reasons ranging from property protection and fair exchange for land, to residents' rights. Subsequent public hearings drew neighborhood opposition. , the State of New York's Empire State Development Corporation approved use of eminent domain, which, through declaration of Manhattanville's "blighted" status, gives governmental bodies the right to appropriate private property for public use. On May 20, 2009, the New York State Public Authorities Control Board approved the Manhanttanville expansion plan. NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital is affiliated with the medical schools of both Columbia University and Cornell University. According to U.S. News & World Reports "2020–21 Best Hospitals Honor Roll and Medical Specialties Rankings", it is ranked fourth overall and second among university hospitals. Columbia's medical school has a strategic partnership with New York State Psychiatric Institute, and is affiliated with 19 other hospitals in the U.S. and four hospitals in other countries. Health-related schools are located at the Columbia University Medical Center, a campus located in the neighborhood of Washington Heights, fifty blocks uptown. Other teaching hospitals affiliated with Columbia through the NewYork-Presbyterian network include the Payne Whitney Clinic in Manhattan, and the Payne Whitney Westchester, a psychiatric institute located in White Plains, New York. On the northern tip of Manhattan island (in the neighborhood of Inwood), Columbia owns the Baker Field, which includes the Lawrence A. Wien Stadium as well as facilities for field sports, outdoor track, and tennis. There is a third campus on the west bank of the Hudson River, the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory and Earth Institute in Palisades, New York. A fourth is the Nevis Laboratories in Irvington, New York, for the study of particle and motion physics. A satellite site in Paris holds classes at Reid Hall. Columbia has been rated "B+" by the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card for its environmental and sustainability initiatives. subway station () on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line.]] According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Columbia University would have a dominant vegetation type of Appalachian Oak (104) with a dominant vegetation form of Eastern Hardwood Forest (25). Transportation Columbia Transportation is the bus service of the university, operated by Academy Bus Lines. The buses are open to all Columbia faculty, students, Dodge Fitness Center members, and anyone else who holds a Columbia ID card. In addition, all TSC students can ride the buses. In the New York City Subway, the train serves the university at 116th Street-Columbia University. The buses stop on Broadway while the stops on Amsterdam Avenue. The main campus is primarily boxed off by the streets of Amsterdam Avenue, Broadway, 114th street, and 120th street, with some buildings, including Barnard College, located just outside the area. The nearest major highway is the Henry Hudson Parkway (NY 9A) to the west of the campus. It is located south of the George Washington Bridge. Academics Undergraduate admissions and financial aid ]] Columbia University received 60,551 applications for the class of 2025 (entering 2021) and a total of around 2,218 were admitted to the two schools for an overall acceptance rate of 3.66%. Columbia is a racially diverse school, with approximately 52% of all students identifying themselves as persons of color. Additionally, 50% of all undergraduates received grants from Columbia. The average grant size awarded to these students is $46,516. In 2015–2016, annual undergraduate tuition at Columbia was $50,526 with a total cost of attendance of $65,860 (including room and board). The college is need-blind for domestic applicants. On April 11, 2007, Columbia University announced a $400 million donation from media billionaire alumnus John Kluge to be used exclusively for undergraduate financial aid. The donation is among the largest single gifts to higher education. However, this does not apply to international students, transfer students, visiting students, or students in the School of General Studies. In the fall of 2010, admission to Columbia's undergraduate colleges Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering) began accepting the Common Application. The policy change made Columbia one of the last major academic institutions and the last Ivy League university to switch to the Common Application. Scholarships are also given to undergraduate students by the admissions committee. Designations include John W. Kluge Scholars, John Jay Scholars, C. Prescott Davis Scholars, Global Scholars, Egleston Scholars, and Science Research Fellows. Named scholars are selected by the admission committee from first-year applicants. According to Columbia, the first four designated scholars "distinguish themselves for their remarkable academic and personal achievements, dynamism, intellectual curiosity, the originality and independence of their thinking, and the diversity that stems from their different cultures and their varied educational experiences". In 1919, Columbia established a student application process characterized by The New York Times as "the first modern college application". The application required a photograph of the applicant, the maiden name of the applicant's mother, and the applicant's religious background. Organization {\| class"toccolours" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:90%; line-height:1.4em; width:300px" ! colspan"2" style"text-align: center;" \|Columbia Graduate/Professional Schools \|- \|College/school \|Year founded \|- \|Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons \|1767 \|- \|College of Dental Medicine \|1916 \|- \|Columbia Law School \|1858 \|- \|Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science \|1864 \|- \|Columbia Graduate School of Arts and Sciences \|1880 \|- \|Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation \|1881 \|- \|Teachers College, Columbia University \|1887 \|- \|Columbia University School of Nursing \|1892 \|- \|Columbia University School of Social Work \|1898 \|- \|Graduate School of Journalism \|1912 \|- \|Columbia Business School \|1916 \|- \|Mailman School of Public Health \|1922 \|- \|Union Theological Seminary \|1836, affiliate since 1928 \|- \|School of International and Public Affairs \|1946 \|- \|School of the Arts \|1965 \|- \|School of Professional Studies \|1995 \|- \|Columbia Climate School \|2020 \|} {\| class"toccolours" style"float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:90%; line-height:1.4em; width:300px" ! colspan"2" style"text-align: center;" \|Columbia Undergraduate Schools Its official corporate name is Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York. In 1754, the university's first charter was granted by King George II; however, its modern charter was first enacted in 1787 and last amended in 1810 by the New York State Legislature. Columbia has four official undergraduate colleges: Columbia College, the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree; the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering), the engineering and applied science school offering the Bachelor of Science degree; the School of General Studies, the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree to non-traditional students undertaking full- or part-time study; and Barnard College. Barnard College is a women's liberal arts college and an academic affiliate in which students receive a Bachelor of Arts degree from Columbia University. Their degrees are signed by the presidents of Columbia University and Barnard College. Barnard students are also eligible to cross-register classes that are available through the Barnard Catalogue and alumnae can join the Columbia Alumni Association. Joint degree programs are available through Union Theological Seminary, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, and the Juilliard School. Teachers College and Barnard College are official faculties of the university; both colleges' presidents are deans under the university governance structure. The Columbia University Senate includes faculty and student representatives from Teachers College and Barnard College who serve two-year terms; all senators are accorded full voting privileges regarding matters impacting the entire university. Teachers College is an affiliated, financially independent graduate school with their own board of trustees. Pursuant to an affiliation agreement, Columbia is given the authority to confer "degrees and diplomas" to the graduates of Teachers College. The degrees are signed by presidents of Teachers College and Columbia University in a manner analogous to the university's other graduate schools. Sciences Po, City University of Hong Kong, Trinity College Dublin, and the Juilliard School. The university also has several Columbia Global Centers, in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Mumbai, Nairobi, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, and Tunis. International partnerships Columbia students can study abroad for a semester or a year at partner institutions such as Sciences Po, (EHESS), (ENS), Panthéon-Sorbonne University, King's College London, London School of Economics, University College London and the University of Warwick. Select students can study at either the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge for a year if approved by both Columbia and either Oxford or Cambridge. Columbia also has a dual MA program with the Aga Khan University in London. Rankings {\| class"wikitable sortable collapsible" style"float:right; text-align:center" \|+ style"" \|National Program Rankings ! scope="col" \| Program ! scope="col" \| Ranking \|- ! scope="row" \| Biological Sciences \| 11 \|- ! scope="row" \| Business \| 8 \|- ! scope="row" \| Chemistry \| 12 \|- ! scope="row" \| Computer Science \| 11 \|- ! scope="row" \| Earth Sciences \| 5 \|- ! scope="row" \| Economics \| 9 \|- ! scope="row" \| Engineering \| 13 \|- ! scope="row" \| English \| 8 \|- ! scope="row" \| Fine Arts \| 10 \|- ! scope="row" \| Health Care Management \| 15 \|- ! scope="row" \| History \| 5 \|- ! scope="row" \| Law \| 4 \|- ! scope="row" \| Mathematics \| 7 \|- ! scope="row" \| Medicine: Primary Care \| 75 \|- ! scope="row" \| Medicine: Research \| 3 \|- ! scope="row" \| Nursing: Doctorate \| 5 \|- ! scope="row" \| Nursing: Master's \| 6 \|- ! scope="row" \| Nursing–Anesthesia \| 22 \|- ! scope="row" \| Nursing–Midwifery \| 13 \|- ! scope="row" \| Occupational Therapy \| 8 \|- ! scope="row" \| Physical Therapy \| 25 \|- ! scope="row" \| Physics \| 9 \|- ! scope="row" \| Political Science \| 8 \|- ! scope="row" \| Psychology \| 12 \|- ! scope="row" \| Public Affairs \| 23 \|- ! scope="row" \| Public Health \| 4 \|- ! scope="row" \| Social Work \| 5 \|- ! scope="row" \| Sociology \| 11 \|- ! scope="row" \| Statistics \| 5 \|} {\| class"wikitable sortable collapsible" style"float:right; text-align:center" \|+ style"" \|Global Program Rankings ! scope="col" \| Program ! scope="col" \| Ranking \|- ! scope="row" \| Arts & Humanities \| 18 \|- ! scope="row" \| Biology & Biochemistry \| 20 \|- ! scope="row" \| Cardiac & Cardiovascular Systems \| 3 \|- ! scope="row" \| Chemistry \| 33 \|- ! scope="row" \| Clinical Medicine \| 10 \|- ! scope="row" \| Computer Science \| 36 \|- ! scope="row" \| Economics & Business \| 8 \|- ! scope="row" \| Electrical & Electronic Engineering \| 102 \|- ! scope="row" \| Engineering \| 114 \|- ! scope="row" \| Environment/Ecology \| 36 \|- ! scope="row" \| Geosciences \| 4 \|- ! scope="row" \| Immunology \| 32 \|- ! scope="row" \| Materials Science \| 57 \|- ! scope="row" \| Mathematics \| 11 \|- ! scope="row" \| Microbiology \| 33 \|- ! scope="row" \| Molecular Biology & Genetics \| 18 \|- ! scope="row" \| Neuroscience & Behavior \| 7 \|- ! scope="row" \| Oncology \| 32 \|- ! scope="row" \| Pharmacology & Toxicology \| 46 \|- ! scope="row" \| Physics \| 12 \|- ! scope="row" \| Plant & Animal Science \| 202 \|- ! scope="row" \| Psychiatry/Psychology \| 4 \|- ! scope="row" \| Social Sciences & Public Health \| 8 \|- ! scope="row" \| Space Science \| 37 \|- ! scope="row" \| Surgery \| 27 \|} Columbia University is ranked 12th in the United States and seventh globally for 2023–2024 by U.S. News & World Report. QS University Rankings listed Columbia as fifth in the United States. Ranked 15th among U.S. colleges for 2020 by The Wall Street Journal and Times Higher Education, in recent years it has been ranked as high as second. Individual colleges and schools were also nationally ranked by U.S. News & World Report for its 2021 edition. Columbia Law School was ranked fourth, the Mailman School of Public Health fourth, the School of Social Work tied for third, Columbia Business School eighth, the College of Physicians and Surgeons tied for sixth for research (and tied for 31st for primary care), the School of Nursing tied for 11th in the master's program and tied for first in the doctorate nursing program, and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (graduate) was ranked tied for 14th. In 2021, Columbia was ranked seventh in the world (sixth in the United States) by Academic Ranking of World Universities, sixth in the world by U.S. News & World Report, 19th in the world by QS World University Rankings, and 11th globally by Times Higher Education World University Rankings. It was ranked in the first tier of American research universities, along with Harvard, MIT, and Stanford, in the 2019 report from the Center for Measuring University Performance. Columbia's Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation was ranked the second most admired graduate program by Architectural Record in 2020. In 2011, the Mines ParisTech: Professional Ranking of World Universities ranked Columbia third best university for forming CEOs in the US and 12th worldwide. In 2025, Columbia was ranked 250 out of 257 top colleges in "Free Speech Rankings" by the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression and "College Pulse", after ranking 214 of 248 in 2024 and at the bottom of 203 in 2022/2023. In 2024 and 2025, Columbia received a D on the "Campus Antisemitism Report Card" of the Anti-Defamation League, which the advocacy organization first launched in spring 2024, in the lead-up to and in the context of campus conflict over the 2024 Columbia University pro-Palestinian campus occupations. Research , a National Historic Chemical Landmark, where deuterium was discovered in 1931. Research conducted in Havemeyer has been recognized with seven Nobel Prizes in Chemistry.]] Columbia is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". Columbia was the first North American site where the uranium atom was split. The College of Physicians and Surgeons played a central role in developing the modern understanding of neuroscience with the publication of Principles of Neural Science, described by historian of science Katja Huenther as the "neuroscience 'bible' ". The book was written by a team of Columbia researchers that included Nobel Prize winner Eric Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas Jessell. Columbia was the birthplace of FM radio and the laser. The first brain-computer interface capable of translating brain signals into speech was developed by neuroengineers at Columbia. The MPEG-2 algorithm of transmitting high quality audio and video over limited bandwidth was developed by Dimitris Anastassiou, a Columbia professor of electrical engineering. Biologist Martin Chalfie was the first to introduce the use of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) in labeling cells in intact organisms. Other inventions and products related to Columbia include Sequential Lateral Solidification (SLS) technology for making LCDs, System Management Arts (SMARTS), Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) (which is used for audio, video, chat, instant messaging and whiteboarding), pharmacopeia, Macromodel (software for computational chemistry), a new and better recipe for glass concrete, Blue LEDs, and Beamprop (used in photonics). Columbia scientists have been credited with about 175 new inventions in the health sciences each year. Columbia Technology Ventures (formerly Science and Technology Ventures), , manages some 600 patents and more than 250 active license agreements. Columbia owns many unique research facilities, such as the Columbia Institute for Tele-Information dedicated to telecommunications and the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, which is an astronomical observatory affiliated with NASA. Military and veteran enrollment Columbia is a long-standing participant of the United States Department of Veterans Affairs Yellow Ribbon Program, allowing eligible veterans to pursue a Columbia undergraduate degree regardless of socioeconomic status for over 70 years. As a part of the Eisenhower Leader Development Program (ELDP) in partnership with the United States Military Academy at West Point, Columbia is the only school in the Ivy League to offer a graduate degree program in organizational psychology to aid military officers in tactical decision making and strategic management. Awards Lee Bollinger presents the 2003 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction to Jeffrey Eugenides]] Several prestigious awards are administered by Columbia University, most notably the Pulitzer Prize and the Bancroft Prize in history. Other prizes, which are awarded by the Graduate School of Journalism, include the Alfred I. duPont–Columbia University Award, the National Magazine Awards, the Maria Moors Cabot Prizes, the John Chancellor Award, and the Lukas Prizes, which include the J. Anthony Lukas Book Prize and Mark Lynton History Prize. The university also administers the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize, which is considered an important precursor to the Nobel Prize, 55 of its 117 recipients having gone on to win either a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine or Nobel Prize in Chemistry as of October 2024; the W. Alden Spencer Award; the Vetlesen Prize, which is known as the Nobel Prize of geology; the Japan-U.S. Friendship Commission Prize for the Translation of Japanese Literature, the oldest such award; the Edwin Howard Armstrong award; the Calderone Prize in public health; and the Ditson Conductor's Award.Student life{\| class"wikitable floatright sortable collapsible"; text-align:right; font-size:80%;" \|+ style="font-size:90%" \|Student body composition as of May 2, 2022 \|- ! Race and ethnicity ! colspan"2" data-sort-typenumber \|Total \|- \| White \|align=right\| \|- \| Foreign national \|align=right\| \|- \| Asian \|align=right\| \|- \| Hispanic \|align=right\| \|- \| Other \|align=right\| \|- \| Black \|align=right\| \|- ! colspan"4" data-sort-typenumber \|Economic diversity \|- \| Low-income \|align=right\| \|- \| Affluent \|align=right\| \|} In 2020, Columbia University's student population was 31,455 (8,842 students in undergraduate programs and 22,613 in postgraduate programs), with 45% of the student population identifying themselves as a minority. Twenty-six percent of students at Columbia have family incomes below $60,000. 16% of students at Columbia receive Federal Pell Grants, which mostly go to students whose family incomes are below $40,000. Seventeen percent of students are the first member of their family to attend a four-year college. On-campus housing is guaranteed for all four years as an undergraduate. Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science (also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering) share housing in the on-campus residence halls. First-year students usually live in one of the large residence halls situated around South Lawn: Carman Hall, Furnald Hall, Hartley Hall, John Jay Hall, or Wallach Hall (originally Livingston Hall). Upperclassmen participate in a room selection process, wherein students can pick to live in a mix of either corridor- or apartment-style housing with their friends. The Columbia University School of General Studies, Barnard College and graduate schools have their own apartment-style housing in the surrounding neighborhood. Columbia University is home to many fraternities, sororities, and co-educational Greek organizations. Approximately 10–15% of undergraduate students are associated with Greek life. Many Barnard women also join Columbia sororities. There has been a Greek presence on campus since the establishment in 1836 of the Delta chapter of Alpha Delta Phi. Notes Publications being sold during the 1962–1963 New York City newspaper strike]] cover of the November 1931 edition of the Jester, celebrating the opening of the George Washington Bridge]] The Columbia Daily Spectator'' is the nation's second-oldest continuously operating daily student newspaper. The Blue and White is a monthly literary magazine established in 1890 that discusses campus life and local politics. Bwog, originally an offshoot of The Blue and White but now fully independent, is an online campus news and entertainment source. The Morningside Post is a student-run multimedia news publication. Political publications include The Current, a journal of politics, culture and Jewish Affairs; the Columbia Political Review, the multi-partisan political magazine of the Columbia Political Union; and AdHoc, which denotes itself as the "progressive" campus magazine and deals largely with local political issues and arts events. Columbia Magazine is the alumni magazine of Columbia, serving all 340,000+ of the university's alumni. Arts and literary publications include The Columbia Review, the nation's oldest college literary magazine; Surgam, the literary magazine of The Philolexian Society; Quarto, Columbia University's official undergraduate literary magazine; 4x4, a student-run alternative to Quarto; Columbia, a nationally regarded literary journal; the Columbia Journal of Literary Criticism; and The Mobius Strip, an online arts and literary magazine. Inside New York is an annual guidebook to New York City, written, edited, and published by Columbia undergraduates. Through a distribution agreement with Columbia University Press, the book is sold at major retailers and independent bookstores. Columbia is home to numerous undergraduate academic publications. The Columbia Undergraduate Science Journal prints original science research in its two annual publications. The Journal of Politics & Society is a journal of undergraduate research in the social sciences; Publius is an undergraduate journal of politics established in 2008 and published biannually; the Columbia East Asia Review allows undergraduates throughout the world to publish original work on China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Vietnam and is supported by the Weatherhead East Asian Institute; The Birch is an undergraduate journal of Eastern European and Eurasian culture that is the first national student-run journal of its kind; the Columbia Economics Review is the undergraduate economic journal on research and policy supported by the Columbia Economics Department; and the Columbia Science Review is a science magazine that prints general interest articles and faculty profiles. Humor publications on Columbia's campus include The Fed, a triweekly satire and investigative newspaper, and the Jester of Columbia. Other publications include The Columbian, the undergraduate colleges' annually published yearbook; the Gadfly, a biannual journal of popular philosophy produced by undergraduates; and Rhapsody in Blue, an undergraduate urban studies magazine. Professional journals published by academic departments at Columbia University include Current Musicology and The Journal of Philosophy. During the spring semester, graduate students in the Journalism School publish The Bronx Beat, a bi-weekly newspaper covering the South Bronx. Founded in 1961 under the auspices of Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism, the Columbia Journalism Review (CJR) examines day-to-day press performance as well as the forces that affect that performance. The magazine is published six times a year. Former publications include the Columbia University Forum, a review of literature and cultural affairs distributed for free to alumni. Broadcasting Columbia is home to two pioneers in undergraduate campus radio broadcasting, WKCR-FM and CTV. Many undergraduates are also involved with Barnard's radio station, WBAR. WKCR, the student run radio station that broadcasts to the Tri-state area, claims to be the oldest FM radio station in the world, owing to the university's affiliation with Edwin Howard Armstrong. The station has its studios on the second floor of Alfred Lerner Hall on the Morningside campus with its main transmitter tower at 4 Times Square in Midtown Manhattan. Columbia Television (CTV) is the nation's second oldest student television station and the home of CTV News, a weekly live news program produced by undergraduate students. Debate and Model UN The Philolexian Society is a literary and debating club founded in 1802, making it the oldest student group at Columbia, as well as the third oldest collegiate literary society in the country. The society annually administers the Joyce Kilmer Memorial Bad Poetry Contest. The Columbia Parliamentary Debate Team competes in tournaments around the country as part of the American Parliamentary Debate Association, and hosts both high school and college tournaments on Columbia's campus, as well as public debates on issues affecting the university. The Columbia International Relations Council and Association (CIRCA), oversees Columbia's Model United Nations activities. CIRCA hosts college and high school Model UN conferences, hosts speakers influential in international politics to speak on campus, and trains students from underprivileged schools in New York in Model UN. Technology and entrepreneurship , the physics building, showing the rooftop Rutherfurd Observatory]] Columbia is a top supplier of young engineering entrepreneurs for New York City. Over the past 20 years, graduates of Columbia established over 100 technology companies. The Columbia University Organization of Rising Entrepreneurs (CORE) was founded in 1999. The student-run group aims to foster entrepreneurship on campus. Each year CORE hosts dozens of events, including talks, #StartupColumbia, a conference and venture competition for $250,000, and Ignite@CU, a weekend for undergrads interested in design, engineering, and entrepreneurship. Notable speakers include Peter Thiel, Jack Dorsey, Alexis Ohanian, Drew Houston, and Mark Cuban. As of 2006, CORE had awarded graduate and undergraduate students over $100,000 in seed capital. CampusNetwork, an on-campus social networking site called Campus Network that preceded Facebook, was created and popularized by Columbia engineering student Adam Goldberg in 2003. Mark Zuckerberg later asked Goldberg to join him in Palo Alto to work on Facebook, but Goldberg declined the offer. The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science offers a minor in Technical Entrepreneurship through its Center for Technology, Innovation, and Community Engagement. SEAS' entrepreneurship activities focus on community building initiatives in New York and worldwide, made possible through partners such as Microsoft Corporation. On June 14, 2010, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg launched the NYC Media Lab to promote innovations in New York's media industry. Situated at the New York University Tandon School of Engineering, the lab is a consortium of Columbia University, New York University, and New York City Economic Development Corporation acting to connect companies with universities in new technology research. The Lab is modeled after similar ones at MIT and Stanford, and was established with a $250,000 grant from the New York City Economic Development Corporation. World Leaders Forum ]] Established in 2003 by university president Lee C. Bollinger, the World Leaders Forum at Columbia University provides the opportunity for students and faculty to listen to world leaders in government, religion, industry, finance, and academia. Past forum speakers include former president of the United States Bill Clinton, the prime minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee, former president of Ghana John Agyekum Kufuor, president of Afghanistan Hamid Karzai, prime minister of Russia Vladimir Putin, president of the Republic of Mozambique Joaquim Alberto Chissano, president of the Republic of Bolivia Carlos Diego Mesa Gisbert, president of the Republic of Romania Ion Iliescu, president of the Republic of Latvia Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, the first female president of Finland Tarja Halonen, President Yudhoyono of Indonesia, President Pervez Musharraf of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Iraq President Jalal Talabani, the 14th Dalai Lama, president of the Islamic Republic of Iran Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, financier George Soros, Mayor of New York City Michael R. Bloomberg, President Václav Klaus of the Czech Republic, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of Argentina, former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, and Al Gore.Other was listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its role in serving as a venue for meetings and dances of the Columbia Queer Alliance.]] The Columbia University Orchestra was founded by composer Edward MacDowell in 1896, and is the oldest continually operating university orchestra in the United States. Undergraduate student composers at Columbia may choose to become involved with Columbia New Music, which sponsors concerts of music written by undergraduate students from all of Columbia's schools. The Notes and Keys, the oldest a cappella group at Columbia, was founded in 1909. There are a number of performing arts groups at Columbia dedicated to producing student theater, including the Columbia Players, King's Crown Shakespeare Troupe (KCST), Columbia Musical Theater Society (CMTS), NOMADS (New and Original Material Authored and Directed by Students), LateNite Theatre, Columbia University Performing Arts League (CUPAL), Black Theatre Ensemble (BTE), sketch comedy group Chowdah, and improvisational troupes Alfred and Fruit Paunch. The Columbia Queer Alliance is the central Columbia student organization that represents the bisexual, lesbian, gay, transgender, and questioning student population. It is the oldest gay student organization in the world, founded as the Student Homophile League in 1967 by students including lifelong activist Stephen Donaldson. Columbia University campus military groups include the U.S. Military Veterans of Columbia University and Advocates for Columbia ROTC. In the 2005–06 academic year, the Columbia Military Society, Columbia's student group for ROTC cadets and Marine officer candidates, was renamed the Hamilton Society for "students who aspire to serve their nation through the military in the tradition of Alexander Hamilton". Columbia has several secret societies, including St. Anthony Hall, which was founded at the university in 1847, and two senior societies, the Nacoms and Sachems. Athletics in Manhattan, home field of Columbia Lions football]] , who attended Columbia University in 1922 and 1923]] A member institution of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in Division I FCS, Columbia fields varsity teams in 29 sports and is a member of the Ivy League. The football Lions play home games at the 17,000-seat Robert K. Kraft Field at Lawrence A. Wien Stadium. The Baker Athletics Complex also includes facilities for baseball, softball, soccer, lacrosse, field hockey, tennis, track, and rowing, as well as the new Campbell Sports Center, which opened in January 2013. The basketball, fencing, swimming & diving, volleyball, and wrestling programs are based at the Dodge Physical Fitness Center on the main campus. Former students include Baseball Hall of Famers Lou Gehrig and Eddie Collins, football Hall of Famer Sid Luckman, Marcellus Wiley, and world champion women's weightlifter Karyn Marshall. On May 17, 1939, fledgling NBC broadcast a doubleheader between the Columbia Lions and the Princeton Tigers at Columbia's Baker Field, making it the first televised regular athletic event in history. Columbia University participated in multiple firsts within collegiate athletics. The football program is best known for its record of futility set during the 1980s: between 1983 and 1988, the team lost 44 games in a row, which is still the record for the NCAA Football Championship Subdivision. The streak was broken on October 8, 1988, with a 16–13 victory over arch-rival Princeton University. That was the Lions' first victory at Wien Stadium, which had been opened during the losing streak and was already four years old. A new tradition has developed with the Liberty Cup. The Liberty Cup is awarded annually to the winner of the football game between Fordham and Columbia Universities, two of the only three NCAA Division I football teams in New York City.Traditions '' (1920), one of the only collaborations between Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II, and Lorenz Hart]] The Varsity Show The Varsity Show is one of the oldest traditions at Columbia. Founded in 1893 as a fundraiser for the university's fledgling athletic teams, the Varsity Show now draws together the entire Columbia undergraduate community for a series of performances every April. Dedicated to producing a unique full-length musical that skewers and satirizes many dubious aspects of life at Columbia, the Varsity Show is written and performed exclusively by university undergraduates. Various renowned playwrights, composers, authors, directors, and actors have contributed to the Varsity Show, either as writers or performers, while students at Columbia, including Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II, Lorenz Hart, Herman J. Mankiewicz, I. A. L. Diamond, Herman Wouk, Greta Gerwig, and Kate McKinnon. Notable past shows include Fly With Me (1920), The Streets of New York (1948), ''The Sky's the Limit (1954), and Angels at Columbia (1994). In particular, Streets of New York, after having been revived three times, opened off-Broadway in 1963 and was awarded a 1964 Drama Desk Award. The Mischief Maker (1903), written by Edgar Allan Woolf and Cassius Freeborn, premiered at Madison Square Garden in 1906 as Mam'zelle Champagne. Tree Lighting and Yule Log ceremonies The campus Tree Lighting ceremony was inaugurated in 1998. It celebrates the illumination of the medium-sized trees lining College Walk in front of Kent Hall and Hamilton Hall on the east end and Dodge Hall and Pulitzer Hall on the west, just before finals week in early December. The lights remain on until February 28. Students meet at the sundial for free hot chocolate, performances by a cappella'' groups, and speeches by the university president and a guest. Immediately following the College Walk festivities is one of Columbia's older holiday traditions, the lighting of the Yule Log. The Christmas ceremony dates to a period prior to the American Revolutionary War, but lapsed before being revived by President Nicholas Murray Butler in 1910. A troop of students dressed as Continental Army soldiers carry the eponymous log from the sundial to the lounge of John Jay Hall, where it is lit amid the singing of seasonal carols. The Christmas ceremony is accompanied by a reading of A Visit From St. Nicholas by Clement Clarke Moore and Yes, Virginia, There is a Santa Claus by Francis Pharcellus Church. Notable people Alumni The university has graduated many notable alumni, including five Founding Fathers of the United States, an author of the United States Constitution and a member of the Committee of Five. Three United States presidents have attended Columbia, as well as ten Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, including three Chief Justices. , 125 Pulitzer Prize winners and 39 Oscar winners have attended Columbia. , there were 101 National Academy members who were alumni. In a 2016 ranking of universities worldwide with respect to living graduates who are billionaires, Columbia ranked second, after Harvard. Former U.S. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Delano Roosevelt attended the law school. Other political figures educated at Columbia include former U.S. President Barack Obama, Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Ruth Bader Ginsburg, former U.S. Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, former chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank Alan Greenspan, U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder, and U.S. Solicitor General Donald Verrilli Jr. The university has also educated 29 foreign heads of state, including president of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili, president of East Timor José Ramos-Horta, president of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves and other historical figures such as Wellington Koo, Radovan Karadžić, Gaston Eyskens, and T. V. Soong. One of the founding fathers of modern India and the prime architect of the Constitution of India, B. R. Ambedkar, was an alumnus. Alumni of Columbia have occupied top positions in Wall Street and the rest of the business world. Notable members of the Astor family attended Columbia, while other business graduates include investor Warren Buffett, former CEO of PBS and NBC Lawrence K. Grossman, chairman of Walmart S. Robson Walton, Bain Capital Co-Managing Partner, Jonathan Lavine, Thomson Reuters CEO Tom Glocer, New York Stock Exchange president Lynn Martin, and AllianceBernstein Chairman and CEO Lewis A. Sanders. CEO's of top Fortune 500 companies include James P. Gorman of Morgan Stanley, Robert J. Stevens of Lockheed Martin, Philippe Dauman of Viacom, Robert Bakish of Paramount Global, Ursula Burns of Xerox, Devin Wenig of EBay, Vikram Pandit of Citigroup, Ralph Izzo of Public Service Enterprise Group, Gail Koziara Boudreaux of Anthem, and Frank Blake of The Home Depot. Notable labor organizer and women's educator Louise Leonard McLaren received her degree of Master of Arts from Columbia. In science and technology, Columbia alumni include: founder of IBM Herman Hollerith; inventor of FM radio Edwin Armstrong; Francis Mechner; integral in development of the nuclear submarine Hyman Rickover; founder of Google China Kai-Fu Lee; scientists Stephen Jay Gould, Robert Millikan, Helium–neon laser inventor Ali Javan and Mihajlo Pupin; chief-engineer of the New York City Subway, William Barclay Parsons; philosophers Irwin Edman and Robert Nozick; economist Milton Friedman; psychologist Harriet Babcock; archaeologist Josephine Platner Shear; and sociologists Lewis A. Coser and Rose Laub Coser. Many Columbia alumni have gone on to renowned careers in the arts, including composers Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II, Lorenz Hart, and Art Garfunkel; and painter Georgia O'Keeffe. Five United States Poet Laureates received their degrees from Columbia. Columbia alumni have made an indelible mark in the field of American poetry and literature, with such people as Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg, pioneers of the Beat Generation; and Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston, seminal figures in the Harlem Renaissance, all having attended the university. Other notable writers who attended Columbia include authors Isaac Asimov, J.D. Salinger, Upton Sinclair, Ursula K. Le Guin, Danielle Valore Evans, and Hunter S. Thompson. In architecture, William Lee Stoddart, a prolific architect of U.S. East Coast hotels, is an alumnus. University alumni have also been very prominent in the film industry, with 33 alumni and former students winning a combined 43 Academy Awards (). and Kathryn Bigelow (The Hurt Locker), screenwriters Howard Koch (Casablanca) and Joseph L. Mankiewicz (All About Eve), and actors James Cagney, Ed Harris and Timothée Chalamet.<gallery class"center" mode"nolines" caption"Notable Columbia University alumni include:"> File:Alexander Hamilton portrait by John Trumbull 1806.jpg\|Alexander Hamilton: Founding Father of the United States; author of The Federalist Papers; first United States Secretary of the Treasury — King's College File:John Jay (Gilbert Stuart portrait).jpg\|John Jay: Founding Father of the United States; author of The Federalist Papers; first Chief Justice of the United States; second Governor of New York — King's College File:Robert R Livingston, attributed to Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828).jpg\|Robert R. Livingston: Founding Father of the United States; drafter of the Declaration of Independence; first United States Secretary of Foreign Affairs — King's College File:Gouverneur Morris.jpg\|Gouverneur Morris: Founding Father of the United States; author of the United States Constitution; United States Senator from New York — King's College File:DeWitt Clinton by Rembrandt Peale.jpg\|DeWitt Clinton: United States Senator from New York; sixth Governor of New York; responsible for construction of Erie Canal — Columbia College File:President Barack Obama.jpg\|Barack Obama: 44th President of the United States; United States Senator from Illinois; Nobel laureate — Columbia College File:FDR in 1933.jpg\|Franklin D. Roosevelt: 32nd President of the United States; 44th Governor of New York — Columbia Law School File:President Theodore Roosevelt, 1904.jpg\|Theodore Roosevelt: 26th President of the United States; 25th Vice President of the United States; 33rd Governor of New York; Nobel laureate – Columbia Law School File:Wellington Koo 1945.jpg\|Wellington Koo: acting President of the Republic of China; judge of the International Court of Justice — Columbia College, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar.jpg\|B. R. Ambedkar: Founding Father of India; architect of the Constitution of India; First Minister of Law and Justice — Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Ruth Bader Ginsburg official SCOTUS portrait.jpg\|Ruth Bader Ginsburg: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States — Columbia Law School File:Associate Justice Neil Gorsuch Official Portrait.jpg\|Neil Gorsuch: Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States — Columbia College File:Charles Evans Hughes cph.3b15401.jpg\|Charles Evans Hughes: 11th Chief Justice of the United States; 44th United States Secretary of State; 35th Governor of New York — Columbia Law School File:Chief Justice Harlan Fiske Stone photograph circa 1927-1932 (cropped).jpg\|Harlan Fiske Stone: 12th Chief Justice of the United States; 52nd United States Attorney General — Columbia Law School File:William Barr.jpg\|William Barr: 77th and 85th United States Attorney General – Columbia College, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Hamilton Fish Brady Edited.jpg\|Hamilton Fish: 26th United States Secretary of State; United States Senator from New York; 16th Governor of New York — Columbia College File:Secalbright.jpg\|Madeleine Albright: 64th United States Secretary of State; first female Secretary of State — School of International and Public Affairs File:Frances Perkins cph.3a04983.jpg\|Frances Perkins: fourth United States Secretary of Labor; first female member of any U.S. Cabinet — Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Robert Andrews Millikan 1920s.jpg\|Robert A. Millikan: Nobel laureate; measured the elementary electric charge — Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:II Rabi.jpg\|Isidor Isaac Rabi: Nobel Laureate; discovered nuclear magnetic resonance — Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Schwinger.jpg\|Julian S. Schwinger: Nobel laureate; pioneer of quantum field theory — Columbia College, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Portrait of Milton Friedman.jpg\|Milton Friedman: Nobel laureate, leading member of the Chicago school of economics — Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Simon Kuznets 1971b.jpg\|Simon Kuznets: Nobel laureate; invented concept of GDP; Milton Friedman's doctoral advisor — School of General Studies, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Alan Greenspan color photo portrait.jpg\|Alan Greenspan: 13th Chair of the Federal Reserve — Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Warren Buffett KU Visit.jpg\|Warren Buffett: CEO of Berkshire Hathaway; one of the world's wealthiest people — Columbia Business School File:Hollerith.jpg\|Herman Hollerith: inventor; co-founder of IBM – School of Engineering and Applied Sciences File:Robert Kraft at Patriots at Raiders 12-14-08.JPG\|Robert Kraft: billionaire; owner of the New England Patriots; chairman and CEO of the Kraft Group — Columbia College File:Rodgers.jpg\|Richard Rodgers: legendary Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony award-winning composer; Pulitzer Prize winner — Columbia College File:LangstonHughes crop.jpg\|Langston Hughes: Harlem Renaissance poet, novelist, and playwright — School of Engineering and Applied Science File:Zora Neale Hurston.jpg\|Zora Neale Hurston: Harlem Renaissance author, anthropologist, and filmmaker — Barnard College, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:Allen Ginsberg 1979 - cropped.jpg\|Allen Ginsberg: poet; founder of the Beat Generation — Columbia College File:Kerouac by Palumbo 2 (cropped).png\|Jack Kerouac: poet; founder of the Beat Generation — Columbia College File:Isaac.Asimov01.jpg\|Isaac Asimov: science fiction writer; biochemist — School of General Studies, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences File:J. D. Salinger (Catcher in the Rye portrait).jpg\|J. D. Salinger: novelist, The Catcher in the Rye — School of General Studies File:Amelia Earhart 1935.jpg\|Amelia Earhart: first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean — School of General Studies File:Jake Gyllenhaal (22373266462) (cropped 2).jpg\|Jake Gyllenhaal: actor and film producer — Columbia College File:Timothée Chalamet-63481.jpg\|Timothee Chalamet: actor, Call Me By Your Name, Dune, A Complete Unknown, Wonka — Columbia College </gallery> Faculty As of 2021, Columbia employs 4,381 faculty, including 70 members of the National Academy of Sciences, 178 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and 65 members of the National Academy of Medicine. In total, the Columbia faculty has included 52 Nobel laureates, 12 National Medal of Science recipients, and 32 National Academy of Engineering members. Columbia University faculty played particularly important roles during World War II and the creation of the New Deal under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who attended Columbia Law School. The three core members of Roosevelt's Brain Trust: Adolf A. Berle, Raymond Moley, and Rexford Tugwell, were law professors at Columbia. The Statistical Research Group, which used statistics to analyze military problems during World War II, was composed of Columbia researchers and faculty including George Stigler and Milton Friedman. Columbia faculty and researchers, including Enrico Fermi, Leo Szilard, Eugene T. Booth, John R. Dunning, George B. Pegram, Walter Zinn, Chien-Shiung Wu, Francis G. Slack, Harold Urey, Herbert L. Anderson, and Isidor Isaac Rabi, also played a significant role during the early phases of the Manhattan Project. Following the rise of Nazi Germany, the exiled Institute for Social Research at Goethe University Frankfurt would affiliate itself with Columbia from 1934 to 1950. It was during this period that thinkers including Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Herbert Marcuse wrote and published some of the most seminal works of the Frankfurt School, including Reason and Revolution, Dialectic of Enlightenment, and Eclipse of Reason. Professors Edward Said, author of Orientalism, and Gayatri Spivak are generally considered as founders of the field of postcolonialism; other professors that have significantly contributed to the field include Hamid Dabashi and Joseph Massad. The works of professors Kimberlé Crenshaw, Patricia J. Williams, and Kendall Thomas were foundational to the field of critical race theory. Columbia and its affiliated faculty have also made significant contributions to the study of religion. The affiliated Union Theological Seminary is a center of liberal Christianity in the United States, having served as the birthplace of Black theology through the efforts of faculty including James H. Cone and Cornel West, and Womanist theology, through the works of Katie Cannon, Emilie Townes, and Delores S. Williams. Likewise, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America was the birthplace of Conservative Judaism movement in the United States, which was founded and led by faculty members including Solomon Schechter, Alexander Kohut, and Louis Ginzberg in the early 20th century, and is a major center for Jewish studies in general. Other schools of thought in the humanities Columbia professors made significant contributions toward include the Dunning School, founded by William Archibald Dunning; the anthropological schools of historical particularism and cultural relativism, founded by Franz Boas; and functional psychology, whose founders and proponents include John Dewey, James McKeen Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth. Notable figures that have served as the president of Columbia University include 34th President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower, 4th Vice President of the United States George Clinton, Founding Father and U.S. Senator from Connecticut William Samuel Johnson, Nobel Peace Prize laureate Nicholas Murray Butler, and First Amendment scholar Lee Bollinger. Notable Columbia University faculty include Zbigniew Brzezinski, Sonia Sotomayor, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Lee Bollinger, Franz Boas, Margaret Mead, Edward Sapir, John Dewey, Charles A. Beard, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, Edward Said, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Orhan Pamuk, Edwin Howard Armstrong, Enrico Fermi, Chien-Shiung Wu, Tsung-Dao Lee, Jack Steinberger, Joachim Frank, Joseph Stiglitz, Jeffrey Sachs, Robert Mundell, Thomas Hunt Morgan, Eric Kandel, Richard Axel, and Andrei Okounkov. See also * Columbia Encyclopedia * Columbia Glacier, a glacier in Alaska, U.S., named for Columbia University * Columbia MM, a text-based mail client developed at Columbia University * Columbia Non-neutral Torus, a small stellarator at the Columbia University Plasma Physics Laboratory * Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, an album of electronic music released in 1961 * Columbia Revolt, a black-and-white 1968 documentary film * Columbia Scholastic Press Association * Columbia School of Linguistics * Columbia Spelling Board, a historic etymological organization * Columbia Unbecoming controversy * Columbia University in popular culture * Columbia University Partnership for International Development * Mount Columbia, a mountain in Colorado, U.S., named for Columbia University * Nutellagate, a controversy surrounding high Nutella consumption at Columbia University * The Strawberry Statement, a non-fiction account of the 1968 protests * 2024 Columbia University pro-Palestinian campus occupations Notes ReferencesSources* * * * </ref>Further reading * Carriere, Micheal. "Fighting the war against blight: Columbia University, Morningside Heights, Inc., and counterinsurgent urban renewal." Journal of Planning History 10.1 (2011): 5-29. * De Bary, Wm Theodore ed. Living Legacies at Columbia (Columbia University Press, 2006), . * McCaughey, Robert A. Stand, Columbia: A History of Columbia University in the City of New York, 1754–2004, Columbia University Press, 2003, . * Pettit, Marilyn H. "Slavery, abolition, and Columbia University." Journal of Archival Organization 1.4 (2002): 77–89. External links * \|list }} Category:1754 establishments in the Province of New York Category:Colonial colleges Category:Educational institutions established in 1754 Category:McKim, Mead & White buildings Category:Morningside Heights, Manhattan Category:Need-blind educational institutions Category:New York (state) in the American Revolution Category:Private universities and colleges in New York City Category:Universities and colleges established in the 18th century Category:Universities and colleges in Manhattan Category:501(c)(3) organizations Category:Universities and colleges in New York City Category:Ivy Plus universities	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University	2025-04-05T18:27:47.707343
6312	Cell wall	A cell wall is a structural layer that surrounds some cell types, found immediately outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. Primarily, it provides the cell with structural support, shape, protection, and functions as a selective barrier. Another vital role of the cell wall is to help the cell withstand osmotic pressure and mechanical stress. While absent in many eukaryotes, including animals, cell walls are prevalent in other organisms such as fungi, algae and plants, and are commonly found in most prokaryotes, with the exception of mollicute bacteria. The composition of cell walls varies across taxonomic groups, species, cell type, and the cell cycle. In land plants, the primary cell wall comprises polysaccharides like cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin. Often, other polymers such as lignin, suberin or cutin are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls. Algae exhibit cell walls composed of glycoproteins and polysaccharides, such as carrageenan and agar, distinct from those in land plants. Bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, while archaeal cell walls vary in composition, potentially consisting of glycoprotein S-layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls constructed from the polymer chitin, specifically N-acetylglucosamine. Diatoms have a unique cell wall composed of biogenic silica.HistoryA plant cell wall was first observed and named (simply as a "wall") by Robert Hooke in 1665. However, "the dead excrusion product of the living protoplast" was forgotten, for almost three centuries, being the subject of scientific interest mainly as a resource for industrial processing or in relation to animal or human health. In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link proved that cells had independent cell walls. Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and that fluid passed between them this way. The mode of formation of the cell wall was controversial in the 19th century. Hugo von Mohl (1853, 1858) advocated the idea that the cell wall grows by apposition. Carl Nägeli (1858, 1862, 1863) believed that the growth of the wall in thickness and in area was due to a process termed intussusception. Each theory was improved in the following decades: the apposition (or lamination) theory by Eduard Strasburger (1882, 1889), and the intussusception theory by Julius Wiesner (1886). In 1930, Ernst Münch coined the term apoplast in order to separate the "living" symplast from the "dead" plant region, the latter of which included the cell wall. By the 1980s, some authors suggested replacing the term "cell wall", particularly as it was used for plants, with the more precise term "extracellular matrix", as used for animal cells, Properties Cell walls serve similar purposes in those organisms that possess them. They may give cells rigidity and strength, offering protection against mechanical stress. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of the cell wall are linked with plant cell growth and morphogenesis. In multicellular organisms, they permit the organism to build and hold a definite shape. Cell walls also limit the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell. They further permit the creation of stable osmotic environments by preventing osmotic lysis and helping to retain water. Their composition, properties, and form may change during the cell cycle and depend on growth conditions.}} The apparent rigidity of the cell wall thus results from inflation of the cell contained within. This inflation is a result of the passive uptake of water. In plants, a secondary cell wall is a thicker additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity. Additional layers may be formed by lignin in xylem cell walls, or suberin in cork cell walls. These compounds are rigid and waterproof, making the secondary wall stiff. Both wood and bark cells of trees have secondary walls. Other parts of plants such as the leaf stalk may acquire similar reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces. Permeability The primary cell wall of most plant cells is freely permeable to small molecules including small proteins, with size exclusion estimated to be 30-60 kDa. The pH is an important factor governing the transport of molecules through cell walls.Evolution Cell walls evolved independently in many groups. The photosynthetic eukaryotes (so-called plant and algae) is one group with cellulose cell walls, where the cell wall is closely related to the evolution of multicellularity, terrestrialization and vascularization. The CesA cellulose synthase evolved in Cyanobacteria and was part of Archaeplastida since endosymbiosis; secondary endosymbiosis events transferred it (with the arabinogalactan proteins) further into brown algae and oomycetes. Plants later evolved various genes from CesA, including the Csl (cellulose synthase-like) family of proteins and additional Ces proteins. Combined with the various glycosyltransferases (GT), they enable more complex chemical structures to be built.<!-- try 10.3389/fpls.2012.00152 --> Fungi use a chitin-glucan-protein cell wall. An alternative scenario is that fungi started with a chitin-based cell wall and later acquired the GT-48 enzymes for the 1,3-β-glucans via horizontal gene transfer. The pathway leading to 1,6-β-glucan synthesis is not sufficiently known in either case.Plant cell wallsThe walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal osmotic pressures of several times atmospheric pressure that result from the difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external solutions.LayersUp to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls: The primary cell wall, generally a thin, flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing. The secondary cell wall, a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is fully grown. It is not found in all cell types. Some cells, such as the conducting cells in xylem, possess a secondary wall containing lignin, which strengthens and waterproofs the wall. The middle lamella, a layer rich in pectins. This outermost layer forms the interface between adjacent plant cells and glues them together. Composition In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major carbohydrates are cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan. In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially replaced by glucuronoarabinoxylan, another type of hemicellulose. Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow) by a mechanism called acid growth, mediated by expansins, extracellular proteins activated by acidic conditions that modify the hydrogen bonds between pectin and cellulose. This functions to increase cell wall extensibility. The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with cutin and wax, forming a permeability barrier known as the plant cuticle. Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify their mechanical properties and permeability. The major polymers that make up wood (largely secondary cell walls) include: cellulose, 35-50% * xylan, 20-35%, a type of hemicellulose * lignin, 10-25%, a complex phenolic polymer that penetrates the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin components, driving out water and strengthening the wall. Additionally, structural proteins (1-5%) are found in most plant cell walls; they are classified as hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP), arabinogalactan proteins (AGP), glycine-rich proteins (GRPs), and proline-rich proteins (PRPs). Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly repetitive protein sequence. Most are glycosylated, contain hydroxyproline (Hyp) and become cross-linked in the cell wall. These proteins are often concentrated in specialized cells and in cell corners. Cell walls of the epidermis may contain cutin. The Casparian strip in the endodermis roots and cork cells of plant bark contain suberin. Both cutin and suberin are polyesters that function as permeability barriers to the movement of water. The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds and proteins varies between plants and between the cell type and age. Plant cells walls also contain numerous enzymes, such as hydrolases, esterases, peroxidases, and transglycosylases, that cut, trim and cross-link wall polymers. Secondary walls - especially in grasses - may also contain microscopic silica crystals, which may strengthen the wall and protect it from herbivores. Cell walls in some plant tissues also function as storage deposits for carbohydrates that can be broken down and resorbed to supply the metabolic and growth needs of the plant. For example, endosperm cell walls in the seeds of cereal grasses, nasturtium and other species, are rich in glucans and other polysaccharides that are readily digested by enzymes during seed germination to form simple sugars that nourish the growing embryo. Formation The middle lamella is laid down first, formed from the cell plate during cytokinesis, and the primary cell wall is then deposited inside the middle lamella. The actual structure of the cell wall is not clearly defined and several models exist - the covalently linked cross model, the tether model, the diffuse layer model and the stratified layer model. However, the primary cell wall, can be defined as composed of cellulose microfibrils aligned at all angles. Cellulose microfibrils are produced at the plasma membrane by the cellulose synthase complex, which is proposed to be made of a hexameric rosette that contains three cellulose synthase catalytic subunits for each of the six units. Microfibrils are held together by hydrogen bonds to provide a high tensile strength. The cells are held together and share the gelatinous membrane (the middle lamella), which contains magnesium and calcium pectates (salts of pectic acid). Cells interact though plasmodesmata, which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall. In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a secondary wall is constructed between the plasma membrane and primary wall. Unlike the primary wall, the cellulose microfibrils are aligned parallel in layers, the orientation changing slightly with each additional layer so that the structure becomes helicoidal. Cells with secondary cell walls can be rigid, as in the gritty sclereid cells in pear and quince fruit. Cell to cell communication is possible through pits in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesmata to connect cells through the secondary cell walls.Fungal cell walls polymer chain]] There are several groups of organisms that have been called "fungi". Some of these groups (Oomycete and Myxogastria) have been transferred out of the Kingdom Fungi, in part because of fundamental biochemical differences in the composition of the cell wall. Most true fungi have a cell wall consisting largely of chitin and other polysaccharides. True fungi do not have cellulose in their cell walls. In fungi, the cell wall is the outer-most layer, external to the plasma membrane. The fungal cell wall is a matrix of three main components: Algal cell walls contain either polysaccharides (such as cellulose (a glucan)) or a variety of glycoproteins (Volvocales) or both. The inclusion of additional polysaccharides in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal taxonomy. * Mannans: They form microfibrils in the cell walls of a number of marine green algae including those from the genera, Codium, Dasycladus, and Acetabularia as well as in the walls of some red algae, like Porphyra and Bangia. * Xylans: * Alginic acid: It is a common polysaccharide in the cell walls of brown algae. * Sulfonated polysaccharides: They occur in the cell walls of most algae; those common in red algae include agarose, carrageenan, porphyran, furcelleran and funoran. Other compounds that may accumulate in algal cell walls include sporopollenin and calcium ions. The group of algae known as the diatoms synthesize their cell walls (also known as frustules or valves) from silicic acid. Significantly, relative to the organic cell walls produced by other groups, silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8%), potentially a major saving on the overall cell energy budget and possibly an explanation for higher growth rates in diatoms. In brown algae, phlorotannins may be a constituent of the cell walls. Water molds The group Oomycetes, also known as water molds, are saprotrophic plant pathogens like fungi. Until recently they were widely believed to be fungi, but structural and molecular evidence has led to their reclassification as heterokonts, related to autotrophic brown algae and diatoms. Unlike fungi, oomycetes typically possess cell walls of cellulose and glucans rather than chitin, although some genera (such as Achlya and Saprolegnia) do have chitin in their walls. The fraction of cellulose in the walls is no more than 4 to 20%, far less than the fraction of glucans. The spore wall has three layers, the middle one composed primarily of cellulose, while the innermost is sensitive to cellulase and pronase. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria, although L-form bacteria can be produced in the laboratory that lack a cell wall. The antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse. Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids. Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins. Most bacteria have the gram-negative cell wall and only the Bacillota and Actinomycetota (previously known as the low G+C and high G+C gram-positive bacteria, respectively) have the alternative gram-positive arrangement. These differences in structure produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility. The beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g. penicillin, cephalosporin) only work against gram-negative pathogens, such as Haemophilus influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The glycopeptide antibiotics (e.g. vancomycin, teicoplanin, telavancin) only work against gram-positive pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus Archaeal cell walls Although not truly unique, the cell walls of Archaea are unusual. Whereas peptidoglycan is a standard component of all bacterial cell walls, all archaeal cell walls lack peptidoglycan, though some methanogens have a cell wall made of a similar polymer called pseudopeptidoglycan. While the overall structure of archaeal pseudopeptidoglycan superficially resembles that of bacterial peptidoglycan, there are a number of significant chemical differences. Like the peptidoglycan found in bacterial cell walls, pseudopeptidoglycan consists of polymer chains of glycan cross-linked by short peptide connections. However, unlike peptidoglycan, the sugar N-acetylmuramic acid is replaced by N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid, Many algae have a sheath or envelope of mucilage outside the cell made of exopolysaccharides. Diatoms build a frustule from silica extracted from the surrounding water; radiolarians, foraminiferans, testate amoebae and silicoflagellates also produce a skeleton from minerals, called test in some groups. Many green algae, such as Halimeda and the Dasycladales, and some red algae, the Corallinales, encase their cells in a secreted skeleton of calcium carbonate. In each case, the wall is rigid and essentially inorganic. It is the non-living component of cell. Some golden algae, ciliates and choanoflagellates produces a shell-like protective outer covering called lorica. Some dinoflagellates have a theca of cellulose plates, and coccolithophorids have coccoliths. An extracellular matrix (ECM) is also present in metazoans. Its composition varies between cells, but collagens are the most abundant protein in the ECM. See also * Extracellular matrix * Bacterial cell structure * Plant cell References External links * [http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plants/cellwall.html Cell wall ultrastructure] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070325121027/http://www.palaeos.com/Fungi/FPieces/CellWall.html The Cell Wall] Category:Plant physiology Category:Organelles	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall	2025-04-05T18:27:47.734651
6313	Classical element	representation of universe resulting by combination of Aristotle four elements]] set of personification figurines of the Four Elements, 1760s, Chelsea porcelain]] The classical elements typically refer to earth, water, air, fire, and (later) aether which were proposed to explain the nature and complexity of all matter in terms of simpler substances. Ancient cultures in Greece, Angola, Tibet, India, and Mali had similar lists which sometimes referred, in local languages, to "air" as "wind", and to "aether" as "space". (Sanamahism)]] These different cultures and even individual philosophers had widely varying explanations concerning their attributes and how they related to observable phenomena as well as cosmology. Sometimes these theories overlapped with mythology and were personified in deities. Some of these interpretations included atomism (the idea of very small, indivisible portions of matter), but other interpretations considered the elements to be divisible into infinitely small pieces without changing their nature. While the classification of the material world in ancient India, Hellenistic Egypt, and ancient Greece into air, earth, fire, and water was more philosophical, during the Middle Ages medieval scientists used practical, experimental observation to classify materials. In Europe, the ancient Greek concept, devised by Empedocles, evolved into the systematic classifications of Aristotle and Hippocrates. This evolved slightly into the medieval system, and eventually became the object of experimental verification in the 17th century, at the start of the Scientific Revolution. Modern science does not support the classical elements to classify types of substances. Atomic theory classifies atoms into more than a hundred chemical elements such as oxygen, iron, and mercury, which may form chemical compounds and mixtures. The modern categories roughly corresponding to the classical elements are the states of matter produced under different temperatures and pressures. Solid, liquid, gas, and plasma share many attributes with the corresponding classical elements of earth, water, air, and fire, but these states describe the similar behavior of different types of atoms at similar energy levels, not the characteristic behavior of certain atoms or substances. Hellenistic philosophy <!-- This section is linked from Democritus --> {\|class="wikitable floatright" \|Aristotelian elements and qualities \|- \| style="background:#ffffff; text-align:center;" \| Empedoclean elements fire air <br /> water earth \|} The ancient Greek concept of four basic elements, these being earth ( ), water ( ), air ( ), and fire ( ), dates from pre-Socratic times and persisted throughout the Middle Ages and into the Early modern period, deeply influencing European thought and culture. Pre-Socratic elements Water, air, or fire? and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]]The classical elements were first proposed independently by several early Pre-Socratic philosophers. Greek philosophers had debated which substance was the arche ("first principle"), or primordial element from which everything else was made. Thales () believed that water was this principle. Anaximander () argued that the primordial substance was not any of the known substances, but could be transformed into them, and they into each other. Anaximenes () favored air, and Heraclitus (<abbr>fl.</abbr> ) championed fire. Fire, earth, air, and water The Greek philosopher Empedocles () was the first to propose the four classical elements as a set: fire, earth, air, and water. He called them the four "roots" (, ). Empedocles also proved (at least to his own satisfaction) that air was a separate substance by observing that a bucket inverted in water did not become filled with water, a pocket of air remaining trapped inside. Fire, earth, air, and water have become the most popular set of classical elements in modern interpretations. One such version was provided by Robert Boyle in The Sceptical Chymist, which was published in 1661 in the form of a dialogue between five characters. Themistius, the Aristotelian of the party, says: Humorism (Hippocrates) According to Galen, these elements were used by Hippocrates () in describing the human body with an association with the four humours: yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), blood (air), and phlegm (water). Medical care was primarily about helping the patient stay in or return to their own personal natural balanced state. Plato Plato (428/423 – 348/347 BC) seems to have been the first to use the term "element (, )" in reference to air, fire, earth, and water. The ancient Greek word for element, (from , "to line up") meant "smallest division (of a sun-dial), a syllable", as the composing unit of an alphabet it could denote a letter and the smallest unit from which a word is formed. Aristotle In On the Heavens (350 BC), Aristotle defines "element" in general: In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements to two of the four sensible qualities: * Fire is both hot and dry. * Air is both hot and wet (for air is like vapor, ). * Water is both cold and wet. * Earth is both cold and dry. A classic diagram has one square inscribed in the other, with the corners of one being the classical elements, and the corners of the other being the properties. The opposite corner is the opposite of these properties, "hot – cold" and "dry – wet". Aether Aristotle added a fifth element, aether ( ), as the quintessence, reasoning that whereas fire, earth, air, and water were earthly and corruptible, since no changes had been perceived in the heavenly regions, the stars cannot be made out of any of the four elements but must be made of a different, unchangeable, heavenly substance. It had previously been believed by pre-Socratics such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras that aether, the name applied to the material of heavenly bodies, was a form of fire. Aristotle himself did not use the term aether for the fifth element, and strongly criticised the pre-Socratics for associating the term with fire. He preferred a number of other terms indicating eternal movement, thus emphasising the evidence for his discovery of a new element. These five elements have been associated since Plato's Timaeus with the five platonic solids. Neo-Platonism The Neoplatonic philosopher Proclus rejected Aristotle's theory relating the elements to the sensible qualities hot, cold, wet, and dry. He maintained that each of the elements has three properties. Fire is sharp (ὀξυτητα), subtle (λεπτομερειαν), and mobile (εὐκινησιαν) while its opposite, earth, is blunt (αμβλυτητα), dense (παχυμερειαν), and immobile (ακινησιαν); they are joined by the intermediate elements, air and water, in the following fashion: {\|class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; width:240px; height:135px;" \|- ! Fire \| style"background: pink" \| Sharp \|\| style"background: pink" \| Subtle \|\| style="background: pink" \| Mobile \|- ! Air \| style"background: lightgreen" \| Blunt \|\| style"background: pink" \| Subtle \|\| style="background: pink" \| Mobile \|- ! Water \| style"background: lightgreen" \| Blunt \|\| style"background: lightgreen" \| Dense \|\| style="background: pink" \| Mobile \|- ! Earth \| style"background: lightgreen" \| Blunt \|\| style"background: lightgreen" \| Dense \|\| style="background: lightgreen" \| Immobile \|} Hermeticism A text written in Egypt in Hellenistic or Roman times called the Kore Kosmou ("Virgin of the World") ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus (associated with the Egyptian god Thoth), names the four elements fire, water, air, and earth. As described in this book: Ancient Indian philosophy Hinduism <!-- This section is linked from Akasha --> The system of five elements are found in Vedas, especially Ayurveda, the pancha mahabhuta, or "five great elements", of Hinduism are: #bhūmi or pṛthvī (earth), #āpas or jala (water), #agní or tejas (fire), #vāyu, vyāna, or vāta (air or wind) #ākāśa, vyom, or śūnya (space or zero) or (aether or void). They further suggest that all of creation, including the human body, is made of these five essential elements and that upon death, the human body dissolves into these five elements of nature, thereby balancing the cycle of nature. The five elements are associated with the five senses, and act as the gross medium for the experience of sensations. The basest element, earth, created using all the other elements, can be perceived by all five senses — (i) hearing, (ii) touch, (iii) sight, (iv) taste, and (v) smell. The next higher element, water, has no odor but can be heard, felt, seen and tasted. Next comes fire, which can be heard, felt and seen. Air can be heard and felt. "Akasha" (aether) is beyond the senses of smell, taste, sight, and touch; it being accessible to the sense of hearing alone. Buddhism Buddhism has had a variety of thought about the five elements and their existence and relevance, some of which continue to this day. In the Pali literature, the mahabhuta ("great elements") or catudhatu ("four elements") are earth, water, fire and air. In early Buddhism, the four elements are a basis for understanding suffering and for liberating oneself from suffering. The earliest Buddhist texts explain that the four primary material elements are solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility, characterized as earth, water, fire, and air, respectively. The Buddha's teaching regarding the four elements is to be understood as the base of all observation of real sensations rather than as a philosophy. The four properties are cohesion (water), solidity or inertia (earth), expansion or vibration (air) and heat or energy content (fire). He promulgated a categorization of mind and matter as composed of eight types of "kalapas" of which the four elements are primary and a secondary group of four are colour, smell, taste, and nutriment which are derivative from the four primaries.: "the atomic theory prevailed in India in the time of the Buddha. Paramàõu was the ancient term for the modern atom. According to the ancient belief one rathareõu consists of 16 tajjàris, one tajjàri, 16 aõus; one aõu, 16 paramàõus. The minute particles of dust seen dancing in the sunbeam are called rathareõus. One para-màõu is, therefore, 4096th part of a rathareõu. This para-màõu was considered indivisible. With His supernormal knowledge the Buddha analysed this so-called paramàõu and declared that it consists of paramatthas—ultimate entities which cannot further be subdivided." "ñhavi in earth, àpo in water, tejo in fire, and vàyo in air. They are also called Mahàbhåtas or Great Essentials because they are invariably found in all material substances ranging from the infinitesimally small cell to the most massive object. Dependent on them are the four subsidiary material qualities of colour (vaõõa)., smell (gandha), taste (rasa), and nutritive essence (ojà). These eight coexisting forces and qualities constitute one material group called 'Suddhaññhaka Rupa kalàpa—pure-octad material group'."}} Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997) renders an extract of Shakyamuni Buddha's from Pali into English thus: Tibetan Buddhist medical literature speaks of the (five elements) or "elemental properties": earth, water, fire, wind, and space. * Aether represents mbûngi, the circular void that begot the universe. * Air (South) represents musoni, the period of conception that takes place during spring. * Fire (East) represent kala, the period of birth that takes place during summer. * Earth (North) represents tukula, the period of maturity that takes place during fall. * Water (West) represents luvemba, the period of death that takes place during winter Mali In traditional Bambara spirituality, the Supreme God created four additional essences of himself during creation. Together, these five essences of the deity correlate with the five classical elements. * Koni is the thought and void (aether). * Bemba (also called Pemba) is the god of the sky and air. * Nyale (also called Koroni Koundyé) is the goddess of fire. * Faro is the androgynous god of water. * Ndomadyiri is the god and master of the earth. Post-classical history Alchemy The elemental system used in medieval alchemy was developed primarily by the anonymous authors of the Arabic works attributed to Pseudo Apollonius of Tyana. This system consisted of the four classical elements of air, earth, fire, and water, in addition to a new theory called the sulphur-mercury theory of metals, which was based on two elements: sulphur, characterizing the principle of combustibility, "the stone which burns"; and mercury, characterizing the principle of metallic properties. They were seen by early alchemists as idealized expressions of irreducible components of the universe and are of larger consideration within philosophical alchemy. The three metallic principles—sulphur to flammability or combustion, mercury to volatility and stability, and salt to solidity—became the tria prima of the Swiss alchemist Paracelsus. He reasoned that Aristotle's four element theory appeared in bodies as three principles. Paracelsus saw these principles as fundamental and justified them by recourse to the description of how wood burns in fire. Mercury included the cohesive principle, so that when it left in smoke the wood fell apart. Smoke described the volatility (the mercurial principle), the heat-giving flames described flammability (sulphur), and the remnant ash described solidity (salt).Japan Japanese traditions use a set of elements called the (godai, literally "five great"). These five are earth, water, fire, wind/air, and void. These came from Indian Vastu shastra philosophy and Buddhist beliefs; in addition, the classical Chinese elements (, wu xing) are also prominent in Japanese culture, especially to the influential Neo-Confucianists during the medieval Edo period. * Earth represented rocks and stability. * Water represented fluidity and adaptability. * Fire represented life and energy. * Wind represented movement and expansion. * Void or Sky/Heaven represented spirit and creative energy. Medieval Aristotelian philosophy The Islamic philosophers al-Kindi, Avicenna and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi followed Aristotle in connecting the four elements with the four natures heat and cold (the active force), and dryness and moisture (the recipients). Medicine Wheel The medicine wheel symbol is a modern invention attributed to Native American peoples dating to approximately 1972, with the following descriptions and associations being a later addition. The associations with the classical elements are not grounded in traditional Indigenous teachings and the symbol has not been adopted by all Indigenous American nations. Earth (South) represents the youth cycle, summer, the Indigenous race, and cedar medicine. Fire (East) represents the birth cycle, spring, the Asian race, and tobacco medicine. Wind/Air (North) represents the elder cycle, winter, the European race, and sweetgrass medicine. Water (West) represents the adulthood cycle, autumn, the African race, and sage medicine. Modern history , The Four Elements, before 1641]] Chemical element The Aristotelian tradition and medieval alchemy eventually gave rise to modern chemistry, scientific theories and new taxonomies. By the time of Antoine Lavoisier, for example, a list of elements would no longer refer to classical elements. Some modern scientists see a parallel between the classical elements and the four states of matter: solid, liquid, gas and weakly ionized plasma. Modern science recognizes classes of elementary particles which have no substructure (or rather, particles that are not made of other particles) and composite particles having substructure (particles made of other particles). Western astrology Western astrology uses the four classical elements in connection with astrological charts and horoscopes. The twelve signs of the zodiac are divided into the four elements: Fire signs are Aries, Leo and Sagittarius, Earth signs are Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn, Air signs are Gemini, Libra and Aquarius, and Water signs are Cancer, Scorpio, and Pisces.CriticismThe Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis writes that the theory of the classical elements "was bound to exercise a really harmful influence. As is now clear, Aristotle, by adopting this theory as the basis of his interpretation of nature and by never losing faith in it, took a course which promised few opportunities and many dangers for science." Bertrand Russell says that Aristotle's thinking became imbued with almost biblical authority in later centuries. So much so that "Ever since the beginning of the seventeenth century, almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine".See also * * * * – Early Islamic alchemy * * * * * * Notes References Bibliography * }} * * * * * * * External links * *[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/khin/wheel231.html Section on 4 elements in Buddhism] Category:Natural philosophy Category:History of astrology Category:Technical factors of astrology Category:Concepts in Chinese philosophy Category:Theories in ancient Greek philosophy Category:Indian philosophy Category:Hindu cosmology Category:Buddhist cosmology Category:Taoist cosmology Category:Esoteric cosmology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_element	2025-04-05T18:27:47.770286
6314	Fire (classical element)	Fire is one of the four classical elements along with earth, water and air in ancient Greek philosophy and science. Fire is considered to be both hot and dry and, according to Plato, is associated with the tetrahedron. Greek and Roman tradition Fire is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science. It was commonly associated with the qualities of energy, assertiveness, and passion. In one Greek myth, Prometheus stole fire from the gods to protect the otherwise helpless humans, but was punished for this charity. Fire was one of many archai proposed by the pre-Socratics, most of whom sought to reduce the cosmos, or its creation, to a single substance. Heraclitus considered fire to be the most fundamental of all elements. He believed fire gave rise to the other three elements: "All things are an interchange for fire, and fire for all things, just like goods for gold and gold for goods." He had a reputation for obscure philosophical principles and for speaking in riddles. He described how fire gave rise to the other elements as the: "upward-downward path", (), a "hidden harmony"  or series of transformations he called the "turnings of fire", (), first into sea, and half that sea into earth, and half that earth into rarefied air. This is a concept that anticipates both the four classical elements of Empedocles and Aristotle's transmutation of the four elements into one another. <blockquote>This world, which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made. But it always was and will be: an ever-living fire, with measures of it kindling, and measures going out.</blockquote> Heraclitus regarded the soul as being a mixture of fire and water, with fire being the more noble part and water the ignoble aspect. He believed the goal of the soul is to be rid of water and become pure fire: the dry soul is the best and it is worldly pleasures that make the soul "moist". He was known as the "weeping philosopher" and died of hydropsy, a swelling due to abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin. However, Empedocles of Akragas , is best known for having selected all elements as his archai and by the time of Plato , the four Empedoclian elements were well established. In the Timaeus, Plato's major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid he associated with fire was the tetrahedron which is formed from four triangles and contains the least volume with the greatest surface area. This also makes fire the element with the smallest number of sides, and Plato regarded it as appropriate for the heat of fire, which he felt is sharp and stabbing, (like one of the points of a tetrahedron). Plato's student Aristotle did not maintain his former teacher's geometric view of the elements, but rather preferred a somewhat more naturalistic explanation for the elements based on their traditional qualities. Fire the hot and dry element, like the other elements, was an abstract principle and not identical with the normal solids, liquids and combustion phenomena we experience: <blockquote> What we commonly call fire. It is not really fire, for fire is an excess of heat and a sort of ebullition; but in reality, of what we call air, the part surrounding the earth is moist and warm, because it contains both vapour and a dry exhalation from the earth. </blockquote> According to Aristotle, the four elements rise or fall toward their natural place in concentric layers surrounding the center of the Earth and form the terrestrial or sublunary spheres. In ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. Yellow bile was the humor identified with fire, since both were hot and dry. Other things associated with fire and yellow bile in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of summer, since it increased the qualities of heat and aridity; the choleric temperament (of a person dominated by the yellow bile humour); the masculine; and the eastern point of the compass. In alchemy the chemical element of sulfur was often associated with fire and its alchemical symbol and its symbol was an upward-pointing triangle. In alchemic tradition, metals are incubated by fire in the womb of the Earth and alchemists only accelerate their development.Ceremonial magicFire and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system. Philosophus (47) is the elemental grade attributed to fire; this grade is also attributed to the Qabalistic Sephirah Netzach and the planet Venus. The elemental weapon of fire is the Wand. Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings. The archangel of fire is Michael, the angel is Aral, the ruler is Seraph, the king is Djin, and the fire elementals (following Paracelsus) are called salamanders. Fire is considered to be active; it is represented by the symbol for Leo and it is referred to the lower right point of the pentacle in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentacle. Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community. Tarot Fire in tarot symbolizes conversion or passion. Many references to fire in tarot are related to the usage of fire in the practice of alchemy, in which the application of fire is a prime method of conversion, and everything that touches fire is changed, often beyond recognition. The symbol of fire was a cue pointing towards transformation, the chemical variant being the symbol delta, which is also the classical symbol for fire. Conversion symbolized can be good, for example, refining raw crudities to gold, as seen in The Devil. Conversion can also be bad, as in The Tower, symbolizing a downfall due to anger. Fire is associated with the suit of rods/wands, and as such, represents passion from inspiration. As an element, fire has mixed symbolism because it represents energy, which can be helpful when controlled, but volatile if left unchecked. Modern witchcraft Fire is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan traditions influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic, and Aleister Crowley's mysticism, which was in turn inspired by the Golden Dawn. Freemasonry In freemasonry, fire is present, for example, during the ceremony of winter solstice, a symbol also of renaissance and energy. Freemasonry takes the ancient symbolic meaning of fire and recognizes its double nature: creation, light, on the one hand, and destruction and purification, on the other. See also * Fire * Fire god * Fire worship * Pyrokinesis * Pyromancy * Pyromania References Further reading * Frazer, Sir James George, Myths of the Origin of Fire, London: Macmillan, 1930. * . Cambridge: Harvard University Press, [1948] 1970.}}External links * [http://www.friesian.com/elements.htm Different versions of the classical elements] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070706044038/http://www.healthspace.eu/health/regular/healthspace.php Overview the 5 elements] * [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/khin/wheel231.html Section on 4 elements in Buddhism] * [http://www.mheu.org/en/fire/ a virtual exhibition about the history of fire] Category:Classical elements Category:Esoteric cosmology Category:Fire in culture Category:Technical factors of astrology Category:History of astrology Category:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)	2025-04-05T18:27:47.781003
6315	Air (classical element)	Air or Wind is one of the four classical elements along with water, earth and fire in ancient Greek philosophy and in Western alchemy. Greek and Roman tradition thumb\|The four humors and their qualities According to Plato, it is associated with the octahedron; air is considered to be both hot and wet. The ancient Greeks used two words for air: aer meant the dim lower atmosphere, and aether meant the bright upper atmosphere above the clouds. Plato, for instance writes that "So it is with air: there is the brightest variety which we call aether, the muddiest which we call mist and darkness, and other kinds for which we have no name...." Among the early Greek Pre-Socratic philosophers, Anaximenes (mid-6th century BCE) named air as the arche. A similar belief was attributed by some ancient sources to Diogenes Apolloniates (late 5th century BCE), who also linked air with intelligence and soul (psyche), but other sources claim that his arche was a substance between air and fire. Aristophanes parodied such teachings in his play The Clouds by putting a prayer to air in the mouth of Socrates. Air was one of many archai proposed by the Pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance. However, Empedocles of Acragas (c. 495-c. 435 BCE) selected four archai for his four roots: air, fire, water, and earth. Ancient and modern opinions differ as to whether he identified air by the divine name Hera, Aidoneus or even Zeus. Empedocles’ roots became the four classical elements of Greek philosophy. Plato (427–347 BCE) took over the four elements of Empedocles. In the Timaeus, his major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid associated with air is the octahedron which is formed from eight equilateral triangles. This places air between fire and water which Plato regarded as appropriate because it is intermediate in its mobility, sharpness, and ability to penetrate. He also said of air that its minuscule components are so smooth that one can barely feel them. Plato's student Aristotle (384–322 BCE) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities. The four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the universe to form the sublunary sphere. According to Aristotle, air is both hot and wet and occupies a place between fire and water among the elemental spheres. Aristotle definitively separated air from aether. For him, aether was an unchanging, almost divine substance that was found only in the heavens, where it formed celestial spheres. Humorism and temperaments Humour Season Ages Element Organ Qualities Temperament Blood spring infancy air liver moist and warm sanguine Yellow bile summer youth fire gallbladder warm and dry choleric Black bile autumn adulthood earth spleen dry and cold melancholic Phlegm winter old age water brain/lungs cold and moist phlegmatic In ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. Blood was the humor identified with air, since both were hot and wet. Other things associated with air and blood in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of spring, since it increased the qualities of heat and moisture; the sanguine temperament (of a person dominated by the blood humour); hermaphrodite (combining the masculine quality of heat with the feminine quality of moisture); and the northern point of the compass. Alchemy thumb\|upright=0.4\|Alchemical symbol for air The alchemical symbol for air is an upward-pointing triangle, bisected by a horizontal line. Modern reception The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, founded in 1888, incorporates air and the other Greek classical elements into its teachings. The elemental weapon of air is the dagger which must be painted yellow with magical names and sigils written upon it in violet. Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings. The archangel of air is Raphael, the angel is Chassan, the ruler is Ariel, the king is Paralda, and the air elementals (following Paracelsus) are called sylphs. Air is considerable and it is referred to the upper left point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram. Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community. In the Golden Dawn and many other magical systems, each element is associated with one of the cardinal points and is placed under the care of guardian Watchtowers. The Watchtowers derive from the Enochian system of magic founded by Dee. In the Golden Dawn, they are represented by the Enochian elemental tablets. Air is associated with the east, which is guarded by the First Watchtower. Air is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan and Pagan traditions. Wicca in particular was influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic and Aleister Crowley's mysticism. Parallels in non-Western traditions Air is not one of the traditional five Chinese classical elements. Nevertheless, the ancient Chinese concept of Qi or chi is believed to be close to that of air. Qi is believed to be part of every living thing that exists, as a kind of "life force" or "spiritual energy". It is frequently translated as "energy flow", or literally as "air" or "breath". (For example, tiānqì, literally "sky breath", is the Chinese word for "weather"). The concept of qi is often reified, however no scientific evidence supports its existence. The element air also appears as a concept in the Buddhist philosophy which has an ancient history in China. Some Western modern occultists equate the Chinese classical element of metal with air, others with wood due to the elemental association of wind and wood in the bagua. Enlil was the god of air in ancient Sumer. Shu was the ancient Egyptian deity of air and the husband of Tefnut, goddess of moisture. He became an emblem of strength by virtue of his role in separating Nut from Geb. Shu played a primary role in the Coffin Texts, which were spells intended to help the deceased reach the realm of the afterlife safely. On the way to the sky, the spirit had to travel through the air as one spell indicates: "I have gone up in Shu, I have climbed on the sunbeams." According to Jain beliefs, the element air is inhabited by one-sensed beings or spirits called vāyukāya ekendriya, sometimes said to inhabit various kinds of winds such as whirlwinds, cyclones, monsoons, west winds and trade winds. Prior to reincarnating into another lifeform, spirits can remain as vāyukāya ekendriya from anywhere between one instant to up to three-thousand years, depending on the karma of the spirits. See also Atmosphere of Earth Sky deity Wind deity Notes References Barnes, Jonathan. Early Greek Philosophy. London: Penguin, 1987. Brier, Bob. Ancient Egyptian Magic. New York: Quill, 1980. Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. 6 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962–81. Hutton, Ronald. Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, 2001. Kraig, Donald Michael. Modern Magick: Eleven Lessons in the High Magickal Arts. St. Paul: Llewellyn, 1994. Lloyd, G. E. R. Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. Plato. Timaeus and Critias. Translated by Desmond Lee. Revised edition. London: Penguin, 1977. Regardie, Israel. The Golden Dawn. 6th edition. St. Paul: Llewellyn, 1990. Schiebinger, Londa. The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989. Valiente, Doreen. Witchcraft for Tomorrow. Custer, Wash.: Phoenix Publishing, 1978. Valiente, Doreen. The Rebirth of Witchcraft. Custer, Wash.: Phoenix Publishing, 1989. Vlastos, Gregory. Plato’s Universe. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975. Further reading Cunningham, Scott. Earth, Air, Fire and Water: More Techniques of Natural Magic. Starhawk. The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess. 3rd edition. 1999. External links Category:Atmosphere of Earth Category:Classical elements Category:Esoteric cosmology Category:History of astrology Category:Technical factors of astrology Category:Gases Category:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_(classical_element)	2025-04-05T18:27:47.792224
6316	Water (classical element)	Water is one of the classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy along with air, earth and fire, in the Asian Indian system Panchamahabhuta, and in the Chinese cosmological and physiological system Wu Xing. In contemporary esoteric traditions, it is commonly associated with the qualities of emotion and intuition. Greek and Roman tradition Water was one of many archai proposed by the Pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance. However, Empedocles of Acragas (c. 495 – c. 435 BC) selected four archai for his four roots: air, fire, water and earth. Empedocles roots became the four classical elements of Greek philosophy. Plato (427–347 BC) took over the four elements of Empedocles. In the Timaeus, his major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid associated with water is the icosahedron which is formed from twenty equilateral triangles. This makes water the element with the greatest number of sides, which Plato regarded as appropriate because water flows out of one's hand when picked up, as if it is made of tiny little balls. Plato's student Aristotle (384–322 BC) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities. The four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the Universe to form the sublunary sphere. According to Aristotle, water is both cold and wet and occupies a place between air and earth among the elemental spheres. thumb\|upright\|Alchemical symbol for water In ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. Phlegm was the humor identified with water, since both were cold and wet. Other things associated with water and phlegm in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of Winter, since it increased the qualities of cold and moisture, the phlegmatic temperament, the feminine and the western point of the compass. In alchemy, the chemical element of mercury was often associated with water and its alchemical symbol was a downward-pointing triangle. Indian tradition Ap () is the Vedic Sanskrit term for water, in Classical Sanskrit occurring only in the plural is not an element.v, (sometimes re-analysed as a thematic singular, ), whence Hindi . The term is from PIE hxap water. In Hindu philosophy, the term refers to water as an element, one of the Panchamahabhuta, or "five great elements". In Hinduism, it is also the name of the deva, a personification of water, (one of the Vasus in most later Puranic lists). The element water is also associated with Chandra or the moon and Shukra, who represent feelings, intuition and imagination. According to Jain tradition, water itself is inhabited by spiritual Jīvas called apakāya ekendriya. Ceremonial magic Water and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system. The elemental weapon of water is the cup. Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings. The archangel of water is Gabriel, the angel is Taliahad, the ruler is Tharsis, the king is Nichsa and the water elementals are called Ondines. It is referred to the upper right point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram. Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community. Modern witchcraft Water is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan traditions. Wicca in particular was influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic and Aleister Crowley's mysticism, which was in turn inspired by the Golden Dawn. See also Water Sea and river deity Notes External links Different versions of the classical elements Category:Classical elements Category:Water in culture Category:Esoteric cosmology Category:History of astrology Category:Technical factors of astrology Category:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_(classical_element)	2025-04-05T18:27:47.797877
6317	Earth (classical element)	Earth is one of the classical elements, in some systems being one of the four along with air, fire, and water. European tradition thumb\|left\|upright=0.7\|Earth (1681) by Benoît Massou, a statue of the Grande Commande, with allegorical attributes inspired by Cesare Ripa’s Iconologia. Earth is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science. It was commonly associated with qualities of heaviness, matter and the terrestrial world. Due to the hero cults, and chthonic underworld deities, the element of earth is also associated with the sensual aspects of both life and death in later occultism. Empedocles of Acragas proposed four archai by which to understand the cosmos: fire, air, water, and earth. Plato (427–347 BCE) believed the elements were geometric forms (the platonic solids) and he assigned the cube to the element of earth in his dialogue Timaeus. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) believed earth was the heaviest element, and his theory of natural place suggested that any earth–laden substances, would fall quickly, straight down, towards the center of the cosmos. In Classical Greek and Roman myth, various goddesses represented the Earth, seasons, crops and fertility, including Demeter and Persephone; Ceres; the Horae (goddesses of the seasons), and Proserpina; and Hades (Pluto) who ruled the souls of dead in the Underworld. In ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. Black bile was the humor identified with earth, since both were cold and dry. Other things associated with earth and black bile in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of fall, since it increased the qualities of cold and aridity; the melancholic temperament (of a person dominated by the black bile humour); the feminine; and the southern point of the compass. thumb\|left\|upright=0.4\|Alchemical symbol for earth In alchemy, earth was believed to be primarily dry, and secondarily cold, (as per Aristotle). Beyond those classical attributes, the chemical substance salt, was associated with earth and its alchemical symbol was a downward-pointing triangle, bisected by a horizontal line. Indian tradition Prithvi (Sanskrit: , also ) is the Hindu earth and mother goddess. According to one such tradition, she is the personification of the Earth itself; according to another, its actual mother, being Prithvi Tattwa, the essence of the element earth. As Prithvi Mata, or "Mother Earth", she contrasts with Dyaus Pita, "father sky". In the Rigveda, earth and sky are frequently addressed as a duality, often indicated by the idea of two complementary "half-shells." In addition, the element Earth is associated with Budha or Mercury who represents communication, business, mathematics and other practical matters. Jainism mentions one-sensed beings or spirits believed to inhabit the element earth sometimes classified as pṛthvīkāya ekendriya. Ceremonial magic Earth and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system. Zelator is the elemental grade attributed to earth; this grade is also attributed to the Sephirot of Malkuth. The elemental weapon of earth is the Pentacle. Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings. The archangel of earth is Uriel, the angel is Phorlakh, the ruler is Kerub, the king is Ghob, and the earth elementals (following Paracelsus) are called gnomes. Earth is considered to be passive; it is represented by the symbol for Taurus, and it is referred to the lower left point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram. Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community. It is sometimes represented by its Tattva or by a downward pointing triangle with a horizontal line through it. Modern witchcraft Earth is one of the five elements that appear in most Wiccan and Pagan traditions. Wicca in particular was influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic, and Aleister Crowley's mysticism which was in turn inspired by the Golden Dawn. Other traditions Earth is represented in the Aztec religion by a house; to the Hindus, a lotus; to the Scythians, a plough; to the Greeks, a wheel; and in Christian iconography; bulls and birds. See also Earth Gaia (mythology) Mother goddess Mother nature Pherecydes of Syros Notes External links Different versions of the classical elements Category:Earth in religion Category:Classical elements Category:Esoteric cosmology Category:History of astrology Category:Technical factors of astrology Category:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)	2025-04-05T18:27:47.805270
6319	Blue Jam	\| last_aired \| num_series = 3 \| num_episodes = 18 \| audio_format \| opentheme "Stem/Long Stem/Transmission 2" by DJ Shadow, played in reverse \| endtheme \| website \| podcast = }} Blue Jam was an ambient, surreal dark comedy and horror radio programme created and directed by Chris Morris. It was broadcast on BBC Radio 1 in the early hours of the morning, for three series from 1997 to 1999. The programme gained cult status due to its unique mix of surreal monologue, ambient soundtrack, synthesised voices, heavily edited broadcasts and recurring sketches. It featured vocal performances of Kevin Eldon, Julia Davis, Mark Heap, David Cann and Amelia Bullmore, with Morris himself delivering disturbing monologues, one of which was revamped and made into the BAFTA-winning short film My Wrongs #8245–8249 & 117. Writers who contributed to the programme included Graham Linehan, Arthur Mathews, Peter Baynham, David Quantick, Jane Bussmann, Robert Katz and the cast. The programme was adapted into the TV series Jam, which aired in 2000. Production On his inspiration for making the show, Morris commented: "It was so singular, and it came from a mood, quite a desolate mood. I had this misty, autumnal, boggy mood anyway, so I just went with that. But no doubt getting to the end of something like Brass Eye, where you've been forced to be a sort of surrogate lawyer, well, that's the most creatively stifling thing you could possibly do." Morris also described the show as being "like the nightmares you have when you fall asleep listening to the BBC World Service" (a reference to the World Service also appears in one of the monologues read by Morris). Morris originally requested that the show be broadcast at 3 a.m. on Radio 1 "because at that hour, on insomniac radio, the amplitude of terrible things is enormously overblown". As a compromise, the show was broadcast at midnight without much promotion. Morris reportedly included sketches too graphic or transgressive for radio that he knew would be cut so as to make his other material seem less transgressive in comparison. During the airing of episode 6 of series one, a re-editing of the Archbishop of Canterbury's speech at Princess Diana's funeral was deemed too offensive for broadcast, and was switched with a different episode as it aired. Format and style Each episode opened (and closed) with a short spoken monologue (delivered by Morris) describing, in surreal, broken language, various bizarre feelings and situations (for example: "when you sick so sad you cry, and in crying cry a whole leopard from your eye"), set to ambient music interspersed with short clips of other songs and sounds. The introduction would always end with "welcome in Blue Jam", inviting the listener, who is presumably experiencing such feelings, to get lost in the program. (This format was replicated in the television adaptation Jam, often reusing opening monologues from series 3 of the radio series.) The sketches within dealt with heavy and taboo topics, such as murder, suicide, missing or dead children, and rape. Common recurring sketches Doctor (played by David Cann): "The Doctor" is a seemingly "normal" physician working in a standard British medical practice. However, he has a habit of treating his patients in bizarre and often disturbing ways, such as prescribing heroin for a sore jaw, kissing patients on various body parts to make swellings go away, making a man with a headache jump up and down to make his penis swing (while mirroring the patient's bewildered jumping himself) and making a patient leave and go into the next room so he can examine him over the telephone. His name is revealed to be Michael Perlin in several sketches. The Monologue Man (played by Chris Morris): Short stories, often up to 10 minutes in length, written from the perspective of a lonely and socially inept man. Each story usually involves the protagonist's acquaintance Suzy in some capacity. Michael Alexander St. John: A parody of hyperbolic and pun-laden radio presenting, St. John presents items such as the top 10 singles charts and the weekend's gigs in an incongruous upper class English accent Bad Sex: Short clips of two lovers (played by Julia Davis and Kevin Eldon) making increasingly bizarre erotic requests of one another, such as to "shit your leg off" and "make your spunk come out green". The Interviewer (played by Chris Morris): conducting real interviews with celebrities such as Andrew Morton and Jerry Springer, Morris confuses and mocks his subjects with ambiguous and odd questions. Mr. Ventham (played by Mark Heap): An extremely awkward man who requires one-to-one consultations with Mr. Reilly (played by David Cann), who seems to be his psychologist, for the most banal of matters. The sketches not listed are often in the style of a documentary; characters speak as if being interviewed about a recent event. In one sketch, a character voiced by Morris describes a man attempting to commit suicide by jumping off a second-story balcony repeatedly; in another, an angry man (Eldon) shouts about how his car, after being picked up from the garage, is only four feet long. Radio stings Morris included a series of 'radio stings', bizarre sequences of sounds and prose as a parody of modern DJs' own soundbites and self-advertising pieces. Each one revolves around a contemporary DJ, such as Chris Moyles, Jo Whiley and Mark Goodier, typically involving each DJ dying in a graphic way or going mad in some form – for example, Chris Moyles covering himself in jam and hanging himself from the top of a building. Episodes Three series were produced, with a total of eighteen episodes. All episodes were originally broadcast weekly on BBC Radio 1. Series 1 was broadcast from 14 November to 19 December 1997; series 2 was broadcast from 27 March to 1 May 1998; and series 3 broadcast from 21 January to 25 February 1999. Series 1 – (Fridays) 14 November 1997 to 19 December 1997, from 00:00 to 01:00. Series 2 – (Fridays) 27 March 1998 to 1 May 1998, from 01:00 to 02:00. Series 3 – (Thursdays) 21 January 1999 to 25 February 1999, from 00:00 to 01:00. The first five episodes of series 1 of Blue Jam were repeated by BBC Radio 4 Extra in February and March 2014, and series 2 was rebroadcast in December. and also received a positive review by The Independent. Digital Spy wrote in 2014: "It's a heady cocktail that provokes an odd, unsettling reaction in the listener, yet Blue Jam is still thumpingly and frequently laugh-out-loud hilarious." Hot Press called it "as odd as comedy gets". CD release A CD of a number of Blue Jam sketches was released on 23 October 2000 by record label Warp. Although the CD claims to have 22 tracks, the last one, "www.bishopslips.com", is not a track, but rather a reference to the "Bishopslips" sketch, which was cut in the middle of a broadcast. Most of the sketches on the CD were remade for Jam. \| rev2 = NME \| rev2Score 8/10 \| rev3 = Select \| rev3score }} ; Track listing # "Blue Jam Intro" # "Doc Phone" # "Lamacq sting" # "4 ft Car" # "Suicide Journalist" # "Acupuncture" # "Bad Sex" # "Mayo Sting" # "Unflustered Parents" # "Moyles Sting" # "TV Lizards" # "Doc Cock" # "Hobbs Sting" # "Morton Interview" # "Fix It Girl" # "Porn" # "Kids Party" # "Club News" # "Whiley Sting" # "Little Girl Balls" # "Blue Jam Outro" # "www.bishopslips.com" (not a real track) Related shows Blue Jam was later made for television and broadcast on Channel 4 as Jam. It used unusual editing techniques to achieve an unnerving ambience in keeping with the radio show. Many of the sketches were lifted from the radio version, even to the extent of simply setting images to the radio soundtrack. A subsequent "re-mixed" airing, called Jaaaaam was even more extreme in its use of post-production gadgetry, often heavily distorting the footage. Blue Jam shares parallels with early editions of a US public radio show Joe Frank: Work in Progress from the mid-1980s, that Joe Frank did on the NPR affiliate station, KCRW, in Santa Monica, California.ReferencesExternal links [https://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/bluejam Blue Jam] on the BBC Comedy site – repeats on BBC Radio 4 Extra Category:1997 radio programme debuts Category:1999 radio programme endings Category:BBC Radio comedy programmes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Jam	2025-04-05T18:27:47.817457
6321	Channel 4	Four Score}} \| owner = Channel Four Television Corporation \| picture_format = 1080i/1080p HDTV (downscaled to 576i for the SDTV feed) \| headquarters = \| caption = Channel 4 Headquarters \| country = United Kingdom \| language = English \| area = \| sister_channels = \| timeshift_service = Channel 4 +1 \| website = \| terr_serv_1 = Freeview \| terr_chan_1 = \| online_serv_1 = Channel 4 \| online_chan_1 = \| online_serv_2 = TVPlayer \| online_chan_2 = [http://www.tvplayer.com/watch/channel4 Watch live] (UK only) \| online_serv_3 = Sky Go \| online_chan_3 = \| online_serv_4 = Virgin TV Anywhere \| online_chan_4 = }} Channel 4 is a British free-to-air public broadcast television channel owned and operated by Channel Four Television Corporation. It is publicly owned but, unlike the BBC, it receives no public funding and is funded entirely by its commercial activities, including advertising. It began its transmission in 1982 and was established to provide a fourth television service in the United Kingdom. At the time, the only other channels were the licence-funded BBC1 and BBC2, and a single commercial broadcasting network, ITV. Originally a subsidiary of the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA), the station is now owned and operated by Channel Four Television Corporation, a public corporation of the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, which was established in 1990 and came into operation in 1993. Until 2010, Channel 4 did not broadcast in Wales, but many of its programmes were re-broadcast there by the Welsh fourth channel S4C. In 2010, Channel 4 extended service into Wales and became a nationwide television channel. The network's headquarters are in London and Leeds, with creative hubs in Manchester, Glasgow and Bristol.HistoryConception Before Channel 4 and S4C, Britain had three terrestrial television services: BBC1, BBC2, and ITV, with BBC2 the last to launch in 1964. The Broadcasting Act 1980 began the process of adding a fourth channel; Channel Four Television Company was formally created in 1981, along with its Welsh counterpart. The notion of a second commercial broadcaster in the United Kingdom had been around since the inception of ITV in 1954 and its subsequent launch in 1955; the idea of an "ITV2" was long expected and pushed for. Indeed, television sets sold throughout the 1970s and early 1980s often had a spare tuning button labelled "ITV 2" or "IBA 2". Throughout ITV's history and until Channel 4 finally became a reality, a perennial dialogue existed between the GPO, the government, the ITV companies and other interested parties, concerning the form such an expansion of commercial broadcasting would take. Most likely, politics had the biggest impact leading to a delay of almost three decades before the second commercial channel became a reality.Wales At the time the fourth service was being considered, a movement in Wales lobbied for the creation of dedicated service that would air Welsh language programmes, then only catered for at off-peak times on BBC Wales and HTV. The campaign was taken so seriously by Gwynfor Evans, former president of Plaid Cymru, that he threatened the government with a hunger strike were it not to honour the plans. The result was that Channel 4 as seen by the rest of the United Kingdom would be replaced in Wales by S4C (Sianel Pedwar Cymru, meaning "Channel Four Wales" in Welsh). Operated by a specially created authority, S4C would air programmes in Welsh made by HTV, the BBC and independent companies. Initially, limited frequency space meant that Channel 4 could not be broadcast alongside S4C, though some Channel 4 programmes would be aired at less popular times on the Welsh variant; this practice continued until the closure of S4C's analogue transmissions in 2010, at which time S4C became a fully Welsh channel. With this conversion of the Wenvoe transmitter group in Wales to digital terrestrial broadcasting on 31 March 2010, Channel 4 became a nationwide television channel for the first time. Since then, carriage on digital cable, satellite and digital terrestrial has introduced Channel 4 to Welsh homes where it is now universally available. 1982–1992: Launch and IBA control After some months of test broadcasts, the new broadcaster began scheduled transmissions on 2 November 1982 from Scala House, the former site of the Scala Theatre. Its initial broadcasts reached 87% of the United Kingdom. The first voice heard on Channel 4's opening day of 2 November 1982 was that of continuity announcer Paul Coia who said: "Good afternoon. It's a pleasure to be able to say to you, welcome to Channel Four." Following the announcement, the channel played a montage of clips from its programmes set to the station's signature tune, "Fourscore", written by David Dundas, which would form the basis of the station's jingles for its first decade. The first programme to air on the channel was the teatime game show Countdown, produced by Yorkshire Television, at 16:45. The first person to be seen on Channel 4 was Richard Whiteley, with Ted Moult being the second. Whiteley hosted the gameshow for 23 years until his death in 2005. The first woman on the channel, contrary to popular belief, was not Whiteley's Countdown co-host Carol Vorderman, but a lexicographer only ever identified as Mary. Whiteley opened the show with the words: "As the countdown to a brand new channel ends, a brand new countdown begins." Channel 4 co-commissioned Robert Ashley's television opera Perfect Lives, which it premiered over several episodes in 1984. The channel often did not receive mass audiences for much of this period, as might be expected for a station focusing on minority interests. During this time, Channel 4 also began the funding of independent films, such as the Merchant Ivory docudrama The Courtesans of Bombay. In 1987, Richard Attenborough replaced Edmund Dell as chairman. In 1988, Michael Grade became CEO. 1993–2006: Channel Four Television Corporation , London]] After control of the station passed from the Channel Four Television Company to the Channel Four Television Corporation in 1993, a shift in broadcasting style took place. Instead of aiming for minority tastes, it began to focus on the edges of the mainstream, and the centre of the mass market itself. It began to show many American programmes in peak viewing time, far more than it had previously done. In September 1993, the channel broadcast the direct-to-TV documentary film Beyond Citizen Kane, in which it displayed the dominant position of the Rede Globo (now TV Globo) television network, and discussed its influence, power, and political connections in Brazil. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Channel 4 gave many popular and influential American comedy and drama series their first exposure on British television, such as Friends, Cheers, Will & Grace, NYPD Blue, ER, Desperate Housewives, Homicide: Life on the Street, Without a Trace, Home Improvement, Frasier, Lost, Nip/Tuck, Third Watch, The West Wing, Ally McBeal, Freaks and Geeks, Roseanne, ''Dawson's Creek, Oz, Sex and the City, The Sopranos, Scrubs, King of the Hill, Babylon 5, Stargate SG-1, Star Trek: Enterprise, Andromeda, Family Guy, South Park and Futurama. In the early 2000s, Channel 4 began broadcasting reality formats such as Big Brother and obtained the rights to broadcast mass appeal sporting events like cricket and horse racing. This new direction increased ratings and revenues. The popularity of Big Brother led to the launches of other, shorter-lived new reality shows to chase the populist audience, such as The Salon, Shattered and Space Cadets''. In addition, the corporation launched several new television channels through its new 4Ventures offshoot, including Film4, At the Races, E4 and More4. Partially in reaction to its new "populist" direction, the Communications Act 2003 directed the channel to demonstrate innovation, experimentation, and creativity, appeal to the tastes and interests of a culturally diverse society, and include programmes of an educational nature which exhibit a distinctive character. By July 2006, Film4 had likewise become free-to-air and restarted broadcasting on digital terrestrial. Venturing into radio broadcasting, 2005 saw Channel 4 purchase 51% of shares in the now defunct Oneword radio station, with UBC Media holding on to the remaining shares. New programmes such as the weekly, half-hour The Morning Report news programme were among some of the new content Channel 4 provided for the station, with the name 4Radio being used. As of early 2009, however, Channel 4's future involvement in radio remained uncertain. Since 2006 on City Square, Leeds.]] Before the digital switchover, Channel 4 raised concerns over how it might finance its public service obligations afterward. In April 2006, it was announced that Channel 4's digital switch-over costs would be paid for by licence fee revenues. In July 2007, Channel 4 paid £28million for a 50% stake in the TV business of British media company EMAP, which had seven music video channels. On 15 August 2008, 4Music was launched across the UK. Channel 4 announced interest in launching a high-definition version of Film4 on Freeview, to coincide with the launch of Channel 4 HD, but the fourth HD slot was given to Channel 5 instead. On 2 November 2007, the station celebrated its 25th birthday. It showed the first episode of Countdown, an anniversary Countdown special, and a special edition of The Big Fat Quiz. It used the original multicoloured 1982–1996 blocks logo on presentation, and idents using the Fourscore jingle throughout the day. In November 2009, Channel 4 launched a week of 3D television, broadcasting selected programmes each night using stereoscopic ColorCode 3D technology. The accompanying 3D glasses were distributed through Sainsbury's supermarkets. On 29 September 2015, Channel 4 revamped its presentation for a fifth time; the new branding downplayed the "4" logo from most on-air usage, in favour of using the shapes from the logo in various forms. Four new idents were filmed by Jonathan Glazer, which featured the shapes in various real-world scenes depicting the "discovery" and "origins" of the shapes. The full logo was still occasionally used, but primarily for off-air marketing. Channel 4 also commissioned two new corporate typefaces, "Chadwick", and "Horseferry" (a variation of Chadwick with the aforementioned shapes incorporated into its letter forms), for use across promotional material and on-air. In June 2017, it was announced that Alex Mahon would be the next chief executive, and would take over from David Abraham, who left in November 2017. On 31 October 2017, Channel 4 introduced a new series of idents continuing the theme, this time depicting the logo shapes as having formed into an anthropomorphic "giant" character. On 25 September 2021, Channel 4 and several of its sub-channels went off air after an incident at Red Bee Media's playout centre in west London. Channel 4, More4, Film4, E4, 4Music, The Box, Box Hits, Kiss, Magic and Kerrang! stopped transmitting, but 4seven was not impacted. The incident still affected a number of the channels by 30 September. The London Fire Brigade confirmed that a gas fire prevention system at the site had been activated, but firefighters found no sign of fire. Activation of the fire suppression system caused catastrophic damage to some systems, such as Channel 4's subtitles, signing, and audio description system. An emergency backup subtitling system also failed, leaving Channel 4 unable to provide access services to viewers. This situation was criticised by the National Deaf Children's Society, which complained to the broadcasting watchdog. A new subtitling, signing and audio description system had to be built from scratch. The service eventually began to return at the end of October. In June 2022 after a six-month long investigation, Ofcom found that Channel 4 had breached its broadcast licence conditions on two grounds: Missing its subtitles quota on Freesat for 2021 and failure to effectively communicate with affected audiences. On 23 December 2021, Jon Snow presented Channel 4 News for the last time, after 32 years as a main presenter on the programme, making Snow one of the UK's longest-serving presenters on a national news programme. Abandoned privatisation Channel 4's parent company, Channel Four Television Corporation, was considered for privatisation by the governments of Margaret Thatcher, John Major and Tony Blair. In 2014, the Cameron-Clegg coalition government drew up proposals to privatise the corporation but the sale was blocked by the Liberal Democrat Business Secretary Vince Cable. In 2016, the future of the channel was again being looked into by the government, with analysts suggesting several options for its future. In April 2022, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport acknowledged that ministerial discussions were taking place regarding the sale of Channel Four Television Corporation. The channel's chief executive, Alex Mahon, expressed disappointment at this, saying that its vision for the future was "rooted in continued public ownership". In January 2023, Michelle Donelan confirmed that the plans to sell Channel 4 were scrapped and that it would remain in public ownership for the foreseeable future.Public service remit Channel 4 was established with, and continues to hold, a remit of public service obligations which it must fulfil. The remit changes periodically, as dictated by various broadcasting and communications acts, and is regulated by the various authorities Channel 4 has been answerable to; originally the IBA, then the ITC and now Ofcom. The preamble of the remit as per the Communications Act 2003 states that: The remit also involves an obligation to provide programming for schools, and a substantial amount of programming produced outside of Greater London. , the Media and Journalism Research Center evaluated Channel 4 to be "Independent State Managed/Owned Media" under its State Media Matrix. Carriage Channel 4 was carried from its beginning on analogue terrestrial, the standard means of television broadcast in the United Kingdom. It continued to be broadcast through these means until the changeover to digital terrestrial television in the United Kingdom was complete. Since 1998, it has been universally available on digital terrestrial, and the Sky platform (initially encrypted, though encryption was dropped on 14 April 2008 and is now free of charge and available on the Freesat platform) as well as having been available from various times in various areas, on analogue and digital cable networks. Due to its special status as a public service broadcaster with a specific remit, it is afforded free carriage on the terrestrial platforms, in contrast with other broadcasters such as ITV. Channel 4 is available outside the United Kingdom; it is widely available in the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium and Switzerland. The channel is registered to broadcast within the European Union/EEA through the Luxembourg Broadcasting Regulator (ALIA). Since 2019, it has been offered by British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) to members of the British Armed Forces and their families around the world, BFBS Extra having previously carried a selection of Channel 4 programmes. The Channel 4 website allows people in the United Kingdom to watch Channel 4 live. Previously, some programmes (mostly international imports) were not shown. Channel 4 is also provided by Virgin Mobile's DAB mobile TV service, which has the same restrictions as the Internet live stream. Channel 4 is also carried by the Internet TV service TVCatchup and was previously carried by Zattoo until the operator removed the channel from its platform. Channel 4 also makes some of its programming available "on demand" via cable and the internet through the Channel 4 VoD service. Funding During its first decade, Channel 4 was funded by subscriptions collected by the IBA from the ITV regional companies, in return for which each company had the right to sell advertisements on the fourth channel in its own region and keep the proceeds. This meant that ITV and Channel 4 were not in competition with each other, and often promoted each other's programmes. A change in funding came about under the Broadcasting Act 1990 when the new corporation was afforded the ability to fund itself. Originally this arrangement left a "safety net" guaranteed minimum income should the revenue fall too low, funded by large insurance payments made to the ITV companies. Such a subsidy was never required, however, and these premiums were phased out by the government in 1998. After the link with ITV was cut, the cross-promotion which had existed between ITV and Channel 4 also ended. In 2007, owing to severe funding difficulties, the channel sought government help and was granted a payment of £14 million over a six-year period. The money was to have come from the television licence fee, and would have been the first time that money from the licence fee had been given to any broadcaster other than the BBC. However, the plan was scrapped by the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, Andy Burnham, ahead of "broader decisions about the future framework of public service broadcasting". The broadcasting regulator Ofcom released its review in January 2009 in which it suggested that Channel 4 would preferably be funded by "partnerships, joint ventures or mergers". , it breaks even in much the same way as most privately run commercial stations through the sale of on-air advertising, programme sponsorship, and the sale of any programme content and merchandising rights it owns, such as overseas broadcasting rights and domestic video sales. For example, its total revenues were £925 million with 91% derived from sale of advertising. It also has the ability to subsidise the main network through any profits made on the corporation's other endeavours, which have in the past included subscription fees from stations such as E4 and Film4 (now no longer subscription services) and its "video-on-demand" sales. In practice, however, these other activities are loss-making, and are subsidised by the main network. According to Channel 4's published accounts, for 2005 the extent of this cross-subsidy was some £30 million.Programming Channel 4 is a "publisher-broadcaster", meaning that it commissions or "buys" all of its programming from companies independent of itself. It was the first UK broadcaster to do so on a significant scale; such commissioning is a stipulation which is included in its licence to broadcast. The requirement to obtain all content externally is stipulated in its licence. Channel 4 also pioneered the concept of 'stranded programming', where seasons of programmes following a common theme would be aired and promoted together. Some would be very specific, and run for a fixed period of time; the 4 Mation season, for example, showed innovative animation. Other, less specific strands, were (and still are) run regularly, such as T4, a strand of programming aimed at teenagers, on weekend mornings (and weekdays during school/college holidays); Friday Night Comedy, a slot where the channel would pioneer its style of comedy commissions, 4Music (now a separate channel) and 4Later, an eclectic collection of offbeat programmes transmitted in the early hours of the morning. For a period in the mid-1980s, some sexually explicit arthouse films would be screened with a red triangle graphic in the upper right of the screen. In recent years concerns have arisen regarding a number of programmes made for Channel 4, that are believed missing from all known archives. Most watched programmes The following is a list of the 10 most watched shows on Channel 4 since launch, based on Live +28 data supplied by BARB, and archival data published by Channel 4. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Rank !! Programme or film !! Viewers (millions) !! Date \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|1 \|\| A Woman of Substance \|\| 13.85 \|\| 4 January 1985 \|- \|style=text-align:center; \|2 \|\| Big Brother \|\|13.74\|\| 27 July 2001 \|- \|style="text-align:center;"\|3 \|\| A Woman of Substance \|\| 13.20 \|\| 3 January 1985 \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|4 \|\| Four Weddings and a Funeral \|\| 12.40 \|\| 15 November 1995 \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|5 \|\| A Woman of Substance \|\| 11.55 \|\| 2 January 1985 \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\|6 \|\| The Great British Bake Off\|\| 11.21 \|\| 22 September 2020 \|- \| style="text-align:center; \|7 \|\| ''Gregory's Girl\|\| 10.75 \|\| 8 January 1985 \|- \| style="text-align:center; \|8 \|\| The Great British Bake Off \|\| 10.54 \|\| 30 October 2018 \|- \| style="text-align:center; \|9 \|\| The Great British Bake Off \|\| 10.13 \|\| 31 October 2017 \|- \|style="text-align:center; \|10 \|\| The Great British Bake Off'' \|\| 10.03 \|\| 27 August 2019 \|} Comedy During the station's early days, the screenings of innovative short one-off comedy films produced by a rotating line-up of alternative comedians went under the title of The Comic Strip Presents. The Optimist was the world's first dialogue-free television comedy, and one of the channel's earliest commissioned programs. The Tube and Saturday Live/Friday Night Live also launched the careers of a number of comedians and writers. Channel 4 broadcast a number of popular American imports, including Cheers, The Cosby Show, Roseanne, Home Improvement, Friends, Sex and the City, Everybody Loves Raymond, South Park, Family Guy, Futurama, Frasier, Scrubs, and Will & Grace. Other significant US acquisitions include The Simpsons, for which the station was reported to have paid £700,000 per episode for the terrestrial television rights back in 2004, and continues to air on the channel daily. In April 2010, Channel 4 became the first UK broadcaster to adapt the American comedy institution of roasting to British television, with A Comedy Roast. In 2010, Channel 4 organised ''Channel 4's Comedy Gala'', a comedy benefit show in aid of Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital. With over 25 comedians appearing, it billed it as "the biggest live stand up show in United Kingdom history". Filmed live on 30 March in front of 14,000 at The O2 Arena in London, it was broadcast on 5 April. This has continued to 2016. In 2021, Channel 4 decided to revive The British Comedy Awards as part of its Stand Up To Cancer programming. The ceremony, billed as The National Comedy Awards was due to be held in the spring of 2021 but was delayed twice due to the Coronavirus pandemic and eventually held a year later. Factual and current affairs Channel 4 has a strong reputation for history programmes and documentaries. Its news service Channel 4 News is supplied by ITN, whilst its long-standing investigative documentary series, Dispatches, gains attention from other media outlets. Its live broadcast of the first public autopsy in the UK for 170 years, carried out by Gunther von Hagens in 2002 and the 2003 one-off stunt Derren Brown Plays Russian Roulette Live proved controversial. A season of television programmes about masturbation, called Wank Week, was to be broadcast in the United Kingdom by Channel 4 in March 2007. The series came under public attack from senior television figures, and was pulled amid claims of declining editorial standards and concern for the channel's public service broadcasting credentials. FourDocs FourDocs was an online documentary site provided by Channel 4. It allowed viewers to upload their own documentaries to the site for others to view. It focused on documentaries of between 3 and 5 minutes. The website also included an archive of classic documentaries, interviews with documentary filmmakers and short educational guides to documentary-making. It won a Peabody Award in 2006. The site also included a strand for documentaries of under 59 seconds, called "Microdocs". Schools programming Channel 4 is obliged to carry schools programming as part of its remit and licence. In 1987, five years after the station was launched, the IBA afforded ITV free carriage of these programmes during Channel 4's then-unused weekday morning hours. This arrangement allowed the ITV companies to fulfil their obligation to provide schools programming, whilst allowing ITV itself to broadcast regular programmes complete with advertisements. During the times in which schools programmes were aired Central Television provided most of the continuity with play-out originating from Birmingham. Channel 4 Schools/4Learning After the restructuring of the station in 1993, ITV's obligations to provide such programming on Channel 4's airtime passed to Channel 4 itself, and the new service became Channel 4 Schools, with the new corporation administering the service and commissioning its programmes, some still from ITV, others from independent producers. In March 2008, the 4Learning interactive new media commission Slabovia.tv was launched. The Slabplayer online media player showing TV shows for teenagers was launched on 26 May 2008. The schools programming has always had elements which differ from its normal presentational package. In 1993, the Channel 4 Schools idents featured famous people in one category, with light shining on them in front of an industrial-looking setting supplemented by instrumental calming music. This changed in 1996 with the circles look to numerous children touching the screen, forming circles of information then picked up by other children. The last child would produce the Channel 4 logo in the form of three vertical circles, with another in the middle and to the left containing the Channel 4 logo. A present feature of presentation was a countdown sequence featuring, in 1993 a slide with the programme name, and afterwards an extended sequence matching the channel branding. In 1996, this was an extended ident with timer in top left corner, and in 1999 following the adoption of the squares look, featured a square with timer slowly make its way across the right of the screen with people learning and having fun while doing so passing across the screen. It finished with the Channel 4 logo box on the right of the screen and the name 'Channel 4 Schools' being shown. This was adapted in 2000 when the service's name was changed to '4Learning'. In 2001, this was altered to various scenes from classrooms around the world and different parts of school life. The countdown now flips over from the top, right, bottom and left with each second, and ends with four coloured squares, three of which are aligned vertically to the left of the Channel 4 logo, which is contained inside the fourth box. The tag 'Learning' is located directly beneath the logo. The final countdown sequence lasted between 2004 and 2005 and featured a background video of current controversial issues, overlaid with upcoming programming information. The video features people in the style of graffiti enacting the overuse of CCTV cameras, fox hunting, computer viruses and pirate videos, relationships, pollution of the seas and violent lifestyles. Following 2005, no branded section has been used for schools programmes. Religious programmes From the outset, Channel 4 did not conform to the expectations of conventional religious broadcasting in the UK. John Ranelagh, first commissioning editor for religion, made his priority 'broadening the spectrum of religious programming' and more 'intellectual' concerns. He also ignored the religious programme advisory structure that had been put in place by the BBC, and subsequently adopted by ITV. Ranelagh's first major commission caused a furore, a three-part documentary series called Jesus: The Evidence. The programmes, transmitted during the Easter period of 1984, seemed to advocate the idea that the Gospels were unreliable, Jesus may have indulged in witchcraft, and that he may not have even existed. The series triggered a public outcry, and marked a significant moment in the deterioration in the relationship between the UK's broadcasting and religious institutions. In March 2005, Channel 4 screened the uncut Lars von Trier film The Idiots, which includes unsimulated sexual intercourse, making it the first UK terrestrial channel to do so. The channel had previously screened other films with similar material but censored and with warnings. Since 1 November 1998, Channel 4 has had a digital subsidiary channel dedicated to the screening of films. This channel launched as a paid subscription channel under the name "FilmFour", and was relaunched in July 2006 as a free-to-air channel under the current name of "Film4". The Film4 channel carries a wide range of film productions, including acquired and Film4-produced projects. Channel 4's general entertainment channels E4 and More4 also screen feature films at certain points in the schedule as part of their content mix. Global warming On 8 March 2007, Channel 4 screened a documentary, The Great Global Warming Swindle stating that global warming is "a lie" and "the biggest scam of modern times". The programme's accuracy were disputed on multiple points, and commentators criticised it for being one-sided, observing that the mainstream position on global warming is supported by the scientific academies of the major industrialised nations. There were 246 complaints to Ofcom as of 25 April 2007, including allegations that the programme falsified data. The programme was criticised by scientists and scientific organisations, and various scientists who participated in the documentary claimed their views had been distorted. Against Nature: An earlier controversial Channel 4 programme made by Martin Durkin which was also critical of the environmental movement and was charged by the UK's Independent Television Commission for misrepresenting and distorting the views of interviewees by selective editing. The Greenhouse Conspiracy: An earlier Channel 4 documentary broadcast on 12 August 1990, as part of the Equinox series, in which similar claims were made. Louise Ellman, Ron Prosor and Rabbi Aaron Goldstein. However, Channel 4 was defended by Stonewall director Ben Summerskill who stated: "In spite of his ridiculous and often offensive views, it is an important way of reminding him that there are some countries where free speech is not repressed...If it serves that purpose, then Channel 4 will have done a significant public service". Dorothy Byrne, Channel 4's head of news and current affairs, said in response to the station's critics: "As the leader of one of the most powerful states in the Middle East, President Ahmadinejad's views are enormously influential... As we approach a critical time in international relations, we are offering our viewers an insight into an alternative world view...Channel 4 has devoted more airtime to examining Iran than any other broadcaster and this message continues a long tradition of offering a different perspective on the world around us". Also in 2021, the channel launched Epic Wales: Valleys, Mountains and Coast, a version of its More4 documentaries The Pennines: Backbone of Britain, The Yorkshire Dales and The Lakes and Devon and Cornwall. set in Wales. Epic Wales: Valleys, Mountains and Coast. was initially broadcast in a prime Friday night slot at 8pm, in the hour before its comedy shows, but was dumped by the channel before the series was completed and replaced by repeats. In February 2022, the channel scheduled a new version of the show under the title Wonderous Wales with a Saturday night slot at 8pm but after one episode, it decided to take this series out of its schedule, moving up a repeat of Matt Baker: Our Farm in the Dales to 8pm and putting an episode of Escape to the Chateau in Baker's slot at 7pm. Other programmes moved out of primetime in 2022, include Mega Mansion Hunters, Channel 4's answer to Selling Sunset, which saw its third and final episode moved past midnight with repeats put in the schedule before it, and ''Richard Hammond's Crazy Contraptions'', a primetime Friday night competitive engineering show which saw its grand final moved to 11pm on a Sunday night. Instead of Hammond's competition, Channel 4 decided to schedule the fifth series of Devon and Cornwall in its place at 8pm on Friday nights, with this documentary being put up against Channel 5's ''World's Most Scenic Railway Journeys'' in the same timeslot. A new series of Unreported World was due to start on 18 February 2022 with a report by Seyi Rhodes in South Sudan, but was dropped due to an extended storm report on Channel 4 News. When the programme was rescheduled for following Fridays, it was dropped again as Channel 4 News was extended due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Winter Paralympics: Today in Beijing was due to take the Unreported World slot from 11 March 2022 though this sports programme also stood a chance of being moved around the schedule to continue the extended news programmes reporting on the conflict. The invasion of Ukraine has also prompted Channel 4 to acquire and schedule the comedy series Servant of the People as a last minute replacement. The programme stars the current President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy as an ordinary man who gets elected to run the country, and was shown on 6 March 2022 along with the documentary Zelenskyy: The Man Who Took on Putin. In addition to these shows, O.T. Fagbenle's sitcom Maxxx was pulled from youth TV channel E4, after one episode from the series had been broadcast on 2 April 2020, with Channel 4 deciding to keep the series off-air until Black History Month, with the series going out on the main channel from October 2020. In May 2022, the reality dating show ''Let's Make a Love Scene was scrapped after one episode with the second programme in the series, hosted by Ellie Taylor, pulled from the 20 May schedule and replaced with an episode of 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown. The first edition was negatively received, with Anita Singh, the arts and entertainments editor for The Telegraph writing that the show was "the most ill-conceived programme idea since Prince Edward dreamt up It's a Royal Knockout''". Presentation Since its launch in 1982, Channel 4 has used the same logo which consists of a stylised numeral "4" made up of nine differently-shaped blocks. The original version was designed by Martin Lambie-Nairn and his partner Colin Robinson and was the first UK channel ident made using advanced computer generation (the first electronically generated ident was on BBC2 in 1979, but this was two-dimensional). It was designed in conjunction with Bo Gehring Aviation of Los Angeles and originally depicted the "4" in red, yellow, green, blue and purple. The music accompanying the ident was called "Fourscore" and was composed by David Dundas; it was later released as a single alongside a B-side, "Fourscore Two", although neither reached the UK charts. In November 1992, "Fourscore" was replaced by new music. In 1996, Channel 4 commissioned Tomato Films to revamp the "4", which resulted in the "Circles" idents showing four white circles forming up transparently over various scenes, with the "4" logo depicted in white in one of the circles. In 1999, Spin redesigned the logo to feature in a single square that sat on the right-hand side of the screen, whilst various stripes would move along from left to right, often lighting the squared "4" up. Like the previous "Circles" idents from 1996 (which was made by Tomato Films), the stripes would be interspersed with various scenes potentially related to the upcoming programme. The logo was made three-dimensional again in 2004 when it was depicted in filmed scenes that show the blocks forming the "4" logo for less than a second before the action moves away again. In 2015, a new presentation package by the network's in-house agency 4Creative was introduced. Directed by filmmaker Jonathan Glazer, the "4" logo itself was downplayed on-air in favour of idents and bumpers featuring the individual blocks as objects, including idents depicting them as "Kryptonite"-like items of fascination (such as being excavated, and viewed under a microscope for scientific study) that reflect Channel 4's remit of being "irreverent, innovative, alternative and challenging". Musician Micachu composed music for the idents. This theme continued in 2017, with new idents by Dougal Wilson that focused on an anthropomorphic "giant" constructed from the blocks, and its interactions in everyday life. A new acoustic rendition of "Fourscore" was also composed for the idents. In September 2018, Channel 4 adopted the two-dimensional version of the "4" logo as its main corporate logo, and introduced a rebranding of all of its digital channels by ManvsMachine and 4Creative to standardise them around variations of the Lambie-Nairn "4". The original 1982 ident was given a one-off revival on 28 December 2020, as a tribute to Lambie-Nairn after his death three days earlier. It was also used on 22 January 2021 as part of the 80s-themed "takeover" to promote the premiere of ''It's a Sin'', which was set during the 1980s AIDS crisis. To mark the network's 40th anniversary, Channel 4 began to phase in another rebranding in November 2022, and announced that new idents were being produced that would be "an unexpected and daring portrait of Britain retold". In an effort to emphasise its digital platforms, it was announced that the "All4" branding would be dropped from Channel 4's video on-demand platform, in favour of marketing it under the "Channel 4" name with no disambiguation. The new idents, "Modern Britain", premiered in June 2023, featuring looping cycles of themed scenes built around the Channel 4 logo by various artists. Regions/international Regions Channel 4 has, since its inception, broadcast identical programmes and continuity throughout the United Kingdom (excluding Wales where it did not operate on analogue transmitters). At launch this made it unique, as both the BBC and ITV had long-established traditions of providing regional variations in their programming in different areas of the country. Since the launch of subsequent British television channels, Channel 4 has become typical in its lack of regional programming variations. A few exceptions exist to this rule for programming and continuity: * Some of Channel 4's schools' programming (1980s-early 1990s) was regionalised due to differences in curricula between different regions. Wales does not have its own advertising region; instead, its viewers receive the southern region on digital platforms intentionally broadcast to the area or the neighbouring region where terrestrial transmissions spill over into Wales. Channel 5 and ITV Breakfast use a similar model to Channel 4 for providing their own advertising regions, despite also having a single national output of programming. Part of Channel 4's remit covers the commissioning of programmes from outside London. Channel 4 has a dedicated director of nations and regions, Stuart Cosgrove, who is based in a regional office in Glasgow. As his job title suggests, it is his responsibility to foster relations with independent producers based in areas of the United Kingdom (including Wales) outside London. International Channel 4 is available in the Republic of Ireland, with ads tailored to the Irish market. The channel is registered with the broadcasting regulators in Luxembourg for terms of conduct and business within the EU/EEA while observing guidelines outlined by Ireland's BAI code. Irish advertising sales are managed by Media Link in Dublin. Where Channel 4 does not hold broadcasting rights within the Republic of Ireland such programming is unavailable. For example, the series Glee was not available on Channel 4 on Sky in Ireland due to it broadcasting on TV3 within Ireland. Currently, programming available on Channel 4 is available within the Republic of Ireland without restrictions. Elsewhere in Europe, the UK version of the channel is available.Future possibility of regional newsWith ITV plc pushing for much looser requirements on the amount of regional news and other programming it is obliged to broadcast in its ITV regions, the idea of Channel 4 taking on a regional news commitment has been considered, with the corporation in talks with Ofcom and ITV over the matter. Channel 4 believes that a scaling-back of such operations on ITV's part would be detrimental to Channel 4's national news operation, which shares much of its resources with ITV through their shared news contractor ITN. At the same time, Channel 4 also believes that such an additional public service commitment would bode well in on-going negotiations with Ofcom in securing additional funding for its other public service commitments. including the use of Lost and Desperate Housewives as part of the experiment, as US broadcasters such as ABC already have an HDTV back catalogue. On 10 December 2007, Channel 4 launched a high-definition television simulcast of Channel 4 on Sky's digital satellite platform, after Sky agreed to contribute toward the channel's satellite distribution costs. It was the first full-time high-definition channel from a terrestrial UK broadcaster. On 31 July 2009, Virgin Media added Channel 4 HD on channel 146 (later on channel 142, now on channel 141) as part of the M pack. On 25 March 2010, Channel 4 HD appeared on Freeview channel 52 with a placeholding caption, ahead of a commercial launch on 30 March 2010, coinciding with the commercial launch of Freeview HD. On 19 April 2011, Channel 4 HD was added to Freesat on channel 126. As a consequence, the channel moved from being free-to-view to free-to-air on satellite during March 2011. With the closure of S4C Clirlun in Wales on 1 December 2012, on Freeview, Channel 4 HD launched in Wales on 2 December 2012. The channel carries the same schedule as Channel 4, broadcasting programmes in HD when available, acting as a simulcast. Therefore, SD programming is broadcast upscaled to HD. The first true HD programme to be shown was the 1996 Adam Sandler film Happy Gilmore. From launch until 2016 the presence of the 4HD logo on screen denoted true HD content. On 1 July 2014, Channel 4 +1 HD, an HD simulcast of Channel 4 +1, launched on Freeview channel 110. It closed on 22 June 2020 to help make room on COM7 following the closure of COM8 on Freeview. 4Seven HD were removed from Freeview also. On 20 February 2018, Channel 4 announced that Channel 4 HD and All 4 would no longer be supplied on Freesat from 22 February 2018. Channel 4 HD returned to the platform on 8 December 2021, along with the music channel portfolio of The Box Plus Network. On 27 September 2022, the other 6 advertising regions of Channel 4 (South, Midlands, North, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Rep of Ireland) were made available in HD on Sky and Virgin Media. Prior to this, Channel 4 HD was only available in the London advertising region. Video on demand Channel 4's video on demand service, known simply as "Channel 4" since April 2023, launched in November 2006 as "4oD", and was renamed "All 4" in March 2015. The service offers a variety of programmes recently shown on Channel 4, E4, More4 or from their archives, though some programmes and movies are not available due to rights issues. Teletext services 4-Tel/FourText Channel 4 originally licensed an ancillary teletext service to provide schedules, programme information and features. The original service was called 4-Tel, and was produced by Intelfax, a company set up especially for the purpose. It was carried in the 400s on Oracle. In 1993, with Oracle losing its franchise to Teletext Ltd, 4-Tel found a new home in the 300s, and had its name shown in the header row. Intelfax continued to produce the service The service closed in 2008, and Teletext is no longer available on Channel 4, ITV and Channel 5. Awards and nominations {\| class"wikitable" \|- ! Year !! Association !! Category !! Nominee(s) !! Result \|- \| 2017 \| Diversity in Media Awards \| Broadcaster of the Year \| Channel 4 \| \|- \| 2023 \| DIVA Awards \| Brand of Organisation of the Year \| Channel 4 \| \|} See also * Annan Committee * Big 4 * Channel 4 Banned season * Channel 4 Sheffield Pitch * List of Channel 4 television programmes * List of television channels in the United Kingdom * Renowned Films * 3 Minute Wonder Notes References External links * }} Category:Peabody Award winners Category:1982 establishments in the United Kingdom Category:Television channels and stations established in 1982 Category:Television channels in the United Kingdom Category:International Emmy Founders Award winners	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4	2025-04-05T18:27:47.891823
6322	Carolina parakeet	The Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis), or Carolina conure, is an extinct species of small green neotropical parrot with a bright yellow head, reddish orange face, and pale beak that was native to the Eastern, Midwest, and Plains states of the United States. It was the only indigenous parrot within its range, and one of only three parrot species native to the United States. The others are the thick-billed parrot, now extirpated, and the green parakeet, still present in Texas; a fourth parrot species, the red-crowned amazon, is debated. The Carolina parakeet was called puzzi la née ("head of yellow") or pot pot chee by the Seminole and kelinky in Chickasaw. Though formerly prevalent within its range, the bird had become rare by the middle of the 19th century. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was of the C. c. ludovicianus subspecies in 1910. The last known specimen, a male named Incas, perished in captivity at the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918, and the species was declared extinct in 1939. The earliest reference to these parrots was in 1583 in Florida reported by Sir George Peckham in A True Report of the Late Discoveries of the Newfound Lands of expeditions conducted by English explorer Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who notes that explorers in North America "doe testifie that they have found in those countryes; ... parrots". They were first scientifically described in English naturalist Mark Catesby's two-volume Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands published in London in 1731 and 1743. Carolina parakeets were probably poisonous – French-American naturalist and painter John J. Audubon noted that cats apparently died from eating them, and they are known to have eaten the toxic seeds of cockleburs.Taxonomy ]] Carolinensis is a species of the genus Conuropsis, one of numerous genera of New World Neotropical parrots in family Psittacidae of true parrots. The binomial Psittacus carolinensis was assigned by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae published in 1758. The species was given its own genus, Conuropsis, by Italian zoologist and ornithologist Tommaso Salvadori in 1891 in his Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum, volume 20. The name is derived from the Greek-ified conure ("parrot of the genus Conurus" an obsolete name of genus Aratinga) + -opsis ("likeness of") and Latinized Carolina (from Carolana, an English colonial province) + -ensis (of or "from a place"), therefore a bird "like a conure from Carolina". Two subspecies are recognized: The Louisiana subspecies of the Carolina parakeet, C. c. ludovicianus, was slightly different in color from the nominate subspecies, being more bluish-green and generally of a somewhat subdued coloration, and became extinct in much the same way, but at a somewhat earlier date (early 1910s). The Appalachian Mountains separated these birds from the eastern C. c. carolinensis.EvolutionAccording to a study of mitochondrial DNA recovered from museum specimens, their closest living relatives include some of the South American Aratinga parakeets: The Nanday parakeet, the sun conure, and the golden-capped parakeet. The authors note the bright yellow and orange plumage and blue wing feathers found in C. carolinensis are traits shared by another species, the jandaya parakeet (A. jandaya), that was not sampled in the study, but is generally thought to be closely related. To help resolve the divergence time, a whole genome of a preserved specimen has now been sequenced. The Carolina parakeet colonized North America about 5.5 million years ago. This was well before North America and South America were joined by the formation of the Panama land bridge about 3.5 mya. Since the Carolina parakeets' more distant relations are geographically closer to its own historic range while its closest relatives are more geographically distant to it, these data are consistent with the generally accepted hypothesis that Central and North America were colonized at different times by distinct lineages of parrots – parrots that originally invaded South America from Antarctica some time after the breakup of Gondwana, where Neotropical parrots originated approximately 50 mya. ]] The following cladogram shows the placement of the Carolina parakeet among its closest relatives, after a DNA study by Kirchman et al. (2012): It was a smaller bird, three-quarters the size of the Carolina parakeet. "The present species is of peculiar interest as it represents the first known parrot-like bird to be described as a fossil from North America." (Wetmore 1926;Description ]] The Carolina parakeet was a small, green parrot very similar in size and coloration to the extant jenday parakeet and sun conure – the sun conure being its closest living relative. The majority of the parakeets' plumage was green with lighter green underparts, a bright yellow head and orange forehead and face extending to behind the eyes and upper cheeks (lores). The shoulders were yellow, continuing down the outer edge of the wings. The primary feathers were mostly green, but with yellow edges on the outer primaries. Thighs were green towards the top and yellow towards the feet. Male and female adults were identical in plumage, however males were slightly larger than females (sexually dimorphic only in size). Their legs and feet were light brown. They share the zygodactyl feet common to all the parrot family. Their eyes were ringed by white skin and their beaks were pale flesh colored. These birds weigh about 3.5 oz.,\|groupNote}} are 13 in. long, and have wingspans of 21–23 in. Young Carolina parakeets differed slightly in coloration from adults. The face and entire body were green, with paler underparts. They lacked yellow or orange plumage on the face, wings, and thighs. Hatchlings were covered in mouse-gray down, until about 39–40 days old, when green wings and tails appeared. Fledglings had full adult plumage around 1 year of age. These birds were fairly long-lived, at least in captivity: A pair was kept at the Cincinnati Zoo for over 35 years. Distribution and habitat The Carolina parakeet had the northernmost range of any known parrot. It was found from southern New York and Wisconsin to Kentucky, Tennessee, and the Gulf of Mexico, from the Atlantic Seaboard to as far west as eastern Colorado. It lived in old-growth forests along rivers and in swamps. Its range was described by early explorers thus: the 43rd parallel as the northern limit, the 26th as the most southern, the 73rd and 106th meridians as the eastern and western boundaries, respectively, the range included all or portions of at least 28 states. Its habitats were old-growth wetland forests along rivers and in swamps, especially in the Mississippi-Missouri drainage basin with large hollow trees including cypress and sycamore to use as roosting and nesting sites. Only very rough estimates of the birds' former prevalence can be made, with an estimated range of 20,000 to 2.5 million km<sup>2</sup>, and population density of 0.5 to 2.0 parrots per km<sup>2</sup>, population estimates range from tens of thousands to a few million birds (though the densest populations occurred in Florida covering 170,000 km<sup>2</sup>, so hundreds of thousands of the birds may have been in that state alone). The species may have appeared as a very rare vagrant in places as far north as southern Ontario in Canada. A few bones, including a pygostyle found at the Calvert Site in southern Ontario, came from the Carolina parakeet. The possibility remains open that this specimen was taken there for ceremonial purposes. Behavior and diet around 1900.]] The bird lived in huge, noisy flocks of as many as 300 birds. It built its nest in a hollow tree, laying two to five (most accounts say two) round white eggs. Reportedly, multiple female parakeets could deposit their eggs into one nest, similar to nesting behavior described in the monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus). It mostly ate the seeds of forest trees and shrubs, including those of cypress, hackberry, beech, sycamore, elm, pine, maple, oak, and other plants such as thistles and sandspurs (Cenchrus species). It ate fruits, including apples, grapes, and figs (often from orchards by the time of its decline), and flower buds, and occasionally, insects. It was especially noted for its predilection for cockleburs (Xanthium strumarium), and it was considered to be an agricultural pest of grain crops.ExtinctionThe last captive Carolina parakeet, Incas, died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918, in the same cage as Martha, the last passenger pigeon, which died in 1914. There are no scientific studies or surveys of this bird by American naturalists; most information about it is from anecdotal accounts and museum specimens, so details of its prevalence and decline are unverified or speculative. Extensive accounts of the precolonial and early colonial have been given for prevalence of this bird. The existence of flocks of gregarious, very colorful and raucous parrots could hardly have gone unnoted by European explorers, as parrots were virtually unknown in seafaring European nations in the 16th and 17th centuries. Later accounts in the latter half of the 19th century onward noted the birds' sparseness and absence. Genetic evidence suggests that while populations had been in decline since the last glacial maximum, the lack of evidence of inbreeding suggests that the birds declined very quickly. The birds' range collapsed from east to west with settlement and clearing of the eastern and southern deciduous forests. John J. Audubon commented as early as 1832 on the decline of the birds. The bird was rarely reported outside Florida after 1860. The last reported sighting east of the Mississippi River (except Florida) was in 1878 in Kentucky. By the turn of the century, it was restricted to the swamps of central Florida. The last known wild specimen was killed in Okeechobee County, Florida, in 1904, and the last captive bird died at the Cincinnati Zoo on February 21, 1918. This was the male specimen, Incas, that died within a year of his mate, Lady Jane. Additional reports of the bird were made in Okeechobee County, Florida, until the late 1920s, but these are not supported by specimens. However two sets of eggs purportedly taken from active nests in 1927 are in the collection of the Florida Museum of Natural History, and genetic testing could prove the species was still breeding at that time. Not until 1939, however, did the American Ornithologists' Society declare the Carolina parakeet to be extinct. The IUCN has listed the species as extinct since 1920. In 1937, three parakeets resembling this species were sighted and filmed in the Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia. However, the American Ornithologists' Union analyzed the film and concluded that they had probably filmed feral parakeets. A year later, in 1938, a flock of parakeets was apparently sighted by a group of experienced ornithologists in the swamps of the Santee River basin in South Carolina, but this sighting was doubted by most other ornithologists. The birds were never seen again after this sighting, and shortly after a portion of the area was destroyed to make way for power lines, making the species' continued existence unlikely. About 720 skins and 16 skeletons are housed in museums around the world, and analyzable DNA has been extracted from them. Chief was deforestation in the 18th and 19th centuries. Hunting played a significant role, both for decorative use of their colorful feathers, for example, adornment of women's hats, and for reduction of crop predation. A factor that exacerbated their decline to extinction was the flocking behavior that led them to return to the vicinity of dead and dying birds (such as birds downed by hunting), enabling wholesale slaughter. }} Further reading * Cokinos, Christopher (2009) Hope Is the Thing with Feathers: A Personal Chronicle of Vanished Birds (Chapter 1: Carolina Parakeet), Tarcher * Snyder, Noel (2004) The Carolina Parakeet: Glimpses of a Vanished Bird, Princeton University Press * Julian P. Hume, Michael Walters (2012) Extinct Birds (p. 186), Poyser Monographs External links * * [http://www.parrots.org/index.php/encyclopedia/profile/carolina_parakeet/ Species profile] – World Parrot Trust * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110820144306/http://www.arkive.org/carolina-parakeet/conuropsis-carolinensis/image-G64076.html Fact file] – ARKive * [http://www.carolinanature.com/birds/capapapi.html "Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) and Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius)"] – Carolina Nature * [http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/conservation/extinctions/carolina_parakeet "Carolina Parakeet: Removal of a Menace"] – Cornell Lab of Ornithology * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100327174106/http://www.ivorybill.com/g/carolinaparakeet.htm "The Extinct Carolina Parakeet"] – Ivory Bill * [http://cityparrots.org/journal/tag/conuropsis-carolinensis-carolina-parakee News] – City Parrots Carolina parakeet Category:Extinct birds of North America Category:Bird extinctions since 1500 Category:Parakeets Category:Species made extinct by human activities Category:Native birds of the Eastern United States Category:Extinct animals of the United States Carolina parakeet Category:1939 in the environment Category:Articles containing video clips Carolina parakeet Category:Species that are or were threatened by deforestation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolina_parakeet	2025-04-05T18:27:47.912314
6325	Church (building)	Church House}} <noinclude> </noinclude> , a church dedicated to Saint Justus, completed in 1320. It featured iconography of the Virgin and Child.]] ]] A church, church building, or church house is a building used for Christian worship services, Christian religious activities. The earliest identified Christian church is a house church founded between 233 AD and 256 AD. Sometimes, the word church is used erroneously to refer to the buildings of other religions, such as mosques and synagogues. Church is also used to describe a body or an assembly of Christian believers, while "the Church" may be used to refer to the worldwide Christian religious community as a whole. In traditional Christian architecture, the plan view of a church often forms a Christian cross with the centre aisle and seating representing the vertical beam and the bema and altar forming the horizontal. Towers or domes may inspire contemplation of the heavens. Modern churches have a variety of architectural styles and layouts. Some buildings designed for other purposes have been converted to churches, while many original church buildings have been put to other uses. From the 11th to the 14th century, there had been a wave of church construction in Western Europe. Many churches worldwide are of considerable historical, national, cultural, and architectural significance, with several included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Etymology word for churches and church property]] The word church is derived from Old English , 'place of assemblage set aside for Christian worship', from the Common Germanic word kirika. This was probably borrowed via Gothic from Ancient Greek , 'the Lord's (house)', from , 'ruler, lord'. in turn comes from the Indo-European root , meaning 'to spread out, to swell' (euphemistically: 'to prevail, to be strong'). The various forms of the cognates to church in various languages reflect the word's linguistic roots in Greek and Proto-Indo-European origins. For instance, in early Germanic languages such as Old High German, the word evolved into kirihha, highlighting its spread through the Christianization of Germanic peoples. This etymological journey illustrates how the concept of a place of Christian worship was linguistically adapted as Christianity expanded across Europe. Additionally, the use of the word in early Christian communities emphasized the association of the building with its dedication to God. History Churches have evolved from early house churches (pre-4th century) to grand basilicas after Christianity’s legalization in 313 AD. The Romanesque period (10th–12th century) featured thick walls and round arches, while the Gothic style (12th–16th century) introduced pointed arches and flying buttresses for taller, light-filled structures. Later styles include Renaissance symmetry, Baroque ornamentation, and modernist minimalism. Common church features include: * Nave and apse – The main hall and altar area. Modern churches blend tradition with function, from minimalist designs to contemporary community spaces. * Transept – Forms the cruciform shape. * Clerestory windows – High windows for natural light. * Steeples and towers – Often house bells. * Vaulting – Structural support using arches. Modern churches blend tradition with function, incorporating minimalist designs and contemporary community spaces while preserving a sense of originality and faith. Antiquity in Aleppo, Syria, is considered to be one of the oldest surviving ruins of a church building in the world.]] The earliest archeologically identified Christian church is a house church (domus ecclesiae), the Dura-Europos church, founded between 233 AD and 256 AD. Medieval times From the 11th through the 14th centuries, a wave of cathedral building and the construction of smaller parish churches occurred across Western Europe. Besides serving as a place of worship, the cathedral or parish church was frequently employed as a general gathering place by the communities in which they were located, hosting such events as guild meetings, banquets, mystery plays, and fairs. Church grounds and buildings were also used for the threshing and storage of grain. Romanesque architecture , Germany]] Between 1000 and 1200, the Romanesque style became popular across Europe. The Romanesque style is defined by large and bulky edifices typically composed of simple, compact, sparsely decorated geometric structures. Frequent features of the Romanesque church include circular arches, round or octagonal towers, and cushion capitals on pillars. In the early Romanesque era, coffering on the ceiling was fashionable, while later in the same era, groined vaults gained popularity. Interiors widened, and the motifs of sculptures took on more epic traits and themes. Romanesque architects adopted many Roman or early Christian architectural ideas, such as a cruciform ground plan, as that of Angoulême Cathedral, and the basilica system of a nave with a central vessel and side aisles. Gothic architecture , one of the founders of the Gothic style of architecture]] in Munich is a largely Gothic, medieval church.]] The Gothic style emerged around 1140 in Île-de-France and subsequently spread throughout Europe. Gothic churches lost the compact qualities of the Romanesque era, and decorations often contained symbolic and allegorical features. The first pointed arches, rib vaults, and buttresses began to appear, all possessing geometric properties that reduced the need for large, rigid walls to ensure structural stability. This also permitted the size of windows to increase, producing brighter and lighter interiors. Nave ceilings rose, and pillars and steeples heightened. Renaissance In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the changes in ethics and society due to the Renaissance and the Reformation also influenced the building of churches. The common style was much like the Gothic style but simplified. The basilica was not the most popular type of church anymore, but instead, hall churches were built. Typical features are columns and classical capitals. In Protestant churches, where the proclamation of God's Word is of particular importance, the visitor's line of sight is directed towards the pulpit. Baroque architecture of the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, Vilnius, Lithuania, an example of a Baroque church interior]] The Baroque style was first used in Italy around 1575. From there, it spread to the rest of Europe and the European colonies. The building industry increased heavily during the Baroque era. Buildings, even churches, were used to indicate wealth, authority, and influence. The use of forms known from the Renaissance was extremely exaggerated. Domes and capitals were decorated with moulding, and the former stucco sculptures were replaced by fresco paintings on the ceilings. For the first time, churches were seen as one connected work of art, and consistent artistic concepts were developed. Instead of long buildings, more central-plan buildings were created. The sprawling decoration with floral ornamentation and mythological motives lasted until about 1720, in the Rococo era. The Protestant parishes preferred lateral churches, in which all the visitors could be as close as possible to the pulpit and the altar. Architecture from the cloisters, in Norfolk, England]] A common trait of the architecture of many churches is the shape of a cross (a long central rectangle, with side rectangles and a rectangle in front for the altar space or sanctuary). These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, to represent the church's bringing light to the world. Another common feature is the spire, a tall tower at the "west" end of the church or over the crossing. Another common feature of many Christian churches is the eastwards orientation of the front altar. Often, the altar will not be oriented due east but toward the sunrise. This tradition originated in Byzantium in the fourth century and became prevalent in the West in the eighth and ninth centuries. The old Roman custom of having the altar at the west end and the entrance at the east was sometimes followed as late as the eleventh century, even in areas of northern Europe under Frankish rule, as seen in Petershausen (Constance), Bamberg Cathedral, Augsburg Cathedral, Regensburg Cathedral, and Hildesheim Cathedral. Types Basilica The Latin word basilica was initially used to describe a Roman public building usually located in the forum of a Roman town. After the Roman Empire became officially Christian, the term came by extension to refer to a large and influential church that has been given special ceremonial rights by the Pope. The word thus retains two senses today, one architectural and the other ecclesiastical. Cathedral ]] A cathedral is a church, usually Catholic, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Orthodox, housing the seat of a bishop. The word cathedral takes its name from cathedra, or Bishop's Throne (In ). The term is sometimes (improperly) used to refer to any church of great size. A church with a cathedral function is not necessarily a large building. It might be as small as Christ Church Cathedral in Oxford, England, Porvoo Cathedral in Porvoo, Finland, Sacred Heart Cathedral in Raleigh, United States, or Chur Cathedral in Switzerland. However, frequently, the cathedral, along with some of the abbey churches, was the largest building in any region. Cathedrals tend to display a higher level of contemporary architectural style and the work of accomplished craftsmen, and occupy a status both ecclesiastical and social that an ordinary parish church rarely has. Such churches are generally among the finest buildings locally and a source of national and regional pride, and many are among the world's most renowned works of architecture. Chapel , Palermo, Sicily]] Either, a discrete space with an altar inside a larger cathedral, conventual, parish, or other church; or, a free standing small church building or room not connected to a larger church, to serve a particular hospital, school, university, prison, private household, palace, castle, or other institution. Often proprietary churches and small conventual churches are referred to by this term.Collegiate church A collegiate church is a church where the daily office of worship is maintained by a college of canons, which may be presided over by a dean or provost. Collegiate churches were often supported by extensive lands held by the church, or by tithe income from appropriated benefices. They commonly provide distinct spaces for congregational worship and for the choir offices of their clerical community. Conventual church A conventual church (in Eastern Orthodoxy katholikon) is the main church in a Christian monastery or convent, known variously as an abbey, a priory, a friary, or a preceptory. Parish church , Austria]] A parish church is a church built to meet the needs of people localised in a geographical area called a parish. The vast majority of Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran church buildings fall into this category. A parish church may also be a basilica, a cathedral, a conventual or collegiate church, or a place of pilgrimage. The vast majority of parish churches do not however enjoy such privileges. In addition to a parish church, each parish may maintain auxiliary organizations and their facilities such as a rectory, parish hall, parochial school, or convent, frequently located on the same campus or adjacent to the church. Pilgrimage church A pilgrimage church is a church to which pilgrimages are regularly made, or a church along a pilgrimage route, often located at the tomb of a saints, or holding icons or relics to which miraculous properties are ascribed, the site of Marian apparitions, etc. Proprietary church During the Middle Ages, a proprietary church was a church, abbey, or cloister built on the private grounds of a feudal lord, over which he retained proprietary interests. Evangelical church structures ]] The architecture of evangelical places of worship is mainly characterized by its sobriety. The Latin cross is a well known Christian symbol that can usually be seen on the building of an evangelical church and that identifies the place's belonging. Some services take place in theaters, schools or multipurpose rooms, rented for Sunday only. There is usually a baptistery at the front of the church (in what is known as the chancel in historic traditions) or in a separate room for baptisms by immersion. Worship services take on impressive proportions in the megachurches (churches where more than 2,000 people gather every Sunday). In some of these megachurches, more than 10,000 people gather every Sunday. The term gigachurch is sometimes used. For example, Lakewood Church (United States) or Yoido Full Gospel Church (South Korea). House church In some countries of the world which apply sharia or communism, government authorizations for worship are complex for Christians. Because of persecution of Christians, Evangelical house churches have thus developed. For example, there is the Evangelical house churches in China movement. The meetings thus take place in private houses, in secret and in "illegality". Alternative buildings Old and disused church buildings can be seen as an interesting proposition for developers as the architecture and location often provide for attractive homes or city centre entertainment venues. On the other hand, many newer churches have decided to host meetings in public buildings such as schools, universities, cinemas or theatres. There is another trend to convert old buildings for worship rather than face the construction costs and planning difficulties of a new build. Unusual venues in the UK include a former tram power station, a former bus garage, a former cinema and bingo hall, a former Territorial Army drill hall, and a former synagogue. served as a floating church for mariners at Liverpool from 1827 until she sank in 1872. A windmill has also been converted into a church at Reigate Heath. There have been increased partnerships between church management and private real estate companies to redevelop church properties into mixed uses. While it has garnered criticism, the partnership allows congregations to increase revenue while preserving the property. Geographical distribution is considered the most important church in all of Christendom.]] With the exception of Saudi Arabia and the Maldives, all sovereign states and dependent territories worldwide have church buildings. Among countries with a church, Afghanistan has the fewest churches globally, featuring only one official church: the Our Lady of Divine Providence Chapel in Kabul. Somalia follows closely, having once housed the Mogadishu Cathedral, along with the Saint Anthony of Padua Church in Somaliland. Other countries with a limited number of churches include Bhutan and Western Sahara. (London, 1720), tall front steeple above pitched roof and rectangle, popularized a template for many church buildings in North America and beyond]] In contrast, some estimates suggest that the United States has the highest number of churches in the world, with around 380,000, followed by Brazil and Italy. According to the Future for Religious Heritage, there are over 500,000 churches across Europe. Several cities are commonly known as the "City of Churches" due to their abundance of churches. These cities include Adelaide, Ani, Ayacucho, Kraków, Moscow, Montreal, Naples, Ohrid, Prague, Puebla, Querétaro, Rome, Salzburg, and Vilnius. Notably, Rome and New York City are home to the highest number of churches of any city in the world. in Vatican City, the largest church in the world]] Although building churches is prohibited in Saudi Arabia, which has around 1.5 million Christians, the country contains the remnants of a historic church known as the Jubail Church, which dates back to the fourth century and was affiliated with the Church of the East. Discovered in 1986, the site was excavated by the Saudi Antiquities Department in 1987. As of 2008, the findings from this excavation had not been published, reflecting sensitivities regarding artifacts from non-Islamic religions. building churches is prohibited. However, only foreign Christian workers are allowed to practice their religion privately. Despite the prohibition on church construction, both countries have secret home churches. Christianity is the world's largest and most widespread religion, with over 2.3 billion followers. Churches are found across all seven continents, which are Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Oceania. Antarctica is home to eight churches, with two additional churches located south of the Antarctic Convergence. Many churches worldwide are of considerable historical, national, cultural, and architectural significance, with several recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Dura-Europos church in Syria is the oldest surviving church building in the world. Several authors have cited the Etchmiadzin Cathedral (Armenia's mother church) as the oldest cathedral in the world. See also * Dedication * List of largest church buildings * Pub church * Shrine * Tabernacle (Methodist) * Temple Notes ReferencesBibliography* * * Erlande-Brandenburg, Alain, Qu'est-ce qu'une église ?, Gallimard, Paris, 333 p., 2010. * Gendry Mickael, L'église, un héritage de Rome, Essai sur les principes et méthodes de l'architecture chrétienne, Religions et Spiritualité, collection Beaux-Arts architecture religion, édition Harmattan 2009, 267 p. External links <!--Do not add links to your local church here. They will be deleted. This section is only for information on churches in the widest sense. See Wikipedia:External links for our policy on external links.--> * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03041a.htm New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia – Ecclesiastical Buildings] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03744a.htm New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia – The Church] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZcfLSpJXo0w Prairie Churches] Documentary produced by Prairie Public Television [https://web.archive.org/web/20121116155347/http://www.iptv.org/iowastories/story.cfm/worship/9640/iowa_places_of_worship_2007/video Iowa Places of Worship] Documentary produced by Iowa Public Television Category:Building types Category:Christian architecture Category:Christian terminology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_(building)	2025-04-05T18:27:47.940432
6326	Childe's Tomb	'''Childe's Tomb''' is a granite cross on Dartmoor, Devon, England. Although not in its original form, it is more elaborate than most of the crosses on Dartmoor, being raised upon a constructed base, and it is known that a kistvaen is underneath. A well-known legend attached to the site, first recorded in 1630 by Tristram Risdon, concerns a wealthy hunter, Childe, who became lost in a snow storm and supposedly died there despite disembowelling his horse and climbing into its body for protection. The legend relates that Childe left a note of some sort saying that whoever found and buried his body would inherit his lands at Plymstock. After a race between the monks of Tavistock Abbey and the men of Plymstock, the Abbey won. The tomb was virtually destroyed in 1812 by a man who stole most of the stones to build a house nearby, but it was partly reconstructed in 1890. Description Childe's Tomb is a reconstructed granite cross on the south-east edge of Foxtor Mires, about 500 metres north of Fox Tor on Dartmoor, Devon, England at . According to William Burt, in his notes to Dartmoor, a Descriptive Poem by N. T. Carrington (1826), the original tomb consisted of a pedestal of three steps, the lowest of which was built of four stones each six feet long and twelve inches square. The two upper steps were made of eight shorter but similarly shaped stones, and on top was an octagonal block about three feet high with a cross fixed upon it. The tomb lies on the line of several cairns that marked the east-west route of the ancient Monks' Path between Buckfast Abbey and Tavistock Abbey and it was no doubt erected here as part of that route: it would have been particularly useful in this part of the moor with few landmarks where a traveller straying from the path could easily end up in Foxtor Mires. Risdon also stated that the original tomb bore an inscription: "They fyrste that fyndes and bringes mee to my grave, The priorie of Plimstoke they shall have", The original, now broken, socket stone for the cross lies nearby. The whole is surrounded by a circle of granite stones set on their edge which once surrounded the cairn—the rocks of which are now scattered around—that was originally built over a large kistvaen that still exists beneath the pedestal.Destruction In the early 19th century, there was much interest in enclosing and "improving" the open moorland on Dartmoor, encouraged by Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt's early successes at Tor Royal near Princetown. Enclosure was aided by the greatly enhanced access provided by the construction of the first turnpike roads over the moor: the road between Ashburton and Two Bridges opened in around 1800, for instance. In February 1809 one Thomas Windeatt, from Bridgetown, Totnes, took over the lease of a plot of land (a "newtake") of about 582 acres in the valley of the River Swincombe. In 1812 Windeatt started to build a farmhouse, Fox Tor Farm, on his land and his workmen robbed the nearby Childe's Tomb of most of its stones for the building and its doorsteps. In 1902, William Crossing wrote that he had been told by an old moorman that some of the granite blocks from the tomb's pedestal had also been used to make a clapper bridge across a stream flowing into the River Swincombe near the farm. The moorman also said that they had lettering on their undersides. This encouraged Crossing to arrange to lift the clapper bridge, but no inscription was found. However, he did locate nine out of the twelve stones that had made up the pedestal, as well as the broken socket stone for the cross. Having located most of the stones of the original tomb, Crossing thought that it could be rebuilt in its original form with little effort, but it was not to be. J. Brooking Rowe, writing in 1895, states that the tomb was re-erected in 1890 under the direction of Mr. E. Fearnley Tanner, who said that he was dissatisfied with the result because several stones were missing and it was difficult to recreate the original character of the monument. Tanner was the honourable secretary of the Dartmoor Preservation Association, and this reconstruction was one of the first acts of that organisation. The replacement base and cross were made in Holne in 1885. Childe became separated from the main party and was lost. In order to save himself from dying of exposure, he killed his horse, disembowelled it and crept inside the warm carcass for shelter. He nevertheless froze to death, but before he died, he wrote a note to the effect that whoever should find him and bury him in their church should inherit his Plymstock estate. His body was found by the monks of Tavistock Abbey, who started to carry it back. However, they heard of a plot to ambush them by the people of Plymstock, at a bridge over the River Tavy. They took a detour and built a new bridge over the river, just outside Tavistock. They were successful in burying the body in the grounds of the Abbey and inherited the Plymstock estate. The first account of this story is to be found in Risdon's Survey of Devon which was completed in around 1632: Finberg pointed out, however, that a document of 1651 refers to Tavistock's guildhall as Guilehall, so Guilebridge is more likely to be guild bridge, probably because it was built or maintained by one of the town guilds.In popular cultureDevon folk singer Seth Lakeman sang about Childe the Hunter on his 2006 album Freedom Fields.ReferencesSources * * * * * <!-- Note: WGS84 lat/long, converted from OSGB36 grid ref --> Category:Dartmoor Category:Monuments and memorials in Devon Category:Monumental crosses in England	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childe's_Tomb	2025-04-05T18:27:47.949098
6328	Cognate	}} In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Because language change can have radical effects on both the sound and the meaning of a word, cognates may not be obvious, and it often takes rigorous study of historical sources and the application of the comparative method to establish whether lexemes are cognate. Cognates are distinguished from loanwords, where a word has been borrowed from another language. Name The English term cognate derives from Latin , meaning "blood relative". Examples An example of cognates from the same Indo-European root are: night (English), Nacht (German), nacht (Dutch, Frisian), nag (Afrikaans), Naach (Colognian), natt (Swedish, Norwegian), nat (Danish), nátt (Faroese), nótt (Icelandic), noc (Czech, Slovak, Polish), ночь, noch (Russian), ноќ, noć (Macedonian), нощ, nosht (Bulgarian), ніч, nich (Ukrainian), ноч, noch/noč (Belarusian), noč (Slovene), noć (Serbo-Croatian), nakts (Latvian), naktis (Lithuanian), nos (Welsh/Cymraeg), νύξ, nyx (Ancient Greek), νύχτα / nychta (Modern Greek), nakt- (Sanskrit), natë (Albanian), nox, gen. sg. noctis (Latin), nuit (French), noche (Spanish), nochi (Extremaduran), nueche (Asturian), noite (Portuguese and Galician), notte (Italian), nit (Catalan), nuet/nit/nueit (Aragonese), nuèch / nuèit (Occitan) and noapte (Romanian). These all mean 'night' and derive from the Proto-Indo-European 'night'. The Indo-European languages have hundreds of such cognate sets, though few of them are as neat as this. The Arabic salām, the Hebrew shalom, the Assyrian Neo-Aramaic shlama and the Amharic selam 'peace' are cognates, derived from the Proto-Semitic šalām- 'peace'. The Paraguayan Guarani panambi, the Eastern Bolivian Guarani panapana, the Cocama and Omagua panama, and the Sirionó ana ana are cognates, derived from the Old Tupi panapana, 'butterfly', maintaining their original meaning in these Tupi languages. Brazilian Portuguese panapanã (flock of butterflies in flight) is a borrowing rather than a cognate of the other words. Characteristics Cognates need not have the same meaning, as they may have undergone semantic change as the languages developed independently. For example English starve and Dutch sterven 'to die' or German sterben 'to die' all descend from the same Proto-Germanic verb, sterbaną 'to die'. Cognates also do not need to look or sound similar: English father, French père, and Armenian հայր (hayr) all descend directly from Proto-Indo-European ph₂tḗr. An extreme case is Armenian երկու (erku) and English two, which descend from Proto-Indo-European dwóh₁; the sound change dw > erk in Armenian is regular. Paradigms of conjugations or declensions, the correspondence of which cannot be generally due to chance, have often been used in cognacy assessment. However, beyond paradigms, morphosyntax is often excluded in the assessment of cognacy between words, mainly because structures are usually seen as more subject to borrowing. Still, very complex, non-trivial morphosyntactic structures can rarely take precedence over phonetic shapes to indicate cognates. For instance, Tangut, the language of the Xixia Empire, and one Horpa language spoken today in Sichuan, Geshiza, both display a verbal alternation indicating tense, obeying the same morphosyntactic collocational restrictions. Even without regular phonetic correspondences between the stems of the two languages, the cognatic structures indicate secondary cognacy for the stems.False cognates False cognates are pairs of words that appear to have a common origin, but which in fact do not. For example, Latin and German both mean 'to have' and are phonetically similar. However, the words evolved from different Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots: , like English have, comes from PIE kh₂pyé- 'to grasp', and has the Latin cognate capere 'to seize, grasp, capture'. , on the other hand, is from PIE gʰabʰ 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English give and German . Likewise, English much and Spanish look similar and have a similar meaning, but are not cognates: much is from Proto-Germanic mikilaz < PIE meǵ- and is from Latin multum < PIE mel-. A true cognate of much is the archaic Spanish 'big'. Distinctions Cognates are distinguished from other kinds of relationships. Loanwords are words borrowed from one language into another; for example, English beef is borrowed from Old French boef (meaning "ox"). Although they are part of a single etymological stemma, they are not cognates. Doublets are pairs of words in the same language which are derived from a single etymon, which may have similar but distinct meanings and uses. Often, one is a loanword and the other is the native form, or they have developed in different dialects and then found themselves together in a modern standard language. For example, Old French boef is cognate with English cow, so English cow and beef are doublets. Translations, or semantic equivalents, are words in two different languages that have similar or practically identical meanings. They may be cognate, but usually they are not. For example, the German equivalent of the English word cow is Kuh, which is also cognate, but the French equivalent is vache, which is unrelated. Related terms Etymon (ancestor word) and descendant words An etymon, or ancestor word, is the ultimate source word from which one or more cognates derive. In other words, it is the source of related words in different languages. For example, the etymon of both Welsh ceffyl and Irish capall is the Proto-Celtic kaballos (all meaning horse). Descendants are words inherited across a language barrier, coming from a particular etymon in an ancestor language. For example, Russian мо́ре and Polish morze are both descendants of Proto-Slavic moře (meaning sea). Root and derivatives A root is the source of related words within a single language (no language barrier is crossed). Similar to the distinction between etymon and root, a nuanced distinction can sometimes be made between a descendant and a derivative. A derivative is one of the words which have their source in a root word, and were at some time created from the root word using morphological constructs such as suffixes, prefixes, and slight changes to the vowels or to the consonants of the root word. For example unhappy, happily, and unhappily are all derivatives of the root word happy. The terms root and derivative are used in the analysis of morphological derivation within a language in studies that are not concerned with historical linguistics and that do not cross the language barrier. See also Homology (biology) Indo-European vocabulary False friend False etymology Folk etymology *Word family References External links Category:Historical linguistics Category:Comparative linguistics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate	2025-04-05T18:27:47.959087
6329	Chromatography	upright=0.4\|thumb\|Thin-layer chromatography is used to separate components of a plant extract, illustrating the experiment with plant pigments which gave chromatography its name In chemical analysis, chromatography is a laboratory technique for the separation of a mixture into its components. The mixture is dissolved in a fluid solvent (gas or liquid) called the mobile phase, which carries it through a system (a column, a capillary tube, a plate, or a sheet) on which a material called the stationary phase is fixed. Because the different constituents of the mixture tend to have different affinities for the stationary phase and are retained for different lengths of time depending on their interactions with its surface sites, the constituents travel at different apparent velocities in the mobile fluid, causing them to separate. The separation is based on the differential partitioning between the mobile and the stationary phases. Subtle differences in a compound's partition coefficient result in differential retention on the stationary phase and thus affect the separation. Chromatography may be preparative or analytical. The purpose of preparative chromatography is to separate the components of a mixture for later use, and is thus a form of purification. This process is associated with higher costs due to its mode of production. Etymology and pronunciation Chromatography, pronounced , is derived from Greek χρῶμα chrōma, which means "color", and γράφειν gráphein, which means "to write". The combination of these two terms was directly inherited from the invention of the technique first used to separate biological pigments. History The method was developed by botanist Mikhail Tsvet in 1901–1905 in universities of Kazan and Warsaw. He developed the technique and coined the term chromatography in the first decade of the 20th century, primarily for the separation of plant pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenes, and xanthophylls. Since these components separate in bands of different colors (green, orange, and yellow, respectively) they directly inspired the name of the technique. New types of chromatography developed during the 1930s and 1940s made the technique useful for many separation processes. Chromatography technique developed substantially as a result of the work of Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge during the 1940s and 1950s, for which they won the 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They established the principles and basic techniques of partition chromatography, and their work encouraged the rapid development of several chromatographic methods: paper chromatography, gas chromatography, and what would become known as high-performance liquid chromatography. Since then, the technology has advanced rapidly. Researchers found that the main principles of Tsvet's chromatography could be applied in many different ways, resulting in the different varieties of chromatography described below. Advances are continually improving the technical performance of chromatography, allowing the separation of increasingly similar molecules. Terms Analyte – the substance to be separated during chromatography. It is also normally what is needed from the mixture. Analytical chromatography – the use of chromatography to determine the existence and possibly also the concentration of analyte(s) in a sample. Bonded phase – a stationary phase that is covalently bonded to the support particles or to the inside wall of the column tubing. Chromatogram – the visual output of the chromatograph. In the case of an optimal separation, different peaks or patterns on the chromatogram correspond to different components of the separated mixture.300px\|Chromatogram with unresolved peaks 300px\|Chromatogram with two resolved peaksPlotted on the x-axis is the retention time and plotted on the y-axis a signal (for example obtained by a spectrophotometer, mass spectrometer or a variety of other detectors) corresponding to the response created by the analytes exiting the system. In the case of an optimal system the signal is proportional to the concentration of the specific analyte separated. Chromatograph – an instrument that enables a sophisticated separation, e.g. gas chromatographic or liquid chromatographic separation. Chromatography – a physical method of separation that distributes components to separate between two phases, one stationary (stationary phase), the other (the mobile phase) moving in a definite direction. Eluent (sometimes spelled eluant) – the solvent or solvent fixure used in elution chromatography and is synonymous with mobile phase. Eluate – the mixture of solute (see Eluite) and solvent (see Eluent) exiting the column. In 1978, W. Clark Still introduced a modified version of column chromatography called flash column chromatography (flash). The technique is very similar to the traditional column chromatography, except that the solvent is driven through the column by applying positive pressure. This allowed most separations to be performed in less than 20 minutes, with improved separations compared to the old method. Modern flash chromatography systems are sold as pre-packed plastic cartridges, and the solvent is pumped through the cartridge. Systems may also be linked with detectors and fraction collectors providing automation. The introduction of gradient pumps resulted in quicker separations and less solvent usage. In expanded bed adsorption, a fluidized bed is used, rather than a solid phase made by a packed bed. This allows omission of initial clearing steps such as centrifugation and filtration, for culture broths or slurries of broken cells. Phosphocellulose chromatography utilizes the binding affinity of many DNA-binding proteins for phosphocellulose. The stronger a protein's interaction with DNA, the higher the salt concentration needed to elute that protein. Planar chromatography Planar chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary phase is present as or on a plane. The plane can be a paper, serving as such or impregnated by a substance as the stationary bed (paper chromatography) or a layer of solid particles spread on a support such as a glass plate (thin-layer chromatography). Different compounds in the sample mixture travel different distances according to how strongly they interact with the stationary phase as compared to the mobile phase. The specific Retention factor (Rf) of each chemical can be used to aid in the identification of an unknown substance. Paper chromatography thumb\|Paper chromatography in progress thumb\|Paper chromatography Paper chromatography is a technique that involves placing a small dot or line of sample solution onto a strip of chromatography paper. The paper is placed in a container with a shallow layer of solvent and sealed. As the solvent rises through the paper, it meets the sample mixture, which starts to travel up the paper with the solvent. This paper is made of cellulose, a polar substance, and the compounds within the mixture travel further if they are less polar. More polar substances bond with the cellulose paper more quickly, and therefore do not travel as far. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) thumb\|Thin layer chromatography Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is a widely employed laboratory technique used to separate different biochemicals on the basis of their relative attractions to the stationary and mobile phases. It is similar to paper chromatography. However, instead of using a stationary phase of paper, it involves a stationary phase of a thin layer of adsorbent like silica gel, alumina, or cellulose on a flat, inert substrate. TLC is very versatile; multiple samples can be separated simultaneously on the same layer, making it very useful for screening applications such as testing drug levels and water purity. Possibility of cross-contamination is low since each separation is performed on a new layer. Compared to paper, it has the advantage of faster runs, better separations, better quantitative analysis, and the choice between different adsorbents. For even better resolution and faster separation that utilizes less solvent, high-performance TLC can be used. An older popular use had been to differentiate chromosomes by observing distance in gel (separation of was a separate step). Displacement chromatography The basic principle of displacement chromatography is: A molecule with a high affinity for the chromatography matrix (the displacer) competes effectively for binding sites, and thus displaces all molecules with lesser affinities. There are distinct differences between displacement and elution chromatography. In elution mode, substances typically emerge from a column in narrow, Gaussian peaks. Wide separation of peaks, preferably to baseline, is desired for maximum purification. The speed at which any component of a mixture travels down the column in elution mode depends on many factors. But for two substances to travel at different speeds, and thereby be resolved, there must be substantial differences in some interaction between the biomolecules and the chromatography matrix. Operating parameters are adjusted to maximize the effect of this difference. In many cases, baseline separation of the peaks can be achieved only with gradient elution and low column loadings. Thus, two drawbacks to elution mode chromatography, especially at the preparative scale, are operational complexity, due to gradient solvent pumping, and low throughput, due to low column loadings. Displacement chromatography has advantages over elution chromatography in that components are resolved into consecutive zones of pure substances rather than "peaks". Because the process takes advantage of the nonlinearity of the isotherms, a larger column feed can be separated on a given column with the purified components recovered at significantly higher concentrations. Techniques by physical state of mobile phase Gas chromatography Gas chromatography (GC), also sometimes known as gas-liquid chromatography, (GLC), is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a gas. Gas chromatographic separation is always carried out in a column, which is typically "packed" or "capillary". Packed columns are the routine workhorses of gas chromatography, being cheaper and easier to use and often giving adequate performance. Capillary columns generally give far superior resolution and although more expensive are becoming widely used, especially for complex mixtures. Further, capillary columns can be split into three classes: porous layer open tubular (PLOT), wall-coated open tubular (WCOT) and support-coated open tubular (SCOT) columns. PLOT columns are unique in a way that the stationary phase is adsorbed to the column walls, while WCOT columns have a stationary phase that is chemically bonded to the walls. SCOT columns are in a way the combination of the two types mentioned in a way that they have support particles adhered to column walls, but those particles have liquid phase chemically bonded onto them. Both types of column are made from non-adsorbent and chemically inert materials. Stainless steel and glass are the usual materials for packed columns and quartz or fused silica for capillary columns. Gas chromatography is based on a partition equilibrium of analyte between a solid or viscous liquid stationary phase (often a liquid silicone-based material) and a mobile gas (most often helium). The stationary phase is adhered to the inside of a small-diameter (commonly 0.53 – 0.18mm inside diameter) glass or fused-silica tube (a capillary column) or a solid matrix inside a larger metal tube (a packed column). It is widely used in analytical chemistry; though the high temperatures used in GC make it unsuitable for high molecular weight biopolymers or proteins (heat denatures them), frequently encountered in biochemistry, it is well suited for use in the petrochemical, environmental monitoring and remediation, and industrial chemical fields. It is also used extensively in chemistry research. Liquid chromatography thumb\|upright=1.8\|Preparative HPLC apparatus Liquid chromatography (LC) is a separation technique in which the mobile phase is a liquid. It can be carried out either in a column or a plane. Present day liquid chromatography that generally utilizes very small packing particles and a relatively high pressure is referred to as high-performance liquid chromatography. In HPLC the sample is forced by a liquid at high pressure (the mobile phase) through a column that is packed with a stationary phase composed of irregularly or spherically shaped particles, a porous monolithic layer, or a porous membrane. Monoliths are "sponge-like chromatographic media" is based on selective non-covalent interaction between an analyte and specific molecules. It is very specific, but not very robust. It is often used in biochemistry in the purification of proteins bound to tags. These fusion proteins are labeled with compounds such as His-tags, biotin or antigens, which bind to the stationary phase specifically. After purification, these tags are usually removed and the pure protein is obtained. Affinity chromatography often utilizes a biomolecule's affinity for the cations of a metal (Zn, Cu, Fe, etc.). Columns are often manually prepared and could be designed specifically for the proteins of interest. Traditional affinity columns are used as a preparative step to flush out unwanted biomolecules, or as a primary step in analyzing a protein with unknown physical properties. However, liquid chromatography techniques exist that do utilize affinity chromatography properties. Immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) is useful to separate the aforementioned molecules based on the relative affinity for the metal. Often these columns can be loaded with different metals to create a column with a targeted affinity. Ion exchange chromatography Ion exchange chromatography (usually referred to as ion chromatography) uses an ion exchange mechanism to separate analytes based on their respective charges. It is usually performed in columns but can also be useful in planar mode. Ion exchange chromatography uses a charged stationary phase to separate charged compounds including anions, cations, amino acids, peptides, and proteins. In conventional methods the stationary phase is an ion-exchange resin that carries charged functional groups that interact with oppositely charged groups of the compound to retain. There are two types of ion exchange chromatography: Cation-Exchange and Anion-Exchange. In the Cation-Exchange Chromatography the stationary phase has negative charge and the exchangeable ion is a cation, whereas, in the Anion-Exchange Chromatography the stationary phase has positive charge and the exchangeable ion is an anion. Ion exchange chromatography is commonly used to purify proteins using FPLC. Size-exclusion chromatography Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) is also known as gel permeation chromatography (GPC) or gel filtration chromatography and separates molecules according to their size (or more accurately according to their hydrodynamic diameter or hydrodynamic volume). Smaller molecules are able to enter the pores of the media and, therefore, molecules are trapped and removed from the flow of the mobile phase. The average residence time in the pores depends upon the effective size of the analyte molecules. However, molecules that are larger than the average pore size of the packing are excluded and thus suffer essentially no retention; such species are the first to be eluted. It is generally a low-resolution chromatography technique and thus it is often reserved for the final, "polishing" step of a purification. It is also useful for determining the tertiary structure and quaternary structure of purified proteins, especially since it can be carried out under native solution conditions. Expanded bed adsorption chromatographic separation An expanded bed chromatographic adsorption (EBA) column for a biochemical separation process comprises a pressure equalization liquid distributor having a self-cleaning function below a porous blocking sieve plate at the bottom of the expanded bed, an upper part nozzle assembly having a backflush cleaning function at the top of the expanded bed, a better distribution of the feedstock liquor added into the expanded bed ensuring that the fluid passed through the expanded bed layer displays a state of piston flow. The expanded bed layer displays a state of piston flow. The expanded bed chromatographic separation column has advantages of increasing the separation efficiency of the expanded bed. Expanded-bed adsorption (EBA) chromatography is a convenient and effective technique for the capture of proteins directly from unclarified crude sample. In EBA chromatography, the settled bed is first expanded by upward flow of equilibration buffer. The crude feed, which is a mixture of soluble proteins, contaminants, cells, and cell debris, is then passed upward through the expanded bed. Target proteins are captured on the adsorbent, while particulates and contaminants pass through. A change to elution buffer while maintaining upward flow results in desorption of the target protein in expanded-bed mode. Alternatively, if the flow is reversed, the adsorbed particles will quickly settle and the proteins can be desorbed by an elution buffer. The mode used for elution (expanded-bed versus settled-bed) depends on the characteristics of the feed. After elution, the adsorbent is cleaned with a predefined cleaning-in-place (CIP) solution, with cleaning followed by either column regeneration (for further use) or storage. Special techniques Reversed-phase chromatography Reversed-phase chromatography (RPC) is any liquid chromatography procedure in which the mobile phase is significantly more polar than the stationary phase. It is so named because in normal-phase liquid chromatography, the mobile phase is significantly less polar than the stationary phase. Hydrophobic molecules in the mobile phase tend to adsorb to the relatively hydrophobic stationary phase. Hydrophilic molecules in the mobile phase will tend to elute first. Separating columns typically comprise a C8 or C18 carbon-chain bonded to a silica particle substrate. Hydrophobic interaction chromatography Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography (HIC) is a purification and analytical technique that separates analytes, such as proteins, based on hydrophobic interactions between that analyte and the chromatographic matrix. It can provide a non-denaturing orthogonal approach to reversed phase separation, preserving native structures and potentially protein activity. In hydrophobic interaction chromatography, the matrix material is lightly substituted with hydrophobic groups. These groups can range from methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, octyl, or phenyl groups. At high salt concentrations, non-polar sidechains on the surface on proteins "interact" with the hydrophobic groups; that is, both types of groups are excluded by the polar solvent (hydrophobic effects are augmented by increased ionic strength). Thus, the sample is applied to the column in a buffer which is highly polar, which drives an association of hydrophobic patches on the analyte with the stationary phase. The eluent is typically an aqueous buffer with decreasing salt concentrations, increasing concentrations of detergent (which disrupts hydrophobic interactions), or changes in pH. Of critical importance is the type of salt used, with more kosmotropic salts as defined by the Hofmeister series providing the most water structuring around the molecule and resulting hydrophobic pressure. Ammonium sulfate is frequently used for this purpose. The addition of organic solvents or other less polar constituents may assist in improving resolution. In general, Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography (HIC) is advantageous if the sample is sensitive to pH change or harsh solvents typically used in other types of chromatography but not high salt concentrations. Commonly, it is the amount of salt in the buffer which is varied. In 2012, Müller and Franzreb described the effects of temperature on HIC using Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) with four different types of hydrophobic resin. The study altered temperature as to effect the binding affinity of BSA onto the matrix. It was concluded that cycling temperature from 40 to 10 degrees Celsius would not be adequate to effectively wash all BSA from the matrix but could be very effective if the column would only be used a few times. Using temperature to effect change allows labs to cut costs on buying salt and saves money. If high salt concentrations along with temperature fluctuations want to be avoided one can use a more hydrophobic to compete with one's sample to elute it. This so-called salt independent method of HIC showed a direct isolation of Human Immunoglobulin G (IgG) from serum with satisfactory yield and used β-cyclodextrin as a competitor to displace IgG from the matrix. This largely opens up the possibility of using HIC with samples which are salt sensitive as we know high salt concentrations precipitate proteins. Hydrodynamic chromatography Hydrodynamic chromatography (HDC) is derived from the observed phenomenon that large droplets move faster than small ones. In a column, this happens because the center of mass of larger droplets is prevented from being as close to the sides of the column as smaller droplets because of their larger overall size. Larger droplets will elute first from the middle of the column while smaller droplets stick to the sides of the column and elute last. This form of chromatography is useful for separating analytes by molar mass (or molecular mass), size, shape, and structure when used in conjunction with light scattering detectors, viscometers, and refractometers. The two main types of HDC are open tube and packed column. Open tube offers rapid separation times for small particles, whereas packed column HDC can increase resolution and is better suited for particles with an average molecular mass larger than 10^5 daltons. HDC differs from other types of chromatography because the separation only takes place in the interstitial volume, which is the volume surrounding and in between particles in a packed column. HDC shares the same order of elution as Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) but the two processes still vary in many ways. This is largely due to SEC being a more destructive technique because of the pores in the column degrading the analyte during separation, which tends to impact the mass distribution. HDC plays an especially important role in the field of microfluidics. The first successful apparatus for HDC-on-a-chip system was proposed by Chmela, et al. in 2002. Their design was able to achieve separations using an 80 mm long channel on the timescale of 3 minutes for particles with diameters ranging from 26 to 110 nm, but the authors expressed a need to improve the retention and dispersion parameters. Having such a short channel and high resolution was viewed as especially impressive considering that previous studies used channels that were 80 mm in length. This study also made advances for environmental sustainability in microfluidics due to the lack of outside electronics driving the flow, which came as an advantage of using a gravity based device.thumb\|upright\| Two-dimensional chromatograph GCxGC-TOFMS at Chemical Faculty of GUT Gdańsk, Poland, 2016 Two-dimensional chromatography In some cases, the selectivity provided by the use of one column can be insufficient to provide resolution of analytes in complex samples. Two-dimensional chromatography aims to increase the resolution of these peaks by using a second column with different physico-chemical (chemical classification) properties. Since the mechanism of retention on this new solid support is different from the first dimensional separation, it can be possible to separate compounds by two-dimensional chromatography that are indistinguishable by one-dimensional chromatography. Furthermore, the separation on the second dimension occurs faster than the first dimension. and the comprehensive approach uses all analytes in the second-dimension separation. Hydrodynamic countercurrent chromatography (CCC) The operating principle of CCC instrument requires a column consisting of an open tube coiled around a bobbin. The bobbin is rotated in a double-axis gyratory motion (a cardioid), which causes a variable gravity (G) field to act on the column during each rotation. This motion causes the column to see one partitioning step per revolution and components of the sample separate in the column due to their partitioning coefficient between the two immiscible liquid phases used. There are many types of CCC available today. These include HSCCC (High Speed CCC) and HPCCC (High Performance CCC). HPCCC is the latest and best-performing version of the instrumentation available currently. Centrifugal partition chromatography (CPC) In the CPC (centrifugal partition chromatography or hydrostatic countercurrent chromatography) instrument, the column consists of a series of cells interconnected by ducts attached to a rotor. This rotor rotates on its central axis creating the centrifugal field necessary to hold the stationary phase in place. The separation process in CPC is governed solely by the partitioning of solutes between the stationary and mobile phases, which mechanism can be easily described using the partition coefficients (KD) of solutes. CPC instruments are commercially available for laboratory, pilot, and industrial-scale separations with different sizes of columns ranging from some 10 milliliters to 10 liters in volume. Periodic counter-current chromatography In contrast to Counter current chromatography (see above), periodic counter-current chromatography (PCC) uses a solid stationary phase and only a liquid mobile phase. It thus is much more similar to conventional affinity chromatography than to counter current chromatography. PCC uses multiple columns, which during the loading phase are connected in line. This mode allows for overloading the first column in this series without losing product, which already breaks through the column before the resin is fully saturated. The breakthrough product is captured on the subsequent column(s). In a next step the columns are disconnected from one another. The first column is washed and eluted, while the other column(s) are still being loaded. Once the (initially) first column is re-equilibrated, it is re-introduced to the loading stream, but as last column. The process then continues in a cyclic fashion. Chiral chromatography Chiral chromatography involves the separation of stereoisomers. In the case of enantiomers, these have no chemical or physical differences apart from being three-dimensional mirror images. To enable chiral separations to take place, either the mobile phase or the stationary phase must themselves be made chiral, giving differing affinities between the analytes. Chiral chromatography HPLC columns (with a chiral stationary phase) in both normal and reversed phase are commercially available. Conventional chromatography are incapable of separating racemic mixtures of enantiomers. However, in some cases nonracemic mixtures of enantiomers may be separated unexpectedly by conventional liquid chromatography (e.g. HPLC without chiral mobile phase or stationary phase ). Aqueous normal-phase chromatography Aqueous normal-phase (ANP) chromatography is characterized by the elution behavior of classical normal phase mode (i.e. where the mobile phase is significantly less polar than the stationary phase) in which water is one of the mobile phase solvent system components. It is distinguished from hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) in that the retention mechanism is due to adsorption rather than partitioning. Applications Chromatography is used in many fields including the pharmaceutical industry, the food and beverage industry, the chemical industry, forensic science, environment analysis, and hospitals. See also Affinity chromatography Aqueous normal-phase chromatography Binding selectivity Chiral analysis Chromatofocusing Chromatography in blood processing Chromatography software Glowmatography Multicolumn countercurrent solvent gradient purification (MCSGP) Purnell equation Van Deemter equation References External links IUPAC Nomenclature for Chromatography Overlapping Peaks Program – Learning by Simulations Chromatography Videos – MIT OCW – Digital Lab Techniques Manual Chromatography Equations Calculators – MicroSolv Technology Corporation Category:Chemical pathology Category:Biological techniques and tools Category:Russian inventions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatography	2025-04-05T18:27:48.004984
6330	Clement Martyn Doke	\| birth_place = Bristol, England \| death_date \| death_place = East London, South Africa \| fields = Linguistics \| workplaces = University of the Witwatersrand \| alma_mater = Transvaal University College }} Clement Martyn Doke (16 May 1893 in Bristol, United Kingdom – 24 February 1980 in East London, South Africa) was a South African linguist working mainly on African languages. Realizing that the grammatical structures of Bantu languages are quite different from those of European languages, he was one of the first African linguists of his time to abandon the Euro-centric approach to language description for a more locally grounded one. A most prolific writer, he published a string of grammars, several dictionaries, comparative work, and a history of Bantu linguistics. Early life and career The Doke family had been engaged in missionary activity for the Baptist Church for some generations. His father, Reverend Joseph J. Doke, left England and travelled to South Africa in 1882, where he met and married Agnes Biggs. They returned to England, where Clement was born as the third of four children. The family moved to New Zealand and eventually returned to South Africa in 1903, where it later settled in Johannesburg. At the age of 18, Clement received a bachelor's degree from Transvaal University College in Pretoria (now the University of Pretoria). He decided to devote his life to missionary activity. In 1913, he accompanied his father on a tour of north-western Rhodesia, to an area called Lambaland, now known as Ilamba. It is at the watershed of the Congo and Zambesi rivers. Part of the district lay in Northern Rhodesia and part of the Belgian Congo. The Cape-Cairo Railway threaded through its eastern portion; otherwise, most travel had to be on foot. The Reverend William Arthur Phillips of the Nyasa Industrial Mission in Blantyre had established a Baptist mission there in 1905; it served an area of and 50,000 souls. The Dokes were supposed to investigate whether the mission in Lambaland could be taken over by the Baptist Union of South Africa. It was on that trip that Doke's father contracted enteric fever and died soon afterwards. Mahatma Gandhi attended the memorial service and addressed the congregation. Clement assumed his father's role. The South African Baptists decided to take over Kafulafuta Mission, and its founder, Reverend Phillips, remained as superintendent. Clement Doke returned to Kafulafuta as missionary in 1914, followed by his sister Olive two years later. Study of Lamba At first, Clement Doke was frustrated by his inability to communicate with the Lamba. The only written material available at the time was a translation of Jonah and a collection of 47 hymns. Soon, however, he mastered the language and published his first book, Ifintu Fyakwe Lesa ("The Things of God, a Primer of Scripture Knowledge") in 1917. He enrolled in Johannesburg as the extension of Transvaal University College for an MA degree. His thesis was published as The Grammar of the Lamba language. The book is couched in traditional grammatical terms, as Doke had not yet established his innovative method to analyse and describe the Bantu languages. His later Textbook of Lamba Grammar is far superior in that respect. Doke was also interested in ethnology. In 1931 he compiled The Lambas of Northern Rhodesia, which remains one of the outstanding ethnographic descriptions of the peoples of Central Africa. For Doke, literacy was part of evangelisation since it was required so that people to appreciate the Bible's message, but it was only after his retirement that he completed the translation of the Bible into Lamba. It was published under the title of Amasiwi AwaLesa ("The Words of God") in 1959. University of the Witwatersrand In 1919, Doke married Hilda Lehmann, who accompanied him back to Lambaland. Both contracted malaria during their work, and she was forbidden to return to Lambaland. Clement Doke also realised that his field work could not continue much longer, and he left in 1921. He was recruited by the newly founded University of the Witwatersrand. So that he could secure a qualification as a lecturer, the family moved to England, where he registered at the School of Oriental and African Studies. His major languages were Lamba and Luba, but as no suitable examiner was available, he eventually had to change his language to Zulu. Doke took up his appointment in the new Department of Bantu Studies at the University of Witwatersrand in 1923. In 1925 he received his D.Litt. for his doctoral thesis The Phonetics of the Zulu Language and was promoted to Senior Lecturer. In 1931 he was appointed to the Chair of Bantu Studies and thus headed the Department of Bantu Studies. The department acted as a catalyst for the admission of Africans to the university. As early as 1925 a limited number were admitted to the vacation course in African Studies. Doke supported the appointment of Benedict Wallet Vilakazi as member of the staff, as he believed a native speaker was essential for acquiring a language. That provoked a storm of criticism and controversy from the public. Both of them collaborated on the Zulu-English Dictionary. First published in 1948, it is still one of the best examples of lexicography for any Bantu language. At the request of the government of Southern Rhodesia, Doke investigated the range of dialect diversity among the languages of the country and made recommendations for Unified Shona, which formed the basis for Standard Shona. He devised a unified orthography based on the Zezuru, Karanga and Manyika dialects. However, Doke's orthography was never fully accepted, and the South African government introduced an alternative, which left Shona with two competing orthographies between 1935 and 1955. During his tenure, Doke developed and promoted a method of linguistic analysis and description of the Bantu languages that was based upon the structure of these languages. The "Dokean model" continues to be one of the dominant models of linguistic description in Southern and Central Africa. His classification of the Bantu languages was for many years the dominant view of the interrelations among the African languages. He was also an early describer of Khoisan and Bantu click consonants, devising phonetic symbols for a number of them. Doke served the University of the Witwatersrand until his retirement in 1953. He was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by Rhodes University and the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws by the University of the Witwatersrand in 1972. The former missionary always remained devoted to the Baptist Church. He was elected President of the South African Baptist Union in 1949 and spent a year visiting churches and mission stations. He used his presidential address in condemning the recently established apartheid policy: I solemnly warn the Government that the spirit behind their apartheid legislation, and the way in which they are introducing discriminatory measures of all types today, will bring disaster upon this fair land of ours. Selected publications Ifintu Fyakwe Lesa (The Things of God, a Primer of Scripture Knowledge in Lamba), 1917. An outline of the phonetics of the language of the ʗhũ̬꞉ Bushman of the North-West Kalahari. Bantu Studies. 2: 129–166, 1925. [https://archive.org/details/african-studies_1923-1926_2/page/129/mode/1up] The phonetics of the Zulu language. University of the Witwatersrand Press, 1969 [1926]. [https://storage.lib.uchicago.edu/pres/2009/pres2009-0344.pdf] The Lambas of Northern Rhodesia: A Study of their Customs and Beliefs. London: George G. Harrap, 1931. Report on the Unification of the Shona Dialects. Government of Southern Rhodesia: Government Blue Book, 1931. Bantu linguistic terminology. London; New York Longmans, Green, 1935. Textbook of Lamba Grammar. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1938. Outline grammar of Bantu. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1943. Zulu–English Dictionary. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1948. (with Benedict Wallet Vilakazi) The Southern Bantu languages. London; New York: Oxford University Press, 1954. Amasiwi AwaLesa (The Words of God in Lamba), 1959. Contributions to the history of Bantu linguistics. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1961 (with D. T. Cole). *Trekking in South Central Africa 1913–1919. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1993. References Category:1893 births Category:1980 deaths Category:Linguists from South Africa Category:People from Bristol Category:People from Johannesburg Category:University of Pretoria alumni Category:Academic staff of the University of the Witwatersrand Category:20th-century South African linguists Category:Missionary linguists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Martyn_Doke	2025-04-05T18:27:48.009946
6331	Carl Meinhof	\|nationality=German \|occupation=Linguist }} Carl Friedrich Michael Meinhof (23 July 1857 – 11 February 1944) was a German linguist and one of the first linguists to study African languages. Early years and career Meinhof was born in Barzwitz near Rügenwalde in the Province of Pomerania, Kingdom of Prussia. He studied at the University of Tübingen and at the University of Greifswald. In 1905 he became professor at the School of Oriental Studies in Berlin. On 5 May 1933 he became a member of the Nazi Party.Works His most notable work was developing comparative grammar studies of the Bantu languages, building on the pioneering work of Wilhelm Bleek. In his work, Meinhof looked at the common Bantu languages such as Swahili and Zulu to determine similarities and differences. In his work, Meinhof looked at noun classes with all Bantu languages having at least 10 classes and with 22 classes of nouns existing throughout the Bantu languages, though his definition of noun class differs slightly from the accepted one, considering the plural form of a word as belonging to a different class from the singular form (thus leading, for example, to consider a language like French as having four classes instead of two). While no language has all 22 (later: 23) classes active, Venda has 20, Lozi has 18, and Ganda has 16 or 17 (depending on whether the locative class 23 e- is included). All Bantu languages have a noun class specifically for humans (sometimes including other animate beings). Meinhof also examined other African languages, including groups classified at the time as Kordofanian, Bushman, Khoikhoi, and Hamitic. Meinhof developed a comprehensive classification scheme for African languages. His classification was the standard one for many years (Greenberg 1955:3). It was replaced by those of Joseph Greenberg in 1955 and in 1963. His ideas influenced the notation of African-language phonetics as advanced in the mid-nineteenth century by the Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius and gave rise to what some called the "Meinhof-Lepsius system" of diacritical markers. In 1902, Meinhof made recordings of East African music. These are among the first recordings made of traditional African music. Controversial views In 1912, Carl Meinhof published Die Sprachen der Hamiten (The Languages of the Hamites). He used the term Hamitic. Meinhof's system of classification of the Hamitic languages was based on a belief that "speakers of Hamitic became largely coterminous with cattle herding peoples with essentially Caucasian origins, intrinsically different from and superior to the 'Negroes of Africa'." However, in the case of the so-called Nilo-Hamitic languages (a concept he introduced), it was based on the typological feature of gender and a "fallacious theory of language mixture." Meinhof did this in spite of earlier work by scholars such as Lepsius and Johnston demonstrating that the languages which he would later dub "Nilo-Hamitic" were in fact Nilotic languages with numerous similarities in vocabulary with other Nilotic languages.FamilyCarl Meinhof was the great-uncle (the brother of the grandfather) of Ulrike Meinhof, a well known German journalist, who later became a founding member of the Red Army Faction (RAF), a left-wing militant group operating chiefly in West Germany in the 1970s and 1980s.See alsoErnst Dammann, Africanist and Nazi, employed by MeinhofReferences Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. Studies in African Linguistic Classification. New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. The Languages of Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Meinhof, Carl. 1906. Grundzüge einer vergleichenden Grammatik der Bantusprachen.'' Berlin: Reimer. * Pugach, Sara. 2004. "Images of race and redemption: The Protestant missionary contribution to Carl Meinhof's Zeitschrift für Kolonialsprachen", [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303172727/http://www2.unil.ch/lefaitmissionnaire/pages/tables_publi/lfm15_tbl.htm Le Fait Missionaire: Social Sciences and Missions] 15 (December 2004), 59–96. External links * Category:1857 births Category:1944 deaths Category:People from Sławno County Category:People from the Province of Pomerania Category:Linguists from Germany Category:Nazi Party politicians Category:University of Greifswald alumni Category:University of Tübingen alumni Category:Linguists of Afroasiatic languages Category:Linguists of Niger–Congo languages Category:Meinhof family	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Meinhof	2025-04-05T18:27:48.014262
6335	Cucurbitaceae	\|image=Hodgsonia heteroclita male.jpg \|image_caption=Hodgsonia male plant \|taxon=Cucurbitaceae \|authorityJuss. \|type_genus=Cucurbita \|type_genus_authority=L. \|subdivision_ranks=Tribes and genera \|subdivision=See text. }} The Cucurbitaceae (), also called cucurbits or the gourd family, are a plant family consisting of about 965 species in 101 genera. Those of most agricultural, commercial or nutritional value to humans include: Cucurbita – squash, pumpkin, zucchini (courgette), some gourds. Lagenaria – calabash (bottle gourd) and other, ornamental gourds. Citrullus – watermelon (C. lanatus, C. colocynthis), plus several other species. Cucumis – cucumber (C. sativus); various melons and vines. Momordica – bitter melon. Luffa – commonly called 'luffa' or ‘luffa squash'; sometimes spelled loofah. Young fruits may be cooked; when fully ripened, they become fibrous and unpalatable, thus becoming the source of the loofah scrubbing sponge. Cyclanthera – Caigua. Gerrardanthus — the species G. macrorhizus has gained some popularity as an ornamental caudiciform plant. Xerosicyos — the silver dollar vine (Xerosicyos danguyi) is popular amongst horticulturists and plant collectors. The plants in this family are grown around the tropics and in temperate areas of the world, where those with edible fruits were among the earliest cultivated plants in both the Old and New Worlds. The family Cucurbitaceae ranks among the highest of plant families for number and percentage of species used as human food. The name Cucurbitaceae comes to international scientific vocabulary from Neo-Latin, from Cucurbita, the type genus, + -aceae, a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. The genus name comes from the Classical Latin word , meaning "gourd". Description Most of the plants in this family are annual vines, but some are woody lianas, thorny shrubs, or trees (Dendrosicyos). Many species have large, yellow or white flowers. The stems are hairy and pentangular. Tendrils are present at 90° to the leaf petioles at nodes. Leaves are exstipulate, alternate, simple palmately lobed or palmately compound. The flowers are unisexual, with male and female flowers on different plants (dioecious) or on the same plant (monoecious). The female flowers have inferior ovaries. The fruit is often a kind of modified berry called a pepo. Fossil history One of the oldest fossil cucurbits so far is †Cucurbitaciphyllum lobatum from the Paleocene epoch, found at Shirley Canal, Montana. It was described for the first time in 1924 by the paleobotanist Frank Hall Knowlton. The fossil leaf is palmate, trilobed with rounded lobal sinuses and an entire or serrate margin. It has a leaf pattern similar to the members of the genera Kedrostis, Melothria and Zehneria. Classification Tribal classification and squashes displayed in a show competition]] Genebank in Suwon]] , with the title "Variedades de calabaza" include gourds and edible species of Cucurbita and Lagenaria.]] The most recent classification of Cucurbitaceae delineates 15 tribes: Tribe Gomphogyneae <small>Benth. & Hook.f.</small> Alsomitra <small>(Blume) Spach</small> (1 sp.) Bayabusua <small></small> (1 sp.) Gomphogyne <small>Griff.</small> (2 spp.) Gynostemma <small>Blume</small> (10 spp.) Hemsleya <small>Cogn. ex F.B.Forbes & Hemsl.</small> (30 spp.) Neoalsomitra <small>Hutch.</small> (12 spp.) * Tribe Triceratieae <small>A.Rich.</small> <!--=Fevilleeae Benth. & Hook. f. 1867. --> Cyclantheropsis <small>Harms</small> (3 spp.) Fevillea <small>L.</small> (8 spp.) Pteropepon <small>(Cogn.) Cogn.</small> (5 spp.) Sicydium <small>Schltdl.</small> (9 spp.) * Tribe Zanonieae <small>Benth. & Hook.f.</small> Gerrardanthus <small>Harvey in Hook.f.</small> (3–5 spp.) Siolmatra <small>Baill.</small> (1 sp.) Xerosicyos <small>Humbert</small> (5 spp.) Zanonia <small>L.</small> (1 sp.) * Tribe Actinostemmateae <small>H.Schaef. & S.S.Renner</small> Actinostemma <small>Griff.</small> (3 spp.) Bolbostemma (2 spp.) * Tribe Indofevilleeae <small>H.Schaef. & S.S.Renner</small> ** Indofevillea <small>Chatterjee</small> (2 sp.) * Tribe Thladiantheae <small>H.Schaef. & S.S.Renner</small> Baijiania <small>A.M.Lu & J.Q.Li</small> (30 spp.) Sinobaijiania (5 spp.) ** Thladiantha <small>Bunge 1833</small> (5 spp.) * Tribe Siraitieae <small>H. Schaef. & S.S. Renner</small> ** Siraitia <small>Merr.</small> (3–4 spp.) * Tribe Momordiceae <small>H.Schaef. & S.S.Renner</small> ** Momordica <small>L.</small> (60 spp.) * Tribe Joliffieae <small>Schrad.</small> <!--=Telfairieae Arn. 1841 --> Ampelosicyos <small>Thouars</small> (5 spp.) Cogniauxia <small>Baill.</small> (2 spp.) ** Telfairia <small>Hook.</small> (3 spp.) * Tribe Bryonieae <small>Dumort.</small> Austrobryonia <small>H.Schaef.</small> (4 spp.) Bryonia <small>L.</small> (10 spp.) ** Ecballium <small>A.Rich.</small> (1 sp.) * Tribe Schizopeponeae <small>C.Jeffrey</small> Herpetospermum <small>Wall. ex Hook.f.</small> (3 spp.) Schizopepon <small>Maxim.</small> (6–8 spp.) * Tribe Sicyoeae <small>Schrad.</small> Brandegea <small>Cogn.</small> (1 sp.) Cyclanthera <small>Schrad.</small> (40 spp.) Echinocystis <small>Torr. & A.Gray</small> (1 sp.) Echinopepon <small>Naudin</small> (19 spp.) Hanburia <small>Seem.</small> (7 spp.) Hodgsonia <small>Hook.f. & Thomson</small> (2 spp.) Linnaeosicyos <small>H.Schaef. & Kocyan</small> (1 sp.) Luffa <small>Mill.</small> (5–7 spp.) Marah <small>Kellogg</small> (7 spp.) Microsechium (4 spp.) Nothoalsomitra <small>Hutch.</small> (1 sp.) Parasicyos (2 sp.) Sechiopsis (5 spp.) Sicyocaulis (1 sp.) Sicyos <small>L.</small> (64 spp., including Frantzia <small>Pittier</small> and Sechium <small>P.Browne</small>) Sicyosperma (1 sp.) ** Trichosanthes <small>L.</small> (≤100 spp.) * Tribe Coniandreae <small>Endl.</small> Apodanthera <small>Arn.</small> (16 spp.) Bambekea <small>Cogn.</small> (1 sp.) Ceratosanthes <small>Adans.</small> (4 spp.) Corallocarpus <small>Welw. ex Benth. & Hook.f.</small> (17 spp.) Cucurbitella <small>Walp.</small> (1 sp.) Dendrosicyos <small>Balf.f.</small> (1 sp.) Doyerea <small>Grosourdy</small> (1 sp.) Eureiandra <small>Hook.f.</small> (8 spp.) Gurania <small>(Schltdl.) Cogn.</small> (37 spp.) Halosicyos <small>Mart.Crov</small> (1 sp.) Helmontia <small>Cogn.</small> (2–4 spp.) Ibervillea <small>Greene</small> (8 spp.) Kedrostis <small>Medik.</small> (28 spp.) Psiguria <small>Neck. ex Arn.</small> (6–12 spp.) Seyrigia <small>Keraudren</small> (6 spp.) Trochomeriopsis <small>Cogn.</small> (1 sp.) ** Wilbrandia <small>Silva Manso</small> (5 spp.) * Tribe Benincaseae <small>Ser.</small> Acanthosicyos <small>Welw. ex Hook.f.</small> (1 sp.) Benincasa <small>Savi</small> (2 spp., including Praecitrullus <small>Pangalo</small>) Blastania (3 spp., including Ctenolepis <small>Hook.f.</small>) Borneosicyos <small></small> (1–2 spp.) Cephalopentandra <small>Chiov.</small> (1 sp.) Citrullus <small>Schrad.</small> (4 spp.) Coccinia <small>Wight & Arn.</small> (30 spp.) Cucumis <small>L.</small> (65 spp.) Dactyliandra <small>Hook.f. </small> (2 spp.) Diplocyclos <small>(Endl.) T.Post & Kuntze</small> (4 spp.) Indomelothria <small></small> (2 spp.) Khmeriosicyos <small></small> (1 sp.) Lagenaria <small>Ser.</small> (6 spp.) Lemurosicyos <small>Keraudren</small> (1 sp.) Melothria <small>L.</small> (12 spp., including M. scabra) Muellerargia <small>Cogn.</small> (2 sp.) Oreosyce (1 sp.) Papuasicyos <small></small> (8 spp.) Peponium <small>Engl.</small> (20 spp.) Raphidiocystis <small>Hook.f.</small> (5 spp.) Ruthalicia <small>C.Jeffrey</small> (2 spp.) Scopellaria <small>W.J.de Wilde & Duyfjes</small> (2 spp.) Solena <small>Lour.</small> (3 spp.) Trochomeria <small>Hook.f.</small> (8 spp.) ** Zehneria <small>Endl.</small> (ca. 60 spp.) * Tribe Cucurbiteae <small>Ser.</small> Abobra <small>Naudin</small> (1 sp.) Calycophysum <small>H.Karst. & Triana</small> (5 spp.) Cayaponia <small>Silva Manso</small> (74 spp.) Cionosicys <small>Griseb.</small> (4–5 spp.) Cucurbita <small>L.</small> (15 spp.) Penelopeia <small>Urb.</small> (2 spp.) Peponopsis <small>Naudin</small> (1 sp.) Polyclathra <small>Bertol.</small> (6 spp.) Schizocarpum <small>Schrad.</small> (11 spp.) Selysia <small>Cogn.</small> (4 spp.) Sicana <small>Naudin</small> (4 spp.) Tecunumania <small>Standl. & Steyerm.</small> (1 sp.) Systematics Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships: <!------------------- collapsible element containing large cladogram of APG IV phylogeny ---------------> {\| class"collapsible collapsed" style"width:100%; border:solid 1px #aaa" \|- ! style="background:#F0F2F5" \|Detailed Cladogram showing Cucurbitaceae phylogeny \|- \| \|2= }} }} }} }} \|2= }} }} \|label2=Zanonieae \|2= \|2=Xerosicyos }} }} }} \|2= \|2= \|2= }} \|2= \|2= \|2= }} }} \|2= \|2=Austrobryonia }} }} \|2= \|2= \|2= \|3=Sicyos }} }} }} }} \|2= }} }} }} \|2= }} \|3= \|2= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} \|targetA=CONIANDREAE \|subcladeA= \|2= \|2= }} }} }} \|2=Melotrianthus \|3= \|2=Apodanthera }} \|2= }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} <!-- end CONIANDREAE subtree --> \|targetB=CUCURBITEAE \|subcladeB= }} \|2= \|2= }} }} }} }} }} <!-- end CUCURBITEAE subtree --> \|targetC=BENINCASEAE \|subcladeC= }} \|2= }} }} }} \|2= }} }} }} }} }} \|2= }} \|2= \|2= }} \|2= }} }} }} }} <!-- end BENINCASEAE subtree --> }} \|} <!-- end collapsed table --> Pests and diseases Sweet potato whitefly is the vector of a number of cucurbit viruses that cause yellowing symptoms throughout the southern United States.References Further reading * * External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111028061200/http://www.cucurbit.org/family.html Cucurbitaceae] in T.C. Andres (1995 onwards). * [https://web.archive.org/web/20211028184716/http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/cucurbit.htm Cucurbitaceae] in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. Category:Rosid families Category:Extant Danian first appearances Category:Taxa named by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu Category:Taxa described in 1789	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cucurbitaceae	2025-04-05T18:27:48.065098
6336	Chorded keyboard	250px\|thumb\|right\|A Microwriter MW4 (circa 1980) A keyset or chorded keyboard (also called a chorded keyset, chord keyboard or chording keyboard) is a computer input device that allows the user to enter characters or commands formed by pressing several keys together, like playing a "chord" on a piano. The large number of combinations available from a small number of keys allows text or commands to be entered with one hand, leaving the other hand free. A secondary advantage is that it can be built into a device (such as a pocket-sized computer or a bicycle handlebar) that is too small to contain a normal-sized keyboard. A chorded keyboard minus the board, typically designed to be used while held in the hand, is called a keyer. Douglas Engelbart introduced the chorded keyset as a computer interface in 1968 at what is often called "The Mother of All Demos". Principles of operation thumb\|An ergonomic chorded keyboard without the board is known as a keyer. Each key is mapped to a number and then can be mapped to a corresponding letter or command. By pressing two or more keys together the user can generate many combinations. In Engelbart's original mapping, he used five keys: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16. The keys were mapped as follows: a 1, b 2, c 3, d 4, and so on. If the user pressed keys 1 and 2 simultaneously, and then released the keys, 1 and 2 would be added to 3, and since C is the 3rd letter of the alphabet, and the letter "c" appeared. Unlike pressing a chord on a piano, the chord is recognized only after all the keys or mouse buttons are released. Since Engelbart introduced the keyset, several different designs have been developed based on similar concepts. As a crude example, each finger might control one key which corresponds to one bit in a byte, so that using seven keys and seven fingers, one could enter any character in the ASCII set—if the user could remember the binary codes. Due to the small number of keys required, chording is easily adapted from a desktop to mobile environment. Practical devices generally use simpler chords for common characters (e.g., Baudot), or may have ways to make it easier to remember the chords (e.g., Microwriter), but the same principles apply. These portable devices first became popular with the wearable computer movement in the 1980s. Thad Starner from Georgia Institute of Technology and others published numerous studies showing that two-handed chorded text entry was faster and yielded fewer errors than on a QWERTY keyboard. Currently stenotype machines hold the record for fastest word entry. Many stenotype users can reach 300 words per minute. However, stenographers typically train for three years before reaching professional levels of speed and accuracy. History The earliest known chord keyboard was part of the "five-needle" telegraph operator station, designed by Wheatstone and Cooke in 1836, in which any two of the five needles could point left or right to indicate letters on a grid. It was designed to be used by untrained operators (who would determine which keys to press by looking at the grid), and was not used where trained telegraph operators were available. thumb\|Stenograph first model, Miles Bartholomew, 1879 The first widespread use of a chord keyboard was in the stenotype machine used by court reporters, which was invented in 1868 and is still in use. The output of the stenotype was originally a phonetic code that had to be transcribed later (usually by the same operator who produced the original output), rather than arbitrary text—automatic conversion software is now commonplace. In 1874, the five-bit Baudot telegraph code and a matching 5-key chord keyboard was designed to be used with the operator forming the codes manually. The code is optimized for speed and low wear: chords were chosen so that the most common characters used the simplest chords. But telegraph operators were already using typewriters with QWERTY keyboards to "copy" received messages, and at the time it made more sense to build a typewriter that could generate the codes automatically, rather than making them learn to use a new input device. thumb\|IBM 026 commercial card code Some early keypunch machines used a keyboard with 12 labeled keys to punch the correct holes in paper cards. The numbers 0 through 9 were represented by one punch; 26 letters were represented by combinations of two punches, and symbols were represented by combinations of two or three punches. thumb\|Hall-Braille writer, model 1, 1892 thumb\|right\|A braille keyboard Braille (a writing system for the blind) uses either 6 or 8 tactile 'points' from which all letters and numbers are formed. When Louis Braille invented it, it was produced with a needle holing successively all needed points in a cardboard sheet. In 1892, Frank Haven Hall, superintendent of the Illinois Institute for the Education of the Blind, created the Hall Braille Writer, which was like a typewriter with 6 keys, one for each dot in a braille cell. The Perkins Brailler, first manufactured in 1951, uses a 6-key chord keyboard (plus a spacebar) to produce braille output, and has been very successful as a mass market affordable product. Braille, like Baudot, uses a number symbol and a shift symbol, which may be repeated for shift lock, to fit numbers and upper case into the 63 codes that 6 bits offer. After World War II, with the arrival of electronics for reading chords and looking in tables of "codes", the postal sorting offices started to research chordic solutions to be able to employ people other than trained and expensive typists. In 1954, an important concept was discovered: chordic production is easier to master when the production is done at the release of the keys instead of when they are pressed. Researchers at IBM investigated chord keyboards for both typewriters and computer data entry as early as 1959, with the idea that it might be faster than touch-typing if some chords were used to enter whole words or parts of words. A 1975 design by IBM Fellow Nat Rochester had 14 keys that were dimpled on the edges as well as the top, so one finger could press two adjacent keys for additional combinations. Their results were inconclusive, but research continued until at least 1978. Doug Engelbart began experimenting with keysets to use with the mouse in the mid-1960s. In a famous 1968 demonstration, Engelbart introduced a computer human interface that included the QWERTY keyboard, a three button mouse, and a five key keyset. Engelbart used the keyset with his left hand and the mouse with his right to type text and enter commands. The mouse buttons marked selections and confirmed or aborted commands. Users in Engelbart's Augmentation Research Center at SRI became proficient with the mouse and keyset. In the 1970s the funding Engelbart's group received from the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was cut and many key members of Engelbart's team went to work for Xerox PARC where they continued to experiment with the mouse and keyset. Keychord sets were used at Xerox PARC in the early 1980s, along with mice, GUIs, on the Xerox Star and Alto workstations. A one-button version of the mouse was incorporated into the Apple Macintosh but Steve Jobs decided against incorporating the chorded keyset. thumb\|Xerox Alto keyset, ca. 1973. In the early 1980s, Philips Research labs at Redhill, Surrey did a brief study into small, cheap keyboards for entering text on a telephone. One solution used a grid of hexagonal keys with symbols inscribed into dimples in the keys that were either in the center of a key, across the boundary of two keys, or at the joining of three keys. Pressing down on one of the dimples would cause either one, two or three of the hexagonal buttons to be depressed at the same time, forming a chord that would be unique to that symbol. With this arrangement, a nine button keyboard with three rows of three hexagonal buttons could be fitted onto a telephone and could produce up to 33 different symbols. By choosing widely separated keys, one could employ one dimple as a 'shift' key to allow both letters and numbers to be produced. With eleven keys in a 3/4/4 arrangement, 43 symbols could be arranged allowing for lowercase text, numbers and a modest number of punctuation symbols to be represented along with a 'shift' function for accessing uppercase letters. While this had the advantage of being usable by untrained users via 'hunt and peck' typing and requiring one less key switch than a conventional 12 button keypad, it had the disadvantage that some symbols required three times as much force to depress them as others which made it hard to achieve any speed with the device. That solution is still alive and proposed by Fastap and Unitap among others, and a commercial phone has been produced and promoted in Canada during 2006. Standards Historically, the baudot and braille keyboards were standardized to some extent, but they are unable to replicate the full character set of a modern keyboard. Braille comes closest, as it has been extended to eight bits. The only proposed modern standard, GKOS (or Global Keyboard Open Standard) can support most characters and functions found on a computer keyboard but has had little commercial development. There is, however, a GKOS keyboard application available for iPhone since May 8, 2010, for Android since October 3, 2010 and for MeeGo Harmattan since October 27, 2011. Stenography Stenotype machines, sometimes used by court reporters, use a chording keyboard to represent sounds: on the standard keyboard, the U represents the sound and word, 'you', and the three-key trigraph KAT represents the sound and word 'cat'. The stenotype keyboard is explicitly ordered: in KAT, K, on the left, is the starting sound. P, S, and T, which are common starting sounds and also common ending sounds, are available on both sides of the keyboard: POP is a 3-key chord, using both P keys. Open-source designs thumb\|A 104-key USB keyboard adapted into a chording keyboard. All phonetic keystrokes may be accomplished by one and two-key chords of the home keys on the top row. Multiple open-source keyer/keyset designs are available, such as the pickey, a PS/2 device based on the PIC microcontroller; the spiffchorder, a USB device based on the Atmel AVR family of microcontrollers; the FeatherChorder, a BLE chorder based on the Adafruit Feather, an all-in-one board incorporating an Arduino-compatible microcontroller; and the GKOS keypad driver for Linux as well as the Gkos library for the Atmel/Arduino open-source board. Plover is a free, open-source, cross-platform program intended to bring real-time stenographic technology not just to stenographers, but also to hobbyists using anything from professional Stenotype machines to low-cost NKRO gaming keyboards. It is available for Linux, Windows, and macOS. Joy2chord is a chorded keyboard driver for Linux. With a configuration file, any joystick or gamepad can be turned into a chorded keyboard. This design philosophy was decided on to lower the cost of building devices, and in turn lower the entry barrier to becoming familiar with chorded keyboards. Macro keys, and multiple modes are also easily implemented with a user space driver. Commercial devices One minimal chordic keyboard example is Edgar Matias' Half-Qwerty keyboard described in patent circa 1992 that produces the letters of the missing half when the user simultaneously presses the space bar along with the mirror key. INTERCHI '93 published a study by Matias, MacKenzie and Buxton showing that people who have already learned to touch-type can quickly recover 50 to 70% of their two-handed typing speed. The loss contributes to the speed discussion above. It is implemented on two popular mobile phones, each provided with software disambiguation, which allows users to avoid using the space-bar. "Multiambic" keyers for use with wearable computers were invented in Canada in the 1970s. Multiambic keyers are similar to chording keyboards but without the board, in that the keys are grouped in a cluster for being handheld, rather than for sitting on a flat surface. Chording keyboards are also used as portable but two handed input devices for the visually impaired (either combined with a refreshable braille display or vocal synthesis). Such keyboards use a minimum of seven keys, where each key corresponds to an individual braille point, except one key which is used as a spacebar. In some applications, the spacebar is used to produce additional chords which enable the user to issue editing commands, such as moving the cursor, or deleting words. Note that the number of points used in braille computing is not 6, but 8, as this allows the user, among other things, to distinguish between small and capital letters, as well as identify the position of the cursor. As a result, most newer chorded keyboards for braille input include at least nine keys. Touch screen chordic keyboards are available to smartphone users as an optional way of entering text. As the number of keys is low, the button areas can be made bigger and easier to hit on the small screen. The most common letters do not necessarily require chording as is the case with the GKOS keyboard optimised layouts (Android app) where the twelve most frequent characters only require single keys. thumb\|The CharaChorder One Keyboard The company CharaChorder commercially sells chorded entry devices. Their first commercially available device is the CharaChorder One, which features a split design with each having access to 9 switches that can be moved in five directions (up, down, left, right, and pressed) in contrast to typical keyboards. This device allows for both chorded entry as well as traditional character entry. The set of words that can be chorded can be dynamically changed by the user in real time, but by default includes the 300 most common words in the English language. This chorded entry feature allows for potentially extremely fast typing speeds, so much so the founder of the company has been banned from online typing competitions. Additionally, they create the Charachorder Lite with a more traditional keyboard design. The manufacturer claimed that users of the Charachorder One can reach speeds of 300 words per minute, while users of the Charachorder Lite can reach 250 words per minute. Historical The WriteHander, a 12-key chord keyboard from NewO Company, appeared in 1978 issues of ROM Magazine, an early microcomputer applications magazine. Another early commercial model was the six-button Microwriter, designed by Cy Endfield and Chris Rainey, and first sold in 1980. Microwriting is the system of chord keying and is based on a set of mnemonics. It was designed only for right-handed use. In 1982 the Octima 8 keys cord keyboard was presented by Ergoplic Kebords Ltd an Israeli Startup that was founded by Israeli researcher with intensive experience in Man Machine Interface design. The keyboard had 8 keys one for each finger and additional 3 keys that enabled the production of numbers, punctuations and control functions. The keyboard was fully compatible with the IBM PC and AT keyboards and had an Apple IIe version as well. Its key combinations were based on a mnemonic system that enabled fast and easy touch type learning. Within a few hours the user could achieve a typing speed similar to hand writing speed. The unique design also gave a relief from hand stress (Carpal Tunnel Syndrome) and allowed longer typing sessions than traditional keyboards. It was multi-lingual supporting English, German, French and Hebrew. The BAT is a 7-key hand-sized device from Infogrip, and has been sold since 1985. It provides one key for each finger and three for the thumb. It is proposed for the hand which does not hold the mouse, in an exact continuation of Engelbart's vision. See also BAT keyboard FrogPad Keyer Microwriter Palantype Stenotype Velotype syllable-chord keyboard References Bardini, Thierry, Bootstrapping: Douglas Engelbart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing (2000), Chapters 2 & 3, , Engelbart and English, "A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect", AFIPS Conf. Proc., Vol 33, 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference, p395-410 Lockhead and Klemmer, An Evaluation of an 8-Key Word-Writing Typewriter, IBM Research Report RC-180, IBM Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY, Nov 1959. Rochester, Bequaert, and Sharp, "The Chord Keyboard", IEEE Computer, December 1978, p57-63 Seibel, "Data Entry Devices and Procedures", in Human Engineering Guide to Equipment Design, Van Cott and Kinkade (Eds), 1963 Category:Computer keyboard types Category:Physical ergonomics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorded_keyboard	2025-04-05T18:27:48.079747
6337	Carolyn Beug	\|birth_place\|death_date \|death_place= North Tower, World Trade Center, New York City, U.S. \|death_cause= Plane crash during the September 11 attacks \|parents= Mary Alice Wahlstrom <small>(Mother)</small> \|occupation= Filmmaker and video producer \|children= 3 \|spouse= John Beug }} Carolyn Ann Mayer-Beug (December 11, 1952 – September 11, 2001) was a filmmaker and video producer from Santa Monica, California. She died in the September 11 attacks as a passenger of the American Airlines Flight 11. Career In addition to her work as video producer, Beug also directed three music videos for country singer Dwight Yoakam: "Ain't That Lonely Yet", "A Thousand Miles from Nowhere" and "Fast as You." Beug co-directed the former two videos with Yoakam and was the sole director of the latter video. She won an MTV Video Music award for the Van Halen music video of the song "Right Now", which she produced. She also served as senior vice president of Walt Disney Records. Personal life Beug lived in a Tudor-style home in the North 25th Street neighborhood. She hosted an annual backyard barbecue for the Santa Monica High School cross country and track team, which her daughters captained. Beug was a Latter-day Saint.Death and legacy ’s North Pool, with those of other passengers of Flight 11.]] Beug was killed at the age of 48 in the crash of American Airlines Flight 11 in the September 11, 2001 attacks. At the time of her death, Carolyn Beug was working on a children's book about Noah's Ark which was to be told from Noah's wife's point of view. On the plane with her was her mother, Mary Alice Wahlstrom. Beug was survived by her twin eighteen-year-old daughters Lauren and Lindsey Mayer-Beug, her 13-year-old son, Nick, and her husband, John Beug, a senior vice president in charge of filmed production for Warner Brothers' record division. She was returning home from taking her daughters to college at the Rhode Island School of Design. References External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20020219021347/http://www.vhnd.net/articles/010913-01.shtml Van Halen News Desk article] Category:1952 births Category:2001 deaths Category:American Airlines Flight 11 victims Category:Film people from Santa Monica, California Category:Latter Day Saints from California Category:Terrorism deaths in New York (state) Category:20th-century American women singers Category:American music video directors Category:Female music video directors Category:Disney executives Category:American music industry executives Category:Musicians from Santa Monica, California Category:21st-century American businesswomen Category:21st-century American businesspeople	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolyn_Beug	2025-04-05T18:27:48.086834
6339	Cell biology	Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology that studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells. All living organisms are made of cells. A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living and functioning of organisms. however, the cells were dead. They gave no indication to the actual overall components of a cell. A few years later, in 1674, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was the first to analyze live cells in his examination of algae. Many years later, in 1831, Robert Brown discovered the nucleus. All of this preceded the cell theory which states that all living things are made up of cells and that cells are organisms' functional and structural units. This was ultimately concluded by plant scientist Matthias Schleiden 19 years later, Rudolf Virchow further contributed to the cell theory, adding that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells. Techniques Cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in human anatomy and physiology, and to derive medications. The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Due to advancements in microscopy, techniques and technology have allowed scientists to hold a better understanding of the structure and function of cells. Many techniques commonly used to study cell biology are listed below: * Cell culture: Utilizes rapidly growing cells on media which allows for a large amount of a specific cell type and an efficient way to study cells. Cell culture is one of the major tools used in cellular and molecular biology, providing excellent model systems for studying the normal physiology and biochemistry of cells (e.g., metabolic studies, aging), the effects of drugs and toxic compounds on the cells, and mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. It is also used in drug screening and development, and large scale manufacturing of biological compounds (e.g., vaccines, therapeutic proteins). * Fluorescence microscopy: Fluorescent markers such as GFP, are used to label a specific component of the cell. Afterwards, a certain light wavelength is used to excite the fluorescent marker which can then be visualized. * Cell fractionation: This process requires breaking up the cell using high temperature or sonification followed by centrifugation to separate the parts of the cell allowing for them to be studied separately. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, making them the smallest form of life. Prokaryotic cells include Bacteria and Archaea, and lack an enclosed cell nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They range from 10 to 100 μm in diameter, and their DNA is contained within a membrane-bound nucleus. Eukaryotes are organisms containing eukaryotic cells. The four eukaryotic kingdoms are Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista. They both reproduce through binary fission. Bacteria, the most prominent type, have several different shapes, although most are spherical or rod-shaped. Bacteria can be classed as either gram-positive or gram-negative depending on the cell wall composition. Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker peptidoglycan layer than gram-negative bacteria. Bacterial structural features include a flagellum that helps the cell to move, ribosomes for the translation of RNA to protein, Structure and function Structure of eukaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells are composed of the following organelles: * Nucleus: The nucleus of the cell functions as the genome and genetic information storage for the cell, containing all the DNA organized in the form of chromosomes. It is surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which includes nuclear pores allowing for the transportation of proteins between the inside and outside of the nucleus. This is also the site for replication of DNA as well as transcription of DNA to RNA. Afterwards, the RNA is modified and transported out to the cytosol to be translated to protein. * Nucleolus: This structure is within the nucleus, usually dense and spherical. It is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is needed for ribosomal assembly. * Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): This functions to synthesize, store, and secrete proteins to the Golgi apparatus. Structurally, the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes found throughout the cell and connected to the nucleus. The membranes are slightly different from cell to cell and a cell's function determines the size and structure of the ER. * Mitochondria: Commonly known as the powerhouse of the cell is a double membrane bound cell organelle. This functions for the production of energy or ATP within the cell. Specifically, this is the place where the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle for the production of NADH and FADH occurs. Afterwards, these products are used within the electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation for the final production of ATP. * Golgi apparatus: This functions to further process, package, and secrete the proteins to their destination. The proteins contain a signal sequence that allows the Golgi apparatus to recognize and direct it to the correct place. Golgi apparatus also produce glycoproteins and glycolipids. * Lysosome: The lysosome functions to degrade material brought in from the outside of the cell or old organelles. This contains many acid hydrolases, proteases, nucleases, and lipases, which break down the various molecules. Autophagy is the process of degradation through lysosomes which occurs when a vesicle buds off from the ER and engulfs the material, then, attaches and fuses with the lysosome to allow the material to be degraded. * Ribosomes: Functions to translate RNA to protein. it serves as a site of protein synthesis. * Cytoskeleton: Cytoskeleton is a structure that helps to maintain the shape and general organization of the cytoplasm. It anchors organelles within the cells and makes up the structure and stability of the cell. The cytoskeleton is composed of three principal types of protein filaments: actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, which are held together and linked to subcellular organelles and the plasma membrane by a variety of accessory proteins. * Cell membrane: The cell membrane can be described as a phospholipid bilayer and is also consisted of lipids and proteins. * Centrioles: Function to produce spindle fibers which are used to separate chromosomes during cell division. Eukaryotic cells may also be composed of the following molecular components: * Chromatin: This makes up chromosomes and is a mixture of DNA with various proteins. * Cilia: They help to propel substances and can also be used for sensory purposes. Cell metabolism Cell metabolism is necessary for the production of energy for the cell and therefore its survival and includes many pathways and also sustaining the main cell organelles such as the nucleus, the mitochondria, the cell membrane etc. For cellular respiration, once glucose is available, glycolysis occurs within the cytosol of the cell to produce pyruvate. Pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation using the multi-enzyme complex to form acetyl coA which can readily be used in the TCA cycle to produce NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub>. These products are involved in the electron transport chain to ultimately form a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This gradient can then drive the production of ATP and during oxidative phosphorylation. Metabolism in plant cells includes photosynthesis which is simply the exact opposite of respiration as it ultimately produces molecules of glucose. Cell signaling Cell signaling or cell communication is important for cell regulation and for cells to process information from the environment and respond accordingly. Signaling can occur through direct cell contact or endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling. Direct cell-cell contact is when a receptor on a cell binds a molecule that is attached to the membrane of another cell. Endocrine signaling occurs through molecules secreted into the bloodstream. Paracrine signaling uses molecules diffusing between two cells to communicate. Autocrine is a cell sending a signal to itself by secreting a molecule that binds to a receptor on its surface. Forms of communication can be through: * Ion channels: Can be of different types such as voltage or ligand gated ion channels. They allow for the outflow and inflow of molecules and ions. * G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR): Is widely recognized to contain seven transmembrane domains. The ligand binds on the extracellular domain and once the ligand binds, this signals a guanine exchange factor to convert GDP to GTP and activate the G-α subunit. G-α can target other proteins such as adenyl cyclase or phospholipase C, which ultimately produce secondary messengers such as cAMP, Ip3, DAG, and calcium. These secondary messengers function to amplify signals and can target ion channels or other enzymes. One example for amplification of a signal is cAMP binding to and activating PKA by removing the regulatory subunits and releasing the catalytic subunit. The catalytic subunit has a nuclear localization sequence which prompts it to go into the nucleus and phosphorylate other proteins to either repress or activate gene activity.Growth and development Eukaryotic cell cycle in the animal cell cycle]] Cells are the foundation of all organisms and are the fundamental units of life. The growth and development of cells are essential for the maintenance of the host and survival of the organism. For this process, the cell goes through the steps of the cell cycle and development which involves cell growth, DNA replication, cell division, regeneration, and cell death. The cell cycle is divided into four distinct phases: G1, S, G2, and M. The G phase – which is the cell growth phase – makes up approximately 95% of the cycle. The proliferation of cells is instigated by progenitors. All cells start out in an identical form and can essentially become any type of cells. Cell signaling such as induction can influence nearby cells to determinate the type of cell it will become. Moreover, this allows cells of the same type to aggregate and form tissues, then organs, and ultimately systems. The G1, G2, and S phase (DNA replication, damage and repair) are considered to be the interphase portion of the cycle, while the M phase (mitosis) is the cell division portion of the cycle. Mitosis is composed of many stages which include, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis, respectively. The ultimate result of mitosis is the formation of two identical daughter cells. The cell cycle is regulated in cell cycle checkpoints, by a series of signaling factors and complexes such as cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinase, and p53. When the cell has completed its growth process and if it is found to be damaged or altered, it undergoes cell death, either by apoptosis or necrosis, to eliminate the threat it can cause to the organism's survival.Cell mortality, cell lineage immortalityThe ancestry of each present day cell presumably traces back, in an unbroken lineage for over 3 billion years to the origin of life. It is not actually cells that are immortal but multi-generational cell lineages. The immortality of a cell lineage depends on the maintenance of cell division potential. This potential may be lost in any particular lineage because of cell damage, terminal differentiation as occurs in nerve cells, or programmed cell death (apoptosis) during development. Maintenance of cell division potential over successive generations depends on the avoidance and the accurate repair of cellular damage, particularly DNA damage. In sexual organisms, continuity of the germline depends on the effectiveness of processes for avoiding DNA damage and repairing those DNA damages that do occur. Sexual processes in eukaryotes, as well as in prokaryotes, provide an opportunity for effective repair of DNA damages in the germ line by homologous recombination. Cell cycle phases The cell cycle is a four-stage process that a cell goes through as it develops and divides. It includes Gap 1 (G1), synthesis (S), Gap 2 (G2), and mitosis (M). The cell either restarts the cycle from G1 or leaves the cycle through G0 after completing the cycle. The cell can progress from G0 through terminal differentiation. Finally, the interphase refers to the phases of the cell cycle that occur between one mitosis and the next, and includes G1, S, and G2. Thus, the phases are: * G1 phase: the cell grows in size and its contents are replicated. * S phase: the cell replicates each of the 46 chromosomes. * G2 phase: in preparation for cell division, new organelles and proteins form. * M phase: cytokinesis occurs, resulting in two identical daughter cells. * G0 phase: the two cells enter a resting stage where they do their job without actively preparing to divide. Pathology The scientific branch that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level is called cytopathology. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments, in contrast to the pathology branch of histopathology, which studies whole tissues. Cytopathology is commonly used to investigate diseases involving a wide range of body sites, often to aid in the diagnosis of cancer but also in the diagnosis of some infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions. For example, a common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, a screening test used to detect cervical cancer, and precancerous cervical lesions that may lead to cervical cancer. Cell cycle checkpoints and DNA damage repair system The cell cycle is composed of a number of well-ordered, consecutive stages that result in cellular division. The fact that cells do not begin the next stage until the last one is finished, is a significant element of cell cycle regulation. Cell cycle checkpoints are characteristics that constitute an excellent monitoring strategy for accurate cell cycle and divisions. Cdks, associated cyclin counterparts, protein kinases, and phosphatases regulate cell growth and division from one stage to another. The cell cycle is controlled by the temporal activation of Cdks, which is governed by cyclin partner interaction, phosphorylation by particular protein kinases, and de-phosphorylation by Cdc25 family phosphatases. In response to DNA damage, a cell's DNA repair reaction is a cascade of signaling pathways that leads to checkpoint engagement, regulates, the repairing mechanism in DNA, cell cycle alterations, and apoptosis. Numerous biochemical structures, as well as processes that detect damage in DNA, are ATM and ATR, which induce the DNA repair checkpoints The cell cycle is a sequence of activities in which cell organelles are duplicated and subsequently separated into daughter cells with precision. There are major events that happen during a cell cycle. The processes that happen in the cell cycle include cell development, replication and segregation of chromosomes. The cell cycle checkpoints are surveillance systems that keep track of the cell cycle's integrity, accuracy, and chronology. Each checkpoint serves as an alternative cell cycle endpoint, wherein the cell's parameters are examined and only when desirable characteristics are fulfilled does the cell cycle advance through the distinct steps. The cell cycle's goal is to precisely copy each organism's DNA and afterwards equally split the cell and its components between the two new cells. Four main stages occur in the eukaryotes. In G1, the cell is usually active and continues to grow rapidly, while in G2, the cell growth continues while protein molecules become ready for separation. These are not dormant times; they are when cells gain mass, integrate growth factor receptors, establish a replicated genome, and prepare for chromosome segregation. DNA replication is restricted to a separate Synthesis in eukaryotes, which is also known as the S-phase. During mitosis, which is also known as the M-phase, the segregation of the chromosomes occur. DNA, like every other molecule, is capable of undergoing a wide range of chemical reactions. Modifications in DNA's sequence, on the other hand, have a considerably bigger impact than modifications in other cellular constituents like RNAs or proteins because DNA acts as a permanent copy of the cell genome. When erroneous nucleotides are incorporated during DNA replication, mutations can occur. The majority of DNA damage is fixed by removing the defective bases and then re-synthesizing the excised area. On the other hand, some DNA lesions can be mended by reversing the damage, which may be a more effective method of coping with common types of DNA damage. Only a few forms of DNA damage are mended in this fashion, including pyrimidine dimers caused by ultraviolet (UV) light changed by the insertion of methyl or ethyl groups at the purine ring's O6 position. Mitochondrial membrane dynamics Mitochondria are commonly referred to as the cell's "powerhouses" because of their capacity to effectively produce ATP which is essential to maintain cellular homeostasis and metabolism. Moreover, researchers have gained a better knowledge of mitochondria's significance in cell biology because of the discovery of cell signaling pathways by mitochondria which are crucial platforms for cell function regulation such as apoptosis. Its physiological adaptability is strongly linked to the cell mitochondrial channel's ongoing reconfiguration through a range of mechanisms known as mitochondrial membrane dynamics, including endomembrane fusion and fragmentation (separation) and ultrastructural membrane remodeling. As a result, mitochondrial dynamics regulate and frequently choreograph not only metabolic but also complicated cell signaling processes such as cell pluripotent stem cells, proliferation, maturation, aging, and mortality. Mutually, post-translational alterations of mitochondrial apparatus and the development of transmembrane contact sites among mitochondria and other structures, which both have the potential to link signals from diverse routes that affect mitochondrial membrane dynamics substantially, Macro autophagy, micro autophagy, and chaperon-mediated autophagy are the three basic types of autophagy. When macro autophagy is triggered, an exclusion membrane incorporates a section of the cytoplasm, generating the autophagosome, a distinctive double-membraned organelle. The autophagosome then joins the lysosome to create an autolysosome, with lysosomal enzymes degrading the components. In micro autophagy, the lysosome or vacuole engulfs a piece of the cytoplasm by invaginating or protruding the lysosomal membrane to enclose the cytosol or organelles. The chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) protein quality assurance by digesting oxidized and altered proteins under stressful circumstances and supplying amino acids through protein denaturation. Autophagy is the primary intrinsic degradative system for peptides, fats, carbohydrates, and other cellular structures. In both physiologic and stressful situations, this cellular progression is vital for upholding the correct cellular balance. Autophagy instability leads to a variety of illness symptoms, including inflammation, biochemical disturbances, aging, and neurodegenerative, due to its involvement in controlling cell integrity. The modification of the autophagy-lysosomal networks is a typical hallmark of many neurological and muscular illnesses. As a result, autophagy has been identified as a potential strategy for the prevention and treatment of various disorders. Many of these disorders are prevented or improved by consuming polyphenol in the meal. As a result, natural compounds with the ability to modify the autophagy mechanism are seen as a potential therapeutic option. The creation of the double membrane (phagophore), which would be known as nucleation, is the first step in macro-autophagy. The phagophore approach indicates dysregulated polypeptides or defective organelles that come from the cell membrane, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. With the conclusion of the autophagocyte, the phagophore's enlargement comes to an end. The auto-phagosome combines with the lysosomal vesicles to formulate an auto-lysosome that degrades the encapsulated substances, referred to as phagocytosis. Notable cell biologists * Jean Baptiste Carnoy * Peter Agre * Günter Blobel * Robert Brown * Geoffrey M. Cooper * Christian de Duve * Henri Dutrochet * Robert Hooke * H. Robert Horvitz * Marc Kirschner * Anton van Leeuwenhoek * Ira Mellman * Marta Miączyńska * Peter D. Mitchell * Rudolf Virchow * Paul Nurse * George Emil Palade * Keith R. Porter * Ray Rappaport * Michael Swann * Roger Tsien * Edmund Beecher Wilson * Kenneth R. Miller * Matthias Jakob Schleiden * Theodor Schwann * Yoshinori Ohsumi * Jan Evangelista Purkyně See also * The American Society for Cell Biology * Cell biophysics * Cell disruption * Cell physiology * Cellular adaptation * Cellular microbiology * Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (disambiguation) * Meiomitosis * Organoid * Outline of cell biology Notes References * electronic-book electronic- * Cell and Molecular Biology by Karp 5th Ed., * External links * [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14749726 Aging Cell] [https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/francis-harry-compton-crick-1916-2004 "Francis Harry Compton Crick (1916–2004)" by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia] *[https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1oLBCXt6wVUb9-wh1WvAhpMJuqY4z4UxrMBpwGRPolHo/edit?usp=sharing "Biology Resource By Professor Lin."]	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_biology	2025-04-05T18:27:48.108140
6340	Canadian English	million in Canada \| date = 2021 census \| ref \| speakers2 = about 15 million, c. 7 million of which with French as the L1 \| familycolor = Indo-European \| fam2 = Germanic \| fam3 = West Germanic \| fam4 = North Sea Germanic \| fam5 = Anglo-Frisian \| fam6 = Anglic \| fam7 = English \| fam8 = North American English \| ancestor = Old English \| ancestor2 = Middle English \| ancestor3 = Early Modern English \| dia1 = Indigenous \| dia2 = Atlantic (Including: Newfoundlander and Lunenburger) \| dia3 = Toronto \| dia4 = Ottawa Valley \| dia5 = Quebec English \| script Latin (English alphabet)<br />Unified English Braille \| isoexception = dialect \| ietf = \| glotto = cana1268 \| notice = IPA }} \|max-width=630 \|caption= }} Canadian English (CanE, CE, en-CA) encompasses the varieties of English used in Canada. According to the 2016 census, English was the first language of 19.4 million Canadians or 58.1% of the total population; the remainder spoke French (20.8%) or other languages (21.1%). The most widespread variety of Canadian English is Standard Canadian English, spoken in all the western and central provinces of Canada (varying little from Central Canada to British Columbia), plus in many other provinces among urban middle- or upper-class speakers from natively English-speaking families. Standard Canadian English is distinct from Atlantic Canadian English (its most notable subset being Newfoundland English), and from Quebec English. Accent differences can also be heard between those who live in urban centres versus those living in rural settings. While Canadian English tends to be close to American English in most regards, classifiable together as North American English, Canadian English also possesses elements from British English as well as some uniquely Canadian characteristics. The precise influence of American English, British English, and other sources on Canadian English varieties has been the ongoing focus of systematic studies since the 1950s. Standard Canadian and General American English share identical or near-identical phonemic inventories, though their exact phonetic realizations may sometimes differ. Canadians and Americans themselves often have trouble differentiating their own two accents, particularly since Standard Canadian and Western United States English have been undergoing a similar vowel shift since the 1980s. History Canadian English as an academic field of inquiry solidified around the time of World War II. While early linguistic approaches date back to the second half of the 19th century, the first textbook to consider Canadian English in one form or another was not published until 1940. Walter S. Avis was its most forceful spokesperson after WWII until the 1970s. His team of lexicographers managed to date the term "Canadian English" to a speech by a Scottish Presbyterian minister, the Reverend Archibald Constable Geikie, in an address to the Canadian Institute in 1857 (see [http://www.dchp.ca/DCHP-1/ DCHP-1 Online], s.v. "Canadian English", Avis et al., 1967). Geikie, a Scottish-born Canadian, reflected the Anglocentric attitude that would be prevalent in Canada for the next hundred years when he referred to the language as "a corrupt dialect", in comparison with what he considered the proper English spoken by immigrants from Britain. One of the earliest influences on Canadian English was the French language, which was brought to Canada by the French colonists in the 17th century. French words and expressions were adopted into Canadian English, especially in the areas of cuisine, politics, and social life. For example, words like poutine, and toque are uniquely Canadian French terms that have become part of the Canadian English lexicon. An important influence on Canadian English was British English, which was brought to Canada by British settlers in the 18th and 19th centuries. Canadian English borrowed many words and expressions from British English, including words like lorry, flat, and lift. However, Canadian English also developed its own unique vocabulary, including words like tuque, chesterfield, and double-double. In the early 20th century, western Canada was largely populated by farmers from Central and Eastern Europe who were not anglophones. At the time, most anglophones there were re-settlers from Ontario or Quebec who had British, Irish, or Loyalist ancestry, or some mixture of these. Throughout the 20th century, the prairies underwent anglicization and linguistic homogenization through education and exposure to Canadian and American media. American English also had a significant impact on Canadian English's origins as well as again in the 20th century and since then as a result of increased cultural and economic ties between the two countries. American English terms like gasoline, truck, and apartment are commonly used in Canadian English. The growth of Canadian media, including television, film, and literature, has also played a role in shaping Canadian English. Chambers (1998) notes that Canadian media has helped to create new words and expressions that reflect Canadian culture and values. Canadian institutions, such as the CBC and the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, have also played a role in promoting and defining Canadian English. In addition to these influences, Canadian English has also been minorly shaped by Indigenous languages. Indigenous words such as moose, toboggan, and moccasin have become part of the Canadian English lexicon. Canadian English is the product of five waves of immigration and settlement over a period of more than two centuries. The first large wave of permanent English-speaking settlement in Canada, and linguistically the most important, was the influx of Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution, chiefly from the Mid-Atlantic States—as such, Canadian English is believed by some scholars to have derived from northern American English. Canadian English has been developing features of its own since the early 19th century. The second wave from Britain and Ireland was encouraged to settle in Canada after the War of 1812 by the governors of Canada, who were worried about American dominance and influence among its citizens. Further waves of immigration from around the globe peaking in 1910, 1960, and at the present time had a lesser influence, but they did make Canada a multicultural country, ready to accept linguistic change from around the world during the current period of globalization. The languages of Aboriginal peoples in Canada started to influence European languages used in Canada even before widespread settlement took place, and the French of Lower Canada provided vocabulary, with words such as tuque and portage, to the English of Upper Canada. While Canadian English has borrowed many words and expressions from other languages, it has also developed its own unique vocabulary and pronunciation that reflects the country's distinct identity. Historical linguistics Studies on earlier forms of English in Canada are rare. Yet connections with other work to historical linguistics can be forged. An overview of diachronic work on Canadian English, or diachronically relevant work, is Dollinger. Until the 2000s, basically all commentators on the history of CanE have argued from the "language-external" history, i.e. social and political history. An exception has been in the area of lexis, where Avis et al. 1967 Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles offered real-time historical data through its quotations. Starting in the 2000s, historical linguists have started to study earlier Canadian English with historical linguistic data. DCHP-1 is now available in open access. Most notably, Dollinger (2008) pioneered the historical corpus linguistic approach for English in Canada with CONTE (Corpus of Early Ontario English, 1776–1849) and offers a developmental scenario for 18th- and 19th-century Ontario. Canadian dainty Historically, Canadian English included a class-based sociolect known as Canadian dainty. Treated as a marker of upper-class prestige in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Canadian dainty was marked by the use of some features of British English pronunciation, resulting in an accent similar, but not identical, to the Mid-Atlantic accent known in the United States. are examples of men who were raised in Canada but spoke with a British-influenced accent. * Words such as realize and organization are usually given their Oxford spellings with a z. * Words such as anesthesia and gynecology are usually or more commonly spelled as in American English rather than anaesthesia and gynaecology as in British English. * French-derived words that in American English end with -or, such as color or honor, retain British spellings (colour and honour). * French-derived words that in American English end with -er, such as fiber or center, retain British spellings (fibre and centre). This rule is much more relaxed than the -our rule, with kilometer (kilometre) being quite acceptable while meager (meagre) and somber (sombre) may not even be noticed. * While the United States uses the Anglo-French spelling defense and offense (noun), most Canadians use the British spellings defence and offence. (But defensive and offensive are universal across all forms of English.) * Some nouns, as in British English, take -ce while corresponding verbs take -se – for example, practice and licence are nouns while practise and license are the respective corresponding verbs. (But advice and advise, which have distinct pronunciations, are universal.) * Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling the consonant -l- when adding suffixes to words even when the final syllable (before the suffix) is not stressed. Compare Canadian (and British) cancelled, counsellor, and travelling (more often than not in Canadian while always doubled in British) to American canceled, counselor, and traveling (fueled, fuelled, dueling and duelling are all common). In American English, this consonant is only doubled when stressed; thus, for instance, controllable and enthralling are universal. (But both Canadian and British English use balloted and profiting.) * In other cases, Canadian and American usage differs from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like curb and tire (of a wheel), which in British English are spelled kerb and tyre. (But tire in the sense of "make or become weary" is universal.) Some other differences like Canadian and American aluminum versus aluminium elsewhere correspond to different pronunciations. Canadian spelling conventions can be partly explained by Canada's trade history. For instance, Canada's automobile industry has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of tire (hence, "Canadian Tire") and American terminology for automobiles and their parts (for example, truck instead of lorry, gasoline instead of petrol, trunk instead of boot). A contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for Hansard transcripts of the Parliament of Canada . Many Canadian editors, though, use the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, often along with the chapter on spelling in Editing Canadian English, and, where necessary (depending on context), one or more other references. Throughout part of the 20th century, some Canadian newspapers adopted American spellings, for example, color as opposed to the British-based colour. Some of the most substantial historical spelling data can be found in Dollinger (2010) and Grue (2013). The use of such spellings was the long-standing practice of the Canadian Press perhaps since that news agency's inception, but visibly the norm prior to World War II. The practice of dropping the letter u in such words was also considered a labour-saving technique during the early days of printing in which movable type was set manually. In the 1990s, Canadian newspapers began to adopt the British spelling variants such as -our endings, notably with The Globe and Mail changing its spelling policy in October 1990. Other Canadian newspapers adopted similar changes later that decade, such as the Southam newspaper chain's conversion in September 1998. The Toronto Star adopted this new spelling policy in September 1997 after that publication's ombudsman discounted the issue earlier in 1997. The Star had always avoided using recognized Canadian spelling, citing the Gage Canadian Dictionary in their defence. Controversy around this issue was frequent. When the Gage Dictionary finally adopted standard Canadian spelling, the Star followed suit. Some publishers, e.g. ''Maclean's, continue to prefer American spellings. Standardization, codification and dictionaries The first series of dictionaries of Canadian English was published by Gage Ltd. under the chief-editorships of Charles J. Lovell and Walter S. Avis as of 1960 and the "Big Six" was renamed Gage Canadian Dictionary. Its fifth edition was printed beginning in 1997. Gage was acquired by Thomson Nelson around 2003. The latest editions were published in 2009 by HarperCollins. On 17 March 2017 a second edition of DCHP, the online Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles 2 (DCHP-2), was published. DCHP-2 incorporates the c. 10 000 lexemes from DCHP-1 and adds c. 1 300 novel meanings or 1 002 lexemes to the documented lexicon of Canadian English. In 1998, Oxford University Press produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, entitled The Oxford Canadian Dictionary. A second edition, retitled The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, was published in 2004. Just as the older dictionaries it includes uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether colour or color was the more popular choice in common use. Paperback and concise versions (2005, 2006), with minor updates, are available. Since 2022, the Editors' Association of Canada has been leading the writing of a new Canadian English Dictionary within a national dictionary Consortium. The Consortium comprises the Editors' Association of Canada, the UBC Canadian English Lab, and Queen's University's Strategy Language Unit. Phonology and phonetics It is quite common for Canadian English speakers to have the cot-caught merger, the father-bother merger, the Low-Back-Merger Shift (with the vowel in words such as "trap" moving backwards), Canadian raising (words such as "like" and "about" pronounced with a higher first vowel in the diphthong) and no trap-bath split. Canadian raising is when the onsets of diphthongs and get raised to or before voiceless segments. There are areas in the eastern U.S. where some words are pronounced with Canadian raising. Some young Canadians may show Goose-fronting. U.S. southern dialects have long had goose-fronting, but this goose-fronting among young Canadians and Californians is more recent. Some young Californians also show signs of the Low-Back-Merger Shift. The cot-caught merger is perhaps not general in the U.S., but younger speakers seem more likely to have it. The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists words such as "no" and "way" as having a long monophthong vowel sound, whereas American dictionaries usually have these words ending in an upglide . speaker in Toronto on a vowel chart, from . It shows the Canadian Shift from , , ]}} towards , , ]}} as well as the cot-caught merger towards a rounded open back vowel .]] In terms of the major sound systems (phonologies) of English around the world, Canadian English aligns most closely to American English. Some dialectologists group Canadian and American English together under a common North American English sound system. Labov's research focused on urban areas, and did not survey the country, but they found similarities among the English spoken in Ottawa, Toronto, Calgary, Edmonton and Vancouver. Labov identifies an "Inland Canada" region that concentrates all of the defining features of the dialect centred on the Prairies (a region in Western Canada that mainly includes Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba and is known for its grasslands and plains), with more variable patterns including the metropolitan areas of Vancouver and Toronto. Applying this definition, c. 36% of the Canadian population speak Standard Canadian English in the 2006 population, with 38% in the 2011 census. Regional variation The literature has for a long time conflated the notions of Standard Canadian English (StCE) and regional variation. While some regional dialects are close to Standard Canadian English, they are not identical to it. To the untrained ear, for instance, a BC middle-class speaker from a rural setting may seemingly be speaking Standard Canadian English, but, given Chambers' definition, such a person, because of the rural provenance, would not be included in the accepted definition (see the previous section). The Atlas of North American English, while being the best source for US regional variation, is not a good source for Canadian regional variation, as its analysis is based on only 33 Canadian speakers. Boberg's (2005, 2008) studies offer the best data for the delimitation of dialect zones. The results for vocabulary and phonetics overlap to a great extent, which has allowed the proposal of dialect zones. Dollinger and Clarke First Nations and Inuit from Northern Canada speak a version of Canadian English influenced by the phonology of their first languages. Non-indigenous Canadians in these regions are relatively recent arrivals, and have not produced a dialect that is distinct from southern Canadian English. Overall, First Nations Canada English dialects rest between language loss and language revitalization. British Columbia has the greatest linguistic diversity, as it is home to about half of the Indigenous languages spoken in Canada. Most of the languages spoken in the province are endangered due to the small number of speakers. To some extent, the dialects reflect the historical contexts where English has been a major colonizing language. The dialects are also a result of the late stages of depidginization and decreolization, which resulted in linguistic markers of Indigenous identity and solidarity. These dialects are observed to have developed a lingua franca due to the contact between English and Indigenous populations, and eventually, the various dialects began to converge with standard English. Certain First Nations English have also shown to have phonological standard Canadian English, thus resulting in a more distinct dialect formation. Plains Cree, for instance, is a language that has less phonological contrasts compared to standard Canadian English. Plains Cree has no voicing contrast. The stops , , and are mostly voiceless and unaspirated, though they may vary in other phonetic environments from voiceless to voiced. Plains Cree also does not have the liquids or fricatives found in the standard form. Dene Suline, on the other hand, has more phonological contrasts, resulting in the use of features not seen in the standard form. The language has 39 phonemic consonants and a higher proportion of glottalized consonants. Maritimes for speakers from N.S., N.B., N.L.]] Many in the Maritime provinces – Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island – have an accent that sounds more like Scottish English and, in some places, Irish English than General American. Outside of major communities, dialects can vary markedly from community to community, as well as from province to province, reflecting ethnic origin as well as a past in which there were few roads and many communities, with some isolated villages. Into the 1980s, residents of villages in northern Nova Scotia could identify themselves by dialects and accents distinctive to their village. The dialects of Prince Edward Island are often considered the most distinct grouping. The phonology of Maritimer English has some unique features: * Cot–caught merger in effect, but toward a central vowel . * No Canadian Shift of the short front vowels * Pre-consonantal is sometimes (though rarely) deleted. * The flapping of intervocalic and to alveolar tap between vowels, as well as pronouncing it as a glottal stop , is less common in the Maritimes. Therefore, battery is pronounced instead of . * Especially among the older generation, and are not merged; that is, the beginning sound of why, white, and which is different from that of witch, with, and wear. * Like most varieties of CanE, Maritimer English contains Canadian raising. Nova Scotia As with many other distinct dialects, vowels are a marker of Halifax English as a distinctive variant of Canadian English. Typically, Canadian dialects have a merger of the low back vowels in palm, lot, thought and cloth. The merged vowel in question is usually /ɑ/ or sometimes the rounded variant /ɒ/. Meanwhile, in Halifax, the vowel is raised and rounded. For example, body; popped; and gone. In the homophones, caught-cot and stalk-stock, the rounding in the merged vowel is also much more pronounced here than in other Canadian varieties. The Canadian Shift is also not as evident in the traditional dialect. Instead, the front vowels are raised. For example, the vowel in had is raised to [hæed]; and camera is raised to [kæmra]. Although it has not been studied extensively, the speech of Cape Breton specifically seems to bear many similarities with the nearby island of Newfoundland, which is often why Westerners can have a hard time differentiating the two accents. For instance, they both use the fronting of the low back vowel. These similarities can be attributed to geographic proximity, the fact that about one-quarter of the Cape Breton population descends from Irish immigrants (many of whom arrived via Newfoundland) and the Scottish and Irish influences on both provinces. The speech of Cape Breton can almost be seen as a continuum between the two extremes of the Halifax variant and the Newfoundland variant. In addition, there is heavy influence of standard varieties of Canadian English on Cape Breton English, especially in the diphthongization of the goat and goose vowels and the frequent use of Canadian raising. Newfoundland Compared to the commonly spoken English dominating neighbouring provinces, Newfoundland English is famously distinct in its dialects and accents. Newfoundland English differs in vowel pronunciation, morphology, syntax, and preservation of archaic adverbial-intensifiers. The dialect varies markedly from community to community, as well as from region to region. Its distinctiveness partly results from a European settlement history that dates back centuries, which explains Newfoundland's most notable linguistic regions: an Irish-settled area in the southeast (the southern Avalon Peninsula) and an English-settled area in the southwest. A well-known phonetic feature many Newfoundland speakers possess is the kit-dress merger. The mid lax /ɛ/ here is raised to the high lax stressed /ɪ/, particularly before oral stops and nasals, so consequently "pen" is pronounced more like "pin". Another phonetic feature more unique to Newfoundland English is TH-stopping. Here, the voiceless dental fricative /θ/ in words like myth and width are pronounced more like t or the voiced dental fricative /ð/ in words like the and these. TH-stopping is more common for /ð/, especially in unstressed function words (e.g. that, those, their, etc.). Ontario Canadian raising is quite strong throughout the province of Ontario, except within the Ottawa Valley. The introduction of Canadian raising to Canada can be attributed to the Scottish and Irish immigrants who arrived in the 18th and 19th centuries. The origins of Canadian raising to Scotland and revealed that the Scottish dialects spoken by these immigrants had a probable impact on its development. This feature impacts the pronunciation of the sound in "right" and the sound in "lout". Canadian Raising indicates a scenario where the start of the diphthong is nearer to the destination of the glide before voiceless consonants than before voiced consonants. The Canadian Shift is also a common vowel shift found in Ontario. The retraction of was found to be more advanced for women in Ontario than for people from the Prairies or Atlantic Canada and men. In the southern part of Southwestern Ontario (roughly in the line south from Sarnia to St. Catharines), despite the existence of many characteristics of West/Central Canadian English, many speakers, especially those under 30, speak a dialect influenced by the Inland Northern American English dialect (in part due to proximity to cities like Detroit and Buffalo, New York) though there are minor differences such as Canadian raising (e.g. "ice" vs "my"). The north and northwestern parts of Southwestern Ontario, the area consisting of the Counties of Huron, Bruce, Grey, and Perth, referred to as the "Queen's Bush" in the 19th century, did not experience communication with the dialects of the southern part of Southwestern Ontario and Central Ontario until the early 20th century. Thus, a strong accent similar to Central Ontarian is heard, yet many different phrasings exist. It is typical in the area to drop phonetic sounds to make shorter contractions, such as: prolly (probably), goin (going), and "Wuts goin' on tonight? D'ya wanna do sumthin'?" It is particularly strong in the County of Bruce, so much that it is commonly referred to as being the Bruce Cownian (Bruce Countian) accent. Also, merge with to , with "were" sounding more like "wear". Residents of the Golden Horseshoe (including the Greater Toronto Area) are known to merge the second with the in Toronto, pronouncing the name variously as or . This is not unique to Toronto; Atlanta is often pronounced "Atlanna" by residents. Sometimes is elided altogether, resulting in "Do you want this one er'iss one?" The word southern is often pronounced with . In the area north of the Regional Municipality of York and south of Parry Sound, notably among those who were born in the surrounding communities, the cutting down of syllables and consonants often heard, e.g. "probably" is reduced to "prolly" or "probly" when used as a response. In Greater Toronto, the diphthong tends to be fronted (as a result the word about is pronounced as ). The Greater Toronto Area is linguistically diverse, with 43 percent of its people having a mother tongue other than English. As a result Toronto English has distinctly more variability than Inland Canada. In Eastern Ontario, Canadian raising is not as strong as it is in the rest of the province. In Prescott and Russell, parts of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry and Eastern Ottawa, French accents are often mixed with English ones due to the high Franco-Ontarian population there. In Lanark County, Western Ottawa and Leeds-Grenville and the rest of Stormont-Dundas-Glengarry, the accent spoken is nearly identical to that spoken in Central Ontario and the Quinte area. A linguistic enclave has also formed in the Ottawa Valley, heavily influenced by original Scottish, Irish, and German settlers, and existing along the Ontario-Quebec boundary, which has its own distinct accent known as the Ottawa Valley twang (or brogue). Phonetically, the Ottawa Valley twang is characterized by the lack of Canadian raising as well as the cot–caught merger, two common elements of mainstream Canadian English. This accent is quite rare in the region today. Quebec English is a minority language in Quebec (with French the majority), but has many speakers in Montreal, the Eastern Townships and in the Gatineau-Ottawa region. A person whose mother tongue is English and who still speaks English is called an Anglophone, versus a Francophone, or French speaker. Many people in Montreal distinguish between words like marry versus merry and parish versus perish, stage for "apprenticeship" or "internship", copybook for a notebook, dépanneur or dep for a convenience store, and guichet for an ABM/ATM. It is also common for Anglophones, particularly those of Greek or Italian descent, to use translated French words instead of common English equivalents such as "open" and "close" for "on" and "off" or "Open the lights, please" for "Turn on the lights, please". West Western Canadian English describes the English spoken in the four most western provinces—British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. British Columbia, in particular is a sub-zone on the lexical level. Phonetically, Western Canadian English has much more raising and much less than further east, and Canadian raised is further back. raising (found in words such as beg, leg, and peg) and raising (found words such as bag, lag and rag), a prominent feature in Northwestern American speakers, is also found in Vancouver speakers, causing "beg" to sound like the first syllable of "bagel" and "bag" to be similar. In the past, the ANAE reported that Vancouverites' participation in the Canadian raising of was questionable, but nowadays they tend to raise both and . Saskatchewan English in Saskatchewan has its pool of phonetic features shared with other provinces used by certain demographics. For instance, it has the consonant variables /ntV/ and /VtV/, the latter being a common feature of North American English and is defined as the intervoicing of /t/ between vowels. Meanwhile, /ntV/ "frequently occurs in words such as "centre" and "twenty" where /t/ follows the alveolar nasal /n/ and precedes an unstressed vowel". According to Nylvek (1992), both variables of /t/ are generally more often used by younger male over older female speakers. North American English prefers have got to have to denote possession or obligation (as in ''I've got a car vs. I have a car); Canadian English differs from American English in tending to eschew plain got (I got a car), which is a common third option in informal US English. The grammatical construction "be done something" means roughly "have/has finished'' something". For example, "I am done my homework" and "The dog is done dinner" are genuine sentences in this dialect, respectively meaning "I have finished my homework" and "The dog has finished dinner". Another example, "Let's start after you're done all the coffee", means "Let's start after you've finished all the coffee". This is not exactly the same as the standard construction "to be done with something", since "She is done the computer" can only mean "She is done with the computer" in one sense: "She has finished (building) the computer". Date and time notation stamp from Queenston Bridge, showing the date 8 June 2014]] Date and time notation in Canadian English is a mixture of British and American practices. The date can be written in the form of either "" or "1 July 2017"; the latter is common in more formal writing and bilingual contexts. The Government of Canada only recommends writing all-numeric dates in the form of YYYY-MM-DD (e.g. 2017-07-01), following ISO 8601. Nonetheless, the traditional DD/MM/YY and MM/DD/YY systems remain in everyday use, which can be interpreted in multiple ways: 01/07/17 can mean either 1 July 2017 or 7 January 2017. Private members' bills have repeatedly attempted to clarify the situation. In business communication and filing systems the YYMMDD is used to assist in automatic ordering of electronic files. The government also recommends use of the 24-hour clock, which is widely used in contexts such as transportation schedules, parking meters, and data transmission. Many speakers of English use the 12-hour clock in everyday speech, even when reading from a 24-hour display, similar to the use of the 24-hour clock in the United Kingdom. Vocabulary Where Canadian English shares vocabulary with other English dialects, it tends to share most with American English, but also has many non-American terms distinctively shared instead with Britain. British and American terms also can coexist in Canadian English to various extents, sometimes with new nuances in meaning; a classic example is (British) often used interchangeably with (American), though, in Canadian speech, the latter can more narrowly mean a trip elsewhere and the former can mean general time off work. In addition, the vocabulary of Canadian English also features some words that are seldom (if ever) found elsewhere. A good resource for these and other words is A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, which is currently being revised at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia. The Canadian public appears to take interest in unique "Canadianisms": words that are distinctively characteristic of Canadian English—though perhaps not exclusive to Canada; there is some disagreement about the extent to which "Canadianism" means a term actually unique to Canada, with such an understanding possibly overstated by the popular media. As a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Canada shares many items of institutional terminology and professional designations with the countries of the former British Empire—for example, , for a police officer of the lowest rank, and . Regional variation While Canadian English has vocabulary that distinguishes it from other varieties of English across the world, there is significant regional variation in its lexis within Canada as well. A balanced cross-continental sample of 1800 Canadians and 360 Americans the Canada and the USA is the result of Boberg's North American Regional Vocabulary Survey (NARVS), a questionnaire employed by Boberg from 1999-2007 that sought out lexical items that vary regionally within Canada. Six regions were identified in the NARVS data collection: The West, which includes British Columbia and the Prairies; Ontario; Quebec, which represents data from Montreal mostly; New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; Prince Edward Island; and Newfoundland. The francophone dominance in Quebec makes the province a linguistic anomaly within Canada, where English maintains a negligible role in government and public domains. Distinctive to Ontario are Canadianisms such as concession roads, which refer to roads that transect a township, dew-worm, which refers to an earthworm, and fire-reel, which refers to a fire truck. Furthermore, Avis suggests that the difference between American English and Ontario English is relatively small near the border due to their close proximity. The historical settlement patterns of southern Ontario, coupled with linguistic research, indicate the existence of distinctively Ontarian lexical items. However, Ontario maintains greater similarities with other Canadian regions than it does with the neighbouring American English and its regional variations. such as the use of camp for a summer home where Southern Ontario speakers would idiomatically use cottage. In the mid to late 90s, certain words from Jamaican Patois, Arabic and Somali were incorporated into the local variety of English by Toronto youth, especially in immigrant communities, thus giving rise to Toronto slang. These examples included words such as mandem, styll, wallahi, wasteman, and yute. Prairies (Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta) The Prairies, consisting of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, have their own lexical features. The linguistic legacy from the settlement patterns in these regions, along with the Indigenous communities, specifically the large Métis population in Saskatchewan and Manitoba also carry certain linguistic traits inherited from the French, Indigenous, and Celtic forebears. The linguistic features brought by Ukrainian, German, and Mennonite populations in the Saskatchewan Valley of Saskatchewan and Red River Valley of Manitoba have also influenced the lexis of the Prairies. Some terms are derived from these groups and some are formed within the region by locals throughout time. An example of the former is the high-profile variable bunnyhug, a term for a hooded sweatshirt in Saskatchewan. As discussed in The Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, bunnyhug is purposely and commonly used by young Saskatchewan speakers to indicate a sense of provincial identity, and is referred to as a Saskatchewanism. It should be further noted that it is assumed based on circumstantial evidence that teenagers played a crucial and special role in the spread and adoption of the term bunnyhug for hooded sweatshirts. Atlantic Canada (New Brunswick & Nova Scotia, PEI, Newfoundland)Canada's Atlantic provinces were the first part of North America to be explored by Europeans. The Atlantic provinces, historically and collectively called the Maritimes, consist of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island. Newfoundland and Labrador, which is not part of the Maritimes, is also part of Atlantic Canada. The historical immigrants from Europe have shaped cultures and lexical catalogs across the regions of Atlantic Canada that reflect British, Scottish, Gaelic, and French customs. The vernacular variations of English spoken in the Atlantic region of Canada. Newfoundland and Labrador English (NLE) possesses unique vocabulary compared to standard Canadian English. The Dictionary of Newfoundland English covers the vocabulary common to Newfoundlanders, such as Newfoundland "screech rum", a Newfoundland-specific brand of rum; mummering, referring to a Christmas tradition; and gut-foundered, meaning starving or fastened. Nova Scotia also is home to its own vocabulary. The term "Sobeys bag", used to refer to a plastic grocery bag, originates from the Nova Scotian grocery store chain Sobeys. Similarly, Prince Edward Island has its own vocabulary and dictionary. For example, angishore refers to a fisherman who is too lazy to fish and likely is a lexical item originating from Irish Gaelic settlers in Newfoundland. Sarah Sawler, a writer from Halifax, highlights terms that are common to Maritimes, such as dooryard for front yard, owly for when someone is angry or irritable, and biff for throw. Education The term college, which refers to post-secondary education in general in the US, refers in Canada to either a post-secondary technical or vocational institution, or to one of the colleges that exist as federated schools within some Canadian universities. Most often, a college is a community college, not a university. It may also refer to a CEGEP in Quebec. In Canada, might denote someone obtaining a diploma in business management, an equivalent of this would be an associate degree in the United States. In contrast, is the term for someone earning a bachelor's degree, typically at a post-secondary university institution. Hence, the term in Canada does not have the same meaning as , unless the speaker or context clarifies the specific level of post-secondary education that is meant. Within the public school system the chief administrator of a school is generally "the principal", as in the United States, but the term is not used preceding their name, i.e., "Principal Smith". The assistant to the principal is not titled as "assistant principal", but rather as "vice-principal", although the former is not unknown. This usage is identical to that in Northern Ireland. Canadian universities publish calendars or schedules, not catalogs as in the US. Canadian students write or take exams (in the US, students generally "take" exams while teachers "write" them); they rarely sit them (standard British usage). Those who supervise students during an exam are sometimes called invigilators as in Britain, or sometimes proctors as in the US; usage may depend on the region or even the individual institution. Successive years of school are usually referred to as grade one, grade two, and so on. In Quebec, Francophone speakers will often say primary one, primary two as a direct translation from the French, and so on; while Anglophones will say grade one, grade two. These terms are comparable with the American first grade, second grade (which is used in Canada, yet is rare), English/Welsh Year 1, Year 2, Scottish/Northern Irish Primary 1, Primary 2 or P1, P2, and Southern Irish First Class, Second Class and so on. The year of school before grade 1 is usually called "Kindergarten", with the exception of Nova Scotia, where it is called "grade primary". In addition, children younger than the public school start age may attend 'pre-primary', although this is a newer addition to the Nova Scotian public-school system, and is not used frequently elsewhere. In parts of the US, the four years of high school are termed the freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (terms also used for college years); in Canada, the specific levels are used instead, such as "grade nine" in lieu of freshman. As for higher education, only the term freshman (often reduced to frosh) has some currency in Canada. * A railway or highway crossing overhead is an overpass or underpass, depending on which part of the crossing is referred to (the two are used more or less interchangeably); the British term flyover is sometimes used, as is subway. * In Canada, a committee is struck, whereas in the US committees are appointed, formed, or created, etc. * Several political terms are more in use in Canada than elsewhere, including riding (as a general term for a parliamentary constituency or electoral district, this term is unique to Canada). The term reeve was at one time common for the equivalent of a mayor in some smaller municipalities in British Columbia and Ontario, but is now falling into disuse. The title is still used for the leader of a rural municipality in Saskatchewan, parts of Alberta, and Manitoba. * The term Tory, used in Britain with a similar meaning, denotes a supporter of the present-day federal Conservative Party of Canada, the historic federal or provincial Progressive Conservative Party. The term Red Tory is also used to denote the more socially liberal wings of the Tory parties. Blue Tory is less commonly used, and refers to more strict fiscal (rather than social) conservatism. The use of Tory to mean a Loyalist in the time of the American Revolution is an American usage. The Canadian term is simply Loyalist. The Cabinet of Ontario serves concurrently (and not for life) as the Executive Council of Ontario, while serving members are styled "The Honourable", but are not entitled to post-nominal letters. * Members of provincial/territorial legislative assemblies are called MLAs in all provinces and territories except: Ontario, where they have been called Members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs) since 1938; Quebec, where they have been called Members of the National Assembly (MNAs) since 1968; and Newfoundland and Labrador, where they are called Members of the House of Assembly (MHAs). Each abbreviation is used as a post-nominal during terms of office only. Law Lawyers in all parts of Canada, except Quebec, which has its own civil law system, are called "barristers and solicitors" because any lawyer licensed in any of the common law provinces and territories must pass bar exams for, and is permitted to engage in, both types of legal practice in contrast to other common-law jurisdictions such as England, Wales and Ireland where the two are traditionally separated (i.e., Canada has a fused legal profession). The words lawyer and counsel (not counsellor) predominate in everyday contexts; the word attorney refers to any personal representative. Canadian lawyers generally do not refer to themselves as "attorneys", a term that is common in the United States. The equivalent of an American district attorney, meaning the barrister representing the state in criminal proceedings, is called a crown attorney (in Ontario), crown counsel (in British Columbia), crown prosecutor or the crown, on account of Canada's status as a constitutional monarchy in which the Crown is the locus of state power. The words advocate and notary – two distinct professions in Quebec civil law – are used to refer to that province's approximate equivalents of barrister and solicitor, respectively. It is not uncommon for English-speaking advocates in Quebec to refer to themselves in English as "barrister(s) and solicitor(s)", as most advocates chiefly perform what would traditionally be known as "solicitor's work", while only a minority of advocates actually appear in court. In Canada's common law provinces and territories, the word notary means strictly a notary public. Within the Canadian legal community itself, the word solicitor is often used to refer to any Canadian lawyer in general (much like the way the word attorney is used in the United States to refer to any American lawyer in general). Despite the conceptual distinction between barrister and solicitor, Canadian court documents would contain a phrase such as "John Smith, solicitor for the Plaintiff" even though "John Smith" may well himself be the barrister who argues the case in court. In a letter introducing him/herself to an opposing lawyer, a Canadian lawyer normally writes something like "I am the solicitor" for Mr. Tom Jones." The word litigator is also used by lawyers to refer to a fellow lawyer who specializes in lawsuits even though the more traditional word barrister is still employed to denote the same specialization. Judges of Canada's superior courts, which exist at the provincial and territorial levels, are traditionally addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady". This varies by jurisdiction, and some superior court judges prefer the titles "Mister Justice" or "Madam Justice" to "Lordship". Masters are addressed as "Mr. Master" or simply "Sir." In British Columbia, masters are addressed as "Your Honour." Judges of provincial or inferior courts are traditionally referred to in person as "Your Honour". Judges of the Supreme Court of Canada and of the federal-level courts prefer the use of "Mister/Madam (Chief) Justice". Justices of The Peace are addressed as "Your Worship". "Your Honour" is also the correct form of address for a Lieutenant Governor. A serious crime is called an indictable offence, while a less-serious crime is called a summary conviction offence. The older words felony and misdemeanour, which are still used in the United States, are not used in Canada's current Criminal Code (R.S.C. 1985, c. C-46) or by today's Canadian legal system. As noted throughout the Criminal Code, a person accused of a crime is called the accused and not the defendant, a term used instead in civil lawsuits. In Canada, visible minority refers to a non-aboriginal person or group visibly not one of the majority race in a given population. The term comes from the Canadian Employment Equity Act, which defines such people as "persons, other than Aboriginal people, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour." The term is used as a demographic category by Statistics Canada. The qualifier "visible" is used to distinguish such minorities from the "invisible" minorities determined by language (English vs. French) and certain distinctions in religion (Catholics vs. Protestants). A county in British Columbia means only a regional jurisdiction of the courts and justice system and is not otherwise connected to governance as with counties in other provinces and in the United States. The rough equivalent to "county" as used elsewhere is a "Regional District". Places Distinctive Canadianisms are: * bachelor: bachelor apartment, an apartment all in a single room, with a small bathroom attached ("They have a bachelor for rent"). The usual American term is studio. In Quebec, this is known as a one-and-a-half apartment; some Canadians, especially in Prince Edward Island, call it a loft. In other provinces loft refers to a second floor in a condo unit or bungalow usually with second floor bedrooms * bluff: small group of trees isolated by prairie * camp: in Northern Ontario, it refers to what is called a cottage in the rest of Ontario; often more specifically to a vacation home not directly adjacent to a body of water, and a cabin in the West. It is also used, to a lesser extent, in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, as well as in parts of New England. It generally refers to vacation houses in rural areas. * fire hall: fire station, firehouse. * height of land'': a drainage divide. Originally American. * parkade: a parking garage, especially in the West. the general term for what is normally named public toilet or lavatory in Britain. In the United States (where it originated) the word was mostly replaced by restroom in the 20th century. Generally used only as a technical or commercial term outside of Canada. The word bathroom is also used. * Indian reserve, rather than the US term federal Indian reservation. Often shortened to reserve, especially when the meaning is clear from context; another slang variant of this term is the shortened res or (more commonly) rez. Not to be confused with res, which in the context of universities refers strictly to residences or halls of residence (compare to the US American dorms or dormitories). Therefore, the sentences when I lived on rez and when I lived in res mean different things. The territory of the particular band nation is usually referred to on a map as (Band name here) First Nations I.R. * rancherie: the residential area of a First Nation reserve, used in BC only. * quiggly hole and/or quiggly: the depression in the ground left by a kekuli or pithouse. Groups of them are called "quiggly hole towns". Used in the BC Interior only. * gas bar: a filling station (gas station) with a central island, having pumps under a fixed metal or concrete awning. * booze can: an after-hours establishment where alcohol is served, often illegally. * dépanneur, or the diminutive form dep, is often used by English speakers in Quebec. This is because convenience stores are called dépanneurs in Canadian French. * snye, a side-stream channel that rejoins a larger river, creating an island. * slough: pond – usually a pond on a farm Daily life Terms common in Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia and other Commonwealth nations but less frequent or nonexistent in the United States are: * tin (as in tin of tuna), for can, especially among older speakers. Among younger speakers, can is more common, with tin referring to a can which is wider than it is tall as in "a tin of sardines" as opposed to a "can of soup". * cutlery, for silverware or flatware, where the material of which the utensil is made is not of consequence to the context in which it is used. * serviette, especially in Eastern Canada, for a paper table napkin. * tap, conspicuously more common than faucet in everyday usage. The following are more or less distinctively Canadian: * ABM, bank machine: synonymous with ATM (which is also used, but much more widely than ABM by financial organizations in the country). * BFI bin: Dumpster, after a prominent Canadian waste management company, BFI Canada (which was eventually bought out and merged to become Waste Connections of Canada) in provinces where that company does business; compare to other generic trademarks such as Kleenex, Xerox, and even Dumpster itself. * chesterfield: originally British and internationally used (as in classic furnishing terminology) to refer to a sofa whose arms are the same height as the back, it is a term for any couch or sofa in Canada (and, to some extent, Northern California). Once a hallmark of CanE, chesterfield, as with settee and davenport, is now largely in decline among younger generations in the western and central regions. Couch is now the most common term; sofa is also used. * dart: cigarette, used primarily by adolescents and young adults. * dressing gown or housecoat or bathrobe: a dressing gown and housecoat can be of silk or cotton, usually an attractive outer layer, while a bathrobe is made of absorbent fabric like a towel; in the United States, called a bathrobe. * eavestrough: rain gutter. Also used, especially in the past, in the Northern and Western United States; the first recorded usage is in Herman Melville's Moby-Dick: "The tails tapering down that way, serve to carry off the water, d'ye see. Same with cocked hats; the cocks form gable-end eave-troughs , Flask." * flush: toilet, used primarily by older speakers throughout the Maritimes. * garburator: (rhymes with carburetor) a garbage disposal. * hydro: a common synonym for electrical service, used primarily in New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba and British Columbia. Most of the power in these provinces is generated through hydroelectricity, and suppliers' company names incorporate the term "Hydro". Usage: "I didn't pay my hydro bill so they shut off my lights." Hence hydrofield or hydro corridor, a line of electricity transmission towers, usually in groups cutting across a city, and hydro lines/poles, electrical transmission lines/poles. These usages of hydro are also standard in the Australian state of Tasmania. Also in slang usage can refer to hydroponically grown marijuana. * loonie: the Canadian one-dollar coin; derived from the use of the common loon on the reverse. The toonie (less commonly spelled tooney, twooney, twoonie) is the two-dollar coin. Loonie is also used to refer to the Canadian currency, particularly when discussing the exchange rate with the US dollar; loonie and toonie describe coinage specifically. (for example, "I have a dollar in pennies" versus "I have three loonies in my pocket"). * pencil crayon: coloured pencil. * pogie or pogey: term referring to unemployment insurance, which is now officially called Employment Insurance in Canada. Derived from the use of pogey as a term for a poorhouse. Not used for welfare, in which case the term is "the dole", as in ''"he's on the dole, eh?". * parkade: multistorey parking garage. running shoes, especially in Western Canada. Also used in Australian English and Irish English. Atlantic Canada prefers sneakers while central Canada (including Quebec and Ontario) prefers running shoes. * touque (also spelled toque or tuque): a knitted winter hat. A similar hat would be called a beanie in the western United States and a watch cap in the eastern United States, though these forms are generally closer-fitting, and may lack a brim as well as a pompom. There seems to be no exact equivalent outside Canada, since the tuque is of French Canadian origin. * bunnyhug: a hooded sweatshirt, with or without a zipper. Used mainly in Saskatchewan. * ginch/gonch/gitch/gotch: underwear (usually men's or boys' underwear, more specifically briefs; whereas women's underwear are gotchies), probably of Eastern European or Ukrainian origin. Gitch and gotch are primarily used in Saskatchewan and Manitoba while the variants with an n are common in Alberta and British Columbia. Food and beverage * Most Canadians as well as Americans in the Northwest, North Central, Prairie and Inland North prefer pop over soda to refer to a carbonated beverage, but soda is understood to mean the same thing, in contrast to British English where soda refers specifically to soda water (US/Canadian seltzer water). Soft drink is also extremely common throughout Canada. * What Americans call Canadian bacon is named back bacon in Canada, or, if it is coated in cornmeal or ground peas, cornmeal bacon or peameal bacon. * What most Americans call a candy bar is usually known as a chocolate bar (as in the United Kingdom). In certain areas surrounding the Bay of Fundy, it is sometimes known as a nut bar; this use is more popular in older generations. Legally only bars made of solid chocolate may be labelled chocolate bars. * Even though the terms French fries and fries are used by Canadians, some speakers use the word chips (and its diminutive, chippies). (Chips is always used when referring to fish and chips, as elsewhere.) * homogenized milk or homo milk: milk containing 3.25% milk fat, typically called "whole milk" in the United States. * brown bread refers to whole-wheat bread, as in "Would you like white or brown bread for your toast?" * An expiry date is the term used for the date when a perishable product will go bad (similar to the UK Use By date). The term expiration date is more common in the United States (where expiry date is seen mostly on the packaging of Asian food products). The term Best Before also sees common use, where although not spoiled, the product may not taste "as good". * double-double: a cup of coffee with two measures of cream and two of sugar, most commonly associated with the Tim Hortons chain of coffee shops. * Canadianisms relating to alcohol: mickey: a bottle of hard liquor (informally called a pint in the Maritimes and the United States). In Newfoundland, this is almost exclusively referred to as a "flask". In the United States, "mickey", or "Mickey Finn", refers to a drink laced with drugs. two-six, twenty-sixer, twixer: a bottle of hard liquor (called a quart in the Maritimes). The word handle is less common. Similarly, a bottle of hard liquor is known as a forty and a bottle is known as a sixty or half gallon in Nova Scotia. Texas mickey (especially in Saskatchewan, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; more often a "Saskatchewan mickey" in western Canada): a bottle of hard liquor. (Despite the name, Texas mickeys are generally unavailable outside of Canada.) two-four: a case of 24 beers, also known as a case in Eastern Canada, or a flat in Western Canada (referencing that cans of beer are often sold in packages of six, with four packages to a flat box for shipping and stacking purposes). ** six-pack, half-sack, half-case, or poverty-pack: a case of six beers * poutine: a snack of french fries topped with cheese curds and hot gravy. * There are also genericized trademarks used in Canada: cheezies: cheese puffs. The name is a genericized trademark based on a brand of crunchy cheese snack sold in Canada. Kraft Dinner or "KD": for any packaged dry macaroni and cheese mix, even when it is not produced by Kraft. * freezie: A frozen flavoured sugar water snack common worldwide, but known by this name exclusively in Canada. * dainty: a fancy cookie, pastry, or square served at a social event (usually plural). Used in western Canada. * Smarties: a bean-sized, small candy-covered chocolate, similar to plain M&M's. This is also seen in British English. Smarties in the United States refer to small tart powdered disc sold in rolls; in Canada these tart candies are sold as "Rockets". Informal speech One of the most distinctive Canadian phrases is the spoken interrogation or tag eh. The only usage of eh exclusive to Canada, according to the Canadian Oxford Dictionary, is for "ascertaining the comprehension, continued interest, agreement, etc., of the person or persons addressed" as in, "It's four kilometres away, eh, so I have to go by bike." In that case, eh? is used to confirm the attention of the listener and to invite a supportive noise such as mm or oh or okay. This usage is also common in Queensland, Australia and New Zealand. Other uses of eh – for instance, in place of huh? or what? meaning "please repeat or say again" – are also found in parts of the British Isles and Australia. It is common in Northern/Central Ontario, the Maritimes and the Prairie provinces. The word eh is used quite frequently in the North Central dialect, so a Canadian accent is often perceived in people from North Dakota, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. A rubber in the US and Canada is slang for a condom. In Canada, it sometimes means an eraser (as in the United Kingdom and Ireland). The word bum can refer either to the buttocks (as in Britain), or to a homeless person (as in the US). The "buttocks" sense does not have the indecent character it retains in British use, as it and "butt" are commonly used as a polite or childish euphemism for ruder words such as arse (commonly used in Atlantic Canada and among older people in Ontario and to the west) or ass, or mitiss (used in the Prairie Provinces, especially in northern and central Saskatchewan; probably originally a Cree loanword). Older Canadians may see "bum" as more polite than "butt", which before the 1980s was often considered rude. Similarly the word pissed can refer either to being drunk (as in Britain), or being angry (as in the US), though anger is more often said as pissed off, while piss drunk or pissed up is said to describe inebriation (though piss drunk is sometimes also used in the US, especially in the northern states). The term Canuck simply means Canadian in its demonymic form, and, as a term used even by Canadians themselves, it is not considered derogatory. (In the 19th century and early 20th century it tended to refer to French-Canadians.) The only Canadian-built version of the popular World War I-era American Curtiss JN-4 Jenny training biplane aircraft, the JN-4C, 1,260 of which were built, got the "Canuck" nickname; so did another aircraft, the Fleet Model 80, built from the mid-1940s until the late 1950s. The nickname Janey Canuck was used by Anglophone women's rights writer Emily Murphy in the 1920s and the Johnny Canuck comic book character of the 1940s. Throughout the 1970s, Canada's winning World Cup men's downhill ski team was called the "Crazy Canucks" for their fearlessness on the slopes. It is also the name of the Vancouver Canucks, the National Hockey League team of Vancouver, British Columbia. The term hoser, popularized by Bob & Doug McKenzie, typically refers to an uncouth, beer-swilling male and is a euphemism for "loser" coming from the earlier days of hockey played on an outdoor rink and the losing team would have to hose down the ice after the game so it froze smooth. A Newf or Newfie is someone from Newfoundland and Labrador; sometimes considered derogatory. In Newfoundland, the term Mainlander refers to any Canadian (sometimes American, occasionally Labradorian) not from the island of Newfoundland. Mainlander is also occasionally used derogatorily. In the Maritimes, a Caper or "Cape Bretoner" is someone from Cape Breton Island, a Bluenoser is someone with a thick, usually southern Nova Scotia accent or as a general term for a Nova Scotian (including Cape Bretoners), while an Islander is someone from Prince Edward Island (the same term is used in British Columbia for people from Vancouver Island, or the numerous islands along it). A Haligonian refers to someone from the city of Halifax. Cape Bretoners and Newfies (from Newfoundland and Labrador) often have similar slang. "Barmp" is often used as the sound a car horn makes, example: "He cut me off so I barmped the horn at him". When saying "B'y", while sounds like the traditional farewell, it is a syncopated shortening of the word "boy", referring to a person, example: "How's it goin, b'y?". Another slang that is commonly used is "doohickey" which means an object, example: "Pass me that doohickey over there". When an individual uses the word "biffed", they mean that they threw something. Example: "I got frustrated so I biffed it across the room". Survey and research methodology Canadian English dialectology examines Canadian English through the use of written surveys due to the vastness of the country and the difficulties of conducting face-to-face interviews on a nationwide level. The historical overview of written surveys in Canadian-English dialectology includes Avis's study of speech differences among the Ontario-United States borders through the use of questionnaires. Another example is the Survey of Canadian English directed by Scargill. This attitude sees a change years later. A survey about attitudes towards CE was conducted with a diverse sample group in Vancouver, BC, in 2009. Among 429 Vancouverites, 81.1% believe there is a Canadian way of speaking English, 72.9% can tell CanE speakers from American English speakers, 69.1% consider CanE a part of their Canadian identity, and 74.1% think CanE should be taught in schools. Due to the unavailability of free and easy-to-access CanE dictionaries, many Canadian opt for other non-Canadian English dictionaries today. A preference change can be seen at the end of higher education in Canada. At the University of Toronto's Graduate English department, "Canadian English" and a "consistent spelling" are officially "the standard for all Ph.D. dissertations," with the Canadian Oxford English Dictionary as the official guideline. However, there is no mention of which grammar guide was to be followed because there was never a solid standard developed for spelling and grammar. In 2011, just under 21.5 million Canadians, representing 65% of the population, spoke English most of the time at home, while 58% declared it their mother language. English is the major language everywhere in Canada except Quebec, and most Canadians (85%) can speak English. Nationally, Francophones are five times more likely to speak English than Anglophones are to speak French – 44% and 9% respectively. Only 3.2% of Canada's English-speaking population resides in Quebec—mostly in Montreal. A study conducted in 2002 inquired Canadians from Ontario and Alberta about the "pleasantness" and "correctness" of different varieties of Canadian English based on province. Albertans and Ontarians all seem to rate their English and BC English in the top three. However, both hold a low opinion of Quebec English. Unlike the assumption that Toronto or Ontario English would be the most prestigious considering these regions are the most economically robust, BC had the best public opinion regarding pleasantness and correctness among the participants. Jaan Lilles argues in an essay for English Today that there is no variety of "Canadian English." According to Lilles, Canadian English is simply not a "useful fiction". Lilles was heavily critiqued in the next issue of English Today by lexicographer Fraser Sutherland and others. According to Stefan Dollinger, Lilles' paper "is not a paper based on any data or other new information but more of a pamphlet – so much so that it should not have been published without a public critique". He continues, "The paper is insightful for different reasons: it is a powerful testimony of personal anecdote and opinion [...]. As an opinion piece, it offers a good debating case." As a linguistic account, however, it "essentializes a prior state, before Canada was an independent political entity."<ref namecreating/> See also * Bibliography of Canada#Canadian style guides * List of Canadian English dictionaries * Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles, Second Edition * Bilingual education by country or region * Bilingual education * American and British English spelling differences * Bungi creole * Canadian Gaelic * Franglais * Regional accents of English * Canadian Language Museum * Commonwealth English Notes References Further reading * * * Barber, Katherine, editor (2004). Canadian Oxford Dictionary, second edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press. . * Barber, Katherine. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20071028045359/http://www.randomhouse.ca/readmag/volume6issue1/pdfs/excerptBookOfLists.pdf 11 Favourite Regionalisms Within Canada]", in David Vallechinsky and Amy Wallace (2005). The Book of Lists, Canadian Edition. Knopf. . * Boberg, Charles (2005). "The North American Regional Vocabulary Survey: Renewing the study of lexical variation in North American English." American Speech 80/1. [http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/1/22 Dukejournals.org] * Boberg, Charles, [http://groups.chass.utoronto.ca/canengglobal/abstracts/charles_boberg.pdf Sounding Canadian from Coast to Coast: Regional accents in Canadian English] , McGill University. * Courtney, Rosemary, and others., senior editors (1998). The Gage Canadian Dictionary, second edition. Toronto: Gage Learning Corp. . * Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making," in The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, 2nd ed., p. xi. * Clark, Joe (2008). [http://en-ca.org/ Organizing Our Marvellous Neighbours: How to Feel Good About Canadian English] (e-book). . * * * Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . * * Canadian Raising: O'Grady and Dobrovolsky, Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction, 3rd ed., pp. 67–68. * Canadian English: Editors' Association of Canada, [http://www.editors.ca/resources/eac_publications/ece.html Editing Canadian English: The Essential Canadian Guide] , 2nd ed. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2000). * Canadian usage: Margery Fee and Janice McAlpine, Guide to Canadian English Usage (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2001). * Hamilton, Sandra A. M. (1997) [https://web.archive.org/web/20121006144027/http://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/en/handle/10393/10045 Canadianisms and their treatment in dictionaries], Thesis (M.A.), University of Ottawa, * Canadian newspaper and magazine style guides: J.A. McFarlane and Warren Clements, The Globe and Mail Style Book: A Guide to Language and Usage, 9th ed. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1998). The Canadian Press, [https://web.archive.org/web/20020104183839/http://www.cp.org/asp/thirdLevel.asp?categorybooks&maintablecp The Canadian Press Stylebook, 13th ed.] and its quick-reference companion [https://web.archive.org/web/20020203100855/http://www.cp.org/asp/thirdLevel.asp?categorybooks&maintablecaps CP Caps and Spelling, 16th ed.] (both Toronto: Canadian Press, 2004). * Barber, Katherine, editor (2004). Canadian Oxford Dictionary, second edition. Toronto: Oxford University Press. . * Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making," in The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, 2nd ed., p. xi. * Clarke, Sandra, Ford Elms, and Amani Youssef (1995). "The third dialect of English: Some Canadian evidence", in Language Variation and Change, 7:209–228. Dollinger, Stefan (2015). [https://www.academia.edu/18162995/The_Written_Questionnaire_in_Social_Dialectology_History_Theory_Practice_Dec._2015_ The Written Questionnaire in Social Dialectology: History, Theory, Practice.] Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins. The book's examples are exclusive taken from Canadian English and represent one of the more extensive collections of variables for Canadian English. * Dollinger, Stefan (2008). [https://www.academia.edu/4006034/New-Dialect_Formation_in_Canada_Evidence_from_the_English_Modal_Auxiliaries New-Dialect Formation in Canada: Evidence from the English Modal Auxiliaries 1776–1849] . Amsterdam & Philadelphia: Benjamins. * Dollinger, Stefan, Laurel J. Brinton and Margery Fee (2013). [http://www.dchp.ca/DCHP-1/ DCHP-1 Online: A Dictionary of Canadiansims on Historical Principles] . 1st Edition. Ed. by Walter S. Avis et al. (1967). * Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . * * External links * [https://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/ Termium Plus]: the Government of Canada terminology and linguistic databank * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050207141239/http://www.cbc.ca/news/indepth/words/index.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's Words: Woe & Wonder] * [http://www.luther.ca/~dave7cnv/cdnspelling/cdnspelling.html Dave VE7CNV's Truly Canadian Dictionary of Canadian Spelling] – comparisons of Canadian English, American English, British English, French, and Spanish * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110314052240/http://www.soundcomparisons.com/Eng/Direct/Englishes/SglLgCanadianStandard.htm 'Hover & Hear' pronunciations in a standard Canadian accent], and compare side by side with other English accents from around the world. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040503005630/http://www.oup.com/ca/genref/dictionaries/ Canadian Oxford Dictionaries] (Oxford University Press – sales only) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041209003712/http://www.dico.uottawa.ca/theses/hamilton/hamilton2.htm Lexical, grammatical, orthographic and phonetic Canadianisms] * [http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/CanadianEnglish.html Varieties of English: Canadian English] from the University of Arizona * [http://www.heritage.nf.ca/dictionary/ Dictionary of Newfoundland English] * [http://www.dchp.ca/dchp1/ Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles Online] * [http://www.dchp.ca/dchp2 Second Edition of A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles] }} Category:Dialects of English Category:North American English	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_English	2025-04-05T18:27:48.209851
6343	Czech language	Cestina}} , \| pronunciation \| states Czech Republic \| ethnicity = Czechs \| speakers = L1: million \| date = 2012 \| ref = e27 \| speakers2 L2: million (2012) * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Romania \| lingua = 53-AAA-da < 53-AAA-b...-d<br>(varieties: 53-AAA-daa to 53-AAA-dam) \| notice = IPA \| glotto = czec1258 \| glottorefname = Czech \| map \| mapcaption }} Czech ( ; ), historically also known as Bohemian ( ; ), is a West Slavic language of the Czech–Slovak group, written in Latin script. Czech is a fusional language with a rich system of morphology and relatively flexible word order. Its vocabulary has been extensively influenced by Latin and German. The Czech–Slovak group developed within West Slavic in the high medieval period, and the standardization of Czech and Slovak within the Czech–Slovak dialect continuum emerged in the early modern period. In the later 18th to mid-19th century, the modern written standard became codified in the context of the Czech National Revival. The most widely spoken non-standard variety, known as Common Czech, is based on the vernacular of Prague, but is now spoken as an interdialect throughout most of Bohemia. The Moravian dialects spoken in Moravia and Czech Silesia are considerably more varied than the dialects of Bohemia. Czech has a moderately-sized phoneme inventory, comprising ten monophthongs, three diphthongs and 25 consonants (divided into "hard", "neutral" and "soft" categories). Words may contain complicated consonant clusters or lack vowels altogether. Czech has a raised alveolar trill, which is known to occur as a phoneme in only a few other languages, represented by the grapheme ř. Classification branch of the Indo-European language family. Czech and Slovak make up a "Czech–Slovak" subgroup.]] Czech is a member of the West Slavic sub-branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. This branch includes Polish, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Sorbian and Slovak. Slovak is the most closely related language to Czech, followed by Polish and Silesian. The West Slavic languages are spoken in Central Europe. Czech is distinguished from other West Slavic languages by a more-restricted distinction between "hard" and "soft" consonants (see Phonology below). and consistent stress on the first syllable. The Bohemian (Czech) language is first recorded in writing in glosses and short notes during the 12th to 13th centuries. Literary works written in Czech appear in the late 13th and early 14th century and administrative documents first appear towards the late 14th century. The first complete Bible translation, the Leskovec-Dresden Bible, also dates to this period. Literary activity becomes widespread in the early 15th century in the context of the Bohemian Reformation. Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography, advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners (particularly in religion) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language. Early Modern Czech There was no standardization distinguishing between Czech and Slovak prior to the 15th century. In the 16th century, the division between Czech and Slovak becomes apparent, marking the confessional division between Lutheran Protestants in Slovakia using Czech orthography and Catholics, especially Slovak Jesuits, beginning to use a separate Slovak orthography based on Western Slovak dialects. The publication of the Kralice Bible between 1579 and 1593 (the first complete Czech translation of the Bible from the original languages) became very important for standardization of the Czech language in the following centuries as it was used as a model for the standard language. In 1615, the Bohemian diet tried to declare Czech to be the only official language of the kingdom. After the Bohemian Revolt (of predominantly Protestant aristocracy) which was defeated by the Habsburgs in 1620, the Protestant intellectuals had to leave the country. This emigration together with other consequences of the Thirty Years' War had a negative impact on the further use of the Czech language. In 1627, Czech and German became official languages of the Kingdom of Bohemia and in the 18th century German became dominant in Bohemia and Moravia, especially among the upper classes. Modern Czech , whose writing played a key role in reviving Czech as a written language\|alt=In a detailed pencil sketch, a middle-aged man in a suit looks idly into the distance.]] Modern standard Czech originates in standardization efforts of the 18th century. By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period contain no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty. At some point before the 18th century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak. Czech philologists studied sixteenth-century texts and advocated the return of the language to high culture. This period is known as the Czech National Revival (or Renaissance). These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak. Modern scholars disagree about whether the conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal, widespread use.Geographic distribution , Serbia (in light blue)]] Czech is spoken by about 10 million residents of the Czech Republic. A Eurobarometer survey conducted from January to March 2012 found that the first language of 98 percent of Czech citizens was Czech, the third-highest proportion of a population in the European Union (behind Greece and Hungary). Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages. The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the Czech Republic (98.77 percent), Slovakia (24.86 percent), Portugal (1.93 percent), Poland (0.98 percent) and Germany (0.47 percent). Czech speakers in Slovakia primarily live in cities. Since it is a recognized minority language in Slovakia, Slovak citizens who speak only Czech may communicate with the government in their language in the same way that Slovak speakers in the Czech Republic also do.United States Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914. Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers. Large communities of Czech Americans live in the states of Texas, Nebraska and Wisconsin. In the 2000 United States Census, Czech was reported as the most common language spoken at home (besides English) in Valley, Butler and Saunders Counties, Nebraska and Republic County, Kansas. With the exception of Spanish (the non-English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide), Czech was the most common home language in more than a dozen additional counties in Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, North Dakota and Minnesota. 70,500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language (49th place nationwide, after Turkish and before Swedish).PhonologyVowelsStandard Czech contains ten basic vowel phonemes, and three diphthongs. The vowels are , and their long counterparts . The diphthongs are ; the last two are found only in loanwords such as "car" and "euro". In Czech orthography, the vowels are spelled as follows: Short: Long: Diphthongs: The letter indicates that the previous consonant is palatalized (e.g. ). After a labial it represents (e.g. ); but is pronounced /mɲɛ/, cf. (). Consonants The consonant phonemes of Czech and their equivalent letters in Czech orthography are as follows: {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|- !colspan=2\| ! Labial ! Alveolar ! Post-<br/>alveolar ! Palatal ! Velar ! Glottal \|- !colspan=2\| Nasal \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !rowspan=2\| Plosive ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! \| \| \| \| \| () \| \|- !rowspan=2\| Affricate ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! \| \| () \| () \| \| \| \|- !rowspan=2\| Fricative ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !rowspan=2\| Trill ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- ! \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- !colspan=2\| Approximant \| \| \| \| \| \| \|} Czech consonants are categorized as "hard", "neutral", or "soft": Hard: Neutral: Soft: Hard consonants may not be followed by i or í in writing, or soft ones by y or ý (except in loanwords such as kilogram). Neutral consonants may take either character. Hard consonants are sometimes known as "strong", and soft ones as "weak". This distinction is also relevant to the declension patterns of nouns, which vary according to whether the final consonant of the noun stem is hard or soft. Voiced consonants with unvoiced counterparts are unvoiced at the end of a word before a pause, and in consonant clusters voicing assimilation occurs, which matches voicing to the following consonant. The unvoiced counterpart of /ɦ/ is /x/. The phoneme represented by the letter ř (capital Ř) is very rare among languages and often claimed to be unique to Czech, though it also occurs in some dialects of Kashubian, and formerly occurred in Polish. It represents the raised alveolar non-sonorant trill (IPA: ), a sound somewhere between Czech r and ž (example: ), and is present in Dvořák. In unvoiced environments, /r̝/ is realized as its voiceless allophone [r̝̊], a sound somewhere between Czech r and š. The consonants can be syllabic, acting as syllable nuclei in place of a vowel. Strč prst skrz krk ("Stick [your] finger through [your] throat") is a well-known Czech tongue twister using syllabic consonants but no vowels.StressEach word has primary stress on its first syllable, except for enclitics (minor, monosyllabic, unstressed syllables). In all words of more than two syllables, every odd-numbered syllable receives secondary stress. Stress is unrelated to vowel length; both long and short vowels can be stressed or unstressed. Vowels are never reduced (e.g. to schwa sounds) when unstressed. When a noun is preceded by a monosyllabic preposition, the stress usually moves to the preposition, e.g. "to Prague".GrammarCzech grammar, like that of other Slavic languages, is fusional; its nouns, verbs, and adjectives are inflected by phonological processes to modify their meanings and grammatical functions, and the easily separable affixes characteristic of agglutinative languages are limited. Czech inflects for case, gender and number in nouns and tense, aspect, mood, person and subject number and gender in verbs. Parts of speech include adjectives, adverbs, numbers, interrogative words, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Adverbs are primarily formed from adjectives by taking the final ý or í of the base form and replacing it with e, ě, y, or o. Negative statements are formed by adding the affix ne- to the main verb of a clause, with one exception: je (he, she or it is) becomes není. Sentence and clause structure {\|class="wikitable floatright" \|+Czech pronouns, nominative case \|- !Person !Singular !Plural \|- !1. \| já \| my \|- !2. \| ty<br/>vy (formal) \| vy \|- !3. \| on (masculine)<br/>ona (feminine)<br/>ono (neuter) \| oni (masculine animate)<br/>ony (masculine inanimate, feminine)<br/>ona (neuter) \|} Because Czech uses grammatical case to convey word function in a sentence (instead of relying on word order, as English does), its word order is flexible. As a pro-drop language, in Czech an intransitive sentence can consist of only a verb; information about its subject is encoded in the verb. Enclitics (primarily auxiliary verbs and pronouns) appear in the second syntactic slot of a sentence, after the first stressed unit. The first slot can contain a subject or object, a main form of a verb, an adverb, or a conjunction (except for the light conjunctions a, "and", i, "and even" or ale, "but"). Czech syntax has a subject–verb–object sentence structure. In practice, however, word order is flexible and used to distinguish topic and focus, with the topic or theme (known referents) preceding the focus or rheme (new information) in a sentence; Czech has therefore been described as a topic-prominent language. Although Czech has a periphrastic passive construction (like English), in colloquial style, word-order changes frequently replace the passive voice. For example, to change "Peter killed Paul" to "Paul was killed by Peter" the order of subject and object is inverted: Petr zabil Pavla ("Peter killed Paul") becomes "Paul, Peter killed" (Pavla zabil Petr). Pavla is in the accusative case, the grammatical object of the verb. A word at the end of a clause is typically emphasized, unless an upward intonation indicates that the sentence is a question: Pes jí bagetu. – The dog eats the baguette (rather than eating something else). Bagetu jí pes. – The dog eats the baguette (rather than someone else doing so). Pes bagetu jí. – The dog eats the baguette (rather than doing something else to it). Jí pes bagetu? – Does the dog eat the baguette? (emphasis ambiguous) In parts of Bohemia (including Prague), questions such as Jí pes bagetu? without an interrogative word (such as co, "what" or kdo, "who") are intoned in a slow rise from low to high, quickly dropping to low on the last word or phrase. In modern Czech syntax, adjectives precede nouns, with few exceptions. Relative clauses are introduced by relativizers such as the adjective který, analogous to the English relative pronouns "which", "that" and "who"/"whom". As with other adjectives, it agrees with its associated noun in gender, number and case. Relative clauses follow the noun they modify. The following is a glossed example: Declension In Czech, nouns and adjectives are declined into one of seven grammatical cases which indicate their function in a sentence, two numbers (singular and plural) and three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter). The masculine gender is further divided into animate and inanimate classes. Case with her name declined in the genitive case in Czech (a sign probably from the time of the Protectorate).]] A nominative–accusative language, Czech marks subject nouns of transitive and intransitive verbs in the nominative case, which is the form found in dictionaries, and direct objects of transitive verbs are declined in the accusative case. The remaining cases (genitive, dative, locative and instrumental) indicate semantic relationships, such as noun adjuncts (genitive), indirect objects (dative), or agents in passive constructions (instrumental). Additionally prepositions and some verbs require their complements to be declined in a certain case. The locative case is only used after prepositions. An adjective's case agrees with that of the noun it modifies. When Czech children learn their language's declension patterns, the cases are referred to by number: {\| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" \|+Cases in Czech \|- !scope="col"\|No. !scope="col"\| Ordinal name (Czech) !scope="col"\| Full name (Czech) !scope="col"\| Case !scope="col"\| Main usage \|- \|1. \|první pád \| nominativ !scope="row"\|nominative \| Subjects \|- \|2. \|druhý pád \| genitiv !scope="row"\|genitive \| Noun adjuncts, possession, prepositions of motion, time and location \|- \|3. \| třetí pád \| dativ !scope="row"\|dative \| Indirect objects, prepositions of motion \|- \|4. \| čtvrtý pád \| akuzativ !scope="row"\|accusative \| Direct objects, prepositions of motion and time \|- \|5. \|pátý pád \| vokativ !scope="row"\|vocative \| Addressing someone \|- \|6. \|šestý pád \| lokál !scope="row"\|locative \| Prepositions of location, time and topic \|- \|7. \|sedmý pád \| instrumentál !scope="row"\|instrumental \| Passive agents, instruments, prepositions of location \|} Some prepositions require the nouns they modify to take a particular case. The cases assigned by each preposition are based on the physical (or metaphorical) direction, or location, conveyed by it. For example, od (from, away from) and z (out of, off) assign the genitive case. Other prepositions take one of several cases, with their meaning dependent on the case; na means "on to" or "for" with the accusative case, but "on" with the locative. This is a glossed example of a sentence using several cases: Gender Czech distinguishes three genders—masculine, feminine, and neuter—and the masculine gender is subdivided into animate and inanimate. With few exceptions, feminine nouns in the nominative case end in -a, -e, or a consonant; neuter nouns in -o, -e, or -í, and masculine nouns in a consonant. Adjectives, participles, most pronouns, and the numbers "one" and "two" are marked for gender and agree with the gender of the noun they modify or refer to. Past tense verbs are also marked for gender, agreeing with the gender of the subject, e.g. dělal (he did, or made); dělala (she did, or made) and dělalo (it did, or made). Gender also plays a semantic role; most nouns that describe people and animals, including personal names, have separate masculine and feminine forms which are normally formed by adding a suffix to the stem, for example Čech (Czech man) has the feminine form Češka (Czech woman). Nouns of different genders follow different declension patterns. Examples of declension patterns for noun phrases of various genders follow: {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center" \|+ ! rowspan="2" \| Case ! colspan="4" \| Noun/adjective \|- \| Big dog (m. anim. sg.) \| Black backpack (m. inanim. sg.) \| Small cat (f. sg.) \| Hard wood (n. sg.) \|- ! Nom. \| velký pes<br>(big dog) \|černý batoh<br>(black backpack) \| malá kočka<br>(small cat) \| tvrdé dřevo<br>(hard wood) \|- ! Gen. \| bez velkého psa<br>(without the big dog) \| bez černého batohu<br>(without the black backpack) \| bez malé kočky<br>(without the small cat) \| bez tvrdého dřeva<br>(without the hard wood) \|- ! Dat. \| k velkému psovi<br>(to the big dog) \| k černému batohu<br>(to the black backpack) \| k malé kočce<br>(to the small cat) \| ke tvrdému dřevu<br>(to the hard wood) \|- ! Acc. \| vidím velkého psa<br>(I see the big dog) \| vidím černý batoh<br>(I see the black backpack) \| vidím malou kočku<br>(I see the small cat) \| vidím tvrdé dřevo<br>(I see the hard wood) \|- ! Voc. \| velký pse!<br>(big dog!) \| černý batohu!<br>(black backpack!) \| malá kočko!<br>(small cat!) \| tvrdé dřevo!<br>(hard wood!) \|- ! Loc. \| o velkém psovi<br>(about the big dog) \| o černém batohu<br>(about the black backpack) \| o malé kočce<br>(about the small cat) \| o tvrdém dřevě<br>(about the hard wood) \|- ! Inst. \| s velkým psem<br>(with the big dog) \| s černým batohem<br>(with the black backpack) \| s malou kočkou<br>(with the small cat) \| s tvrdým dřevem<br>(with the hard wood) \|} Number Nouns are also inflected for number, distinguishing between singular and plural. Typical of a Slavic language, Czech cardinal numbers one through four allow the nouns and adjectives they modify to take any case, but numbers over five require subject and direct object noun phrases to be declined in the genitive plural instead of the nominative or accusative, and when used as subjects these phrases take singular verbs. For example: {\|class=wikitable \|- !English !Czech \|- \| one Czech crown was... \| jedna koruna česká byla... \|- \| two Czech crowns were... \| dvě koruny české byly... \|- \| three Czech crowns were... \| tři koruny české byly... \|- \| four Czech crowns were... \| čtyři koruny české byly... \|- \| five Czech crowns were... \| pět korun českých bylo... \|} Numbers decline for case, and the numbers one and two are also inflected for gender. Numbers one through five are shown below as examples. The number one has declension patterns identical to those of the demonstrative pronoun ten. {\|class=wikitable \|- ! !1 !2 !3 !4 !5 \|- !Nominative \|jeden (masc)<br/>jedna (fem)<br/>jedno (neut) \|dva (masc)<br/>dvě (fem, neut) \|tři \|čtyři \|pět \|- !Genitive \|jednoho (masc)<br/>jedné (fem)<br/>jednoho (neut) \|dvou \|tří or třech \|čtyř or čtyřech \|pěti \|- !Dative \|jednomu (masc)<br/>jedné (fem)<br/>jednomu (neut) \|dvěma \|třem \|čtyřem \|pěti \|- !Accusative \|jednoho (masc an.)<br/>jeden (masc in.)<br/>jednu (fem)<br/>jedno (neut) \|dva (masc)<br/>dvě (fem, neut) \|tři \|čtyři \|pět \|- !Locative \|jednom (masc)<br/>jedné (fem)<br/>jednom (neut) \|dvou \|třech \|čtyřech \|pěti \|- !Instrumental \|jedním (masc)<br/>jednou (fem)<br/>jedním (neut) \|dvěma \|třemi \|čtyřmi \|pěti \|} Although Czech's grammatical numbers are singular and plural, several residuals of dual forms remain, such as the words dva ("two") and oba ("both"), which decline the same way. Some nouns for paired body parts use a historical dual form to express plural in some cases: ruka (hand)—ruce (nominative); noha (leg)—nohama (instrumental), nohou (genitive/locative); oko (eye)—oči, and ucho (ear)—uši. While two of these nouns are neuter in their singular forms, all plural forms are considered feminine; their gender is relevant to their associated adjectives and verbs. These forms are plural semantically, used for any non-singular count, as in mezi čtyřma očima (face to face, lit. among four eyes). The plural number paradigms of these nouns are a mixture of historical dual and plural forms. For example, nohy (legs; nominative/accusative) is a standard plural form of this type of noun. Verb conjugation Czech verbs agree with their subjects in person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), and in constructions involving participles, which includes the past tense, also in gender. They are conjugated for tense (past, present or future) and mood (indicative, imperative or conditional). For example, the conjugated verb mluvíme (we speak) is in the present tense and first-person plural; it is distinguished from other conjugations of the infinitive mluvit by its ending, -íme. Aspect Typical of Slavic languages, Czech marks its verbs for one of two grammatical aspects: perfective and imperfective. Most verbs are part of inflected aspect pairs—for example, koupit (perfective) and kupovat (imperfective). Although the verbs' meaning is similar, in perfective verbs the action is completed and in imperfective verbs it is ongoing or repeated. This is distinct from past and present tense. Any verb of either aspect can be conjugated into either the past or present tense, but the future tense is only used with imperfective verbs. Aspect describes the state of the action at the time specified by the tense. In suffix pairs, a different infinitive ending is added to the perfective stem; for example, the perfective verbs koupit (to buy) and prodat (to sell) have the imperfective forms kupovat and prodávat. Imperfective verbs may undergo further morphology to make other imperfective verbs (iterative and frequentative forms), denoting repeated or regular action. The verb jít (to go) has the iterative form chodit (to go regularly) and the frequentative form chodívat (to go occasionally; to tend to go). Many verbs have only one aspect, and verbs describing continual states of being—být (to be), chtít (to want), moct (to be able to), ležet (to lie down, to be lying down)—have no perfective form. Conversely, verbs describing immediate states of change—for example, otěhotnět (to become pregnant) and nadchnout se (to become enthusiastic)—have no imperfective aspect.Tense{\|class"wikitable floatleft" \|+Conjugation of být in future tense \|- !Person !Singular !Plural \|- !1. \| budu \| budeme \|- !2. \| budeš \| budete \|- !3. \| bude \| budou \|} The present tense in Czech is formed by adding an ending that agrees with the person and number of the subject at the end of the verb stem. As Czech is a null-subject language, the subject pronoun can be omitted unless it is needed for clarity. The past tense is formed using a participle which ends in -l and a further ending which agrees with the gender and number of the subject. For the first and second persons, the auxiliary verb být conjugated in the present tense is added. In some contexts, the present tense of perfective verbs (which differs from the English present perfect) implies future action; in others, it connotes habitual action. The perfective present is used to refer to completion of actions in the future and is distinguished from the imperfective future tense, which refers to actions that will be ongoing in the future. The future tense is regularly formed using the future conjugation of být (as shown in the table on the left<!-- Please change directions here if moving table -->) and the infinitive of an imperfective verb, for example, budu jíst—"I will eat" or "I will be eating".Mood{\|class"wikitable floatright" \|+Conditional form of koupit (to buy) \|- !Person !Singular !Plural \|- !1. \| koupil/a bych \| koupili/y bychom \|- !2. \| koupil/a bys \| koupili/y byste \|- !3. \| koupil/a/o by \| koupili/y/a by \|} Czech verbs have three grammatical moods: indicative, imperative and conditional. The imperative mood is formed by adding specific endings for each of three person–number categories: -Ø/-i/-ej for second-person singular, -te/-ete/-ejte for second-person plural and -me/-eme/-ejme for first-person plural. Imperatives are usually expressed using perfective verbs if positive and imperfective verbs if negative. The conditional mood is formed with a conditional auxiliary verb after the participle ending in -l which is used to form the past tense. This mood indicates hypothetical events and can also be used to express wishes.Verb classes Most Czech verbs fall into one of five classes, which determine their conjugation patterns. The future tense of být would be classified as a Class I verb because of its endings. Examples of the present tense of each class and some common irregular verbs follow in the tables below: {\|class=wikitable \|- ! !Class I !Class II !Class III !Class IV !Class V \|- !Definition \|to carry \|to print \|to wander \|to suffer \|to do, to make \|- !Infinitive \|nést \|tisknout \|putovat \|trpět \|dělat \|- !1st p. sg. \|nesu \|tisknu \|putuji \|trpím \|dělám \|- !2nd p. sg. \|neseš \|tiskneš \|putuješ \|trpíš \|děláš \|- !3rd p. sg. \|nese \|tiskne \|putuje \|trpí \|dělá \|- !1st p. pl. \|neseme \|tiskneme \|putujeme \|trpíme \|děláme \|- !2nd p. pl. \|nesete \|tisknete \|putujete \|trpíte \|děláte \|- !3rd p. pl. \|nesou \|tisknou \|putují \|trpí \|dělají \|} {\|class=wikitable \|+Irregular verbs !Definition \|to be \|to want \|to eat \|to know \|- !Infinitive \|být \|chtít \|jíst \|vědět \|- !1st p. sg. \|jsem \|chci \|jím \|vím \|- !2nd p. sg. \|jsi \|chceš \|jíš \|víš \|- !3rd p. sg. \|je \|chce \|jí \|ví \|- !1st p. pl. \|jsme \|chceme \|jíme \|víme \|- !2nd p. pl. \|jste \|chcete \|jíte \|víte \|- !3rd p. pl. \|jsou \|chtějí \|jedí \|vědí \|} Orthography Czech has one of the most phonemic orthographies of all European languages. Its alphabet contains 42 graphemes, most of which correspond to individual phonemes, and only contains only one digraph: ch, which follows h in the alphabet. The characters q, w and x appear only in foreign words. The háček (ˇ) is used with certain letters to form new characters: š, ž, and č, as well as ň, ě, ř, ť, and ď (the latter five uncommon outside Czech). The last two letters are sometimes written with a comma above (ʼ, an abbreviated háček) because of their height. Czech orthography has influenced the orthographies of other Balto-Slavic languages and some of its characters have been adopted for transliteration of Cyrillic. Czech orthography reflects vowel length; long vowels are indicated by an acute accent or, in the case of the character ů, a ring. Long u is usually written ú at the beginning of a word or morpheme (úroda, neúrodný) and ů elsewhere, except for loanwords (skútr) or onomatopoeia (bú). Long vowels and ě are not considered separate letters in the alphabetical order. The character ó exists only in loanwords and onomatopoeia. Czech typographical features not associated with phonetics generally resemble those of most European languages that use the Latin script, including English. Proper nouns, honorifics, and the first letters of quotations are capitalized, and punctuation is typical of other Latin European languages. Ordinal numbers (1st) use a point, as in German (1.). The Czech language uses a decimal comma instead of a decimal point. When writing a long number, spaces between every three digits, including those in decimal places, may be used for better orientation in handwritten texts. The number 1,234,567.89101 may be written as 1234567,89101 or 1 234 567,891 01. In proper noun phrases (except personal and settlement names), only the first word and proper nouns inside such phrases are capitalized (Pražský hrad, Prague Castle).Varieties , whose Czech–German dictionary laid the foundations for modern Standard Czech]] The modern literary standard and prestige variety, known as "Standard Czech" () is based on the standardization during the Czech National Revival in the 1830s, significantly influenced by Josef Jungmann's Czech–German dictionary published during 1834–1839. Jungmann used vocabulary of the Bible of Kralice (1579–1613) period and of the language used by his contemporaries. He borrowed words not present in Czech from other Slavic languages or created neologisms. Standard Czech is the formal register of the language which is used in official documents, formal literature, newspaper articles, education and occasionally public speeches. It is codified by the Czech Language Institute, who publish occasional reforms to the codification. The most recent reform took place in 1993. The term () is sometimes used to refer to the spoken variety of standard Czech. The most widely spoken vernacular form of the language is called "Common Czech" (), an interdialect influenced by spoken Standard Czech and the Central Bohemian dialects of the Prague region. Other Bohemian regional dialects have become marginalized, while Moravian dialects remain more widespread and diverse, with a political movement for Moravian linguistic revival active since the 1990s. These varieties of the language (Standard Czech, spoken/colloquial Standard Czech, Common Czech, and regional dialects) form a stylistic continuum, in which contact between varieties of a similar prestige influences change within them.Common Czech , Lach, and Cieszyn Silesian spoken in the Czech Republic. The border areas, where German was formerly spoken, are now mixed.]] The main Czech vernacular, spoken primarily in Bohemia including the capital Prague, is known as Common Czech (obecná čeština). This is an academic distinction; most Czechs are unaware of the term or associate it with deformed or "incorrect" Czech. Compared to Standard Czech, Common Czech is characterized by simpler inflection patterns and differences in sound distribution. Common Czech is distinguished from spoken/colloquial Standard Czech (), which is a stylistic variety within standard Czech. Tomasz Kamusella defines the spoken variety of Standard Czech as a compromise between Common Czech and the written standard, while Miroslav Komárek calls Common Czech an intersection of spoken Standard Czech and regional dialects. Common Czech has become ubiquitous in most parts of the Czech Republic since the later 20th century. It is usually defined as an interdialect used in common speech in Bohemia and western parts of Moravia (by about two thirds of all inhabitants of the Czech Republic). Common Czech is not codified, but some of its elements have become adopted in the written standard. Since the second half of the 20th century, Common Czech elements have also been spreading to regions previously unaffected, as a consequence of media influence. Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians, businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations, but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media. In addition, a prothetic v- is added to most words beginning o-, such as votevřít vokno (to open the window). * unified plural endings of adjectives: malý lidi (small people), malý ženy (small women), malý města (small towns) – standard: malí lidé, malé ženy, malá města; * unified instrumental ending -ma in plural: s těma dobrejma lidma, ženama, chlapama, městama (with the good people, women, guys, towns) – standard: s těmi dobrými lidmi, ženami, chlapy, městy. In essence, this form resembles the form of the dual, which was once a productive form, but now is almost extinct and retained in a lexically specific set of words. In Common Czech the ending became productive again around the 17th century, but used as a substitute for a regular plural form. * omission of the syllabic -l in the masculine ending of past tense verbs: řek (he said), moh (he could), pích (he pricked) – standard: řekl, mohl, píchl. * tendency of merging the locative singular masculine/neuter for adjectives with the instrumental by changing the locative ending -ém to -ým and then shortening the vowel: mladém (standard locative), mladým (standard instrumental) > mladým (Common Czech locative), mladym (Common Czech instrumental) > mladym (Common Czech locative/instrumental with shortening). Examples of declension (Standard Czech is added in italics for comparison): {\|class=wikitable \|- ! ! !Masculine<br>animate !Masculine<br>inanimate !Feminine !Neuter \|- !rowspan="7"\|Sg. !Nominative \|mladej člověk<br />mladý člověk \|mladej stát<br />mladý stát \|mladá žena<br />mladá žena \|mladý zvíře<br />mladé zvíře \|- !Genitive \|mladýho člověka<br />mladého člověka \|mladýho státu<br />mladého státu \|mladý ženy<br />mladé ženy \|mladýho zvířete<br />mladého zvířete \|- !Dative \|mladýmu člověkovi<br />mladému člověku \|mladýmu státu<br />mladému státu \|mladý ženě<br />mladé ženě \|mladýmu zvířeti<br />mladému zvířeti \|- !Accusative \|mladýho člověka<br />mladého člověka \|mladej stát<br />mladý stát \|mladou ženu<br />mladou ženu \|mladý zvíře<br />mladé zvíře \|- !Vocative \|mladej člověče!<br />mladý člověče! \|mladej státe!<br />mladý státe! \|mladá ženo!<br />mladá ženo! \|mladý zvíře!<br />mladé zvíře! \|- !Locative \|mladým člověkovi<br />mladém člověkovi \|mladým státě<br />mladém státě \|mladý ženě<br />mladé ženě \|mladým zvířeti<br />mladém zvířeti \|- !Instrumental \|mladym člověkem<br />mladým člověkem \|mladym státem<br />mladým státem \|mladou ženou<br />mladou ženou \|mladym zvířetem<br />mladým zvířetem \|- !rowspan="7"\|Pl. !Nominative \|mladý lidi<br />mladí lidé \|mladý státy<br />mladé státy \|mladý ženy<br />mladé ženy \|mladý zvířata<br />mladá zvířata \|- !Genitive \|mladejch lidí<br />mladých lidí \|mladejch států<br />mladých států \|mladejch žen<br />mladých žen \|mladejch zvířat<br />mladých zvířat \|- !Dative \|mladejm lidem<br />mladým lidem \|mladejm státům<br />mladým státům \|mladejm ženám<br />mladým ženám \|mladejm zvířatům<br />mladým zvířatům \|- !Accusative \|mladý lidi<br />mladé lidi \|mladý státy<br />mladé státy \|mladý ženy<br />mladé ženy \|mladý zvířata<br />mladá zvířata \|- !Vocative \|mladý lidi!<br />mladí lidé! \|mladý státy!<br />mladé státy! \|mladý ženy!<br />mladé ženy! \|mladý zvířata!<br />mladá zvířata! \|- !Locative \|mladejch lidech<br />mladých lidech \|mladejch státech<br />mladých státech \|mladejch ženách<br />mladých ženách \|mladejch zvířatech<br />mladých zvířatech \|- !Instrumental \|mladejma lidma<br />mladými lidmi \|mladejma státama<br />mladými státy \|mladejma ženama<br />mladými ženami \|mladejma zvířatama<br />mladými zvířaty \|} mladý člověk – young man/person, mladí lidé – young people, mladý stát – young state, mladá žena – young woman, mladé zvíře – young animal Bohemian dialects from 1591. The inscription features the distinctive Bohemian diphthong , spelled .]] Apart from the Common Czech vernacular, there remain a variety of other Bohemian dialects, mostly in marginal rural areas. Dialect use began to weaken in the second half of the 20th century, and by the early 1990s regional dialect use was stigmatized, associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect. Increased travel and media availability to dialect-speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to (or add to their own dialect) Standard Czech. The Czech Statistical Office in 2003 recognized the following Bohemian dialects: Nářečí středočeská (Central Bohemian dialects) Nářečí jihozápadočeská (Southwestern Bohemian dialects) :Podskupina chodská (Chod subgroup) :Podskupina doudlebská (Doudleby subgroup) Nářečí severovýchodočeská (Northeastern Bohemian dialects) :Podskupina podkrknošská (Krkonoše subgroup) Moravian dialects , Pink: Cieszyn Silesian, Orange: Bohemian–Moravian transitional dialects, Purple: Mixed areas]] The Czech dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia are known as Moravian (moravština). In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak" was a language citizens could register as speaking (with German, Polish and several others). In the 2011 census, where respondents could optionally specify up to two first languages, 62,908 Czech citizens specified Moravian as their first language and 45,561 specified both Moravian and Czech. Beginning in the sixteenth century, some varieties of Czech resembled Slovak; using the same declension patterns for nouns and pronouns and the same verb conjugations as Slovak. A popular misconception holds that eastern Moravian dialects are closer to Slovak than Czech, but this is incorrect; in fact, the opposite is true, and certain dialects in far western Slovakia exhibit features more akin to standard Czech than to standard Slovak. {\|border="0" \|- \| Standard Czech: \|\| Dej mouku ze mlýna na vozík. \|- \| Common Czech: \|\| Dej mouku ze mlejna na vozejk. \|- \| Central Moravian: \|\| Dé móko ze mléna na vozék. \|- \| Eastern Moravian: \|\| Daj múku ze młýna na vozík. \|- \| Silesian: \|\| Daj muku ze młyna na vozik. \|- \| Slovak: \|\| Daj múku z mlyna na vozík. \|- \| English: \|\| Put the flour from the mill into the cart. \|} Mutual intelligibility with Slovak Czech and Slovak have been considered mutually intelligible; speakers of either language can communicate with greater ease than those of any other pair of West Slavic languages. Following the 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia, mutual intelligibility declined for younger speakers, probably because Czech speakers began to experience less exposure to Slovak and vice versa. A 2015 study involving participants with a mean age of around 23 nonetheless concluded that there remained a high degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages. Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the nominative to the locative case, Praha becomes Praze in Czech and Prahe in Slovak). The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences found in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology. Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech. During the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938), although "Czechoslovak" was designated as the republic's official language, both Czech and Slovak written standards were used. Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic. Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State (which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II), literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech. When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the Prague Spring of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech,Vocabulary Czech vocabulary derives primarily from Slavic, Baltic and other Indo-European roots. Although most verbs have Balto-Slavic origins, pronouns, prepositions and some verbs have wider, Indo-European roots. Some loanwords have been restructured by folk etymology to resemble native Czech words (e.g. hřbitov, "graveyard" and listina, "list"). Most Czech loanwords originated in one of two time periods. Earlier loanwords, primarily from German, Greek and Latin, arrived before the Czech National Revival. More recent loanwords derive primarily from English and French, Although older German loanwords were colloquial, recent borrowings from other languages are associated with high culture. and polka (from polka, "Polish woman" or from "půlka" "half"). Example text Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Czech: :Všichni lidé rodí se svobodní a sobě rovní co do důstojnosti a práv. Jsou nadáni rozumem a svědomím a mají spolu jednat v duchu bratrství. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: :All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.See also * Czech Centers * Czech name * Czech Sign Language * Swadesh list of Slavic words Notes References * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.ujc.cas.cz/ Ústav pro jazyk český] – Czech Language Institute, the regulatory body for the Czech language * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120712124340/http://ucnk.ff.cuni.cz/english/index.php Czech National Corpus] * [http://bara.ujc.cas.cz/psjc/search.php Czech Monolingual Online Dictionary] * [https://slovniky.lingea.cz/ Online Translation Dictionaries] * [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Czech_Swadesh_list Czech Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix]) * [https://www.czechtime.cz/ Online Czech Grammar and Exercises] Category:Languages of the Czech Republic Category:Languages of Slovakia Category:Subject–verb–object languages Category:West Slavic languages Category:Slavic languages written in Latin script	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language	2025-04-05T18:27:48.285189
6344	Capsid	thumb\|right\|Schematic of a cytomegalovirus thumb\|right\|Illustration of geometric model changing between two possible capsids. A similar change of size has been observed as the result of a single amino-acid mutation A capsid is the protein shell of a virus, enclosing its genetic material. It consists of several oligomeric (repeating) structural subunits made of protein called protomers. The observable 3-dimensional morphological subunits, which may or may not correspond to individual proteins, are called capsomeres. The proteins making up the capsid are called capsid proteins or viral coat proteins (VCP). The virus genomic component inside the capsid, along with occasionally present virus core protein, is called the virus core. The capsid and core together are referred to as a nucleocapsid (cf. also virion). Capsids are broadly classified according to their structure. The majority of the viruses have capsids with either helical or icosahedral structure. Some viruses, such as bacteriophages, have developed more complicated structures due to constraints of elasticity and electrostatics. The icosahedral shape, which has 20 equilateral triangular faces, approximates a sphere, while the helical shape resembles the shape of a spring, taking the space of a cylinder but not being a cylinder itself. The capsid faces may consist of one or more proteins. For example, the foot-and-mouth disease virus capsid has faces consisting of three proteins named VP1–3. Some viruses are enveloped, meaning that the capsid is coated with a lipid membrane known as the viral envelope. The envelope is acquired by the capsid from an intracellular membrane in the virus' host; examples include the inner nuclear membrane, the Golgi membrane, and the cell's outer membrane. Once the virus has infected a cell and begins replicating itself, new capsid subunits are synthesized using the protein biosynthesis mechanism of the cell. In some viruses, including those with helical capsids and especially those with RNA genomes, the capsid proteins co-assemble with their genomes. In other viruses, especially more complex viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes, the capsid proteins assemble into empty precursor procapsids that include a specialized portal structure at one vertex. Through this portal, viral DNA is translocated into the capsid. Structural analyses of major capsid protein (MCP) architectures have been used to categorise viruses into lineages. For example, the bacteriophage PRD1, the algal virus Paramecium bursaria Chlorella virus-1 (PBCV-1), mimivirus and the mammalian adenovirus have been placed in the same lineage, whereas tailed, double-stranded DNA bacteriophages (Caudovirales) and herpesvirus belong to a second lineage. Specific shapes Icosahedral thumb\|Icosahedral capsid of an adenovirus thumb\|right\|Virus capsid T-numbers The icosahedral structure is extremely common among viruses. The icosahedron consists of 20 triangular faces delimited by 12 fivefold vertexes and consists of 60 asymmetric units. Thus, an icosahedral virus is made of 60N protein subunits. The number and arrangement of capsomeres in an icosahedral capsid can be classified using the "quasi-equivalence principle" proposed by Donald Caspar and Aaron Klug. Like the Goldberg polyhedra, an icosahedral structure can be regarded as being constructed from pentamers and hexamers. The structures can be indexed by two integers h and k, with h \ge 1 and k \ge 0; the structure can be thought of as taking h steps from the edge of a pentamer, turning 60 degrees counterclockwise, then taking k steps to get to the next pentamer. The triangulation number T for the capsid is defined as: T = h^2 + h \cdot k + k^2 In this scheme, icosahedral capsids contain 12 pentamers plus 10(T − 1) hexamers. The T-number is representative of the size and complexity of the capsids. Geometric examples for many values of h, k, and T can be found at List of geodesic polyhedra and Goldberg polyhedra. Many exceptions to this rule exist: For example, the polyomaviruses and papillomaviruses have pentamers instead of hexamers in hexavalent positions on a quasi T 7 lattice. Members of the double-stranded RNA virus lineage, including reovirus, rotavirus and bacteriophage φ6 have capsids built of 120 copies of capsid protein, corresponding to a T 2 capsid, or arguably a T 1 capsid with a dimer in the asymmetric unit. Similarly, many small viruses have a pseudo T 3 (or P 3) capsid, which is organized according to a T 3 lattice, but with distinct polypeptides occupying the three quasi-equivalent positions Prolate thumb\|left\|The prolate structure of a typical head on a bacteriophage An elongated icosahedron is a common shape for the heads of bacteriophages. Such a structure is composed of a cylinder with a cap at either end. The cylinder is composed of 10 elongated triangular faces. The Q number (or Tmid), which can be any positive integer, specifies the number of triangles, composed of asymmetric subunits, that make up the 10 triangles of the cylinder. The caps are classified by the T (or Tend) number. The bacterium E. coli is the host for bacteriophage T4 that has a prolate head structure. The bacteriophage encoded gp31 protein appears to be functionally homologous to E. coli chaperone protein GroES and able to substitute for it in the assembly of bacteriophage T4 virions during infection. Like GroES, gp31 forms a stable complex with GroEL chaperonin that is absolutely necessary for the folding and assembly in vivo of the bacteriophage T4 major capsid protein gp23. The helical structure can be described as a set of n 1-D molecular helices related by an n-fold axial symmetry. Creating an entire helical structure relies on a set of translational and rotational matrices which are coded in the protein data bank. The most understood helical virus is the tobacco mosaic virus. Functions The functions of the capsid are to: protect the genome, deliver the genome, and interact with the host. The virus must assemble a stable, protective protein shell to protect the genome from lethal chemical and physical agents. These include extremes of pH or temperature and proteolytic and nucleolytic enzymes. For non-enveloped viruses, the capsid itself may be involved in interaction with receptors on the host cell, leading to penetration of the host cell membrane and internalization of the capsid. Delivery of the genome occurs by subsequent uncoating or disassembly of the capsid and release of the genome into the cytoplasm, or by ejection of the genome through a specialized portal structure directly into the host cell nucleus. Origin and evolution It has been suggested that many viral capsid proteins have evolved on multiple occasions from functionally diverse cellular proteins. The recruitment of cellular proteins appears to have occurred at different stages of evolution so that some cellular proteins were captured and refunctionalized prior to the divergence of cellular organisms into the three contemporary domains of life, whereas others were hijacked relatively recently. As a result, some capsid proteins are widespread in viruses infecting distantly related organisms (e.g., capsid proteins with the jelly-roll fold), whereas others are restricted to a particular group of viruses (e.g., capsid proteins of alphaviruses). The displacement of these ancestral genes between cellular organisms could favor the appearance of new viruses during evolution. See also Geodesic polyhedron Goldberg–Coxeter construction Fullerene#Other buckyballs References Further reading External links IRAM-Virus Capsid Database and Analysis Resource Category:Virology Category:Protein complexes	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsid	2025-04-05T18:27:48.302807
6346	Chloramphenicol	\| MedlinePlus = a608008 \| DailyMedID = Chloramphenicol \| pregnancy_AU = A \| pregnancy_AU_comment \| pregnancy_category \| routes_of_administration = Topical (eye drops), by mouth, intravenous, intramuscular \| class \| ATC_prefix D06 \| ATC_suffix = AX02 \| ATC_supplemental = , , , , , , <!-- Legal status --> \| legal_AU = S3 \| legal_AU_comment \| legal_BR <!-- OTC, A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, C3, C5, D1, D2, E, F1, F2, F3, F4 --> \| legal_BR_comment \| legal_CA Rx-only \| legal_CA_comment \| legal_DE <!-- Anlage I, II, III or Unscheduled --> \| legal_DE_comment \| legal_NZ <!-- Class A, B, C --> \| legal_NZ_comment \| legal_UK P \| legal_UK_comment = / POM \| legal_US = Rx-only \| legal_US_comment \| legal_EU \| legal_EU_comment \| legal_UN <!-- N I, II, III, IV / P I, II, III, IV --> \| legal_UN_comment \| legal_status <!-- For countries not listed above --> <!-- Pharmacokinetic data --> \| bioavailability = 75–90% \| protein_bound = 60% \| metabolism = Liver \| metabolites \| onset \| elimination_half-life = 1.6–3.3 hours \| duration_of_action \| excretion Kidney (5–15%), faeces (4%) <!-- Identifiers --> \| CAS_number_Ref = \| CAS_number = 56-75-7 \| PubChem = 5959 \| IUPHAR_ligand \| DrugBank_Ref \| DrugBank = DB00446 \| ChemSpiderID_Ref = \| ChemSpiderID = 5744 \| UNII_Ref = \| UNII = 66974FR9Q1 \| KEGG_Ref = \| KEGG = D00104 \| ChEBI_Ref = \| ChEBI = 17698 \| ChEMBL_Ref = \| ChEMBL = 130 \| NIAID_ChemDB \| PDB_ligand CLM \| synonyms C/CHL/CL <!-- Chemical and physical data --> \| IUPAC_name 2,2-dichloro-N-[(1R,2R)-1,3-dihydroxy-1-(4-nitrophenyl)propan-2-yl]acetamide \| C = 11 \| H = 12 \| Cl = 2 \| N = 2 \| O = 5 \| SMILES c1cc(ccc1[C@H]([C@@H](CO)NC(O)C(Cl)Cl)O)[N+](=O)[O-] \| StdInChI_Ref = \| StdInChI = 1S/C11H12Cl2N2O5/c12-10(13)11(18)14-8(5-16)9(17)6-1-3-7(4-2-6)15(19)20/h1-4,8-10,16-17H,5H2,(H,14,18)/t8-,9-/m1/s1 \| StdInChIKey_Ref = \| StdInChIKey = WIIZWVCIJKGZOK-RKDXNWHRSA-N \| density \| density_notes \| melting_point \| melting_high \| melting_notes \| boiling_point \| boiling_notes \| solubility \| sol_units \| specific_rotation }} <!-- Definition and medical uses --> Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. This includes use as an eye ointment to treat conjunctivitis. By mouth or by injection into a vein, it is used to treat meningitis, plague, cholera, and typhoid fever. Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that typically stops bacterial growth by stopping the production of proteins. Its chemical structure was identified and it was first synthesized in 1949. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. During the last decade chloramphenicol has been re-evaluated as an old agent with potential against systemic infections due to multidrug-resistant gram positive microorganisms (including vancomycin resistant enterococci). In vitro data have shown an activity against the majority (> 80%) of vancomycin resistant E. faecium strains. In the context of preventing endophthalmitis, a complication of cataract surgery, a 2017 systematic review found moderate evidence that using chloramphenicol eye drops in addition to an antibiotic injection (cefuroxime or penicillin) will likely lower the risk of endophthalmitis, compared to eye drops or antibiotic injections alone.SpectrumChloramphenicol has a broad spectrum of activity and has been effective in treating ocular infections such as conjunctivitis, blepharitis etc. caused by a number of bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli. It is not effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The following susceptibility data represent the minimum inhibitory concentration for a few medically significant organisms. * Escherichia coli: 0.015 – 10,000 μg/mL * Staphylococcus aureus: 0.06 – 128 μg/mL * Streptococcus pneumoniae: 2 – 16 μg/mL Each of these concentrations is dependent upon the bacterial strain being targeted. Some strains of E coli, for example, show spontaneous emergence of chloramphenicol resistance. Resistance Three mechanisms of resistance to chloramphenicol are known: reduced membrane permeability, mutation of the 50S ribosomal subunit, and elaboration of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase. It is easy to select for reduced membrane permeability to chloramphenicol in vitro by serial passage of bacteria, and this is the most common mechanism of low-level chloramphenicol resistance. High-level resistance is conferred by the cat-gene; this gene codes for an enzyme called chloramphenicol acetyltransferase, which inactivates chloramphenicol by covalently linking one or two acetyl groups, derived from acetyl-S-coenzyme A, to the hydroxyl groups on the chloramphenicol molecule. The acetylation prevents chloramphenicol from binding to the ribosome. Resistance-conferring mutations of the 50S ribosomal subunit are rare. Chloramphenicol resistance may be carried on a plasmid that also codes for resistance to other drugs. One example is the ACCoT plasmid (Aampicillin, Cchloramphenicol, Coco-trimoxazole, Ttetracycline), which mediates multiple drug resistance in typhoid (also called R factors). As of 2014 some Enterococcus faecium and Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains are resistant to chloramphenicol. Some Veillonella spp. and Staphylococcus capitis strains have also developed resistance to chloramphenicol to varying degrees. Some other resistance genes beyond cat are known, such as chloramphenicol hydrolase, and chloramphenicol phosphotransferase. Adverse effects Aplastic anemia The most serious side effect of chloramphenicol treatment is aplastic anaemia ('AA'). This effect is rare but sometimes fatal. The risk of AA is high enough that alternatives should be strongly considered. Treatments are available but expensive. No way exists to predict who may or may not suffer this side effect. The effect usually occurs weeks or months after treatment has been stopped, and a genetic predisposition may be involved. It is not known whether monitoring the blood counts of patients can prevent the development of aplastic anaemia, but patients are recommended to have a baseline blood count with a repeat blood count every few days while on treatment. Chloramphenicol should be discontinued if the complete blood count drops. The highest risk is with oral chloramphenicol (affecting 1 in 24,000–40,000) and the lowest risk occurs with eye drops (affecting less than one in 224,716 prescriptions). This effect manifests first as a fall in hemoglobin levels, which occurs quite predictably once a cumulative dose of 20 g has been given. The anaemia is fully reversible once the drug is stopped and does not predict future development of aplastic anaemia. Studies in mice have suggested existing marrow damage may compound any marrow damage resulting from the toxic effects of chloramphenicol.LeukemiaLeukemia, a cancer of the blood or bone marrow, is characterized by an abnormal increase of immature white blood cells. The risk of childhood leukemia is increased, as demonstrated in a Chinese case–control study, and the risk increases with length of treatment.Gray baby syndrome Intravenous chloramphenicol use has been associated with the so-called gray baby syndrome.<!-- --> This phenomenon occurs in newborn infants because they do not yet have fully functional liver enzymes (i.e. UDP-glucuronyl transferase), so chloramphenicol remains unmetabolized in the body.<!-- --> This causes several adverse effects, including hypotension and cyanosis. The condition can be prevented by using the drug at the recommended doses, and monitoring blood levels.<!-- --><!-- --><!-- -->Hypersensitivity reactionsFever, macular and vesicular rashes, angioedema, urticaria, and anaphylaxis may occur. Herxheimer's reactions have occurred during therapy for typhoid fever. Neurotoxic reactions Headache, mild depression, mental confusion, and delirium have been described in patients receiving chloramphenicol. Optic and peripheral neuritis have been reported, usually following long-term therapy. If this occurs, the drug should be promptly withdrawn.PharmacokineticsChloramphenicol is extremely lipid-soluble; it remains relatively unbound to protein and is a small molecule. It has a large apparent volume of distribution and penetrates effectively into all tissues of the body, including the brain. Distribution is not uniform, with highest concentrations found in the liver and kidney, with lowest in the brain and cerebrospinal fluid.Use in special populations Chloramphenicol is metabolized by the liver to chloramphenicol glucuronate (which is inactive). In liver impairment, the dose of chloramphenicol must therefore be reduced. No standard dose reduction exists for chloramphenicol in liver impairment, and the dose should be adjusted according to measured plasma concentrations. The majority of the chloramphenicol dose is excreted by the kidneys as the inactive metabolite, chloramphenicol glucuronate. Only a tiny fraction of the chloramphenicol is excreted by the kidneys unchanged. Plasma levels should be monitored in patients with renal impairment, but this is not mandatory. Chloramphenicol succinate ester (an intravenous prodrug form) is readily excreted unchanged by the kidneys, more so than chloramphenicol base, and this is the major reason why levels of chloramphenicol in the blood are much lower when given intravenously than orally. Dose monitoring Plasma levels of chloramphenicol must be monitored in neonates and patients with abnormal liver function. Plasma levels should be monitored in all children under the age of four, the elderly, and patients with kidney failure. Because efficacy and toxicity of chloramphenicol are associated with a maximum serum concentration, peak levels (one hour after the intravenous dose is given) should be 10–20 μg/mL with toxicity ; trough levels (taken immediately before a dose) should be 5–10 μg/mL. Drug interactions Administration of chloramphenicol concomitantly with bone marrow depressant drugs is contraindicated, although concerns over aplastic anaemia associated with ocular chloramphenicol have largely been discounted. Chloramphenicol is a potent inhibitor of the cytochrome P450 isoforms CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 in the liver. Inhibition of CYP2C19 causes decreased metabolism and therefore increased levels of, for example, antidepressants, antiepileptics, proton-pump inhibitors, and anticoagulants if they are given concomitantly. Inhibition of CYP3A4 causes increased levels of, for example, calcium channel blockers, immunosuppressants, chemotherapeutic drugs, benzodiazepines, azole antifungals, tricyclic antidepressants, macrolide antibiotics, SSRIs, statins, cardiac antiarrhythmics, antivirals, anticoagulants, and PDE5 inhibitors. Drug antagonistic Chloramphenicol is antagonistic with most cephalosporins and using both together should be avoided in the treatment of infections.Drug synergismChloramphenicol has been demonstrated a synergistic effect when combined with fosfomycin against clinical isolates of Enterococcus faecium.Mechanism of actionChloramphenicol is a bacteriostatic agent, inhibiting protein synthesis. It prevents protein chain elongation by inhibiting the peptidyl transferase activity of the bacterial ribosome. It specifically binds to A2451 and A2452 residues in the 23S rRNA of the 50S ribosomal subunit, preventing peptide bond formation. Chloramphenicol directly interferes with substrate binding in the ribosome, as compared to macrolides, which sterically block the progression of the growing peptide. History Chloramphenicol was first isolated from Streptomyces venezuelae in 1947 and in 1949 a team of scientists at Parke-Davis including Mildred Rebstock published their identification of the chemical structure and their synthesis. In 1972, Senator Ted Kennedy combined the two examples of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the 1958 Los Angeles Infant Chloramphenicol experiments as initial subjects of a Senate Subcommittee investigation into dangerous medical experimentation on human subjects. In 2007, the accumulation of reports associating aplastic anemia and blood dyscrasia with chloramphenicol eye drops led to the classification of "probable human carcinogen" according to World Health Organization criteria, based on the known published case reports and the spontaneous reports submitted to the National Registry of Drug-Induced Ocular Side Effects.Society and cultureNamesChloramphenicol is available as a generic worldwide under many brandnames and also under various generic names in eastern Europe and Russia, including chlornitromycin, levomycetin, and chloromycetin; the racemate is known as synthomycetin. Formulations Chloramphenicol is available as a capsule or as a liquid. In some countries, it is sold as chloramphenicol palmitate ester (CPE). CPE is inactive, and is hydrolysed to active chloramphenicol in the small intestine. No difference in bioavailability is noted between chloramphenicol and CPE. Manufacture of oral chloramphenicol in the U.S. stopped in 1991, because the vast majority of chloramphenicol-associated cases of aplastic anaemia are associated with the oral preparation. No oral formulation of chloramphenicol is available in the U.S. for human use.IntravenousThe intravenous (IV) preparation of chloramphenicol is the succinate ester. This creates a problem: Chloramphenicol succinate ester is an inactive prodrug and must first be hydrolysed to chloramphenicol; however, the hydrolysis process is often incomplete, and 30% of the dose is lost and removed in the urine. Serum concentrations of IV chloramphenicol are only 70% of those achieved when chloramphenicol is given orally. For this reason, the dose needs to be increased to 75 mg/kg/day when administered IV to achieve levels equivalent to the oral dose.OilyOily chloramphenicol (or chloramphenicol oil suspension) is a long-acting preparation of chloramphenicol first introduced by Roussel in 1954; marketed as Tifomycine, it was originally used as a treatment for typhoid. Roussel stopped production of oily chloramphenicol in 1995; the International Dispensary Association Foundation has manufactured it since 1998, first in Malta and then in India from December 2004. Oily chloramphenicol was first used to treat meningitis in 1975 and numerous studies since have demonstrated its efficacy. It is the cheapest treatment available for meningitis (US$5 per treatment course, compared to US$30 for ampicillin and US$15 for five days of ceftriaxone). It has the great advantage of requiring only a single injection, whereas ceftriaxone is traditionally given daily for five days. This recommendation may yet change, now that a single dose of ceftriaxone (cost US$3) has been shown to be equivalent to one dose of oily chloramphenicol. Eye drops Chloramphenicol is used in topical preparations (ointments and eye drops) for the treatment of bacterial conjunctivitis. Isolated case reports of aplastic anaemia following use of chloramphenicol eyedrops exist, but the risk is estimated to be of the order of less than one in 224,716 prescriptions. In Mexico, this is the treatment used prophylactically in newborns for neonatal conjunctivitis.Veterinary usesAlthough its use in veterinary medicine is highly restricted, chloramphenicol still has some important veterinary uses. It is currently considered the most useful treatment of chlamydial disease in koalas. The pharmacokinetics of chloramphenicol have been investigated in koalas. Biosynthesis The biosynthetic gene cluster and pathway for chloroamphenicol was characterized from Streptomyces venezuelae ISP5230 a.k.a. ATCC 17102. Currently the chloramphenicol biosynthetic gene cluster has 17 genes with assigned roles. References Category:4-Nitrophenyl compounds Category:Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitors Category:Acetamides Category:Amphenicols Category:Beta-Hydroxyamphetamines Category:Chlorine-containing natural products Category:CYP3A4 inhibitors Category:Diols Category:Halogen-containing natural products Category:IARC Group 2A carcinogens Category:Organochlorides Category:Otologicals Category:Substances discovered in the 1940s Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Category:World Health Organization essential medicines	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloramphenicol	2025-04-05T18:27:48.335129
6347	Cut-up technique	thumb\|A text created from lines of a newspaper tourism article The cut-up technique (or découpé in French) is an aleatory narrative technique in which a written text is cut up and rearranged to create a new text. The concept can be traced to the Dadaists of the 1920s, but it was developed and popularized in the 1950s and early 1960s, especially by writer William Burroughs. It has since been used in a wide variety of contexts. Technique The cut-up and the closely associated fold-in are the two main techniques: Cut-up is performed by taking a finished and fully linear text and cutting it in pieces with a few or single words on each piece. The resulting pieces are then rearranged into a new text, such as in poems by Tristan Tzara as described in his short text, TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM. Fold-in is the technique of taking two sheets of linear text (with the same linespacing), folding each sheet in half vertically and combining with the other, then reading across the resulting page, such as in The Third Mind. It is a joint development between Burroughs and Brion Gysin. thumb\|upright\|William S. Burroughs, popularizer of the technique William Burroughs cited T. S. Eliot's 1922 poem, The Waste Land, and John Dos Passos' U.S.A. trilogy, which incorporated newspaper clippings, as early examples of the cut ups he popularized. Gysin introduced Burroughs to the technique at the Beat Hotel. The pair later applied the technique to printed media and audio recordings in an effort to decode the material's implicit content, hypothesizing that such a technique could be used to discover the true meaning of a given text. Burroughs also suggested cut-ups may be effective as a form of divination saying, "When you cut into the present the future leaks out." Burroughs also further developed the "fold-in" technique. In 1977, Burroughs and Gysin published The Third Mind, a collection of cut-up writings and essays on the form. Jeff Nuttall's publication My Own Mag was another important outlet for the then-radical technique. In an interview, Alan Burns noted that for Europe After The Rain (1965) and subsequent novels he used a version of cut-ups: "I did not actually use scissors, but I folded pages, read across columns, and so on, discovering for myself many of the techniques Burroughs and Gysin describe". History In literature A precedent of the technique occurred during a Dadaist rally in the 1920s in which Tristan Tzara offered to create a poem on the spot by pulling words at random from a hat. Collage, which was popularized roughly contemporaneously with the Surrealist movement, sometimes incorporated texts such as newspapers or brochures. Prior to this event, the technique had been published in an issue of 391 in the poem by Tzara, dada manifesto on feeble love and bitter love under the sub-title, TO MAKE A DADAIST POEM. A drama scripted for five voices by performance poet Hedwig Gorski in 1977 originated the idea of creating poetry only for performance instead of for print publication. The "neo-verse drama" titled Booby, Mama! written for "guerilla theater" performances in public places used a combination of newspaper cut-ups that were edited and choreographed for a troupe of non-professional street actors. Kathy Acker, a literary and intermedia artist, sampled external sources and reconfigured them into the creation of shifting versions of her own constructed identity. In her late 1970s novel Blood and Guts in High School, Acker explored literary cut-up and appropriation as an integral part of her method. In film Antony Balch and Burroughs created a collaboration film, The Cut-Ups that opened in London in 1967. This was part of an abandoned project called Guerrilla Conditions meant as a documentary on Burroughs and filmed throughout 1961–1965. Inspired by Burroughs' and Gysin's technique of cutting up text and rearranging it in random order, Balch had an editor cut his footage for the documentary into little pieces and impose no control over its reassembly. The film opened at Oxford Street's Cinephone cinema and had a disturbing reaction. Many audience members claimed the film made them ill, others demanded their money back, while some just stumbled out of the cinema ranting "it's disgusting". In music In 1962, the satirical comedy group Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, got their name after using the cut-up technique, resulting in "Bonzo Dog Dada": "Bonzo Dog", after the cartoon Bonzo the Dog, and "Dada" after the Dada avant-garde art movement. The group's eventual frontman, Vivian Stanshall, would quote about wanting to form a band with that name. Thom Yorke applied a similar method in Radiohead's Kid A (2000) album, writing single lines, putting them into a hat, and drawing them out at random while the band rehearsed the songs. Perhaps indicative of Thom Yorke's influences, instructions for "How to make a Dada poem" appeared on Radiohead's website at this time. Stephen Mallinder of Cabaret Voltaire reported to Inpress magazine's Andrez Bergen that "I do think the manipulation of sound in our early days – the physical act of cutting up tapes, creating tape loops and all that – has a strong reference to Burroughs and Gysin." Another industrial music pioneer, Al Jourgensen of Ministry, named Burroughs and his cut-up technique as the most important influence on how he approached the use of samples. Many Elephant 6 bands used decoupe as well, one prominent example of this is seen in "Pree-Sisters Swallowing A Donkey's Eye" by Neutral Milk Hotel. See also Asemic writing Assemblage (composition) Cento (poetry) Dissociated press Found poetry Melitzah Plunderphonics Stochastic parrot Surrealist techniques Vocabularyclept poetry References External links The Ultimate Cut-Up Generator An online version that cuts-up the Internet, a specific URL, or your own text. iOS Cut-ups App An iOS app implementation of cut-ups which mimics the ability to manually rearrange lines of texts as well as input camera-captured, converted text into your cut-ups. UbuWeb: William S. Burroughs featuring a cut-up, K-9 Was in Combat with the Alien Mind-Screens (1965), made with Ian Sommerville The Tristan Tzara Arcade is a collection of Cut-up pieces composed from text found in the public domain. These pieces can be further arranged by the reader using an automated (jQuery script) reTypesetting function (which illustrates how possible variant compositions can be achieved using the Cut-up technique). This Unruly: a repository of video cut-ups featuring video cut-up examples with an accompanying literature review about the practice of video re-mixing, re-purposing, video collage and appropriation techniques. ReorderTV: a critical mixtape of video cut-ups of historically ordered, annotated and curated collection designed to play sequentially from current video remixes to early experimental film examples. Category:Book arts Category:Chaos magic Category:Dada Category:Literary concepts Category:Random text generation Category:Surrealist techniques Category:William S. Burroughs	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut-up_technique	2025-04-05T18:27:48.366326
6352	Congenital iodine deficiency syndrome	Cretin}} ]] Around the world, the most common cause of congenital iodine deficiency syndrome (endemic cretinism) is dietary iodine deficiency. Iodine is an essential trace element, necessary for the synthesis of thyroid hormones. Iodine deficiency is the most common preventable cause of neonatal and childhood brain damage worldwide. Although iodine is found in many foods, it is not universally present in all soils in adequate amounts. Most iodine, in iodide form, is in the oceans, where the iodide ions are reduced to elemental iodine, which then enters the atmosphere and falls to earth in rain, introducing iodine to soils. Soil deficient in iodine is most common inland, in mountainous areas, and in areas of frequent flooding. It can also occur in coastal regions, where iodine might have been removed from the soil by glaciation, as well as leaching by snow, water and heavy rainfall. Plants and animals grown in iodine-deficient soils are correspondingly deficient. Populations living in those areas without outside food sources are most at risk of iodine deficiency diseases. Diagnosis Differential diagnosis Dwarfism may also be caused by malnutrition or other hormonal deficiencies, such as insufficient growth hormone secretion, hypopituitarism, decreased secretion of growth hormone-releasing hormone, deficient growth hormone receptor activity and downstream causes, such as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) deficiency.Prevention There are public health campaigns in many countries which involve iodine administration. As of December 2019, 122 countries have mandatory iodine food fortification programs.TreatmentCongenital iodine deficiency has been almost eliminated in developed countries through iodine supplementation of food and by newborn screening using a blood test for thyroid function. Treatment consists of lifelong administration of thyroxine (T4). Thyroxine must be dosed as tablets only, even to newborns, as the liquid oral suspensions and compounded forms cannot be depended on for reliable dosing. For infants, the T4 tablets are generally crushed and mixed with breast milk, formula milk or water. If the medication is mixed with formulas containing iron or soya products, larger doses may be required, as these substances may alter the absorption of thyroid hormone from the gut. Monitoring TSH blood levels every 2–3 weeks during the first months of life is recommended to ensure that affected infants are at the high end of normal range. History ), copper engraving, 1815]] A goiter is the most specific clinical marker of either the direct or indirect insufficient intake of iodine in the human body. There is evidence of goiter, and its medical treatment with iodine-rich algae and burnt sponges, in Chinese, Egyptian, and Roman ancient medical texts. In 1848, King Carlo Alberto of Sardinia commissioned the first epidemiological study of congenital iodine deficiency syndrome, in northern Savoy where it was frequent. In past centuries, the well reported social diseases prevalent among the poorer social classes and farmers, caused by dietary and agricultural monocultures, were: pellagra, rickets, beriberi, scurvy in long-term sailors, and the endemic goiter caused by iodine deficiency. However, this disease was less mentioned in medical books because it was erroneously considered to be an aesthetic rather than a clinical disorder. Congenital iodine-deficiency syndrome was especially common in areas of southern Europe around the Alps and was often described by ancient Roman writers and depicted by artists. The earliest Alpine mountain climbers sometimes came upon whole villages affected by it. The prevalence of the condition was described from a medical perspective by several travellers and physicians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. At that time the cause was not known and it was often attributed to "stagnant air" in mountain valleys or "bad water". The proportion of people affected varied markedly throughout southern Europe and even within very small areas; it might be common in one valley and not another. The number of severely affected persons was always a minority, and most persons were only affected to the extent of having a goitre and some degree of reduced cognition and growth. The majority of such cases were still socially functional in their pastoral villages. More mildly affected areas of Europe and North America in the 19th century were referred to as "goitre belts". The degree of iodine deficiency was milder and manifested primarily as thyroid enlargement rather than severe mental and physical impairment. In Switzerland, for example, where soil does not contain a large amount of iodine, cases of congenital iodine deficiency syndrome were very abundant and even considered genetically caused. As the variety of food sources dramatically increased in Europe and North America and the populations became less completely dependent on locally grown food, the prevalence of endemic goitre diminished. This is supported by a 1979 WHO publication which concluded that "changes in the origin of food supplies may account for the otherwise unexplained disappearance of endemic goitre from a number of localities during the past 50 years". The early 20th century saw the discovery of the relationships of neurological impairment with hypothyroidism due to iodine deficiency. Both have been largely eliminated in the developed world. Terminology The term cretin was originally used to describe a person affected by this condition, but, as with words such as spastic and lunatic, it underwent pejoration and is now considered derogatory and inappropriate. Cretin became a medical term in the 18th century, from an Occitan and an Alpine French expression, prevalent in a region where persons with such a condition were especially common (see below); it saw wide medical use in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and was a "tick box" category on Victorian-era census forms in the UK. The term spread more widely in popular English as a markedly derogatory term for a person who behaves stupidly. Because of its pejorative connotations in popular speech, current usage among health care professionals has abandoned the noun "cretin" referring to a person. The noun cretinism, referring to the condition, still occurs in medical literature and textbooks but its use is waning.<!--Lit searches in PubMed and other databases bear out this fact. ICD-10 provides an example of the nosologic categorization at E00.9 with "Approximate Synonyms: congenital iodine deficiency syndrome, endemic cretinism".--> The etymology of cretin is uncertain. Several hypotheses exist. The most common derivation provided in English dictionaries is from the Alpine French dialect pronunciation of the word Chrétien ("(a) Christian"), which was a greeting there. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the translation of the French term into "human creature" implies that the label "Christian" is a reminder of the humanity of the affected, in contrast to brute beasts. Other sources suggest that Christian describes the person's "Christ-like" inability to sin, stemming, in such cases, from an incapacity to distinguish right from wrong. Other speculative etymologies have been offered: * From creta, Latin for chalk, because of the pallor of those affected. * From cretira, Grison-Romanche creature, from Latin creatus. * From cretine, French for alluvium (soil deposited by flowing water), an allusion to the condition's suspected origin in inadequate soil. See also *Moron (psychology) References External links \| ICD10 = \| ICD9 = \| ICDO \| OMIM \| MedlinePlus \| eMedicineSubj ped \| eMedicineTopic = 501 \| meshName = Cretinism \| meshNumber = C05.116.099.343.347 }} Category:Congenital disorders Category:Thyroid disease Category:Endocrine-related cutaneous conditions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_iodine_deficiency_syndrome	2025-04-05T18:27:48.382028
6353	Cretin	Cretin may refer to: Cretin (medicine), an archaic term for a patient with congenital iodine deficiency syndrome (cretinism) a pejorative term, similar to idiot Crétin (surname), a french-language surname Education Named after Joseph Crétin Cretin Hall, a residence hall at the University of St. Thomas in Saint Paul, Minnesota Cretin-Derham Hall High School, a co-educational Catholic high school in Minnesota Other Cape Cretin, a headland in the Huon Gulf in Papua New Guinea "Cretin", a song by Revocation from the album Chaos of Forms, 2011 See also Parliamentary cretinism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretin	2025-04-05T18:27:48.384600
6354	Council of Trent	\| image = Concilio Trento Museo Buonconsiglio.jpg \| caption = Council of Trent, painting in the Museo del Palazzo del Buonconsiglio, Trento \| accepted_by = Catholic Church \| previous = Fifth Council of the Lateran \| next = First Vatican Council \| convoked_by = Pope Paul III \| presided_by = \| attendance = About 255 during the final sessions \| topics = Protestantism, Counter-Reformation \| documents = Seventeen dogmatic decrees covering then-disputed aspects of Catholic religion }} The Council of Trent (), held between 1545 and 1563 in Trent (or Trento), now in northern Italy, was the 19th ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation at the time, it has been described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation. It was the last time an ecumenical council was organised outside the city of Rome. The Council issued key statements and clarifications of the Church's doctrine and teachings, including scripture, the biblical canon, sacred tradition, original sin, justification, salvation, the sacraments, the Mass, and the veneration of saints and also issued condemnations of what it defined to be heresies committed by proponents of Protestantism. The consequences of the council were also significant with regard to the Church's liturgy and censorship. The Council met for twenty-five sessions between 13 December 1545 and 4 December 1563. Pope Paul III, who convoked the council, oversaw the first eight sessions (1545–1547), while the twelfth to sixteenth sessions (1551–52) were overseen by Pope Julius III and the seventeenth to twenty-fifth sessions (1562–63) by Pope Pius IV. More than three hundred years passed until the next ecumenical council, the First Vatican Council, was convened in 1869. Background information Obstacles and events before the Council's problem area (1543)]] On 15 March 1517, the Fifth Council of the Lateran closed its activities with a number of reform proposals (on the selection of bishops, taxation, censorship and preaching) but not on the new major problems that confronted the Church in Germany and other parts of Europe. A few months later, on 31 October 1517, Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses in Wittenberg. A general, free council in Germany Luther's position on ecumenical councils shifted over time, but in 1520 he appealed to the German princes to oppose the papal Church at the time, if necessary with a council in Germany, open and free of the Papacy. After the Pope condemned in Exsurge Domine fifty-two of Luther's theses as heresy, German opinion considered a council the best method to reconcile existing differences. German Catholics, diminished in number, hoped for a council to clarify matters. It took a generation for the council to materialise, partly due to papal fears over potentially renewing a schism over conciliarism; partly because Lutherans demanded the exclusion of the papacy from the council; partly because of ongoing political rivalries between France and the Holy Roman Empire; and partly due to the Turkish dangers in the Mediterranean. Under Pope Clement VII (1523–34), mutinous troops many of whom were Lutheran belonging to the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527, "raping, killing, burning, stealing, the like had not been seen since the Vandals". Saint Peter's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses. Pope Clement, fearful of the potential for more violence, delayed calling the council. Occasion, sessions, and attendance in 1588 (Cati da Iesi)]] In the to-and-fro of medieval politics, Pope Pius II, in his bull Execrabilis (1460) and his reply to the University of Cologne (1463), had set aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the Council of Constance, Martin Luther had appealed for a general council, in response to the Papal bull Exsurge Domine of Pope Leo X (1520). In 1522 German diets joined in the appeal, with Charles V seconding and pressing for a council as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the Reformation controversies. Pope Clement VII (1523–34) was vehemently against the idea of a council, agreeing with Francis I of France. Sessions The history of the council is divided into three distinct periods: 1545–1549, 1551–1552 and 1562–1563. The number of attending members in the three periods varied considerably. It increased toward the close, but never reached the number of the First Council of Nicaea (which had 318 members) Pre-council Pope Paul III (1534–1549), seeing that the Protestant Reformation was no longer confined to a few preachers, but had won over various princes, especially in Germany, to its ideas, desired a council. Yet when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was almost unanimously opposed. Nonetheless, he sent nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea. Paul III issued a decree for a general council to be held in Mantua, Italy, to begin on 23 May 1537. Martin Luther wrote the Smalcald Articles in preparation for the general council. The Smalcald Articles were designed to sharply define where the Lutherans could and could not compromise. The council was ordered by the Emperor and Pope Paul III to convene in Mantua on 23 May 1537. It failed to convene after another war broke out between France and Charles V, resulting in a non-attendance of French prelates. Protestants refused to attend as well. Financial difficulties in Mantua led the Pope in the autumn of 1537 to move the council to Vicenza, where participation was poor. The council was postponed indefinitely on 21 May 1539. Pope Paul III then initiated several internal Church reforms while Emperor Charles V convened with Protestants and Cardinal Gasparo Contarini at the Diet of Regensburg, to reconcile differences. Mediating and conciliatory formulations were developed on certain topics. In particular, a two-part doctrine of justification was formulated that would later be rejected at Trent. Unity failed between Catholic and Protestant representatives "because of different concepts of Church and Justification". First period However, the council was delayed until 1545 and, as it happened, convened right before Luther's death. Unable, however, to resist the urging of Charles V, the pope, after proposing Mantua as the place of meeting, convened the council at Trent (at that time ruled by a prince-bishop under the Holy Roman Empire), Second period Reopened at Trent on 1 May 1551 by the convocation of Pope Julius III (1550–1555), it was broken up by the sudden victory of Maurice, Elector of Saxony over Emperor Charles V and his march into surrounding state of Tirol on 28 April 1552. There was no hope of reassembling the council while the very anti-Protestant Paul IV was Pope. The French monarchy boycotted the entire council until the last minute when a delegation led by Charles de Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine finally arrived in November 1562. The first outbreak of the French Wars of Religion had occurred earlier in the year and the French Church, facing a significant and powerful Protestant minority in France, experienced iconoclasm violence regarding the use of sacred images. Such concerns were not primary in the Italian and Spanish Churches. The last-minute inclusion of a decree on sacred images was a French initiative, and the text, never discussed on the floor of the council or referred to council theologians, was based on a French draft. Objectives and overall results The main objectives of the council were twofold: #To condemn the principles and doctrines of Protestantism and to clarify the doctrines of the Catholic Church on all disputed points. This had not been done formally since the 1530 Confutatio Augustana. It is true that the emperor intended it to be a strictly general or truly ecumenical council, at which the Protestants should have a fair hearing. He secured, during the council's second period, 1551–1553, an invitation, twice given, to the Protestants to be present and the council issued a letter of safe conduct (thirteenth session) and offered them the right of discussion, but denied them a vote. Melanchthon and Johannes Brenz, with some other German Lutherans, actually started in 1552 on the journey to Trent. Brenz offered a confession and Melanchthon, who got no farther than Nuremberg, took with him the Confessio Saxonica. But the refusal to give the Protestants the vote and the consternation produced by the success of Maurice in his campaign against Charles V in 1552 effectually put an end to Protestant cooperation. Also, the Bible and church tradition (the tradition that composed part of the Catholic faith) were equally and independently authoritative. * The relationship of faith and works in salvation was defined, following controversy over Martin Luther's doctrine of "justification by faith alone". * Other Catholic practices that had drawn the ire of reformers within the Church, such as indulgences, pilgrimages, the veneration of saints and relics, and the veneration of the Virgin Mary were strongly reaffirmed, though abuses of them were forbidden. Decrees concerning sacred music and religious art, though inexplicit, were subsequently amplified by theologians and writers to condemn many types of Renaissance and medieval styles and iconographies, impacting heavily on the development of these art forms. The doctrinal decisions of the council were set forth in decrees (decreta), which are divided into chapters (capita), which contain the positive statement of the conciliar dogmas, and into short canons (canones), which condemn incorrect views (often a Protestant-associated notion stated in an extreme form) with the concluding anathema sit ("let him be anathema" i.e., excluded from the society of the faithful). In doing so, they commissioned the creation of a revised and standardized Vulgate in light of textual criticism, although this was not achieved until the 1590s. The council also officially affirmed the traditional Catholic Canon of biblical books, which was identical to the canon of Scripture issued by the Council of Rome under Pope Damasus in 382. This was in response to the increasing Protestant exclusion of the deuterocanonical books. the doctrines of purgatory, the invocation of saints and the veneration of relics were reaffirmed, as was also the efficacy of indulgences as dispensed by the Church according to the power given her, but with some cautionary recommendations, Baroque Art is in part a consequence of the Council of Trent more specifically its twenty-fifth session where it emphasized that sacred art should educate the faithful, inspire devotion, and accurately represent biblical narratives. All this led to a renewed focus on emotional engagement and clarity in religious paintings. Due to these new directives, the Catholic Church began to promote baroque art characterized by dramatic compositions, chiaroscuro, and theatrical gestures. The churches adoption of the art style would help to increase its spread of influence. Practical On the language of the Mass, "contrary to what is often said", the council condemned the insistence that only vernacular languages must be used, while affirming on the use of Latin for the Roman rite. However, elements of the Prône, the vernacular catechetical preaching service common in the medieval High Mass (and some extra-liturgical situations) became mandatory for Sundays and feast days (fifth session, chapter 2). The council appointed, in 1562 (eighteenth session), a commission to prepare a list of forbidden books (Index Librorum Prohibitorum), but it later left the matter to the Pope. The preparation of a catechism and the revision of the Breviary and Missal were also left to the pope. No attempt was made to introduce it into England. Pius IV sent the decrees to Mary, Queen of Scots, with a letter dated 13 June 1564, requesting that she publish them in Scotland, but she dared not do it in the face of John Knox and the Reformation. List of doctrinal decrees {\| class="wikitable" \|- !Decree<th>Session</th>!! Date !! Canons !! Chapters </tr> \| The Holy Scriptures \|\| 4 \|\| 8 April 1546 \|\| none \|\| 1 </tr> \| Original sin \|\| 5 \|\| 7 June 1546 \|\| 5 \|\| 4 </tr> \| Justification \|\| 6 \|\| 13 January 1547 \|\| 33 \|\| 16 </tr> \| Sacraments \|\| 7 \|\| 3 March 1547 \|\| 13 \|\| 1 </tr> \| Baptism \|\| 7 \|\| 3 March 1547 \|\| 14 \|\| none </tr> \| Confirmation \|\| 7 \|\| 4 March 1547 \|\| 3 \|\| none </tr> \| Holy Eucharist \|\| 13 \|\| 11 October 1551 \|\| 11 \|\| 8 </tr> \| Penance \|\| 14 \|\| 15 November 1551 \|\| 15 \|\| 15 </tr> \| Extreme Unction \|\| 14 \|\| 4 November 1551 \|\| 4 \|\| 3 </tr> \| Matrimony \|\| 24 \|\| 11 November 1563 \|\| 12 \|\| 10 </tr> \| \|\| 25 \|\| 4 December 1563 \|\| none \|\| 3 </tr> \| Indulgences \|\| 25 \|\| 4 December 1563 \|\| none \|\| 1 </tr> \|} Protestant response Out of 87 books written between 1546 and 1564 attacking the Council of Trent, 41 were written by Pier Paolo Vergerio, a former papal nuncio turned Protestant Reformer. The 1565–73 Examen decretorum Concilii Tridentini (Examination of the Council of Trent) by Martin Chemnitz was the main Lutheran response to the Council of Trent. Making extensive use of scripture and patristic sources, it was presented in response to a polemical writing which Diogo de Payva de Andrada had directed against Chemnitz. The Examen had four parts: Volume I examined sacred scripture, free will, original sin, justification, and good works. Volume II examined the sacraments, including baptism, confirmation, the sacrament of the Eucharist, communion under both kinds, the Mass, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and matrimony. Volume III examined virginity, celibacy, purgatory, and the invocation of saints. Volume IV examined the relics of the saints, images, indulgences, fasting, the distinction of foods, and festivals. In response, Andrada wrote the five-part Defensio Tridentinæ fidei, which was published posthumously in 1578. However, the Defensio did not circulate as extensively as the Examen, nor were full translations initially published. A French translation of the Examen by Eduard Preuss was published in 1861. German translations were published in 1861, 1884, and 1972. In English, a complete translation by Fred Kramer drawing from the original Latin and the 1861 German was published beginning in 1971. See also * Nicolas Psaume, bishop of Verdun * Black Legend (Spain) * Popery * Council of Jerusalem-Bethlehem Notes References * Bühren, Ralf van: Kunst und Kirche im 20. Jahrhundert. Die Rezeption des Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils (Konziliengeschichte, Reihe B: Untersuchungen), Paderborn 2008, * O'Malley, John W., in The Sensuous in the Counter-Reformation Church, Eds: Marcia B. Hall, Tracy E. Cooper, 2013, Cambridge University Press, , [https://books.google.com/books?id-AnYifgRz7QC&pgPA8 google books] * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924029369760/mode/2up James Waterworth (ed.), The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent (1848)] Further reading * (with imprimatur of cardinal Farley) * Paolo Sarpi, Historia del Concilio Tridentino, London: John Bill,1619 (History of the Council of Trent, English translation by Nathaniel Brent, London 1620, 1629 and 1676) * Francesco Sforza Pallavicino, Istoria del concilio di Trento. In Roma, nella stamperia d'Angelo Bernabò dal Verme erede del Manelfi: per Giovanni Casoni libraro, 1656–57 * John W. O'Malley: Trent: What Happened at the Council, Cambridge (Massachusetts), The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2013, * Hubert Jedin: Entstehung und Tragweite des Trienter Dekrets über die Bilderverehrung, in: Tübinger Theologische Quartalschrift 116, 1935, pp. 143–88, 404–429 * Hubert Jedin: Geschichte des Konzils von Trient, 4 vol., Freiburg im Breisgau 1949–1975 (A History of the Council of Trent, 2 vol., London 1957 and 1961) * Hubert Jedin: Konziliengeschichte, Freiburg im Breisgau 1959 * Mullett, Michael A. "The Council of Trent and the Catholic Reformation", in his The Catholic Reformation (London: Routledge, 1999, , pbk.), pp. 29–68. N.B.: The author also mentions the Council elsewhere in his book. * Schroeder, H. J., ed. and trans. The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent: English Translation, trans. [and introduced] by H. J. Schroeder. Rockford, Ill.: TAN Books and Publishers, 1978. N.B.: "The original 1941 edition contained [both] the Latin text and the English translation. This edition contains only the English translation..."; comprises only the council's dogmatic decrees, excluding the purely disciplinary ones. * Mathias Mütel: Mit den Kirchenvätern gegen Martin Luther? Die Debatten um Tradition und auctoritas patrum auf dem Konzil von Trient, Paderborn 2017 (Konziliengeschichte. Reihe B., Untersuchungen) External links * * [http://history.hanover.edu/texts/trent.html The text of the Council of Trent] translated by J. Waterworth, 1848 ([http://www.intratext.com/X/ENG0432.HTM also on Intratext]) * [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_10_1545-1563-_Concilium_Tridentinum.html Documents of the Council in Latin] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121009172137/http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/TRENT.ZIP ZIP version of the documents of the Council of Trent] (archived 9 October 2012) Category:1545 establishments in the Papal States Category:1563 disestablishments in Italy Category:Counter-Reformation Trent Category:Pope Julius III Category:Pope Paul III Category:Pope Pius IV Category:Pope Pius V Trent Category:Prince-Bishopric of Trent	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Trent	2025-04-05T18:27:48.402805
6355	Chloroplast	, a type of moss]] A chloroplast ()}} is a type of organelle known as a plastid that conducts photosynthesis mostly in plant and algal cells. Chloroplasts have a high concentration of chlorophyll pigments which capture the energy from sunlight and convert it to chemical energy and release oxygen. The chemical energy created is then used to make sugar and other organic molecules from carbon dioxide in a process called the Calvin cycle. Chloroplasts carry out a number of other functions, including fatty acid synthesis, amino acid synthesis, and the immune response in plants. The number of chloroplasts per cell varies from one, in some unicellular algae, up to 100 in plants like Arabidopsis and wheat. Chloroplasts are highly dynamic—they circulate and are moved around within cells. Their behavior is strongly influenced by environmental factors like light color and intensity. Chloroplasts cannot be made anew by the plant cell and must be inherited by each daughter cell during cell division, which is thought to be inherited from their ancestor—a photosynthetic cyanobacterium that was engulfed by an early eukaryotic cell. Chloroplasts evolved from an ancient cyanobacterium that was engulfed by an early eukaryotic cell. Because of their endosymbiotic origins, chloroplasts, like mitochondria, contain their own DNA separate from the cell nucleus. With one exception (the amoeboid Paulinella chromatophora), all chloroplasts can be traced back to a single endosymbiotic event. Despite this, chloroplasts can be found in extremely diverse organisms that are not directly related to each other—a consequence of many secondary and even tertiary endosymbiotic events. Discovery and etymology The first definitive description of a chloroplast (Chlorophyllkörnen, "grain of chlorophyll") was given by Hugo von Mohl in 1837 as discrete bodies within the green plant cell. In 1883, Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper named these bodies as "chloroplastids" (Chloroplastiden). In 1884, Eduard Strasburger adopted the term "chloroplasts" (Chloroplasten). The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek words chloros (χλωρός), which means green, and plastes (πλάστης), which means "the one who forms". Endosymbiotic origin of chloroplasts Chloroplasts are one of many types of organelles in photosynthetic eukaryotic cells. They evolved from cyanobacteria through a process called organellogenesis. Cyanobacteria are a diverse phylum of gram-negative bacteria capable of carrying out oxygenic photosynthesis. Like chloroplasts, they have thylakoids. The thylakoid membranes contain photosynthetic pigments, including chlorophyll a. This origin of chloroplasts was first suggested by the Russian biologist Konstantin Mereschkowski in 1905 after Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper observed in 1883 that chloroplasts closely resemble cyanobacteria. and some species of the amoeboid Paulinella. Mitochondria are thought to have come from a similar endosymbiosis event, where an aerobic prokaryote was engulfed. Primary endosymbiosis Rhodophyta (red chloroplasts) The rhodophyte, or red algae, group is a large and diverse lineage. Rhodoplasts have a double membrane with an intermembrane space and phycobilin pigments organized into phycobilisomes on the thylakoid membranes, preventing their thylakoids from stacking. However, since they also contain the blue-green chlorophyll a and other pigments, many are reddish to purple from the combination. This group is also called Viridiplantae, which includes two core clades—Chlorophyta and Streptophyta. Most green chloroplasts are green in color, though some aren't due to accessory pigments that override the green from chlorophylls, such as in the resting cells of Haematococcus pluvialis. Green chloroplasts differ from glaucophyte and red algal chloroplasts in that they have lost their phycobilisomes, and contain chlorophyll b. Chloroplastida lineages also keep their starch inside their chloroplasts. There are some lineages of non-photosynthetic parasitic green algae that have lost their chloroplasts entirely, such as Prototheca, Morphological and physiological similarities, as well as phylogenetics, confirm that these are lineages that ancestrally had chloroplasts but have since lost them. Paulinella chromatophora The photosynthetic amoeboids in the genus Paulinella—P. chromatophora, P. micropora, and marine P. longichromatophora—have the only known independently evolved chloroplast, often called a chromatophore. they were first described in 1894 by German biologist Robert Lauterborn. The chromatophore is highly reduced compared to its free-living cyanobacterial relatives and has limited functions. For example, it has a genome of about 1 million base pairs, one third the size of Synechococcus genomes, and only encodes around 850 proteins. Because chromatophores are much younger compared to the canoncial chloroplasts, Paulinella chromatophora is studied to understand how early chloroplasts evolved. Primarily, secondary chloroplasts derived from green algae are in the euglenids and chlorarachniophytes. They are also found in one lineage of dinoflagellates and possibly the ancestor of the CASH lineage (cryptomonads, alveolates, stramenopiles and haptophytes) Many green algal derived chloroplasts contain pyrenoids, but unlike chloroplasts in their green algal ancestors, storage product collects in granules outside the chloroplast. Euglenophyte chloroplasts have three membranes. It is thought that the membrane of the primary endosymbiont host was lost (e.g. the green algal membrane), leaving the two cyanobacterial membranes and the secondary host's phagosomal membrane. There is also a variant of Pseudoblepharisma tenue that only contains chloroplasts from green algae and no endosymbiotic purple bacteria. Red algal derived chloroplasts Secondary chloroplasts derived from red algae appear to have only been taken up only once, which then diversified into a large group called chromists or chromalveolates. Today they are found in the haptophytes, cryptomonads, heterokonts, dinoflagellates and apicomplexans (the CASH lineage). Cryptophytes Cryptophytes, or cryptomonads, are a group of algae that contain a red-algal derived chloroplast. Cryptophyte chloroplasts contain a nucleomorph that superficially resembles that of the chlorarachniophytes. of Gephyrocapsa oceanica, a haptophyte.]] Haptophytes Haptophytes are similar and closely related to cryptophytes or heterokontophytes. Apicomplexans Apicomplexans are a group of alveolates. Like the helicosproidia, they're parasitic, and have a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast. Dinophytes The dinoflagellates are yet another very large and diverse group, around half of which are at least partially photosynthetic (i.e. mixotrophic). Dinoflagellate chloroplasts have relatively complex history. Most dinoflagellate chloroplasts are secondary red algal derived chloroplasts. Many dinoflagellates have lost the chloroplast (becoming nonphotosynthetic), some of these have replaced it though tertiary endosymbiosis. Others replaced their original chloroplast with a green algal derived chloroplast.]] The most common dinophyte chloroplast is the peridinin-type chloroplast, characterized by the carotenoid pigment peridinin in their chloroplasts, along with chlorophyll a and chlorophyll c''<sub>2</sub>. Fucoxanthin-containing chloroplasts are characterized by having the pigment fucoxanthin (actually 19′-hexanoyloxy-fucoxanthin and/or 19′-butanoyloxy-fucoxanthin) and no peridinin. Fucoxanthin is also found in haptophyte chloroplasts, providing evidence of ancestry. all inside the host's endoplasmic reticulum lumen. Cryptophyte-derived dinophyte chloroplast Members of the genus Dinophysis have a phycobilin-containing Since then, hundreds of chloroplast genomes from various species have been sequenced, but they are mostly those of land plants and green algae—glaucophytes, red algae, and other algal groups are extremely underrepresented, potentially introducing some bias in views of "typical" chloroplast DNA structure and content. Molecular structure With few exceptions, most chloroplasts have their entire chloroplast genome combined into a single large circular DNA molecule, and a mass of about 80–130 million daltons. While chloroplast genomes can almost always be assembled into a circular map, the physical DNA molecules inside cells take on a variety of linear and branching forms. New chloroplasts may contain up to 100 copies of their genome, Chloroplast DNA is usually condensed into nucleoids, which can contain multiple copies of the chloroplast genome. Many nucleoids can be found in each chloroplast. Many chloroplast genomes contain two inverted repeats, which separate a long single copy section (LSC) from a short single copy section (SSC). A given pair of inverted repeats are rarely identical, but they are always very similar to each other, apparently resulting from concerted evolution. Similar inverted repeats exist in the genomes of cyanobacteria and the other two chloroplast lineages (glaucophyta and rhodophyceae), suggesting that they predate the chloroplast.DNA repair and replicationIn chloroplasts of the moss Physcomitrella patens, the DNA mismatch repair protein Msh1 interacts with the recombinational repair proteins RecA and RecG to maintain chloroplast genome stability. In chloroplasts of the plant Arabidopsis thaliana the RecA protein maintains the integrity of the chloroplast's DNA by a process that likely involves the recombinational repair of DNA damage. mechanisms. Adapted from Krishnan NM, Rao BJ's paper "A comparative approach to elucidate chloroplast genome replication."]] The mechanism for chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) replication has not been conclusively determined, but two main models have been proposed. Scientists have attempted to observe chloroplast replication via electron microscopy since the 1970s. The results of the microscopy experiments led to the idea that chloroplast DNA replicates using a double displacement loop (D-loop). As the D-loop moves through the circular DNA, it adopts a theta intermediary form, also known as a Cairns replication intermediate, and completes replication with a rolling circle mechanism. Transcription starts at specific points of origin. Multiple replication forks open up, allowing replication machinery to transcribe the DNA. As replication continues, the forks grow and eventually converge. The new cpDNA structures separate, creating daughter cpDNA chromosomes. In addition to the early microscopy experiments, this model is also supported by the amounts of deamination seen in cpDNA. In cpDNA, there are several A → G deamination gradients. DNA becomes susceptible to deamination events when it is single stranded. When replication forks form, the strand not being copied is single stranded, and thus at risk for A → G deamination. Therefore, gradients in deamination indicate that replication forks were most likely present and the direction that they initially opened (the highest gradient is most likely nearest the start site because it was single stranded for the longest amount of time). It has been established that some plants have linear cpDNA, such as maize, and that more species still contain complex structures that scientists do not yet understand. These genes code for a variety of things, mostly to do with the protein pipeline and photosynthesis. As in prokaryotes, genes in chloroplast DNA are organized into operons. a process called endosymbiotic gene transfer. As a result, the chloroplast genome is heavily reduced compared to that of free-living cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts may contain 60–100 genes whereas cyanobacteria often have more than 1500 genes in their genome. Recently, a plastid without a genome was found, demonstrating chloroplasts can lose their genome during endosymbiotic the gene transfer process. Endosymbiotic gene transfer is how we know about the lost chloroplasts in many CASH lineages. Even if a chloroplast is eventually lost, the genes it donated to the former host's nucleus persist, providing evidence for the lost chloroplast's existence. For example, while diatoms (a heterokontophyte) now have a red algal derived chloroplast, the presence of many green algal genes in the diatom nucleus provide evidence that the diatom ancestor had a green algal derived chloroplast at some point, which was subsequently replaced by the red chloroplast. There have been a few recent transfers of genes from the chloroplast DNA to the nuclear genome in land plants. Recent research indicates that parts of the retrograde signaling network once considered characteristic for land plants emerged already in an algal progenitor, integrating into co-expressed cohorts of genes in the closest algal relatives of land plants. Protein synthesis Protein synthesis within chloroplasts relies on two RNA polymerases. One is coded by the chloroplast DNA, the other is of nuclear origin. The two RNA polymerases may recognize and bind to different kinds of promoters within the chloroplast genome. The ribosomes in chloroplasts are similar to bacterial ribosomes. Protein targeting and import Because so many chloroplast genes have been moved to the nucleus, many proteins that would originally have been translated in the chloroplast are now synthesized in the cytoplasm of the plant cell. These proteins must be directed back to the chloroplast, and imported through at least two chloroplast membranes. Curiously, around half of the protein products of transferred genes aren't even targeted back to the chloroplast. Many became exaptations, taking on new functions like participating in cell division, protein routing, and even disease resistance. A few chloroplast genes found new homes in the mitochondrial genome—most became nonfunctional pseudogenes, though a few tRNA genes still work in the mitochondrion. This polypeptide has four amino acids linked together. At the left is the N-terminus, with its amino (H<sub>2</sub>N) group in green. The blue C-terminus, with its carboxyl group (CO<sub>2</sub>H) is at the right.\|370px\|right\|bottom\|triangle\|#00aa15}} In most, but not all cases, nuclear-encoded chloroplast proteins are translated with a cleavable transit peptide that's added to the N-terminus of the protein precursor. Sometimes the transit sequence is found on the C-terminus of the protein, or within the functional part of the protein. phosphorylates, or adds a phosphate group to many (but not all) of them in their transit sequences. At the same time, they have to keep just enough shape so that they can be recognized by the chloroplast. These proteins also help the polypeptide get imported into the chloroplast. a cup (e.g., Chlamydomonas), a ribbon-like spiral around the edges of the cell (e.g., Spirogyra), or slightly twisted bands at the cell edges (e.g., Sirogonium). Some algae have two chloroplasts in each cell; they are star-shaped in Zygnema, or may follow the shape of half the cell in order Desmidiales. In some algae, the chloroplast takes up most of the cell, with pockets for the nucleus and other organelles, for example, some species of Chlorella have a cup-shaped chloroplast that occupies much of the cell. All chloroplasts have at least three membrane systems—the outer chloroplast membrane, the inner chloroplast membrane, and the thylakoid system. The two innermost lipid-bilayer membranes that surround all chloroplasts correspond to the outer and inner membranes of the ancestral cyanobacterium's gram negative cell wall, and not the phagosomal membrane from the host, which was probably lost. that makes up much of a chloroplast's volume, and in which the thylakoid system floats. </div>}} There are some common misconceptions about the outer and inner chloroplast membranes. The fact that chloroplasts are surrounded by a double membrane is often cited as evidence that they are the descendants of endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. This is often interpreted as meaning the outer chloroplast membrane is the product of the host's cell membrane infolding to form a vesicle to surround the ancestral cyanobacterium—which is not true—both chloroplast membranes are homologous to the cyanobacterium's original double membranes. In addition, in terms of function, the inner chloroplast membrane, which regulates metabolite passage and synthesizes some materials, has no counterpart in the mitochondrion. However, it is not permeable to larger proteins, so chloroplast polypeptides being synthesized in the cell cytoplasm must be transported across the outer chloroplast membrane by the TOC complex, or translocon on the outer chloroplast membrane. They may exist to increase the chloroplast's surface area for cross-membrane transport, because they are often branched and tangled with the endoplasmic reticulum. When they were first observed in 1962, some plant biologists dismissed the structures as artifactual, claiming that stromules were just oddly shaped chloroplasts with constricted regions or dividing chloroplasts. However, there is a growing body of evidence that stromules are functional, integral features of plant cell plastids, not merely artifacts. Intermembrane space and peptidoglycan wall have a peptidoglycan wall between their inner and outer chloroplast membranes.]] Usually, a thin intermembrane space about 10–20 nanometers thick exists between the outer and inner chloroplast membranes. Glaucophyte algal chloroplasts have a peptidoglycan layer between the chloroplast membranes. It corresponds to the peptidoglycan cell wall of their cyanobacterial ancestors, which is located between their two cell membranes. These chloroplasts are called muroplasts (from Latin "mura", meaning "wall"). Other chloroplasts were assumed to have lost the cyanobacterial wall, leaving an intermembrane space between the two chloroplast envelope membranes, Inner chloroplast membrane The inner chloroplast membrane borders the stroma and regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast. After passing through the TOC complex in the outer chloroplast membrane, polypeptides must pass through the TIC complex (translocon on the inner chloroplast membrane) which is located in the inner chloroplast membrane. The chloroplast peripheral reticulum consists of a maze of membranous tubes and vesicles continuous with the inner chloroplast membrane that extends into the internal stromal fluid of the chloroplast. Its purpose is thought to be to increase the chloroplast's surface area for cross-membrane transport between its stroma and the cell cytoplasm. The small vesicles sometimes observed may serve as transport vesicles to shuttle stuff between the thylakoids and intermembrane space. Small subunit ribosomal RNAs in several Chlorophyta and euglenid chloroplasts lack motifs for Shine-Dalgarno sequence recognition, which is considered essential for translation initiation in most chloroplasts and prokaryotes. Such loss is also rarely observed in other plastids and prokaryotes. An additional 4.5S rRNA with homology to the 3' tail of 23S is found in "higher" plants. or when it ages and transitions into a gerontoplast. though in mature chloroplasts, it is rare for a starch granule to be completely consumed or for a new granule to accumulate. Starch granules vary in composition and location across different chloroplast lineages. In red algae, starch granules are found in the cytoplasm rather than in the chloroplast. In plants, mesophyll chloroplasts, which do not synthesize sugars, lack starch granules. and algae contain structures called pyrenoids. They are not found in higher plants. Pyrenoids are roughly spherical and highly refractive bodies which are a site of starch accumulation in plants that contain them. They consist of a matrix opaque to electrons, surrounded by two hemispherical starch plates. The starch is accumulated as the pyrenoids mature. Thylakoid system thumb\|660px\|Scanning transmission electron microscope imaging of a chloroplast<br />(Top) 10-nm-thick STEM tomographic slice of a lettuce chloroplast. Grana stacks are interconnected by unstacked stromal thylakoids, called "stroma lamellae". Round inclusions associated with the thylakoids are plastoglobules. Scalebar200 nm. See. are small interconnected sacks which contain the membranes that the light reactions of photosynthesis take place on. The word thylakoid comes from the Greek word thylakos which means "sack". Suspended within the chloroplast stroma is the thylakoid system, a highly dynamic collection of membranous sacks called thylakoids where chlorophyll is found and the light reactions of photosynthesis happen. Another model known as the 'bifurcation model', which was based on the first electron tomography study of plant thylakoid membranes, depicts the stromal membranes as wide lamellar sheets perpendicular to the grana columns which bifurcates into multiple parallel discs forming the granum-stroma assembly. The helical model was supported by several additional works, but ultimately it was determined in 2019 that features from both the helical and bifurcation models are consolidated by newly discovered left-handed helical membrane junctions. Likely for ease, the thylakoid system is still commonly depicted by older "hub and spoke" models where the grana are connected to each other by tubes of stromal thylakoids. Grana consist of a stacks of flattened circular granal thylakoids that resemble pancakes. Each granum can contain anywhere from two to a hundred thylakoids, partially responsible for giving most cyanobacteria and chloroplasts their color. Other forms of chlorophyll exist, such as the accessory pigments chlorophyll b, chlorophyll c, chlorophyll d, Carotenoids plants evolved a way to solve this—by spatially separating the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. The light reactions, which store light energy in ATP and NADPH, are done in the mesophyll cells of a leaf. The Calvin cycle, which uses the stored energy to make sugar using RuBisCO, is done in the bundle sheath cells, a layer of cells surrounding a vein in a leaf. which they use to make ATP and NADPH, as well as oxygen. They store in a four-carbon compound, which is why the process is called photosynthesis. The four-carbon compound is then transported to the bundle sheath chloroplasts, where it drops off and returns to the mesophyll. Bundle sheath chloroplasts do not carry out the light reactions, preventing oxygen from building up in them and disrupting RuBisCO activity. Mesophyll chloroplasts have a little more peripheral reticulum than bundle sheath chloroplasts. Function and chemistry Guard cell chloroplasts Unlike most epidermal cells, the guard cells of plant stomata contain relatively well-developed chloroplasts. However, exactly what they do is controversial. Plant innate immunity Plants lack specialized immune cells—all plant cells participate in the plant immune response. Chloroplasts, along with the nucleus, cell membrane, and endoplasmic reticulum, are key players in pathogen defense. Due to its role in a plant cell's immune response, pathogens frequently target the chloroplast. help synthesize an important defense molecule, jasmonate. Chloroplasts synthesize all the fatty acids in a plant cell—linoleic acid, a fatty acid, is a precursor to jasmonate. Light reactions The light reactions take place on the thylakoid membranes. They take light energy and store it in NADPH, a form of NADP<sup>+</sup>, and ATP to fuel the dark reactions. Energy carriers ATP is the phosphorylated version of adenosine diphosphate (ADP), which stores energy in a cell and powers most cellular activities. ATP is the energized form, while ADP is the (partially) depleted form. NADP<sup>+</sup> is an electron carrier which ferries high energy electrons. In the light reactions, it gets reduced, meaning it picks up electrons, becoming NADPH. Photophosphorylation Like mitochondria, chloroplasts use the potential energy stored in an H<sup>+</sup>, or hydrogen ion, gradient to generate ATP energy. The two photosystems capture light energy to energize electrons taken from water, and release them down an electron transport chain. The molecules between the photosystems harness the electrons' energy to pump hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space, creating a concentration gradient, with more hydrogen ions (up to a thousand times as many) Because chloroplast ATP synthase projects out into the stroma, the ATP is synthesized there, in position to be used in the dark reactions. NADP<sup>+</sup> reduction Electrons are often removed from the electron transport chains to charge NADP<sup>+</sup> with electrons, reducing it to NADPH. Like ATP synthase, ferredoxin-NADP<sup>+</sup> reductase, the enzyme that reduces NADP<sup>+</sup>, releases the NADPH it makes into the stroma, right where it is needed for the dark reactions. Cyclic photophosphorylation While photosystem II photolyzes water to obtain and energize new electrons, photosystem I simply reenergizes depleted electrons at the end of an electron transport chain. Normally, the reenergized electrons are taken by NADP<sup>+</sup>, though sometimes they can flow back down more H<sup>+</sup>-pumping electron transport chains to transport more hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space to generate more ATP. This is termed cyclic photophosphorylation because the electrons are recycled. Cyclic photophosphorylation is common in plants, which need more ATP than NADPH. Alternatively, glucose monomers in the chloroplast can be linked together to make starch, which accumulates into the starch grains found in the chloroplast. While linked to low photosynthesis rates, the starch grains themselves may not necessarily interfere significantly with the efficiency of photosynthesis, and might simply be a side effect of another photosynthesis-depressing factor. while the stroma is slightly basic, with a pH of around 8. The optimal stroma pH for the Calvin cycle is 8.1, with the reaction nearly stopping when the pH falls below 7.3. Amino acid synthesis Chloroplasts alone make almost all of a plant cell's amino acids in their stroma The chloroplast is known to make the precursors to methionine but it is unclear whether the organelle carries out the last leg of the pathway or if it happens in the cytosol. Other nitrogen compounds Chloroplasts make all of a cell's purines and pyrimidines—the nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA. The carbon used to form the majority of the lipid is from acetyl-CoA, which is the decarboxylation product of pyruvate. Pyruvate is also made in the plastid from phosphoenolpyruvate, a metabolite made in the cytosol from pyruvate or PGA. The typical length of fatty acids produced in the plastid are 16 or 18 carbons, with 0-3 cis double bonds. The biosynthesis of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA primarily requires two enzymes. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase creates malonyl-CoA, used in both the first step and the extension steps of synthesis. Fatty acid synthase (FAS) is a large complex of enzymes and cofactors including acyl carrier protein (ACP) which holds the acyl chain as it is synthesized. The initiation of synthesis begins with the condensation of malonyl-ACP with acetyl-CoA to produce ketobutyryl-ACP. 2 reductions involving the use of NADPH and one dehydration creates butyryl-ACP. Extension of the fatty acid comes from repeated cycles of malonyl-ACP condensation, reduction, and dehydration. A plant cell which contains chloroplasts is known as a chlorenchyma cell. A typical chlorenchyma cell of a land plant contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. In some plants such as cacti, chloroplasts are found in the stems, though in most plants, chloroplasts are concentrated in the leaves. One square millimeter of leaf tissue can contain half a million chloroplasts. This ability to distribute chloroplasts so that they can take shelter behind each other or spread out may be the reason why land plants evolved to have many small chloroplasts instead of a few big ones. Mitochondria have also been observed to follow chloroplasts as they move. In higher plants, chloroplast movement is run by phototropins, blue light photoreceptors also responsible for plant phototropism. In some algae, mosses, ferns, and flowering plants, chloroplast movement is influenced by red light in addition to blue light, or fertilized egg. Proplastids are commonly found in an adult plant's apical meristems. Chloroplasts do not normally develop from proplastids in root tip meristems—instead, the formation of starch-storing amyloplasts is more common. If angiosperm shoots are not exposed to the required light for chloroplast formation, proplastids may develop into an etioplast stage before becoming chloroplasts. An etioplast is a plastid that lacks chlorophyll, and has inner membrane invaginations that form a lattice of tubes in their stroma, called a prolamellar body. While etioplasts lack chlorophyll, they have a yellow chlorophyll precursor stocked. In single-celled algae, chloroplast division is the only way new chloroplasts are formed. There is no proplastid differentiation—when an algal cell divides, its chloroplast divides along with it, and each daughter cell receives a mature chloroplast. Chloroplasts have no definite S-phase—their DNA replication is not synchronized or limited to that of their host cells. Much of what we know about chloroplast division comes from studying organisms like Arabidopsis and the red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolæ. The Min system manages the placement of the Z-ring, ensuring that the chloroplast is cleaved more or less evenly. The protein MinD prevents FtsZ from linking up and forming filaments. Another protein ARC3 may also be involved, but it is not very well understood. These proteins are active at the poles of the chloroplast, preventing Z-ring formation there, but near the center of the chloroplast, MinE inhibits them, allowing the Z-ring to form. Later, the dynamins migrate under the outer plastid dividing ring, into direct contact with the chloroplast's outer membrane, Gymnosperms, such as pine trees, mostly pass on chloroplasts paternally, while flowering plants often inherit chloroplasts maternally. Angiosperms, which pass on chloroplasts maternally, have many ways to prevent paternal inheritance. Most of them produce sperm cells that do not contain any plastids. There are many other documented mechanisms that prevent paternal inheritance in these flowering plants, such as different rates of chloroplast replication within the embryo. Footnotes }} External links * [http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stypelite&keywordchloroplast&SubmitGo&eventdisplay&start=1 Chloroplast – Cell Centered Database] * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720155136/http://www.coextra.eu/projects/project199.html Co-Extra research on chloroplast transformation] * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nuccore/7525012?report=graph NCBI full chloroplast genome] Category:Photosynthesis Category:Plastids Category:Endosymbiotic events	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast	2025-04-05T18:27:48.537877
6357	Camp David	\| gridref \| image_map \| image_mapsize \| image_map_alt \| image_map_caption \| pushpin_map USA Maryland#USA \| pushpin_mapsize \| pushpin_map_alt \| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Maryland##Location in the United States \| pushpin_relief \| pushpin_image \| pushpin_label = Camp David \| pushpin_label_position \| pushpin_mark \| pushpin_marksize \| ownership Department of Defense \| operator = US Navy \| controlledby = Naval District Washington \| open_to_public = No \| site_other_label = <!-- for renaming "Other facilities" in infobox --> \| site_other = <!-- for other sorts of facilities – radar types etc --> \| site_area = <!-- area of site m2, km2 square mile etc --> \| code = <!--facility/installation code, applies to US --> \| built = –1938 \| used = 1938–present<!-- --> \| builder = Works Progress Administration \| materials \| height <!-- height of tallest part, not above sea level --> \| length = <!-- for border fences or other DMZs --> \| fate = <!--changed from demolished parameter--> \| condition \| battles \| events Camp David Accords (1978)<br/>Camp David Summit (2000)<br/>38th G8 summit (2012)<br/><s>46th G7 summit</s> (2020, cancelled) \| current_commander Commander Kimberly I. Mazur \| past_commanders = <!-- past notable commander(s) --> \| garrison = <!-- such as the 25th Bombardment Group --> \| occupants = President of the United States and the First Family \| designations \| website \| footnotes = <!-- catchall in case it's needed to preserve something in infobox that doesn't work in new code --> }} Camp David is a country retreat for the president of the United States. It lies in the wooded hills of Catoctin Mountain Park, in Frederick County, Maryland, near the towns of Thurmont and Emmitsburg, about north-northwest of the national capital city, Washington, D.C. It is code-named Naval Support Facility Thurmont. Technically a military installation, it is staffed primarily by the Seabees, the Civil Engineer Corps (CEC), the United States Navy, and the United States Marine Corps. Naval construction battalions are tasked with Camp David construction and send detachments as needed. Originally known as Hi-Catoctin, Camp David was built as a retreat for federal government agents and their families by the Works Progress Administration. Construction started in 1935 and was completed in 1938. In 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt converted it to a presidential retreat and renamed it "Shangri-La", after the fictional Himalayan paradise. The Catoctin Mountain Park does not indicate the location of Camp David on park maps due to privacy and security concerns, Dwight Eisenhower held his first cabinet meeting there on November 22, 1955, following hospitalization and convalescence he required after a heart attack suffered in Denver, Colorado, on September 24. Eisenhower met Nikita Khrushchev there for two days of discussions in September 1959. John F. Kennedy and his family often enjoyed riding and other recreational activities there, and Kennedy often allowed White House staff and Cabinet members to use the retreat when he or his family were not there. Lyndon B. Johnson met with advisors in this setting and hosted both Australian prime minister Harold Holt and Canadian prime minister Lester B. Pearson there. Richard Nixon was a frequent visitor. He personally directed the construction of a swimming pool and other improvements to Aspen Lodge. Gerald Ford hosted Indonesian president Suharto at Camp David. (left) and Mexican President José López Portillo (right) riding horses in Camp David, Maryland.]] Jimmy Carter initially favored closing Camp David in order to save money, but once he visited the retreat, he decided to keep it. Carter brokered the Camp David Accords there in September 1978 between Egyptian president Anwar al-Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin. Reagan restored the nature trails that Nixon paved over so he could horseback ride at Camp David. George H. W. Bush's daughter, Dorothy Bush Koch, was married there in 1992, in the first wedding held at Camp David. During his tenure as president, Bill Clinton spent every Thanksgiving at Camp David with his family. In July 2000, he hosted the 2000 Camp David Summit negotiations between Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat there. In February 2001, George W. Bush held his first meeting with a European leader, UK prime minister Tony Blair, at Camp David, to discuss missile defense, Iraq, and NATO. After the September 11 attacks, Bush held a Cabinet meeting at Camp David to prepare the United States invasion of Afghanistan. During his two terms in office, Bush visited Camp David 149 times, for a total of 487 days, for hosting foreign visitors as well as a personal retreat. He met Blair there four times. Among the numerous other foreign leaders he hosted at Camp David were Russian president Vladimir Putin and President Musharraf of Pakistan in 2003, Danish prime minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen in June 2006, Barack Obama chose Camp David to host the 38th G8 summit in 2012. President Obama also hosted Russian prime minister Dmitry Medvedev at Camp David, as well as the GCC Summit there in 2015. Donald Trump hosted Senate majority leader Mitch McConnell and Speaker of the House Paul Ryan at Camp David while the Republican Party prepared to defend both houses of Congress in the 2018 midterm elections. Trump also planned to meet with the Taliban at Camp David to negotiate a peace agreement in 2019, but refrained after a suicide bombing in Kabul killed US troops. The 46th G7 summit was to be held at Camp David on June 10–12, 2020, but was cancelled due to health concerns during what was at the time considered the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. Joe Biden hosted the U.S.–Japan–Korea Summit with Japanese prime minister Fumio Kishida and South Korean president Yoon Suk Yeol at Camp David in August 2023, resulting in the declaration of the Camp David Principles on trilateral relations between the U.S., Japan, and South Korea. Count of visits by each president {\| class"wikitable sortable" style="text-align:left;" \|+Presidential visits to Camp David \|- ! President !! No. of visits !Years in office \|- \| Roosevelt \|\| Unknown \|1933–1945 \|- \| Truman \|\| 10 \|1945–1953 \|- \| Eisenhower \|\| 45 \|1953–1961 \|- \| Kennedy \|\| 19 \|1961–1963 \|- \| Johnson \|\| 30 \|1963–1969 \|- \| Nixon \|\| 160 \|1969–1974 \|- \| Ford \|\| 29 \|1974–1977 \|- \| Carter \|\| 99 \|1977–1981 \|- \| Reagan \|\| 189 \|1981–1989 \|- \| G. H. W. Bush \|\| 124 \|1989–1993 \|- \| Clinton \|\| 60 \|1993–2001 \|- \| G. W. Bush \|\| 150 \|2001–2009 \|- \| Obama \|\| 39 \|2009–2017 \|- \| Trump \|\| 15 \|2017–2021 \|- \| Biden \|\| 39 \|2021–2025 \|- \| Trump \|\| 0 \|2025–present \|} Practice golf facility To be able to play his favorite sport, President Eisenhower had golf course architect Robert Trent Jones design a practice golf facility at Camp David. Around 1954, Jones built one golf hole—a par 3—with four different tees; Eisenhower added a driving range near the helicopter landing zone.Security incidentsOn July 2, 2011, an F-15 intercepted a civilian aircraft approximately from Camp David, when President Obama was in the residence. The two-seater, which was out of radio communication, was escorted to nearby Hagerstown, Maryland, without incident. On July 10, 2011, an F-15 intercepted another small plane near Camp David when Obama was again in the residence; a total of three were intercepted that weekend. See also * List of residences of presidents of the United States * Blair House, another official White House lodging for guests * Camp Misty Mount Historic District and Camp Greentop Historic District, built at the same time in Catoctin Mountain Park as Camps1 and2 * Chequers, the country house of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom * Harrington Lake, the retreat of the Prime Minister of Canada * Night of Camp David, a 1965 novel (political thriller) * Official residence * Orange One, a U.S. Navy-operated facility underneath Camp David * Presidential Townhouse, the official guest house for former U.S. presidents * Rapidan Camp, the predecessor of Camp David from 1929 to 1933 * Site R, bunker and communications center near Camp David * Trowbridge House, adjacent to Blair House and the guest house for former presidents * White House, official residence of the president of the United States since 1800 References Works cited <!-- This section is ONLY for books that are cited in footnotes of this Wikipedia article. --> * External links * * [https://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/camp_david.html Digital documents regarding Camp David] from the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Category:Presidential residences in the United States Category:Buildings and structures in Frederick County, Maryland Category:Houses in Frederick County, Maryland Category:South Mountain Range (Maryland−Pennsylvania) Category:Continuity of government in the United States Category:Executive branch of the government of the United States Category:United States Navy installations Category:White House Military Office Category:Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower Category:Works Progress Administration in Maryland Category:Articles containing video clips Category:National Park Service Rustic architecture Category:Rustic architecture in Maryland Category:Houses completed in 1935 Category:Thurmont, Maryland	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_David	2025-04-05T18:27:48.556822
6359	Crux	}} , genitive \| symbolism = Southern Cross \| RA = \| dec= \| family = Hercules \| quadrant = SQ3 \| areatotal = 68 \| arearank = 88th \| numbermainstars = 4 \| numberbfstars = 19 \| numberstarsplanets = 2 \| numberbrightstars = 5 \| numbernearbystars = 0 \| brighteststarname = Acrux (α Cru) \| starmagnitude = 0.87 \| neareststarname = η Cru \| stardistancely = 64.22 \| stardistancepc = 19.69 \| numbermessierobjects = 0 \| meteorshowers = Crucids \| bordering = Centaurus<br />Musca \| latmax = 20 \| latmin = 90 \| month = May \| notes\| main stars 5 }} Crux () is a constellation of the southern sky that is centred on four bright stars in a cross-shaped asterism commonly known as the Southern Cross. It lies on the southern end of the Milky Way's visible band. The name Crux is Latin for cross. Even though it is the smallest of all 88 modern constellations, Crux is among the most easily distinguished as its four main stars each have an apparent visual magnitude brighter than +2.8. It has attained a high level of cultural significance in many Southern Hemisphere states and nations. Blue-white α Crucis (Acrux) is the most southerly member of the constellation and, at magnitude 0.8, the brightest. The three other stars of the cross appear clockwise and in order of lessening magnitude: β Crucis (Mimosa), γ Crucis (Gacrux), and δ Crucis (Imai). ε Crucis (Ginan) also lies within the cross asterism. Many of these brighter stars are members of the Scorpius–Centaurus association, a large but loose group of hot blue-white stars that appear to share common origins and motion across the southern Milky Way. Crux contains four Cepheid variables, each visible to the naked eye under optimum conditions. Crux also contains the bright and colourful open cluster known as the Jewel Box (NGC 4755) on its eastern border. Nearby to the southeast is a large dark nebula spanning 7° by 5° known as the Coalsack Nebula, portions of which are mapped in the neighbouring constellations of Centaurus and Musca. History The bright stars in Crux were known to the Ancient Greeks, where Ptolemy regarded them as part of the constellation Centaurus. They were entirely visible as far north as Britain in the fourth millennium BC. However, the precession of the equinoxes gradually lowered the stars below the European horizon, and they were eventually forgotten by the inhabitants of northern latitudes. By 400 AD, the stars in the constellation now called Crux never rose above the horizon throughout most of Europe. Dante may have known about the constellation in the 14th century, as he describes an asterism of four bright stars in the southern sky in his Divine Comedy. His description, however, may be allegorical, and the similarity to the constellation a coincidence. in May 1500]] The 15th century Venetian navigator Alvise Cadamosto made note of what was probably the Southern Cross on exiting the Gambia River in 1455, calling it the ''carro dell'ostro'' ("southern chariot"). However, Cadamosto's accompanying diagram was inaccurate. Historians generally credit João Faras for being the first European to depict it correctly. Faras sketched and described the constellation (calling it "las guardas") in a letter written on the beaches of Brazil on 1 May 1500 to the Portuguese monarch. Explorer Amerigo Vespucci seems to have observed not only the Southern Cross but also the neighboring Coalsack Nebula on his second voyage in 1501–1502. Another early modern description clearly describing Crux as a separate constellation is attributed to Andrea Corsali, an Italian navigator who from 1515 to 1517 sailed to China and the East Indies in an expedition sponsored by King Manuel I. In 1516, Corsali wrote a letter to the monarch describing his observations of the southern sky, which included a rather crude map of the stars around the south celestial pole including the Southern Cross and the two Magellanic Clouds seen in an external orientation, as on a globe. Emery Molyneux and Petrus Plancius have also been cited as the first uranographers (sky mappers) to distinguish Crux as a separate constellation; their representations date from 1592, the former depicting it on his celestial globe and the latter in one of the small celestial maps on his large wall map. Both authors, however, depended on unreliable sources and placed Crux in the wrong position. Crux was first shown in its correct position on the celestial globes of Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondius in 1598 and 1600. Its stars were first catalogued separately from Centaurus by Frederick de Houtman in 1603. The constellation was later adopted by Jakob Bartsch in 1624 and Augustin Royer in 1679. Royer is sometimes wrongly cited as initially distinguishing Crux. Characteristics Crux is bordered by the constellations Centaurus (which surrounds it on three sides) on the east, north and west, and Musca to the south. Covering 68 square degrees and 0.165% of the night sky, it is the smallest of the 88 constellations. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Cru". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of four segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −55.68° and −64.70°. Its totality figures at least part of the year south of the 25th parallel north. They are among the highest-mass stellar members of the Lower Centaurus–Crux subgroup of the association, with ages of roughly 10 to 20 million years. Other members include the blue-white stars Zeta, Lambda and both the components of the visual double star, Mu.Variable stars Crux contains many variable stars. It boasts four Cepheid variables that may all reach naked eye visibility. * BG Crucis ranges from magnitude 5.34 to 5.58 over 3.3428 days, * T Crucis ranges from 6.32 to 6.83 over 6.73331 days, * S Crucis ranges from 6.22 to 6.92 over 4.68997 days, * R Crucis ranges from 6.4 to 7.23 over 5.82575 days. Other well studied variable stars includes: * Lambda Crucis and Theta<sup>2</sup> Crucis, that are both Beta Cepheid type variable stars. Discovered in October 1969, it has become redder and brighter (mean magnitude changing from 8.047 to 7.762) and its period lengthened by 25% in the first thirty years since its discovery.Host star exoplanets in CruxThe star HD 106906 has been found to have a planet—HD 106906 b—that has one of the widest orbits of any currently known planetary-mass companions.Objects beyond the Local Arm Crux is backlit by the multitude of stars of the Scutum-Crux Arm (more commonly called the Scutum-Centaurus Arm) of the Milky Way. This is the main inner arm in the local radial quarter of the galaxy. Part-obscuring this is: * The Coalsack Nebula lies partially within Crux and partly in the neighboring constellations of Musca and Centaurus. It is the most prominent dark nebula in the skies, and is easily visible to the naked eye as a prominent dark patch in the southern Milky Way. It can be found 6.5° southeast from the centre of Crux or 3° east from α Crucis. Its large area covers about 7° by 5°, and is away from Earth. A key feature of the Scutum-Crux Arm is: * The Jewel Box, κ Crucis Cluster or NGC 4755, is a small but bright open cluster that appears as a fuzzy star to the naked eye and is very close to the easternmost boundary of Crux: about 1° southeast of Beta Crucis. The combined or total magnitude is 4.2 and it lies at a distance of from Earth. The cluster was given its name by John Herschel, based on the range of colours visible throughout the star cluster in his telescope. About seven million years old, it is one of the youngest open clusters in the Milky Way, and it appears to have the shape of a letter 'A'. The Jewel Box Cluster is classified as Shapley class 'g' and Trumpler class 'I 3 r -' cluster; it is a very rich, centrally-concentrated cluster detached from the surrounding star field. It has more than 100 stars that range significantly in brightness. The brightest cluster stars are mostly blue supergiants, though the cluster contains at least one red supergiant. Kappa Crucis is a true member of the cluster that bears its name, and is one of the brighter stars at magnitude 5.9.Cultural significanceThe most prominent feature of Crux is the distinctive asterism known as the Southern Cross. It has great significance in the cultures of the southern hemisphere, particularly of Australia, Brazil, Chile and New Zealand.Flags and symbols Several southern countries and organisations have traditionally used Crux as a national or distinctive symbol. The four or five brightest stars of Crux appear, heraldically standardised in various ways, on the flags of Australia, Brazil, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and Samoa. They also appear on the flags of the Australian state of Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, the Northern Territory, as well as the flag of Magallanes Region of Chile, the flag of Londrina (Brazil) and several Argentine provincial flags and emblems (for example, Tierra del Fuego and Santa Cruz). The flag of the Mercosur trading zone displays the four brightest stars. Crux also appears on the Brazilian coat of arms and, , on the cover of Brazilian passports. Five stars appear in the logo of the Brazilian football team Cruzeiro Esporte Clube and in the insignia of the Order of the Southern Cross, and the cross has featured as name of the Brazilian currency (the cruzeiro from 1942 to 1986 and again from 1990 to 1994). All coins of the (1998) series of the Brazilian real display the constellation. ]] Songs and literature reference the Southern Cross, including the Argentine epic poem Martín Fierro. The Argentinian singer Charly García says that he is "from the Southern Cross" in the song "No voy en tren". The Cross gets a mention in the lyrics of the Brazilian National Anthem (1909): "A imagem do Cruzeiro resplandece" ("the image of the Cross shines"). The Southern Cross is mentioned in the Australian National Anthem, "''Beneath our radiant Southern Cross we'll toil with hearts and hands" The Southern Cross features in the coat of arms of William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood, the British officer who commanded the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War. The Southern Cross is also mentioned in the Samoan National Anthem. "Vaai 'i na fetu o lo'u a agiagia ai: Le faailoga lea o Iesu, na maliu ai mo Samoa." ("Look at those stars that are waving on it: This is the symbol of Jesus, who died on it for Samoa.") The 1952-53 NBC Television Series Victory At Sea'' contained a musical number entitled "Beneath the Southern Cross". "Southern Cross" is a single released by Crosby, Stills and Nash in 1981. It reached #18 on Billboard Hot 100 in late 1982. "The Sign of the Southern Cross" is a song released by Black Sabbath in 1981. The song was released on the album "Mob Rules". The Order of the Southern Cross is a Brazilian order of chivalry awarded to "those who have rendered significant service to the Brazilian nation". In "O Sweet Saint Martin's Land", the lyrics mention the Southern Cross: Thy Southern Cross the night. A stylized version of Crux appears on the Australian Eureka Flag. The constellation was also used on the dark blue, shield-like patch worn by personnel of the U.S. Army's Americal Division, which was organized in the Southern Hemisphere, on the island of New Caledonia, and also on the blue diamond of the U.S. 1st Marine Division, which fought on the Southern Hemisphere islands of Guadalcanal and New Britain. The Petersflagge flag of the German East Africa Company of 1885–1920, which included a constellation of five white five-pointed Crux "stars" on a red ground, later served as the model for symbolism associated with generic German colonial-oriented organisations: the Reichskolonialbund of 1936–1943 and the (1956/1983 to the present). Southern Cross station is a major rail terminal in Melbourne, Australia. The Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of the Southern Cross is a personal ordinariate of the Roman Catholic Church primarily within the territory of the Australian Catholic Bishops Conference for groups of Anglicans who desire full communion with the Catholic Church in Australia and Asia. The Knights of the Southern Cross (KSC) is a Catholic fraternal order throughout Australia. Various cultures In India, there is a story related to the creation of Trishanku Swarga (त्रिशंकु), meaning Cross (Crux), created by Sage Vishwamitra. In Chinese, (), meaning Cross, refers to an asterism consisting of γ Crucis, α Crucis, β Crucis and δ Crucis. In Australian Aboriginal astronomy, Crux and the Coalsack mark the head of the 'Emu in the Sky' (which is seen in the dark spaces rather than in the patterns of stars) in several Aboriginal cultures, while Crux itself is said to be a possum sitting in a tree (Boorong people of the Wimmera region of northwestern Victoria), a representation of the sky deity Mirrabooka (Quandamooka people of Stradbroke Island), a stingray (Yolngu people of Arnhem Land), or an eagle (Kaurna people of the Adelaide Plains). Two Pacific constellations also included Gamma Centauri. Torres Strait Islanders in modern-day Australia saw Gamma Centauri as the handle and the four stars as the left hand of Tagai, and the stars of Musca as the trident of the fishing spear he is holding. In Aranda traditions of central Australia, the four Cross stars are the talon of an eagle and Gamma Centauri as its leg. Various peoples in the East Indies and Brazil viewed the four main stars as the body of a ray. In both Indonesia and Malaysia, it is known as Bintang Pari and Buruj Pari, respectively ("ray stars"). This aquatic theme is also shared by an archaic name of the constellation in Vietnam, where it was once known as sao Cá Liệt (the ponyfish star). Among Filipino people, the southern cross have various names pertaining to tops, including kasing (Visayan languages), paglong (Bikol), and pasil (Tagalog). It is also called butiti (puffer fish) in Waray. The Javanese people of Indonesia called this constellation Gubug pèncèng ("raking hut") or lumbung ("the granary"), because the shape of the constellation was like that of a raking hut. The Southern Cross (α, β, γ and δ Crucis) together with μ Crucis is one of the asterisms used by Bugis sailors for navigation, called bintoéng bola képpang, meaning "incomplete house star" The Māori name for the Southern Cross is Māhutonga and it is thought of as the anchor (Te Punga) of Tama-rereti's waka (the Milky Way), while the Pointers are its rope. In Tonga it is known as Toloa ("duck"); it is depicted as a duck flying south, with one of his wings (δ Crucis) wounded because Ongo tangata ("two men", α and β Centauri) threw a stone at it. The Coalsack is known as Humu (the "triggerfish"), because of its shape. In Samoa the constellation is called Sumu ("triggerfish") because of its rhomboid shape, while α and β Centauri are called Luatagata (Two Men), just as they are in Tonga. The peoples of the Solomon Islands saw several figures in the Southern Cross. These included a knee protector and a net used to catch Palolo worms. Neighboring peoples in the Marshall Islands saw these stars as a fish. Peninsular Malays also see the likeness of a fish in the Crux, particularly the Scomberomorus or its local name Tohok. Alpha and Beta Crucis make up one foot of the Great Rhea, a constellation encompassing Centaurus and Circinus along with the two bright stars. The Great Rhea was a constellation of the Bororo of Brazil. The Mocoví people of Argentina also saw a rhea including the stars of Crux. Their rhea is attacked by two dogs, represented by bright stars in Centaurus and Circinus. The dogs' heads are marked by Alpha and Beta Centauri. The rhea's body is marked by the four main stars of Crux, while its head is Gamma Centauri and its feet are the bright stars of Musca. The Bakairi people of Brazil had a sprawling constellation representing a bird snare. It included the bright stars of Crux, the southern part of Centaurus, Circinus, at least one star in Lupus, the bright stars of Musca, Beta and the optical double star Delta<sup>1,2</sup> Chamaeleontis: and some of the stars of Volans, and Mensa. The Kalapalo people of Mato Grosso state in Brazil saw the stars of Crux as Aganagi angry bees having emerged from the Coalsack, which they saw as the beehive. Among Tuaregs, the four most visible stars of Crux are considered iggaren, i.e. four Maerua crassifolia trees. The Tswana people of Botswana saw the constellation as Dithutlwa, two giraffes – Alpha and Beta Crucis forming a male, and Gamma and Delta forming the female. See also * Trishanku * Northern Cross * Crux (Chinese astronomy) Notes References ;Citations ;Sources * * * * * External links * [http://www.dibonsmith.com/downunder.htm Finding the South Pole in the sky] * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/crux.htm The clickable Crux] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081014150915/http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/Astronomy/SouthernCross/en Southern Cross] in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand * [http://archival.sl.nsw.gov.au/Details/archive/110324148 Andrea Corsali – Letter to Giuliano de Medici, 1516 showing the Southern Cross] at the State Library of NSW * [http://nla.gov.au/nla.ms-ms7860 Letter of Andrea Corsali 1516–1989: with additional material] ("the first description and illustration of the Southern Cross, with speculations about Australia ...") digitised by the National Library of Australia. * [https://classicalpoets.org/2024/02/12/the-southern-cross-a-poem-by-adam-sedia/ 'The Southern Cross': A Poem by Adam Sedia] Category:National symbols of Australia Category:National symbols of Brazil Category:National symbols of New Zealand Category:National symbols of Papua New Guinea Category:National symbols of Samoa Category:Southern constellations Category:Heraldic charges Category:Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crux	2025-04-05T18:27:48.582165
6360	Cepheus	Cepheus (Ancient Greek: Κηφεύς Kepheús) may refer to: In Greek mythology Cepheus (father of Andromeda), and King of Aethiopia Cepheus (son of Aleus), a king of Tegea, Arcadia In astronomy Cepheus (constellation), one of the 88 modern constellations Cepheus (crater), a lunar impact crater In Computing Cepheus (poker bot) In modern fiction Cepheus Daidalos, a fictional character in the manga and anime, Saint Seiya Cepheus, the FM king in Mega Man Star Force In the Galaxy Railways, one of the squads is named the Cepheus Platoon. Other uses USS Cepheus (AKA-18), an Andromeda class attack cargo ship	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cepheus	2025-04-05T18:27:48.584894
6361	Cassiopeia	Cassiopeia or Cassiopea may refer to: Greek mythology Cassiopeia (mother of Andromeda), queen of Aethiopia and mother of Andromeda Cassiopeia (wife of Phoenix), wife of Phoenix, king of Phoenicia Cassiopeia, wife of Epaphus, king of Egypt, the son of Zeus and Io; mother of Libya Science Cassiopeia (constellation), a northern constellation representing the queen of Ethiopia Cassiopeia A, a supernova remnant in that constellation Cassiopea, the genus of the "upside-down" jellyfish Arts and entertainment Film Cassiopeia (1996 film), a Brazilian CGI film Cassiopeia (2022 film), a South Korean film Music Cassiopeia (TVXQ), the fan club of South Korean boy band TVXQ "Cassiopeia", a song by Shabütie (now known as Coheed and Cambria) from their 1999 EP The Penelope EP "Cassiopeia", a song by Joanna Newsom from her 2004 album The Milk-Eyed Mender "Cassiopeia", a song by Dragonland from their 2006 album Astronomy "Cassiopeia", a song by Sunny Lax from his 2006 EP P.U.M.A./Cassiopeia "Cassiopeia", a song by Rain from his 2006 album Rain's World "Cassiopeia", a song by Sara Bareilles from her 2013 album The Blessed Unrest "Cassiopeia", a 2023 single by Bears in Trees Fictional characters Cassiopeia "Cassie" Sullivan, in The 5th Wave series written by Rick Yancey Cassiopeia, a magical tortoise in Michael Ende's fantasy novel Momo Cassiopeia (Battlestar Galactica), from the television series Battlestar Galactica Cassiopea (Encantadia), the first Queen of Lireo in the Encantadia fantasy series of GMA Network Cassiopeia, the mother of Octavian in The Astonishing Life of Octavian Nothing Cassiopeia, the organizer and leader of "Operation Starfall" in the Starfall Street storyline in Pokémon Scarlet and Violet Other Casio Cassiopeia, a series of pocket PCs Cassiopeia (train), an overnight rail service in Japan USS Cassiopeia (AK-75), a cargo ship used by the United States Navy in World War II See also Boast of Cassiopeia Casiopea, Japanese jazz fusion group Casiopea (album), the group's 1979 debut album Kassiopi, a village in Corfu	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiopeia	2025-04-05T18:27:48.588744
6362	Cetus	, genitive \| symbolism = the Whale, Shark, or Sea Monster \| RA – \| dec– The Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex is a galaxy filament that is one of the largest known structures in the observable Universe; it contains the Virgo supercluster which contains the Local Group of Milky Way and other galaxies. The massive cD galaxy Holmberg 15A is also found in Cetus; as are the spiral galaxy NGC 1042, the elliptical galaxy NGC 1052 and the ultra-diffuse galaxy NGC 1052-DF2. IC 1613 (Caldwell 51) is an irregular dwarf galaxy near the star 26 Ceti and is a member of the Local Group. NGC 246 (Caldwell 56), also called the "Cetus Ring", is a planetary nebula with a magnitude of 8.0 at 1600 light-years from Earth. Among some amateur astronomers, NGC 246 has garnered the nickname "Pac-Man Nebula" because of the arrangement of its central stars and the surrounding star field. The Wolf–Lundmark–Melotte (WLM) is a barred irregular galaxy discovered in 1909 by Max Wolf, located on the outer edges of the Local Group. The discovery of the nature of the galaxy was accredited to Knut Lundmark and Philibert Jacques Melotte in 1926. UGC 1646, which is a spiral galaxy, also lies between the borders of the constellation. It is about 150 million light-years away from us. It can be seen near TYC 43-234-1 star. History and mythology '' (1825) as if looking up towards the celestial sphere (east is left of frame). Uses the modern custom: celestial maps to be held skywards while facing south.]] Cetus may have originally been associated with a whale, which would have had mythic status amongst Mesopotamian cultures. It is often now called the Whale, though it is most strongly associated with Cetus the sea-monster, who was slain by Perseus as he saved the princess Andromeda from Poseidon's wrath. It is in the middle of "The Sea" recognised by mythologists, a set of water-associated constellations, its other members being Eridanus, Pisces, Piscis Austrinus and Aquarius. Cetus has been depicted in many ways throughout its history. In the 17th century, Cetus was depicted as a "dragon fish" by Johann Bayer, while both Willem Blaeu and Andreas Cellarius depicted Cetus as a whale-like creature in the same century. However, Cetus has also been variously depicted with animal heads attached to a piscine body.<ref name"staal"/>In global astronomy In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Cetus are found among two areas: the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ) and the White Tiger of the West (西方白虎, Xī Fāng Bái Hǔ). The Tukano and Kobeua people of the Amazon used the stars of Cetus to create a jaguar, representing the god of hurricanes and other violent storms. Lambda, Mu, Xi, Nu, Gamma, and Alpha Ceti represented its head; Omicron, Zeta, and Chi Ceti represented its body; Eta Eri, Tau Cet, and Upsilon Cet marked its legs and feet; and Theta, Eta, and Beta Ceti delineated its tail.<ref name="staal"/> In Hawaii, the constellation was called Na Kuhi, and Mira (Omicron Ceti) may have been called Kane.NamesakesUSS Cetus (AK-77) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship named after the constellation.See also * Cetus (Chinese astronomy) * Book of Jonah References Bibliography * * * * Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. . Princeton University Press, Princeton. * External links * * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/cetus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cetus] * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/cetus.htm The clickable Cetus] * [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/cetus.html Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Cetus] * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017081 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Cetus)] Category:Constellations Category:Equatorial constellations Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy Category:Fictional cetaceans Category:Legendary mammals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetus	2025-04-05T18:27:48.597466
6363	Carina (constellation)	, genitive \| dec to Lacaille kept a single set of Greek letters for the whole of Argo, and separate sets of Latin letter designations for each of the three sections. Therefore, Carina has the α, β and ε, Vela has γ and δ, Puppis has ζ, and so on. Notable features Stars Carina contains Canopus, a white-hued supergiant that is the second-brightest star in the night sky at magnitude −0.72. Alpha Carinae, as Canopus is formally designated, is 313 light-years from Earth. Its traditional name comes from the mythological Canopus, who was a navigator for Menelaus, king of Sparta. There are several other stars above magnitude 3 in Carina. Beta Carinae, traditionally called Miaplacidus, is a blue-white-hued star of magnitude 1.7, 111 light-years from Earth. Epsilon Carinae is an orange-hued giant star similarly bright to Miaplacidus at magnitude 1.9; it is 630 light-years from Earth. Another fairly bright star is the blue-white-hued Theta Carinae; it is a magnitude 2.7 star 440 light-years from Earth. Theta Carinae is also the most prominent member of the cluster IC 2602. Iota Carinae is a white-hued supergiant star of magnitude 2.2, 690 light-years from Earth. Eta Carinae is the most prominent variable star in Carina, with a mass of approximately 100 solar masses and 4 million times as bright as the Sun. It was first discovered to be unusual in 1677, when its magnitude suddenly rose to 4, attracting the attention of Edmond Halley. Eta Carinae is inside NGC 3372, commonly called the Carina Nebula. It had a long outburst in 1827, when it brightened to magnitude 1, only fading to magnitude 1.5 in 1828. Its most prominent outburst made Eta Carinae the equal of Sirius; it brightened to magnitude −1.5 in 1843. In the decades following 1843 it appeared relatively placid, having a magnitude between 6.5 and 7.9. However, in 1998, it brightened again, though only to magnitude 5.0, a far less drastic outburst. Eta Carinae is a binary star, with a companion that has a period of 5.5 years; the two stars are surrounded by the Homunculus Nebula, which is composed of gas that was ejected in 1843. There are several less prominent variable stars in Carina. l Carinae is a Cepheid variable noted for its brightness; it is the brightest Cepheid that is variable to the unaided eye. It is a yellow-hued supergiant star with a minimum magnitude of 4.2 and a maximum magnitude of 3.3; it has a period of 35.5 days. V382 Carinae is a yellow hypergiant, one of the rarest types of stars. It is a slow irregular variable, with a minimum magnitude of 4.05 and a maximum magnitude of 3.77. As a hypergiant, V382 Carinae is a luminous star, with 212,000 times more luminosity than the Sun and over 480 times the Sun's size. Two bright Mira variable stars are in Carina: R Carinae and S Carinae; both stars are red giants. R Carinae has a minimum magnitude of 10.0 and a maximum magnitude of 4.0. Its period is 309 days and it is 416 light-years from Earth. S Carinae is similar, with a minimum magnitude of 10.0 and a maximum magnitude of 5.0. However, S Carinae has a shorter period—150 days, though it is much more distant at 1,300 light-years from Earth. Carina is home to several double stars and binary stars. Upsilon Carinae is a binary star with two blue-white-hued giant components, 1,600 light-years from Earth. The primary is of magnitude 3.0 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0; the two components are distinguishable in a small amateur telescope. Two asterisms are prominent in Carina. The 'Diamond Cross' is composed of the stars Beta, Theta, Upsilon and Omega Carinae. The Diamond Cross is visible south of 20ºN latitude, and is larger but fainter than the Southern Cross in Crux. Flanking the Diamond Cross is the False cross, composed of four stars - two stars in Carina, Iota Carinae and Epsilon Carinae, and two stars in Vela, Kappa Velorum and Delta Velorum - and is often mistaken for the Southern Cross, causing errors in astronavigation. Deep-sky objects Carina is known for its namesake nebula, NGC 3372, discovered by French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in 1751, which contains several nebulae. The Carina Nebula overall is an extended emission nebula approximately 8,000 light-years away and 300 light-years wide that includes vast star-forming regions.}} It has an overall magnitude of 8.0 and an apparent diameter of over 2 degrees. Its central region is called the Keyhole, or the Keyhole Nebula. This was described in 1847 by John Herschel, and likened to a keyhole by Emma Converse in 1873. The Keyhole is about seven light-years wide and is composed mostly of ionized hydrogen, with two major star-forming regions. The Homunculus Nebula is a planetary nebula visible to the naked eye that is being ejected by the erratic luminous blue variable star Eta Carinae, the most massive visible star known. Eta Carinae is so massive that it has reached the theoretical upper limit for the mass of a star and is therefore unstable. It is known for its outbursts; in 1840 it briefly became one of the brightest stars in the sky due to a particularly massive outburst, which largely created the Homunculus Nebula. Because of this instability and history of outbursts, Eta Carinae is considered a prime supernova candidate for the next several hundred thousand years because it has reached the end of its estimated million-year life span.}} NGC 2516 is an open cluster that is both quite large (approximately half a degree square) and bright, visible to the unaided eye. Namesakes was a United States Navy Crater-class cargo ship named after the constellation. the Toyota Carina was named after it. See also * Carina in Chinese astronomy * List of brightest stars References ;Secondary sources * * * }} * External links * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/crux/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Carina] * [http://www.starrynightphotos.com/constellations/carina.htm Starry Night Photography: Carina] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081408/http://www.willig.net/Images/Astronomy/Pages/Nebulae.html#4 Eta Carina Nebula by Thomas Willig] * [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/carina.html Star Tales – Carina] * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/carina.htm The clickable Carina] * [https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20090219/sc_afp/sciencespaceastronomy Huge gamma-ray blast seen 12.2 billion light-years from Earth] Category:Constellations Category:Southern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Lacaille	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carina_(constellation)	2025-04-05T18:27:48.609220
6364	Camelopardalis	\| genitive Camelopardalis \| pronounce = , genitive the same \| symbolism Giraffe \| RA – \| dec– Some older astronomy books give Camelopardalus or Camelopardus as alternative forms of the name, but the version recognized by the International Astronomical Union matches the genitive form, seen suffixed to most of its key stars. Etymology First attested in English in 1785, the word camelopardalis comes from Latin, and it is the romanization of the Greek "καμηλοπάρδαλις" meaning "giraffe", from "κάμηλος" (kamēlos), "camel" + "πάρδαλις" (pardalis), "spotted", because it has a long neck like a camel and spots like a leopard. Features Stars Although Camelopardalis is the 18th largest constellation, it is not a particularly bright constellation, as the brightest stars are only of fourth magnitude. In fact, it only contains four stars brighter than magnitude 5.0. α Cam is a blue-hued supergiant star of magnitude 4.3, over 6,000 light-years from Earth. It is one of the most distant stars easily visible with the naked eye. β Cam is the brightest star in Camelopardalis with an apparent magnitude of 4.03. This star is a double star, with components of magnitudes 4.0 and 8.6. The primary is a yellow-hued supergiant 1000 light-years from Earth. 11 Cam is a star of magnitude 5.2, 650 light-years from Earth. It appears without intense magnification very close to magnitude 6.1 12 Cam, at about the same distance from us, but the two are not a true double star; they have considerable separation. Σ 1694 (Struve 1694, 32H Cam) is a binary star 300 light-years from Earth. Both components have a blue-white hue; the primary is of magnitude 5.4 and the secondary is of magnitude 5.9. CS Cam is the second brightest star, though it has neither a Bayer nor a Flamsteed designation. It is of magnitude 4.21 and is slightly variable. Z Cam (varying from amateur telescope visibility to extremely faint) is frequently observed as part of a program of AAVSO. It is the prototype of Z Camelopardalis variable stars. Other variable stars are U Camelopardalis, VZ Camelopardalis, and Mira variables T Camelopardalis, X Camelopardalis, and R Camelopardalis. RU Camelopardalis is one of the brighter Type II Cepheids visible in the night sky. In 2011 a supernova was discovered in the constellation. Deep-sky objects Camelopardalis is in the part of the celestial sphere facing away from the galactic plane. Accordingly, many distant galaxies are visible within its borders. * NGC 2403 is a galaxy in the M81 group of galaxies, located approximately 12 million light-years from Earth with a redshift of 0.00043. It is classified as being between an elliptical and a spiral galaxy because it has faint arms and a large central bulge. NGC 2403 was first discovered by the 18th century astronomer William Herschel, who was working in England at the time. It has an integrated magnitude of 8.0 and is approximately 0.25° long. * NGC 1502 is a magnitude 6.9 open cluster about 3,000 light years from Earth. It has about 45 bright members, and features also a double star of magnitude 7.0 at its center. NGC 1502 is also associated with Kemble's Cascade, a simple but beautiful asterism appearing in the sky as a chain of stars 2.5° long that is parallel to the Milky Way and is pointed towards Cassiopeia. * NGC 1501 is a planetary nebula located roughly 1.4° south of NGC 1502. * Stock 23 is an open star cluster at the southern part of the border between Camelopardalis and Cassiopeia. It is also known as ''Pazmino's Cluster. It could be categorized as an asterism because of the small number of stars in it (a small telescopic constellation). * IC 342 is one of the brightest two galaxies in the IC 342/Maffei Group of galaxies. * The dwarf irregular galaxy NGC 1569 is a magnitude 11.9 starburst galaxy, about 11 million light years away. * NGC 2655 is a large lenticular galaxy with visual magnitude 10.1. * UGC 3697 is known as the Integral Sign Galaxy'' (its location is 7:11:4 / +71°50'). * MS0735.6+7421 is a galaxy cluster with a redshift of 0.216, located 2.6 billion light-years from Earth. It is unique for its intracluster medium, which emits X-rays at a very high rate. This galaxy cluster features two cavities 600,000 light-years in diameter, caused by its central supermassive black hole, which emits jets of matter. MS0735.6+7421 is one of the largest and most distant examples of this phenomenon. * Tombaugh 5 is a fairly dim open cluster in Camelopardalis. It has an overall magnitude of 8.4 and is located 5,800 light-years from Earth. It is a Shapley class c and Trumpler class III 1 r cluster, meaning that it is irregularly shaped and appears loose. Though it is detached from the star field, it is not concentrated at its center at all. It has more than 100 stars which do not vary widely in brightness, mostly being of the 15th and 16th magnitude. * NGC 2146 is an 11th magnitude barred spiral starburst galaxy conspicuously warped by interaction with a neighbour. * MACS0647-JD, one of the possible candidates for the farthest known galaxies in the universe (z10.7), is also in Camelopardalis. Meteor showers <!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before you save your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it won't be broken. See Template:Anchor for details. (This text: Template:Anchor comment) --> The annual May meteor shower Camelopardalids from comet 209P/LINEAR have a radiant in Camelopardalis. History '', a set of constellation cards published in London c.1823. Above it are shown the now-abandoned constellations of Tarandus and Custos Messium.]] Camelopardalis is not one of Ptolemy's 48 constellations in the Almagest. It was created by Petrus Plancius in 1613. It first appeared in a globe designed by him and produced by Pieter van den Keere. One year later, Jakob Bartsch featured it in his atlas. Johannes Hevelius depicted this constellation in his works which were so influential that it was referred to as Camelopardali Hevelii or abbreviated as Camelopard. Hevel. Part of the constellation was hived off to form the constellation Sciurus Volans, the Flying Squirrel, by William Croswell in 1810. However this was not taken up by later cartographers. Equivalents In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Camelopardalis are located within a group of circumpolar stars called the Purple Forbidden Enclosure (紫微垣 Zǐ Wēi Yuán). See also Camelopardalis (Chinese astronomy) References ;Citations ;References * * * * * * External links * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/camelopardalis/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Camelopardalis] * [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/camelopardalis.html Star Tales – Camelopardalis] * [https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/interstellar-mission/ NASA – Voyager Interstellar Mission Characteristics] Category:Northern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camelopardalis	2025-04-05T18:27:48.625268
6365	Convention of Kanagawa	\| location_signed = Yokohama, Japan \| date_sealed = March 31, 1854 \| date_effective = September 30, 1855 \| condition_effective Ratification by US Congress, signing by President Franklin Pierce and signing by Emperor Kōmei \| date_expiration \| negotiators \| signatories = * Japan * United States \| depositor = Diplomatic Record Office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan) \| citations \| languages * English * Japanese \| wikisource = Treaty of Kanagawa }} The Convention of Kanagawa, also known as the or the , was a treaty signed between the United States and the Tokugawa Shogunate on March 31, 1854. Signed under threat of force, it effectively meant the end of Japan's 220-year-old policy of national seclusion () by opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American vessels. It also ensured the safety of American castaways and established the position of an American consul in Japan. The treaty precipitated the signing of similar treaties establishing diplomatic relations with other Western powers. Isolation of Japan Since the beginning of the 17th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate pursued a policy of isolating the country from outside influences. Foreign trade was maintained only with the Dutch and the Chinese and was conducted exclusively at Nagasaki under a strict government monopoly. This "Pax Tokugawa" period is largely associated with domestic peace, social stability, commercial development, and expanded literacy. This policy had two main objectives: #To suppress the spread of Christianity. By the early 17th century, Catholicism had spread throughout the world. Tokugawa feared that trade with western powers would cause further instability in the nation. Thus, the isolation policy expelled foreigners and did not allow international travel. #The Japanese feared that foreign trade and the wealth developed would lead to the rise of a daimyo powerful enough to overthrow the ruling Tokugawa clan, especially after seeing what happened to China during the Opium Wars.Perry expedition In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry was sent with a fleet of warships by U.S. President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese ports to American trade, through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary. President Fillmore's letter shows the U.S. sought trade with Japan to open export markets for American goods like gold from California, enable U.S. ships to refuel in Japanese ports, and secure protections and humane treatment for any American sailors shipwrecked on Japan's shores. The growing commerce between America and China, the presence of American whalers in waters offshore Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by the British and French in Asia were all contributing factors. The Americans were also driven by concepts of manifest destiny and the desire to impose the perceived benefits of western civilization and Christianity on what they perceived as backward Asian nations. From the Japanese perspective, increasing contacts with foreign warships and the increasing disparity between western military technology and the Japanese feudal armies fostered growing concern. The Japanese had been keeping abreast of world events via information gathered from Dutch traders in Dejima and had been forewarned by the Dutch of Perry's voyage. Such refusal was intentional, as Perry wrote in his journal: "To show these princes how little I regarded their order for me to depart, on getting on board I immediately ordered the whole squadron underway, not to leave the bay... but to go higher up... would produce a decided influence upon the pride and conceit of the government, and cause a more favorable consideration of the President's letter." Despite years of debate on the isolation policy, Perry's letter created great controversy within the highest levels of the Tokugawa shogunate. The shogun himself, Tokugawa Ieyoshi, died days after Perry's departure and was succeeded by his sickly young son, Tokugawa Iesada, leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders ( Treaty of Peace and Amity (1854) The "Japan-US Treaty of Peace and Amity" has twelve articles: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Article ! Summary \|- \| § I \| Mutual peace between the United States and the Empire of Japan \|- \| § II \| Opening of the ports of Shimoda & Hakodate \|- \| § III \| Assistance to be provided to shipwrecked American sailors \|- \| § IV \| Shipwrecked sailors not to be imprisoned or mistreated \|- \| § V \| Freedom of movement for temporary foreign residents in treaty ports (with limitations) \|- \| § VI \| Trade transactions to be permitted \|- \| § VII \| Currency exchange to facilitate any trade transactions to be allowed \|- \| § VIII \| Provisioning of American ships to be a Japanese government monopoly \|- \| § IX \| Japan to give the United States any favourable advantages which might be negotiated by Japan with any other foreign government in the future \|- \| § X \| Forbidding the United States from using any other ports aside from Shimoda and Hakodate \|- \| § XI \| Opening of an American consulate at Shimoda \|- \| § XII \| Treaty to be ratified within 18 months of signing \|} At the time, shogun Tokugawa Iesada was the de facto ruler of Japan; for the Emperor of Japan to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. Perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the shogun, led by plenipotentiary and the text was endorsed subsequently, albeit reluctantly, by Emperor Kōmei. The treaty was ratified on February 21, 1855. Consequences of the treaty In the short term, the U.S. was content with the agreement since Perry had achieved his primary objective of breaking Japan's policy and setting the grounds for protection of American citizens and an eventual commercial agreement. On the other hand, the Japanese were forced into this trade, and many saw it as a sign of weakness. The Tokugawa shogunate could point out that the treaty was not actually signed by the shogun, or indeed any of his , and that it had at least averted the possibility of immediate military confrontation. Externally, the treaty led to the United States-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce, the "Harris Treaty" of 1858, which allowed the establishment of foreign concessions, extraterritoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods. The Japanese chafed under the "unequal treaty system" which characterized Asian and western relations during this period. The Kanagawa treaty was also followed by similar agreements with the United Kingdom (Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty, October 1854), Russia (Treaty of Shimoda, February 7, 1855), and France (Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan, October 9, 1858). Internally, the treaty had far-reaching consequences. Decisions to suspend previous restrictions on military activities led to re-armament by many domains and further weakened the position of the shogun. Debate over foreign policy and popular outrage over perceived appeasement to the foreign powers was a catalyst for the movement and a shift in political power from Edo back to the Imperial Court in Kyoto. The opposition of Emperor Kōmei to the treaties further lent support to the (overthrow the shogunate) movement, and eventually to the Meiji Restoration, which affected all realms of Japanese life. Following this period came an increase in foreign trade, the rise of Japanese military might, and the later rise of Japanese economic and technological advancement. Westernization at the time was a defense mechanism, but Japan has since found a balance between Western modernity and Japanese tradition. See also * List of Westerners who visited Japan before 1868 * The 1958 film The Barbarian and the Geisha is a dramatization of when Townsend Harris was the first United States consul in Japan during the final years of the Tokugawa shogunate. Notes References * [https://www.academia.edu/5461862/Diplomacy_Far_Removed_A_Reinterpretation_of_the_U.S._Decision_to_Open_Diplomatic_Relations_with_Japan] * Auslin, Michael R., [https://books.google.com/books?id=bS3w6tGiraEC Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy.] Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004. ; * * Cullen, L. M., [https://books.google.com/books?id=ycY_85OInSoC A History of Japan, 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds.] Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. * Edström, Bert, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ltmXn9rUGD8C The Japanese and Europe: Images and Perceptions.] London: Routledge, 2000. * * Kitahara, M., "Popular Culture in Japan: A Psychoanalytic Interpretation," The Journal of Popular Culture, XVII, 1983. * * Perry, Matthew Calbraith, [http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B36599566/ Narrative of the expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, 1856.] New York: D. Appleton and Company. 1856. Digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, [http://lib.hku.hk/database/ Digital Initiatives], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070425165629/http://www.spurgeons.ac.uk/site/pages/ui_college_history.aspx "China Through Western Eyes."] * Taylor, Bayard, [http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B29624824/ A visit to India, China, and Japan in the year 1853] New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1855. Digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, [http://lib.hku.hk/database/ Digital Initiatives], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070425165629/http://www.spurgeons.ac.uk/site/pages/ui_college_history.aspx "China Through Western Eyes".] External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060910135838/http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/jobrien/reference/ob25.html The Convention of Kanagawa, 1854 (full text)] * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/si.1986.9.1.53?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Kitahara, Michio. Commodore Perry and the Japanese: A Study in the Dramaturgy of Power, 1986] * [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/japan/index.html Perry Visits Japan: A Visual History; Brown University collection] Category:Japan–United States treaties Category:1854 in the United States Category:Unequal treaties Category:1854 in Japan Category:1854 treaties Category:Treaties of the Tokugawa shogunate Category:March 1854 Category:Bakumatsu	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_of_Kanagawa	2025-04-05T18:27:48.635107
6366	Canis Major	, genitive \| symbolism = the greater dog \| RA to Ninurta was linked to the later deity Marduk, who was said to have slain the ocean goddess Tiamat with a great bow, and worshipped as the principal deity in Babylon. The Ancient Greeks replaced the bow and arrow depiction with that of a dog. , the brightest star in the night sky, lies in Canis Major.]] In Greek Mythology, Canis Major represented the dog Laelaps, a gift from Zeus to Europa; or sometimes the hound of Procris, Diana's nymph; or the one given by Aurora to Cephalus, so famed for its speed that Zeus elevated it to the sky. It was also considered to represent one of Orion's hunting dogs, pursuing Lepus the Hare or helping Orion fight Taurus the Bull; and is referred to in this way by Aratos, Homer and Hesiod. The ancient Greeks refer only to one dog, but by Roman times, Canis Minor appears as Orion's second dog. Alternative names include Canis Sequens and Canis Alter. Canis Syrius was the name used in the 1521 Alfonsine tables. The Roman myth refers to Canis Major as Custos Europae, the dog guarding Europa but failing to prevent her abduction by Jupiter in the form of a bull, and as Janitor Lethaeus, "the watchdog". In medieval Arab astronomy, the constellation became al-Kalb al-Akbar, "the Greater Dog", transcribed as Alcheleb Alachbar by 17th century writer Edmund Chilmead. Islamic scholar Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī referred to Orion as Kalb al-Jabbār, "the Dog of the Giant". Among the Merazig of Tunisia, shepherds note six constellations that mark the passage of the dry, hot season. One of them, called Merzem, includes the stars of Canis Major and Canis Minor and is the herald of two weeks of hot weather. Globe made in Mashhad 1632–33 AD. Adilnor Collection, Sweden.]] In non-western astronomy In Chinese astronomy, the modern constellation of Canis Major is located in the Vermilion Bird (), where the stars were classified in several separate asterisms of stars. The Military Market () was a circular pattern of stars containing Nu<sup>3</sup>, Beta, Xi<sup>1</sup> and Xi<sup>2</sup>, and some stars from Lepus. The Wild Cockerel () was at the centre of the Military Market, although it is uncertain which stars depicted what. Schlegel reported that the stars Omicron and Pi Canis Majoris might have been them, while Beta or Nu<sup>2</sup> have also been proposed. Sirius was (), the Celestial Wolf, denoting invasion and plunder. To the Boorong people of Victoria, Sigma Canis Majoris was (which has become the official name of this star), and its flanking stars Delta and Epsilon were his two wives. The moon (, "native cat") sought to lure the further wife (Epsilon) away, but assaulted him and he has been wandering the sky ever since. Characteristics Canis Major is a constellation in the Southern Hemisphere's summer (or northern hemisphere's winter) sky, bordered by Monoceros (which lies between it and Canis Minor) to the north, Puppis to the east and southeast, Columba to the southwest, and Lepus to the west. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "CMa". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a quadrilateral; in the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −11.03° and −33.25°. Covering 380 square degrees or 0.921% of the sky, it ranks 43rd of the 88 currently-recognized constellations in size. Features Stars Canis Major is a prominent constellation because of its many bright stars. These include Sirius (Alpha Canis Majoris), the brightest star in the night sky, as well as three other stars above magnitude 2.0. Furthermore, two other stars are thought to have previously outshone all others in the night sky—Adhara (Epsilon Canis Majoris) shone at −3.99 around 4.7 million years ago, and Mirzam (Beta Canis Majoris) peaked at −3.65 around 4.42 million years ago. Another, NR Canis Majoris, will be brightest at magnitude −0.88 in about 2.87 million years' time. The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha through Omicron to label the most prominent stars in the constellation, including three adjacent stars as Nu and two further pairs as Xi and Omicron, while subsequent observers designated further stars in the southern parts of the constellation that were hard to discern from Central Europe. Bayer's countryman Johann Elert Bode later added Sigma, Tau and Omega; the French astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille added lettered stars a to k (though none are in use today). John Flamsteed numbered 31 stars, with 3 Canis Majoris being placed by Lacaille into Columba as Delta Columbae (Flamsteed had not recognised Columba as a distinct constellation). He also labelled two stars—his 10 and 13 Canis Majoris—as Kappa<sup>1</sup> and Kappa<sup>2</sup> respectively, but subsequent cartographers such as Francis Baily and John Bevis dropped the fainter former star, leaving Kappa<sup>2</sup> as the sole Kappa. Flamsteed's listing of Nu<sup>1</sup>, Nu<sup>2</sup>, Nu<sup>3</sup>, Xi<sup>1</sup>, Xi<sup>2</sup>, Omicron<sup>1</sup> and Omicron<sup>2</sup> have all remained in use. '', a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825. Next to it are Lepus and Columba (partly cut off).]] Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky at apparent magnitude −1.46 and one of the closest stars to Earth at a distance of 8.6 light-years. Its name comes from the Greek word for "scorching" or "searing". Sirius is also a binary star; its companion Sirius B is a white dwarf with a magnitude of 8.4–10,000 times fainter than Sirius A to observers on Earth. The two orbit each other every 50 years. Their closest approach last occurred in 1993 and they will be at their greatest separation between 2020 and 2025. Sirius was the basis for the ancient Egyptian calendar. The star marked the Great Dog's mouth on Bayer's star atlas. Flanking Sirius are Beta and Gamma Canis Majoris. Also called Mirzam or Murzim, Beta is a blue-white Beta Cephei variable star of magnitude 2.0, which varies by a few hundredths of a magnitude over a period of six hours. Mirzam is 500 light-years from Earth, and its traditional name means "the announcer", referring to its position as the "announcer" of Sirius, as it rises a few minutes before Sirius does. Gamma, also known as Muliphein, is a fainter star of magnitude 4.12, in reality a blue-white bright giant of spectral type B8IIe located 441 light-years from earth. Iota Canis Majoris, lying between Sirius and Gamma, is another star that has been classified as a Beta Cephei variable, varying from magnitude 4.36 to 4.40 over a period of 1.92 hours. It is a remote blue-white supergiant star of spectral type B3Ib, around 46,000 times as luminous as the sun and, at 2500 light-years distant, 300 times further away than Sirius. Epsilon, Omicron<sup>2</sup>, Delta, and Eta Canis Majoris were called Al Adzari "the virgins" in medieval Arabic tradition. Marking the dog's right thigh on Bayer's atlas is Epsilon Canis Majoris, also known as Adhara. At magnitude 1.5, it is the second-brightest star in Canis Major and the 23rd-brightest star in the sky. It is a blue-white supergiant of spectral type B2Iab, around 404 light-years from Earth. This star is one of the brightest known extreme ultraviolet sources in the sky. It is a binary star; the secondary is of magnitude 7.4. Its traditional name means "the virgins", having been transferred from the group of stars to Epsilon alone. Nearby is Delta Canis Majoris, also called Wezen. It is a yellow-white supergiant of spectral type F8Iab and magnitude 1.84, around 1605 light-years from Earth. With a traditional name meaning "the weight", Wezen is 17 times as massive and 50,000 times as luminous as the Sun. If located in the centre of the Solar System, it would extend out to Earth as its diameter is 200 times that of the Sun. Only around 10 million years old, Wezen has stopped fusing hydrogen in its core. Its outer envelope is beginning to expand and cool, and in the next 100,000 years it will become a red supergiant as its core fuses heavier and heavier elements. Once it has a core of iron, it will collapse and explode as a supernova. Nestled between Adhara and Wezen lies Sigma Canis Majoris, known as Unurgunite to the Boorong and Wotjobaluk people, Also called Aludra, Eta Canis Majoris is a blue-white supergiant of spectral type B5Ia with a luminosity 176,000 times and diameter around 80 times that of the Sun. Classified as an Alpha Cygni type variable star, Aludra varies in brightness from magnitude 2.38 to 2.48 over a period of 4.7 days. It is located 1120 light-years away. To the west of Adhara lies 3.0-magnitude Zeta Canis Majoris or Furud, around 362 light-years distant from Earth. It is a spectroscopic binary, whose components orbit each other every 1.85 years, the combined spectrum indicating a main star of spectral type B2.5V. Between these stars and Sirius lie Omicron<sup>1</sup>, Omicron<sup>2</sup>, and Pi Canis Majoris. Omicron<sup>2</sup> is a massive supergiant star about 21 times as massive as the Sun. Only 7 million years old, It is an Alpha Cygni variable that undergoes periodic non-radial pulsations, which cause its brightness to cycle from magnitude 2.93 to 3.08 over a 24.44-day interval. Omicron<sup>1</sup> is an orange K-type supergiant of spectral type K2.5Iab that is an irregular variable star, varying between apparent magnitudes 3.78 and 3.99. Around 18 times as massive as the Sun, it shines with 65,000 times its luminosity. North of Sirius lie Theta and Mu Canis Majoris, Theta being the most northerly star with a Bayer designation in the constellation. Around 8 billion years old, it is an orange giant of spectral type K4III that is around as massive as the Sun but has expanded to 30 times the Sun's diameter. Mu is a multiple star system located around 1244 light-years distant, The brighter star is a giant of spectral type K2III, while the companion is a main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V. Nu<sup>1</sup> Canis Majoris is a yellow-hued giant star of magnitude 5.7, 278 light-years away; it is at the threshold of naked-eye visibility. It has a companion of magnitude 8.1. At the southern limits of the constellation lie Kappa and Lambda Canis Majoris. Although of similar spectra and nearby each other as viewed from Earth, they are unrelated. which brightened by 50% between 1963 and 1978, from magnitude 3.96 or so to 3.52. It is around 659 light-years distant. Lambda is a blue-white B-type main sequence dwarf with an apparent magnitude of 4.48 located around 423 light-years from Earth. It is 3.7 times as wide as and 5.5 times as massive as the Sun, and shines with 940 times its luminosity. VY Canis Majoris is a remote red hypergiant located approximately 3,800 light-years away from Earth. It is one of largest stars known (sometimes described as the largest known) and is also one of the most luminous with a radius varying from 1,420 to 2,200 times the Sun's radius, and a luminosity around 300,000 times greater than the Sun. Its current mass is about 17 ± 8 solar masses, having shed material from an initial mass of 25–32 solar masses.<!-- cites previous 3.5 sentences --> VY CMa is also surrounded by a red reflection nebula that has been made by the material expelled by the strong stellar winds of its central star. W Canis Majoris is a type of red giant known as a carbon star—a semiregular variable, it ranges between magnitudes 6.27 and 7.09 over a period of 160 days. A cool star, it has a surface temperature of around 2,900 K and a radius 234 times that of the Sun, its distance estimated at 1,444–1,450 light-years from Earth. At the other extreme in size is RX J0720.4-3125, a neutron star with a radius of around 5 km. Exceedingly faint, it has an apparent magnitude of 26.6. Its spectrum and temperature appear to be mysteriously changing over several years. The nature of the changes are unclear, but it is possible they were caused by an event such as the star's absorption of an accretion disc. Its four main component stars are hot O-type stars, with a combined mass 80 times that of the Sun and shining with 500,000 times its luminosity, but little is known of their individual properties. A fifth component, a magnitude 10 star, lies at a distance of . The system is only 5 million years old.<!-- cites previous two sentences --> UW Canis Majoris is another Beta Lyrae-type star 3000 light-years from Earth; it is an eclipsing binary that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 5.3 to a maximum of 4.8. It has a period of 4.4 days; its components are two massive hot blue stars, one a blue supergiant of spectral type O7.5–8 Iab, while its companion is a slightly cooler, less evolved and less luminous supergiant of spectral type O9.7Ib. The stars are 200,000 and 63,000 times as luminous as the Sun. However the fainter star is the more massive at 19 solar masses to the primary's 16.<!-- cites previous two sentences --> R Canis Majoris is another eclipsing binary that varies from magnitude 5.7 to 6.34 over 1.13 days, with a third star orbiting these two every 93 years. The shortness of the orbital period and the low ratio between the two main components make this an unusual Algol-type system. Seven star systems have been found to have planets. Nu<sup>2</sup> Canis Majoris is an ageing orange giant of spectral type K1III of apparent magnitude 3.91 located around 64 light-years distant. Around 1.5 times as massive and 11 times as luminous as the Sun, it is orbited over a period of 763 days by a planet 2.6 times as massive as Jupiter. HD 47536 is likewise an ageing orange giant found to have a planetary system—echoing the fate of the Solar System in a few billion years as the Sun ages and becomes a giant. Conversely, HD 45364 is a star 107 light-years distant that is a little smaller and cooler than the Sun, of spectral type G8V, which has two planets discovered in 2008. With orbital periods of 228 and 342 days, the planets have a 3:2 orbital resonance, which helps stabilise the system. HD 47186 is another sunlike star with two planets; the inner—HD 47186 b—takes four days to complete an orbit and has been classified as a Hot Neptune, while the outer—HD 47186 c—has an eccentric 3.7-year period orbit and has a similar mass to Saturn. HD 43197 is a sunlike star around 183 light-years distant that has two planets: a hot Jupiter-size planet with an eccentric orbit. The other planet, HD 43197 c, is another massive Jovian planet with a slightly oblong orbit outside of its habitable zone. Z Canis Majoris is a star system a mere 300,000 years old composed of two pre-main-sequence stars—a FU Orionis star and a Herbig Ae/Be star, which has brightened episodically by two magnitudes to magnitude 8 in 1987, 2000, 2004 and 2008. The more massive Herbig Ae/Be star is enveloped in an irregular roughly spherical cocoon of dust that has an inner diameter of and outer diameter of . The cocoon has a hole in it through which light shines that covers an angle of 5 to 10 degrees of its circumference. Both stars are surrounded by a large envelope of in-falling material left over from the original cloud that formed the system. Both stars are emitting jets of material, that of the Herbig Ae/Be star being much larger—11.7 light-years long. Meanwhile, FS Canis Majoris is another star with infra-red emissions indicating a compact shell of dust, but it appears to be a main-sequence star that has absorbed material from a companion. These stars are thought to be significant contributors to interstellar dust. Deep-sky objects The band of the Milky Way goes through Canis Major, with only patchy obscurement by interstellar dust clouds. It is bright in the northeastern corner of the constellation, as well as in a triangular area between Adhara, Wezen and Aludra, with many stars visible in binoculars. Canis Major boasts several open clusters. The only Messier object is M41 (NGC 2287), an open cluster with a combined visual magnitude of 4.5, around 2300 light-years from Earth. Located 4 degrees south of Sirius, it contains contrasting blue, yellow and orange stars and covers an area the apparent size of the full moon—in reality around 25 light-years in diameter.<!-- cites two previous sentences --> Its most luminous stars have already evolved into giants. The brightest is a 6.3-magnitude star of spectral type K3. Located in the field is 12 Canis Majoris, though this star is only 670 light-years distant.<!-- cites previous two sentences --> NGC 2360, known as Caroline's Cluster after its discoverer Caroline Herschel, is an open cluster located 3.5 degrees west of Muliphein and has a combined apparent magnitude of 7.2. Around 15 light-years in diameter, it is located 3700 light-years away from Earth, and has been dated to around 2.2 billion years old. NGC 2362 is a small, compact open cluster, 5200 light-years from Earth. It contains about 60 stars, of which Tau Canis Majoris is the brightest member. Located around 3 degrees northeast of Wezen, it covers an area around 12 light-years in diameter, though the stars appear huddled around Tau when seen through binoculars. It is a very young open cluster as its member stars are only a few million years old. Lying 2 degrees southwest of NGC 2362 is NGC 2354 a fainter open cluster of magnitude 6.5, with around 15 member stars visible with binoculars. NGC 2359 (Thor's Helmet or the Duck Nebula) is a relatively bright emission nebula in Canis Major, with an approximate magnitude of 10, which is 10,000 light-years from Earth. The nebula is shaped by HD 56925, an unstable Wolf–Rayet star embedded within it. is an irregular dwarf galaxy, located 16 million light-years distant. ]] In 2003, an overdensity of stars in the region was announced to be the Canis Major Dwarf, the closest satellite galaxy to Earth. However, there remains debate over whether it represents a disrupted dwarf galaxy or in fact a variation in the thin and thick disk and spiral arm populations of the Milky Way. Investigation of the area yielded only ten RR Lyrae variables—consistent with the Milky Way's halo and thick disk populations rather than a separate dwarf spheroidal galaxy. On the other hand, a globular cluster in Puppis, NGC 2298—which appears to be part of the Canis Major dwarf system—is extremely metal-poor, suggesting it did not arise from the Milky Way's thick disk, and instead is of extragalactic origin. NGC 2207 and IC 2163 are a pair of face-on interacting spiral galaxies located 125 million light-years from Earth. About 40 million years ago, the two galaxies had a close encounter and are now moving farther apart; nevertheless, the smaller IC 2163 will eventually be incorporated into NGC 2207. As the interaction continues, gas and dust will be perturbed, sparking extensive star formation in both galaxies. Supernovae have been observed in NGC 2207 in 1975 (type Ia SN 1975a), 1999 (the type Ib SN 1999ec), 2003 (type 1b supernova SN 2003H), and 2013 (type II supernova SN 2013ai). Located 16 million light-years distant, References Citations Bibliography * * * * * * External links * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/canismajor/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canis Major] * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/canisma.htm The clickable Canis Major] * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017643 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Canis Major)] Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy Category:Southern constellations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canis_Major	2025-04-05T18:27:48.697725
6367	Canis Minor	, genitive \| symbolism = The Lesser Dog \| RA to and Procyon would be the brightest star in Luyten's Star's sky. The fourth-magnitude HD 66141, which has evolved into an orange giant towards the end of its life cycle, was discovered to have a planet in 2012. There are two faint deep-sky objects within the constellation's borders. The 11 Canis-Minorids are a meteor shower that can be seen in early December. History and mythology in his 1801 work Uranographia]] Though strongly associated with the Classical Greek uranographic tradition, Canis Minor originates from ancient Mesopotamia. Procyon and Gomeisa were called MASH.TAB.BA or "twins" in the Three Stars Each tablets, dating to around 1100 BC. In the later MUL.APIN, this name was also applied to the pairs of Pi<sup>3</sup> and Pi<sup>4</sup> Orionis and Zeta and Xi Orionis. The meaning of MASH.TAB.BA evolved as well, becoming the twin deities Lulal and Latarak, who are on the opposite side of the sky from Papsukkal, the True Shepherd of Heaven in Babylonian mythology. Canis Minor was also given the name DAR.LUGAL, its position defined as "the star which stands behind it [Orion]", in the MUL.APIN; the constellation represents a rooster. This name may have also referred to the constellation Lepus. DAR.LUGAL was also denoted DAR.MUŠEN and DAR.LUGAL.MUŠEN in Babylonia. Canis Minor was then called tarlugallu in Akkadian astronomy. Canis Minor was one of the original 48 constellations formulated by Ptolemy in his second-century Almagest, in which it was defined as a specific pattern (asterism) of stars; Ptolemy identified only two stars and hence no depiction was possible. In Greek mythology, Canis Minor was sometimes connected with the Teumessian Fox, a beast turned into stone with its hunter, Laelaps, by Zeus, who placed them in heaven as Canis Major (Laelaps) and Canis Minor (Teumessian Fox). Eratosthenes accompanied the Little Dog with Orion, while Hyginus linked the constellation with Maera, a dog owned by Icarius of Athens. As a reward for his faithfulness, the dog was placed along the "banks" of the Milky Way, which the ancients believed to be a heavenly river, where he would never suffer from thirst. The medieval Arabic astronomers maintained the depiction of Canis Minor (al-Kalb al-Asghar in Arabic) as a dog; in his Book of the Fixed Stars, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi included a diagram of the constellation with a canine figure superimposed. There was one slight difference between the Ptolemaic vision of Canis Minor and the Arabic; al-Sufi claims Mirzam, now assigned to Orion, as part of both Canis Minor—the collar of the dog—and its modern home. The Arabic names for both Procyon and Gomeisa alluded to their proximity and resemblance to Sirius, though they were not direct translations of the Greek; Procyon was called ''ash-Shi'ra ash-Shamiya, the "Syrian Sirius" and Gomeisa was called ash-Shira al-Ghamisa, the Sirius with bleary eyes. The ancient Egyptians thought of this constellation as Anubis, the jackal god. and the obsolete constellation Atelier Typographique in this 1825 star chart from Urania's Mirror.]] Alternative names have been proposed: Johann Bayer in the early 17th century termed the constellation Fovea "The Pit", and Morus "Sycamine Tree". Seventeenth-century German poet and author Philippus Caesius linked it to the dog of Tobias from the Apocrypha. Occasionally, Canis Minor is confused with Canis Major and given the name Canis Orionis'' ("Orion's Dog"). In non-Western astronomy In Chinese astronomy, the stars corresponding to Canis Minor lie in the Vermilion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, Nán Fāng Zhū Què). Procyon, Gomeisa and Eta Canis Minoris form an asterism known as Nánhé, the Southern River. With its counterpart, the Northern River Beihe (Castor and Pollux), Nánhé was also associated with a gate or sentry. Along with Zeta and 8 Cancri, 6 Canis Minoris and 11 Canis Minoris formed the asterism Shuiwei, which literally means "water level". Combined with additional stars in Gemini, Shuiwei represented an official who managed floodwaters or a marker of the water level. Polynesian peoples often did not recognize Canis Minor as a constellation, but they saw Procyon as significant and often named it; in the Tuamotu Archipelago it was known as Hiro, meaning "twist as a thread of coconut fiber", and Kopu-nui-o-Hiro ("great paunch of Hiro"), which was either a name for the modern figure of Canis Minor or an alternative name for Procyon. Other names included Vena (after a goddess), on Mangaia and Puanga-hori (false Puanga, the name for Rigel), in New Zealand. In the Society Islands, Procyon was called Ana-tahua-vahine-o-toa-te-manava, literally "Aster the priestess of brave heart", figuratively the "pillar for elocution". The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia gave Procyon and Gomeisa the names Magum and Gurumana, describing them as humans who were transformed into gum trees in the Dreaming. Although their skin had turned to bark, they were able to speak with a human voice by rustling their leaves. The Aztec calendar was related to their cosmology. The stars of Canis Minor were incorporated along with some stars of Orion and Gemini into an asterism associated with the day called "Water". Characteristics Lying directly south of Gemini's bright stars Castor and Pollux, Canis Minor is a small constellation bordered by Monoceros to the south, Gemini to the north, Cancer to the northeast, and Hydra to the east. It does not border Canis Major; Monoceros is in between the two. Covering 183 square degrees, Canis Minor ranks seventy-first of the 88 constellations in size. It appears prominently in the southern sky during the Northern Hemisphere's winter. The constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 14 sides. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between and . Most visible in the evening sky from January to March, Canis Minor is most prominent at 10 p.m. during mid-February. It is then seen earlier in the evening until July, when it is only visible after sunset before setting itself, and rising in the morning sky before dawn. The constellation's three-letter abbreviation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "CMi". Features Stars Canis Minor contains only two stars brighter than fourth magnitude. At magnitude 0.34, Procyon, or Alpha Canis Minoris, is the eighth-brightest star in the night sky, as well as one of the closest. Its name means "before the dog" or "preceding the dog" in Greek, as it rises an hour before the "Dog Star", Sirius, of Canis Major. It is a binary star system, consisting of a yellow-white main-sequence star of spectral type F5 IV-V, named Procyon A, and a faint white dwarf companion of spectral type DA, named Procyon B. Procyon B, which orbits the more massive star every 41 years, is of magnitude 10.7. The system is from Earth, the shortest distance to a northern-hemisphere star of the first magnitude. Gomeisa, or Beta Canis Minoris, with a magnitude of 2.89, is the second-brightest star in Canis Minor. Lying from the Solar System, it is a blue-white main-sequence star of spectral class B8 Ve. Although fainter to Earth observers, it is much brighter than Procyon, and is 250 times as luminous and three times as massive as the Sun. Although its variations are slight, Gomeisa is classified as a shell star (Gamma Cassiopeiae variable), with a maximum magnitude of 2.84 and a minimum magnitude of 2.92. Its colour is obvious when seen through binoculars. It is a multiple system, consisting of the spectroscopic binary Gamma A and three optical companions, Gamma B, magnitude 13; Gamma C, magnitude 12; and Gamma D, magnitude 10. The two components of Gamma A orbit each other every 389.2 days, with an eccentric orbit that takes their separation between 2.3 and 1.4 astronomical units (AU). Epsilon Canis Minoris is a yellow bright giant of spectral class G6.5IIb of magnitude of 4.99. It lies from Earth, with 13 times the diameter and 750 times the luminosity of the Sun. Eta Canis Minoris is a giant of spectral class F0III of magnitude 5.24, which has a yellowish hue when viewed through binoculars as well as a faint companion of magnitude 11.1. Located 4 arcseconds from the primary, the companion star is actually around 440 AU from the main star and takes around 5,000 years to orbit it. Near Procyon, three stars share the name Delta Canis Minoris. Delta<sup>1</sup> is a yellow-white F-type giant of magnitude 5.25 located around from Earth. About 360 times as luminous and 3.75 times as massive as the Sun, it is expanding and cooling as it ages, having spent much of its life as a main sequence star of spectrum B6V. The last of the trio, Delta<sup>3</sup> (also known as 9 Canis Minoris), is a white main sequence star of spectral type A0Vnn and magnitude 5.83 which is distant. These stars mark the paws of the Lesser Dog's left hind leg, while magnitude 5.13 Zeta marks the right. Lying 222 ± 7 light-years away with an apparent magnitude of 4.39, HD 66141 is 6.8 billion years old and has evolved into an orange giant of spectral type K2III with a diameter around 22 times that of the Sun, and weighing 1.1 solar masses. It is 174 times as luminous as the Sun, with an absolute magnitude of −0.15. HD 66141 was mistakenly named 13 Puppis, as its celestial coordinates were recorded incorrectly when catalogued and hence mistakenly thought to be in the constellation of Puppis; Bode gave it the name Lambda Canis Minoris, which is now obsolete. The orange giant is orbited by a planet, HD 66141b, which was detected in 2012 by measuring the star's radial velocity. The planet has a mass around 6 times that of Jupiter and a period of 480 days. It is a semiregular variable star that varies between a maximum magnitude of 6.14 and minimum magnitude of 6.42. Periods of 27.7, 143.3 and 208.3 days have been recorded in its pulsations. AZ is of spectral type A5IV, and ranges between magnitudes 6.44 and 6.51 over a period of 2.3 hours. AD has a spectral type of F2III, and has a maximum magnitude of 9.21 and minimum of 9.51, with a period of approximately 2.95 hours. BI is of spectral type F2 with an apparent magnitude varying around 9.19 and a period of approximately 2.91 hours. At least three red giants are Mira variables in Canis Minor. S Canis Minoris, of spectral type M7e, is the brightest, ranging from magnitude 6.6 to 13.2 over a period of 332.94 days. V Canis Minoris ranges from magnitude 7.4 to 15.1 over a period of 366.1 days. Similar in magnitude is R Canis Minoris, which has a maximum of 7.3, but a significantly brighter minimum of 11.6. An S-type star, it has a period of 337.8 days. YZ Canis Minoris is a red dwarf of spectral type M4.5V and magnitude 11.2, roughly three times the size of Jupiter and from Earth. It is a flare star, emitting unpredictable outbursts of energy for mere minutes, which might be much more powerful analogues of solar flares. Luyten's Star (GJ 273) is a red dwarf star of spectral type M3.5V and close neighbour of the Solar System. Its visual magnitude of 9.9 renders it too faint to be seen with the naked eye, even though it is only away. Fainter still is PSS 544-7, an eighteenth-magnitude red dwarf around 20 per cent the mass of the Sun, located from Earth. First noticed in 1991, it is thought to be a cannonball star, shot out of a star cluster and now moving rapidly through space directly away from the galactic disc. The WZ Sagittae-type dwarf nova DY Canis Minoris (also known as VSX J074727.6+065050) flared up to magnitude 11.4 over January and February 2008 before dropping eight magnitudes to around 19.5 over approximately 80 days. It is a remote binary star system where a white dwarf and low-mass star orbit each other close enough for the former star to draw material off the latter and form an accretion disc. This material builds up until it erupts dramatically. Deep-sky objects ]] The Milky Way passes through much of Canis Minor, yet it has few deep-sky objects. William Herschel recorded four objects in his 1786 work Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars, including two he mistakenly believed were star clusters. NGC 2459 is a group of five thirteenth- and fourteenth-magnitude stars that appear to lie close together in the sky but are not related. A similar situation has occurred with NGC 2394, also in Canis Minor. This is a collection of fifteen unrelated stars of ninth magnitude and fainter. Named as a single object by Herschel, NGC 2402 is actually a pair of near-adjacent galaxies that appear to be interacting with each other. Only of fourteenth and fifteenth magnitudes, respectively, the elliptical and spiral galaxy are thought to be approximately 245 million light-years distant, and each measure 55,000 light-years in diameter. Meteor showers The 11 Canis-Minorids, also called the Beta Canis Minorids, are a meteor shower that arise near the fifth-magnitude star 11 Canis Minoris and were discovered in 1964 by Keith Hindley, who investigated their trajectory and proposed a common origin with the comet D/1917 F1 Mellish. However, this conclusion has been refuted subsequently as the number of orbits analysed was low and their trajectories too disparate to confirm a link. They last from 4 to 15 December, peaking over 10 and 11 December. References Sources * External links * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/monoceros/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canis Minor] * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017645 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Canis Minor)] Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy Category:Equatorial constellations Category:Constellations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canis_Minor	2025-04-05T18:27:48.725775
6371	Centaurus	, genitive \| symbolism = the Centaur \| RA – \| dec– PDS 70, (V1032 Centauri) a low mass T Tauri star is found in the constellation Centaurus. In July 2018 astronomers captured the first conclusive image of a protoplanetary disk containing a nascent exoplanet, named PDS 70b.Deep-sky objectsω Centauri (NGC 5139), despite being listed as the constellation's "omega" star, is in fact a naked-eye globular cluster, 17,000 light-years away with a diameter of 150 light-years. It is the largest and brightest globular cluster in the Milky Way; at ten times the size of the next-largest cluster, One of the closest galaxy clusters to Earth is the Centaurus Cluster at 160 million light-years away, having redshift 0.0114. It has a cooler, denser central region of gas and a hotter, more diffuse outer region. The intracluster medium in the Centaurus Cluster has a high concentration of metals (elements heavier than helium) due to a large number of supernovae. This cluster also possesses a plume of gas whose origin is unknown. The Greeks depicted the constellation as a centaur and gave it its current name. It was mentioned by Eudoxus in the 4th century BC and Aratus in the 3rd century BC. In the 2nd century AD, Claudius Ptolemy catalogued 37 stars in Centaurus, including Alpha Centauri. Large as it is now, in earlier times it was even larger, as the constellation Lupus was treated as an asterism within Centaurus, portrayed in illustrations as an unspecified animal either in the centaur's grasp or impaled on its spear. The Southern Cross, which is now regarded as a separate constellation, was treated by the ancients as a mere asterism formed of the stars composing the centaur's legs. Additionally, what is now the minor constellation Circinus was treated as undefined stars under the centaur's front hooves. According to the Roman poet Ovid (Fasti v.379), the constellation honors the centaur Chiron, who was tutor to many of the earlier Greek heroes including Heracles (Hercules), Theseus, and Jason, the leader of the Argonauts. It is not to be confused with the more warlike centaur represented by the zodiacal constellation Sagittarius. The legend associated with Chiron says that he was accidentally poisoned with an arrow shot by Hercules, and was subsequently placed in the heavens.EquivalentsIn Chinese astronomy, the stars of Centaurus are found in three areas: the Azure Dragon of the East (東方青龍, Dōng Fāng Qīng Lóng), the Vermillion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, Nán Fāng Zhū Què), and the Southern Asterisms (近南極星區, Jìnnánjíxīngōu). Not all of the stars of Centaurus can be seen from China, and the unseen stars were classified among the Southern Asterisms by Xu Guangqi, based on his study of western star charts. However, most of the brightest stars of Centaurus, including α Centauri, θ Centauri (or Menkent), ε Centauri and η Centauri, can be seen in the Chinese sky. Some Polynesian peoples considered the stars of Centaurus to be a constellation as well. On Pukapuka, Centaurus had two names: Na Mata-o-te-tokolua and Na Lua-mata-o-Wua-ma-Velo. In Tonga, the constellation was called by four names: O-nga-tangata, Tautanga-ufi, Mamangi-Halahu, and Mau-kuo-mau. Alpha and Beta Centauri were not named specifically by the people of Pukapuka or Tonga, but they were named by the people of Hawaii and the Tuamotus. In Hawaii, the name for Alpha Centauri was either Melemele or Ka Maile-hope and the name for Beta Centauri was either Polapola or Ka Maile-mua. In the Tuamotu islands, Alpha was called Na Kuhi and Beta was called Tere. The Pointer (α Centauri and β Centauri) is one of the asterisms used by Bugis sailors for navigation, called bintoéng balué, meaning "the widowed-before-marriage". It is also called bintoéng sallatang meaning "southern star". Namesakes Two United States Navy ships, and , were named after Centaurus, the constellation.See also * Centaurus (Chinese astronomy) * List of brightest stars References ;Citations ;References * [http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellations/Centaurus.html Centaurus, by Chris Dolan] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070329110850/http://www.seds.org/Maps/Stars_en/Fig/centaurus.html C.S. Constellations and Stars] * [http://www.dibonsmith.com/cen_con.htm Constellations, by Richard Dibon-Smith] * * * * US edition by Princeton University Press, Princeton. . * External links * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/centaurus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Centaurus] * [http://www.starrynightphotos.com/constellations/centaurus.htm Starry Night Photography: Centaurus] * [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/centaurus.html Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Centaurus] * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017076 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Centaurus)] Category:Constellations Category:Southern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaurus	2025-04-05T18:27:48.739748
6416	Impact crater	crater Engelier on Saturn's moon Iapetus \| image2 = Mare_Orientale_(Lunar_Orbiter_4).png \| caption2 = Mare Orientale on the Moon, a prominent well-structured example of a multi-ring basin \| image3 = Fresh impact crater HiRise 2013.jpg \| caption3 Recently formed (between July 2010 and May 2012) impact crater on Mars showing a pristine ray system of ejecta \| image4 = Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg \| caption4 = 50,000-year-old Meteor Crater east of Flagstaff, Arizona, U.S. on Earth }} An impact crater is a depression in the surface of a solid astronomical body formed by the hypervelocity impact of a smaller object. In contrast to volcanic craters, which result from explosion or internal collapse, impact craters typically have raised rims and floors that are lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain. Impact craters are typically circular, though they can be elliptical in shape or even irregular due to events such as landslides. Impact craters range in size from microscopic craters seen on lunar rocks returned by the Apollo Program to simple bowl-shaped depressions and vast, complex, multi-ringed impact basins. Meteor Crater is a well-known example of a small impact crater on Earth. Impact craters are the dominant geographic features on many solid Solar System objects including the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede, and most small moons and asteroids. On other planets and moons that experience more active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus, Europa, Io, Titan, and Triton, visible impact craters are less common because they become eroded, buried, or transformed by tectonic and volcanic processes over time. Where such processes have destroyed most of the original crater topography, the terms impact structure or astrobleme are more commonly used. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth. The cratering records of very old surfaces, such as Mercury, the Moon, and the southern highlands of Mars, record a period of intense early bombardment in the inner Solar System around 3.9 billion years ago. The rate of crater production on Earth has since been considerably lower, but it is appreciable nonetheless. Earth experiences, on average, from one to three impacts large enough to produce a crater every million years. This indicates that there should be far more relatively young craters on the planet than have been discovered so far. The cratering rate in the inner solar system fluctuates as a consequence of collisions in the asteroid belt that create a family of fragments that are often sent cascading into the inner solar system. Formed in a collision 80 million years ago, the Baptistina family of asteroids is thought to have caused a large spike in the impact rate. The rate of impact cratering in the outer Solar System could be different from the inner Solar System. Although Earth's active surface processes quickly destroy the impact record, about 190 terrestrial impact craters have been identified. These range in diameter from a few tens of meters up to about , and they range in age from recent times (e.g. the Sikhote-Alin craters in Russia whose creation was witnessed in 1947) to more than two billion years, though most are less than 500 million years old because geological processes tend to obliterate older craters. They are also selectively found in the stable interior regions of continents. Few undersea craters have been discovered because of the difficulty of surveying the sea floor, the rapid rate of change of the ocean bottom, and the subduction of the ocean floor into Earth's interior by processes of plate tectonics. History Daniel M. Barringer, a mining engineer, was convinced already in 1903 that the crater he owned, Meteor Crater, was of cosmic origin. Most geologists at the time assumed it formed as the result of a volcanic steam eruption. Grove Karl Gilbert suggested in 1893 that the Moon's craters were formed by large asteroid impacts. Ralph Baldwin in 1949 wrote that the Moon's craters were mostly of impact origin. Around 1960, Gene Shoemaker revived the idea. According to David H. Levy, Shoemaker "saw the craters on the Moon as logical impact sites that were formed not gradually, in eons, but explosively, in seconds." For his PhD degree at Princeton University (1960), under the guidance of Harry Hammond Hess, Shoemaker studied the impact dynamics of Meteor Crater. Shoemaker noted that Meteor Crater had the same form and structure as two explosion craters created from atomic bomb tests at the Nevada Test Site, notably Jangle U in 1951 and Teapot Ess in 1955. In 1960, Edward C. T. Chao and Shoemaker identified coesite (a form of silicon dioxide) at Meteor Crater, proving the crater was formed from an impact generating extremely high temperatures and pressures. They followed this discovery with the identification of coesite within suevite at Nördlinger Ries, proving its impact origin. Armed with the knowledge of shock-metamorphic features, Carlyle S. Beals and colleagues at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada and Wolf von Engelhardt of the University of Tübingen in Germany began a methodical search for impact craters. By 1970, they had tentatively identified more than 50. Although their work was controversial, the American Apollo Moon landings, which were in progress at the time, provided supportive evidence by recognizing the rate of impact cratering on the Moon. Because the processes of erosion on the Moon are minimal, craters persist. Since the Earth could be expected to have roughly the same cratering rate as the Moon, it became clear that the Earth had suffered far more impacts than could be seen by counting evident craters. Crater formation Impact cratering involves high velocity collisions between solid objects, typically much greater than the speed of sound in those objects. Such hyper-velocity impacts produce physical effects such as melting and vaporization that do not occur in familiar sub-sonic collisions. On Earth, ignoring the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere, the lowest impact velocity with an object from space is equal to the gravitational escape velocity of about 11 km/s. The fastest impacts occur at about 72 km/s However, the slowing effects of travel through the atmosphere rapidly decelerate any potential impactor, especially in the lowest 12 kilometres where 90% of the Earth's atmospheric mass lies. Meteors of up to 7,000 kg lose all their cosmic velocity due to atmospheric drag at a certain altitude (retardation point), and start to accelerate again due to Earth's gravity until the body reaches its terminal velocity of 0.09 to 0.16 km/s. Impacts at these high speeds produce shock waves in solid materials, and both impactor and the material impacted are rapidly compressed to high density. Following initial compression, the high-density, over-compressed region rapidly depressurizes, exploding violently, to set in train the sequence of events that produces the impact crater. Impact-crater formation is therefore more closely analogous to cratering by high explosives than by mechanical displacement. Indeed, the energy density of some material involved in the formation of impact craters is many times higher than that generated by high explosives. Since craters are caused by explosions, they are nearly always circular – only very low-angle impacts cause significantly elliptical craters. This describes impacts on solid surfaces. Impacts on porous surfaces, such as that of Hyperion, may produce internal compression without ejecta, punching a hole in the surface without filling in nearby craters. This may explain the 'sponge-like' appearance of that moon. It is convenient to divide the impact process conceptually into three distinct stages: (1) initial contact and compression, (2) excavation, (3) modification and collapse. In practice, there is overlap between the three processes with, for example, the excavation of the crater continuing in some regions while modification and collapse is already underway in others. Contact and compression }}</ref>]] In the absence of atmosphere, the impact process begins when the impactor first touches the target surface. This contact accelerates the target and decelerates the impactor. Because the impactor is moving so rapidly, the rear of the object moves a significant distance during the short-but-finite time taken for the deceleration to propagate across the impactor. As a result, the impactor is compressed, its density rises, and the pressure within it increases dramatically. Peak pressures in large impacts exceed 1 T Pa to reach values more usually found deep in the interiors of planets, or generated artificially in nuclear explosions. In physical terms, a shock wave originates from the point of contact. As this shock wave expands, it decelerates and compresses the impactor, and it accelerates and compresses the target. Stress levels within the shock wave far exceed the strength of solid materials; consequently, both the impactor and the target close to the impact site are irreversibly damaged. Many crystalline minerals can be transformed into higher-density phases by shock waves; for example, the common mineral quartz can be transformed into the higher-pressure forms coesite and stishovite. Many other shock-related changes take place within both impactor and target as the shock wave passes through, and some of these changes can be used as diagnostic tools to determine whether particular geological features were produced by impact cratering. Identifying impact craters of craters: simple and complex craters]] in Tennessee, United States: a close-up of shatter cones developed in fine grained dolomite]] : aerial electromagnetic resistivity map (USGS)]] in the U.S. state of Arizona, was the world's first confirmed impact crater.]] in Western Australia was renamed in memory of Gene Shoemaker.]] Non-explosive volcanic craters can usually be distinguished from impact craters by their irregular shape and the association of volcanic flows and other volcanic materials. Impact craters produce melted rocks as well, but usually in smaller volumes with different characteristics. Impacts produce distinctive shock-metamorphic effects that allow impact sites to be distinctively identified. Such shock-metamorphic effects can include: * A layer of shattered or "brecciated" rock under the floor of the crater. This layer is called a "breccia lens". * Shatter cones, which are chevron-shaped impressions in rocks. Such cones are formed most easily in fine-grained rocks. * High-temperature rock types, including laminated and welded blocks of sand, spherulites and tektites, or glassy spatters of molten rock. The impact origin of tektites has been questioned by some researchers; they have observed some volcanic features in tektites not found in impactites. Tektites are also drier (contain less water) than typical impactites. While rocks melted by the impact resemble volcanic rocks, they incorporate unmelted fragments of bedrock, form unusually large and unbroken fields, and have a much more mixed chemical composition than volcanic materials spewed up from within the Earth. They also may have relatively large amounts of trace elements that are associated with meteorites, such as nickel, platinum, iridium, and cobalt. Note: scientific literature has reported that some "shock" features, such as small shatter cones, which are often associated only with impact events, have been found also in terrestrial volcanic ejecta. * Microscopic pressure deformations of minerals. These include fracture patterns in crystals of quartz and feldspar, and formation of high-pressure materials such as diamond, derived from graphite and other carbon compounds, or stishovite and coesite, varieties of shocked quartz. * Buried craters, such as the Decorah crater, can be identified through drill coring, aerial electromagnetic resistivity imaging, and airborne gravity gradiometry. Economic importance On Earth, impact craters have resulted in useful minerals. Some of the ores produced from impact related effects on Earth include ores of iron, uranium, gold, copper, and nickel. It is estimated that the value of materials mined from impact structures is five billion dollars/year just for North America. The eventual usefulness of impact craters depends on several factors, especially the nature of the materials that were impacted and when the materials were affected. In some cases, the deposits were already in place and the impact brought them to the surface. These are called "progenetic economic deposits." Others were created during the actual impact. The great energy involved caused melting. Useful minerals formed as a result of this energy are classified as "syngenetic deposits." The third type, called "epigenetic deposits," is caused by the creation of a basin from the impact. Many of the minerals that our modern lives depend on are associated with impacts in the past. The Vredeford Dome in the center of the Witwatersrand Basin is the largest goldfield in the world, which has supplied about 40% of all the gold ever mined in an impact structure (though the gold did not come from the bolide). The asteroid that struck the region was wide. The Sudbury Basin was caused by an impacting body over in diameter. This basin is famous for its deposits of nickel, copper, and platinum group elements. An impact was involved in making the Carswell structure in Saskatchewan, Canada; it contains uranium deposits. Hydrocarbons are common around impact structures. Fifty percent of impact structures in North America in hydrocarbon-bearing sedimentary basins contain oil/gas fields. a website concerned with 190 () scientifically confirmed impact craters on Earth. Some extraterrestrial craters crater in Caloris Basin, photographed by MESSENGER, 2011]] * Caloris Basin (Mercury) * Hellas Basin (Mars) * Herschel crater (Mimas) * Mare Orientale (Moon) * Petrarch crater (Mercury) * South Pole – Aitken basin (Moon) Largest named craters in the Solar System straddling the terminator on Rhea, lower right.]] # North Polar Basin/Borealis Basin (disputed) – Mars – Diameter: 10,600 km # South Pole-Aitken basin – Moon – Diameter: 2,500 km # Hellas Basin – Mars – Diameter: 2,100 km <!-- # "Skinakas Basin" – Mercury – Diameter: ~1,600 km --> # Caloris Basin – Mercury – Diameter: 1,550 km # Sputnik Planitia – Pluto – Diameter: 1,300 km # Imbrium Basin – Moon – Diameter: 1,100 km # Isidis Planitia – Mars – Diameter: 1,100 km # Mare Tranquilitatis – Moon – Diameter: 870 km # Argyre Planitia – Mars – Diameter: 800 km # Rembrandt – Mercury – Diameter: 715 km # Serenitatis Basin – Moon – Diameter: 700 km # Mare Nubium – Moon – Diameter: 700 km # Beethoven – Mercury – Diameter: 625 km # Valhalla – Callisto – Diameter: 600 km, with rings to 4,000 km diameter # Hertzsprung – Moon – Diameter: 590 km # Turgis – Iapetus – Diameter: 580 km # Apollo – Moon – Diameter: 540 km # Engelier – Iapetus – Diameter: 504 km # Mamaldi – Rhea – Diameter: 480 km # Huygens – Mars – Diameter: 470 km # Schiaparelli – Mars – Diameter: 470 km # Rheasilvia – 4 Vesta – Diameter: 460 km # Gerin – Iapetus – Diameter: 445 km # Odysseus – Tethys – Diameter: 445 km # Korolev – Moon – Diameter: 430 km # Falsaron – Iapetus – Diameter: 424 km # Dostoevskij – Mercury – Diameter: 400 km # Menrva – Titan – Diameter: 392 km # Tolstoj – Mercury – Diameter: 390 km # Goethe – Mercury – Diameter: 380 km # Malprimis – Iapetus – Diameter: 377 km # Tirawa – Rhea – Diameter: 360 km # Orientale Basin – Moon – Diameter: 350 km, with rings to 930 km diameter # Evander – Dione – Diameter: 350 km # Epigeus – Ganymede – Diameter: 343 km # Gertrude – Titania – Diameter: 326 km # Telemus – Tethys – Diameter: 320 km # Asgard – Callisto – Diameter: 300 km, with rings to 1,400 km diameter # Vredefort impact structure – Earth – Diameter: 300 km # Burney – Pluto – Diameter: 296 km There are approximately twelve more impact craters/basins larger than 300 km on the Moon, five on Mercury, and four on Mars. Large basins, some unnamed but mostly smaller than 300 km, can also be found on Saturn's moons Dione, Rhea and Iapetus.See also * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , 1998 book from Lunar and Planetary Institute – comprehensive reference on impact crater science References Bibliography * * * * * Further reading * External links * [https://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/ The Geological Survey of Canada Crater database, 172 impact structures] [http://craterexplorer.ca/ Aerial Explorations of Terrestrial Meteorite Craters] [http://impact.scaredycatfilms.com/ Impact Meteor Crater Viewer] Google Maps Page with Locations of Meteor Craters around the world [http://www.solarviews.com/eng/tercrate.htm Solarviews: Terrestrial Impact Craters] [http://www.lpi.usra.edu/publications/slidesets/craters/ Lunar and Planetary Institute slidshow: contains pictures] [https://impact.ese.ic.ac.uk/ImpactEarth/ImpactEffects/ Earth Impact Effects Program] Estimates crater size and other effects of a specified body colliding with Earth. * Crater Category:Geology of the Moon Category:Depressions (geology) Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Planetary geology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_crater	2025-04-05T18:27:48.807773
6417	Corvus (disambiguation)	Corvus is a genus of birds commonly known as crows and ravens. Corvus may also refer to: Companies Corvus Energy, a Norwegian supplier originally founded in Canada Corvus Hungary, an aircraft manufacturer Corvus Systems, an American defunct computer hardware manufacturer Fictional characters Corvus, a main antagonist in movie Pompeii (film) Corvus, a character in Satyajit Ray's Professor Shonku series Corvus, a character in the video game Call of Duty: Black Ops III Corvus, a character in the video game Dragon Quest IX: Sentinels of the Starry Skies Corvus, a character in the video games Heretic and Heretic II Corvus Glaive, a Marvel comics character Military ASM-N-8 Corvus, a United States Navy missile Corvus (boarding device), used by ancient Roman warships Corvus chaff launcher, a British shipborne chaff decoy system manufactured by Vickers SS Corvus, the name of two steamships, both put out of service in 1945 USS Corvus, a U.S. Navy attack cargo ship of World War II People Joannes Corvus (fl. 1512 – 1544), Flemish portrait painter Marcus Valerius Corvus (c. 370–270 BC), Roman military commander and politician Corvulus of Friuli, an 8th century AD Lombardic duke (name is a Latin diminutive of Corvus) Publishing Corvus (imprint), an imprint of Atlantic Books Corvus: A Life with Birds, a 2008 non-fiction book by Esther Woolfson Other uses Corvus (constellation), a small constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere Corvus in Chinese astronomy, the same constellation as considered in traditional Chinese uranography Corvus (heraldry), crows and ravens in heraldry Corvus, a ship in the 2017 video game Star Wars Battlefront II Corvus Corax (band), a German band known for playing neo-Medieval music Gibson Corvus, a guitar product line See also	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corvus_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:27:48.811747
6420	Corona Borealis	, genitive \| symbolism = The Northern Crown \| RA – \| dec– \| numbermessierobjects = 0 \| meteorshowers = None \| bordering = \| latmax = 90 \| latmin = 50 \| month = June \| notes = }} Corona Borealis is a small constellation in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere. It is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations. Its brightest stars form a semicircular arc. Its Latin name, inspired by its shape, means "northern crown". In classical mythology Corona Borealis generally represented the crown given by the god Dionysus to the Cretan princess Ariadne and set by her in the heavens. Other cultures likened the pattern to a circle of elders, an eagle's nest, a bear's den or a smokehole. Ptolemy also listed a southern counterpart, Corona Australis, with a similar pattern. The brightest star is the magnitude 2.2 Alpha Coronae Borealis. The yellow supergiant R Coronae Borealis is the prototype of a rare class of giant stars—the R Coronae Borealis variables—that are extremely hydrogen deficient, and thought to result from the merger of two white dwarfs. T Coronae Borealis, also known as the Blaze Star, is another unusual type of variable star known as a recurrent nova. Normally of magnitude 10, it last flared up to magnitude 2 in 1946, and is predicted to do the same in 2025. ADS 9731 and Sigma Coronae Borealis are multiple star systems with six and five components respectively. Five stars in the constellation host Jupiter-sized exoplanets. Abell 2065 is a highly concentrated galaxy cluster one billion light-years from the Solar System containing more than 400 members, and is itself part of the larger Corona Borealis Supercluster. Characteristics Covering 179 square degrees and hence 0.433% of the sky, Corona Borealis ranks 73rd of the IAU designated constellations by area. and , while the declination coordinates are between 39.71° and 25.54°. It has a counterpart—Corona Australis—in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere. Features Stars The seven stars that make up the constellation's distinctive crown-shaped pattern are all 4th-magnitude stars except for the brightest of them, Alpha Coronae Borealis. The other six stars are Theta, Beta, Gamma, Delta, Epsilon and Iota Coronae Borealis. The German cartographer Johann Bayer gave twenty stars in Corona Borealis Bayer designations from Alpha to Upsilon in his 1603 star atlas Uranometria. Zeta Coronae Borealis was noted to be a double star by later astronomers and its components designated Zeta<sup>1</sup> and Zeta<sup>2</sup>. John Flamsteed did likewise with Nu Coronae Borealis; classed by Bayer as a single star, it was noted to be two close stars by Flamsteed. He named them 20 and 21 Coronae Borealis in his catalogue, alongside the designations Nu<sup>1</sup> and Nu<sup>2</sup> respectively. Chinese astronomers deemed nine stars to make up the asterism, adding Pi and Rho Coronae Borealis. Within the constellation's borders, there are 37 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5. In fact, it is an Algol-type eclipsing binary that varies by 0.1 magnitude with a period of 17.4 days. The primary is a white main-sequence star of spectral type A0V that is 2.91 times the mass of the Sun () and 57 times as luminous (), and is surrounded by a debris disk out to a radius of around 60 astronomical units (AU). The secondary companion is a yellow main-sequence star of spectral type G5V that is a little smaller (0.9 times) the diameter of the Sun. Lying 75±0.5 light-years from Earth, Alphecca is believed to be a member of the Ursa Major Moving Group of stars that have a common motion through space. Located 112±3 light-years away, The brighter component is a rapidly oscillating Ap star, pulsating with a period of 16.2 minutes. Of spectral type A5V with a surface temperature of around 7980 K, it has around , 2.6 solar radii (), and . The smaller star is of spectral type F2V with a surface temperature of around 6750 K, and has around , , and between 4 and . Near Nusakan is Theta Coronae Borealis, a binary system that shines with a combined magnitude of 4.13 located 380±20 light-years distant. Flanking Alpha to the east is Gamma Coronae Borealis, yet another binary star system, whose components orbit each other every 92.94 years and are roughly as far apart from each other as the Sun and Neptune. The brighter component has been classed as a Delta Scuti variable star, though this view is not universal. Located 170±2 light-years away, For most of its existence, Delta Coronae Borealis was a blue-white main-sequence star of spectral type B before it ran out of hydrogen fuel in its core. Its luminosity and spectrum suggest it has just crossed the Hertzsprung gap, having finished burning core hydrogen and just begun burning hydrogen in a shell that surrounds the core. Zeta Coronae Borealis is a double star with two blue-white components 6.3 arcseconds apart that can be readily separated at 100x magnification. The primary is of magnitude 5.1 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.0. Nu Coronae Borealis is an optical double, whose components are a similar distance from Earth but have different radial velocities, hence are assumed to be unrelated. The primary, Nu<sup>1</sup> Coronae Borealis, is a red giant of spectral type M2III and magnitude 5.2, lying 640±30 light-years distant, and the secondary, Nu<sup>2</sup> Coronae Borealis, is an orange-hued giant star of spectral type K5III and magnitude 5.4, estimated to be 590±30 light-years away. Sigma Coronae Borealis, on the other hand, is a true multiple star system divisible by small amateur telescopes. It is actually a complex system composed of two stars around as massive as the Sun that orbit each other every 1.14 days, orbited by a third Sun-like star every 726 years. The fourth and fifth components are a binary red dwarf system that is 14,000 AU distant from the other three stars. ADS 9731 is an even rarer multiple system in the constellation, composed of six stars, two of which are spectroscopic binaries. Normally placid around magnitude 10—it has a minimum of 10.2 and maximum of 9.9—it brightens to magnitude 2 in a period of hours, caused by a nuclear chain reaction and the subsequent explosion. T Coronae Borealis is one of a handful of stars called recurrent novae, which include T Pyxidis and U Scorpii. An outburst of T Coronae Borealis was first recorded in 1866; its second recorded outburst was in February 1946. T Coronae Borealis started dimming in March 2023 and it is known that before it goes nova it dims for about a year; for this reason it was initially expected to go nova at any time between March and September, 2024. T Coronae Borealis is a binary star with a red-hued giant primary and a white dwarf secondary, the two stars orbiting each other over a period of approximately 8 months. R Coronae Borealis is a yellow-hued variable supergiant star, over 7000 light-years from Earth, and prototype of a class of stars known as R Coronae Borealis variables. Normally of magnitude 6, its brightness periodically drops as low as magnitude 15 and then slowly increases over the next several months. These declines in magnitude come about as dust that has been ejected from the star obscures it. Direct imaging with the Hubble Space Telescope shows extensive dust clouds out to a radius of around 2000 AU from the star, corresponding with a stream of fine dust (composed of grains 5 nm in diameter) associated with the star's stellar wind and coarser dust (composed of grains with a diameter of around 0.14 μm) ejected periodically. There are several other variables of reasonable brightness for amateur astronomer to observe, including three Mira-type long period variables: Located around 1946 light-years distant, it shines with a luminosity 16,643 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3033 K. One of the reddest stars in the sky, it is located near the junction of the border of Corona Borealis with Hercules and Bootes. Another red giant, RR Coronae Borealis is a M3-type semiregular variable star that varies between magnitudes 7.3 and 8.2 over 60.8 days. RS Coronae Borealis is yet another semiregular variable red giant, which ranges between magnitudes 8.7 to 11.6 over 332 days. It is unusual in that it is a red star with a high proper motion (greater than 50 milliarcseconds a year). Meanwhile, U Coronae Borealis is an Algol-type eclipsing binary star system whose magnitude varies between 7.66 and 8.79 over a period of 3.45 days TY Coronae Borealis is a pulsating white dwarf (of ZZ Ceti) type, which is around 70% as massive as the Sun, yet has only 1.1% of its diameter. Discovered in 1990, UW Coronae Borealis is a low-mass X-ray binary system composed of a star less massive than the Sun and a neutron star surrounded by an accretion disk that draws material from the companion star. It varies in brightness in an unusually complex manner: the two stars orbit each other every 111 minutes, yet there is another cycle of 112.6 minutes, which corresponds to the orbit of the disk around the degenerate star. The beat period of 5.5 days indicates the time the accretion disk—which is asymmetrical—takes to precess around the star. Extrasolar planetary systems Extrasolar planets have been confirmed in five star systems, four of which were found by the radial velocity method. The spectrum of Epsilon Coronae Borealis was analysed for seven years from 2005 to 2012, revealing a planet around 6.7 times as massive as Jupiter () orbiting every 418 days at an average distance of around 1.3 AU. Epsilon itself is a orange giant of spectral type K2III that has swollen to and . Kappa Coronae Borealis is a spectral type K1IV orange subgiant nearly twice as massive as the Sun; around it lies a dust debris disk, This planet's mass is estimated at . The dimensions of the debris disk indicate it is likely there is a second substellar companion. Omicron Coronae Borealis is a K-type clump giant with one confirmed planet with a mass of that orbits every 187 days—one of the two least massive planets known around clump giants. XO-1 is a magnitude 11 yellow main-sequence star located approximately light-years away, of spectral type G1V with a mass and radius similar to the Sun. In 2006 the hot Jupiter exoplanet XO-1b was discovered orbiting XO-1 by the transit method using the XO Telescope. Roughly the size of Jupiter, it completes an orbit around its star every three days.<!-- cites previous 1.5 sentences --> The discovery of a Jupiter-sized planetary companion was announced in 1997 via analysis of the radial velocity of Rho Coronae Borealis, a yellow main sequence star and Solar analog of spectral type G0V, around 57 light-years distant from Earth. More accurate measurement of data from the Hipparcos satellite subsequently showed it instead to be a low-mass star somewhere between 100 and 200 times the mass of Jupiter. Possible stable planetary orbits in the habitable zone were calculated for the binary star Eta Coronae Borealis, which is composed of two stars—yellow main sequence stars of spectral type G1V and G3V respectively—similar in mass and spectrum to the Sun. No planet has been found, but a brown dwarf companion about 63 times as massive as Jupiter with a spectral type of L8 was discovered at a distance of 3640 AU from the pair in 2001. Deep-sky objects ]] Corona Borealis contains few galaxies observable with amateur telescopes. NGC 6085 and 6086 are a faint spiral and elliptical galaxy respectively close enough to each other to be seen in the same visual field through a telescope. Abell 2142 is a huge (six million light-year diameter), X-ray luminous galaxy cluster that is the result of an ongoing merger between two galaxy clusters. It has a redshift of 0.0909 (meaning it is moving away from us at 27,250 km/s) and a visual magnitude of 16.0. It is about 1.2 billion light-years away. Another galaxy cluster in the constellation, RX J1532.9+3021, is approximately 3.9 billion light-years from Earth. At the cluster's center is a large elliptical galaxy containing one of the most massive and most powerful supermassive black holes yet discovered. Another galaxy cluster, Abell 2162, is a member of the Hercules Superclusters. Mythology and Corona Borealis, as depicted in ''Urania's Mirror'' ()]] In Greek mythology, Corona Borealis was linked to the legend of Theseus and the minotaur. It was generally considered to represent a crown given by Dionysus to Ariadne, the daughter of Minos of Crete, after she had been abandoned by the Athenian prince Theseus. When she wore the crown at her marriage to Dionysus, he placed it in the heavens to commemorate their wedding. An alternative version has the besotted Dionysus give the crown to Ariadne, who in turn gives it to Theseus after he arrives in Crete to kill the minotaur that the Cretans have demanded tribute from Athens to feed. The hero uses the crown's light to escape the labyrinth after disposing of the creature, and Dionysus later sets it in the heavens. , attributed to Hyginus, linked it to a crown or wreath worn by Bacchus (Dionysus) to disguise his appearance when first approaching Mount Olympus and revealing himself to the gods, having been previously hidden as yet another child of Jupiter's trysts with a mortal, in this case Semele. Its proximity to the constellations Hercules (which reports was once attributed to Theseus, among others) and Lyra (Theseus' lyre in one account), could indicate that the three constellations were invented as a group. Corona Borealis was one of the 48 constellations mentioned in the Almagest of classical astronomer Ptolemy. In Welsh mythology, it was called Caer Arianrhod, "the Castle of the Silver Circle", and was the heavenly abode of the Lady Arianrhod. To the ancient Balts, Corona Borealis was known as Darželis, the "flower garden". The Arabs called the constellation Alphecca (a name later given to Alpha Coronae Borealis), which means "separated" or "broken up" ( ), a reference to the resemblance of the stars of Corona Borealis to a loose string of jewels. This was also interpreted as a broken dish. Among the Bedouins, the constellation was known as (), or "the dish/bowl of the poor people". The Skidi people of Native Americans saw the stars of Corona Borealis representing a council of stars whose chief was Polaris. The constellation also symbolised the smokehole over a fireplace, which conveyed their messages to the gods, as well as how chiefs should come together to consider matters of importance. The Shawnee people saw the stars as the Heavenly Sisters, who descended from the sky every night to dance on earth. Alphecca signifies the youngest and most comely sister, who was seized by a hunter who transformed into a field mouse to get close to her. They married though she later returned to the sky, with her heartbroken husband and son following later. Polynesian peoples often recognized Corona Borealis; the people of the Tuamotus named it Na Kaua-ki-tokerau and probably Te Hetu. The constellation was likely called Kaua-mea in Hawaii, Rangawhenua in New Zealand, and Te Wale-o-Awitu in the Cook Islands atoll of Pukapuka. Its name in Tonga was uncertain; it was either called Ao-o-Uvea or Kau-kupenga. In Australian Aboriginal astronomy, the constellation is called womera ("the boomerang") due to the shape of the stars. The Wailwun people of northwestern New South Wales saw Corona Borealis as mullion wollai "eagle's nest", with Altair and Vega—each called mullion—the pair of eagles accompanying it. The Wardaman people of northern Australia held the constellation to be a gathering point for Men's Law, Women's Law and Law of both sexes come together and consider matters of existence. Later references Corona Borealis was renamed Corona Firmiana in honour of the Archbishop of Salzburg in the 1730 Atlas Mercurii Philosophicii Firmamentum Firminianum Descriptionem by Corbinianus Thomas, but this was not taken up by subsequent cartographers. The constellation was featured as a main plot ingredient in the short story "Hypnos" by H. P. Lovecraft, published in 1923; it is the object of fear of one of the protagonists in the short story. Finnish band Cadacross released an album titled Corona Borealis in 2002. See also * Corona Borealis (Chinese astronomy) Notes References Cited texts * External links * * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017043 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 160 medieval and early modern images of Corona Borealis)] Category:Ariadne Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy Category:Constellations Category:Mythological clothing Category:Mythology of Dionysus Category:Northern constellations Category:Objects in Greek mythology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_Borealis	2025-04-05T18:27:48.843967
6421	Cygnus (constellation)	, genitive \| symbolism = the Swan or Northern Cross \| RA = \| dec= \| family = Hercules \| quadrant = NQ4 \| areatotal = 804 \| arearank = 16th \| numbermainstars = 9 \| numberbfstars = 84 \| numberstarsplanets = 97 \| numberbrightstars = 4 \| numbernearbystars = 1 \| brighteststarname = Deneb (α Cyg) \| starmagnitude = 1.25 \| neareststarname = 61 Cyg \| stardistancely = 11.36 \| stardistancepc = 3.48 \| numbermessierobjects = 2 \| meteorshowers = October Cygnids<br />Kappa Cygnids \| bordering = Cepheus<br />Draco<br />Lyra<br />Vulpecula<br />Pegasus<br />Lacerta \| latmax = 90 \| latmin = 40 \| month = September \| notes=}} Cygnus is a northern constellation on the plane of the Milky Way, deriving its name from the Latinized Greek word for swan. It also has some notable X-ray sources and the giant stellar association of Cygnus OB2. One of the stars of this association, NML Cygni, is one of the largest stars currently known. The constellation is also home to Cygnus X-1, a distant X-ray binary containing a supergiant and unseen massive companion that was the first object widely held to be a black hole. Many star systems in Cygnus have known planets as a result of the Kepler Mission observing one patch of the sky, an area around Cygnus. Most of the east has part of the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall in the deep sky, a giant galaxy filament that is the largest known structure in the observable universe, covering most of the northern sky. History and mythology In Eastern and World astronomy In Polynesia, Cygnus was often recognized as a separate constellation. In Tonga it was called Tuula-lupe, and in the Tuamotus it was called Fanui-tai. In New Zealand it was called Mara-tea, in the Society Islands it was called Pirae-tea or Taurua-i-te-haapa-raa-manu, and in the Tuamotus it was called Fanui-raro. Beta Cygni was named in New Zealand; it was likely called Whetu-kaupo. Gamma Cygni was called Fanui-runga in the Tuamotus. Deneb was also often a given name, in the Islamic world of astronomy. The name Deneb comes from the Arabic name dhaneb, meaning "tail", from the phrase Dhanab ad-Dajājah, which means "the tail of the hen". In Western astronomy '', a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825. Surrounding it are Lacerta, Vulpecula and Lyra.]] In Greek mythology, Cygnus has been identified with several different legendary swans. Zeus disguised himself as a swan to seduce Leda, Spartan king Tyndareus's wife, who gave birth to the Gemini, Helen of Troy, and Clytemnestra; Orpheus was transformed into a swan after his murder, and was said to have been placed in the sky next to his lyre (Lyra); and a man named Cygnus (Greek for swan) was transformed into his namesake. Later Romans also associated this constellation with the tragic story of Phaethon, the son of Helios the sun god, who demanded to ride his father's sun chariot for a day. Phaethon, however, was unable to control the reins, forcing Zeus to destroy the chariot (and Phaethon) with a thunderbolt, causing it to plummet to the earth into the river Eridanus. According to the myth, Phaethon's close friend or lover, Cygnus of Liguria, grieved bitterly and spent many days diving into the river to collect Phaethon's bones to give him a proper burial. The gods were so touched by Cygnus's devotion that they turned him into a swan and placed him among the stars. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, there are three people named Cygnus, all of whom are transformed into swans. Alongside Cygnus, noted above, he mentions a boy from Aetolia who throws himself off a cliff when his companion Phyllius refuses to give him a tamed bull that he demands, but he is transformed into a swan and flies away. He also mentions a son of Poseidon, an invulnerable warrior in the Trojan War who is eventually killed by Achilles, but Poseidon saves him by transforming him into a swan. Together with other avian constellations near the summer solstice, Vultur cadens and Aquila, Cygnus may be a significant part of the origin of the myth of the Stymphalian Birds, one of The Twelve Labours of Hercules. Characteristics A very large constellation, Cygnus is bordered by Cepheus to the north and east, Draco to the north and west, Lyra to the west, Vulpecula to the south, Pegasus to the southeast and Lacerta to the east. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the IAU in 1922, is "Cyg". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined as a polygon of 28 segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between 27.73° and 61.36°. Covering 804 square degrees and around 1.9% of the night sky, Cygnus ranks 16th of the 88 constellations in size. Cygnus culminates at midnight on 29 June, and is most visible in the evening from the early summer to mid-autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. Features There is an abundance of deep-sky objects, with many open clusters, nebulae of various types and supernova remnants found in Cygnus due to its position on the Milky Way. Its molecular clouds form the Cygnus Rift dark nebula constellation, comprising one end of the Great Rift along the Milky Way's galactic plane. The rift begins around the Northern Coalsack, and partially obscures the larger Cygnus molecular cloud complex behind it, which the North America Nebula is part of. (left bright part) with Sadr region (right bright part) in the Cygnus X region, visually interrupted by the Cygnus rift .]] Stars in the middle.]] Bayer catalogued many stars in the constellation, giving them the Bayer designations from Alpha to Omega and then using lowercase Roman letters to g. John Flamsteed added the Roman letters h, i, k, l and m (these stars were considered informes by Bayer as they lay outside the asterism of Cygnus), but were dropped by Francis Baily.]] There are several bright stars in Cygnus. α Cygni, called Deneb, is the brightest star in Cygnus. It is a white supergiant star of spectral type A2Iae that varies between magnitudes 1.21 and 1.29, one of the largest and most luminous A-class stars known. It is located about 2600 light-years away. Its traditional name means "tail" and refers to its position in the constellation. Albireo, designated β Cygni, is a celebrated binary star among amateur astronomers for its contrasting hues. The primary is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 3.1 and the secondary is a blue-green hued star of magnitude 5.1. The system is 430 light-years away and is visible in large binoculars and all amateur telescopes. γ Cygni, traditionally named Sadr, is a yellow-tinged supergiant star of magnitude 2.2, 1800 light-years away. Its traditional name means "breast" and refers to its position in the constellation. δ Cygni (the proper name is Fawaris) is another bright binary star in Cygnus, 166 light-years with a period of 800 years. The primary is a blue-white hued giant star of magnitude 2.9, and the secondary is a star of magnitude 6.6. The two components are visible in a medium-sized amateur telescope. The fifth star in Cygnus above magnitude 3 is Aljanah, There are several other dimmer double and binary stars in Cygnus. μ Cygni is a binary star with an optical tertiary component. The binary system has a period of 790 years and is 73 light-years from Earth. The primary and secondary, both white stars, are of magnitude 4.8 and 6.2, respectively. The unrelated tertiary component is of magnitude 6.9. Though the tertiary component is visible in binoculars, the primary and secondary currently require a medium-sized amateur telescope to split, as they will through the year 2020. The two stars will be closest between 2043 and 2050, when they will require a telescope with larger aperture to split. The stars 30 and 31 Cygni form a contrasting double star similar to the brighter Albireo. The two are visible in binoculars. The primary, 31 Cygni, is an orange-hued star of magnitude 3.8, 1400 light-years from Earth. The secondary, 30 Cygni, appears blue-green. It is of spectral type A5IIIn and magnitude 4.83, and is around 610 light-years from Earth. 31 Cygni itself is a binary star; the tertiary component is a blue star of magnitude 7.0. ψ Cygni is a binary star visible in small amateur telescopes, with two white components. The primary is of magnitude 5.0 and the secondary is of magnitude 7.5. 61 Cygni is a binary star visible in large binoculars or a small amateur telescope. It is 11.4 light-years from Earth and has a period of 750 years. Both components are orange-hued dwarf (main sequence) stars; the primary is of magnitude 5.2 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.1. 61 Cygni is significant because Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel determined its parallax in 1838, the first star to have a known parallax. Located near η Cygni is the X-ray source Cygnus X-1, which is now thought to be caused by a black hole accreting matter in a binary star system. This was the first X-ray source widely believed to be a black hole. It is located approximately 2.2 kiloparsecs from the Sun. There is also supergiant variable star in the system which is known as HDE 226868. are easily distinguished, even in a small telescope.]] Cygnus also contains several other noteworthy X-ray sources. Cygnus X-3 is a microquasar containing a Wolf–Rayet star in orbit around a very compact object, with a period of only 4.8 hours. The system is one of the most intrinsically luminous X-ray sources observed. The system undergoes periodic outbursts of unknown nature, and during one such outburst, the system was found to be emitting muons, likely caused by neutrinos. While the compact object is thought to be a neutron star or possibly a black hole, it is possible that the object is instead a more exotic stellar remnant, possibly the first discovered quark star, hypothesized due to its production of cosmic rays that cannot be explained if the object is a normal neutron star. The system also emits cosmic rays and gamma rays, and has helped shed insight on to the formation of such rays. Cygnus X-2 is another X-ray binary, containing an A-type giant in orbit around a neutron star with a 9.8-day period. The system is interesting due to the rather small mass of the companion star, as most millisecond pulsars have much more massive companions. Another black hole in Cygnus is V404 Cygni, which consists of a K-type star orbiting around a black hole of around 12 solar masses. The black hole, similar to that of Cygnus X-3, has been hypothesized to be a quark star. 4U 2129+ 47 is another X-ray binary containing a neutron star which undergoes outbursts, as is EXO 2030+ 375. Cygnus is also home to several variable stars. SS Cygni is a dwarf nova which undergoes outbursts every 7–8 weeks. The system's total magnitude varies from 12th magnitude at its dimmest to 8th magnitude at its brightest. The two objects in the system are incredibly close together, with an orbital period of less than 0.28 days. χ Cygni is a red giant and the second-brightest Mira variable star at its maximum. It ranges between magnitudes 3.3 and 14.2, and spectral types S6,2e to S10,4e (MSe) over a period of 408 days; it has a diameter of 300 solar diameters and is 350 light-years from Earth. P Cygni is a luminous blue variable that brightened suddenly to 3rd magnitude in 1600 AD. Since 1715, the star has been of 5th magnitude, despite being more than 5000 light-years from Earth. The star's spectrum is unusual in that it contains very strong emission lines resulting from surrounding nebulosity. W Cygni is a semi-regular variable red giant star, 618 light-years from Earth.It has a maximum magnitude of 5.10 and a minimum magnitude 6.83; its period of 131 days. It is a red giant ranging between spectral types M4e-M6e(Tc:)III, NML Cygni is a red hypergiant semi-regular variable star located at 5,300 light-years away from Earth. It is one of largest stars currently known in the galaxy with a radius exceeding 1,000 solar radii. Its magnitude is around 16.6, its period is about 940 days. The star KIC 8462852 (Tabby's Star) has received widespread press coverage because of unusual light fluctuations. Exoplanets Cygnus is one of the constellations that the Kepler satellite surveyed in its search for exoplanets, and as a result, there are about a hundred stars in Cygnus with known planets, the most of any constellation. One of the most notable systems is the Kepler-11 system, containing six transiting planets, all within a plane of approximately one degree. It was the system with six exoplanets to be discovered. With a spectral type of G6V, the star is somewhat cooler than the Sun. All the planets are more massive than Earth, and all have low densities; and all but one are closer to Kepler-11 than Mercury is to the Sun. contains a planet orbiting one of the sun-like stars, found due to variations in the star's radial velocity. Gliese 777, another naked-eye multiple star system containing a yellow star and a red dwarf, also contains a planet. The planet is somewhat similar to Jupiter, but with slightly more mass and a more eccentric orbit. The Kepler-22 system is also notable for having the most Earth-like exoplanet when it was discovered in 2011. Star clusters The rich background of stars of Cygnus can make it difficult to make out open cluster. Molecular clouds (NGC 7000) is one of the most well-known nebulae in Cygnus.]] NGC 6826, the Blinking Planetary Nebula, is a planetary nebula with a magnitude of 8.5, 3200 light-years from Earth. It appears to "blink" in the eyepiece of a telescope because its central star is unusually bright (10th magnitude). When an observer focuses on the star, the nebula appears to fade away. Less than one degree from the Blinking Planetary is the double star 16 Cygni. The North America Nebula (NGC 7000) is one of the most well-known nebulae in Cygnus, because it is visible to the unaided eye under dark skies, as a bright patch in the Milky Way. However, its characteristic shape is only visible in long-exposure photographs – it is difficult to observe in telescopes because of its low surface brightness. It has low surface brightness because it is so large; at its widest, the North America Nebula is 2 degrees across. Illuminated by a hot embedded star of magnitude 6, NGC 7000 is 1500 light-years from Earth. To the south of Epsilon Cygni is the Veil Nebula (NGC 6960, 6979, 6992, and 6995), a 5,000-year-old supernova remnant covering approximately 3 degrees of the sky - , a large region of star-formation in Cygnus]] The Gamma Cygni Nebula (IC 1318) includes both bright and dark nebulae in an area of over 4 degrees. DWB 87 is another of the many bright emission nebulae in Cygnus, 7.8 by 4.3 arcminutes. It is in the Gamma Cygni area. Two other emission nebulae include Sharpless 2-112 and Sharpless 2-115. When viewed in an amateur telescope, Sharpless 2–112 appears to be in a teardrop shape. More of the nebula's eastern portion is visible with an O III (doubly ionized oxygen) filter. There is an orange star of magnitude 10 nearby and a star of magnitude 9 near the nebula's northwest edge. Further to the northwest, there is a dark rift and another bright patch. The whole nebula measures 15 arcminutes in diameter. Sharpless 2–115 is another emission nebula with a complex pattern of light and dark patches. Two pairs of stars appear in the nebula; it is larger near the southwestern pair. The open cluster Berkeley 90 is embedded in this large nebula, which measures 30 by 20 arcminutes. Other features Cygnus is also the apparent source of the WIMP-wind due to the orientation of the solar system's rotation through the galactic halo. 's spiral arms]] The local Orion-Cygnus Arm and the distant Cygnus Arm are two minor galactic arms named after Cygnus for lying in its background. See also * Cygnus in Chinese astronomy * Cygnus (spacecraft) * Cygnus Molecular Nebula Complex References Bibliography * * * * * Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. . Princeton University Press, Princeton. . External links * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/cygnus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cygnus] * [http://www.beskeen.com/gallery/nebula/cygnusmosaic.shtml Northern Cygnus Mosaic] Pan and Zoom in on deep sky objects in Cygnus (requires ShockwaveFlash). * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/cygnus.htm The clickable Cygnus] * [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/cygnus.html Star Tales – Cygnus] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120831190953/http://freescruz.com/~4cygni/4%20cygni%20zoomshare/4_cygni_nebula.html 4 Cygni Nebula] * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017047 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Cygnus)] Category:Constellations Category:Northern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy Category:Legendary birds	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_(constellation)	2025-04-05T18:27:48.897364
6422	Communion	Communion may refer to: Religion Eucharist (also called Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper), the Christian rite involving the eating of bread and drinking of wine, reenacting the Last Supper Communion (chant), the Gregorian chant that accompanies this rite First Communion, a ceremony in some Christian traditions during which a person receives the Eucharist for the first time Koinonia (communion or fellowship), the relationship between Christians as individuals and as churches Communion of Saints, a doctrine of Christianity mentioned in the Apostles' Creed Full communion, recognition between churches Arts, entertainment, and media Films and literature Communion (2016 film), a documentary Communion (book), a book by Whitley Strieber about his purported abductions by aliens Communion (1989 film), a film based on the book Alice, Sweet Alice or Communion, a 1976 horror film starring Brooke Shields Music Communion (Roy Campbell album) (1995) Communion (John Patitucci album) (2001) Communion (Septicflesh album) (2008) Communion (The Soundtrack of Our Lives album) (2008) Communion (Years & Years album) (2015) Communion (Park Jiha album) (2016) "Communion", a Raffi album (2009) "Communion", a song by Debbie Harry from Debravation "Communion", a song by Third Day from Wherever You Are "Communion", a song by Mystery Maker from Mystery Maker (1977) Communion Music, an artist-led music community See also Communio, a theological journal Unmitigated communion, focusing on others to the exclusion of self	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communion	2025-04-05T18:27:48.901095
6423	Calorie	The calorie is a unit of energy that originated from the caloric theory of heat. It was first introduced by Nicolas Clément, as a unit of heat energy, in lectures on experimental calorimetry during the years 1819–1824. This was the "large" calorie. It is generally written "calorie" with lowercase "c" and symbol "cal", even in government publications. In China, only kilojoules are given. Food energy The unit is most commonly used to express food energy, namely the specific energy (energy per mass) of metabolizing different types of food. For example, fat (triglyceride lipids) contains 9 kilocalories per gram (kcal/g), while carbohydrates (sugar and starch) and protein contain approximately 4 kcal/g. The "large" unit is also used to express recommended nutritional intake or consumption, as in "calories per day". Dieting is the practice of eating food in a regulated way to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight, or to prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes and obesity. As weight loss depends on reducing caloric intake, different kinds of calorie-reduced diets have been shown to be generally effective.Chemistry and physicsIn other scientific contexts, the term "calorie" and the symbol "cal" almost always refers to the small unit; the "large" unit being generally called "kilocalorie" with symbol "kcal". It is mostly used to express the amount of energy released in a chemical reaction or phase change, typically per mole of substance, as in kilocalories per mole. }} }} Category:Units of energy Category:Heat transfer Category:Non-SI metric units	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calorie	2025-04-05T18:27:48.925905
6424	Corona Australis	\| pronounce , genitive , .}}}} \| symbolism = The Southern Crown \| RA = – \| dec= – \| family = Hercules \| areatotal = 128 \| arearank = 80th \| numbermainstars = 6 \| numberbfstars = 14 \| numberstarsplanets = 2 \| numberbrightstars = 0 \| numbernearbystars = 0 \| brighteststarname = α CrA (Meridiana) \| starmagnitude = 4.10 \| neareststarname = HD 166348 \| stardistancely = 42.26 \| stardistancepc = 12.96 \| numbermessierobjects = 0 \| meteorshowers = Corona Australids \| bordering = \| latmax = 40 \| latmin = 90 \| month = August \| notes = }} Corona Australis is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere. Its Latin name means "southern crown", and it is the southern counterpart of Corona Borealis, the northern crown. It is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. The Ancient Greeks saw Corona Australis as a wreath rather than a crown and associated it with Sagittarius or Centaurus. Other cultures have likened the pattern to a turtle, ostrich nest, a tent, or even a hut belonging to a rock hyrax. Although fainter than its northern counterpart, the oval- or horseshoe-shaped pattern of its brighter stars renders it distinctive. Alpha and Beta Coronae Australis are the two brightest stars with an apparent magnitude of around 4.1. Epsilon Coronae Australis is the brightest example of a W Ursae Majoris variable in the southern sky. Lying alongside the Milky Way, Corona Australis contains one of the closest star-forming regions to the Solar System—a dusty dark nebula known as the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud, lying about 430 light years away. Within it are stars at the earliest stages of their lifespan. The variable stars R and TY Coronae Australis light up parts of the nebula, which varies in brightness accordingly. Name The name of the constellation was entered as "Corona Australis" when the International Astronomical Union (IAU) established the 88 modern constellations in 1922. In 1932, the name was instead recorded as "Corona Austrina" when the IAU's commission on notation approved a list of four-letter abbreviations for the constellations. The four-letter abbreviations were repealed in 1955. The IAU presently uses "Corona Australis" exclusively. Characteristics Corona Australis is a small constellation bordered by Sagittarius to the north, Scorpius to the west, Telescopium to the south, and Ara to the southwest. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "CrA". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of four segments (illustrated in infobox). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −36.77° and −45.52°. Covering 128 square degrees, Corona Australis culminates at midnight around the 30th of June and ranks 80th in area. Only visible at latitudes south of 53° north, Corona Australis cannot be seen from the British Isles as it lies too far south, but it can be seen from southern Europe and readily from the southern United States. Features While not a bright constellation, Corona Australis is nonetheless distinctive due to its easily identifiable pattern of stars, which has been described as horseshoe- or oval-shaped. Though it has no stars brighter than 4th magnitude, it still has 21 stars visible to the unaided eye (brighter than magnitude 5.5). Nicolas Louis de Lacaille used the Greek letters Alpha through to Lambda to label the most prominent eleven stars in the constellation, designating two stars as Eta and omitting Iota altogether. Mu Coronae Australis, a yellow star of spectral type G5.5III and apparent magnitude 5.21, was labelled by Johann Elert Bode and retained by Benjamin Gould, who deemed it bright enough to warrant naming. Stars The only star in the constellation to have received a name is Alfecca Meridiana or Alpha CrA. The name combines the Arabic name of the constellation with the Latin for "southern". In Arabic, Alfecca means "break", and refers to the shape of both Corona Australis and Corona Borealis. Also called simply "Meridiana", it is a white main sequence star located 125 light years away from Earth, with an apparent magnitude of 4.10 and spectral type A2Va. A rapidly rotating star, it spins at almost 200 km per second at its equator, making a complete revolution in around 14 hours. Like the star Vega, it has excess infrared radiation, which indicates it may be ringed by a disk of dust. <!-- cites two previous sentences --> It is currently a main-sequence star, but will eventually evolve into a white dwarf; currently, it has a luminosity 31 times greater, and a radius and mass of 2.3 times that of the Sun. Beta Coronae Australis is an orange giant 474 light years from Earth. Its spectral type is K0II, and it is of apparent magnitude 4.11. Since its formation, it has evolved from a B-type star to a K-type star. Its luminosity class places it as a bright giant; its luminosity is 730 times that of the Sun, designating it one of the highest-luminosity K0-type stars visible to the naked eye. 100 million years old, it has a radius of 43 solar radii () and a mass of between 4.5 and 5 solar masses (). Alpha and Beta are so similar as to be indistinguishable in brightness to the naked eye. Some of the more prominent double stars include Gamma Coronae Australis—a pair of yellowish white stars 58 light years away from Earth, which orbit each other every 122 years. Widening since 1990, the two stars can be seen as separate with a 100 mm aperture telescope; they are separated by 1.3 arcseconds at an angle of 61 degrees. They have a combined visual magnitude of 4.2; each component is an F8V dwarf star with a magnitude of 5.01. Epsilon Coronae Australis is an eclipsing binary belonging to a class of stars known as W Ursae Majoris variables. These star systems are known as contact binaries as the component stars are so close together they touch. Varying by a quarter of a magnitude around an average apparent magnitude of 4.83 every seven hours, the star system lies 98 light years away. Its spectral type is F4VFe-0.8+. At the southern end of the crown asterism are the stars Eta<sup>1</sup> and Eta<sup>2</sup> CrA, which form an optical double. Of magnitude 5.1 and 5.5, they are separable with the naked eye and are both white. Kappa Coronae Australis is an easily resolved optical double—the components are of apparent magnitudes 6.3 and 5.6 and are about 1000 and 150 light years away respectively. They appear at an angle of 359 degrees, separated by 21.6 arcseconds. Kappa<sup>2</sup> is actually the brighter of the pair and is more bluish white, with a spectral type of B9V, while Kappa<sup>1</sup> is of spectral type A0III. Lying 202 light years away, Lambda Coronae Australis is a double splittable in small telescopes. The primary is a white star of spectral type A2Vn and magnitude of 5.1, while the companion star has a magnitude of 9.7. The two components are separated by 29.2 arcseconds at an angle of 214 degrees. Zeta Coronae Australis is a rapidly rotating main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 4.8, 221.7 light years from Earth. The star has blurred lines in its hydrogen spectrum due to its rotation. Its spectral type is B9V. Theta Coronae Australis lies further to the west, a yellow giant of spectral type G8III and apparent magnitude 4.62. Corona Australis harbours RX J1856.5-3754, an isolated neutron star that is thought to lie 140 (±40) parsecs, or 460 (±130) light years, away, with a diameter of 14 km. It was once suspected to be a strange star, but this has been discounted.Corona Australis Molecular Cloud s labeled in black. Corona Australis is on the left bottom center.]] of night sky towards the Galactic Central area, with the Corona Australis Molecular Cloud at the bottom left marked green.]]The Corona Australis Molecular Cloud is a dark molecular cloud just north of Beta Coronae Australis. Illuminated by a number of embedded reflection nebulae the cloud fans out from Epsilon Coronae Australis eastward along the constellation border with Sagittarius. It contains , Herbig–Haro objects (protostars) and some very young stars, being one of the closest star-forming regions, 430 light years (130 parsecs) to the Solar System, at the surface of the Local Bubble. The first nebulae of the cloud were recorded in 1865 by Johann Friedrich Julius Schmidt. HH 100/Bernes 158 to the left.]] Between Epsilon and Gamma Coronae Australis the cloud consists of the particular dark nebula and star forming region Bernes 157. It is 55 by 18 arcminutes wide and possesses several stars around magnitude 13. These stars are dimmed by up to 8 magnitudes because of the obscuring dust clouds. At the center of the active star-forming region lies the Coronet cluster (also called R CrA Cluster), which is used in studying star and protoplanetary disk formation. R Coronae Australis (R CrA) is an irregular variable star ranging from magnitudes 9.7 to 13.9. Blue-white, it is of spectral type B5IIIpe. A very young star, it is still accumulating interstellar material. It is obscured by, and illuminates, the surrounding nebula, NGC 6729, which brightens and darkens with it. The nebula is often compared to a comet for its appearance in a telescope, as its length is five times its width. Other stars of the cluster include S Coronae Australis, a G-class dwarf and T Tauri star. Nearby north, another young variable star, TY Coronae Australis, illuminates another nebula: reflection nebula NGC 6726/NGC 6727. TY Coronae Australis ranges irregularly between magnitudes 8.7 and 12.4, and the brightness of the nebula varies with it. Blue-white, it is of spectral type B8e. The largest young stars in the region, R, S, T, TY and VV Coronae Australis, are all ejecting jets of material which cause surrounding dust and gas to coalesce and form Herbig–Haro objects, many of which have been identified nearby. Not part of it is the globular cluster known as NGC 6723, which can be seen adjacent to the nebulosity in the neighbouring constellation of Sagittarius, but is much much further away. .]] Deep sky objects IC 1297 is a planetary nebula of apparent magnitude 10.7, which appears as a green-hued roundish object in higher-powered amateur instruments. The nebula surrounds the variable star RU Coronae Australis, which has an average apparent magnitude of 12.9 and is a WC class Wolf–Rayet star. IC 1297 is small, at only 7 arcseconds in diameter; it has been described as "a square with rounded edges" in the eyepiece, elongated in the north–south direction. Descriptions of its color encompass blue, blue-tinged green, and green-tinged blue. Corona Australis' location near the Milky Way means that galaxies are uncommonly seen. NGC 6768 is a magnitude 11.2 object 35′ south of IC 1297. It is made up of two galaxies merging, one of which is an elongated elliptical galaxy of classification E4 and the other a lenticular galaxy of classification S0. IC 4808 is a galaxy of apparent magnitude 12.9 located on the border of Corona Australis with the neighbouring constellation of Telescopium and 3.9 degrees west-southwest of Beta Sagittarii. However, amateur telescopes will only show a suggestion of its spiral structure. It is 1.9 arcminutes by 0.8 arcminutes. The central area of the galaxy does appear brighter in an amateur instrument, which shows it to be tilted northeast–southwest. Southeast of Theta and southwest of Eta lies the open cluster ESO 281-SC24, which is composed of the yellow 9th magnitude star GSC 7914 178 1 and five 10th to 11th magnitude stars. Halfway between Theta Coronae Australis and Theta Scorpii is the dense globular cluster NGC 6541. Described as between magnitude 6.3 and magnitude 6.6, it is visible in binoculars and small telescopes. Around 22000 light years away, it is around 100 light years in diameter. It is estimated to be around 14 billion years old. NGC 6541 appears 13.1 arcminutes in diameter and is somewhat resolvable in large amateur instruments; a 12-inch telescope reveals approximately 100 stars but the core remains unresolved. Meteor showers The Corona Australids are a meteor shower that takes place between 14 and 18 March each year, peaking around 16 March. This meteor shower does not have a high peak hourly rate. In 1953 and 1956, observers noted a maximum of 6 meteors per hour and 4 meteors per hour respectively; in 1955 the shower was "barely resolved". However, in 1992, astronomers detected a peak rate of 45 meteors per hour. The Corona Australids' rate varies from year to year. At only six days, the shower's duration is particularly short, and its meteoroids are small; the stream is devoid of large meteoroids. The Corona Australids were first seen with the unaided eye in 1935 and first observed with radar in 1955. Corona Australid meteors have an entry velocity of 45 kilometers per second. In 2006, a shower originating near Beta Coronae Australis was designated as the Beta Coronae Australids. They appear in May, the same month as a nearby shower known as the May Microscopids, but the two showers have different trajectories and are unlikely to be related. History Corona Australis may have been recorded by ancient Mesopotamians in the MUL.APIN, as a constellation called MA.GUR ("The Bark"). However, this constellation, adjacent to SUHUR.MASH ("The Goat-Fish", modern Capricornus), may instead have been modern Epsilon Sagittarii. As a part of the southern sky, MA.GUR was one of the fifteen "stars of Ea". In the 3rd century BC, the Greek didactic poet Aratus wrote of, but did not name the constellation, instead calling the two crowns Στεφάνοι (Stephanoi). The Greek astronomer Ptolemy described the constellation in the 2nd century AD, though with the inclusion of Alpha Telescopii, since transferred to Telescopium. Ascribing 13 stars to the constellation, he named it Στεφάνος νοτιος (), "Southern Wreath", while other authors associated it with either Sagittarius (having fallen off his head) or Centaurus; with the former, it was called Corona Sagittarii. Similarly, the Romans called Corona Australis the "Golden Crown of Sagittarius". It was known as Parvum Coelum ("Canopy", "Little Sky") in the 5th century. The 18th-century French astronomer Jérôme Lalande gave it the names Sertum Australe ("Southern Garland") and Orbiculus Capitis, while German poet and author Philippus Caesius called it Corolla ("Little Crown") or Spira Australis ("Southern Coil"), and linked it with the Crown of Eternal Life from the New Testament. Seventeenth-century celestial cartographer Julius Schiller linked it to the Diadem of Solomon.<!-- cites previous three sentences --> Sometimes, Corona Australis was not the wreath of Sagittarius but arrows held in his hand. ]] Corona Australis has been associated with the myth of Bacchus and Stimula. Jupiter had impregnated Stimula, causing Juno to become jealous. Juno convinced Stimula to ask Jupiter to appear in his full splendor, which the mortal woman could not handle, causing her to burn. After Bacchus, Stimula's unborn child, became an adult and the god of wine, he honored his deceased mother by placing a wreath in the sky. In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Corona Australis are located within the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ). The constellation itself was known as ''ti'en pieh ("Heavenly Turtle") and during the Western Zhou period, marked the beginning of winter. However, precession over time has meant that the "Heavenly River" (Milky Way) became the more accurate marker to the ancient Chinese and hence supplanted the turtle in this role. Arabic names for Corona Australis include Al Ķubbah "the Tortoise", Al Ĥibā "the Tent" or Al Udḥā al Na'ām "the Ostrich Nest". It was later given the name Al Iklīl al Janūbiyyah, which the European authors Chilmead, Riccioli and Caesius transliterated as Alachil Elgenubi, Elkleil Elgenubi and Aladil Algenubi respectively. The ǀXam speaking San people of South Africa knew the constellation as ≠nabbe ta !nu "house of branches"—owned originally by the Dassie (rock hyrax), and the star pattern depicting people sitting in a semicircle around a fire. The indigenous Boorong people of northwestern Victoria saw it as Won, a boomerang thrown by Totyarguil'' (Altair). The Aranda people of Central Australia saw Corona Australis as a coolamon carrying a baby, which was accidentally dropped to earth by a group of sky-women dancing in the Milky Way. The impact of the coolamon created Gosses Bluff crater, 175 km west of Alice Springs. The Torres Strait Islanders saw Corona Australis as part of a larger constellation encompassing part of Sagittarius and the tip of Scorpius's tail; the Pleiades and Orion were also associated. This constellation was Tagai's canoe, crewed by the Pleiades, called the Usiam, and Orion, called the Seg. The myth of Tagai says that he was in charge of this canoe, but his crewmen consumed all of the supplies onboard without asking permission. Enraged, Tagai bound the Usiam with a rope and tied them to the side of the boat, then threw them overboard. Scorpius's tail represents a suckerfish, while Eta Sagittarii and Theta Corona Australis mark the bottom of the canoe. On the island of Futuna, the figure of Corona Australis was called Tanuma and in the Tuamotus, it was called Na Kaua-ki-Tonga. half of the galactic plane, with the Corona Australis on the right\|center]] See also * Corona Australis (Chinese astronomy) * Chamaeleon complex References Citations }} }} }} }} <!-- why does this say p100 and link to p99 ??? --> }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} Sources * * * * * * }} <!-- --> * <!-- --> * * * * }} <!-- --> * * \|bibcode 2010MNRAS.404..867J \| doi-access free }} <!-- --> * * * * * }} * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * <!-- --> * <!-- --> ; Online sources * \| archive-date = 16 July 2011 \| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110716122624/http://aeea.nmns.edu.tw/2006/0607/ap060702.html \| url-status = dead }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * * }} * }} * SIMBAD * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} External links * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/coronaaustralis/constell.html The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Corona Australis] * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-017072 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Corona Australis)] Category:Constellations Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy Category:Mythological clothing Category:Roman mythology Category:Southern constellations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_Australis	2025-04-05T18:27:48.961100
6426	Corcovado	\| elevation_ref \| prominence_m \| prominence_ref \| parent_peak \| listing \| translation Hunchback \| language = Portuguese \| range \| topo \| coordinates_ref \| type Granite \| age \| easiest_route \| map_size = 250 }} Corcovado () which means "hunchback" in Portuguese, is a mountain in central Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is a granite peak located in the Tijuca Forest, a national park. Corcovado hill lies just west of the city center but is wholly within the city limits and visible from great distances. It is known worldwide for the statue of Jesus atop its peak, entitled Christ the Redeemer. Access The peak and statue can be reached via a narrow road, by the Corcovado Rack Railway, which was opened in 1884 and refurbished in 1980, or by the walking trail on the south side of the mountain that starts from Parque Lage. The railway uses three electrically powered trains, with a capacity of 540 passengers per hour. The rail trip takes approximately 20 minutes and departs every 20 minutes. Due to its limited passenger capacity, the wait to board at the entry station can take several hours. The year-round schedule is 8:30 to 18:30. From the train terminus and road, the observation deck at the foot of the statue is reached by 223 steps, or by elevators and escalators. Among the most popular year-round tourist attractions in Rio de Janeiro, the Corcovado railway, access roads, and statue platform are commonly crowded. Attractions Corcovado's most popular attraction is the statue depicting Jesus at its peak, entitled Christ the Redeemer (), and the viewing platform at its peak, drawing over 300,000 visitors per year. The statue was constructed from 1922 to 1931. From the peak's platform the panoramic view includes downtown Rio de Janeiro, Sugarloaf Mountain, the Rodrigo de Freitas lagoon, Copacabana and Ipanema beaches, Maracanã Stadium, and several of Rio de Janeiro's favelas. Cloud cover is common in Rio and the view from the platform is often obscured. Sunny days are recommended for optimal viewing. Notable past visitors to the mountain peak include Charles Darwin, Pope Pius XII, Pope John Paul II, Alberto Santos-Dumont, Albert Einstein, Diana, Princess of Wales, and General Sherman, among others. An additional attraction of the mountain is rock climbing. The south face had 54 climbing routes in 1992. The easiest way starts from Parque Lage. Geology The peak of Corcovado is a big granite dome, which describes a generally vertical rocky formation. It is claimed to be the highest such formation in Brazil, the second highest being Pedra Agulha, situated near the town of Pancas in Espírito Santo. References in Brazilian culture Corcovado is considered an icon of Brazilian culture. "Corcovado" is a 1960 bossa nova song and jazz standard by Antônio Carlos Jobim whose lyrics draw on images of the hill. Corcovado has also been referenced in other artistic works (e.g. the lyrics of Ben Harper, literary works, films, etc.). Gallery <gallery widths"144px" heights"145px"> Image:Marc Ferrez - IMS 007A6P4FP15-015.jpg\|Corcovado before the construction of Christ the Redeemer, 19th century File:Corcovado_visto_pela_Urca_-_panoramio.jpg\|Corcovado seen from Urca Image:A_lua_e_o_Cristo.jpg\|The statue of Christ the Redeemer atop Corcovado File:Corcovado_sunset_silhouette.jpg\|Corcovado seen from Sugarloaf Mountain during sunset File:Rio_de_Janeiro,_Pão_de_Açúcar_from_Cristo_Redentor_(15744316848).jpg\|Botafogo bay seen from Corcovado Image:Trem do Corcovado na Estação Paineiras 01.jpg\|Corcovado Rack Railway </gallery> References External links * [https://rgssa.blogspot.com/2014/07/back-to-rio.html 'back to Rio'. RGSSA blog post contains image of Corcovada taken in 1914] [http://www.wikirio.com.br/Morro_do_Corcovado Practical information about Corcovado mountain] on WikiRio *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070928074054/http://www.riodejaneirophotoguide.com/html/corcovado_main.html Virtual Pictour up the Corcovado Mountain] Category:Mountains of Brazil Category:Granite domes Category:Christ the Redeemer (statue) Category:Geography of Rio de Janeiro (city) Category:Landforms of Rio de Janeiro (state) Category:National heritage sites of Rio de Janeiro (state)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corcovado	2025-04-05T18:27:48.965983
6427	Cheddar, Somerset	\| unitary_england = Somerset Council \| lieutenancy_england = Somerset \| region = South West England \| constituency_westminster = Wells and Mendip Hills \| post_town = CHEDDAR \| postcode_district = BS27 \| postcode_area = BS \| dial_code = 01934 \| os_grid_reference = ST458535 }} Cheddar is a large village and civil parish in the English county of Somerset. It is situated on the southern edge of the Mendip Hills, north-west of Wells, south-east of Weston-super-Mare and south-west of Bristol. The civil parish includes the hamlets of Nyland and Bradley Cross. The parish had a population of 5,755 in 2011 and an acreage of as of 1961. Cheddar Gorge, on the northern edge of the village, is the largest gorge in the United Kingdom and includes several show caves, including Gough's Cave. The gorge has been a centre of human settlement since Neolithic times, including a Saxon palace. It has a temperate climate and provides a unique geological and biological environment that has been recognised by the designation of several Sites of Special Scientific Interest. It is also the site of several limestone quarries. The village gave its name to Cheddar cheese and has been a centre for strawberry growing. The crop was formerly transported on the Cheddar Valley rail line, which closed in the late 1960s and is now a cycle path. The village is now a major tourist destination with several cultural and community facilities, including the Cheddar Show Caves Museum. The village supports a variety of community groups including religious, sporting and cultural organisations. Several of these are based on the site of the Kings of Wessex Academy, which is the largest educational establishment. History The name Cheddar comes from the Old English word ceodor, meaning deep dark cavity or pouch. There is evidence of occupation from the Neolithic period in Cheddar. Britain's oldest complete human skeleton, Cheddar Man, estimated to be 9,000 years old, was found in Cheddar Gorge in 1903. Older remains from the Upper Late Palaeolithic era (12,000–13,000 years ago) have been found. There is some evidence of a Bronze Age field system at the Batts Combe quarry site. There is also evidence of Bronze Age barrows at the mound in the Longwood valley, which if man-made it is likely to be a field system. The remains of a Roman villa have been excavated in the grounds of the current vicarage. The ruins of the palace were excavated in the 1960s. They are located on the grounds of the Kings of Wessex Academy, together with a 14th-century chapel dedicated to St. Columbanus. Roman remains have also been uncovered at the site. Cheddar was listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Ceder, meaning "Shear Water", from the Old English scear and Old Welsh dŵr. An alternative spelling in earlier documents, common through the 1850s is Chedder. As early as 1130 AD, the Cheddar Gorge was recognised as one of the "Four wonders of England". Historically, Cheddar's source of wealth was farming and cheese making for which it was famous as early as 1170 AD. The parish was part of the Winterstoke Hundred. The manor of Cheddar was deforested in 1337 and Bishop Ralph was granted a licence by the King to create a hunting forest. As early as 1527 there are records of watermills on the river. In the Victorian era it also became a centre for the production of clothing. The last mill, used as a shirt factory, closed in the early 1950s. In 1801, of common land were enclosed under the (35 Geo. 3. c. 39 ). Tourism of the Cheddar gorge and caves began with the opening of the Cheddar Valley Railway in 1869. Cheddar, its surrounding villages and specifically the gorge has been subject to flooding. In the Chew Stoke flood of 1968 the flow of water washed large boulders down the gorge, washed away cars, and damaged the cafe and the entrance to Gough's Cave. Government Cheddar is recognised as a village. The adjacent settlement of Axbridge, although only about a third the population of Cheddar, is a town. This apparently illogical situation is explained by the relative importance of the two places in historic times. While Axbridge grew in importance as a centre for cloth manufacturing in the Tudor period and gained a charter from King John, Cheddar remained a more dispersed mining and dairy-farming village. Its population grew with the arrival of the railways in the Victorian era and the advent of tourism. The parish council, which has 15 members who are elected for four years, is responsible for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council. The village is in the 'Cheddar and Shipham' electoral ward. After including Shipham the total population of the ward taken at the 2011 census is 6,842. For local government purposes, since 1 April 2023, the village comes under the unitary authority of Somerset Council. Prior to this, it was part of the non-metropolitan district of Sedgemoor, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Axbridge Rural District. Fire, police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service, Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service. It is also part of the Wells and Mendip Hills county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election. Prior to Brexit in 2020, it was part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament. International relations Cheddar is twinned with Felsberg, Germany and Vernouillet, France, and it has an active programme of exchange visits. Initially, Cheddar twinned with Felsberg in 1984. In 2000, Cheddar twinned with Vernouillet, which had also been twinned with Felsberg. Cheddar also has a friendship link with Ocho Rios in Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica. It is also twinned with the commune of Descartes in the Indre-et-Loire department. Geography The area is underlain by Black Rock slate, Burrington Oolite and Clifton Down Limestone of the Carboniferous Limestone Series, which contain ooliths and fossil debris on top of Old Red Sandstone, and by Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Keuper. Evidence for Variscan orogeny is seen in the sheared rock and cleaved shales. In many places weathering of these strata has resulted in the formation of immature calcareous soils. Gorge and caves Cheddar Gorge, which is located on the edge of the village, is the largest gorge in the United Kingdom. The gorge is the site of the Cheddar Caves, where Cheddar Man was found in 1903. leads around into the rock-face, and contains a variety of large rock chambers and formations. Cox's Cave, discovered in 1837, is smaller but contains many intricate formations. A further cave houses a children's entertainment walk known as the "Crystal Quest". Cheddar Gorge, including Cox's Cave, Gough's Cave and other attractions, has become a tourist destination, attracting about 500,000 visitors per year. In a 2005 poll of Radio Times readers, following its appearance on the 2005 television programme Seven Natural Wonders, Cheddar Gorge was named as the second greatest natural wonder in Britain, surpassed only by the Dan yr Ogof caves. Sites of Special Scientific Interest at dusk, looking towards the western edge of the Mendip Hills and Crook Peak]] There are several large and unique Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) around the village. Cheddar Reservoir is a near-circular artificial reservoir operated by Bristol Water. Dating from the 1930s, it has a capacity of 135 million gallons (614,000 cubic metres). The reservoir is supplied with water taken from the Cheddar Yeo, which rises in Gough's Cave in Cheddar Gorge and is a tributary of the River Axe. The inlet grate for the water pipe that is used to transport the water can be seen next to the sensory garden in Cheddar Gorge. It has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) due to its wintering waterfowl populations. Cheddar Wood and the smaller Macall's Wood form a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest from what remains of the wood of the Bishops of Bath and Wells in the 13th century and of King Edmund the Magnificent's wood in the 10th. During the 19th century, its lower fringes were grubbed out to make strawberry fields. Most of these have been allowed to revert to woodland. The wood was coppiced until 1917. This site compromises a wide range of habitats which include ancient and secondary semi-natural broadleaved woodland, unimproved neutral grassland, and a complex mosaic of calcareous grassland and acidic dry dwarf-shrub heath. Cheddar Wood is one of only a few English stations for starved wood-sedge (Carex depauperata). By far the largest of the SSSIs is called Cheddar Complex and covers of the gorge, caves and the surrounding area. It is important because of both biological and geological features. It includes four SSSIs, formerly known as Cheddar Gorge SSSI, August Hole/Longwood Swallet SSSI, GB Cavern Charterhouse SSSI and Charterhouse on-Mendip SSSI. It is partly owned by the National Trust who acquired it in 1910 and partly managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust. Quarries ]] Close to the village and gorge are Batts Combe quarry and Callow Rock quarry, two of the active Quarries of the Mendip Hills where limestone is still extracted. Operating since the early 20th century, Batts Combe is owned and operated by Hanson Aggregates. The output in 2005 was around 4,000 tonnes of limestone per day, one third of which was supplied to an on-site lime kiln, which closed in 2009; the remainder was sold as coated or dusted aggregates. The limestone at this site is close to 99 percent carbonate of calcium and magnesium (dolomite). The Chelmscombe Quarry finished its work as a limestone quarry in the 1950s and was then used by the Central Electricity Generating Board as a tower testing station. During the 1970s and 1980s it was also used to test the ability of containers of radioactive material to withstand impacts and other accidents. Climate Along with the rest of South West England, Cheddar has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country. The annual mean temperature is approximately . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea, which moderates temperature. The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately . In winter mean minimum temperatures of are common. Residents lived in 2,209 households. The vast majority of households (2,183) gave their ethnic status at the 2001 census as white.2021 census According to the most recent 2021 census, the village had a total population of 6,263 with 51.1% female and 48.9% male. Over 6,101 people or 97.3% identified as white, 1% (61) Asian, 0.3% (17) Black and 1.3% (79) as mixed. The most common places of birth were: 94.1% or 5,900 born in the United Kingdom and 2.5% (156) born in the European Union, 81 Africa and 65 Middle East and Asia, 29 Americas and Caribbean. which is the most popular type of cheese in the United Kingdom. The cheese is now made and consumed worldwide, and only one producer remains in the village. Since the 1880s, Cheddar's other main produce has been the strawberry, which is grown on the south-facing lower slopes of the Mendip hills. The line ran from Yatton to Wells. When the rest of the line was closed and all passenger services ceased, the section of the line between Cheddar and Yatton remained open for goods traffic. It provided a fast link with the main markets for the strawberries in Birmingham and London, but finally closed in 1964, becoming part of the Cheddar Valley Railway Nature Reserve. Cheddar Ales is a small brewery based in the village, producing beer for local public houses. Tourism is a significant source of employment. Around 15 percent of employment in Sedgemoor is provided by tourism, but within Cheddar it is estimated to employ as many as 1,000 people. The village also has a youth hostel, and a number of camping and caravan sites. Culture and community Cheddar has a number of active service clubs including Cheddar Vale Lions Club, Mendip Rotary and Mendip Inner Wheel Club. The clubs raise money for projects in the local community and hold annual events such as a fireworks display, duck races in the Gorge, a dragon boat race on the reservoir and concerts on the grounds of the nearby St Michael's Cheshire Home. Several notable people have been born or lived in Cheddar. Musician Jack Bessant, the bass guitarist with the band Reef grew up on his parents' strawberry farm, and Matt Goss and Luke Goss, former members of Bros, lived in Cheddar for nine months as children. Trina Gulliver, ten-time World Professional Darts Champion, previously lived in Cheddar until 2017. The comedian Richard Herring grew up in Cheddar. His 2008 Edinburgh Festival Fringe show, ''The Headmaster's Son'' is based on his time at The Kings of Wessex School, where his father Keith was the headmaster. The final performance of this show was held at the school in November 2009. He also visited the school in March 2010 to perform his show Hitler Moustache. In May 2013, a community radio station called Pulse was launched. Landmarks of Cheddar Market Cross in the 1890s]] The market cross in Bath Street dates from the 15th century, with the shelter having been rebuilt in 1834. It has a central octagonal pier, a socket raised on four steps, a hexagonal shelter with six arched four-centred openings, shallow two-stage buttresses at each angle, and an embattled parapet. The shaft is crowned by an abacus with figures in niches, probably from the late 19th century, although the cross is now missing. It was rebuilt by Thomas, Marquess of Bath. It is a scheduled monument (Somerset County No 21) and Grade II* listed building. In January 2000, the cross was seriously damaged in a traffic accident. By 2002, the cross had been rebuilt and the area around it was redesigned to protect and enhance its appearance. The cross was badly damaged again in March 2012, when a taxi crashed into it late at night demolishing two sides. Repair work, which included the addition of wooden-clad steel posts to protect against future crashes, was completed in November 2012 at a cost of £60,000. Hannah More, a philanthropist and educator, founded a school in the village in the late 18th century for the children of miners. Her first school was located in a 17th-century house. Now named "Hannah More's Cottage", the Grade II-listed building is used by the local community as a meeting place. Transport bus picks up passengers at the Market cross on service 126 from Weston-super-Mare to Wells, the principal bus service through Cheddar.]] The village is situated on the A371 road which runs from Wincanton, to Weston-super-Mare. It is approximately from the route of the M5 motorway with around a drive to junction 22. It was on the Cheddar Valley line, a railway line that was opened in 1869 and closed in 1963. It became known as The Strawberry Line because of the large volume of locally-grown strawberries that it carried. It ran from Yatton railway station through to Wells (Tucker Street) railway station and joined the East Somerset Railway to make a through route via Shepton Mallet (High Street) railway station to Witham. Sections of the now-disused railway have been opened as the Strawberry Line Trail, which currently runs from Yatton to Cheddar. The Cheddar Valley line survived until the "Beeching Axe". Towards the end of its life there were so few passengers that diesel railcars were sometimes used. The Cheddar branch closed to passengers on 9 September 1963 and to goods in 1964. The principal bus route is the hourly service 126 between Weston-super-Mare and Wells operated by First West of England. Other bus routes include the service 668 from Shipham to Street which runs every couple of hours operated by Libra Travel, as well as the college bus service 66 which runs from Axbridge to the Bridgwater Campus of Bridgwater and Taunton College in the mornings and evenings of college term times, and is operated by Bakers Dolphin. Education seen from the tower of St. Andrew's Church (looking north-west)]] The first school in Cheddar was set up by Hannah More during the 18th Century, however now Cheddar has three schools belonging to the Cheddar Valley Group of Schools, twelve schools that provide Cheddar Valley's three-tier education system. Cheddar First School has ten classes for children between 4 and 9 years. Fairlands Middle School, a middle school categorised as a middle-deemed-secondary school, has 510 pupils between 9 and 13. Fairlands takes children moving up from Cheddar First School as well as other first schools in the Cheddar Valley. The Kings of Wessex Academy, a coeducational comprehensive school, has been rated as "good" by Ofsted. It has 1,176 students aged 13 to 18, including 333 in the sixth form. Religious sites ]] The Church of St Andrew dates from the 14th century. It was restored in 1873 by William Butterfield. It is a Grade I listed building and contains some 15th-century stained glass and an altar table of 1631. The chest tomb in the chancel is believed to contain the remains of Sir Thomas Cheddar and is dated 1442. The tower, which rises to , contains a bell dating from 1759 made by Thomas Bilbie of the Bilbie family. The graveyard contains the grave of the hymn writer William Chatterton Dix. There are also churches for Roman Catholic, Methodist and other denominations, including Cheddar Valley Community Church, who not only meet at the Kings of Wessex School on Sunday, but also have their own site on Tweentown for meeting during the week. The Baptist chapel was built in 1831. Sport Kings Fitness & Leisure, situated on the grounds of the Kings of Wessex School, provides a venue for various sports and includes a 20-metre swimming pool, racket sport courts, a sports hall, dance studios and a gym. A youth sports festival was held on Sharpham Road Playing Fields in 2009. In 2010 a skatepark was built in the village, funded by the Cheddar Local Action Team. Cheddar A.F.C., founded in 1892 and nicknamed "The Cheesemen", play in the Western Football League Division One. In 2009 plans were revealed to move the club from its present home at Bowdens Park on Draycott Road to a new larger site. They now play in the West of England Premier League Somerset Division. Cheddar Rugby Club, who own part of the Sharpham playing fields, was formed in 1836. The club organises an annual Cheddar Rugby Tournament. Cheddar Lawn Tennis Club, was formed in 1924, and play in the North Somerset League and also has social tennis and coaching. Cheddar Running Club organised an annual half marathon until 2009. The village is both on the route of the West Mendip Way and Samaritans Way South West. References External links * Category:Villages in Sedgemoor Category:Mendip Hills Category:Civil parishes in Somerset	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheddar,_Somerset	2025-04-05T18:27:48.998451
6429	Compact disc	(Japan)\| (Europe and North America)}} \| standard = Rainbow Books \| owner = Philips, Sony \| dimensions Diameter: <br /> Thickness: \| use = Audio and data storage \| extended from = LaserDisc \| extended to = }} The compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony to store and play digital audio recordings. It uses the Compact Disc Digital Audio format which typically provides 74 minutes of audio on a disc. In later years, the compact disc was adapted for non-audio computer data storage purposes as CD-ROM and its derivatives. First released in Japan in October 1982, the CD was the second optical disc technology to be invented, after the much larger LaserDisc (LD). By 2007, 200 billion CDs (including audio CDs, CD-ROMs and CD-Rs) had been sold worldwide. Standard CDs have a diameter of , and are designed to hold up to 74 minutes of uncompressed stereo digital audio or about of data. Capacity is routinely extended to 80 minutes and , 90 minutes , or 99 minutes by arranging data more closely on the same-sized disc. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from ; they have been used for CD singles or delivering device drivers. The CD gained rapid popularity in the 1990s, quickly outselling all other audio formats in the United States by 1991, ending the market dominance of the phonograph record and the cassette tape. By 2000, the CD accounted for 92.3% of the entire market share in regard to US music sales. The CD is considered the last dominant audio format of the album era, as the rise of MP3, iTunes, cellular ringtones, and other downloadable music formats in the mid-2000s ended the decade-long dominance of the CD. The format was later adapted (as CD-ROM) for general purpose data storage and initially could hold much more data than a personal computer hard disk drive. Several other formats were further derived, both pre-pressed and blank user writable, including write-once audio and data storage (CD-R), rewritable media (CD-RW), Video CD (VCD), Super Video CD (SVCD), Photo CD, Picture CD, Compact Disc-Interactive (CD-i), Enhanced Music CD, and Super Audio CD (SACD) which may have a CD-DA layer. History Physical details thumb\|Diagram of CD layers \|altA CD is made from thick, polycarbonate plastic, and weighs 14–33 grams. From the center outward, components are: the center spindle hole (15 mm), the first-transition area (clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror band), the program (data) area, and the rim. The inner program area occupies a radius from 25 to 58 mm. A thin layer of aluminum or, more rarely, gold is applied to the surface, making it reflective. The metal is protected by a film of lacquer normally spin coated directly on the reflective layer. The label is printed on the lacquer layer, usually by screen printing or offset printing. ]]CD data is represented as tiny indentations known as pits, encoded in a spiral track molded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. The areas between pits are known as lands. Each pit is approximately 100 nm deep by 500 nm wide, and varies from 850 nm to 3.5 μm in length. The distance between the windings (the pitch) is 1.6 μm (measured center-to-center, not between the edges). When playing an audio CD, a motor within the CD player spins the disc to a scanning velocity of 1.2–1.4 m/s (constant linear velocity, CLV)—equivalent to approximately 500 RPM at the inside of the disc, and approximately 200 RPM at the outside edge. The track on the CD begins at the inside and spirals outward so a disc played from beginning to end slows its rotation rate during playback. The program area is 86.05 cm<sup>2</sup> and the length of the recordable spiral is }} With a scanning speed of 1.2 m/s, the playing time is 74 minutes or 650 MiB of data on a CD-ROM. A disc with data packed slightly more densely is tolerated by most players (though some old ones fail). Using a linear velocity of 1.2 m/s and a narrower track pitch of 1.5 μm increases the playing time to 80 minutes, and data capacity to 700 MiB. Even denser tracks are possible, with semi-standard 90 minute/800 MiB discs having 1.33 μm, and 99 minute/870 MiB having 1.26 μm, but compatibility suffers as density increases. wide, between 830 nm and 3,000 nm long and 150 nm deep.]] A CD is read by focusing a 780 nm wavelength (near infrared) semiconductor laser through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer. The change in height between pits and lands results in a difference in the way the light is reflected. Because the pits are indented into the top layer of the disc and are read through the transparent polycarbonate base, the pits form bumps when read. The laser hits the disc, casting a circle of light wider than the modulated spiral track reflecting partially from the lands and partially from the top of any bumps where they are present. As the laser passes over a pit (bump), its height means that the round trip path of the light reflected from its peak is 1/2 wavelength out of phase with the light reflected from the land around it. This is because the height of a bump is around 1/4 of the wavelength of the light used, so the light falls 1/4 out of phase before reflection and another 1/4 wavelength out of phase after reflection. This causes partial cancellation of the laser's reflection from the surface. By measuring the reflected intensity change with a photodiode, a modulated signal is read back from the disc. The fungus Geotrichum candidum has been found—under conditions of high heat and humidity—to consume the polycarbonate plastic and aluminium found in CDs. The data integrity of compact discs can be measured using surface error scanning, which can measure the rates of different types of data errors, known as C1, C2, CU and extended (finer-grain) error measurements known as E11, E12, E21, E22, E31 and E32, of which higher rates indicate a possibly damaged or unclean data surface, low media quality, deteriorating media and recordable media written to by a malfunctioning CD writer. Error scanning can reliably predict data losses caused by media deterioration. Support of error scanning differs between vendors and models of optical disc drives, and extended error scanning (known as "advanced error scanning" in Nero DiscSpeed) has only been available on Plextor and some BenQ optical drives so far, as of 2020. Disc shapes and diameters The digital data on a CD begins at the center of the disc and proceeds toward the edge, which allows adaptation to the different sizes available. Standard CDs are available in two sizes. By far, the most common is in diameter, with a 74-, 80, 90, or 99-minute audio capacity and a 650, 700, 800, or 870 MiB (737,280,000-byte) data capacity. Discs are thick, with a center hole. The size of the hole was chosen by Joop Sinjou and based on a Dutch 10-cent coin: a dubbeltje. Philips/Sony patented the physical dimensions. The official Philips history says the capacity was specified by Sony executive Norio Ohga to be able to contain the entirety of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony on one disc. according to Kees Immink, as the EFM code format had not yet been decided in December 1979, when the 120 mm size was adopted. The adoption of EFM in June 1980 allowed 30 percent more playing time that would have resulted in 97 minutes for 120 mm diameter or 74 minutes for a disc as small as . Instead, the information density was lowered by 30 percent to keep the playing time at 74 minutes. The 120 mm diameter has been adopted by subsequent formats, including Super Audio CD, DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray Disc. The diameter discs ("Mini CDs") can hold up to 24 minutes of music or 210 MiB. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Physical size ! Audio capacity ! CD-ROM data capacity ! Definition \|- \| 120 mm \|\| 74–80 min \|\| 650–700 MB \|\| Standard size \|- \| 80 mm \|\| 21–24 min \|\| 185–210 MB \|\| Mini-CD size \|- \| 80×54 mm – 80×64 mm \|\| ~6 min \|\| 10–65 MB \|\| Business card size \|} SHM-CD SHM-CDs (short for Super High Material Compact Disc) is a variant of the Compact Disc, which replaces the Polycarbonate base with a proprietary material. This material was created during joint research by Universal Music Japan and JVC into manufacturing high-clarity Liquid-crystal displays. SHM-CDs are fully compatible with all CD players since the difference in light refraction is not detected as an error. JVC claims that the greater fluidity and clarity of the material used for SHM-CDs results in a higher reading accuracy and improved sound quality. However, since the CD-Audio format contains inherent error correction, it is unclear whether a reduction in read errors would be great enough to produce an improved output. Logical format Audio CD from 1982, the first commercially released CD player for consumers]] The logical format of an audio CD (officially Compact Disc Digital Audio or CD-DA) is described in a document produced in 1980 by the format's joint creators, Sony and Philips. The document is known colloquially as the Red Book CD-DA after the color of its cover. The format is a two-channel 16-bit PCM encoding at a 44.1 kHz sampling rate per channel. Four-channel sound was to be an allowable option within the Red Book format, but has never been implemented. Monaural audio has no existing standard on a Red Book CD; thus, the mono source material is usually presented as two identical channels in a standard Red Book stereo track (i.e., mirrored mono); an MP3 CD, can have audio file formats with mono sound. CD-Text is an extension of the Red Book specification for an audio CD that allows for the storage of additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD. The information is stored either in the lead-in area of the CD, where there are roughly five kilobytes of space available or in the subcode channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes. Compact Disc + Graphics is a special audio compact disc that contains graphics data in addition to the audio data on the disc. The disc can be played on a regular audio CD player, but when played on a special CD+G player, it can output a graphics signal (typically, the CD+G player is hooked up to a television set or a computer monitor); these graphics are almost exclusively used to display lyrics on a television set for karaoke performers to sing along with. The CD+G format takes advantage of the channels R through W. These six bits store the graphics information. CD + Extended Graphics (CD+EG, also known as CD+XG) is an improved variant of the Compact Disc + Graphics (CD+G) format. Like CD+G, CD+EG uses basic CD-ROM features to display text and video information in addition to the music being played. This extra data is stored in subcode channels R-W. Very few CD+EG discs have been published. Super Audio CD Super Audio CD (SACD) is a high-resolution, read-only optical audio disc format that was designed to provide higher-fidelity digital audio reproduction than the Red Book. Introduced in 1999, it was developed by Sony and Philips, the same companies that created the Red Book. SACD was in a format war with DVD-Audio, but neither has replaced audio CDs. The SACD standard is referred to as the Scarlet Book standard. Titles in the SACD format can be issued as hybrid discs; these discs contain the SACD audio stream as well as a standard audio CD layer which is playable in standard CD players, thus making them backward compatible. CD-MIDI CD-MIDI is a format used to store music-performance data, which upon playback is performed by electronic instruments that synthesize the audio. Hence, unlike the original Red Book CD-DA, these recordings are not digitally sampled audio recordings. The CD-MIDI format is defined as an extension of the original Red Book. CD-ROM For the first few years of its existence, the CD was a medium used purely for audio. In 1988, the Yellow Book CD-ROM standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile optical data computer data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive. Video CD Video CD (VCD, View CD, and Compact Disc digital video) is a standard digital format for storing video media on a CD. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most modern DVD-Video players, personal computers, and some video game consoles. The VCD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the White Book standard. Overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to VHS video. Poorly compressed VCD video can sometimes be of lower quality than VHS video, but VCD exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise and does not deteriorate further with each use. 352×240 (or SIF) resolution was chosen because it is half the vertical and half the horizontal resolution of the NTSC video. 352×288 is a similarly one-quarter PAL/SECAM resolution. This approximates the (overall) resolution of an analog VHS tape, which, although it has double the number of (vertical) scan lines, has a much lower horizontal resolution. Super Video CD Super Video CD (Super Video Compact Disc or SVCD) is a format used for storing video media on standard compact discs. SVCD was intended as a successor to VCD and an alternative to DVD-Video and falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality. SVCD has two-thirds the resolution of DVD, and over 2.7 times the resolution of VCD. One CD-R disc can hold up to 60 minutes of standard-quality SVCD-format video. While no specific limit on SVCD video length is mandated by the specification, one must lower the video bit rate, and therefore quality, to accommodate very long videos. It is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto one SVCD without incurring a significant quality loss, and many hardware players are unable to play a video with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 kilobits per second. Photo CD Photo CD is a system designed by Kodak for digitizing and storing photos on a CD. Launched in 1992, the discs were designed to hold nearly 100 high-quality images, scanned prints, and slides using special proprietary encoding. Photo CDs are defined in the Beige Book and conform to the CD-ROM XA and CD-i Bridge specifications as well. They are intended to play on CD-i players, Photo CD players, and any computer with suitable software (irrespective of operating system). The images can also be printed out on photographic paper with a special Kodak machine. This format is not to be confused with Kodak Picture CD, which is a consumer product in CD-ROM format. CD-i The Philips Green Book specifies a standard for interactive multimedia compact discs designed for CD-i players (1993). CD-i discs can contain audio tracks that can be played on regular CD players, but CD-i discs are not compatible with most CD-ROM drives and software. The CD-i Ready specification was later created to improve compatibility with audio CD players, and the CD-i Bridge specification was added to create CD-i-compatible discs that can be accessed by regular CD-ROM drives. CD-i Ready Philips defined a format similar to CD-i called CD-i Ready, which puts CD-i software and data into the pregap of track 1. This format was supposed to be more compatible with older audio CD players. Enhanced Music CD (CD+) Enhanced Music CD, also known as CD Extra or CD Plus, is a format that combines audio tracks and data tracks on the same disc by putting audio tracks in a first session and data in a second session. It was developed by Philips and Sony, and it is defined in the Blue Book. VinylDisc VinylDisc is the hybrid of a standard audio CD and the vinyl record. The vinyl layer on the disc's label side can hold approximately three minutes of music. Manufacture, cost, and pricing In 1995, material costs were 30 cents for the jewel case and 10 to 15 cents for the CD. The wholesale cost of CDs was $0.75 to $1.15, while the typical retail price of a prerecorded music CD was $16.98. On average, the store received 35 percent of the retail price, the record company 27 percent, the artist 16 percent, the manufacturer 13 percent, and the distributor 9 percent. Writable compact discs Recordable CD CD-R next to a mechanical pencil for scale]] Recordable Compact Discs, CD-Rs, are injection-molded with a blank data spiral. A photosensitive dye is then applied, after which the discs are metalized and lacquer-coated. The write laser of the CD recorder changes the color of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard CD player to see the data, just as it would with a standard stamped disc. The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in most audio CD players. CD-Rs follow the Orange Book standard. CD-R recordings are designed to be permanent. Over time, the dye's physical characteristics may change causing read errors and data loss until the reading device cannot recover with error correction methods. Errors can be predicted using surface error scanning. The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the quality of the discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage conditions. Testing has demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage conditions. The recordable audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS (Serial Copy Management System), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act). The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to lower production volume and a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy. The higher capacity is incompatible with some recorders and recording software. ReWritable CD CD-RW is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write laser, in this case, is used to heat and alter the properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of the alloy, and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many earlier CD audio players cannot read CD-RW discs, although most later CD audio players and stand-alone DVD players can. CD-RWs follow the Orange Book standard. The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder, which will not (without modification) accept standard CD-RW discs. These consumer audio CD recorders use the Serial Copy Management System (SCMS), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the United States' Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA). The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy. }}<!-- end of reflist --> Further reading * Ecma International. [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-130.htm Standard ECMA-130: Data Interchange on Read-only 120 mm Optical Data Disks (CD-ROM)], 2nd edition (June 1996). * Pohlmann, Kenneth C. (1992). [https://archive.org/details/compactdischandb0000pohl The Compact Disc Handbook]. Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions. . * Peek, Hans et al. (2009) [https://www.springer.com/engineering/electronics/book/978-1-4020-9552-8 Origins and Successors of the Compact Disc]. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. . * Peek, Hans B., [https://www.philips.com/c-dam/corporate/research/technologies/cd/The-Emergence-of-the-Compact-Disc_v2.pdf The emergence of the compact disc], IEEE Communications Magazine, Jan. 2010, pp. 10–17. * Nakajima, Heitaro; Ogawa, Hiroshi (1992) [https://books.google.com/books?id=9G9Nu9n0DJQC Compact Disc Technology], Tokyo, Ohmsha Ltd. . * Barry, Robert (2020). Compact Disc (Object Lessons). New York: Bloomsbury. . Notes External links * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ut_40U0t9pU Video] How Compact Discs are Manufactured * [http://www.cdrfaq.org/ CD-Recordable FAQ] Exhaustive basics on CD-Recordable's * [https://archive.today/20080129201342/http://www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html Philips history of the CD (cache)] * [https://archive.today/20121216094847/http://www.ip.philips.com/licensing/licensingprogramshistory/history_cdplayer_joint.html Patent History (CD Player)] – published by Philips in 2005 * [https://archive.today/20121206014421/http://www.ip.philips.com/licensing/licensingprogramshistory/history_cddisc_joint.html Patent History CD Disc] – published by Philips in 2003 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081220113637/http://www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-08.html Sony History, Chapter 8, This is the replacement of Gramophone record ! (第8章レコードに代わるものはこれだ)] – Sony website in Japanese * [http://www.soundfountain.com/amb/cd25years.html Popularized History on Soundfountain] * [https://fieldday.ie/40-years-of-the-compact-disc/ A Media History of the Compact Disc] (1-hour podcast interview) Category:120 mm discs Category:Rotating disc computer storage media Category:Digital audio storage Category:Video storage Category:Consumer electronics Category:Audiovisual introductions in 1982 Category:Joint ventures Category:Dutch inventions Category:Japanese inventions Category:Information technology in the Netherlands Category:Science and technology in the Netherlands Category:Science and technology in Japan Category:Home video	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc	2025-04-05T18:27:49.019290
6431	Charles Farrar Browne	\|birth_place = Waterford, Maine \|death_date = \|death_place = Southampton, Hampshire \|nationality American \|occupation humorist}} Charles Farrar Browne (April 26, 1834 – March 6, 1867) was an American humor writer, better known under his nom de plume, Artemus Ward, which as a character, an illiterate rube with "Yankee common sense", Browne also played in public performances. He is considered to be America's first stand-up comedian. His birth name was Brown but he added the "e" after he became famous.BiographyBrowne was born in Waterford, Maine. He began his career as a compositor Browne's companion at the Plain Dealer, George Hoyt, wrote: "his desk was a rickety table which had been whittled and gashed until it looked as if it had been the victim of lightning. His chair was a fit companion thereto, a wabbling, unsteady affair, sometimes with four and sometimes with three legs. But Browne saw neither the table, nor the chair, nor any person who might be near, nothing, in fact, but the funny pictures which were tumbling out of his brain. When writing, his gaunt form looked ridiculous enough. One leg hung over the arm of his chair like a great hook, while he would write away, sometimes laughing to himself, and then slapping the table in the excess of his mirth." In 1860, he became editor of the first Vanity Fair, a humorous New York weekly that failed in 1863. At about the same time, he began to appear as a lecturer who, by his droll and eccentric humor, attracted large audiences. Browne was also known as a member of the New York bohemian set which included leader Henry Clapp Jr., Walt Whitman, Fitz Hugh Ludlow, and actress Adah Isaacs Menken. playing the part of Artemus Ward as an illiterate rube but with "Yankee common sense." In the American Garden of the Cleveland Cultural Gardens in Rockefeller Park, a monument of him was erected, next to Mark Twain.Stories * A Visit to Brigham Young * Women's Rights * One of Mr Ward's Business Letters * On "Forts" * Fourth of July Oration * High-Handed Outrage at Utica * Artemus Ward and the Prince of Wales * Interview with Lincoln * Letters to his Wife Books * [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=miun.ack0410.0001.001 Artemus Ward His Book] (1862) (full text online) * [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=miun.abs0367.0001.001 Artemus Ward His Travels] (1865) (full text online) * [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015006946506 Artemus Ward Among the Mormons] (1865) (full text online) * [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t84j0k81v Artemus Ward in London] (1867) (full text online) * [https://archive.org/details/artemuswardspan00hinggoog/page/n9 Artemus Ward's Panorama] (1869) (full text online) * [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?iddul1.ark:/13960/t3jw9c54p&view1up&seq9 Artemus Ward's Lecture] (1869) (full text online)ReferencesExternal links * * * * * * [https://pfaffs.web.lehigh.edu/node/54123 The Vault at Pfaff's: Artemus Ward] (a project of Lehigh University) * [http://www.mainememory.net/bin/SwishSearch?person=Artemus%20Ward Photos from the Maine Historical Society] * 3 short [https://web.archive.org/web/20110120165647/http://californialegacy.org/radio_anthology/scripts/ward.html radio episodes] of Ward's writing from California Legacy Project. * Seitz, Don Caros. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_UTUvxBG2HYC Artemus Ward (Charles Farrar Browne): a biography and bibliography] (1919) (full text online) Category:1834 births Category:1867 deaths Category:19th-century deaths from tuberculosis Category:People from Waterford, Maine Category:American humorists Category:Tuberculosis deaths in England Category:19th-century pseudonymous writers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Farrar_Browne	2025-04-05T18:27:49.025207
6432	Caelum	away; X Caeli, a Delta Scuti variable that forms an optical double with γ<sup>1</sup> Caeli; and HE0450-2958, a Seyfert galaxy that at first appeared as just a jet, with no host galaxy visible. History Caelum was incepted as one of fourteen southern constellations in the 18th century by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a French astronomer and celebrated of the Age of Enlightenment. It retains its name Burin among French speakers, latinized in his catalogue of 1763 as Caelum Sculptoris (“''Engraver's Chisel”). \|alt=Caelum depicted in ''Urania's Mirror]] Francis Baily shortened this name to Caelum'', as suggested by John Herschel. In Lacaille's original chart, it was shown as a pair of engraver's tools: a standard burin and more specific shape-forming échoppe tied by a ribbon, but came to be ascribed a simple chisel. Characteristics Caelum is bordered by Dorado and Pictor to the south, Horologium and Eridanus to the east, Lepus to the north, and Columba to the west. Covering only 125 square degrees, it ranks 81st of the 88 modern constellations in size. Its main asterism consists of four stars, and twenty stars in total are brighter than magnitude 6.5<sub> </sub>. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted the three-letter abbreviation “Cae” for the constellation in 1922. Its main stars are visible in favourable conditions and with a clear southern horizon, for part of the year as far as about the 41st parallel north .\|alt=Image of the constellation Caelum, showing the pattern of its stars as seen in the night sky]] The brightest star, (Alpha) α Caeli, is a double star, containing an F-type main-sequence star of magnitude 4.45 and a red dwarf of magnitude 12.5<sub> </sub>, from Earth. (Beta) β Caeli, another F-type star of magnitude 5.05<sub> </sub>, is further away, being located from Earth. Unlike α, β Caeli is a subgiant star, slightly evolved from the main sequence. (Delta) δ Caeli, also of magnitude 5.05<sub> </sub>, is a B-type subgiant and is much farther from Earth, at . (Gamma) γ<sup>1</sup>Caeli is a double-star with a red giant primary of magnitude 4.58 and a secondary of magnitude 8.1<sub> </sub>. The primary is from Earth. The two components are difficult to resolve with small amateur telescopes because of their difference in visual magnitude and their close separation. This star system forms an optical double with the unrelated X Caeli (previously named γ<sup>2</sup>Caeli), a Delta Scuti variable located from Earth. These are a class of short-period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology. The only other variable star in Caelum visible to the naked eye is RV Caeli, a pulsating red giant of spectral type M1III, which varies between magnitudes 6.44 and 6.56<sub> </sub>. Three other stars in Caelum are still occasionally referred to by their Bayer designations, although they are only on the edge of naked-eye visibility. (Nu) ν Caeli is another double star, containing a white giant of magnitude 6.07 and a star of magnitude 10.66, with unknown spectral type. The system is approximately away. at magnitude 6.24, is much redder and farther away, being a red giant around from Earth. (Zeta) ζ Caeli is even fainter, being only of magnitude 6.36<sub> </sub>. This star, located away, is a K-type subgiant of spectral type K1. The other twelve naked-eye stars in Caelum are not referred to by Bode's Bayer designations anymore, including RV Caeli. HE0450-2958, an unusual active galaxy in Caelum\|alt=An image of the Seyfert galaxy HE0450-2958, showing the active nucleus]] One of the nearest stars in Caelum is the eclipsing binary star RR Caeli, at a distance of . Despite its closeness to the Earth, the system's apparent magnitude is only 14.40 due to the faintness of its components, and thus it cannot be easily seen with amateur equipment. The system is a post-common-envelope binary and is losing angular momentum over time, which will eventually cause mass transfer from the red dwarf to the white dwarf. In approximately 9–20 billion years, this will cause the system to become a cataclysmic variable. In 2012, the system was found to contain a giant planet, and there is evidence for a second substellar body. , it is believed two planets orbit RR Caeli. Another nearby star is LHS 1678, an astrometric binary located some 65 light-years away. The primary star is a red dwarf hosting three close-in exoplanets, all smaller than Earth, the secondary component is a likely brown dwarf. This system is notable as the closest star to Alpha Caeli, just 3.3 light-years distant. Due to its closeness, α Caeli would shine at magnitude from LHS 1678,) and distance from LHS 1678 (3.4 ly), its apparent magnitude can be calculated.<br />M<sub>abs</sub>−5+5log(distance (ly) / 3.26) M<sub>app</sub>.}} brighter than Sirius in our sky. Deep-sky objects Due to its small size and location away from the plane of the Milky Way, Caelum is rather devoid of deep-sky objects, and contains no Messier objects. The only deep-sky object in Caelum to receive much attention is HE0450-2958, an unusual Seyfert galaxy. Originally, the jet's host galaxy proved elusive to find, and this jet appeared to be emanating from nothing. Although it has been suggested that the object is an ejected supermassive black hole, the host is now agreed to be a small galaxy that is difficult to see due to light from the jet and a nearby starburst galaxy. The 13th magnitude planetary nebula PN G243-37.1 is also in the eastern regions of the constellation. It is one of only a few planetary nebulae found in the galactic halo, being light-years below the Milky Way's 1000 light-year-thick disk. Galaxies NGC 1595, NGC 1598, and the Carafe galaxy are known as the Carafe group. The Carafe galaxy is a Seyfert galaxy with ring. Its location is 4:28 / -47°54' (2000.0). Notes References External links * [http://www.starrynightphotos.com/constellations/fornax_phoenix.htm Starry Night Photography – Caelum Constellation] Category:Southern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Lacaille	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caelum	2025-04-05T18:27:49.063485
6433	Clarinet	{{Infobox Instrument \| name = Clarinet \| names \| image Leitner+Kraus 410 320.png \| image_capt = B♭ clarinets (Boehm and Oehler fingering system) \| background = woodwind \| classification = Single-reed \| hornbostel_sachs = 422.211.2–71 \| hornbostel_sachs_desc = Single-reeded aerophone with keys \| range <score lang"lilypond"> { \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \ottava #-1 e4 \glissando \ottava #1 c'''' } } </score>... <score lang"lilypond"> { \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil ##f \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \relative c { \ottava #-1 d4 \glissando \ottava #1 bes' } } </score> <br> B clar. written (E3-C7) - sounding (D3-B6) \| related = \| articles = }} The clarinet' is a single-reed musical instrument in the woodwind family, with a nearly cylindrical bore and a flared bell. Clarinets comprise a family of instruments of differing sizes and pitches. The clarinet family is the largest woodwind family, ranging from the BB♭ contrabass to the E♭ soprano. The B soprano clarinet is the most common type, and is the instrument usually indicated by the word "clarinet". German instrument maker Johann Christoph Denner is generally credited with inventing the clarinet sometime around 1700 by adding a register key to the chalumeau, an earlier single-reed instrument. Over time, additional keywork and airtight pads were added to improve the tone and playability. Today the clarinet is a standard fixture of the orchestra and concert band and is used in classical music, military bands, klezmer, jazz, and other styles. Etymology The word "clarinet" may have entered the English language via the French (the feminine diminutive of Old French ), or from Provençal , originating from the Latin root . The word is related to Middle English , a type of trumpet, the name of which derives from the same root. The earliest mention of the word "clarinette" being used for the instrument dates to a 1710 order placed by the Duke of Gronsfeld for two instruments made by Jacob Denner. The English form "clarinet" is found as early as 1733, and the now-archaic "clarionet" appears from 1784 until the early 20th century. A person who plays the clarinet is called a clarinetist (in North American English), a clarinettist'' (in British English), or simply a clarinet player.CharacteristicsThe clarinet's cylindrical bore is the main reason for its distinctive timbre, which varies between the three main registers (the chalumeau, clarion, and altissimo). The A and B clarinets have nearly the same bore and nearly identical tonal quality, although the A typically has a slightly warmer sound. The tone of the E clarinet is brighter and can be heard through loud orchestral textures. The bass clarinet has a characteristically deep, mellow sound, and the alto clarinet sounds similar to the bass, though not as dark. Range Clarinets have the largest pitch range of common woodwinds. The lowest note on most members of the clarinet family, which comprises more than 20 instruments, is E3. Some manufacturers also offer models from the B clarinet downwards that go as low as E3 to match the range of the A clarinet or D3 to match the range of a basset horn in F. However, there are also some clarinets, from the B clarinet downwards, which go up to C3 as standard, and some models also go up to B2. The highest note cannot be determined exactly, as it depends on the ability of the individual player. Normally, the highest note of the B clarinet is given as C7, resulting in a range of four octaves minus three notes. For physical reasons, the smaller clarinets reach less high, in the case of the A clarinet, the smallest model, normally only up to G6, and the larger instruments higher, such as the largest clarinet, the sub-contrabass clarinet, up to G7, i.e. a whole octave higher. The contrabass clarinet has the largest range from C3 to F7, which is four octaves and a fourth. Apart from the clarinets tuned in C (C soprano clarinet and basset clarinet in C), all clarinets are transposing instruments. The instruments above the C clarinet sound higher than notated, such as the aforementioned A clarinet a sixth higher, the longer instruments sound lower, such as the B clarinet by one tone and the B contrabass clarinet by two octaves and one tone. The range of a clarinet is usually divided into three registers: The low chalumeau register, from the notated E3 (C3 if available) to the notated B4. The middle clarion register, which covers a little more than an octave (from the written B4 to C5). The high altissimo register, consisting of the notes above it. The three registers have characteristically different sounds - the chalumeau is full and dark, the clarion register is brighter and sweet, like a high trumpet from a distance, and the altissimo can be piercing and sometimes shrill. Acoustics The production of sound by a clarinet follows these steps: # The mouthpiece and reed are surrounded by the player's lips, which put light, even pressure on the reed and form an airtight seal. Air is blown past the reed and down the instrument. In the same way a flag flaps in the breeze, the air rushing past the reed causes it to vibrate. As air pressure from the mouth increases, the amount the reed vibrates increases until the reed hits the mouthpiece.<br />The reed stays pressed against the mouthpiece until either the springiness of the reed forces it to open or a returning pressure wave 'bumps' into the reed and opens it. Each time the reed opens, a puff of air goes through the gap, after which the reed swings shut again. When played loudly, the reed can spend up to 50% of the time shut. The 'puff of air' or compression wave (at around 3% greater pressure than the surrounding air This in combination with the cut-off frequency (where a significant drop in resonance occurs) results in the characteristic tone of the clarinet. The bore is cylindrical for most of the tube with an inner bore diameter between , but there is a subtle hourglass shape, with the thinnest part below the junction between the upper and lower joint. This hourglass shape, although invisible to the naked eye, helps to correct the pitch and responsiveness of the instrument. The diameter of the bore affects the instrument's sound characteristics. The bell at the bottom of the clarinet flares out to improve the tone and tuning of the lowest notes. Covering or uncovering the tone holes varies the length of the pipe, changing the resonant frequencies of the enclosed air column and hence the pitch. The player moves between the chalumeau and clarion registers through use of the register key. The open register key stops the fundamental frequency from being reinforced, making the reed vibrate at three times the frequency, which produces a note a twelfth above the original note. Their vocal tract will be shaped to resonate at frequencies associated with the tone being produced. Vibrato, a pulsating change of pitch, is rare in classical literature; however, certain performers, such as Richard Stoltzman, use vibrato in classical music. Special fingerings and lip-bending may be used to play microtonal intervals. There have also been efforts to create a quarter tone clarinet.ConstructionMaterialsClarinet bodies have been made from a variety of materials including wood, plastic, hard rubber or Ebonite, metal, and ivory. The vast majority of wooden clarinets are made from African blackwood (grenadilla), or, more uncommonly, Honduran rosewood or cocobolo. Historically other woods, particularly boxwood and ebony, were used. Since the mid-20th century, clarinets (particularly student or band models) are also made from plastics, such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). One of the first such blends of plastic was Resonite, a term originally trademarked by Selmer. The Greenline model by Buffet Crampon is made from a composite of resin and the African blackwood powder left over from the manufacture of wooden clarinets. Metal soprano clarinets were popular in the late 19th century, particularly for military use. Metal is still used for the bodies of some contra-alto and contrabass clarinets and the necks and bells of nearly all alto and larger clarinets. Mouthpieces are generally made of hard rubber, although some inexpensive mouthpieces may be made of plastic. Other materials such as glass, wood, ivory, and metal have also been used. Ligatures are often made of metal and tightened using one or more adjustment screws; other materials include plastic, string, or fabric. Reed The clarinet uses a single reed made from the cane of Arundo donax. Reeds may also be manufactured from synthetic materials. The ligature fastens the reed to the mouthpiece. When air is blown through the opening between the reed and the mouthpiece facing, the reed vibrates and produces the clarinet's sound. Most players buy manufactured reeds, although many make adjustments to these reeds, and some make their own reeds from cane "blanks". Reeds come in varying degrees of hardness, generally indicated on a scale from one (soft) through five (hard). This numbering system is not standardized—reeds with the same number often vary in hardness across manufacturers and models. Reed and mouthpiece characteristics work together to determine ease of playability and tonal characteristics.Components clarinet]] The reed is attached to the mouthpiece by the ligature, and the top half-inch or so of this assembly is held in the player's mouth. In the past, string was used to bind the reed to the mouthpiece. The formation of the mouth around the mouthpiece and reed is called the embouchure. The reed is on the underside of the mouthpiece, pressing against the player's lower lip, while the top teeth normally contact the top of the mouthpiece (some players roll the upper lip under the top teeth to form what is called a 'double-lip' embouchure). Adjustments in the strength and shape of the embouchure change the tone and intonation. Players sometimes relieve the pressure on the upper teeth and inner lower lip by attaching a pad to the top of the mouthpiece or putting temporary cushioning on the lower teeth. The mouthpiece attaches to the barrel. Tuning can be adjusted by using barrels of varying lengths or by pulling out the barrel to increase the instrument's length. On basset horns and lower clarinets, there is a curved metal neck instead of a barrel. The main body of most clarinets has an upper joint, whose mechanism is mostly operated by the left hand, and a lower joint, mostly operated by the right hand. Some clarinets have a one-piece body. The modern soprano clarinet has numerous tone holes—seven are covered with the fingertips and the rest are operated using a set of 17 keys. The most common system of keys was named the Boehm system by its designer Hyacinthe Klosé after flute designer Theobald Boehm, but it is not the same as the Boehm system used on flutes. The other main key system is the Oehler system, which is used mostly in Germany and Austria. The related Albert system is used by some jazz, klezmer, and eastern European folk musicians. The Albert and Oehler systems are both based on the early Mueller system. The cluster of keys at the bottom of the upper joint (protruding slightly beyond the cork of the joint) are known as the trill keys and are operated by the right hand. The entire weight of the smaller clarinets is supported by the right thumb behind the lower joint on what is called the thumb rest. Larger clarinets are supported with a neck strap or a floor peg. Below the main body is a flared end known as the bell. The bell does not amplify the sound but improves the uniformity of the instrument's tone for the lowest notes in each register. but they were expensive and had issues with sound quality. They were designed for use in cold weather (allowing gloves to be worn), for saxophone or flute players, and for players with certain physical requirements.History , 1732]] used by Anton Stadler since 1789 and a replica]] The clarinet has its roots in early single-reed instruments used in Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt. The modern clarinet developed from a Baroque instrument called the chalumeau. This instrument was similar to a recorder, but with a single-reed mouthpiece and a cylindrical bore. Lacking a register key, it was played mainly in its fundamental register, with a limited range of about one and a half octaves. It had eight finger holes, like a recorder, and a written pitch range from F<sub>3</sub> to G<sub>4</sub>. At this time, contrary to modern practice, the reed was placed in contact with the upper lip. Around the beginning of the 18th century the German instrument maker Johann Christoph Denner (or possibly his son Jacob Denner) equipped a chalumeau in the alto register with two keys, one of which enabled access to a higher register. This second register did not begin an octave above the first, as with other woodwind instruments, but started an octave and a perfect fifth higher than the first. A second key, at the top, extended the range of the first register to A<sub>4</sub> and, together with the register key, to B<sub>4</sub>. Later, Denner lengthened the bell and provided it with a third key to extend the pitch range down to E<sub>3</sub>. In 1791 Mozart composed the Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra in A major for this instrument, with passages ranging down to C<sub>3</sub>. By the time of Beethoven (), the clarinet was a fixed member in the orchestra. The number of keys was limited because their felt pads did not seal tightly. Baltic-German clarinetist and master clarinet maker Iwan Müller remedied this by countersinking the tone holes for the keys and covering the pads with soft leather. These leather pads sealed the holes better than felt, making it possible to equip the instrument with considerably more keys. In 1812 Müller presented a clarinet with seven finger holes and thirteen keys, which he called "clarinet omnitonic" since it was capable of playing in all keys. It was no longer necessary to use differently tuned clarinets for a different keys. Müller is also considered the inventor of the metal ligature and the thumb rest. During this period the typical embouchure also changed, orienting the mouthpiece with the reed facing downward. This was first recommended in 1782 and became standard by the 1830s. In the late 1830s, and the Reform Boehm system, which combined Boehm-system keywork with a German mouthpiece and bore. The Albert clarinet was developed by Eugène Albert in 1848. This model was based on the Müller clarinet with some changes to keywork, and was also known as the "simple system". It included a "spectacle key" patented by Adolphe Sax and rollers to improve little-finger movement. After 1861, a "patent C sharp" key developed by Joseph Tyler was added to other clarinet models. Improved versions of Albert clarinets were built in Belgium and France for export to the UK and the US. Around 1860, clarinettist Carl Baermann and instrument maker Georg Ottensteiner developed the patented Baermann/Ottensteiner clarinet. This instrument had new connecting levers, allowing multiple fingering options to operate some of the pads. The Brahms clarinetist Richard Mühlfeld used this clarinet, and the American clarinet soloist Charles Neidich has used a Baermann-Ottensteiner instrument for playing compositions by Brahms. In the early 20th century, the German clarinetist and clarinet maker presented a clarinet using similar fingerings to the Baermann instrument, with significantly more toneholes than the Böhm model. The new clarinet was called the Oehler system clarinet or German clarinet, while the Böhm clarinet has since been called the French clarinet. The French clarinet differs from the German not only in fingering but also in sound. Richard Strauss noted that "French clarinets have a flat, nasal tone, while German ones approximate the singing voice". Among modern instruments the difference is smaller, although intonation differences persist. Today the Boehm system is standard everywhere except in Germany and Austria, where the Oehler clarinet is still used. Some contemporary Dixieland players continue to use Albert system clarinets. The Reform Boehm system is also popular in the Netherlands. ). C-klarinette-lauriol-bordeaux.jpg\|Iwan Müller clarinet with 13 keys and leather pads, developed in 1809. Albert-Klarinette.jpg\|Albert clarinet designed by Eugène Albert, intermediate between the Müller and Oehler clarinets. Baermann-System.jpg\|Baermann clarinet, , intermediate between the Müller and Oehler clarinets. Leitner+Kraus 320 b.jpg\|Oehler clarinet with a cover on the middle tone hole of the lower joint, dev. 1905 by Oscar Oehler, and with bell mechanism added later to improve deep E and F Yamaha Clarinet YCL-457II-22 (8K).jpg\|Standard German clarinet without cover or bell mechanism. BC E13 .jpg\|French Clarinet (Original Boehm with 17 keys and 6 rings). Developed by Hyacinthe Klosé and Louis Auguste Buffet. Patricola CL4.jpg\|Full Boehm clarinet with 21 keys and 7 rings developed . Wurlitzer RefBoehm 185.jpg\|Reform Boehm clarinet with 19 keys and 7 rings, developed by Fritz Wurlitzer. </gallery> </div> \|width90%\|aligncenter}} Usage and repertoire Use of multiple clarinets The modern orchestral standard of using soprano clarinets in B and A has to do partly with the history of the instrument and partly with acoustics, aesthetics, and economics. Before about 1800, due to the lack of airtight pads, practical woodwinds could have only a few keys to control accidentals (notes outside their diatonic home scales). With the advent of airtight pads and improved key technology, more keys were added to woodwinds and the need for clarinets in multiple keys was reduced. The use of instruments in C, B, and A persisted, with each used as specified by the composer. The lower-pitched clarinets sound "mellower" (less bright), and the C clarinet—the highest and brightest sounding of these three—fell out of favor as the other two could cover its range and their sound was considered better. * Clarinet quartet: usually three B sopranos and one B bass, or two B, an E alto clarinet, and a B bass clarinet, or sometimes four B sopranos.Classical music The orchestra frequently includes two clarinetists, each usually equipped with a B and an A clarinet, and clarinet parts commonly alternate between the instruments. In the 20th century, Igor Stravinsky, Richard Strauss, and Gustav Mahler employed many different clarinets, including the E or D soprano clarinets, basset horn, bass clarinet, and contrabass clarinet. The practice of using different clarinets to achieve tonal variety was common in 20th-century classical music. The E clarinet, B clarinet, alto clarinet, bass clarinet, and contra-alto/contrabass clarinet are commonly used in concert bands, which generally have multiple B clarinets; there are commonly three or even four B clarinet parts with two to three players per part. The clarinet is widely used as a solo instrument. The clarinet evolved later than other orchestral woodwind instruments, leaving solo repertoire from the Classical period onward, but few works from the Baroque era. Many clarinet concertos and clarinet sonatas have been written to showcase the instrument, for example those by Mozart and Weber. Many works of chamber music have been written for the clarinet. Common combinations are: * Clarinet and piano. * Clarinet trio: clarinet, piano, and another instrument (for example, a string instrument). * Clarinet quartet: three B clarinets and bass clarinet; two B clarinets, alto clarinet, and bass; and other possibilities such as the use of a basset horn, especially in European classical works. * Clarinet quintet: a clarinet plus a string quartet or, in more contemporary music, a configuration of five clarinets. * Wind quintet: flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn. Groups of clarinets playing together have become increasingly popular among clarinet enthusiasts in recent years. Common forms are: * Clarinet choir: This ensemble contains many clarinets playing together, usually including several members of the clarinet family. The homogeneity of tone across the different members of the clarinet family produces an effect with some similarities to a human choir. * Clarinet quartet: usually three B sopranos and one B bass, or two B, an E alto clarinet, and a B bass clarinet, or sometimes four B sopranos.Jazz The clarinet was a central instrument in jazz, beginning with early jazz players in the 1910s. It remained a signature instrument of the genre through much of the big band era into the 1940s. American players Alphonse Picou, Larry Shields, Jimmie Noone, Johnny Dodds, and Sidney Bechet were all prominent early jazz clarinet players. Swing performers such as Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw rose to prominence in the late 1930s. Beginning in the 1940s, the clarinet faded from its prominent position in jazz. By that time, an interest in Dixieland, a revival of traditional New Orleans jazz, had begun. Pete Fountain was one of the best known performers in this genre. The clarinet's place in the jazz ensemble was usurped by the saxophone, which projects a more powerful sound and uses a less complicated fingering system. The clarinet did not entirely disappear from jazz—prominent players since the 1950s include Stan Hasselgård, Jimmy Giuffre, Eric Dolphy (on bass clarinet), Perry Robinson, and John Carter. In the US, the prominent players on the instrument since the 1980s have included Eddie Daniels, Don Byron, Marty Ehrlich, Ken Peplowski, and others playing in both traditional and contemporary styles.Other genresThe clarinet is uncommon, but not unheard of, in rock music. Jerry Martini played clarinet on Sly and the Family Stone's 1968 hit, "Dance to the Music". The Beatles included a trio of clarinets in "When I'm Sixty-Four" from their ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' album. A clarinet is prominently featured in what a Billboard reviewer termed a "Benny Goodman-flavored clarinet solo" in "Breakfast in America", the title song from the Supertramp album of the same name. Clarinets feature prominently in klezmer music, which employs a distinctive style of playing. The popular Brazilian music style of choro uses the clarinet, as does Albanian saze and Greek kompania folk music, and Bulgarian wedding music. In Turkish folk music, the Albert system clarinet in G is often used, commonly called a "Turkish clarinet". Clarinet family {\| class="wikitable" \|- style="text-align:center;" ! Name !! Key !! Commentary !! Range (written)!! Range<br>(sounding) !! Sound examples <br/>played by Richard Haynes \|- \| A clarinet (Piccolo clarinet in A) \| A \| The A-flat (A♭) clarinet is the highest-pitched instrument of the clarinet family still manufactured. It is just over half the length of the common B♭ clarinet. Due to its small size and more compact key work, the A♭ clarinet is usually constructed with a one-piece body that combines the separate upper and lower joints and the barrel found on larger clarinets.The A♭ clarinet initially found its widest use in 19th century European wind and military band music. Some Italian composers use the instrument in their operas, for example Giuseppe Verdi. The A♭ clarinet has appeared occasionally in 20th-century music. Béla Bartók wrote for it in his 1905 Scherzo for Piano and Orchestra . \|\| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 e4 \glissando \ottava #1 g''' } } </score>}} E3 - G6 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \time 2/4 \ottava #0 c4 \glissando \ottava #1 es' } } </score>}} C4 - E7 \| \| \|- \| E clarinet (Sopranino or piccolo clarinet in E) \| E \| The E-flat (E) clarinet is maller than the more common B clarinet and pitched a perfect fourth higher with a sounding pitch a minor third higher than written. It has a total length of about . This instrument has a characteristic "hard and biting" tone and is used in the orchestra when a brighter, or sometimes more comical, sound is called for. It appears in some Romantic and post-Romantic works, such the Symphonie fantastique by Hector Berlioz as well in modern works, such the Boléro'' by Maurice Ravel. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 e4 \glissando \ottava #1 a''' } } </score>}} E3 - A6 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \time 2/4 \ottava #0 g4 \glissando \ottava #1 c''' } } </score>}} G3 - C7 \| \|- \| C clarinet (Soprano clarinet in C) \| C \| This clarinet was very common in the instrument's earliest period but its use dwindled, and by the end of the 1920s it had become practically obsolete. From the time of Mozart, many composers began to prefer the mellower lower-pitched instruments, and the timbre of the C instrument may have been considered too bright. To avoid having to carry an extra instrument that required another reed and mouthpiece, orchestral players preferred to play parts for this instrument on B clarinets, transposing up a tone. Rossini uses two C clarinets in The Barber of Seville. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 e4 \glissando \ottava #1 bes'''' } } </score>}} E3 - B6 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 e4 \glissando \ottava #1 bes'''' } } </score>}} E3 - B6 \| \|- \| B clarinet (Soprano clarinet in B) \| B♭ \| The B clarinet is the most common type. Usually, the term "clarinet" on its own refers to this instrument. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 e4 \glissando \ottava #1 c'''' } } </score>}} E3 - C7 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 d4 \glissando \ottava #1 bes'''' } } </score>}} D3 - B6 \| \|- \| A clarinet (Soprano clarinet in A) \| A \| The A clarinet is frequently used in orchestral and chamber music, especially of the nineteenth century. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 e4 \glissando \ottava #1 d'''' } } </score>}} E3 - D7 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 cis4 \glissando \ottava #1 b'''' } } </score>}} Cis3 - B6 \| \|- \| Basset clarinet \| A \| The basset clarinet is a clarinet that extends down to the written low C (instead of E or E-flat). Some models even reach down to low B. It is available in the tunings C, B-flat, A, and G, most commonly used in A.. Mozart wrote his Clarinet Quintet and his Clarinet Concerto for the basset clarinet in A. He also used it in several operas. After Mozart's death, the instrument largely fell into oblivion until it experienced a gradual revival from the 1950s onward, leading to the creation of new compositions for the basset clarinet. Since the 1980s, most soloists have performed Mozart's Clarinet Concerto on this instrument in a reconstructed version.. In the G tuning, there exists a reconstruction of a clarinet d'amore, on which the sound example here is played. Little material for this instrument has been published after Mozart.. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 c4 \glissando \ottava #1 d'''' } } </score>}} C3 - D7 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 f,4 \glissando \ottava #1 g'''' } } </score>}} F2 - G6 \| \|- \| Alto clarinet \| E \| Sometimes referred to as the tenor clarinet in Europe, the alto clarinet is used in military and concert bands and occasionally, if rarely, in orchestras. The alto clarinet in F was used in military bands during the early 19th century and was a favorite instrument of Iwan Müller. It fell out of use and, if called for, is commonly substituted with the basset horn. The alto clarinet can be lowered to E, E-flat, D, or C; often to D, as it can then replace a basset horn. This type is the basis for the adjacent ranges. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 d4 \glissando \ottava #1 d'''' } } </score>}} D3 - D7 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 g4 \glissando \ottava #1 f'''' } } </score>}} G2 - F6 \|- \| Bass clarinet \| B \| Developed in the late 18th century, the bass clarinet began featuring in orchestral music in the 1830s after its redesign by Adolphe Sax. It has since become a mainstay of the modern orchestra. It is also used in concert bands and enjoys (along with the B clarinet) a considerable role in jazz, especially through jazz musician Eric Dolphy. The bass clarinet in A, which had a vogue among certain composers from the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries, is now so rare as to usually be considered obsolete. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 c4 \glissando \ottava #1 e'''' } } </score>}} C3 - E7 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \clef bass \ottava #0 bes,4 \glissando \ottava #2 d'''' } } </score>}} B1 bis D6 \| \|- \| Contra-alto clarinet \| EE \| The contra-alto clarinet is largely a development of the 2nd half of the 20th century, although there were some precursors in the 19th centuy. It is used in wind ensembles and occasionally in cinematic scores. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 es4 \glissando \ottava #1 f'''' } } </score>}} E3 - F7 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \clef bass \ottava #-1 fis,,4 \glissando \ottava #1 a } } </score>}} Fis1 - A5 \| \|- \| Contrabass clarinet (also called double-bass clarinet) \| BB \| The BB contrabass is used in clarinet ensembles, concert bands, and sometimes in orchestras. Arnold Schoenberg calls for a contrabass clarinet in A in his Five Pieces for Orchestra, but no such instrument ever existed. For the depicted tonal range, the execution in B-flat down to low C is assumed. The sound example from the 9th Symphony by Gustav Mahler is originally played by a (standard) bass clarinet. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 c4 \glissando \ottava #1 f'''' } } </score>}} C3 - F7 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \clef bass \ottava #-1 bes,,4 \glissando \ottava #1 f''''' } } </score>}} B0 - F5 \| \|- \|Subcontrabass clarinet (also called octocontralto clarinet or octocontrabass clarinet) \|EEE or BBB \|The subcontrabass clarinet is a largely experimental instrument with little repertoire. Three versions in EEE♭ (an octave below the contra-alto clarinet) were made, and a version in BBB (an octave below the contrabass clarinet) was built by Leblanc in 1939. \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \ottava #-1 es4 \glissando \ottava #1 g'''' } } </score>}} E3 - G7 \| {{center\|<score lang="lilypond"> { \override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/8) \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c { \time 2/4 \clef bass \ottava #-2 des,,,4 \glissando \ottava #-2 f'' } } </score>}} Des0 - F4 \|} in A, alto clarinet range to low E, basset horn, bass clarinet range to low E, bass clarinet range to low C, contra alto clarinet and contrabass clarinet]] See also * List of clarinet concerti * List of clarinetists * List of clarinet makers * Double clarinet * International Clarinet Association References Citations Cited sources * * * * * * * ** * \|lastPage \|firstJanet K. \|last2Gourlay \|first2K. A. \|last3Blench \|first3Roger \|last4Shackleton \|first4Nicholas \|last5Rice \|first5Albert \|year2015 \|inLibin \|c Clarinet}} * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * External links * [http://www.clarinet.org/ The International Clarinet Association] Category:Jazz instruments Category:Orchestral instruments Category:Concert band instruments	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarinet	2025-04-05T18:27:49.142799
6434	Chojnów	}} Rynek (Market Square) \| image2 = MG 1541 kopia.jpgPiast Castle \| image3 = Chojnów, wieża kościoła Świętych Apostołów Piotra i Pawła (3).jpgGothic Saints Peter and Paul Church \| image4 = Baszta-tkaczy-chojnow.jpgMedieval Weavers Tower \| caption1 = Market Square \| caption2 = Piast Castle \| caption3 = Saints Peter and Paul Church \| caption4 = Weavers Tower }} \| image_flag = POL Chojnów flag.svg \| image_shield = POL Chojnów COA.svg \| pushpin_map = Poland \| pushpin_label_position = right \| subdivision_type = Country \| subdivision_name = \| subdivision_type1 = Voivodeship \| subdivision_name1 \| subdivision_type2 = County \| subdivision_name2 = Legnica \| subdivision_type3 = Gmina \| subdivision_name3 = Chojnów <small>(urban gmina)</small> \| leader_title = Mayor \| leader_name = Jan Serkies \| established_title = Established \| established_date = 14th century \| established_title3 = Town rights \| established_date3 = 1333 \| area_total_km2 = 5.32 \| population_as_of 31 December 2021 \| population_total = 13002 \| population_density_km2 = auto \| timezone = CET \| utc_offset = +1 \| timezone_DST = CEST \| utc_offset_DST = +2 \| coordinates \| elevation_m = 170 \| postal_code_type = Postal code \| postal_code = 59-224, 59-225 \| area_code = +48 76 \| blank_name = Car plates \| blank_info = DLE \| website = }} Chojnów () is a small town in Legnica County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. It is located on the Skora river, a tributary of the Kaczawa at an average altitude of above sea level. Chojnów is the administrative seat of the rural gmina called Gmina Chojnów, although the town is not part of its territory and forms a separate urban gmina. As of December 2021, the town has 13,002 inhabitants. Possible the name of nearby Hainau Island. The name is of Polish origin, and in more modern records from the 19th century, the Polish name appears as Hajnów, while Haynau is the Germanized version of the original Polish name. The settlement of Haynow was mentioned in a 1272 deed. It was already called a civitas in a 1288 document issued by the Piast duke Henry V of Legnica, and officially received town privileges in 1333 from Duke Bolesław III the Generous. In 1292 the first castellan of Chojnów, Bronisław Budziwojowic, was mentioned. In the 14th and early 15th centuries Chojnów was granted various privileges, including staple right and gold mining right, thanks to which it flourished. In 1740 the town was captured by Prussia and subsequently annexed in 1742. In 1804 it suffered a flood.Population Economy Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural town. Among local products are: paper, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, and clothing for infants, children and adults. Sights and nature Among the interesting monuments of Chojnów are the 13th-century castle of the Dukes of Legnica (currently used as a museum), two old churches, the Baszta Tkaczy (''Weavers' Tower) and preserved fragments of city walls. The biggest green area in Chojnów is small forest Park Piastowski (Piast's Park), named after Piast dynasty. Wild animals that can be found in the Chojnów area are roe deer, foxes, rabbits and wild domestic animals, especially cats. Culture and sport Every year in the first days of June, the Days of Chojnów (Dni Chojnowa) are celebrated. The Whole-Poland bike race Masters has been organized yearly in Chojnów for the past few years. Chojnów has a Municipal sports and recreation center formed in 2008 holding various events, festivals, reviews, exhibitions, and competitions. The regional Museum is housed in the old Piast era castle. The collections include tiles, relics, and the castle garden. Next to the Museum there is a municipal library. In śródmiejskim Park, near the Town Hall is the amphitheatre. The local government-run weekly newspaper is Gazeta Chojnowska, which has been published since 1992. It is published biweekly. Editions have a run of 900 copies and it is one of the oldest newspapers in Poland issued without interruption. The Chojnów'' is the official newspaper of Chojnów with copy run of 750 copies. Education In Chojnów, there are two kindergartens, two elementary schools and two middle schools. Mary Konopnickiej is the smallest elementary school in Chojnów, and is located in the northern part of the city, close to the train station and founded in 1962. Janusz Korczak is the largest primary school in Chojnów in the southern part of the town. Middle School No. (Pope John Paul II), it is situated in the north-western part of the city next to the "Small Church". Gimnazjum nr 2 im. Nicolaus Copernicus is the largest high school in Chojnów. Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Nicolaus Copernicus Religion Chojnów is in the Catholic deanery of Chojnów and has two parishes, Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary and also the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul. Both parishes have active congregations. There are also two Congregations of Jehovah's witnesses. Notable people Johann Wilhelm Ritter (1776–1810), chemist and physicist * Georg Michaelis (1857–1936), politician, Chancellor of Germany (1917). * Edith Jacobson (1897–1978), German psychoanalyst * Oswald Lange (1912–2000), German–American aerospace engineer * Horst Mahler (born 1936), German lawyer, former Red Army Faction militant, now Neo-Nazi activist Twin towns – sister cities Chojnów is twinned with: * Commentry, France * Egelsbach, Germany * Mnichovo Hradiště, Czech Republic Gallery <gallery mode=packed> Chojnow(js).jpg\|Entrance to the Piast Castle Chojnów, Ab-047.JPG\|Flower beds in Chojnów Chojnów, Wzgórze Chmielowe.jpg\|Park Piastowski Chojnów, Ratusz (2).jpg\|Town hall SM Chojnów kościół Niepokalanego Poczęcia NMP (5) ID 593383.jpg\|Immaculate Conception Church SM Chojnów Konarskiego4 (0).jpg\|Nicolaus Copernicus Gymnasium No. 2 Chojnów, Ab-057.JPG\|Monument to Polish soldiers killed in World War II and murdered in labour camps and exiled to Siberia Łabędzi Staw.jpg\|Swan's Pond (Łabędzi Staw) in winter Chojnów, Dworzec kolejowy (2).jpg\|Chojnów Railway Station Chojnow 055 most kolejowy.jpg\|Railway bridge </gallery> References External links * [http://chojnow.eu City hall homepage] [http://e-informator.pl Chojnow social news portal] [http://www.chojnow.pl Chojnow Online] [https://web.archive.org/web/20061205013715/http://chojnow.info/ E-info about Chojnow] [http://www.haynau.pl Chojnow social news portal] [http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/city/chojnow/ Jewish Community in Chojnów] on Virtual Shtetl Category:Cities and towns in Lower Silesian Voivodeship Category:Legnica County Category:Cities in Silesia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chojnów	2025-04-05T18:27:49.157377
6435	Canes Venatici	, genitive \| symbolism = the Hunting Dogs \| RA = to \| dec+27.84° to +52.36° In 1533, the German astronomer Peter Apian depicted Boötes as having two dogs with him. These spurious dogs floated about the astronomical literature until Hevelius decided to make them a separate constellation in 1687. Hevelius chose the name Asterion, meaning the 'little star', the diminutive of 'the star' or 'starry'. ()}} for the northern dog and Chara, meaning 'joy'.()}} for the southern dog, as , 'the hunting dogs', in his star atlas. In his star catalogue, the Czech astronomer Antonín Bečvář assigned the names Asterion to β CVn and Chara to α CVn. Although the International Astronomical Union dropped several constellations in 1930 that were medieval and Renaissance innovations, Canes Venatici survived to become one of the 88 IAU designated constellations. Neighbors and borders Canes Venatici is bordered by Ursa Major to the north and west, Coma Berenices to the south, and Boötes to the east. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "CVn". <!----> The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, Covering 465 square degrees, it ranks 38th of the 88 constellations in size. Prominent stars and deep-sky objects Stars Canes Venatici contains no very bright stars. The Bayer designation stars, Alpha and Beta Canum Venaticorum are only of third and fourth magnitude respectively. Flamsteed catalogued 25 stars in the constellation, labelling them 1 to 25 Canum Venaticorum (CVn); however, 1CVn turned out to be in Ursa Major, 13CVn was in Coma Berenices, and 22CVn did not exist. * Alpha Canum Venaticorum, also known as ('heart of Charles'), is the constellation's brightest star, named by Sir Charles Scarborough in memory of King Charles I, the executed king of Britain. it was originally named ('The Heart of King Charles the Martyr') for Charles I. Warner also notes that suggestions that the name was invented by Edmond Halley are erroneous.}} The English astronomer William Henry Smyth wrote in 1844 that α CVn was brighter than usual during the Restoration, as Charles II returned to England to take the throne, but gave no source for this statement, which seems to be apocryphal. Cor Caroli is a wide double star, with a primary of magnitude 2.9 and a secondary of magnitude 5.6; the primary is 110 light-years from Earth. The primary also has an unusually strong variable magnetic field. * Beta Canum Venaticorum, or Chara, is a yellow-hued main sequence star of magnitude 4.25, However, no exoplanets have been discovered around it so far. * Y Canum Venaticorum (La Superba) is a semiregular variable star that varies between magnitudes 5.0 and 6.5 over a period of around 158 days. It is a carbon star and is deep red in color, * AM Canum Venaticorum, a very blue star of magnitude 14, is the prototype of a special class of cataclysmic variable stars, in which the companion star is a white dwarf, rather than a main sequence star. It is 143 parsecs distant from the Sun. * RS Canum Venaticorum is the prototype of a special class of binary stars of chromospherically active and optically variable components. * R Canum Venaticorum is a Mira variable that ranges between magnitudes 6.5 and 12.9 over a period of approximately 329 days.SupervoidThe Giant Void, an extremely large void (part of the universe containing very few galaxies), is within the vicinity of this constellation. It is regarded to be the second largest void ever discovered, slightly larger than the Eridanus Supervoid and smaller than the proposed KBC Void and 1,200 times the volume of expected typical voids. It was discovered in 1988 in a deep-sky survey. Its centre is approximately 1.5 billion light-years away. Deep-sky objects Canes Venatici contains five Messier objects, including four galaxies. One of the more significant galaxies in Canes Venatici is the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51, NGC 5194) and NGC 5195, a small barred spiral galaxy that is seen face-on. This was the first galaxy recognised as having a spiral structure, this structure being first observed by Lord Rosse in 1845. Dim and diffuse.jpg\| NGC 4242 is a dim galaxy in Canes Venatici. NGC 4631 HST.jpg\| NGC 4631 photographed by the Hubble Space Telescope. NGC 4707 - HST - Potw1651a.tif\| NGC 4707 is a spiral galaxy roughly 22 million light-years from Earth. </gallery> Other notable spiral galaxies in Canes Venatici are the Sunflower Galaxy (M63, NGC 5055), M94 (NGC 4736), and M106 (NGC 4258). * M63, the Sunflower Galaxy, was named for its appearance in large amateur telescopes. It is a spiral galaxy with an integrated magnitude of 9.0. * M94 (NGC 4736) is a small face-on spiral galaxy with approximate magnitude 8.0, about 15 million light-years from Earth. * M3 (NGC 5272) is a globular cluster 32,000 light-years from Earth. It is 18′ in diameter, and at magnitude 6.3 is bright enough to be seen with binoculars. It can even be seen with the naked eye under particularly dark skies. Ton 618 is a hyperluminous quasar and blazar in this constellation, near its border with the neighboring Coma Berenices. It possesses a black hole with a mass 66 billion times that of the Sun, making it one of the most massive black holes ever measured. There is also a Lyman-alpha blob. Footnotes References Bibliography * * * * * * }} * * External links * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/canesvenatici/ Photos of Canes Venatici and the star clusters and galaxies found within it on AllTheSky.com] * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/canesv.htm Clickable map of Canes Venatici] * [http://daveweb.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Sloan-canes-venetici-book.pdf Photographic catalogue of deep sky objects in Canes Venatici (PDF)] Category:Northern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Johannes Hevelius	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canes_Venatici	2025-04-05T18:27:49.179021
6436	Chamaeleon	, genitive \| symbolism = the Chameleon \| RA – \| dec– Chamaeleon is sometimes also called the Frying Pan in Australia. See also * Chamaeleon (Chinese astronomy) * IAU-recognized constellations Citations References * * * External links * [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/chamaeleon/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Chamaeleon] * [http://astrojan.nhely.hu/chamael.htm The clickable Chamaeleon] * [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode1999ApJ...516L..77M&db_keyAST&data_typeHTML&format&high=43a3b4e6f826104 "The eta Chamaeleontis Cluster: A Remarkable New Nearby Young Open Cluster" (Mamajek, Lawson, & Feigelson 1999)] * [https://webda.physics.muni.cz/cgi-bin/ocl_page.cgi?cluster=mamajek+1 "WEBDA open cluster database entry for Mamajek 1"] * [http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/chamaeleon.html Ian Ridpath's Star Tales – Chamaeleon] * [https://theskylive.com/sky/deepsky/ngc3620-object NGC 3620 Barred spiral galaxy] Category:Southern constellations Category:Constellations listed by Petrus Plancius	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamaeleon	2025-04-05T18:27:49.185523
6437	Cholesterol	\| UNII = 97C5T2UQ7J \| InChI = 1/C27H46O/c1-18(2)7-6-8-19(3)23-11-12-24-22-10-9-20-17-21(28)13-15-26(20,4)25(22)14-16-27(23,24)5/h9,18-19,21-25,28H,6-8,10-17H2,1-5H3/t19-,21+,22+,23-,24+,25+,26+,27-/m1/s1 \| InChIKey = HVYWMOMLDIMFJA-DPAQBDIFBB \| ChEMBL_Ref = \| ChEMBL = 112570 \| StdInChI_Ref = \| StdInChI = 1S/C27H46O/c1-18(2)7-6-8-19(3)23-11-12-24-22-10-9-20-17-21(28)13-15-26(20,4)25(22)14-16-27(23,24)5/h9,18-19,21-25,28H,6-8,10-17H2,1-5H3/t19-,21+,22+,23-,24+,25+,26+,27-/m1/s1 \| StdInChIKey_Ref = \| StdInChIKey = HVYWMOMLDIMFJA-DPAQBDIFSA-N \| CASNo =57-88-5 \| CASNo_Ref = \| ChemSpiderID_Ref = \| ChemSpiderID = 5775 \| PubChem =5997 \| KEGG_Ref = \| KEGG = D00040 \| ChEBI_Ref = \| ChEBI = 16113 \| SMILES C[C@H](CCCC(C)C)[C@H]1CC[C@@H]2[C@@]1(CC[C@H]3[C@H]2CCC4[C@@]3(CC[C@@H](C4)O)C)C }} \|Section2= Typical daily cholesterol dietary intake for a man in the United States is 307 mg. Most ingested cholesterol is esterified, which causes it to be poorly absorbed by the gut. The body also compensates for absorption of ingested cholesterol by reducing its own cholesterol synthesis. For these reasons, cholesterol in food, seven to ten hours after ingestion, has little, if any effect on concentrations of cholesterol in the blood. Surprisingly, in rats, blood cholesterol is inversely correlated with cholesterol consumption. The more cholesterol a rat eats the lower the blood cholesterol. During the first seven hours after ingestion of cholesterol, as absorbed fats are being distributed around the body within extracellular water by the various lipoproteins (which transport all fats in the water outside cells), the concentrations increase. Plants make cholesterol in very small amounts. In larger quantities they produce phytosterols, chemically similar substances which can compete with cholesterol for reabsorption in the intestinal tract, thus potentially reducing cholesterol reabsorption. When intestinal lining cells absorb phytosterols, in place of cholesterol, they usually excrete the phytosterol molecules back into the GI tract, an important protective mechanism. The intake of naturally occurring phytosterols, which encompass plant sterols and stanols, ranges between ≈200–300 mg/day depending on eating habits. Specially designed vegetarian experimental diets have been produced yielding upwards of 700 mg/day. Function Membranes Cholesterol is present in varying degrees in all animal cell membranes, but is absent in prokaryotes. It is required to build and maintain membranes and modulates membrane fluidity over the range of physiological temperatures. The hydroxyl group of each cholesterol molecule interacts with water molecules surrounding the membrane, as do the polar heads of the membrane phospholipids and sphingolipids, while the bulky steroid and the hydrocarbon chain are embedded in the membrane, alongside the nonpolar fatty-acid chain of the other lipids. Through the interaction with the phospholipid fatty-acid chains, cholesterol increases membrane packing, which both alters membrane fluidity and maintains membrane integrity so that animal cells do not need to build cell walls (like plants and most bacteria). The membrane remains stable and durable without being rigid, allowing animal cells to change shape and animals to move. The structure of the tetracyclic ring of cholesterol contributes to the fluidity of the cell membrane, as the molecule is in a trans conformation making all but the side chain of cholesterol rigid and planar. In this structural role, cholesterol also reduces the permeability of the plasma membrane to neutral solutes, hydrogen ions, and sodium ions.Substrate presentationCholesterol regulates the biological process of substrate presentation and the enzymes that use substrate presentation as a mechanism of their activation. Phospholipase D2 (PLD2) is a well-defined example of an enzyme activated by substrate presentation. The enzyme is palmitoylated causing the enzyme to traffic to cholesterol dependent lipid domains sometimes called "lipid rafts". The substrate of phospholipase D is phosphatidylcholine (PC) which is unsaturated and is of low abundance in lipid rafts. PC localizes to the disordered region of the cell along with the polyunsaturated lipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). PLD2 has a PIP2 binding domain. When PIP2 concentration in the membrane increases, PLD2 leaves the cholesterol-dependent domains and binds to PIP2 where it then gains access to its substrate PC and commences catalysis based on substrate presentation. '''; PLD (blue oval) is sequestered into cholesterol-dependent lipid domains (green lipids) by palmitoylation. PLD also binds PIP2(red hexagon) domains (grey shading) located in the disordered region of the cell with phosphatidylcholine (PC). When cholesterol decreases or PIP2 increases in the cell, PLD translocates to PIP2 where it is exposed to and hydrolizes PC to phosphatidic acid (red spherical lipid).]] Signaling Cholesterol is also implicated in cell signaling processes, assisting in the formation of lipid rafts in the plasma membrane, which brings receptor proteins in close proximity with high concentrations of second messenger molecules. In multiple layers, cholesterol and phospholipids, both electrical insulators, can facilitate speed of transmission of electrical impulses along nerve tissue. For many neuron fibers, a myelin sheath, rich in cholesterol since it is derived from compacted layers of Schwann cell or oligodendrocyte membranes, provides insulation for more efficient conduction of impulses. Demyelination (loss of myelin) is believed to be part of the basis for multiple sclerosis. Cholesterol binds to and affects the gating of a number of ion channels such as the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, and the inward-rectifier potassium channel. Cholesterol also activates the estrogen-related receptor alpha (ERRα), and may be the endogenous ligand for the receptor. The constitutively active nature of the receptor may be explained by the fact that cholesterol is ubiquitous in the body.EpidermisThe stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis. Together with ceramides and free fatty acids, cholesterol forms the lipid mortar, a water-impermeable barrier that prevents evaporative water loss. As a rule of thumb, the epidermal lipid matrix is composed of an equimolar mixture of ceramides (≈50% by weight), cholesterol (≈25% by weight), and free fatty acids (≈15% by weight), with smaller quantities of other lipids also being present. The relative abundance of cholesterol sulfate in the epidermis varies across different body sites with the heel of the foot having the lowest concentration.Biosynthesis and regulationBiosynthesisAlmost all animal tissues synthesize cholesterol from acetyl-CoA. All animal cells (exceptions exist within the invertebrates) manufacture cholesterol, for both membrane structure and other uses, with relative production rates varying by cell type and organ function. About 80% of total daily cholesterol production occurs in the liver and the intestines; other sites of higher synthesis rates include the brain, the adrenal glands, and the reproductive organs. Synthesis within the body starts with the mevalonate pathway where two molecules of acetyl CoA condense to form acetoacetyl-CoA. This is followed by a second condensation between acetyl CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA to form 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA). This molecule is then reduced to mevalonate by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. Production of mevalonate is the rate-limiting and irreversible step in cholesterol synthesis and is the site of action for statins (a class of cholesterol-lowering drugs). Mevalonate is finally converted to isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) through two phosphorylation steps and one decarboxylation step that requires ATP. Three molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate condense to form farnesyl pyrophosphate through the action of geranyl transferase. Two molecules of farnesyl pyrophosphate then condense to form squalene by the action of squalene synthase in the endoplasmic reticulum. The final 19 steps to cholesterol contain NADPH and oxygen to help oxidize methyl groups for removal of carbons, mutases to move alkene groups, and NADH to help reduce ketones. Konrad Bloch and Feodor Lynen shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1964 for their discoveries concerning some of the mechanisms and methods of regulation of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism.Regulation of cholesterol synthesisBiosynthesis of cholesterol is directly regulated by the cholesterol levels present, though the homeostatic mechanisms involved are only partly understood. A higher intake of food leads to a net decrease in endogenous production, whereas a lower intake of food has the opposite effect. The main regulatory mechanism is the sensing of intracellular cholesterol in the endoplasmic reticulum by the protein SREBP (sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 and 2). In the presence of cholesterol, SREBP is bound to two other proteins: SCAP (SREBP cleavage-activating protein) and INSIG-1. When cholesterol levels fall, INSIG-1 dissociates from the SREBP-SCAP complex, which allows the complex to migrate to the Golgi apparatus. Here SREBP is cleaved by S1P and S2P (site-1 protease and site-2 protease), two enzymes that are activated by SCAP when cholesterol levels are low. The cleaved SREBP then migrates to the nucleus and acts as a transcription factor to bind to the sterol regulatory element (SRE), which stimulates the transcription of many genes. Among these are the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor and HMG-CoA reductase. The LDL receptor scavenges circulating LDL from the bloodstream, whereas HMG-CoA reductase leads to an increase in endogenous production of cholesterol. A large part of this signaling pathway was clarified by Dr. Michael S. Brown and Dr. Joseph L. Goldstein in the 1970s. In 1985, they received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work. Their subsequent work shows how the SREBP pathway regulates the expression of many genes that control lipid formation and metabolism and body fuel allocation. Cholesterol synthesis can also be turned off when cholesterol levels are high. HMG-CoA reductase contains both a cytosolic domain (responsible for its catalytic function) and a membrane domain. The membrane domain senses signals for its degradation. Increasing concentrations of cholesterol (and other sterols) cause a change in this domain's oligomerization state, which makes it more susceptible to destruction by the proteasome. This enzyme's activity can also be reduced by phosphorylation by an AMP-activated protein kinase. Because this kinase is activated by AMP, which is produced when ATP is hydrolyzed, it follows that cholesterol synthesis is halted when ATP levels are low. Plasma transport and regulation of absorption As an isolated molecule, cholesterol is only minimally soluble in water, or hydrophilic. Because of this, it dissolves in blood at exceedingly small concentrations. To be transported effectively, cholesterol is instead packaged within lipoproteins, complex discoidal particles with exterior amphiphilic proteins and lipids, whose outward-facing surfaces are water-soluble and inward-facing surfaces are lipid-soluble. This allows it to travel through the blood via emulsification. Unbound cholesterol, being amphipathic, is transported in the monolayer surface of the lipoprotein particle along with phospholipids and proteins. Cholesterol esters bound to fatty acid, on the other hand, are transported within the fatty hydrophobic core of the lipoprotein, along with triglyceride. There are several types of lipoproteins in the blood. In order of increasing density, they are chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Lower protein/lipid ratios make for less dense lipoproteins. Cholesterol within different lipoproteins is identical, although some are carried as their native "free" alcohol form (the cholesterol-OH group facing the water surrounding the particles), while others as fatty acyl esters, known also as cholesterol esters, within the particles.) in their shells. Chylomicrons carry fats from the intestine to muscle and other tissues in need of fatty acids for energy or fat production. Unused cholesterol remains in more cholesterol-rich chylomicron remnants and is taken up from here to the bloodstream by the liver. These plaques are the main causes of heart attacks, strokes, and other serious medical problems, leading to the association of so-called LDL cholesterol (actually a lipoprotein) with "bad" cholesterol. Large numbers of HDL particles correlates with better health outcomes, whereas low numbers of HDL particles is associated with atheromatous disease progression in the arteries. Metabolism, recycling and excretion Cholesterol is susceptible to oxidation and easily forms oxygenated derivatives called oxysterols. Three different mechanisms can form these: autoxidation, secondary oxidation to lipid peroxidation, and cholesterol-metabolizing enzyme oxidation. A great interest in oxysterols arose when they were shown to exert inhibitory actions on cholesterol biosynthesis. This finding became known as the "oxysterol hypothesis". Additional roles for oxysterols in human physiology include their participation in bile acid biosynthesis, function as transport forms of cholesterol, and regulation of gene transcription. In biochemical experiments, radiolabelled forms of cholesterol, such as tritiated-cholesterol, are used. These derivatives undergo degradation upon storage, and it is essential to purify cholesterol prior to use. Cholesterol can be purified using small Sephadex LH-20 columns. Cholesterol is oxidized by the liver into a variety of bile acids. These, in turn, are conjugated with glycine, taurine, glucuronic acid, or sulfate. A mixture of conjugated and nonconjugated bile acids, along with cholesterol itself, is excreted from the liver into the bile. Approximately 95% of the bile acids are reabsorbed from the intestines, and the remainder are lost in the feces. The excretion and reabsorption of bile acids forms the basis of the enterohepatic circulation, which is essential for the digestion and absorption of dietary fats. Under certain circumstances, when more concentrated, as in the gallbladder, cholesterol crystallises and is the major constituent of most gallstones (lecithin and bilirubin gallstones also occur, but less frequently). Every day, up to 1 g of cholesterol enters the colon. This cholesterol originates from the diet, bile, and desquamated intestinal cells, and it can be metabolized by the colonic bacteria. Cholesterol is converted mainly into coprostanol, a nonabsorbable sterol that is excreted in the feces. Although cholesterol is a steroid generally associated with mammals, the human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis is able to completely degrade this molecule and contains a large number of genes that are regulated by its presence. Many of these cholesterol-regulated genes are homologues of fatty acid β-oxidation genes, but have evolved in such a way as to bind large steroid substrates like cholesterol. Dietary sources Animal fats are complex mixtures of triglycerides, with lesser amounts of both the phospholipids and cholesterol molecules from which all animal (and human) cell membranes are constructed. Since all animal cells manufacture cholesterol, all animal-based foods contain cholesterol in varying amounts. Major dietary sources of cholesterol include red meat, egg yolks and whole eggs, liver, kidney, giblets, fish oil, shellfish, and butter. Human breast milk also contains significant quantities of cholesterol. Plant cells synthesize cholesterol as a precursor for other compounds, such as phytosterols and steroidal glycoalkaloids, with cholesterol remaining in plant foods only in minor amounts or absent. Some plant foods, such as avocado, flax seeds and peanuts, contain phytosterols, which compete with cholesterol for absorption in the intestines and reduce the absorption of both dietary and bile cholesterol. A typical diet contributes on the order of 0.2 gram of phytosterols, which is not enough to have a significant impact on blocking cholesterol absorption. Phytosterols intake can be supplemented through the use of phytosterol-containing functional foods or dietary supplements that are recognized as having potential to reduce levels of LDL-cholesterol. Medical guidelines and recommendations In 2015, the scientific advisory panel of U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture for the 2015 iteration of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans dropped the previously recommended limit of consumption of dietary cholesterol to 300 mg per day with a new recommendation to "eat as little dietary cholesterol as possible", thereby acknowledging an association between a diet low in cholesterol and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. A 2013 report by the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology recommended focusing on healthy dietary patterns rather than specific cholesterol limits, as they are hard for clinicians and consumers to implement. They recommend the DASH and Mediterranean diet, which are low in cholesterol. A 2017 review by the American Heart Association recommends switching saturated fats for polyunsaturated fats to reduce cardiovascular disease risk. Some supplemental guidelines have recommended doses of phytosterols in the 1.6–3.0 grams per day range (Health Canada, EFSA, ATP III, FDA). A meta-analysis demonstrated a 12% reduction in LDL-cholesterol at a mean dose of 2.1 grams per day. The benefits of a diet supplemented with phytosterols have also been questioned.Clinical significanceHypercholesterolemia According to the lipid hypothesis, elevated levels of cholesterol in the blood lead to atherosclerosis which may increase the risk of heart attack, stroke, and peripheral artery disease. Since higher blood LDL – especially higher LDL concentrations and smaller LDL particle size – contributes to this process more than the cholesterol content of the HDL particles, LDL particles are often termed "bad cholesterol". High concentrations of functional HDL, which can remove cholesterol from cells and atheromas, offer protection and are commonly referred to as "good cholesterol". These balances are mostly genetically determined, but can be changed by body composition, medications, diet, and other factors. A 2007 study demonstrated that blood total cholesterol levels have an exponential effect on cardiovascular and total mortality, with the association more pronounced in younger subjects. Because cardiovascular disease is relatively rare in the younger population, the impact of high cholesterol on health is larger in older people. Elevated levels of the lipoprotein fractions, LDL, IDL and VLDL, rather than the total cholesterol level, correlate with the extent and progress of atherosclerosis. Conversely, the total cholesterol can be within normal limits, yet be made up primarily of small LDL and small HDL particles, under which conditions atheroma growth rates are high. A post hoc analysis of the IDEAL and the EPIC prospective studies found an association between high levels of HDL cholesterol (adjusted for apolipoprotein A-I and apolipoprotein B) and increased risk of cardiovascular disease, casting doubt on the cardioprotective role of "good cholesterol". About one in 250 individuals can have a genetic mutation for the LDL cholesterol receptor that causes them to have familial hypercholesterolemia. Inherited high cholesterol can also include genetic mutations in the PCSK9 gene and the gene for apolipoprotein B. Elevated cholesterol levels are treatable by a diet that reduces or eliminates saturated fat, and trans fats, There are several international guidelines on the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Human trials using HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, known as statins, have repeatedly confirmed that changing lipoprotein transport patterns from unhealthy to healthier patterns significantly lowers cardiovascular disease event rates, even for people with cholesterol values currently considered low for adults. Studies have shown that reducing LDL cholesterol levels by about 38.7 mg/dL with the use of statins can reduce cardiovascular disease and stroke risk by about 21%. Studies have also found that statins reduce atheroma progression. As a result, people with a history of cardiovascular disease may derive benefit from statins irrespective of their cholesterol levels (total cholesterol below 5.0 mmol/L [193 mg/dL]), and in men without cardiovascular disease, there is benefit from lowering abnormally high cholesterol levels ("primary prevention"). Primary prevention in women was originally practiced only by extension of the findings in studies on men, since, in women, none of the large statin trials conducted prior to 2007 demonstrated a significant reduction in overall mortality or in cardiovascular endpoints. Meta-analyses have demonstrated significant reductions in all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, without significant heterogeneity by sex. {\| class"wikitable" style"float:right" \|+Risk for heart disease \|- ! bgcolor "#cccccc" colspan2\| Level ! bgcolor "#cccccc" rowspan2\| Interpretation \|- ! bgcolor ="#cccccc"\| mg/dL ! bgcolor ="#cccccc"\| mmol/L \|- \| < 200 \| < 5.2 \| Desirable level<br />(lower risk) \|- \| 200–240 \| 5.2–6.2 \| Borderline high risk \|- \| > 240 \| > 6.2 \| High risk \|} The 1987 report of National Cholesterol Education Program, Adult Treatment Panels suggests the total blood cholesterol level should be: < 200 mg/dL normal blood cholesterol, 200–239 mg/dL borderline-high, > 240 mg/dL high cholesterol. The American Heart Association provides a similar set of guidelines for total (fasting) blood cholesterol levels and risk for heart disease: The average global mean total Cholesterol for humans has remained at about 4.6 mmol/L (178 mg/dL) for men and women, both crude and age standardized, for nearly 40 years from 1980 to 2018, with some regional variations and reduction of total Cholesterol in Western nations. More current testing methods determine LDL ("bad") and HDL ("good") cholesterol separately, allowing cholesterol analysis to be more nuanced. The desirable LDL level is considered to be less than 100 mg/dL (2.6 mmol/L). , showing usual, as well as optimal, levels of HDL, LDL, and total cholesterol in mass and molar concentrations, is found in orange color at right, that is, among the blood constituents with the highest concentration.]] Total cholesterol is defined as the sum of HDL, LDL, and VLDL. Usually, only the total, HDL, and triglycerides are measured. For cost reasons, the VLDL is usually estimated as one-fifth of the triglycerides and the LDL is estimated using the Friedewald formula (or a variant): estimated LDL [total cholesterol] − [total HDL] − [estimated VLDL]. Direct LDL measures are used when triglycerides exceed 400 mg/dL. The estimated VLDL and LDL have more error when triglycerides are above 400 mg/dL. In the Framingham Heart Study, each 10 mg/dL (0.6 mmol/L) increase in total cholesterol levels increased 30-year overall mortality by 5% and CVD mortality by 9%. While subjects over the age of 50 had an 11% increase in overall mortality, and a 14% increase in cardiovascular disease mortality per 1 mg/dL (0.06 mmol/L) year drop in total cholesterol levels. The researchers attributed this phenomenon to a different correlation, whereby the disease itself increases risk of death, as well as changes a myriad of factors, such as weight loss and the inability to eat, which lower serum cholesterol. This effect was also shown in men of all ages and women over 50 in the Vorarlberg Health Monitoring and Promotion Programme. These groups were more likely to die of cancer, liver diseases, and mental diseases with very low total cholesterol, of 186 mg/dL (10.3 mmol/L) and lower. This result indicates the low-cholesterol effect occurs even among younger respondents, contradicting the previous assessment among cohorts of older people that this is a marker for frailty occurring with age.HypocholesterolemiaAbnormally low levels of cholesterol are termed hypocholesterolemia. Research into the causes of this state is relatively limited, but some studies suggest a link with depression, cancer, and cerebral hemorrhage. In general, the low cholesterol levels seem to be a consequence, rather than a cause, of an underlying illness.TestingThe American Heart Association recommends testing cholesterol every 4–6 years for people aged 20 years or older. A separate set of American Heart Association guidelines issued in 2013 indicates that people taking statin medications should have their cholesterol tested 4–12 weeks after their first dose and then every 3–12 months thereafter. For men ages 45 to 65 and women ages 55 to 65, a cholesterol test should occur every 1–2 years, and for seniors over age 65, an annual test should be performed.StereoisomersCholesterol has 256 stereoisomers that arise from its eight stereocenters, although only two of the stereoisomers have biochemical significance (nat-cholesterol and ent-cholesterol, for natural and enantiomer, respectively), and only one occurs naturally (nat-cholesterol).Additional images <gallery> File:ConversColest.png\|Cholesterol units conversion File:Steroidogenesis.svg\|Steroidogenesis, using cholesterol as building material File:Cholesterol Spacefill.jpeg\|Space-filling model of the Cholesterol molecule File:Steroid numbering.svg\|Numbering of the steroid nuclei </gallery> See also <!-- alphabetical order please WP:SEEALSO --> <!-- please add a short description WP:SEEALSO, via or --> * Arcus senilis "Cholesterol ring" in the eyes * * * * * * * * * * * References External links * Category:Cholestanes Category:GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators Category:Lipid disorders Category:Neurosteroids Category:Nutrition Category:Receptor agonists Category:Sterols	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesterol	2025-04-05T18:27:49.221709
6438	Chromosome	thumb\|212x212px\|Condensed chromosome (purple rod) inside a bone marrow erythrokaryocyte undergoing mitosis thumb\|upright=0.9\|Diagram of a replicated and condensed metaphase eukaryotic chromosome: A chromosome is a package of DNA containing part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with nucleosome-forming packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells, the most important of these proteins are the histones. Aided by chaperone proteins, the histones bind to and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity. These eukaryotic chromosomes display a complex three-dimensional structure that has a significant role in transcriptional regulation. Normally, chromosomes are visible under a light microscope only during the metaphase of cell division, where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed form. Before this stage occurs, each chromosome is duplicated (S phase), and the two copies are joined by a centromere—resulting in either an X-shaped structure if the centromere is located equatorially, or a two-armed structure if the centromere is located distally; the joined copies are called 'sister chromatids'. During metaphase, the duplicated structure (called a 'metaphase chromosome') is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study. In animal cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in anaphase during chromosome segregation. Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction plays a crucial role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe. This will usually cause the cell to initiate apoptosis, leading to its own death, but the process is occasionally hampered by cell mutations that result in the progression of cancer. The term 'chromosome' is sometimes used in a wider sense to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells, which may or may not be visible under light microscopy. In a narrower sense, 'chromosome' can be used to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell division, which are visible under light microscopy due to high condensation. Etymology The word chromosome () comes from the Greek words (chroma, "colour") and (soma, "body"), describing the strong staining produced by particular dyes. The term was coined by the German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer, referring to the term 'chromatin', which was introduced by Walther Flemming. Some of the early karyological terms have become outdated. For example, 'chromatin' (Flemming 1880) and 'chromosom' (Waldeyer 1888) both ascribe color to a non-colored state. History of discovery Otto Bütschli was the first scientist to recognize the structures now known as chromosomes. In a series of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s, Theodor Boveri gave definitive contributions to elucidating that chromosomes are the vectors of heredity, with two notions that became known as 'chromosome continuity' and 'chromosome individuality'. Wilhelm Roux suggested that every chromosome carries a different genetic configuration, and Boveri was able to test and confirm this hypothesis. Aided by the rediscovery at the start of the 1900s of Gregor Mendel's earlier experimental work, Boveri identified the connection between the rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes. Two generations of American cytologists were influenced by Boveri: Edmund Beecher Wilson, Nettie Stevens, Walter Sutton and Theophilus Painter (Wilson, Stevens, and Painter actually worked with him). In his famous textbook, The Cell in Development and Heredity, Wilson linked together the independent work of Boveri and Sutton (both around 1902) by naming the chromosome theory of inheritance the 'Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory' (sometimes known as the 'Sutton–Boveri chromosome theory'). Ernst Mayr remarks that the theory was hotly contested by some famous geneticists, including William Bateson, Wilhelm Johannsen, Richard Goldschmidt and T.H. Morgan, all of a rather dogmatic mindset. Eventually, absolute proof came from chromosome maps in Morgan's own laboratory. The number of human chromosomes was published by Painter in 1923. By inspection through a microscope, he counted 24 pairs of chromosomes, giving 48 in total. His error was copied by others, and it was not until 1956 that the true number (46) was determined by Indonesian-born cytogeneticist Joe Hin Tjio. Prokaryotes The prokaryotes – bacteria and archaea – typically have a single circular chromosome. The chromosomes of most bacteria (also called genophores), can range in size from only 130,000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola and Candidatus Tremblaya princeps, to more than 14,000,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacterium Sorangium cellulosum. Some bacteria have more than one chromosome. For instance, Spirochaetes such as Borrelia burgdorferi (causing Lyme disease), contain a single linear chromosome. Vibrios typically carry two chromosomes of very different size. Genomes of the genus Burkholderia carry one, two, or three chromosomes. Structure in sequences Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based structure than eukaryotes. Bacteria typically have a one-point (the origin of replication) from which replication starts, whereas some archaea contain multiple replication origins. The genes in prokaryotes are often organized in operons and do not usually contain introns, unlike eukaryotes. DNA packaging Prokaryotes do not possess nuclei. Instead, their DNA is organized into a structure called the nucleoid. The nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a defined region of the bacterial cell. This structure is, however, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled by the actions of a range of histone-like proteins, which associate with the bacterial chromosome. In archaea, the DNA in chromosomes is even more organized, with the DNA packaged within structures similar to eukaryotic nucleosomes. Certain bacteria also contain plasmids or other extrachromosomal DNA. These are circular structures in the cytoplasm that contain cellular DNA and play a role in horizontal gene transfer. the DNA is often densely packed and organized; in the case of archaea, by homology to eukaryotic histones, and in the case of bacteria, by histone-like proteins. Bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the plasma membrane of the bacteria. In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and pelleting of the membranes (and the attached DNA). Prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like eukaryotic DNA, generally supercoiled. The DNA must first be released into its relaxed state for access for transcription, regulation, and replication. Eukaryotes thumb\|upright=1.15\|Organization of DNA in a eukaryotic cell Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a long linear DNA molecule associated with proteins, forming a compact complex of proteins and DNA called chromatin. Chromatin contains the vast majority of the DNA in an organism, but a small amount inherited maternally can be found in the mitochondria. It is present in most cells, with a few exceptions, for example, red blood cells. Histones are responsible for the first and most basic unit of chromosome organization, the nucleosome. Eukaryotes (cells with nuclei such as those found in plants, fungi, and animals) possess multiple large linear chromosomes contained in the cell's nucleus. Each chromosome has one centromere, with one or two arms projecting from the centromere, although, under most circumstances, these arms are not visible as such. In addition, most eukaryotes have a small circular mitochondrial genome, and some eukaryotes may have additional small circular or linear cytoplasmic chromosomes. thumb\|center\|upright=3.9\|The major structures in DNA compaction: DNA, the nucleosome, the 10 nm "beads-on-a-string" fibre, the 30 nm fibre and the metaphase chromosome In the nuclear chromosomes of eukaryotes, the uncondensed DNA exists in a semi-ordered structure, where it is wrapped around histones (structural proteins), forming a composite material called chromatin. Interphase chromatin The packaging of DNA into nucleosomes causes a 10 nanometer fibre which may further condense up to 30 nm fibres. The chromosome scaffold, which is made of proteins such as condensin, TOP2A and KIF4, plays an important role in holding the chromatin into compact chromosomes. Loops of thirty-nanometer structure further condense with scaffold into higher order structures. This highly compact form makes the individual chromosomes visible, and they form the classic four-arm structure, a pair of sister chromatids attached to each other at the centromere. The shorter arms are called p arms (from the French petit, small) and the longer arms are called q arms (q follows p in the Latin alphabet; q-g "grande"; alternatively it is sometimes said q is short for queue meaning tail in French). This is the only natural context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical microscope. Mitotic metaphase chromosomes are best described by a linearly organized longitudinally compressed array of consecutive chromatin loops. During mitosis, microtubules grow from centrosomes located at opposite ends of the cell and also attach to the centromere at specialized structures called kinetochores, one of which is present on each sister chromatid. A special DNA base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region. The microtubules then pull the chromatids apart toward the centrosomes, so that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids. Once the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and DNA can again be transcribed. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed, which enables these giant DNA structures to be contained within a cell nucleus. Human chromosomes Chromosomes in humans can be divided into two types: autosomes (body chromosome(s)) and allosome (sex chromosome(s)). Certain genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and are passed on through the sex chromosomes. The autosomes contain the rest of the genetic hereditary information. All act in the same way during cell division. Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell. In addition to these, human cells have many hundreds of copies of the mitochondrial genome. Sequencing of the human genome has provided a great deal of information about each of the chromosomes. Below is a table compiling statistics for the chromosomes, based on the Sanger Institute's human genome information in the Vertebrate Genome Annotation (VEGA) database. Number of genes is an estimate, as it is in part based on gene predictions. Total chromosome length is an estimate as well, based on the estimated size of unsequenced heterochromatin regions. + Chromosome Genes Total base pairs % of bases 1 2000 247,199,719 8.0 2 1300 242,751,149 7.9 3 1000 199,446,827 6.5 4 1000 191,263,063 6.2 5 900 180,837,866 5.9 6 1000 170,896,993 5.5 7 900 158,821,424 5.2 8 700 146,274,826 4.7 9 800 140,442,298 4.6 10 700 135,374,737 4.4 11 1300 134,452,384 4.4 12 1100 132,289,534 4.3 13 300 114,127,980 3.7 14 800 106,360,585 3.5 15 600 100,338,915 3.3 16 800 88,822,254 2.9 17 1200 78,654,742 2.6 18 200 76,117,153 2.5 19 1500 63,806,651 2.1 20 500 62,435,965 2.0 21 200 46,944,323 1.5 22 500 49,528,953 1.6 X (sex chromosome) 800 154,913,754 5.0 Y (sex chromosome) 200 57,741,652 1.9 Total 21,000 3,079,843,747 100.0 Based on the micrographic characteristics of size, position of the centromere and sometimes the presence of a chromosomal satellite, the human chromosomes are classified into the following groups: Group Chromosomes Features A 1–3 Large, metacentric or submetacentric B 4–5 Large, submetacentric C 6–12, X Medium-sized, submetacentric D 13–15 Medium-sized, acrocentric, with satellite E 16–18 Small, metacentric or submetacentric F 19–20 Very small, metacentric G 21–22, Y Very small, acrocentric (and 21, 22 with satellite) Karyotype thumb\|upright=0.9\|Karyogram of a human male thumb\|Schematic karyogram of a human, with annotated bands and sub-bands. It is a graphical representation of the idealized human diploid karyotype. It shows dark and white regions on G banding. Each row is vertically aligned at centromere level. It shows 22 homologous chromosomes, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the sex chromosome (bottom right), as well as the mitochondrial genome (at bottom left). In general, the karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species. The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics. Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in eukaryotes, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are often highly variable. There may be variation between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization. In some cases, there is significant variation within species. Often there is: 1. variation between the two sexes 2. variation between the germline and soma (between gametes and the rest of the body) 3. variation between members of a population, due to balanced genetic polymorphism 4. geographical variation between races 5. mosaics or otherwise abnormal individuals. Also, variation in karyotype may occur during development from the fertilized egg. The technique of determining the karyotype is usually called karyotyping. Cells can be locked part-way through division (in metaphase) in vitro (in a reaction vial) with colchicine. These cells are then stained, photographed, and arranged into a karyogram, with the set of chromosomes arranged, autosomes in order of length, and sex chromosomes (here X/Y) at the end. Like many sexually reproducing species, humans have special gonosomes (sex chromosomes, in contrast to autosomes). These are XX in females and XY in males. History and analysis techniques Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: How many chromosomes does a normal diploid human cell contain? In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter reported 47 chromosomes in spermatogonia and 48 in oogonia, concluding an XX/XO sex determination mechanism. In 1922, Painter was not certain whether the diploid number of man is 46 or 48, at first favouring 46. He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an XX/XY system. New techniques were needed to definitively solve the problem: Using cells in culture Arresting mitosis in metaphase by a solution of colchicine Pretreating cells in a hypotonic solution , which swells them and spreads the chromosomes Squashing the preparation on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single plane Cutting up a photomicrograph and arranging the result into an indisputable karyogram. It took until 1954 before the human diploid number was confirmed as 46. Considering the techniques of Winiwarter and Painter, their results were quite remarkable. Chimpanzees, the closest living relatives to modern humans, have 48 chromosomes as do the other great apes: in humans two chromosomes fused to form chromosome 2. Aberrations thumb\|In Down syndrome, there are three copies of chromosome 21. Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a cell. They can cause genetic conditions in humans, such as Down syndrome, although most aberrations have little to no effect. Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as translocations, or chromosomal inversions, although they may lead to a higher chance of bearing a child with a chromosome disorder. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, called aneuploidy, may be lethal or may give rise to genetic disorders. Genetic counseling is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement. The gain or loss of DNA from chromosomes can lead to a variety of genetic disorders. Human examples include: Cri du chat, caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. "Cri du chat" means "cry of the cat" in French; the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like those of a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw, moderate to severe mental health problems, and are very short. DiGeorge syndrome, also known as 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Symptoms are mild learning disabilities in children, with adults having an increased risk of schizophrenia. Infections are also common in children because of problems with the immune system's T cell-mediated response due to an absence of hypoplastic thymus. Down syndrome, the most common trisomy, usually caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes, and mild to moderate developmental disability. Edwards syndrome, or trisomy-18, the second most common trisomy. Symptoms include motor retardation, developmental disability, and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. Ninety percent of those affected die in infancy. They have characteristic clenched hands and overlapping fingers. Isodicentric 15, also called idic(15), partial tetrasomy 15q, or inverted duplication 15 (inv dup 15). Jacobsen syndrome, which is very rare. It is also called the 11q terminal deletion disorder. Those affected have normal intelligence or mild developmental disability, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome. Klinefelter syndrome (XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile, and tend to be taller than their peers, with longer arms and legs. Boys with the syndrome are often shy and quiet, and have a higher incidence of speech delay and dyslexia. Without testosterone treatment, some may develop gynecomastia during puberty. Patau Syndrome, also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, without the characteristic folded hand. Small supernumerary marker chromosome. This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material. Cat-eye syndrome and isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome (or Idic15) are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is Pallister–Killian syndrome. Triple-X syndrome (XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin, and have a higher incidence of dyslexia. Turner syndrome (X instead of XX or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. Females with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development, and a "caved-in" appearance to the chest. Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome, caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4. It is characterized by growth retardation, delayed motor skills development, "Greek Helmet" facial features, and mild to profound mental health problems. XYY syndrome. XYY boys are usually taller than their siblings. Like XXY boys and XXX girls, they are more likely to have learning difficulties. Sperm aneuploidy Exposure of males to certain lifestyle, environmental and/or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploid spermatozoa. In particular, risk of aneuploidy is increased by tobacco smoking, and occupational exposure to benzene, insecticides, and perfluorinated compounds. Increased aneuploidy is often associated with increased DNA damage in spermatozoa. Number in various organisms In eukaryotes The number of chromosomes in eukaryotes is highly variable. It is possible for chromosomes to fuse or break and thus evolve into novel karyotypes. Chromosomes can also be fused artificially. For example, when the 16 chromosomes of yeast were fused into one giant chromosome, it was found that the cells were still viable with only somewhat reduced growth rates. The tables below give the total number of chromosomes (including sex chromosomes) in a cell nucleus for various eukaryotes. Most are diploid, such as humans who have 22 different types of autosomes—each present as two homologous pairs—and two sex chromosomes, giving 46 chromosomes in total. Some other organisms have more than two copies of their chromosome types, for example bread wheat which is hexaploid, having six copies of seven different chromosome types for a total of 42 chromosomes. + Chromosome numbers in some plants Plant species # Thale cress (diploid) 10 Rye (diploid) 14 Einkorn wheat (diploid) 14 Maize (diploid or palaeotetraploid) 20 Durum wheat (tetraploid) 48 Adder's tongue fern (polyploid) approx. 1,200+ Chromosome numbers (2n) in some animals Species # Indian muntjac 6♀, 7♂ Common fruit fly 8 Pill millipede 30 Earthworm 36 Tibetan fox 36 Domestic cat 38 Domestic pig 38 Laboratory mouse 40 Laboratory rat 44 Syrian hamster 46 Human 48 Gorilla 48 Chimpanzee48 Domestic sheep 54 Garden snail 54 Silkworm 56 Elephant 56 Cow 60 Donkey 62 Guinea pig 64 Horse 64 Dog 78 Hedgehog 90 Goldfish 100–104 Kingfisher 132+ Chromosome numbers in other organisms Species Largechromosomes Intermediatechromosomes Microchromosomes Trypanosoma brucei 11 6 ≈100 Domestic pigeon 18 – 59–63 Chicken 8 2 sex chromosomes 60 Normal members of a particular eukaryotic species all have the same number of nuclear chromosomes. Other eukaryotic chromosomes, i.e., mitochondrial and plasmid-like small chromosomes, are much more variable in number, and there may be thousands of copies per cell. thumb\|upright=0.8\|left\|The 23 human chromosome territories during prometaphase in fibroblast cells Asexually reproducing species have one set of chromosomes that are the same in all body cells. However, asexual species can be either haploid or diploid. Sexually reproducing species have somatic cells (body cells) that are diploid [2n], having two sets of chromosomes (23 pairs in humans), one set from the mother and one from the father. Gametes (reproductive cells) are haploid [n], having one set of chromosomes. Gametes are produced by meiosis of a diploid germline cell, during which the matching chromosomes of father and mother can exchange small parts of themselves (crossover) and thus create new chromosomes that are not inherited solely from either parent. When a male and a female gamete merge during fertilization, a new diploid organism is formed. Some animal and plant species are polyploid [Xn], having more than two sets of homologous chromosomes. Important crops such as tobacco or wheat are often polyploid, compared to their ancestral species. Wheat has a haploid number of seven chromosomes, still seen in some cultivars as well as the wild progenitors. The more common types of pasta and bread wheat are polyploid, having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes, compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in wild wheat. In prokaryotes Prokaryote species generally have one copy of each major chromosome, but most cells can easily survive with multiple copies. For example, Buchnera, a symbiont of aphids has multiple copies of its chromosome, ranging from 10 to 400 copies per cell. However, in some large bacteria, such as Epulopiscium fishelsoni up to 100,000 copies of the chromosome can be present. Plasmids and plasmid-like small chromosomes are, as in eukaryotes, highly variable in copy number. The number of plasmids in the cell is almost entirely determined by the rate of division of the plasmid – fast division causes high copy number. See also Chromomere Cohesin Epigenetics Genetic genealogy Lampbrush chromosome Locus (genetics) – explains gene location nomenclature Minichromosome Neochromosome Nondisjunction Parasitic chromosome Polytene chromosome Secondary chromosome Sex-determination system Maternal influence on sex determination Temperature-dependent sex determination Notes and references External links An Introduction to DNA and Chromosomes from HOPES: Huntington's Outreach Project for Education at Stanford Chromosome Abnormalities at AtlasGeneticsOncology On-line exhibition on chromosomes and genome (SIB) What Can Our Chromosomes Tell Us?, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center Try making a karyotype yourself, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center Kimballs Chromosome pages Chromosome News from Genome News Network Eurochromnet, European network for Rare Chromosome Disorders on the Internet Ensembl.org, Ensembl project, presenting chromosomes, their genes and syntenic loci graphically via the web Genographic Project Home reference on Chromosomes from the U.S. National Library of Medicine Visualisation of human chromosomes and comparison to other species Unique – The Rare Chromosome Disorder Support Group Support for people with rare chromosome disorders Category:Nuclear substructures Category:Cytogenetics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome	2025-04-05T18:27:49.346185
6439	Charge	Charge or charged may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Films Charge, Zero Emissions/Maximum Speed, a 2011 documentary Music Charge (David Ford album) Charge (Machel Montano album) Charge!!, an album by The Aquabats Charged (Nebula album) Charged (Toshinori Kondo, Eraldo Bernocchi and Bill Laswell album) Television Charge (TV series) Charge! (TV network) "Charged" (Reaper), episode 2 of season one of Reaper Companies Charge Automotive Limited, an electric-vehicle manufacturer Charged Productions, an animation studio Charged Records, a record label Finance Equitable charge, confers a right on the secured party to look to a particular asset in the event of the debtor's default Floating charge, a security interest over the assets of a company Law Criminal charge, a formal accusation made before a court by a prosecuting authority Legal charge, information or indictment through a formal legal process Mathematics, science, and technology Charge (physics), the susceptibility (state of being affected) of a body to one of the fundamental forces Color charge, a property of quarks and gluons, related to their strong interactions Electric charge, a property which determines the electromagnetic interaction of subatomic particles Magnetic charge, a property of theoretical magnetic monopoles Charge, the air and fuel mixture fed into an internal combustion engine CHARGE syndrome, a specific set of birth defects in children Explosive charge, a measured quantity of explosive material Signed, finitely additive measure in mathematics Military and iconography Charge (bugle call) Charge (warfare), a military manoeuvre Charges (military), ranks used in German-speaking armies Charge (heraldry), any object depicted on a shield Sports Charge (basketball), illegal contact by pushing or moving into another player's torso Charge (ice hockey), illegal contact by taking three or more strides or jumping before hitting an opponent Charge (fanfare), played at sporting events Guangzhou Charge, a Chinese esports team in the Overwatch League Ottawa Charge, a women's hockey team Other uses Charge of the Goddess, a text often used in the religion Wicca Charge (student associations), the executive of German student fraternities Charge (youth), an underage person placed in the care of a medieval nobleman Charge, a type of pen spinning trick , two classes of diplomatic agents Pastoral charge, a group of congregants in some Protestant churches See also Charger (disambiguation) Supercharge (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge	2025-04-05T18:27:49.350697
6440	Colonna family	<br><br><br> \| region = <br> \| etymology = "Column", from city of Colonna \| origin = Tusculum, Alban Hills \| founded = \| founder = Pietro Colonna \| current_head = Don Prospero Colonna Prince of Avella <br/>(Paliano line) \| dissolution \| cadet branches \| final_head \| members Prospero Colonna (b.1956) <br/> Marcantonio Colonna (b.1948) <br/> Giovanni Andrea Colonna (b.1975) <br/>Filippo Colonna (b.1995) \| titles = 2018)}}\|Prince of Paliano<br/>present)}}\|Prince of Stigliano<br/>present)}}\|Prince of Sonnino<br/>1796)}}\|Prince of Carbognano<br/>present)}}\|Prince of Salerno<br/>1432)}}\|Prince of Gallicano<br/>1870)}}\|Prince of Palestrina<br/>1630)}}\|\|Roman Patrician<br/>1870)}}}} \| motto = "Semper Immota" \| motto_lang = Latin \| motto_trans = "Always steadfast" or "Always unshaken" \| heirlooms \| estate Palazzo Colonna (seat)<br/>Colonna Palace of Paliano \| website = }} The House of Colonna is an Italian noble family, forming part of the papal nobility. It played a pivotal role in medieval and Renaissance Rome, supplying one pope (Martin V), 23 cardinals and many other church and political leaders. Other notable family members are Vittoria Colonna, close friend of Michelangelo, Marcantonio II Colonna (Marcantonio Colonna), leader of the papal fleet in the Battle of Lepanto (1571) and Costanza Colonna, patron and protector of Caravaggio. The family was notable for its bitter feud with the Orsini family over their influence in Rome, which was eventually settled by the issuing of the papal bull Pax Romana by Pope Julius II in 1511. In 1571, the heads of both families married nieces of Pope Sixtus V. Thereafter, historians recorded that "no peace had been concluded between the princes of Christendom, in which they had not been included by name". Today, the family is led by Don Prospero Colonna (b.1956). History Origins According to tradition, the Colonna family is a branch of the Counts of Tusculum — by Peter (1099–1151) son of Gregory III, called Peter "de Columna" from his property the Columna Castle in Colonna, in the Alban Hills. Further back, they trace their lineage past the Counts of Tusculum via Lombard and Italo-Roman nobles, merchants, and clergy through the Early Middle Ages — ultimately claiming origins from the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the gens Julia whose origin is lost in the mists of time but which entered the annals for the first time in 489 BC with the consulship of Gaius Julius Iulus. The first cardinal from the family was appointed in 1206, when Giovanni Colonna di Carbognano was made Cardinal Deacon of SS. Cosma e Damiano. For many years, Cardinal Giovanni di San Paolo (elevated in 1193) was identified as a member of the Colonna family and therefore its first representative in the College of Cardinals, but modern scholars have established that this was based on false information from the beginning of the 16th century. Giovanni Colonna (born ) nephew of Cardinal Giovanni Colonna di Carbognano, made his solemn vows as a Dominican around 1228 and received his theological and philosophical training at the Roman studium of Santa Sabina, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. He served as the Provincial of the Roman province of the Dominican Order and led the provincial chapter of 1248 at Anagni. Colonna was appointed as Archbishop of Messina in 1255. Margherita Colonna (died 1248) was a member of the Franciscan Order. She was beatified by Pope Pius IX in 1848. At this time, a rivalry began with the pro-papal Orsini family, leaders of the Guelph faction. This reinforced the pro-Emperor Ghibelline course that the Colonna family followed throughout the period of conflict between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. Ironically according to their own family legend, the Orsini are also descended from the Julio-Claudian dynasty of ancient Rome. Colonna versus the Papacy In 1297, Cardinal Jacopo disinherited his brothers Ottone, Matteo, and Landolfo of their lands. The latter three appealed to Pope Boniface VIII, who ordered Jacopo to return the land, and furthermore hand over the family's strongholds of Colonna, Palestrina, and other towns to the Papacy. Jacopo refused; in May, Boniface removed him from the College of Cardinals and excommunicated him and his followers. The Colonna family (aside from the three brothers allied with the Pope) declared that Boniface had been elected illegally following the unprecedented abdication of Pope Celestine V. The dispute led to open warfare, and in September, Boniface appointed Landolfo to the command of his army, to put down the revolt of Landolfo's own Colonna relatives. By the end of 1298, Landolfo had captured Colonna, Palestrina and other towns, and razed them to the ground. The family's lands were distributed among Landolfo and his loyal brothers; the rest of the family fled Italy. The exiled Colonnas allied with the Pope's other great enemy, Philip IV of France, who in his youth had been tutored by Cardinal Egidio Colonna. In September 1303, Sciarra and Philipp's advisor, Guillaume de Nogaret, led a small force into Anagni to arrest Boniface VIII and bring him to France, where he was to stand trial. The two managed to apprehend the pope, and Sciarra reportedly slapped the pope in the face in the process, which was accordingly dubbed the "Outrage of Anagni". The attempt eventually failed after a few days, when locals freed the pope. However, Boniface VIII died on 11 October, allowing France to dominate his weaker successors during the Avignon papacy. Late Middle Ages The family remained at the centre of civic and religious life throughout the late Middle Ages. Cardinal Egidio Colonna died at the papal court in Avignon in 1314. An Augustinian, he had studied theology in Paris under St. Thomas of Aquinas to become one of the most authoritative thinkers of his time. In the 14th century, the family sponsored the decoration of the Church of San Giovanni, most notably the floor mosaics. In 1328, Louis IV of Germany marched into Italy for his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor. As Pope John XXII was residing in Avignon and had publicly declared that he would not crown Louis, the King decided to be crowned by a member of the Roman aristocracy, who proposed Sciarra Colonna. In honor of this event, the Colonna family was granted the privilege of using the imperial pointed crown on top of their coat of arms. The poet Petrarch, was a great friend of the family, in particular of Giovanni Colonna and often lived in Rome as a guest of the family. He composed a number of sonnets for special occasions within the Colonna family, including "Colonna the Glorious, the great Latin name upon which all our hopes rest". In this period, the Colonna started claiming they were descendants of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. in Rome (begun by Pope Martin V, to this day residence of the family)]] At the Council of Constance, the Colonna finally succeeded in their papal ambitions when Oddone Colonna was elected on 14 November 1417. As Martin V, he reigned until his death on 20 February 1431. Early modern period Vittoria Colonna became famous in the sixteenth century as a poet and a figure in literate circles. In 1627 Anna Colonna, daughter of Filippo I Colonna, married Taddeo Barberini of the family Barberini; nephew of Pope Urban VIII. In 1728, the Carbognano branch (Colonna di Sciarra) of the Colonna family added the name Barberini to its family name when Giulio Cesare Colonna di Sciarra married Cornelia Barberini, daughter of the last male Barberini to hold the name and granddaughter of Maffeo Barberini (son of Taddeo Barberini). Current status The Colonna family have been Prince Assistants to the Papal Throne since 1710. The family residence in Rome, the Palazzo Colonna, is open to the public every Friday and Saturday morning. The main 'Colonna di Paliano' line is represented today by Prince Marcantonio Colonna di Paliano, Prince and Duke of Paliano (b. 1948), whose heir is Don Giovanni Andrea Colonna di Paliano (b. 1975), and by Don Prospero Colonna di Paliano, Prince of Avella (b. 1956), whose heir is Don Filippo Colonna di Paliano (b. 1995). The 'Colonna di Stigliano' line is represented by Don Prospero Colonna di Stigliano, Prince of Stigliano (b. 1938), whose heir is his nephew Don Stefano Colonna di Stigliano (b. 1975). Notable members 1417-1431]] (1452–1523), papal condottiere]] * Blessed Margherita Colonna ( – 1280) * Stefano Colonna (1265 – ), an influential noble in Medieval Rome and Imperial vicar in the early 14th century * Jacopo Colonna (1250–1318), cardinal * Giacomo Colonna (1270–1329), who took part in the Outrage of Anagni against Pope Boniface VIII * Giovanni Colonna (1295–1348), influential cardinal during the Avignon papacy * Oddone Colonna (1369–1431), whose election as Pope Martin V in 1417 ended the Western Schism * Ludovico Colonna (1390–1436), condottiero * Prospero I Colonna (1410–1463), cardinal * Fabrizio Colonna ( – 1520), the father of Vittoria Colonna, and a general in the Holy League * Prospero Colonna (1452–1523), who fought alongside his cousin Fabrizio Colonna * Francesco Colonna (1453? – 1517?) [La "Pugna d'amore in sogno" di Francesco Colonna Romano, 1996, Maurizio Calvesi], who was credited (along with the monk Francesco Colonna) with the authorship of the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili by an acrostic in the text; also believed to have written the story * Marcantonio I Colonna (1478–1522), condottiero of the 15th–16th centuries * Pompeo Colonna (1479–1532), cardinal, a nephew of Prospero Colonna, mentioned above. Viceroy of Naples from 1530 to 1532 * Vittoria Colonna (1490–1547), friend of Michelangelo. Married in 1507 the Spanish-Italian Fernando d'Avalos, marquis of Pescara (deceased 1525), adopting (on becoming a widow) Alfonso d'Avalos, also marquis del Vasto, a nephew of her former husband * Pirro Colonna (1500–1552), 16th century captain under Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor * Marco Antonio Colonna (1523–1597), cardinal * Marcantonio II Colonna the Younger (1535–1584), Duke of Tagliacozzo. Son of Ascanio Colonna and Juana de Aragón. He participated in the naval Battle of Lepanto against the Turks, 7 October 1571 and was Viceroy of Sicily in 1577–1584. Prince of Paliano. * Ascanio Colonna (1560–1608), cardinal * Federico Colonna y Tomacelli, Prince of Butera (1601–1641), Viceroy of Valencia, in Spain, 1640–1641, Viceroy of Catalonia, 1641. He was Great Constable of the kingdom of Naples (1639–1641) as had been his father Filippo I Colonna, (1578 – 11 April 1639). * Marcantonio V Colonna (1606/1610–1659), Prince of Paliano * Lorenzo Onofrio Colonna, Viceroy of Aragon, 1678–1681, in Spain * Prospero II Colonna (1662–1743), cardinal * Carlo Colonna (1665–1739), cardinal, created by Clement XI in 1706 * Marcantonio Colonna (1724–1793), cardinal * Giovanni Antonio Colonna (1878–1940), politician * Guido Colonna di Paliano (1908–1982), diplomat and European Commissioner See also Medieval Rome Orsini family Palestrina Prösels Castle Palazzo Colonna (Marino) References Sources [https://archive.org/stream/almanachdegotha1922goth#page/318/mode/2up Original 1922 Almanach de Gotha (edited by Justice Perthes) entry for the Colonna family], link to the original universally-recognised genealogical reference document, with details of family honours External links * * [http://www.galleriacolonna.it/en/ Palazzo Colonna website] Category:Papal families Category:Medieval Rome Category:Roman Catholic families	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonna_family	2025-04-05T18:27:49.382979

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.